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MONITORING
Monitoring of the operation of a deep-well injection and
waste management system can logically be divided into four
distinct functions, which are:
1. the operation of surface equipment
2. the operation of well equipment
3. the injection face operation
4. the behavior of the injected fluid
in the reservoir or host rock
Pressure and injection rate are the two primary phenomenon
on which most lend themselves to measurement for monitoring
purposes.
Surface Equipment
The monitoring of the performance of surface equipment is
accomplished by the physical inspection of the facility and
the observance of pressure or rate abnormalities as signals
of a malfunction in the equipment.
Operation of Well Equipment
The monitoring of well equipment is to assure the operator
of the integrity of the well, and that no leaks have oc-
cured in the well tubular goods. This can be readily ac-
complished in a well system as outlined in the well con-
struction section where the annulus between the casing and
injection tubing is sealed by a suitable packer and the an-
nulus loaded with a noncorrosive packer fluid under pressure,
A change in the pressure recorded on the annulus is then in-
dicative of a leak in the casing or tubing string which
calls for immediate remedial action. This is perhaps the
simplest of all monitoring operations, and the most vital to
the protection of life and property in a deep-well system.
Electrical circuits may, of course, be integrated into these
monitoring schemes, thus providing automatic shutdown when
a predetermined condition established by the operator is
reached.
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Injection Face Operation
Monitoring of the performance of the well at the injection
face can be accomplished only by inference with the measure-
ment of injection rate and pressure. The most common form
of failure which might occur at the face would be reservoir
plugging with precipitated material either carried to the
face in the injection fluid or as a result of a reaction
between the injected fluid, the host rock, and/or the fluid
indigenous to the host rock. A thorough analysis of the
waste to be processed, the reservoir rock, and the reservoir
fluid will predict the probability of face plugging and this
then can be confirmed by observing an increase in pressure
and/or decrease in injection rate with increased cumulative
injection.
When the injection rate falls to an intolerable level or
the injection pressure rises to a level approaching that of
formation fracturing or the economic maximum injection pres-
sure, then remedial action to cleanse the face must be con-
sidered.
Re se rvodr^ JFlui d B eh a vi o r
A hazard which exists in any injection program is that the
fracturing pressure of the host rock will be exceeded which
can lead to a breakdown of the host rock followed by an un-
controlled injection which could under certain circumstances
result in the migration of injected material outside the
planned host reservoir. Thus it is imperative that the frac-
ture pressure of the host rock not ~be exceeded by the injec-
tion of waste material. There are no rigid rules by which
fracture pressures can be predicted, and the pressure gra-
dients vary from a low of 9.0 to > 45.2 kPa/m (0.4 to > 2
psi/ft.) of depth. Possibly the most advantageous consider-
ation of fracture pressure and avoiding it with the injec-
tion of waste would be to determine the fracture initiation
pressure upon initial conclusion of the waste well. This
can be accomplished by injection at a rate sufficiently high
to achieve a steadily increasing pressure, which upon
reaching the fracture pressure will immediately fall off to
a much lower pressure with constant injection rate. If
there is no propping material in the injection fluid with
cessation of pumping the fracture initiated will close and
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the formation will not again fracture until that pressure
is reached a second time. This technique is utilized in
oil and gas production to develop a base line for fracture
pressures and to establish an upper limit of injection pres-
sure. This might be well worthy of consideration in waste
injection projects where a background of experience in the
area and in the unique formation does not give an upper
limit injection pressure. With the establishment of the
base line pressure, monitoring of injection pressures then
will warn of an impending fracture initiation so that this
can be avoided.
Monitoring of the movement of injected fluid in the reser-
voir is the most difficult of all. It has been suggested
that monitor wells be utilized to observe the movements of
the injected fluids within the reservoir. A static monitor
well may very well never show an indication of the passage
of injected fluids beyond the well unless the well is in
continuous operation with sufficient withdrawal to provide
a pressure sink at the point to draw injected fluid into
the well bore for sampling. The continual pumping of a
monitor well creates a new problem in that the pumpage from
the monitor well must itself be disposed of. The simplest
means of disposal would be to return- the pumpage to the in-
jection well stream for injection into the host reservoir.
This then requires an oversizing of surface injection facil-
ities to accommodate this additional well stream or well
streams. If a gradual dispersion of the injected ions is
occurring as the injected stream displaces the indigenous
water, it can be extremely difficult to identify this
leading edge of injection material unless some distinctive
ion is present in the monitor well effluent which can serve
as a flag to identify the injected material. The operation
of a monitor well with continuous pumpage can, by virtue of
its pressure sink, distort the shape of the injected fluid
encroachment pattern to create the illusion that the in-
jected fluid is advanced a greater distance from the injec-
tion well than is really the case. The same rationale ap-
plies to monitor wells which are drilled in an attempt to
monitor vertical movements of injected fluid as with wells
drilled to the host reservoir. A further complication of
monitor wells which attempt to monitor vertical movement is
that the creation of the pressure sink at the monitor well
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in an attempt to determine if there is vertical migration
of the injected fluid can in reality cause this vertical
migration where it might not have occurred without the
operation of the pressure sink.
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SECTION III
REFERENCES CITED
1. Warner, D. L. , Subsurface Disposal of Liquid Industrial
Wastes by Deep-Well Injection, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geo.
Mem. 10, pp 11-20, 1968.
2. Donaldson, E. C., Subsurface Disposal of Industrial
Wastes in the United States, U. S. Bur. Mines Inform.
Circ. 8636, p 24, Fig. 4, 1974.
3. Algermisen, S. T., Seismic Risk Studies in the United
States, Fourth World Conf. on Earthquake Eng.
(Santiago, Chile, Jan. 14, 1969) Preprint, 10 pp, 1969.
4. McLean, D. D., "Subsurface Disposal -- Precautionary
Measures", Ind. Water Eng., Vol. 6, No. 8, pp 20-22,
1969.
5. Reeder, L. R., Underground Waste Disposal Systems,
Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstracts with Program, Vol. 4, No. 4,
p 290, Feb., 1972.
6. Reader. L, R., Reservoir Aspects of Deep-Well Disposal,
Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Mid Continent Regional Mtg.
(Tulsa, Oct. 3-5, 1973) Program, pp 26-27, 1973 (Abstr.
Only) .
7. Amyx, J. W. , et al, Petroleum Reservoir Engineering;,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 610 pp, 1960.
8. Krumbein, W. C., and L. L. Sloss, Stratigraphy and
Sedimentation F W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco,
497 pp, 1953.
9. Geerstma, J., "The Effect of Fluid Pressure Decline on
Volumetric Changes of Porous Rocks", AIME Transactions,
Vol. 210, 1957.
10. Fatt, I., "Pore Volume Compressibilities of Sandstone
Reservoir Rocks", J. Petrol. Technol., March 1958.
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11. Howard, C. C., and C. R. Fast, Hydraulic Fracturing,
AIME Monograph, Vol. 2, Henry L. Doherty Series,
203 pp, 1970.
12. Wright, J. L., Is the Earth's Crust Going to Waste,
Part I, National Petrol. Refiners Ass. Mid-Continent
Regional Mtg. (Wichita, Jun. 12-13, 1968) Preprint
MC-68-48, 8 pp, 1968.
13. McClain, W. C., "Rock Mechanics in the Disposal of
Radioactive Waste by Hydraulic Fracturing",
Felsmechaink Ingenieurgeologic (Int. Soc. Rock Mech.
J.), Vol. 6, No. 3, pp 139-161, 1968.
14. Sun, R. J., "Theoretical Size of Hydraulically Induced
Horizontal Fractures and Corresponding Surface Uplift
in an Idealized Medium", J_. Geophys. Re s. , Vol. 74,
No. 25, pp 5995-6011, 1969.
15. Hubbert, M. K. , and D. G. Willis,, Mechanics of Hy-
draulic Fracturing, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 18,
412 pp, 1971.
16. Van Everdingen, A. F., Fluid Mechanics of Deep-Well
Disposal, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 10, pp 32-42,
1968.
17. Donaldson, E. C., Subsurface Waste Injection in the
United States - Fifteen Case Histories, U. S. Bur.
Mines Inform. Circ. 8636, 72 pp, 1974.
18. Talbot, J. S., "Deep-Wells," Chemical Engineering,
pp 108-111, Oct. 14, 1968.
19. U. S. Public Health Service, Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards, USPHS Pub. No. 956, 61 pp,
1962.
20. Booz, Allen - Applied Research Inc., Hazardous Was te
Materials Hazardous Effects and Disposal Methods, U. S
Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No.
68-03-0032, Vol. 1, Sec. 2, 40 pp, 1973.
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21. Ottinger, R. S., et al, Disposal Process Descriptions
Ultimate Disposal, Incineration, and Prolysis Processes,
Recommended Methods of Reduction Neutralization, Re-
covery or Disposal of Hazardous Waste, U. S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, EPA - 670/2/73 - 053-f,
Vol. 3, 248 pp, 1973.
22. Warner, D. L., and D. H. Orcutt, Industrial Wastewater -
Injection Wells in United States - - Status of Use and
Regulation, 2nd Int. Symp. on Underground Waste Manage-
ment and Artificial Recharge Preprints, Amer. Ass.
Petrol. Geol., et al, Vol. 2, pp 687-697.
23. Kaufman, M. I., et al, Injection of Acidic Waste into a
Saline Carbonate Aquifer; Geochemical Aspects, 2nd Int.
Symp. on Underground Waste Management and Artificial
Recharge Preprints, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., et al,
Vol. 1, pp 526-551, 1973.
24. Wilson, W. E., et al, Hydrolggic Evaluation of Indus-
trial - Waste Injection at Mulberry, Florida, 2nd Int.
Symp. on Underground Waste Management and Artificial
Recharge Preprints, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., et al,
Vol. 1, pp 552-564, 1973.
25. Leenheer, J. A., and R. L. Malcolm, Case History of
Subsurface Waste Injection of an Industrial Organic
Waste, 2nd Int. Symp. on Underground Waste Management
and Artificial Recharge Preprints, Amer. Ass. Petrol.
Geol., et al, Vol. 1, pp 565-584, 1973.
26. Amstutz, R. W., and L. C. Reynolds, Is the Earth's
Crust Going to Waste - Part II, Types of Fluids In-
jected and Treating Procedures, National Petrol.
Refiners Ass. Mid-Continent Regional Mtg., (Wichita,
June 12-13, 1968) Preprint MC-68-48, 8 pp, 1968.
27. Mohr, C. M., and P. J. O'Brien, Decision Mapping - -
Tool for Underground Waste Management, 2nd Int. Symp.
on Underground Waste Management and Artificial Recharg<">
Preprints, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., et al, Vol. 2,
pp 731-737, 1973.
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28. Meers, R. J., Design, Drilling and Completion, Opera-
tion, and Cost of Underground Waste-Disposal Wells in
Gulf Coast Region of Texas and Louisiana, 2nd Int.
Symp. on Underground Waste Management and Artificial
Recharge Preprints, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., et al,
Vol. 1, pp 337-345, 1973.
29. Latta, B. F., Subsurface Disposal of Waste in Kansas,
2nd Int. Symp. on Underground Waste Management and
Artificial Preprints, Amer. Ass. of Petrol. Geol.,
et al, Vol. 1, pp 622-633, 1973.
30. Ottinger, R. S., et al, National Disposal Site Candi-
date Waste Stream Constituent Profile Reports. Mercury,
Arsenic, Chromium and Cadmium Compounds, Recommended
Methods of Reduction, Neutralization, Recovery or Dis-
posaj. of Hazardous Waste, U. S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, EPA-670/2-73-053-f, Vol. 6, 206 pp, 1973.
31. Murray, C. R., and E. B. Reeves, Estimated Use of Water
in the United States, U. S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 676, 37
pp, 1972.
32. Feth, J. H., et al, Preliminary Map of the Conterminous
United States Showing Depth to and Quality of
Shallowest Ground Water Containing More Than 1000 ppm
Dissolved Solids, U. S. Geol. Surv., Hydrologic Atlas
199, 1965.
33. Davis, S. N., and R. S. M. DeWiest, Hydrology, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 463 pp, 1967.
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SECTION IV
CHARACTERIZATION OF WASTE
INTRODUCTION
A substance or material is referred to as toxic if it can
produce damage to a living organism. Its toxicity is a
measure of the amount of damage a specific quantity of
the substance may cause. Hazardous, however, is usually
considered in terms of involvement in a situation that is
potentially damaging. Often the conditions are such that
the two may be used synonymously. Waste types which can
be included under these definitions are of primary con-
cern in this report.
Wastes of all types are being injected into deep wells;
coming from a wide variety of industries as well as from
municipal and domestic sources. These wastes range from
relatively innocuous to very highly toxic and from practi-
cally inert to explosive.
The largest users of deep-well systems are the chemical,
petrochemical and pharmaceutical companies, operating about
half of the wells actively injecting today. Oil refineries
and natural gas plants are second, with the metals industry
third. Some of the other users of waste injection wells
are the food industry; the paper, pulp, and paperboard
industry; the textile industry, and the sanitary service
industries.
Organic and inorganic chemical waste from chemical manufac-
ture, drugs, municipal and domestic sewage, waste from the
manufacture of explosives, pesticides, fertilizers, paint
pigments, and radioactive materials are some of the con-
stituents of waste streams being injected into deep-wells.
Some of the chemicals found in these waste streams are in-
organic salt solutions, both mineral and organic acids,
caustics, chlorinated, nitrated and oxygenated hydrocarbons,
heavy metals, fluorides, and cyanides. The chemicals are
liquid, gases and solids, the gases and solids being either
dissolved in the liquids or simply carried along by them.
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Most of the waste streams are treated to remove some of the
materials contained in them, before being injected into the
wells. It appears, however, that in most cases the treat-
ment is to remove or neutralize the substances which might
damage the equipment or cause plugging of the formation
rather than to neutralize or remove materials which might
prove hazardous to the environment if they should escape
the confinement of the host reservoir.
Hazardous materials are not contained in all waste streams,
but some effluent does contain chemicals which could be
very harmful or even lethal if they were to escape from the
well or host reservoir in high enough concentrations. Al-
though great care is taken to ensure safe construction and
operation of most wells, there is always the possibility of
accident. There is some question as to whether it is advis-
able to inject the most hazardous wastes into deep-wells
without some preinjection treatment. This is because so
little is known about the waste reactions and degradability
when in contact with formation water and minerals at varying
temperatures and pressures.
PROBLEMS OF ANALYZING TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE EFFECTS
In determining the environmental effect of toxic and haz-
ardous waste, there are many complications that limit the
detail to which a determination can be made. Most of the
problems relate directly to the availability and quality
of data needed for definative answers.
Human Effects Data Limitations
Data on human effects resulting from severe exposures to
hazardous or toxic substances are obtained principally from
reconstruction of accident situations. A second major
source of human effects information is extrapolation from
experimental animal data. Both sources contain many uncer-
tainties .
Where accidents have occurred, the recording of information
from the facts surrounding the accident has frequently been
so unsystematic that the possibility of missing one or more
key contributing factors is always present. This makes
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quantification of causes and effects uncertain, and acci-
dents involving exactly the same set of circumstances do
not usually occur with enough frequency to calibrate the
measurement or reconstruction errors involved. Furthermore,
some facts surrounding accidents are considered proprietary
and, even though originally recorded, may not be generally
available.
Extrapolations from animal data do not generally suffer
from lack of data. More often, the problem evolves from
several sets of data, one or more of which is anomalous
and thereby casts uncertainty on human extrapolations,
In addition, animals respond differently to doses of toxic
substances administered by different dose injection routes.
Thus, the results are dependent upon whether a dose was ad-
ministered orally, intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, cuta-
neously, or via the respiratory route. This represents no
unusual difficulty for an experiment designed specifically
for use in extrapolating a result to humans. However, if
attempt is made to infer human effects from odd bits of
animal data which have been reported in many places, the
question of dose route frequently arises and cannot be
answered.l
Ecological Impact
Much of the ecological data for plants or animals suffers,
to some extent, from the same limitations as described pre-
viously for human effects data. That is, very little plant
or animal data have been taken in plant or animal natural
habitat as a result of accidents, and when attempted, all
causes and effects are not recorded. Likewise, extrapola-
tions from one species of plant or animal to another are
uncertain because of frequent anomalies observed in the
available recorded data.
Furthermore, the full impact of hazardous substances on
ecological systems may not be observable in isolated data
on toxic effects to specific species. Important indirect
or secondary impact may occur to co-inhabitants of a habitat
as a result of exposures to hazardous materials in a natural
environment, as opposed to an experimental laboratory,
These impacts may involve predator and prey relaticr&hips,
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and the entire process of natural selection. The long-term
result could be new and undesirable environmental balances.1
Time Factors
Adverse effects may occur to all ecological populations,
including humans, as a result of repeated exposures to
sublethal acute dosage of toxic materials, or of contin-
uous exposures to low-level concentrations of hazardous
substances. Such exposures have produced carcinogenesis
and mutagenesis in animals after extended periods of time.
