EPA
Decision Series
United States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Office of
Research and
Development
Energy,
Minerals and
Industry
EPA-600/9-77-032
October 1977
Energy from
the West:
A Progress Report
LIBRARY
Interagency
Energy-Environment
Research and Development
Program
EP 600/9
77-032
-------
THE ENERGY/ENVIRONMENT
R&D DECISION SERIES
This volume is part of the Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series. The series presents
the key issues and findings of the 17-agency Federal Interagency Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program in a format conducive to efficient information transfer.
The Interagency Program was inaugurated in fiscal year 1975. Planned and coordinated by
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), research projects supported by the program
range from the analysis of health and environmental effects of energy systems to the
development of environmental control technologies. The works in this series will reflect the
full range of program concerns.
The Decision Series is produced for both energy/environment decision-makers and the
interested public. If you have any comments or questions, please write to Series Editor
Richard Laska, Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry, RD-681, U.S. EPA, Washington,
D.C. 20460 or call (202) 755-4857. Extra copies are available. This document is available to
the public through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Mention of trade names or commercial products herein does not constitute EPA endorsement
or recommendation for use.
-------
nergy from the
A Progress Report of a
Technology Assessment of
Western Energy Resource Development
Executive Summary
By
Science and Public Policy Program
University of Oklahoma
Irvin L White
Michael A. Chartock
R. Leon Leonard
Steven C. Ballard
Martha W. Gilliland
Timothy A. Hall
Edward J. Malecki
Edward B. Rappaport
Rodney K. Freed
Gary D. Miller
Radian Corporation
F. Scott LaGrone
C. Patrick Bartosh
David B. Cabe
B. Russ Eppright
David C. Grossman
Julia C. Lacy
Tommy D. Raye
Joe D. Stuart
M. Lee Wilson
Contract Number 68-01-1916
Prepared for:
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
0 S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
, I J.
Project Officer
Steven E. Plotkin
Energy, Minerals, and Industry
-------
FOREWORD
The production of electricity and fossil fuels inevitably
creates adverse impacts on Man and his environment. The nature
of these impacts must be thoroughly understood if balanced
judgements concerning future energy development in the United
States are to be made. The Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry (OEMI), in its role as coordinator of the Federal
Energy/Environment Research and Development Program, is
responsible for producing the information on health and
ecological effects - and methods for mitigating the adverse
effects - that is critical to developing the Nation's environ-
mental and energy policy. OEMI's Integrated Assessment Program
combines the results of research projects within the Energy/
Environment Program with research on the socioeconomic and
political/institutional aspects of energy development, and
conducts policy - oriented studies to identify the tradeoffs
among alternative energy technologies, development patterns, and
impact mitigation measures.
The Integrated Assessment Program has utilized the
methodology of Technology Assessment (TA) in fulfilling its
mission. The Program is currently sponsoring a number of TA's
which explore the impact of future energy development on both
a nationwide and a regional scale. For instance, the Program
is conducting national assessments of future development of the
electric utility industry and of advanced coal technologies
(such as fluidized bed combustion). Also, the Program is
conducting assessments concerned with multiple-resource develop-
ment in three "energy resource areas":
o Western coal states
o Lower Ohio River Basin
o Appalachia
This report describes the results of the first phase of
the Western assessment. This phase assessed the impacts
associated with three levels of energy development in the West.
The concluding phase of the assessment will attempt to identify
and evaluate ways of mitigating the adverse impacts and
enhancing the benefits of future development.
-------
The report is divided into an executive summary and four
volumes:
I Summary Report
II Detailed Analyses and Supporting
Materials
III Preliminary Policy Analysis
IV Appendices
Stephen 3. Gage
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Energy, Minerals, and Industry
-------
ENERGY FROM THE WEST: A PROGRESS
REPORT OF A TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF
WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
Significantly increased domestic energy
production will almost certainly include the
large-scale development of energy resources
located in the western U.S. Recognizing that
the development of these resources will pro-
duce a broad range of economic, environmen-
tal, social, and other consequences, the Office
of Energy, Minerals, and Industry in the En-
vironmental Protection Agency's Office of Re-
search and Development initiated this 3-year
"Technology Assessment of Western Energy
Resource Development" in July 1975.
Energy Resources in
Eight Western States
Resources
Coal
Oil
Natural Gas
OJI Shale
Uranium
Geothermal
Reserves
(Q's)
4,000
14
22
2,340
170
10
Percent of
U.S. Total
37
7
8
90
90
10
One Q ^180 million bbls of oil, or 80 million
tons of coal, or 1 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas.