Similar results have not been observed in humans in equi-
valent times. Thus, another uncertain measure is added
to the problem of animal extrapolations to humans, and
the difficulty of obtaining definitive long-term cause-
and-effect relationships for humans in industrial or
urban environments is obvious.
Measures of persistence of hazardous substances become an
important adjunct to time factors. The combination of low-
level exposures and persistent agents can lead to major
hazards in the form of lethal or damaging accumulations of
a substance. Asbestos and mercury are perhaps the two most
commonly known persistent hazards. Asbestos accumulates in
humans and can lead to lung cancer after many years of low-
level exposure. Mercury is known to accumulate in aquatic
species and may lead to serious effects in humans through
a build-up of concentrations in the food chain. There are
many other compounds which persist in nature and/or accumu-
late in food chains. Some of these are known or suspected;
others have been observed occasionally but have not been
quantified. l
HAZARDOUS WASTE AND WASTE STREAMS
Identification
There are many substances that can create hazardous condi-
tions, because of a dangerous property of a compound or a
group of compounds composing them. The extent of the danger
is dependent upon the amounts of the dangerous compound pre-
sent, its dilution by inert substances, and the prO'Ximity
of persons or things that may be harmed by the conditions
created by the compound.
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The Booz-Allen report1 states that hazardous conditions may
be created by compounds that are radioactive, explosive,
corrosive, toxic, flammable, pathogenic, carcinogenic,
mutagenic, or have other more exotic long-range effects
when their tolerance levels are exceeded.
The safe handling of such compounds is dependent on the
degree of control that can be exercised to isolate the
susceptible population, remove the triggering condition,
or attenuate the effect below the threshold of suscepti-
bility.
The identification of hazardous waste streams is not simple:
the existence of a dangerous substance must be shown; the
concentration of this substance above the level of normal
susceptibility must be provable; and actual damage to a
susceptible population must have occurred. In the absence
of these proofs, the violation of a specific standard must
be shown.
The variety of waste streams with potential hazardous ef-
fects is nearly infinite. The producers of a single product
may use materials or processes that may create hazardous con-
ditions when their products and/or process wastes are added
to those of others. If the variety of products and pro-
cesses increases, the probability of creating hazardous
waste effects is likely to increase.
Only a plant-by-plant and well-by-well evaluation that has
the full cooperation and technical participation of the
operators can establish the actual hazards that exist in
all waste streams now being injected into deep-well systems.
Data shown by the Booz-Allen1 and TRW2 reports and the in-
formation gathered for this report shows a wide diversity
of wastes among the industries using deep-well systems to
inject their plant effluent. Specific identification of
hazardous wastes in any waste stream or for any particular
industrial group will require a research effort that is
beyond the scope of this study.
Evaluation Problems
In the absence of detailed data on the characteristics of
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waste streams being injected into deep-wells; only crude
evaluations can be made as to how hazardous they may be,
as little information is published concerning the hazardous
waste streams which are produced. Conjecture as to their
composition and characteristics is based on the hazardous
characteristics of "pure" compounds produced and used in
industry, and in the commercial and household sectors.
An evaluation system that rates the effectiveness of current
hazardous waste handling, treatment and disposal practices
must deal with several interrelated problems:
does a hazardous waste condition exist?
what is the condition and how serious?
what steps have been taken to minimize the hazards?
how effective are these actions?
what additional steps are necessary?
If answers to these questions can be obtained, the rating
system will be able to identify the degree to which a hazard
exists, and evaluate the actions needed to adequately con-
trol the handling and disposal of hazardous wastes.
The identification of wastes which create hazardous condi-
tions is a complex task. The constant factor is the material
that creates the hazardous effect. The location where the
waste occurs will determine who or what is threatened and
the mitigating effects of fortuitous neutralization or dilu-
tion. The key to the identification of a hazardous waste
condition is the determination that a potentially hazardous
material is present in the waste stream in amounts that ex-
ceed the tolerance levels of the threatened population or
materials.
Analysis of the waste stream to establish its hazardous
properties is rather easy for radioactive, corrosive or
flammable materials, but is more difficult if the signifi-
cant hazard is pathogenic or toxic.
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An alternative to on-site analysis is knowledge of the
characteristics of the chemical components that compose
the waste stream or that may enter the waste stream.
When toxic materials are present, the possibility that
hazardous waste conditions exist must be assumed.
Evaluation of raw materials used in the production pro-
cess, the production processes used, and the by-product
materials expected, can establish a list of potential
constituents of the waste streams. Comparison of such
compounds with a comprehensive list of toxic materials
will identify the hazardous potential of the waste stream
and aid in selecting the analytical techniques which can
best verify initial assumptions as to hazard potential.
Characteristics
In waste streams from chemical processing, conditions of
temperature and pressure modify the physical character-
istics of chemical compounds and may convert solids into
liquids and gases, liquids into gases, or mixtures of liq-
uids into solids. Side reactions of compounds may produce
unwanted waste by-products. Unless the specific conditions
and reactants are known, the content and condition of the
waste stream is indeterminate. Compounds which are indi-
vidually inert, corrosive, flammable, explosive, or toxic
under normal conditions, may react with other components
and become relatively less dangerous or may be converted
from a nonhazardous state to one of substantial hazard.
POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS WASTE BEING INJECTED
Based upon toxicological data, degradability, persistence,
solubility in water, potential reactions, corrosiveness,
and environmental effect, a tentative list of chemicals
which might be considered unsafe for deep-well injection
has been made. Chemicals with harmful potentials considered
to be limited only to formation plugging and/or corrosion
of down-hole and surface equipment are not included on the
list. The problems these excluded chemicals create can
usually be dealt with and solved as an integral function
of the operating plan of any particular deep-well system.
Those chemicals regarded as potentially unsafe for deep-
well injection are:
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acrolein
arsenic and arsenic compounds
cadmium and cadmium compounds
carbon disulfide
cyanides
diazinon and other pesticides
fluorides
hydrofluoric acid
hydrocyannic acid
hexavalent chromium compounds
mercury and mercury compounds
nitrobenzene
nitrophenol
All of the chemicals listed as potentially hazardous for
deep-well injection have very high human and ecological
hazard ratings in the Booz-Allen reports.1 Long storage
time is necessary for all of the organic chemicals. They
either do not degrade or have a long persistence time and
would, therefore, pose a long-term potential hazard to
underground water supplies. The actual persistence time
is not generally available except for some rough estimates
for a few pesticide compounds. Some of the pesticides
with known long persistence times are: DDD, DDT, lindane
and the polychlorocyclodienes. Dinitrocresol is one of
the insecticides for which no persistence data is available,
Chlordane, the organophosphorus insecticides, and those
listed above are among the group not recommended for deep-
well disposal by the National Working Group on Insecti-
cides .2
The inorganic compounds may react to form less toxic chem-
icals but the toxic element or radical remains, and may be
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converted back to the more toxic form. An example is hydro-
gen cyanide being converted to a salt and then upon acidifi-
cation being converted back to hydrogen cyanide. Arsenic
and fluoride are lethal to all forms of life including
plants. Cadmium and mercury are toxic to aquatic life.
Mercury and organic mercury compounds may be converted by
anaerobic microorganisms to the more toxic methyl mercury.
Except for metallic cadmium and nitrobenzene, all of the
chemicals listed have sufficient water solubility properties
to be dissolved in underground reservoir waters and thence
transported into other zones if communication exists between
the host reservoir and the other zones.
Wells Injecting Hazardous Waste
Of the 383 wells permitted, 209 were operating at the time
the data were collected for this report. There were 53 of
these operating wells injecting one or more of the chemicals
deemed potentially hazardous for deep-well injection. Known
waste chemicals being injected, and the known operating data
of deep-wells are shown in Appendix D, Inventory of Deep-
Wells.
Environmental Implications
Assessing the implications of injecting potentially hazard-
ous wastes into subsurface reservoirs has been a chronic
dilemma confronting industry, legislators, and regulatory
agencies of government since the deep-well method of waste
management began.
Inasmuch as no specific illnesses or deaths are noted and
documented as resulting directly from injected hazardous
waste, there can be no cause and result conclusion drawn
nor a definitive statement made relating the two. Much
needs to be learned of the reactive characteristics of
many of the substances composing the industrial waste
streams when they are subjected to highly varied and
great ranges of injections and storage conditions be-
fore a definitive statement can be made as to the effects
they may have. Precise periodic analysis of each waste
stream is necessary to determine what the reaction may be;
a generalized list of components, which is often the only
available data, is insufficient.
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When a great variety of potentially hazardous wastes having
components in concentrations greater than those adjudged
acceptable by standard ratings are injected into a subsur-
face reservoir, a potentially hazardous situation must be
assumed to exist. However, wastes should be designated as
hazardous on the basis of properties of the waste stream as
an entity rather than according to the properties of indi-
vidual components. Also it must be assumed, until confirmed
otherwise, that only waste containing hazardous or toxic
components is hazardous. Developing these assumptions, it
must be concluded that these substances may (1) render un-
usable aquifers of potable water and salaquifers, (2) con-
taminate mineral deposits, (3) produce mildly toxic to
lethal effects upon human and animal life, and (4) retard
or completely destroy plant life.
Table 3 which appears in the assessment division of Section
I is an assessment summary of operating deep-wells. The
table also indicates the intraformational reaction, in terms
of unfavorable and not unfavorable, to the injected waste
stream. Appendix C lists the individual chemicals being
injected into deep-wells as of the date of this report with
their characteristics.
WASTES OF UNKNOWN HAZARD POTENTIAL BEING INJECTED
Brine
Generally, brine injected into salaquifers would not be
considered hazardous. However, if it should migrate from
the confining salaquifer into potable water aquifers, it
could render them unfit as a source of drinking water.
Brine escaping to the surface may have a deleterious effect
upon aquatic and plant life. The effects usually can be
reversed within a relatively short time once the brine flow
is stopped. Although higher animals have a remarkable tol-
erence for waters with relatively high salinities, and can
be maintained on these for long periods without harmful ef-
fects, they will always seek fresher water, drinking brine
contaminated water only as a last, resort.
More often brine contamination of fresh water aquifers will
have more lasting deleterious effects than brine escaping
104
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to the surface of the ground. Once contaminated an aquifer,
especially if confined, is extremely difficult to purge.
Sewage
Treated sewage usually is considered an innocuous fluid to
inject into subsurface reservoirs. However, very little
is known about the length of time some bacteria and virus
can remain alive and dormant outside a host. Therefore,
sewage injected into deep-wells should be considered a
latent health problem if it leaves the confines of the
host reservoir. The question of dormant virus is also
noted in Appendix F Recent Microbiological Research.
VOLUME OF WASTE
In 1968, the total volume of industrial waste water dis-
charged in the United States was in excess of 54 billion
m3 (14 trillion gallons). Only 16.2 billion m3 (4.3 tril-
lion gallons) of this was treated before discharge. Four
major industries discharge more than half of this volume.
These four groups are the primary metals industry, chemi-
cals and allied products, paper and allied products, and
petroleum and coal products. The volume of waste discharged
by various industries in 1968 and the volume untreated
prior to discharge was:3
Total Untreated
Billion Trillion Billion Trillion
Industry it\3 Gals. m3 Gals.
Chemicals 15.8 4.2 13.2 3.5
Food 3.0 0.8 2.5 0.6
Paper 7.6 2.0 4.5 1.2
Petroleum 4.5 1.2 1.1 0.3
Primary
Metals 17.4 4.6 12.1 3.2
Others 5.7 1.5 4.5 1.2
105
-------
The volume of industrial waste water discharged by each
EPA geographic region during the same period was:3
Region
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
Total
Number of
Establishments
711
958
1 103
1 490
2 731
752
476
156
654
371
9 402
Discharge
Billions
Billions of
of m^ Gallons
2.1
3.4
1.1.3
6.7
15.0
10.3
1.0
0.4
1.6
2.1
54.0
563.1
910.4
2 990.5
1 770.9
3 976.7
2 714.4
254.2
116.3
422.1
557.4
14 276.0
Of the total volume of waste water being discharged from
industry, in excess of 114 000 m^ (30 million gallons) per
day is being injected into disposal wells.1* This is in ex-
cess of 42 million m3 (11 billion gallons) per year and rep-
resents approximately 0.08 percent of the total waste dis-
charge. The largest number of wells is in the gulf coast
area of EPA Region VI, primarily in Texas and Louisiana.
Of the 209 wells operating in the United States, 57 are
in Texas and 52 in Louisiana.
106
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SECTION IV
REFERENCES CITED
1. Booz-Allen - Applied Research, Inc., Hazardous Waste
Materials Hazardous Effects and Disposal Methods, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-03-0032,
Vol. 1, 407 pp, 1973.
2. Ottinger, R. S. , et al,. Recommended Methods of Reduction
Neutralization, Recovery or Disposal of Hazardous Waste,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-670/2/73-053-
a-p, 16 Vols., 3568 pp, 1973.
3. Mackenthun, K. M., Magnitude of Wastewater Treatment and
Disposal Problem Facing the Nation, Amer. Ass. Petrol.
Geol., Mem. 18, pp 19-23, 1972.
4. Donaldson, E. C., Injection Wells and Operations Today,
Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., Mem. 18, pp 24-45, 1972.
107
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SECTION V
WELL INVENTORY AND CASE HISTORIES
The inventory of deep-wells used for the injection of indus-
trial waste in the United States was updated to January 1975
for this report.
NUMBER OF WELLS
A total of 383 wells were found to have been permitted; an
increase of 50 wells over the last inventory completed in
1973. Data indicate that 322 of these wells were drilled
and that 209 are operating. Tables 9 and 10 show a more
complete recapitulation of the number and status of the
wells by EPA regions and by states.
In Texas, five wells permitted and previously uncounted were
drawn into the inventory. These wells were originally mul-
tiple requests on single applications and multiple permits
to drill were granted under single permit numbers. Permits
for eight wells were issued on three permits; two each on
two permits (TX-11, TX-112), and four on one permit (TX-4).
Because of lack of specific data on their present status,
these additional six wells are tentatively being carried
under status unknown in the tables. One well not carried
by the Oklahoma Water Resources Board was added to the
Oklahoma inventory. It is OK-15 which received a drilling
permit from the U. S. Department of the Interior, Osage
Agency.
It is possible that there are other wells similar to these
six wells just indicated, that may have been missed in this
inventory as well as in previous inventories.
WELL STATUS AND DATA
More detailed information on individual wells than is
summarized in Tables 9 and 10 is included in Appendix
D. The Appendix is sectionalized by EPA regions, and
108
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Table 9. PERMIT STATUS OF INJECTION WELLS
AREA
TOTAL NO.WELLS
PERMITTED
PDR
PDC POP PNC PND DAP AFP
Region II
NEW YORK
Region III
PENNSYLVANIA
WEST VIRGINIA
Region IV
ALABAMA
FLORIDA
KENTUCKY
MISSISSIPPI
NORTH CAROLINA
TENNESSEE
Region V
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
MICHIGAN
OHIO
Region VI
ARKANSAS
LOUISIANA
NEW MEXICO
OKLAHOMA
TEXAS
Region VII
IOWA
KANSAS
Region VIII
COLORADO
WYOMING
Region IX
CALIFORNIA
HAWAII
NEVADA
4
9
"5
/
5
10
3
2
4
4
8
13
34
10
1
85
1
15
124
1
30
2
1
5
4
1
121
9
7
5
7 3
2 1
1 1
4
3 1
511 1
13
28 5 1
81 1
1
58 7 1 19
1
13 1 1
82 4 12 17 8 1
1
30
1 1
1
5
3 1
1
TOTAL
383
277
5 43 18 35 2 0 3
KEY:
PDR Permitted, Drilled AFP
PDC Permitted, Drilled, Cancelled SNA
PDF Permitted, Drilled, Plugged
PNC Permitted, Not Drilled, Permit Cancelled
PND Permitted, Not Drilled
DAP Drilled, Applying for Permit
Applying For Permit
Status Unknown
109
-------
Table 10. OPERATING STATUS OF INJECTION WELLS
AREA TOTAL
Region II
NEW YORK
Region III
PENNSYLVANIA
WEST VIRGINIA
Region IV
ALABAMA
FLORIDA
KENTUCKY
MISSISSIPPI
NORTH CAROLINA
TENNESSEE
Region V
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
MICHIGAN
OHIO
Region VI
ARKANSAS
LOUISIANA
NEW MEXICO
OKLAHOMA
TEXAS
Region VII
IOWA
KANSAS
Region VIII
COLORADO
WYOMING
Region IX
CALIFORNIA
HAWAII
NEVADA
TOTAL
KEY::
0 Operating
NOP Not Operating,
NOUP Not Operating,
DN Drilled, Never
PND Permitted, Not
NO. WELLS
4
9
7
5
10
3
2
4
4
8
13
34
10
1
85
1
15
124
1
30
2
1
5
4
1
383
Plugged
Unplugged
Used
Drilled
PC Permit Cancelled, Never
SNA Status Unknown
0 NOP
1
0 9
6
2
4 1
2 1
1
1
2
4
11
21 4
6 1
1
52 8
1
10
57 12
21
1
1
4
1
1
209 38
Drilled
NOUP
1
1
1
1
3
1
6
2
1
1
18
DN
3
1
3
1
3
1
1
1
5
3
5
4
16
1
7
2
57
PND PC SNA
3
1
1 1
1
19 1
8 18 7
1
34 19 8
110
-------
states included within a given region are listed alphabet-
ically. The waste injection wells are indexed numerically,
regardless of operating status under the respective states.
The well indexing and state codes used by Warner1 and
Wapora2 are continued in this report. It was believed that
by continuing with the same indexing code it would be easier
to relate the data of this inventory to those data of earlier
inventories. Also, on each well inventory sheet, a note has
been made identifying that particular well to its index num-
ber in an earlier inventory if there is a difference.
Updating for this inventory was done by summarizing the in-
ventory data previously published, verifying the data, when
needed, with the state agency involved, and gathering new
data from the proper state agency or agencies by telephone
or visitation.
Much of the previous inventory data upon which assessments
were to be made were found to be inadequate, particularly
in Louisiana and Texas. Additional data were gathered from
the regulatory agencies in these states and appear in this
inventory. These additional data aided greatly in assessing
the deep-well systems now operating. One particularly re-
warding group of data were the spot locations of most of the
wells in Texas and Louisiana, which were plotted and appear
in this inventory. Much information relating to well com-
pletion and equipment could not be included because of time
for preparation and the extensive drafting involved.
PROJECTED GROWTH OF DEEP-WELL SYSTEMS
Table 11 is an industrial growth index developed from pub-
lished information. 3 '"* This table is used as a basis to
forecast the increase in the use of deep-well injection
systems as a means of waste management. Table 12 fore-
casting the number of wells to be drilled and Table 13
forecasting the number of wells to be operating during
the periods indicated until 1985. The forecast tables are
based on existing State and Federal regulations relating
to deep-well injection of industrial wastes and do not re-
flect any new policies or ideas.
Ill
-------
Table 11. INDUSTRIAL INDEX BASED ON PREDICAST
(Index Year 1973 = 100)
SIC Industry 1974 1975 1980 1985
Mining
10 Metal Mining 99 105 136 154
12 Coal 107 113 137 155
13 Oil & Gas Extraction 100 102 115 126
14 Non-Metallic 100 103 125 146
Manufacturing
20 Food 111 122 153 183
26 Paper 137 150 164 210
2.8 Chemical & Allied 121 134 156 200
29 Petroleum Refining 138 156 189 244
32 Stone & Concrete 107 114 128 184
33 Primary Metals 130 149 163 211
34 Fabricated Metals 113 120 155 208
35 Machinery - Except Elect. 121 137 170 234
36 Electronics 107 120 158 225
38 Photographies 116 126 179 242
Transportation, Gas,
& Sanitary Services
47 Transportation Service 100 100 109 113
49 Sanitary Service 102 119 186 271
50 Wholesale Trade - Durable 102 104 113 120
55 Auto Dealers & Service 94 96 97 98
Other
72 Personal Services 109 121 175 246
112
-------
Table 12. DRILLED INDUSTRIAL WASTE STORAGE WELLS FORECAST
THROUGH 1985 BASED ON PREDICAST INDEX
SIC
Well
Count
1973
Forecast Total Wells
1974
1975
1980
1985
Mining
10
12
13
14
Metal Mining
Coal
Oil & Gas
Non-Metallic
2
1
17
5
2
1
17
5
2
1
17
5
2
1
20
6
3
1
21
7
Manufacturing
20
26
28
29
32
33
34
35
36
38
Food
Paper
Chemical & Allied
Petroleum Refining
Stone & Concrete
Primary Metals
Fabricated Metals
Machinery-Except Elect.
Electronics
Photographies
6
3
131
51
1
16
3
1
1
3
7
4
158
70
1
20
3
1
1
3
7
5
176
80
1
24
4
1
1
4
9
5
204
96
1
26
5
2
2
5
11
6
262
124
2
34
6
2
2
7
Transportation, Gas,
& Sanitary Service
47
49
50
55
Transportation Service
Sanitary Service
Wholesale Trade-Durable
Auto Dealers & Service
1
23
1
1
1
25
1
1
1
27
1
1
1
43
I
1
1
62
1
1
Other
72 Personal Service
Total 268 322 359 432 555
113
-------
Table 13. OPERATING INDUSTRIAL WASTE STORAGE WELLS FORECAST
THROUGH 1985 BASED ON PREDICAST INDEX
Well
Count
SIC
1973
Forecast Operating
1974
1975
1980
Wells
1985
Mining
10
12
13
14
Metal Mining
Coal
Oil & Gas
Non-Metallic
1
1
11
3
1
1
11
3
1
1
11
3
1
1
13
4
2
1
14
5
Manu f ac tur in g
20
26
28
29
32
33
34
35
36
38
Food
Paper
Chemical & Allied
Petroleum Refining
Stone & Concrete
Primary Metals
Fabricated Metals
Machinery-Except Elect.
Electronics
Photographies
4
2
86
33
1
11
2
1
1
2
5
3
105
46
1
13
2
1
1
2
5
3
117
53
1
16
3
1
1
3
6
3
135
64
1
17
3
1
1
3
7
4
174
82
1
23
4
1
1
5
Transportation, Gas,
&
Sanitary Service
47
49
50
55
Transportation Service
Sanitary Service
Wholesale Trade-Durable
Auto Dealers & Service
1
15
1
1
1
17
1
1
1
18
1
1
1
28
1
1
1
41
1
1
Other
72 Personal Service
Total
178
216 241 285 369
114
-------
A recapitulation of the various industries using injection
wells as a method of disposal shows the chemical industry
as the largest user, with a predicted 174 operating injec-
tion wells by 1985; representing an estimated growth rate
of 7.3 percent. The petroleum refining industry is second
with a predicted annual growth rate of 6.2 percent, and a
forecast of having 82 operating waste injection wells by
1985. The sanitary service industry is third in the number
of injection wells forecast with 41, but it has the highest
predicted annual growth rate with 10.8 percent.
CASE HISTORIES
Selected case histories appear in Appendix E. Most of these
examples have been chosen to relate to a particular geo-
morphic province within an EPA region or a state in an at-
tempt to identify successful or unsuccessful deep-well sys-
tems and the reasons as to why they have been successful or
unsuccessful.
Case selection was ultimately determined by the availability
of information. There are probably many other deep-well
systems which may have made good studies if more information
on them was available. It is often difficult to get accu-
rate, pertinent data on problem wells even though the asso-
ciated problems are in no way directly related to degreda-
tion of the environment. Two detailed and well documented
case studies also appear in Appendix F with the microbio-
logical research data. These two studies are so closely
related to the research investigations that it seemed more
appropriate to include them with the microbiological re-
search material.
115
-------
SECTION V
REFERENCES CITED
1. Warner, D. L. , Survey of Industrial Waste Injection
Wells, Spons. by U. S. Geol. Surv., 2036 pp, 1973.
2. WAPORA, Inc., Compilation of Industrial and Municipal
Injection Wells in the United States, EPA-52019-74-020,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.,
1350 pp, 1974.
3. Walpert, S. A., Predicast Index, Predicasts, Inc.,
pp 423, 1973-74.
4. U. S. Department of Commerce, U. S. Industrial Outlook
1974 (with Projections to 1980) U. S. Dept. of Comm.,
385 pp, 1974.
116
-------
SECTION VI
RESEARCH PROJECTS RELATED TO DEEP-WELL INJECTION OF WASTE
DEEP-WELL RESEARCH
Government Funded
One hundred and two research projects related to deep-well
injection of waste have been identified. Those in the U. S.
have been supported in whole or in large part by either
agencies of the Federal, or State Governments; those out-
side the U. S. were completely government funded. Funding
information was available for 52 of the 102 research pro-
jects and amounts to 4.42 million dollars. An estimate of
the total government funding is 8 million dollars. The
number of man years allotted to these projects could not
be obtained. One additional project related to monitoring
is being conducted by General Electric-TEMPO. The project
is in its final stages, but no details of the findings or
conclusions have been seen as of the date of this report.
The projects identified in this investigation generally may
be grouped as shown below, and a summary of the research in
each group is included in the text. A description of indi-
vidual projects is given in Appendix G1, Summary of Research
Related to Deep-Wells.
Number
of
Type Project Projects
Area Study 34
Microbiological 4
Chemical 22
Engineering 22
Geologic-Hydrogeologic 5
117
-------
Number
of
Type Project(contd) Projects(contd)
Geophysical 8
Monitoring 2
Miscellaneous 1
Area Studies -
Area studies are essential and extremely useful in deter-
mining the feasibility of deep-well injection. Most of
the studies identified in this group probably can be used
in conjunction with feasibility studies. The general ten-
dency, however, for area studies is to be generalized and
noncommittal. Regulatory agencies should have detailed
area studies covering the region over which they have juris-
diction. These studies should define use and no use areas
and limits under which the deep-well system must operate as
dictated by the hydrogeologic framework. Except for unusual
circumstances, the preparation of these studies should be
the responsibility of the regulatory agency and the state
government under which it gained its authority.
Microbiological Studies -
The three studies reviewed in this report probably repre-
sent the extent of this research thus far. This is one
area where a judicious selection of additional research
could aid in an understanding of waste reaction in the
subsurface. Heretofore this area has been neglected,
except for the work which has been done on bacteriological
action in relation to waterflooding projects for secondary
recovery of oil.
Chemical Studies -
The reactions of any given waste stream, or mixture of
wastes, once introduced into reservoirs of unknown water
and mineral composition, at highly varied temperatures
and pressures are little known and poorly understood.
118
-------
Most of the reactions generally shown are for pure sub-
stances rather than the mixtures usually found in waste
streams and so cannot be considered as the reactions which
might be expected from the waste streams.
Nine of the 22 chemical studies relate in some manner to
compatibility of subsurface reservoirs and injected waste
or reactions within the host reservoir. Studies of these
types are extremely important in developing needed infor-
mation in a sector in which most data are either incomplete
or lacking. Probably less has been done with waste chem-
istry and waste reaction within host reservoirs than any
other facet of deep-well injection. This is a high priority
area for study.
Engineering (Reservoir and Geologic) Studies -
The engineering aspects of deep-well injection have been
thoroughly covered in research projects and the literature
to date. The results of many previous studies which have
been made on oil reservoirs and aquifers may be applied
directly to deep-well injection projects. The greater por-
tion of the engineering research projects identified during
this study displayed a tendency toward duplication of effort.
Several of these studies were being developed on subjects
about which more knowledge was needed. There are still many
questions on the subjects of the effect of fluid injection
on fault and joint planes, density stratification, fracture
gradient pressure problems and permeability restoration that
remain to be answered. However, no recommendation for fu-
ture research can be made until a complete objective evalu-
ation of work done to the present time has been made.
Reservoir modeling is not a prerequisite to the safe opera-
tion of a deep-well system. With the variables involved
in any given system, the data are essentially historical
throughout most of the operating life of the well. These
historical data may be gathered from the operating and mon-
itoring records of the system. What is needed is a predic-
tive tool that can maintain a high degree of reliability
from early in the operating life of the system.
119
-------
Geologic-Hydrogeologic Studies -
The geologic aspects of deep-well injection have been well
covered in literature and by research projects. The con-
trolling criteria for deep-well injection have been defined
and the local geology of most potential well sites is well
enough known to make a firm yes or no decision on injection.
Hydrogeologic studies of salaquifers is a little studied
area, with some exceptions. Study in this area could be ex-
tremely useful if it were developed toward the objective of
use in the management of deep-well injection systems or for
use in conjunction with waste reaction within salaquifers.
Geophysical Studies -
The use of geophysical methods for monitoring, following
fluid movement, and establishing general reservoir condi-
tions is not highly developed. Specific studies for down-
hole monitoring tools have the potential for worthwhile
projects in this field. Some important breakthroughs in
predictive monitoring will occur when methods and tech-
niques are developed to track fluid movement, predict
joint or fracture magnitude and vector, or detect cement
deterioration.
Monitoring Studies -
This is an area in which little has been done, and in which
much needs to be done. Fluid movement within a reservoir,
fluid escaping and its movement outside the original reser-
voir, and vertical fluid migration are three critical areas
in which monitoring could be improved. Monitoring, now, is
essentially a matter of retrospect. Fot it to be fully ef-
fective, there must be a concurrence of recording with fluid
movement and other dynamic forces within the system. The
ultimate objective is to identify problems related to injec-
tion before they become critical and destroy the integrity
of the injection system or the reservoir. If deep-well sys-
tems are to remain an acceptable part of the waste manage-
ment scheme, research toward predictive monitoring should
be sanctioned.
120
-------
Privately Funded
Only three completely privately funded research projects
related to deep-well waste injection were identified. One
by the Halliburton Company of Duncan, Oklahoma, one by the
Dow Chemical Company of Midland, Michigan, and one by the
Standard Oil Company of Indiana (now Amoco) Research Labo-
ratory of Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Cement Research Project -
The Halliburton project was the development of a cement,
resistant to chemical waste streams for use in industrial
waste injection wells.2 The successful development of the
cement helped strengthen a vulnerable area of deep-well
completions. Research on cementing and cementing materials
is continuing.
A summary of the man hours related to the project is not
available, nor is a summary of the total dollars invested
in the project. A rough estimate of the total dollar
investment including field testing and other items not
directly assigned is between $200,000 and $400,000.
Mic robiqlogica1 Re search Project -
The Dow project3*1*, now in progress, is research on the
bacterial decomposition of specific substances (phenol).
No details, including manhours and expenditures concerning
this project are available at the date of this report.
Corrosion and Water Treatment -
The Standard Oil Company project1 although directed toward
the oil industry may be applied directly to deep-well injec-
tion systems to aid in controlling corrosion; one of the
major problems associated with the operation of such sys-
tems. A description of the project is shown under C-13 in
Appendix G.
Research Summary
The good and bad aspects to nearly all phases of deep-well
injection of industrial waste have been well covered in the
121
-------
literature (Appendix A) and by the research efforts to date
(Appendix G). Weaknesses in knowledge and understanding
appear in the areas of microbiology, chemistry, and moni-
toring. These areas offer possibilities for future research.
The total man hours and dollar effort needed for this re-
search cannot be stated as the state-of-the-art is not fully
assessed.
Investigation of deep-well-related research by industry
essentially has been nil. Those industries using deep-
well injection for their effluent have adopted proven
water well and oilfield techniques, and have relied upon
the experience of service companies or their own expertise
for the system design, construction, and operation.1'2'1*'5
Research generally is limited to solving a particular prob-
lem for a particular well when this problem begins to inter-
fere with the operation of the well.
TREATMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH
One hundred and eighty-two research projects related to
the treatment of hazardous waste have been identified.
All except 14 have received government funding, U. S. or
foreign. Information on the funding was available for
61 of the 182 projects and amounts to 7.55 million dol-
lars. An estimate of the total dollar amount is 20 million
dollars. Table 35 shown in Appendix H summarizes the pro-
jects.
No recommendations for additional research for waste treat-
ment and handling can be made at this time. Over all the
methods and techniques presently accepted are proven and
are relatively safe. However, it is suggested that these
methods be reviewed periodically to see if improvements can
be made and that the methods are adequate for all conditions.
122
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SECTION VI
REFERENCES CITED
1. Smithsonian Science Information Exchange, 1730 M Street
N. W., Washington, D. C. , 1974.
2. W. F. Hower, Halliburton Services Research Center,
Duncan, Oklahoma, Personal Communication, 1974.
3. J. A. Leenheer, U.S.G.S. Denver, Colorado, Personal
Communication, 1974.
4. J. S. Talbot, Dow Chemical Company, Houston, Texas,
Personal Communication, 1974.
5. A. C. Barlow, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company,
Wilmington, Delaware, Personal Communication, 1974.
123
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SECTION VII
ECONOMICS OF DEEP-WELL SYSTEMS1'2'3
Several factors determine the economics of a deep-well sys-
tem. The major factors are:
1. depth to candidate horizon
2. proposed rate of injection
3. preinjection treatment required
4. formation injectivity
5. power costs
6. labor costs
7. contract drilling costs
Each factor contributes its part to the overall economic
pattern, but all factors do not have the same weight in
different parts of the United States. In one part of
the United States drilling costs may be low and labor
costs quite high. In another part of the United States
drilling costs may be high, labor costs high and some
other cost factor low. Because of the diverse weighting
of these economic factors and the rapidly changing prices
for services and materials, relative cost factors have
been developed rather than absolute costs, which would
be meaningless for any situation other than the one for
which they are developed. These factors included in the
economic discussion are not weighted to reflect any bene-
ficial or detrimental effects upon the environment.