PURPOSE
The overall purpose of this technology assessment is to attempt to determine what the conse-
quences of energy resource development will be and what can be done about them. Although the
primary objective is to produce results that will help EPA to revise and/or initiate and implement
appropriate environmental control policies and programs, study results are also intended to be useful
to other federal agencies and officials, the Congress, state and local governments, energy developers,
labor, environmentalists, Indians, and a broad range of other parties whose interests and values are
likely to be affected by the development of western energy resources.
SCOPE
Geographically, the study includes eight Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain states:
Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and North and South Dakota. The de-
velopment of six energy resources within this eight-state area is assessed: coal, crude oil, geothermal,
natural gas, oil shale, and uranium. The time period covered by the study extends to the year 2000.
-------
WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCES
Crude Oil/Natural Gas
-------
SCENARIOS
Energy development within the entire
eight-state area and at six sites are analyzed.
Each of the six site-specific scenarios com-
bines representative local conditions (such as
topography, meteorology, population, and
community services and facilities) and energy
development technologies.
The technological alternatives assessed
include surface and underground mining,
conversion and export of coal, surface retort-
ing of oil shale, milling of uranium ore, and
conventional crude oil and natural gas produc-
tion. Transportation by rail, pipeline, and
extra-high voltage transmission lines are also
examined.
Development Alternatives
Coal:
Surface and Underground Mining
Direct export by unit train and slurry pipeline
Electric Power Generation
Gasification
Liquefaction
Transportation by pipeline and EHV
Oil Shale:
Underground Mining
Surface Retorting
Transportation by pipeline
Uranium:
Surface mining
Milling
Transportation by train
Oil and Natural Gas:
Conventional Drilling and Production
Transportation by pipeline
Geothermal:
Not assessed during the first year
The three levels of development for the
eight-state study area that are assessed in the
study are shown at the right. Approximately 7
Q's are currently being produced in this area.
LEVELS OF 8-STATE DEVELOPMENT
(Q's)
Case
Nominal
Low Demand
Low Nuclear Availability
1980
13.5
12.2
11.1
1990
30.6
23.3
22.5
2000
56.8
48.0
49.8
-------
FINDINGS
The principal objective during the first
phase of the study has been to identify and
analyze site-specific and regional impacts
likely to occur when western energy resources
are developed. The categories of impacts
analyzed are listed at the right. In analyzing
impacts in each of these categories, tech-
nological and locational factors were iden-
tified that can cause impacts to vary signifi-
cantly depending on which technologies are
sited at which locations.
The sections that follow summarize
selected findings and some of their policy im-
plications.
Impact Analysis Categories
Site-Specific
and Regional:
Regional only:
Air Quality
Water Availability and
Quality
Social, Economic, and
Political
Ecological
Health Effects
Transportation
Noise
Aesthetics
Water Quality and Availability
Water impacts can vary significantly because of a technology's water and labor requirements, the
availability and quality of water, the characteristics of the energy resource, the location of under-
ground aquifers, and the method used for effluent disposal. Water and labor intensive technologies
will intensify water impacts; however, water requirements for energy-related population increases are
small compared to process and cooling requirements. Conflicts among water users and water quality
impacts will generally be more severe in arid areas. Some technological alternatives utilize the
moisture content of the energy resource being converted thereby decreasing process water require-
ments; however, high moisture content also reduces process efficiency. Water quality impacts will be
more severe when the energy resource has a low-Btu, a high sulfur, toxic materials, and trace
elements content; is located in an alluvial valley; and is an aquifer.
The following are among the findings produced by the impact analyses conducted during the first
phase of the study.
Large-scale energy development could
result in water shortages and conflicts
among users in some western states,
particularly within the Upper Colorado
River Basin.
Water Requirements and Availability
Requirements
UPPER COLORADO
-------
Wet cooling can account for up to 96
percent of the total water requirements
for energy conversion. The use of
wet/dry cooling can reduce overall
water consumption by 70 percent.
Water Use Reduction Using Wet / Dry Cooling
18,000
The range m values is due principally
to site specific differences
I II II.
o
=
c a
o o
If
M
l-oa:
Electric power generation consumes
more water than does any other conver-
sion technology on a per unit of energy
produced basis.
Woter Requirements (Min /Mox)
Water requirements for mining and reclamation are an order of magnitude less than for
mine-mouth conversion.
Without new impoundments to maintain in-stream flows, energy development in some areas
will periodically deplete surface streams.
-------
6'
Discharging effluents into on-site
evaporative holding ponds can result in
pollution of both surface and ground-
water from seepage. Pollutants will be
concentrated, pose a solid waste dis-
posal problem, and, in the event of pond
failures, can have adverse health,
ecological, and water quality effects.