COST FACTOR COMPARISON
Figure 12 illustrates the relative cost of a well drilled
in the United States as a function of depth. As an
illustration, a well 2 500 feet in depth would cost one
124
-------
TT
I T
J
CO
o
O
0)
_ o
TT^ w
00
D
t_
0)
r\i
0)
L.
=1
o»
Off) 00 N «Ł) If)
IO
125
-------
unit while a well of approximately 9,800 feet would cost 2
units. Figure 13 is a drilling cost index map of the United
States. In this illustration, costs in the Appalachian basin
of the eastern United States are 100 and all other regions of
the United States then are related to the Appalachian basin.
.5—-E._
Figure 13. Relative cost index of oil & gas wells
This cost index cannot be applied without reservation be-
cause there are geological variations within states which
can materially affect the drilling costs from one part of
the state to another. These figures are, however, reason-
able indices for first approximation purposes. Conditioning
plant costs as a function of throughput are illustrated in
Figure 14. There are four possible alternatives in injec-
tion plants, and these are: no treatment or filtration;
filtration without treatment; treatment without filtration;
and combined treatment and filtration. The required treat-
ment will materially affect the cost of the conditioning
126
-------
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10
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1000 2000
Injection Rate
Figure 14. Relative cost for conditioning plants
plant and these cost variations with capacity are illus-
trated .
Relative conditioning costs as a function of injection
volume are shown in Figure 15 considering filtration with-
out flocculation and flocculation without filtration. In
the lower ranges of injection there is very little differ-
ence in cost, but as the throughput increases there is
considerable separation between the two illustrated modes
of conditioning.
127
-------
1,000
100
0)
Q.
O
o
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III
I I I I 11II
I I I I I 111
Filtrotion, no Flocculation
Flocculation, no Filtration
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too
1,000
topoo
100,000
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Figure 15. Relative conditioning cost
METHOD COST COMPARISON1'2
A comparison of deep-well injection with incineration and
wet oxidation is shown in Figure 16. The cost of injection
for disposal is plotted as a function of throughput for
various concentrations and injection depths. In this illu-
stration the economic superiority of deep-well systems over
incineration and wet oxidation systems is clearly shown.1
A factor in these comparisons which has not been given ade-
quate consideration is the cost of fuel and its availability
for incineration and wet oxidation. Both of these methods
require the addition of heat to sustain the process. In
both wet oxidation and incineration, a concentrated liquid
or solid "ash" remains after the completion of the process.
Various schemes are considered for disposal of the residue
and are included in the cost. However, problems associated
with disposal of the residue are often of equal or greater
magnitude than those of the original waste.
128
-------
l.OOOrr
100
O
o
o>
>
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cr
10
l I II IN
Without Conditioning
I I i I l I 11 I l l i l i..PiT
Incineration
300,000
Wet Oxidation
I80,000ppm
injection 6.2x10® PeC
OOOpsi)
10 100 1,000
Relative Disposal Quantity
10,000
Figure 16. Unit disposal costs compared
The assumption is made for the economic analysis that an
adequately isolated horizon of sufficient injection capa-
city exists. In an area where there is little information
available concerning the candidate horizons, there is an
economic hazard in proposing a deep-well system because
adequate injectivity and/or isolation might not exist for
it. In such a case the investment in a deep-well system
will be lost and an alternate system must be used.
In areas where information is marginal, a test well prob-
ably should be drilled before a final commitment to the
deep-well system is made. If the conditions are favorable,
the test well can be utilized for injection and there is
no loss other than the cost of the delay. If the test
well proves the deep-well prospects are bad, then the
loss is limited to the cost of the test well.
129
-------
COST EXAMPLES
Investigations by Wright3 in 1969, showed the economic ad-
vantages of deep-well systems over other methods of indus-
trial waste disposal. Tables 14 and 15 show costs for the
year 1969 in the Great Lakes (GL), Mid-Continent (MC), and
Gulf Coast (GC) areas. Although the exact dollar figures
are no longer valid, the relationship between items has
remained at a relatively consistent ratio. With the appli-
cation of an acceptable average yearly inflation factor,
the figures presented in Tables 14 and 15 should closely
approximate present costs.
Figure 17 illustrates total cost of injection for three
injection pressures and three rates of injection as a
function of depth.
10,000
1,000
s
U 100
Ł
900,
^ (p«')
900 '•
0246
D«pth
ioo,ooo
2 -
•^'million
IO 12 14
Figure 17. Cost of injection
130
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131
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SECTION VII
REFERENCES CITED
1. Koenig, L., Ultimate Disposal of Advanced Treatment
Wastes Part I, Injection, U. S. Public Health Service
A.W.T.R-8, 999-WP-10, 1964.
2. Malina, J. F., Jr., and I. C. Moseley, II, "Disposal-
Well Dimensions; Injection Rates and Cost Responses",
in Underground Waste Management and Environmental
Implications, Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Memoir 18,
pp 102-111, 1972.
3. Wright, J. L., Disposal Wells - A Worthwhile Risk,
98th Annual Meeting AIME (Wash. D.C., Feb. 16-20,
1969) 15 pp.
132
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SECTION VIII
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
Common law constraints consist of the rights of individuals
to take legal action in the event the injection operation
infringes upon their legally protected interests. Encom-
passed here is the law of torts, which provides remedies for
a variety of civil wrongs. Of primary concern in tort law
is the distribution of losses between injured parties and
those responsible for the injury in accordance with some
concept of social justice. Tort law also provides the
remedy of injunctive relief under certain conditions, but
the role of the injunction is likely to be diminished in
an area subject to administrative regulation.
In the case of injection wells, administrative controls are
intended to prevent injury to other parties, but, in the
event that injury does occur, the injured party can seek
compensation under one of several tort theories, including
nuisance, negligence, strict liability, and trespass. In
general, nuisance encompasses actions which interfere with
the enjoyment of property and is based to a large extent on
the inherent nature of the objectionable activity. Negli-
gence applies to actions causing injury as a result of fail-
ure to employ a reasonable standard of care in conducting a
given activity. The concept of strict liability or liability
without fault is usually associated with activities having
a relatively high potential for injury even when conducted
with the best of care, and serves to transfer losses auto-
matically to the party in control of the activity without
regard to actual fault. The concept of trespass is gener-
ally used to protect exclusive property rights and therefore
is applicable in cases of unauthorized entry onto land
(Prosser, 1971).1]2 There is one more principle of tort law
which has wide application. It is a concept developed by a
Harvard professor (Keeton, 1959) known as the rule of condi-
tional fault. The reasoning in this instance is that an ac-
tivity may be desirable even though it entails the possibil-
ities of harmful consequences and therefore it should not be
labeled a tort - if the actor pays for the damage. Here we
see that the tort is not in the conduct but in not paying.2
133
-------
"Since the choice of a legal basis of action is somewhat
dependent on the nature of the injury,, it is necessary
to give separate consideration to the types of injury
that are likely to occur. The most probable detrimental
consequence of injection is the contamination or destruc-
tion of natural resources. The underlying concept of
deep-well disposal is confinement of the waste material
to strata of low utility, but there is always some possi-
bility of the existence of undiscovered or currently un-
recognized resources within the disposal zone. And, of
course, permanent confinement may not be achieved. The
waste may escape into other strata by such avenues as
faults, abandoned wells or other excavations, or the in-
jection well itself. Another potential category of in-
jection-related injury includes instability problems
arising from subsurface pressure alterations or other
interference with the structural integrity of underlying
formations. A third area of possible application of
tort law encompasses situations in which injected materials
invade the underlying space of adjacent landowners without
measurable injury. The principal issue in such cases is
not compensation for actual damages but rather the pro-
tection of an exclusive interest in property.
"It should be noted that only a very limited number of
court cases concerning damages associated with deep-well
waste disposal has been decided. Most of the existing
cases concern legal controversies arising from the injec-
tion of salt water for disposal purposes or in connection
with secondary-recovery methods of pe^troleum production.
These cases have addressed some of the potential problems
associated with injection wells but provide no guidance
with respect to others. It should be noted that law
governing secondary-recovery operations is strongly in-
fluenced by public policy considerations associated with
its necessity to the petroleum industry, thereby greatly
reducing the transferability of such law to industrial
waste-disposal operations. The injection of oil-field
brines strictly for disposal purposes is somewhat dis-
tinguishable from the injection of industrial wastes be-
cause the brine is a naturally occurring substcince being
returned to an environment similar to that in which it
originated. Recognition of this fact is contained in
the. FWPCA Amendments of 1972 in which oil-field brines
134
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are exempted from the definition of pollutant. These
limitations on the general applicability of decisions
regarding oil-field waste-disposal practices necessitate
reliance on decisions in related areas in the determin-
ation of legal principles that will serve to resolve
rights conflicts between individuals. The use of analogy
always has certain inherent weaknesses, but more defini-
tive law does not exist.
"There is a substantial body of law concerning the escape
of deleterious substances in general that gives an indica-
tion as to how conflicts concerning pollution damages from
injected wastes might be resolved. All the theories of
tort liability have been invoked in pollution cases, but
the majority appear to rely on nuisance and negligence."1
NUISANCE
"Nuisance has been a standard basis for recovery in situa-
tions involving pollution which renders a water supply unfit
for use (Gulf Oil Corp. v. Hughes, 1962; Panther Coal Co. v.
Looney, 1945; Hasten v. Texas Co., 1927; Love v. Nashville
Agricultural and Normal Institute, 1922). Since nuisance de-
pends on the result of the defendant's actions and not on
the actions themselves, the essential elements in an allega-
tion of nuisance are proof of actual damages and the estab-
lishment of a causal connection between the activity in
question and the injury. Since direct proof of a causal
relationship between an alleged source of subsurface pollu-
tion and the injury is difficult to obtain, the courts will
often accept proof by inference based on circumstantial evi-
dence. Factors usually given consideration by the courts in
determining causation include (1) proximity of the suspected
source to the pollution, (2) the existence of other possible
sources, (3) the relationship in time between the pollution
and some act of the defendant, and (4) the capability of
the suspected source for causing the pollution in question.
The combination of factors necessary to prove causation by
inference varies from case to case depending on the circum-
stances surrounding each situation. Contamination by the
injected waste itself would likely establish a direct causal
relationship, but proof of causation in injection-related
pollution cases is likely to be complicated by the fact that
135
-------
contamination may be caused by naturally occuring fluids
which migrate in response to subsurface pressure increases.
The migration of resident fluids has been a significant
problem in the Port Huron, Michigan, area where industrial
waste injection in Ontario, Canada, was apparently the cause
of seepage of salt water, oil, and natural gas from aban-
doned oil wells. The situation was further complicated by
the international aspect of the problem, but the fact that
the pollution could not be directly connected with the in-
jected waste was significant. It was not until a chemical
analysis of the seepage indicated the presence of the in-
jected substance that the Ontario officials took affirma-
tive action to phase out the injection operations respon-
sible."
NEGLIGENCE
"Negligence is also a frequently utilized basis for court
actions concerning pollution problems, but the person seeking
relief is under an increased burden of proof in this situa-
tion,. In addition to proving damages and causation, the
plaintiff must prove the acts or omissions constituting the
negligence. Because of the difficulties of proving negli-
gence where the activity in question is located on property
entirely within the defendant's control, some courts have
accepted general proof of negligence in place of the desig-
nation of a precise negligent act (Sinclair Refining Co. v.
Bennett, 1941; Texas Co. v. Giddings, 1912). Another ele-
ment of proof in negligence cases is the concept of foresee-
ability. The principal concern here is whether the defen-
dant could reasonably have anticipated injury as a result
of his actions. The absence of a reasonable anticipation
of injury in connection with lawful uses of property has
been employed to deny the right of recovery for a variety
of injuries, including groundwater pollution. The doctrine
has been applied to such activities as the burial of animal
carcasses (Long v. Louisville and Nashville R. R. Co., 1908)
and the location of privies (Davis v. Atkins, 1896), but
apparently not to more extensive waste disposal operations."
LIABILITY WITHOUT FAULT
"In contrast to this group of cases where the absence of
negligence has shielded the defendant from liability,
136
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another group of decisions has imposed strict liability
for pollution damages without regard to negligence. This
doctrine of strict liability has been applied to pollution
cases primarily where potentially harmful substances are
brought onto property and subsequently escape, causing in-
jury to adjacent landowners. The doctrine has been applied
to the escape of salt water in several states. In some
cases, the courts have imposed strict liability on the
basis of a common-law concept (Berry v. Shell Petroleum Co.,
1934) first enunciated in an 1866 English case (Fletcher v.
Rylands, 1865), whereas in others the basis has been a
statutory enactment or administrative regulation (Gulf Oil
Corp. v. Alexander, 1956). This doctrine may become sig-
nificant with respect to future pollution problems which
may be caused by industrial waste injection. Many of the
wastes involved can be described as hazardous, and the in-
jection process may well be viewed as an unnatural use of
land, for which responsibility for accidental losses should
be borne by the operator even in the absence of fault. It
should be noted that some 30 states have now accepted the
strict liability concept in certain areas, and the number
appears to be increasing (Prosser, 1971)."
TRESPASS
"Assuming that an injected waste is effectively confined to
the disposal zone so that damages are not inflicted on other
parties, legal confrontations are still possible where the
waste crosses property boundaries and infringes upon under-
lying space of adjacent landowners. The likelihood of this
occurrence depends on such factors as location of the injec-
tion well with respect to property boundaries, injection
rates, and characteristics of the injection zone. The cus-
tomary basis for an action to protect the exclusive interest
in property is trespass. Although the concept of subsurface
trespass has been recognized in cases involving the extrac-
tion of underlying minerals (North Jellico Coal Co. v.
Helton, 1920) , the courts generally have refused to uphold
the trespass concept in cases involving unauthorized entry
into subsurface space in the absence of injury.
"In a 1950 case decided by the Supreme Court of Oklahoma
(West Edmond Salt Water Disposal Ass'n. v. Rosecrans, 1950)
137
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the plaintiff sought to enjoin injection of salt water on
adjacent property and to obtain damages for alleged tres-
pass in connection with previous infringement of subsurface
property rights. The plaintiff was requesting recovery of
profits accruing to the defendant because of the alleged
unauthorized use of plaintiff's land; physical damages to
the land, although no specific damages were set out; and
punitive damages for the oppressive disregard of plaintiff's
property rights. The defendant admitted liability for any
actual damages resulting from the injection but denied that
damages had occurred inasmuch as the injection zone was
saturated with salt water prior to the initiation of injec-
tion. The court concurred with the contention of the de-
fendant that liability should be limited to actual damages.
"Regarding the allegation of trespass, a principal consider-
ation of the court was whether the salt water remained the
property of the defendant upon its escape to the property of
others. Had ownership remained with the injector, storage
beneath adjoining land apparently would have constituted
trespass, but the court held that ownership and control were
lost upon escape and that consequently there was no trespass,
In reaching this conclusion concerning the loss of posses-
sion, the court compared the salt water with natural ground-
water and petroleum, which are not necessarily fixed in
position beneath one proprietor's land but are subject to
migration and change of ownership. The court specifically
noted that the migration of the injected fluid under plain-
tiff's land constituted only a displacement of a similar
resident fluid. The applicability of this decision to a
case involving an industrial waste not closely comparable
to a natural fluid may therefore be somewhat questionable.
However, a key issue in the case was the absence of actual
injury to the plaintiff. A change in the nature of the in-
jected fluid may not be significant provided the waste is
confined to a stratum so that no damage is produced.
"A similar decision regarding the subsurface trespass issue
had been handed down by the Supreme Court of Kentucky in
1934 in a case involving the underground storage of natural
gas (Hammonds v. Central Kentucky Natural Gas Co., 1934).
The court in that case also held that the injector was not
guilty of trespass since he lost possession of the gas once
138
-------
it escaped to the plaintiff's property. Although the defen-
dant gas company in this case was not found guilty of tres-
pass, the loss of ownership of the injected gas must have
left the company with mixed emotions about the decision.
Other courts (Lone Star Gas Co. v. Murchison, 1962; White
v. New York State Natural Gas Corp., 1960) have since re-
fused to follow the Kentucky court with respect to the loss-
of-possession issue where natural gas is involved, and this
and other aspects of such underground storage operations are
now regulated by statute in many states.
"Another potentially relevant decision with regard to the
right to control use of subsurface space is a 1931 New York
case (Boehringer v. Montaldo, 1931). The case did not in-
volve injection but arose from a dispute between the buyer
and seller of property with regard to an undisclosed sewer
line located 150 ft below the surface. The court held that
the sewer was not an encumbrance on the basis of the view
that a landowner's rights are restricted to a depth of
"useful ownership." The concept of indefinite ownership
upward and downward was rejected as an unacceptable prin-
ciple of law.
"Representative of an opposing point of view is a 1936
Kentucky case (Edwards v. Lee's Administrator, 1936) which
supports the right of the landowner to exercise exclusive
control over subsurface space which he cannot put to use
himself. The owner of land underlain by a portion of a
cave was awarded damages from an adjacent owner, on whose
land the entrance was located, who made commercial use of
the cave. This decision was reached in spite of the fact
that the plaintiff had no means of access to the cave lo-
cated 360 ft beneath his land. The primary consideration
appears to have been the fact that the defendant made an
economic use of space theoretically owned by another,
therefore incurring liability for a portion of the profits
accruing from such use.
"The author of a well-known treatise on tort law (Prosser,
1971) criticizes this holding as bad law and points to the
New York sewer-line case referred to previously as the more
enlightened view, but it does not appear that the issue of
ownership of underground space has been the subject of
enough court decisions to establish a trend of opinion
139
-------
effectively. Of possible relevance is the fact that: the
concept of limiting exclusive property rights to that space
which can be put to effective use has been accepted with
respect to overlying space in recognition of the needs of
aviation. This restriction of exclusive property rights
has been necessitated by an activity generally recognized
as being in the public interest. Since the feasible uses
of subsurface space have been more limited, the concept of
public control has not been applied to the same extent.
However, expanding utilization of subsurface space for such
uses as underground storage and waste disposal may require
consideration of property-rights limitations in the down-
ward direction. A restriction of ownership of subsurface
space appears to be analogous to the restriction of over-
lying rights, provided that freedom of use of such space
is generally held to be in the public interest. Although
the concept of subsurface injection of wastes is given
limited acceptance at present, there appears to be no
general agreement that widespread use of the underground
for waste disposal is in the public interest.
"In the event that the property rights of the landowner
are held to encompass exclusive control over use of sub-
surface space, the waste injector desiring to utilize
strata underlying the property of another would have to
acquire rights of a nature similar to those obtained for
the underground storage of natural gcis. In some juris-
dictions, the acquisition of a subsurface lease may have
the effect of reducing the possibility of liability for
accidental damages to the lessor's property resulting
from injection. For example, in some states, the holder
of a mineral lease is not liable for damages to the lessor
without proof of specific acts of negligence, whereas
strict liability is imposed for damages off the leased
premises (Holbrook v. Continental Oil Co., 1955; Phoenix
v. Graham, 1953)."l
CONDITIONAL FAULT
In explaining conditional fault, Trelease2 poses the
questions arising from the case of Vincent v. Lake Erie
Transportation Co. (1910). "A steamship was unloading at
Mr. Vincent's dock when a great storm came up. The captain
kept his ship tightly tied to the dock, replacing ropes as
140
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they showed signs of wearing. He saved the ship, but did
$500 damage to the dock. The court held that the ship owr>er
had to pay Did the captain commit a wrong? Did he in-
tend to harm the dock? Since he had permission to dock, was
he a trespasser? Was he negligent? Wouldn't any reasonable
man similarly situated try to save his ship? Under the mod-
ern definition of a tort as "socially undesirable conduct",
is it socially undesirable to save a ship?" Two questions
are evident, should the ship owner pay and what tort has
been committed?
To clarify Trelease's summary of conditional fault and
changing attitudes, two additional cases must be noted.
"The reasonableness of causing the harm is said to depend
upon a balancing process - the act which interferes with
the use and enjoyment of the land is unreasonable unless
the utility of the actor's conduct outweighs the gravity
of the harm (Restatement, 1939a). As usually stated by
the courts, and in the old Restatement of Torts, the
weighing of utility and harm made it look very much as
though a big and important industry which had both eco-
nomic and social desirability might do dreadful things
to some poor householder as long as the total damage was
small compared with the total good produced by the indus-
try (Restatement, 1939e)....in the case of Pennsylvania
Coal Co. v. Sanderson (1886), it was decided that the
coal company was not liable for polluting a stream by
discharging acid mine water into it, even though it
ruined the stream for domestic and ornamental use and
caused actual damage to the plaintiff of almost $3,000..."
Injunctions are often considered a remedy in pollution
cases, but have always been regarded as something to be
used only under unusual conditions, when the remedy of
damages is inadequate. The process of "balancing equities"
between the interest of the plaintiff and the needs of the
defendant often occurs at this point.2 Where the defendant
would suffer severe hardship from having his activities
stopped, and the plaintiff would suffer considerably less
if he were given money for being subjected to the nuisance.
the court will deny the injunction and say that the plain-
tiff must be satisfied with damages. In a recent New York
case, Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Co. (1970), this theory was
applied in a way which has caused a considerable amount of
141
-------
controversy in these days of arising consciousness of
environmental protection. Property owners surrounding
the cement plant sustained substantial damage from smoke
and dust, but the plant was a multimillion-dollar industry
that formed a major part of the economic base of the com-
munity. The court found that the pollution was serious
and that the cement company should be encouraged to find
a solution, but nevertheless held that the industry should
not be enjoined. It seemed fairer to both sides to grant
permanent damages, make the defendant pay the plaintiffs
$185,000 for their loss of property values, and allow the
industry to continue."2
The rule of "conditional fault" (Keeton 1959) reasons that
an activity may be desirable even though it entails the pos-
sibility of harm and therefore should not be considered a
tort if the actor pays for the harm. "The fault lies not in
the conduct but in not paying." Referring to Vincent v.
Lake Erie Transportation Co. (1910) Trelease states, "Saving
the ship is desirable conduct, not tortious, but not paying
for the dock is outrageous. This principle has a fairly
wide application. Today we hear much of "enterprise liabil-
ity", the idea that industries should pay their own way,
that manufacturers of products should be strictly liable for
the harms those products cause, that "no-fault insurance"
should equalize the burdens of the traffic victims and
spread them over the entire automobile-transportation in-
dustry. Much of the new concern for the environment is
based on this idea. The economists have a wonderful phrase
for it - we should "internalize the externalities"; that is,
we should see that all costs of an enterprise are paid by
those who receive its benefits, and not shoved off on out-
siders.
"This is the true principle that seems to govern the law of
underground waste disposal. The courts have been flexibly
applying any and all of the tort doctrines we have discussed
as long as they produce the result the court wishes to
achieve, which is compensation for the injured person. When
serious damage occurs, the court may use a theory of tres-
pass, it may find that negligence was present, it may de-
clare the activity to be a nuisance, or it may say the
activity is ultrahazardous.
142
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"When the Restatement (Second) of Torts was being drafted
last year, the nuisance rules which seemingly allow the rich
and strong to confiscate the property of the poor and weak
came up for considerable discussion. It was argued that the
courts had rarely put such a brutal rule into effect. The
rule on balancing utility against harm was amended to in-
clude this statement: "The gravity of the harm, as objec-
tively weighed..., may be found so significant that in and
of itself it requires compensation, regardless of the weight
of the utility of the conduct" (Restatement [Second], 1971c).
The Boomer cement case and the Pennsylvania Coal Co. case
were contrasted and the significant fact noted that, al-
though the utility of both industries far outweighed the
harm they did and neither was stopped, the result in the
Boomer case of making the company pay was preferable.
"Both the Boomer case and the new Restatement (Second)
rule are perfect illustrations of conditional fault. The
cement industry is needed economically, it is socially de-
sirable, and the court is unwilling to stop it. However,
the $185,000 of property damage is a cost of producing
cement, and the court says, "Pay it". The cement company
thus is encouraged to use every means possible to keep the
unpleasant side effects of its operation to a minimum,"2
SUMMARY
Legal aspects of deep-well injection are still evolving.
Trelease2 summarizes his evaluation by postulating that
the courts will consider deep-well injection a socially
desirable activity, not per se wrong, not to be discouraged
nor to be stopped, but requiring all industries using the
method to bear all costs when there is a malfunction and
damage or injury occurs.
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SECTION VIII
REFERENCES CITED
1. Walker, W. R., and W. E. Cox, Legal and Institutional
Considerations of Deep-Well Waste Disposal, 2nd Int.
AAPG-USGS-IAHS Underground Waste Manage. & Artificial
Recharge Symp. (New Orleans, Sept. 26-30, 1973) pre-
prints, Vol. 2, pp 3-19, 1973.
2. Trelease, F. J., Liability for Harm from Underground
Waste Disposal, Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Mein. 18,
pp 369-375, 1972.
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SECTION IX
LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
Governmental controls applicable to deep-well injection
are increasing as the use of the method increases. Now
most states with a multiple number of deep-wells either
have legislated statutes regulating these systems or have
rules established by some agency or agencies of the govern-
ment whose authority has been designated by legislation
and designed to give regulatory authority.
Waste-treatment requirements have not been as exacting for
deep-well injection as for surface discharge. Critics of
the method regard it as a loophole in environmental quality
control while those supporting deep-well systems insist
that because the waste is removed from the usable (surface)
environment, less treatment is justified. Proponents also
view use of underground space as an economic resource which
should be utilized when other disposal methods are more
costly.
The need for regulation of deep-well systems is generally
recognized and accepted because of the undesirable results
which may manifest themselves because of poor design or
operating practices.
STATE CONTROLS * - 2
The regulation of deep-well injection has traditionally
been a responsibility of the state. The characteristics
of the regulatory programs vary widely in both the accep-
tance of the deep-well waste injection concept and the
regulations governing construction and operation of the
systems. Some states accept deep-well injection as a
feasible alternative or last resort for waste disposal,
others are philosophically opposed to it and probably will
never grant operating permits, and one state has forbidden
it by statute. Those states accepting the concept of deep-
well injection show great variation in the form, sxibstance,
and administrative organization for the implementation of
the regulations.
145
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A limited number of states have adopted specific disposal-
well statutes (Texas Water Code, sec. 22.001 et seq;
Michigan Statutes Annotated). Some states utilize legis-
lation created for purposes other than the control of in-
jection wells. For example, North Carolina has a water-well
statue applicable to disposal wells (General Statutes of
North Carolina). In Ohio, a part of oil and gas law applies
to the injection of industrial wastes (Ohio Revenue Code,
sec. 1509.01 et seq). A number of states regulate subsur-
face disposal through use of the pollution-control statute
applicable to surface water.
The wording of the pollution-control statute of several
states specifically encompasses disposal wells (West
Virginia Code; Annotated Code of Maryland; Arizona Revised
Statutes Annotated; Colorado Revised Statutes) , whejreas in
others no explicit reference is made. Many state pollution-
control laws may reasonably be interpreted to apply to dis-
posal-well operations without specifically including them
as the laws cover discharges of wastes to both surface and
groundwaters. A question may arise as to whether discharge
of wastes to subsurface saline waters comes within the
jurisdiction of pollution-control statutes which define
"pollution" in terms of actions having adverse effects on
other uses, inasmuch as such waters may have no other ex-
isting uses. However, the potential contamination of usable
water in other strata if the waste should migrate from the
disposal zone would likely be sufficient to support the
claim that injection constitutes an activity within the
jurisdiction of pollution-control legislation.
The final regulatory responsibility lies with a single
agency in a number of states whereas, in certain other
states, the authorization procedure requires the approval
of two or more agencies. The Texas Disposal Well Act vests
permit-granting authority in the Water Quality Board, but
the permit is conditioned on the certification by the Texas
Railroad Commission that the proposed injection well will
not endanger oil- and gas-bearing strata (Texas Water Code,
sec. 20.015). In Ohio, issuance of an industrial waste-
injection well permit by the Division of Oil and Gas re-
quires the approval of the State Environmental Protection
Agency, the State Geological Survey, and the Division of
Mines if the proposed well is located in a coal-bearing
township (Ohio Revised Code).
146
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Certain elements of the actual state requirements imposed
on injection-well operations are relatively uniform, but
there are substantive provisions which vary considerably
among the states. One such variation involves the speci-
fication of the quality parameters defining waters from
which waste discharges are to be prohibited. It is gen-
erally accepted that injection should be restricted to
saline aquifers, and there is agreement that waters of
low salinity may be potentially useful and should be pro-
tected. However, there is considerable variation among
the states as to the upper limit on concentration used to
designate potentially useful saline waters. Standards es-
tablished by the New York Department of Environmental Con-
servation classify waters having a chloride content greater
than 250 mg/1 or a total-dissolved-solids content of more
than 1000 mg/1 as saline, but saline waters containing less
than 1000 mg/1 chloride or less than 2000 mg/1 total solids
are protected (New York codes). On the other hand, the
Texas Water Quality Board considers potentially beneficial
all water having a total-dissolved-mineral concentration
between 3000 and 10 000 mg/1 (Texas Water Quality Board).
Illinois also protects all water having a total-dissolved-
solids content of less than 10 000 mg/1 (Illinois Sanitary
Water Board, 1968). The unwritten guidelines used in
Alabama prohibit waste discharges into all groundwater less
saline than seawater, which contains about 33 000 mg/1 of
dissolved solids. The determination of what quality of
water to protect should logically be based on a careful
evaluation of existing and projected water needs. In the
absence of complete data of this type, a conservative phi-
losophy would be expected to govern the determination,
inasmuch as it involves a possibly irreversible commitment
of an important natural resource.
Another substantial variation in state regulatory controls
is among preliminary information requirements. Requirements
of the various states include information concerning geology,
topography, wells and other excavations within a specified
radius (usually about 3220 m (2 mi.)), water and mineral
resources, agriculture, fish and wildlife, industrial devel-
opment, population densities, culture, and other factors.
Whereas some states have comprehensive regulations requiring
essentially the whole gamut of possible information (Colo-
rado Department of Health, 1974) , others have relatively
147
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limited requirements (West Virginia Department of Natural
Resources). Some of the apparent variation is because the
requirements in force often may not be incorporated in for-
mal regulations, but it is probable that a significant part
of the variation is real.
Requirements for monitoring the injection process constitute
a third aspect in which state regulations differ consider-
ably. Injection rates and pressures and the quality of in-
jected waste must usually be monitored at the injection well,
but there has been no uniformity with respect to require-
ments for separate monitor wells for the determination of
waste migration within the disposal zone and into other
strata. A consistent policy with respect to use of monitor
wells has not always been applied, even within individual
states—such wells are utilized in some cases and not in
others. Some of the variations can be attributed tc> dif-
fering conditions presented by individual injection sites.
For example, the close proximity of an injection well to an
aquifer serving as an important source of water supply may
create a need for monitor wells which does not exist in the
absence of such resources. Also the presence of a fault in
the vicinity of an injection well may require the installa-
tion of monitor wells to detect movement of the waste toward
the fault, or may require monitoring of fresh water aquifers
near the fault to determine possible leakage. The presence
of active faults may also require seismic monitoring for
detection of any activity resulting from the injection oper-
ation.
Although flexibility in these and other aspects of state
regulatory procedures is essential to efficient operation,
it is likely that a greater amount of uniformity in state
control procedures would be possible and, probably, desir-
able. The most effective controls applicable to a given
situation in one state should also be the most effective
with respect to an identical or similar situation in another
state. The issue of the uniformity of criteria utilized
for the control of disposal wells is of special interest
where interstate aquifers are involved. The existence of
less restrictive requirements in one state may have the
potential of negating or compromising standards in effect
in another. The efforts of one state to protect brackish
148
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water of a certain salinity could be nullified if an adja-
cent state allowed waste injection into interstate aquifers
containing such water. This and other potential problems
of an interstate nature will require cooperative state
action, and will be likely to necessitate greater uniformity
in state regulatory procedures. Much work remains to be
done with regard to standardization of controls and the
accompanying considerations of the effectiveness of various
controls.
FEDERAL CONTROLS1
Radioactive wastes have been one of the principal exceptions
to state control over subsurface disposal. The disposal of
such materials has been regulated by the Atomic Energy Com-
mission (AEC) pursuant to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (U.S.
Code Annotated, 1954). This Act preempted state control by
giving AEC exclusive authority to regulate radiation hazards
associated with nuclear materials. An amendment enacted in
1959 provides for agreements with the states for transfer of
certain regulatory functions, but a limitation on such agree-
ments provides for retention of AEC authority with respect
to regulation of the disposal of materials which the agency
determines should not be disposed of without a federal li-
cense (U.S. Code Annotated, 1959). A potential limitation
on AEC authority to regulate radioactive-waste disposal
arises from a governmental reorganization plan in 1970 cre-
ating the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This plan
transferred to EPA the responsibility for establishing en-
vironmental standards with respect to radiation (U.S. Govern-
ment Reorganization Plan No. 3, 1970). Exercise of this
standard-setting authority would seem to impinge upon the
regulation of waste disposal by AEC.
Federal influence with respect to subsurface waste injection
is expanding considerably with the implementation of the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (U.S.
Code Annotated, 1972). Although the terms of the Amendments
do not directly encompass disposal wells, regulations pro-
posed by EPA for their implementation (Code of Federal Regu-
lations, 1972) subjected certain disposal wells to federal
control. Possibly of greater significance is that provi-
sions specifying the conditions for the approval of state
149
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permit programs to be operated in place of the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) establish
a basis for the imposition of federal standards on state
regulatory programs for disposal wells. Existence of
"adequate" authority for the state to issue permits for
the disposal of pollutants into wells is one of the con-
ditions which must be met before the state permit program
to regulate the discharge of pollutants into navigable
water will be approved (U.S. Code Annotated, 1972, sec.