Liquid Effluents From Technologies (Mm /Max.)
1
'o
450
425
400
375
/
100
75
50
25
0
Jjj.ll
Technology §
at
h-O CC
Energy related population increases will generally overload existing sewage and wastewater
treatment facilities.
Septic tank and lagoons will be widely used and the release of inadequately treated wastes will
adversely affect water quality.
The following are among the policy implications of these findings:
Existing mechanisms for resolving water use conflicts are likely to be inadequate when water
demands exceed in-stream flows.
Water shortages and conflicts among users are less likely to occur if water minimizing process
designs and wet/dry cooling are required, particularly for water intensive technologies.
Regulations specifying on-site evaporative holding pond design, management, and abandon-
ment procedures may be required.
Western communities will generally require more funding assistance for wastewater treatment
than they are now receiving, if water quality problems resulting from municipal wastes are to be
avoided.
Air Quality
Air.quality impacts can vary significantly due to the quantities of pollutants emitted, size of the
work force required, characteristics of the energy resource, emission control technologies, disper-
sion potential, and topography. For example, emissions quantities contribute directly to the ambient
concentration of pollutants; labor intensive technologies cause greater overall population increases,
thereby affecting urban air emissions, particularly from increased automotive traffic and residential
heating and cooling; coal composition affects the kinds and quantities of air emissions; dispersion
potential helps to determine whether air emissions will produce an air quality problem (mixing
conditions and wind, for example, will affect ambient concentrations); and high ambient concentra-
tions can occur when a plume impacts elevated terrain. In the impact analyses conducted during the
first phase of the study, we found that:
-------
Electric power plants emit more and coal conversion facilities emit less SOz, NOx, CO, and
participates than do other energy conversion facilities.
Air Emissions (Min./Max.)
SO2
CO
The Ranges in Valves are due principally to site specific differences.
.
D
I n
NOx
Particulates
-------
At most western sites, electric power plants will require both electro-static precipitators and
SO2 scrubbers to meet all federal and state air quality standards.
Increased urban population generally produces higher peak ground-level ambient concentra-
tions of particulates, NOx.and hydrocarbons than those resulting from the energy facilities
themselves.
Site-Specific SOz and Participate Emission Controls
100
90
s- 80
D 70
C 60
O
1 50
OJ
CT
30
20
10
0
Site
S02 =
Particulotes =
|| |
E 1 s I 1 -5 S
D o ^= ~ ° ^ W
^: u_ cc o u CD LJ
120
00
r
(0
a.
40
Comparison of Urban and Facility Air Emissions
Scenario
1
I
hi
Fugitive hydrocarbon concentrations resulting from oil shale retorting, liquefaction, and
natural gas production are expected to exceed the federal ambient standard.
-------
Some of the policy implications of these findings are:
More stringent Non-Significant Deterioration requirements or redesignation of large Class li
areas to Class I can significantly affect the development of western energy resources both ir.
terms of siting and facility size. For example, developers might opt for smaller power plants
than are now being constructed.
As noted above, the level of environmental controls that will be required at most western sites is
high. One reason that particulate removal technology will have to be efficient is because
background levels are high, primarily as a consequence of blowing dust. Background levels of
hydrocarbons from natural sources are also high. Ambient standards for these two criteria
pollutants are already being reevaluated for the western region.
Social, Economic, and Political
Impacts in this category can vary significantly due to variations in the labor and capital intensity
among technological alternatives, construction schedules, the size and location of impacted com-
munities, and local cultures and life styles. Increases in population will be directly related to the labor
intensity of energy facilities; increases in public revenues will depend to a great extent on capital
intensity, the population increase associated with most developments is greatest during the peak
construction period. Coordinating the construction schedules of developments within the same local
area can minimize the dislocating effects of the wide variations in population that might otherwise
occur. The impacts resulting from large rapid increases in population are most severe in small,
isolated communities. The dislocating effects on local cultures and life styles are also likely to be most
noticeable in these areas and when distinct ethnic or religious groups are affected.
Some of the major findings resulting from the impact analyses performed to date are:
Population-related impacts will be greatest with coal gasification since it is the most labor
intensive of all the conversion technologies. It is also the technological alternative with the
greatest difference in work force requirements during construction and operation.
All conversion technologies are capital intensive and, over the long term, can produce public
revenues in excess of capital and operating expense requirements. However, unless remedial
action is taken, timing and distribution will often be a problem. Most revenue needs usually
occur several years before tax revenues are available and increased revenues often go to a
jurisdiction other than the one that has to provide most of the services and facilities, for
example, to the county rather than to the town.