402[b][l][D]).
Title XIV - Safety to Public Water Systems, amending the
Public Health Service Act, and bearing the short title of
the "Safe Drinking Water Act" was passed in December 1974.
Part C of this title relates directly to waste injection
wells setting forth guidelines for permitting and operation
and the enforcement powers granted the Administrator.
A summary of state statutes and regulations governing deep-
well injection as well as the EPA Administrator's Decision
Statement No. 5, and Part C of the "Safe Drinking Water
Act" are included in Appendix I, Inventory of Legislation
and Regulations.
The reporting parameters required by state statutes or
designated state agencies are summarized in Table 16.
150
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Parameters suggested in the CnL-ironinejual liottction Agencr
Administrator's Decision Statanent No 5 as those which
should lx= provided by the injector to ) 1 .1 thol ntjy
(4) Gram Mineralogy
(5) Matrix Type- and Mineralocjy
(6) i. lay Content
'7) Clay Maperdlo.jy
(8) Kffec-tive. E-vrosity U^ti licfe dptP-rnu'«li
<"•>) Permeability (and hciw deti'niiinfd)
(10) Coclficjait of Ac-fuller Sfoia-jf
(11) Amount., E> tent ot Narural l-raetiiriny
(12) Nature of Knoi/n, Suspectocl Fa'iltiny
t-xtent, Effect of Natural Solution 'TTd-incl^
Deqrti> >f riuiO Sdt-^Kitioti
Formation Fluid rherii
llftj Formation Tfanppidtutt
(I"7) r-'nrvjfori "tnd ^ 1 n>l l
(18) tracturinq Gradient';
d9l Ull•^us^on ^ Ujsuersi
(20) Ccynpatibilit/ c,1 K^-
(21) rr ipctivr1 Pi (ii A ic^
i •'nation Fluids
r s <
x x : F
I X R R
R X R i<
I X X R
I XII
R R P. P
x 5 i H k H i Ł v H :: , . ~ f- ^ s
X 'J X / N '_J O ' '- , ', I < ..1 /, L ^
X H X I P ^ "- - X ' "I X '^ « '- t M f-
• '• ' ' ^ s ^ i,
x
crmg natu
(1) Diartfeter HtJi.^, 1.\j. ^*-\\
Type, b]?f", Wt , C>tŁenyLb M C.ibi.iq Stnnqs
Specifications, Installation Tubing a Packers
Propost*j Cementing PToredurp-q, 'IXox; Cement
(5) Proposed '"oriny Progrdi-
(6) Proposed Forriatioti Teb* .ng i r'Xjram
C?) Tiowbe-1 Vxigini- Proqrdi"
(8) Proposed Fractur inq or ^t in,ajati' »n F fujran
(9) Proposed I meet ion fiooetiur''
(10) nans Surface, Subsurfacf Omatrurt ion Dtn.ulb
(111 Fluid Monitorinq Plans
(12) Expected Fluid Displaceircnt Characteristics
(13) Contingency Plans
rluid Injection [ffccts Kf r»rt
(1) Alternative Schurnes
(2) Finicction of I I :id 1'rossi.re Response
iJ! I ossihli' -lul^sLii'f.irt Chemical Reaction^
\ ,L. P
X P I<
X I R
X X R
; Require*^ specif ica] iv by statute "r agency rule
: Not specified or implied b> statutes
(or information not available)
1 - Implied in general nv.ui r ^Ten:!-. i
S -- baiiic ab retjiurpd for pr^Juctior - stinulati
in Sec 42, Manud i
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SECTION IX
REFERENCES CITED
1. Walker, W. R., and W. E. Cox, Legal and Institutional
Considerations of Deep-Well Waste Disposal, 2nd Int.
AAPG-USGS-IAHS Underground Waste Manage. & Artificial
Recharge Symp. (New Orleans, Sept. 26-30, 1973) pre-
prints, Vol. 2, pp 3-19, 1973.
2. Ives, R. E., and G. E. Eddy, Subsurface Disposal of
Industrial Wastes, Interstate Oil Compact Comm. Study,
109 pp, 1968.
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SECTION X
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A
A.P.I. - American Petroleum Institute. Founded in 1920;
national oil trade association which maintains a Division
of Production whose offices are in Dallas, Texas. The
A.P.I, is the leading standardizing organization on oil
field drilling and producing equipment, having published
a great many codes covering such matters. Also has divi-
sions of transportation, refining and marketing.
A.S.T.M. - American Society for Testing Materials. The
national offices are in Philadelphia. Like the A.P.I, and
the A.S.M.E., the A.S.T.M. has promulgated a great number
of codes related to oil field equipment and the materials
from which such equipment is manufactured.
Abandon - To cease efforts to operate a well, and to plug
the bore hole and salvage all material and equipment.
Acidize - To put acid in a well to dissolve limestone in
a producing zone so that passages are formed through which
fluid can be transmitted to or from the well bore.
Activated Sludge - Microorganisms imbedded in gelatinous
matrices feeding on organic material under aerobic conditions.
Aggradation - Build up of topographic surface by deposition
of sediment.
Aliphatic - Organic chemical compounds in which the carbon
atoms are linked in open chains.
Alkaline Earth Metals - Calcium, strontium, barium, radium,
beryllium and magnesium.
Alkyl - A radical obtained by removal of one hydrogen from a
saturated hydrocarbon. It has the general formula C H „
Alluvial Fan - Deposit at foot of slope, effected by water
movement and with gentle slope.
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Alluvial Terrace - Valley surface effected by abrupt stream
downcutting after period of stream aggradation.
Alluvium - Clay, silt, sand, gravel, or other rock materials
transported by flowing water and deposited in comparatively
recent geologic time as sorted or semi-sorted sediments in
riverbeds, estuaries, flood plains, lakes, shores and in
fans at the base of mountain slopes.
Alpha Particle - A helium nuclei, two neutrons and two pro-
tons bound together so as to act as ones positively charged
particle.
Amorphous - Noncrystalline, having no definite shape,.
Analysis, Core - Laboratory examination of geological samples
taken from the well bore. This examination is used to deter-
mine the capacity of the formation to contain oil and gas,
the possibility of oil and gas passing through the formation,
the degree of saturation of the formation with oil, gas and
water, and for other purposes.
Annular Space - The space surrounding pipe suspended in the
well bore. The outer wall of the annular space may be open
hole or it may be string of large pipe.
Annulus - See Annular Space.
An_oxemia - A deficiency of oxygen in the blood.
Antecedent Stream - Stream course presumed to be result of
persistent established drainage that continues athwart ob-
structional present relief.
Anticline - Major fold in rock strata wherein strata are in-
clined downslope on both sides from a median line or axis.
Aqueous - In water.
Aquielude - A rock which will store water, but will not
transmit significant amounts.
Aquifer - A geologic formation, group of formations,, or
part of a formation that is water yielding.
154
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- A rock which neither transmits nor stores water.
Aquitard - A rock that will store water and transmits
enough to be significant in the study of regional ground
water migration but does not transmit enough water to
supply individual wells.
Argyria - A discoloration of the skin caused by prolonged
contact with silver compounds.
Aromatic - An organic chemical compound which contains
one or more benzene rings.
Arroyo - Deep continuous channel from foot of mountain
canyons to and through alluvial fans.
Artesian - The occurrence of ground water under sufficient
pressure to rise above the upper surface of the aquifer.
Artesian Aquifer - An aquifer overlain by a confining bed
and containing water under artesian conditions.
Arti f ic iaj. Recharge - The addition of water to the ground-
water reservoir by activities of man.
Aryl - A radical obtained by removal of one hydrogen atom
from an aromatic hydrocarbon.
Atroph^y - Wasting away.
AvaJL_anc_he - Rock falls from unstable steep valley divides
and sides, usually accentuated by snowfall accumulation on
ridge summits.
B
BOD - See Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
Back-Off -- To unscrew.
Baffles - Plates which change the direction of flow of
fluids.
Bailer - A long cylindrical container, fitted with a valve
at its lower end, used to remove water, sand, mud and oil
from a well.
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Bailing - Operation of cleaning mud cuttings and other
material from the bottom of the well bore with a bailer.
See Bailer.
Bajada - Coalescence of alluvial fans at foot of mountain
slopes; usually of much areal extent.
Ball and Seat - The main parts of the valves in a plunger-
type oilwell pump.
Bar - Sand deposit, usually offshore, occurring at junction
of river entry into sea.
Barchane - Sand dune with outline of lunar crescent, with
windward slope at convex side and horns pointing downwind.
Base Flow - The fair-weather flow of streams, composed
largely of ground-water effluent.
Bastard - Any equipment of non-standaird shape or size.
Batch - A definite amount of oil, mud, acid, or other
liquid in a tank or pipe line.
Bay - Elongate depressions in coastal plain, 5-10 feet deep
with gentle slopes dipping into flat bottom, usually attri-
buted to solution in interfluves.
Berm - Remnant valley shoulder after rapid down cutting by
stream.
Beta Particle - Electrons emitted from radioactive atoms.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - The quantity of oxygen
utilized primarily in the biochemical oxidation of organic
matter in a specified time and at a specified temperature.
The time and temperature are usually five days and 20°C.
Biological Degradation - Decomposition by bacterial action.
Blank Flange (also a blind flange:) - A solid disc used to
dead end a companion flange.
Blank Liner - A liner without perforations.
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Blank-Off - To close off, such as with a blank flange or bull
plug.
Bleeder - A valve or pipe through which bleeding is done.
Bleed Off or Bleed Down - To reduce pressure slowly through a
control valve.
Blow-Out - A hollow eroded into highest section of the wind--
ward side of a barchane (sand dune); usually a feature of
shore dunes.
Blow-Out - A sudden, violent escape of gas and oil (and oorr.u-
times water) from a drilling well when high pressure gas is
encountered and preparation to prevent or to control the escape
has not been made.
Brackish Water - Water containing a concentration of total dis-
solved solids of 1,000-10,000 parts per million.
Bridge - An obstruction in a well, formed by intrusion of sub-
surface formations. A tool placed in the hole to retain cement
or other material; may later be removed or drilled out, or
remain permanently in place.
Brine - Water containing a concentration of total dissolved
solids of over 100,000 parts per million.
Bottom Hole Contract - A contract providing for the payment
of money or other consideration upon the completion of a well
to a specified depth.
Bottom-Hole Pressure - The pressure at the bottom of a well.
Bottom Water - Water entering the well bore from the lower
levels of a reservoir.
By-Pass - Usually refers to a pipe connection around a valve
or other control mechanism. A by-pass is installed in such
cases to permit passage of fluid through the line while
adjustments or repairs are made on the control which is by-
passed.
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COD - See Chemical Oxygen Demand.
Cage - The part of a pump valve which holds the ball to limit
its movement.
Caliper Logging - An operation to determine the diameter of
the well bore or the internal diameter of casing, drill pipe
or tubing. In the case of the well bore, caliper logging
indicates undue enlargement of the bore due to a caving con-
dition or other causes. In the case of tubular goods, the
caliper log reveals internal corrosion.
Casing Pressure - Pressure built up between the casing and
tubing.
Catalyst - A substance present in a chemical reaction, usually
in small quantities, which alters the reaction without being
changed itself.
Catching Samples - Geological information is obtained by
studying samples of the formations penetrated by the drill.
Members of the drilling crews obtain these samples from the
drilling fluid as it emerges from the well bore. (Or from
the bailer in case of cable tools.) This is known as
catching samples. Cuttings so obtained are carefully washed
until free of foreign matter and then dried and accurately
labeled to show the depth at which they were found.
Cathode - The negative electrode of an electrolytic cell.
Cellar - Excavation under the derrick to provide space for
items of equipment at the top of the well bore. Also serves
as a pit to collect drainage of water and other fluids under
the floor for subsequent disposal by jetting.
Cementing - The operation by which cement slurry is forced
down through the casing and out at the lower end in such a
way that it fills the space between the casing and the sides
of the well bore to a predetermined height above the bottom
of the well. This is for the purpose of securing the casing
in place and excluding water and other fluids from the well
bore.
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Cementing, Squeeze - Forcing cement through perforations to
seal off water or gas.
Changing Rams - On rotary drilling rigs blow-outs are pre-
vented by the device known as the blow-out preventer. The
sealing effect of the blow-out preventer is accomplished by
means of parts called rams. It is necessary to change the
rams when drill pipe of a different size than that pre-
viously used is put in service.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - The measure of the readily
oxidizable material in water which provides an approximation
of the minimum amount of organic and reducing material present,
Chemical Water Quality - The nature of water as determined
by the concentration of chemical constituents.
Christmas Tree - A term applied to the valves and fittings
assembled at the top of a well to control the flow of the oil.
Circulate - To cycle drilling fluid through drill pipe and
well bore while drilling operations are temporarily suspended.
This is done to condition the drilling fluid and the well bore
before hoisting the drill pipe and to obtain cuttings from the
bottom of the well bore before drilling proceeds. Circulation
of the drilling fluid while drilling is suspended is usually
necessary to prevent drill pipe from becoming stuck.
Circulation - Act of circulating drilling fluid to the bottom
of the well and back.
Clastic - Consisting of fragments of rocks or organic struc-
tures that have been moved individually from their places of
origin.
Collar - A pipe coupling threaded on the inside.
Coming Out of Hole - Withdrawing of the drill pipe from the
well bore. This withdrawal is necessary to change the bit,
or change from bit to core barrel, to prepare for a drill
stem test, and for other reasons.
Concentration - The weight of solute dissolved in a unit
volume of solution.
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Conductor Pipe ~ A short string of casing of large diameter
which is used in marshy locations and under certain other
conditions. Its principal function is to keep the top of
the well bore open and to provide means of conveying the
up-flowing drilling fluid from the well bore to the slush
pit.
Confined Water - Water separated from the atmosphere by
impermeable material; also called Artesian Water.
Connate Water - Water that was deposited simultaneously
with the sediments, and has not since then existed as
surface water or as atmospheric moisture.
Consumptive Use - The quantity of water discharged to the
atmosphere or incorporated in the products of vegetative
growth or industrial processes.
Contamination - The degradation of natural water quality
as a result of man's activities, to the extent that its
usefulness is impaired.
Continental -
Platform - feature of earth's surface comprising that
part between sea level and 3,300' elevation; the other
major part is between 13,000-16,000' below sea level.
Shelf - area of shallow-water bottom between shoreline
and top of relatively steep continental slope.
Slope - the descent from edge of platform to deep
ocean basin; usually occurs at distant offshore and
begins at average depth of 600'.,
Terrace - the built-up platform that lies at the outer
edge of the continental shelf in water 600' or more
deep.
Contract Depth - The depth of the well bore at which the
drilling contract is fulfilled.
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Coring - The act of procuring a sample of the formation being
drilled for geological information purposes. Coring is done
by means of a core barrel. Conventional type of core barrel
is put on the bottom of the drill pipe where bit normally
operates. As the cutter head of the core barrel penetrates
the formations a continuous sample of the formation is taken
in the core barrel and later'withdrawn with the drill pipe.
The wire line core barrel is used in many areas since it
permits coring to be done without withdrawing the drill pipe
from the well bore. Instead, a core barrel is dropped inside
the drill pipe and automatically locks into coring position
when it reaches the bottom of the well bore.
C. P. - Point in cased hole of cementing through perforations.
Also abbreviation for "casing point".
Crater (To Crater) - Term meaning "the hole is caving in".
To crater refers to the results that sometimes accompany a
violent blow-out during which the surface surrounding the
well bore falls into a large hole blown in the earth by the
force of escaping gas, oil and water. The crater sometimes
covers an area of several acres and reaches a depth of several
hundred feet. To crater also refers in oil field slang to any
mishap which may occur to the man or the equipment.
Cut Oil - Oil that contains water; also called wet oil.
Cuttings - Particles of formation obtained from a well during
drilling operation. These are washed out while circulating
mud-laden fluid in rotary drilling. They are bailed out in
cable tool drilling.
Crystalline - Rock composed of crystals or fragments of
crystals.
Cuesta - A topographic ridge consisting of asymmetric hill
slopes with one steep side into a valley and the other side
gently dipped seaward.
Curie - The standard unit of radioactivity which is ths
quantity of a radioactive isotope which decays at 3,7 x
1018 disintegrations per second.
Cyanosis - A bluish discoloration of the skin, which results
from insufficient oxygen in the blood.
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D
D.S.T. - See Drill Stem Test.
Day Tour - See Tour.
Day Work - When a drilling contract is entered into between
an operator and a drilling contractor, it is frequently com-
posed of two parts; namely footage contract and day work.
While the rig is on day work it is paid for on a daily basis
at a price per day agreed upon. Day work arrangements usually
cover drilling at extreme depths, coring, drill stem tests,
and other operations where normal drilling operations are
suspended for any reason at the request of the operator.
Decomposition - The separation of a compound into its parts.
Deficit ion - Removal of surficial dry alluvium by wind action;
differential removal due to variable size of loose particles.
Results in spectacular erosion features in desert areas.
Degradable - Capable of being decomposed, deteriorated, or
decayed into simpler forms with characteristics different
from the original. Also referred to as biodegradable.
Degradation of Water Quality - The act or process of reducing
the level of water quality so as to impair its original use-
fulness .
Deliquescent - To become liquid by absorbing moisture from
the air.
Demineralization - The process of reducing the concentration
of chemical constituents.
Density - The weight of a substance per unit volume. For
instance, the density of a drilling mud may be described as
"10 Ib. per gallon" or "70 Ib. per cubic foot".
Depreciation - The decrease in value of any property such as
a rig due to normal wear or the passing of time. By including
a charge for depreciation the contractor accumulates funds to
replace the rig when it is worn out.
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Derrickman - The crew member whose work station is in the
derrick while the tubing or rods are being hoisted or lowered
into the hole. He attaches the elevators to the stands of
pipe while it is being lowered into the hole and detaches
the elevators while the pipe is being hoisted. Other res-
ponsibilities frequently include conditioning the drilling
fluid and maintenance of the slush pumps. He is usually
next in line of authority under the driller.
Desiccant - A drying agent.
Dialysis - A process by which various materials in a solution
may be separated by selective diffusion through a semipermeable
membrane.
Directional Drilling - While the normal well bore under usual
conditions is planned to be drilled vertically, controlled
directional drilling is sometimes used to drill a well at an
angle from the vertical. Examples are the drilling of wells
under the sea from a location on dry land and killing a blow-
out by means of a well drilled from a point at a safe distance
from the one being brought under control. In the latter in-
stance, the well bore drilled at an angle, permits the pumping
of heavy fluids into the bore of the well which is not under
control. Modern development of this technique makes possible
close control on both the direction and the degree of devi-
ation of a directional well from the vertical.
We 11 - See Directional Drilling.
Pis solution - Dissolving or changing from a solid to a liquid
state .
Disturbed Structures -
A. Youthful
Ancient Crystalline Mountain - Always rejuvenated,
sometimes with monoclinal flanks.
Belted Metamorphic Mountains - Well-dissected
younger mountain belts or rejuvenated ancient
belts.
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Domes - Singly or in complexes.
Fault Blocks - Includes troughs and hoist type
mountains or ranges.
Fold Mountains - Singly or in chains.
Fold-thrust - Nappe complexes - alpine types.
Mixture of sediments and crystallines.
^* Old Age - All preceeding structures are reduced to
late mature or old age landscapes.
Dome - A general geomorphic term denoting a circular or oval
topographic feature, usually a lifting or upwarping of a sedi-
mentary cover caused by deep-seated igneous intrusion or by
plastic flow of deep salt deposits pushed upward by differ-
ential pressure.
Domestic Well - A well which supplies water for the occupants
of a single residence.
Double - A section of drill pipe casing or tubing consisting
of two joints screwed together. See Thribble; Fourble.
Downcomer - A pipe through which flow is downward.
Drainage - Patterns are arrangements of spatial relation-
ships among streams or rivers which may be influenced by
inequalities of slope, rock resistance, structure and
geologic history. The resultant patterns are varied, and
have been classed as follows:
annular - circular drainage pattern linked by one
radial stream; where dome exists in alternating hard
and soft sedimentary rocks.
barbed - sharp reversal in direction of stream flow
as in wire hook, usually caused by capture or 'piracy1
of one stream flow by another.
dendritic - random pattern of branching where no
structural control is present as in homogeneous
surface lithology or where surface sediments are
flat lying.
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deranged - uncoordinated, numerous local drainage basins
and lakes, not enough time for coordination since exis-
tence of present drainage.
karst - numerous sink holes, few surface streams; caused
by solution of predominant, underlying limestone causing
much underground drainage.
parallel - regularly spaced parallel or sub parallel
streams; usually caused by distinct slope or struc-
tural control like faults, hard rocks alongside soft
rocks, and symmetrical folds.
radial - streams radiating out from a common center;
associated with volcanic cones and with domes in rela-
tively homogeneous material.
rectangular - drainage in two directions at right angles,
both equally developed and caused by joint or fault con-
trol in homogeneous strata.
trellis - pattern with one dominant direction with a
subsidiary direction of drainage at right angles to its
link up with main stream usually associated with tilted
or folded alternating hard and soft sedimentary rocks.
Drawdown - The lowering of the water table or piezometric
Surface caused by pumping or artesian flow.
Dresser Sleeve - A slip-type collar that is used to join
plain-end pipe.
Dri1ling Out - This refers to drilling out of the residual
cement which normally remains in the lower section of casing
and the well bore after the casing has been cemented.
Drilling Under Pressure - Carrying on drilling operations
while maintaining a seal at the top of the well bore to
prevent the well fluids from blowing out.
Drill Stem Test - A test taken by means of special testing
equipment to determine whether or not oil or gas in com-
mercial quantities has been encountered in the well bore.
This test is universally used because it yields useful
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information and permits the continuation of drilling after
the completion of the drill stem test to explore other
possible pay sections.
Driller - The employee directly in charge of a drilling rig
and crew. Operation of the drilling and hoisting equipment
constitute his main duties.
E
Effluent - A material which flows out.
Electrodialysis - Separation of materials in a solution by
selective diffusion through a semipermeable membrane using
an electric field as the driving force for the separation.
Erosion (soil) - The removal of material from the soil sur-
face by the actions of running water, wind, or by gravity.
May be thought of as 'normal1 if soil formation keeps pace
with soil removal and 'accelerated" or 'catastrophic' if
the loss of surface material greatly exceeds that produced
by weathering.
Escarpment (scrap) - A cliff or steep rock face of great
linear extent; may be structurally or erosionally induced.
Estuary - That part of a lower river course that is affected
by a mixing of fresh and salt water because of 'overdeepening1
of the river bed to where the river bed lies below mean sea
level, thereby permitting encroachment upstream by sea water.
Expansion Loop - A bend placed in a line to absorb stretch
or shrinkage.
Extrusive Structures - Landforms depend on geochemistry and
viscosity of magma; result in following: volcanic cones,
domes, lava fields and plateaus, and calderas.
Fall Line - A line joining the waterfalls on a number of
successive rivers that marks the point where each river des-
cends from the upland (Piedmont) to the lowland (Coastal
Plain).
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Fault Block (block mountains, fault block mountains) -
Mountains produced by crustal fracturing and characterized
by more or less rectilinear borders, lack of continuity of
formation, usually parallel or subparallel, with associated
parallel and subparallel lowlands.
Faults - A movement in the earth's surface of contiguous
masses wherein points of contact have been dislocated or
displaced along the plane of movement.
normal - A fault wherein the acute inclined plane at
the surface moves downward with respect to the masses
in adjacent plane.
reverse - A fault wherein the acute inclined plane at
the surface moves upward with respect to the mass in
adjacent plane.
Filling the Hole - Pumping drilling fluid into the well bore
as the pipe is being withdrawn in order to maintain the fluid
level in the hole near the surface. The purpose is to avoid
danger of blow-out and caving of the well bore.
Fishing; - Operations on the rig for the purpose of retrieving
from the well bore, sections of pipe, casing, or items which
may have inadvertently been dropped in the hole.
Fittings - The small pipes and valves that are used to make
up a system of piping.
Flood Plain - The flat ground along a stream course which is
covered by water at flood stage.
Fluid Leve1 - Distance between well head and point to which
fluid rises in the well.
Fluvial Sediment - Those deposits produced by stream or
river action (see Alluvium).
Formation Pressure - Pressure at the bottom of a well that
is shut in.
Fourble - A section of drill pipe, casing or tubing consisting
of four joints screwed together. See Double; Thribble.
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Fourble Board - A platform installed in the derrick at an
elevation of 80 feet to 120 feet above the derrick floor.
The derrickman works on this board while the pipe is being
hoisted from or lowered into the well bore.
Fracturing, Hydraulic - Forcing liquid into a formation to
open passages for oil. Called also Hydrofrac, Sandfrac,
Dolofrac, Stratafrac, etc., by different service companies.
Fresh Water - Water containing a concentration of total
dissolved solids of 0-1,000 parts per million.
Frost Up - Icing of equipment due to the cooling effect of
expanding gas.
gpd - Abbreviation for gallons per day.
gpm - Abbreviation for gallons per minute.
Gamma Rays - Particles of electromagnetic energy released
from radioactive nuclei upon disintegration.
Gastroenteritis - Inflammation of the. stomach.
Geolograph - Patented device which records the rate of
penetration during drilling operations. Sometimes referred
to as a "tattletale".
Geomorphic Unit (described in report] - See Disturbed
Structure, Extrusive Structure, and Undisturbed Structures.
Gingivitis - Inflammation of the gums.
Glacial Drift - Boulders, till, gravel, sand or clay trans-
ported by a glacier or its meltwater.
Graben - A fault block generally elongate, that has been
lowered relative to the blocks on either side without major
disturbance or pronounced tilting.
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Gravity, Specific - The ratio of weights of equal volume of
two substances, one of which is taken as a standard. Water
is taken as a standard of comparison for liquids and solids.
For gas, air is usually taken, although hydrogen is some-
times used.
Griefstem - A heavy square pipe that works through the
square hole in the rotary table and rotates the drill
stem in rotary drilling. This is generally called the
Kelly or Kelly Joint.
Ground Water - Water beneath the land surface that is under
atmospheric or greater pressure - the water that enters wells
and issues from springs.
Ground-Water Recharge - The processes by which water is
added to a ground-water reservoir.
Ground-Water Reservoir - The earth materials and the inter-
vening open spaces that contain ground water.
Gun-Perforating - A common method of completing a well is
to set casing through the oil bearing formation and cement
it at that depth. The casing is then gun-perforated by a
device which is lowered in the hole and fires steel projec-
tiles through the casing and into the pay formation.
H
Half-Life - The time required for half of the atoms in a
group to decay.
Hardness - A property of water caused by the presence of
calcium and magnesium, which is reflected in the use of
soap and the formation of incrustations when the water is
heated. It is expressed as an equivalent amount of calcium
carbonate.
Hard Water - Water with over 60 mg/1 of hardness. Hard
water consumes more soap in the formation of a lather,
Hemolysis - The destruction of red blood cells, liberating
hemoglobin.
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Hole •- A common term which usually refers to the well bore.
Mouse Hole and Rat Hole are shallow bores under the derrick
in which the kelly joint and points of drill pipe are tem-
porarily suspended while making a connection. Rat hole also
refers to hole of reduced size in the bottom of the regular
well bore. Sometimes the driller "rat holes ahead" to facil-
itate the taking of a drill stem test when it appears that
such a test will be desirable.
Horst - A fault block, generally elongate, that has been
raised relative to the blocks on either side without major
tilting or folding.
Hydrologic Budget - An accounting of the inflow to, outflow
from, and storage in, any hydrologic unit, such as a basin,
aquifer, lake, or irrigation project.
Hygroscopic - The ability of a substance to readily absorb
moisture from the atmosphere.
I.A.D.C. - International Association of Drilling Contractors.
Founded in 1940. National headquarters, 505 N. Ervay Street,
Dallas, Texas. This organization concerns itself with re-
search, education, accident prevention, and other matters
of interest to drilling contractors. Maintains about 12
chapters throughout the United States. Official publication,
The Drilling Contractor, bi-monthly magazine.
I.U.C. - International Union of Chemists.
Ice-Contact Deposits - Deposits formed in contact with
melting glacier ice.
Igneous Rock - Rock formed by the solidification of molten
material that originated within the earth.
Inclinometer - The trade name of an instrument used to deter-
mine whether or not the well bore is proceeding in a vertical
orientation at any point. In most drilling operations either
regulations of government bodies or contract stipulations, or
both, provide a maximum deviation of the well bore from the
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vertical; commonly this maximum is three degrees. When
deviation is in excess of the allowable, it is necessary
to modify drilling procedure to bring it back in line.
Industrial Well - A well used for the supply of water
utilized in an industrial process.
Infiltration - The flow of a liquid into soil or rock
through pores or small openings.
Inhibitor - According to Webster, any agent which inhibits
or prevents. In drilling and producing operations it
usually refers to corrosion inhibitor. Corrosion inhibitors
are used widely in drilling and producing operations to pre-
vent corrosion of metal equipment exposed to hydrogen sul-
phide gas and salt water. In some drilling operations cor-
rosion inhibitor is added to the drilling fluid to protect
drill pipe.
Insulating Flange - A flange which incorporates plastic
pieces to separate the metal parts.
Diterfluve - Land between two rivers.
Internal-Upset - An extra-thick wall is provided on the end
of drill pipe at the point where the pipe is threaded in
order to compensate for the metal removed in threading.
Conventional drill pipe has the extra thickness on the out-
side. Internal-upset drill pipe has the extra thickness on
the inside with a uniform straight wall on the outside. It
is usually referred to as "internal-upset, external-flush"
pipe.
Ion_ Exchange - A reversible interchange of ions between a
solid and liquid mixture. The solid is not permanently
changed, but can be treated to return it to its original
state.
Irrigation Return FJ.OW - Irrigation water which is not con-
sumed in evaporation or plant growth, and which returns to
i surface stream or ground-water aquifer.
T_Łomer_s_ - Two or more compounds having the same molecular
formulas, but different structures.
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Jet - A hydraulic device operated by pump pressure for the
purpose of cleaning fluid out of the pits and tanks on a
rotary drilling location.
Jetting Out - Operation using the jet to clean out the
cellar slush pit, etc.
Jet-Perforating - An operation similar to gun-perforating
except that a shaped charge of high explosives is used to
burn a hole through the casing instead of the gun which
fires a projectile in gun-perforating.
K
Killing a Well - The act of bringing under control a well
which is blowing out; also applied to the procedure of
circulating water and mud into a completed well before
starting well-service operations.
LC50 - Lethal concentration fifty - the concentration which
would cause death to fifty percent of the exposed population
when inhaled.
gram of body weight which would cause death to fifty percent
of the exposed population if ingested.
Laccolith - Igneous intrusion via a conduit from a deep source
that invades horizontal overlying sedimentary formations and
which has lifted the sedimentary formations.
Lacustrine - Deposits which have accumulated in fresh water
lakes or marshes.
Lap - Term usually applied to an interval in the cased hole
where the top of a liner overlaps the bottom of a string of
casing.
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Lava - Generally all extruded volcanic material; more specif-
ically that material that emerges from a vent in a fluid or
pasty state.
Liner - Any string of casing whose top is situated at any
point below the surface.
Location - The point at which a well is to be drilled. In
Canada, the term "Wellsite" is used.
Log - A running account listing a series of events in
chronological order. The driller's log is a tour-to-tour
account of progress made in drilling. Electric well log
is the record of geological formations which is made by a
well-logging device. This device operates on the principle
of differential resistance of various formations to the
transmission of electric current.
Logging, Electrical - See Log.
Logging, Mild An alysis - A continuous examination of the
drilling fluid circulating in the well bore for the purpose
of detecting gas and other hydrocarbons.
LoseReturns - To encounter an interruption in the circu-
lation of drilling fluid due to the fact that the fluid
is entering into a porous formation underground rather
than returning to the surface.
M
MAC - Maximum Allowable Concentration - The maximum concen-
tration considered harmless to healthy adults during their
working hours, assuming they breathe uncontaminated air the
remaining time.
mgd - Abbreviation for million gallons per day.
mg/1 - Abbreviation for milligrams per litre.
Making a Connection - The act of screwing a joint of drill
pipe on to the drill stem suspended in the well bore.
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Making Hole - Drilling.
Making Trip - Consists of hoisting the drill pipe to the
surface and returning it to the bottom of the well bore.
This is done for the purpose of changing bits, preparing
to take a core, and for other reasons.
Master Gate - A large valve used to shut in a well.
Meander - A form of stream channel course that is sinuous
and curved.
Metamorphic Rock - A rock which has teen altered by heat
or intense pressure, causing new minerals to be formed
and new structure in the rock.
Metajsediments - Sedimentary rocks that have been altered
by metamorphic processes like heat and pressure.
Milligrams Per Litre - The weight in milligrams of any sub-
stance contained in one litre of liquid. Approximately
equivalent to parts per million.
Mineralization - The natural process of accumulation of
mineral elements and/or compounds in soil or water.
Miscible - Liquids being completely soluble in each other
in all proportions.
Monocline - Steplike bend in otherwise horizontal or gently
dipping beds; it consists of a change in the amount of dip
from gentle to relatively steeper and back again to gentle,
but direction of dip remains essentially unchanged.
Moraines - Characteristic glacial land forms that are the
product of transport by moving ice (either mountain glaciers
or continental ice sheets) and which are deposited during
both the forward and backward movement of an ice front.
Mouse Hole - See Hole.
Mud-Qff - In drilling, to seal the hole off from the water
or oil by using mud. Applies especially to the undesirable
blocking off of the flow of oil from the formation into the
well bore, and special care is given to the treatment of
drilling fluid to avoid this.
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N
N - Abbreviation for Newton.
Nappe - Term applied to anticlinal folds that have been
upset, flattened, broken, thrust forward, and finally
topped by forward thrust recumbent folds from another
episode.
Natural Brines - A highly saturated solution of soluble
minerals, usually found in rocks associated with salt
deposits or as a result of sea water evaporation.
Natural Leaching - The removal by a solvent of the more
soluble minerals in soil or rocks by percolating waters.
Newton - The SI unit indicating that force which, when
applied to a body having a mass of one kilogram gives it
an acceleration of one metre per second per second.
Nocuous - Harmful or poisonous.
Nutrients - Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorous, and other
elements essential for plant growth.
0
Offset Well - Well drilled near another one.
Open Hole - The uncased part of the well.
Operator - The person, whether proprietor or lessee,
actually operating a mine or oil well or lease.
Outlier - Detached mass of rock, isolated by differential
weathering along rock joints, in front of main rock body.
Outwash - Stratified glacial drift that is deposited by
meltwater streams.
Outwash Fan - Mass of debris carried away by outflow stream
from ice margin of glacier, especially where land slope away
from margin is enough to carry such meltwater; outwash fans
may be wide-spread areally.
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Oxidation - The losing of electrons, the positive element
going to a higher valence state.
Pa - Abbreviation for Pascal.
pjpm - Abbreviation for parts per million.
Parts Per Million - One part per million means one part by
weight of dissolved matter in a million parts by weight of
solution, e.g., one kilogram of dissolved solids in one
million kilograms of water or one ton of dissolved solids
in one million tons of water. The measure is therefore
independent of units used. Approximately equal to milli-
grams per litre if the concentration of dissolved solids
is low and the specific gravity of the water is nearly
1.0. The relationship to milligrams per litre is shown as:
parts per million = milligrams per litre
specific gravity of the water
Pascal - The SI unit of pressure or stress of one newton per
square metre.
Pediment - Term applied to the plains in arid and semi-arid
country that exist between mountain front and low-lying
terrain; the plain (pediment) has gentle slope (1-7°), smooth
surface and is little dissected. The pediment surface is
generally veneered bedrock and is faintly concave in longi-
tudinal section.
Peneplain - Defined as almost featureless plain with little
accordance with structure and controlled only by a close
approach to base level; represents the near final stage of
baselevel erosion.
Penetration, Rate of - The rate at which the drill proceeds
in the deepening of the well bore. It is usually expressed
in terms of feet per hour.
Perched Ground Water - An isolated body of ground water
separated from the underlying main body of ground water by
an unsaturated zone.
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PjsrŁolat i on - Movement under hydrostatic pressure of water
through interstices of rock or soil.
Perforate - See Gun Perforating.
Permeabi1i ty - A measure of the capacity of a porous medium
to transmit fluid.
Pesticides - Chemical compounds used for the control of
undesirable plants, animals, or insects. The term includes
insecticides, herbicides, rodent poisons, nematode poisons,
and fungicides.
Persistance - The property of a chemical to remain unchanged.
Piezometrie Surface - The surface defined by the levels to
which water will rise in tightly cased wells. Also called
potentiometric surface.
Pic[ - A scraping tool forced through a flow line or pipe
line to clean out wax or other deposits (see rabbit).
Plateau - High plain of flatlying rocks.
Piaya - Distinctive feature of desert terrain; the term
playa is applied to a dry lake remnant of a former base
level or erosion and may be considered to be a dry lake
periodically filled with a sheet of water.
Plug Back - To seal off the bottom section of a well bore
to prevent the inflow of fluid from that portion of the
hole.
Pollutants - Substances that may become dissolved, suspended,
absorbed or otherwise contained in water, and impair its
usefulness.
Pollution - The degradation of natural water quality, as a
result of man's activities, to the extent that its useful-
ness is impaired.
Porosity - The relative volume of the pore spaces between
mineral grains in a rock as compared to the total rock
volume.
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Potable - Water that is drinkable.
Pressure Regulator - A valve which controls pressure in a
line, downstream from the valve.
Primary Treatment (Sewage) - The removal of larger solids
by screening, and of more finely divided solids by sedimen-
tation.
Production Well - A well from which ground water is obtained.
Protection Casing - A string of casing set to protect a
section of the hole and to permit drilling to continue to
a greater depth. Sometimes called "protection string" and
"intermediate string".
Province (Physiographic) - Any region that has unit structure,
and unit geomorphic history; a stage in the hierarchical
classification of regional morphologic units.
Public Supply Well - A well from which ground water is ob-
tained serving more than one individual or household.
Pulling Casing - Removing casing from a well.
Pulling Unit - A well-service rig used in pulling rods and
tubing from the well.
Pyroclastic - Literally means 'firebroken1 and refers to all
volcanic ejecta, large and small, that are brought to the
surface from beneath via eruptive forces.
Rat Hole - See Hole.
Rabbit - A small plug that is run through a flow line by
pressure to clean the line or test for obstructions.
Rad - Radiation absorbed dose. The absorbed dose of any
nuclear radiation which is accompanied by the liberation
of 100 ergs of energy per gram of absorbing material.
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R ad i pact i ve De c ay - The disintegration of an atom by emitting
radiations.
Recharge Basin - A basin designed for the purpose of adding
water to the ground-water reservoir.
Ref actory- A hard to melt material used in high temperature
furnaces .
Re 1 i e f Va 1 ye - A valve that will open automatically when
pressure gets too high.
Re ve r s e_ C i r cu lati on - Normal course of drilling fluid circu-
lation is downward inside the drill pipe and upward in the
well bore space surrounding the drill pipe. On special
problems, this normal circulation is sometimes reversed and
the fluid returns to the surface through the drill pipe after
being pumped down in the annular space.
Reverse Osmojsijs - The flowing of a solvent across a permeable
membrane from the side of less solvent concentration to the
side of higher concentration due to external pressure being
applied to the side of less solvent concentration.
Rigging Up - Before the work of drilling can be started, but
after the derrick has been built, tools and machinery must
be installed and a supply of fuel and water must be estab-
lished. This operation, which in substance is that of
getting the rig ready, is conveniently described by the
drillers' term "rigging up".
- A pipe through which liquid travels upward.
Re c k P re s s u r e - A term used for the initial pressure of gas
in a well.
Ro tary Dri 1 ling - The hydraulic process of drilling consists
of rotating a column of drill pipe, to the bottom of which is
attached a rotary drilling bit, and during the operation, cir-
culating through the pipe a current of mud- laden fluid, under
pressure, by means of special slush pumps.
Round Trip - See Making Trip.
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SI. - Abbreviation for the International System of Units
(Systime International d'Unites).
Salaquifer - An aquifer containing brackish water, salt
water or brine.
Salt Dome - The topographic expression of the upward push
by deep salt beds that have been rendered plastic by over-
burden weight and may rise as much as 100 feet above the
surface terrain.
Salt Water - Water containing a concentration of total dis-
solved solids of 10,000 - 100,000 parts per million.
Salt-Water Intrusion (or Encroachment) - Movement of salty
ground water so that it replaces fresh ground water.
Sanded Up - Clogged by sand entering the well bore.
Saturation, Zone of - The zone in which interconnected inter-
stices are saturated with water under pressure equal to or
greater than atmosphere.
S chlumbe rger - Refers to electric well logging. It is de-
rived from the name of a French scientist who first developed
well logging. One of the leading companies in this field of
operation bears this name. Around drilling rigs throughout
the country it is pronounced "slumberjay".
Scree - Name applied to continuous talus slopes accumulating
from debris fall from ridge summits.
Secondary Treatment - The oxidation of organic matter in
sewage through bacterial action.
Sedimentary Rock - Rocks formed by the accumulation of sedi-
ment.
Set Casing - To install steel pipe or casing in a well bore.
An accompanying operation is the cementing of the casing in
place by surrounding it with a wall of cement extending for
all or part of the depth of the well.
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Shutdown - A term denoting that work has been temporarily
stopped, as on an oil well.
Shut In - To close valves on a well so that it stops pro-
ducing; said of a well on which the valves are closed.
Shut-in Pressure - Pressure at the top of a well when it
is shut in.
Side Tracking - Drilling past a broken drill or casing which
has become permanently lodged in the hole. This operation
is usually accomplished by use of a special tool known as
a whip-stock.
!3ide Wall Coring - The taking of geological samples of the
formation which constitutes the wall of the well bore.
Another term in general use for this operation is "side
wall sampling".
Single - A joint of drill pipe. See Double, Thribble,
Fourble.
Sink Hole - Any depression ranging from a shallow saucer
shape to a funnel shaped or cylindrical pipe that normally
give access to underground caves.
Skidding the Rig - Moving a rig from the location of a lost
or completed hole preparatory to starting a new one. In
skidding the rig, the move is accomplished with little or
no dismantling of equipment.
Slurry - A plastic mixture of cement and water which is
pumped into the well to harden, after which it supports
the casing and provides a seal in the well bore to prevent
migration of underground fluids.
Soft Water - Water containing 60 mg/1 or less of hardness.
Solifluction - Downslope movement of soil material resulting
from frost action.
Specific Capacity - The rate of discharge of water from a
well divided by the drawdown of the water level in it.
Properly stated, it relates to the time of pumping.
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Spinner Survey - An operation designed to indicate the point
at which fluids are escaping from the well bore into a caver-
nous or porous formation.
Spit - Subaqueous accumulation of sediment produced by long-
shore drift and made to extend in a straight line far out
across Bay Mouth.
Spudding - Refers to the act of hoisting the drill pipe and
permitting it to fall freely so that the drill bit strikes
the bottom of the well bore with considerable force. This
is done to clean the bit of an accumulation of sticky shale
which has slowed down the rate of penetration. Careless
execution of this operation can result, in kinks in the
drill pipe and damaged bits.
Spudding In - The very beginning of drilling operations of
a well. The term had been handed down from cable tool oper-
ations in the early days of the oil industry.
Squeeze Job - Usually a secondary cementing job where cement
is pumped into the formation through the bottom of the casing
or through perforations to obtain a shut off of undesirable
fluids.
Stomatitis - Inflammation of the mouth.
Storage (Aquifer) - The volume of water held in the inter-
stices of the rock.
Stream (River) - Large body of flowing water, constrained
in a channel.
Stuck - Refers to the drill pipe or casing inadvertently
becoming fastened in the hole. May occur while drilling
is in progress, while casing is being run in the hole or
while the drill pipe is being hoisted. Frequently results
in a fishing job.
Surface Pipe - The first string of casing to be set in a
well. The length will vary in different areas from a few
hundred feet to 3,000 - 4,000 feet. Some states require a
minimum length to protect fresh-water sands. On some wells
it is necessary to set a temporary conductor pipe which
should not be confused with surface pipe as described here.
182
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Surf ace _Wa te r - That portion of water that appears on the
land surface.
Swab - A device that fits the inside of tubing closely that
is pulled through the tubing to lift fluid from it, or to
pull such a device through the tubing.
Swabbing - Operation of a lifting device to bring well fluids
to the surface when the well does not flow naturally. This
is a temporary operation to determine whether or not the well
can be made to flow. In the event the well does not flow
after being swabbed, it is necessary then to install arti-
ficial lift to bring oil to the surface.
Syncline - A downfold in strata whose opening is upward and
whose flanks dip inward toward median or axis.
Synthesis - The formation of compounds from elements or other
compounds.
T.D. - See Total Depth.
TLm - Median tolerance limit. The concentration which kills
fifty percent of the test organisms.
TLV - Threshold limit valve. The concentration (mg/M3) or
dose (mg/kg of body weight) to which receptors can be exposed
repeatedly without adverse effect.
Tail Out - To pull the bottom end of a pipe or sucker rod
away from a well when laying down.
Temperature Survey - An operation to determine temperatures
at various depths in the well bore. This survey is used in
instances where there is doubt as to proper cementing of the
casing, to find the location of inflows of water into the
well bore, and for other reasons.
Te rt i ary T re atmen t - Advanced waste treatment which removes
additional impurities which remain in the effluent after
secondary treatment.
183
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Thief Sand - A porous formation in which drilling fluid
flows from the well bore during drilling operations. See
Lose Returns.
Thribble - A stand of drill pipe nade up of three joints
each about 30 feet in length. This is equivalent to a
fourble of 4 joints about 22 feet to 23 feet in length.
Setting back fourbles of 30-foot joints requires a
taller derrick than is normally used in rotary drilling.
(See Fourble; Double.)
Total Depth (T.D.) - The greatest depth reached by a well
bore.
Tour - The word which designates the shift of a drilling
crew or other oil field workers is pronounced usually as
if it were spelled t-o-w-e-r. The word does not. refer to
the derrick or tower, as some seem to think. The day tour
starts at 7 or 8 in the morning. The evening tour starts
at 3 or 4 o'clock in the afternoon.
Transmi ssivity - The rate at which water is transmitted
through a unit width of the aquifer under a unit hydraulic
gradient.
Tubing Job - The pulling and running of tubing.
Turning to the Right - A slang term on a rotary rig refer-
ring to the drilling operation during which the drill stem
is rotated in a clockwise direction.
Twist Off - To twist a joint of drill pipe in two by ex-
cessive force applied by the rotary table. Many failures
which result in parting of the drill pipe in the well bore
are erroneously referred to by this term. Slang for any
mistake.
U
Unconfined Water - Water not separated from the atmosphere.
Unconsolidated Rocks - Uncemented or loosely coherent rocks.
184
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Undisturbed Structures (Plains & Platforms) -
Coastal PIains - pass seaward into continental shelves
with little or no break.
Lowland Plains - usually conform to structure of under-
lying sedimentary basins, sometimes conform to erosion
surfaces discordantly crossing ancient folds.
Upland Plains - usually discordant to underlying
structure; rarely conformable on existing flatlying
formations.
Plateaus - horizontally bedded rocks (sediments) ele-
vated to unusual altitudes.
Under-ream - To enlarge a drill-hole below the casing.
W
- See Waiting on Cement.
Waiting on Cement - After the casing has been cemented, it
is necessary to suspend operations and allow time for the
cement to set or harden in the well bore. The time during
which operations are suspended is designated as waiting on
cement.
Water Cycle - The complete cycle through which water passes;
water vapor in the atmosphere, liquid and solid as precipi-
tation as part of surface and ground water and eventually
back to atmospheric vapor.
Water Quality - Pertaining to the chemical, physical and
biological constituents found in water and its suitability
for a particular vapor.
Water Table - That surface in an unconfined water body at
which the pressure is atmospheric. It is defined by the
levels at which water stands in wells that penetrate the
water body just far enough to hold standing water.
185
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Water-Table Aquifer - An aquifer containing water under
water-table conditions.
Weathering - The comminution of rock strata into fine-
sized particles, effected by physical or mechanical
weathering (temperature, water, wind) and by chemical
weathering (interaction of solvent with rock mineral
and resulting changes). The latter (chemical weathering)
is dependent on the presence of water.
Work-Over - To perform one or more of a variety of remedial
operations on an operating well with the hope of restoring
or increasing operating efficiency. Examples of work-over
operations are deepening, plugging back, pulling and re-
setting the liner, squeeze cementing, shooting and acidizing.
186
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1 REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-77-029a
4? TITLE AND SUBTITLE
REVIEW AND ASSESS11ENT OF DEEP-WELL
INJECTION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
Volume I
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSI Off NO.
5. REPORT DATE
June 1977 (Issuing Date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7 AUTHORIS) Louis R. Reeder, James H. Cobbs,
John W. Field, Jr., William D. Finley,
Steven C. Vokurka, and Bernard N. Rolfe
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REIPORT NO '
9. PERFORMING ORG -\NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Louis R. Reeder and Associates
5200 South Yale
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74135
Cin., OH
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory--
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO,
-J
1DC618, (SOS 2, Task 02)
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2013
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
See also Volumes II, III, & IV, EPA-600/2-77-029b,c,&d
Project Officer: Carlton C. Wiles, 684-7881
16. ABSTRACT This four volume report is a review and assessment of the ade-
quacy of deep-well waste injection systems to receive hazardous wastes
and to define what effects that these wastes will have upon the environ-
ment when injected into subsurface reservoirs. All aspects of deep-well
injection systems have been touched upon.
A comprehensive bibliography, chemical waste profiles, deep-well inven-
tory, case histories, microbiological research, deep-well and hazardous
waste research, legal aspects and an inventory of statues and regula-
tions governing waste injection are discussed in the text and detailed
in the appendices.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Waste Disposal
Deep-Wells
Hazardous Materials
Industrial Wastes
Industrial Waste Dis-
posal
Underground Disposal
Systems
Deep-Well Disposal
Waste Disposal Wells
Hazardous Waste Injec
3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
13B
:ion
21. NO. OF PAGES
215
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
*US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1977-757-056/5615
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