Competition for assistance dollars, the lack of a professional staff knowledgable about assis-
tance programs, and the failure of many such programs to be responsive to energy-related
impacts will mean that most western communities can expect to receive very little assistance in
responding to the impacts of energy resource development.
The following are among the policy implications of these impacts:
Coordinated construction schedules will require close cooperation between energy develop-
ers and local governments. The development of new formal and/or informal mechanisms to
facilitate public-private cooperation in planning and to mitigate impacts may be desirable, for
example, in housing, public services, and health care.
-------
Present tax laws, debt limits, and financing procedures will need to be changed in some states
if expanded service and facility needs are to be met during the early stages of development.
In order for towns to provide necessary urban services, policies to redistribute tax revenues
from counties to municipalities, new revenue sources, and/or new state/federal assistance
programs may be required.
10
Ecological
Ecological impacts can vary significantly depending upon the land, water, and labor require-
ments of a technology and its air emissions and water effluents. The climate, topography, soils, and
plant and animal communities at the development site can also help to determine the ecological
effects of an energy development. For example, the significance of land consumption depends not
only on the quantity of land consumed but also on the plants and animal communities that are
displaced and whether they are unique or endangered. Some of our findings in this impact category
are:
Underground oil shale mining consumes two to six times as much land as any other mining
technology. Electric power plants require more land than do any other conversion technology.
Land consumption for energy development is relatively small; however, rare habitats or
species may be affected. Aquatic habitat, critical to many species, is limited in the study area.
Ecological impacts from energy-related population increases are usually greater than those
from energy facilities themselves. Urban and energy development will frequently fragment
habitat, make access to wild areas easier, and increase recreational activities such as hunting
and the use of off-road vehicles.
In some development areas, using surf ace waters for energy facilities can eliminate some sport
fish and alter the aquatic communities supporting other fish.
In some areas such as the arid southwest, reestablishing vegetation on strip mined lands will
require a long term committment to irrigation and to controlling grazing.
Emissions of sulfur dioxide from some energy developments such as large oil shale facilities
can result in local damage to vegetation in hilly or mountainous areas.
Some implications for policy makers are:
More stringent control over access and restricting or prohibiting certain uses on public lands
can minimize many of the energy-related ecological impacts.
Stringent land use and siting controls will be required if the destruction of rare habitat and
endangered species is to be avoided.
It may be necessary to limit water withdrawals or control the construction of impoundments at
some sites in order to avoid depleting in-stream flows.
-------
Other Impacts
Impacts in four other categories health, transportation, noise, and aesthetics were assessed
for the eight-state study area. The principal findings were:
Significant health hazards are not expected to result from air or water discharges of trace
elements and radioactive isotopes. A possible exception would be the release of mercury into
ecosystems supporting sport fish.
The health effects of airborne sulfates depend on the rate at which emissions are converted to
sulfates. A 3-percent conversion rate would not produce hazardous concentrations; a
10-percent rate could result in respiratory diseases.
Rail transport systems are less capital intensive than coal slurry systems and are more flexible
in terms of fluctuating demands and delivery to multiple destinations. However, slurry pipelines
may still have lower overall costs when large volumes are shipped over a single route.
770 acre-feet of water are required for each 1 million tons of coal transported by slurry pipeline.
By the year 2000, as much as 300 thousand acre-feet per year could be required for lines
originating in the Northern Great Plains.
New gas pipelines will be needed in the Northern Great Plains, primarily for synthetic natural
gas.
The most significant noise impacts will occur within one-half mile of rail lines, where noise
levels above the annoyance level of 55 decibels will occur.
Strip mines and transmission lines will result in visual intrusions that are aesthetically displeas-
ing to many individuals. Conversion plants will produce opaque plumes and noticeably reduce
long-range visibility.
Aesthetic problems will most likely be perceived when energy developments are located in or
near "pristine" areas, such as national parks, forests, and wildernesses.
COMPLETING THE WESTERN ENERGY STUDY
The emphasis of the research reported here has been on impact analysis. The results of these
impact analyses has been briefly summarized above. Additional impact analysis is to be done,
primarily by adding additional technological alternatives and undertaking sensitivity analyses to
further the identification of critical factors. However, the major focus for the remainder of the project is
to be on policy analysis. A series of policy analysis papers is now being prepared and drafts of these
papers will be widely distributed to solicit comments and suggestions.
Several other reports are also being prepared. These include:
1. Energy Resource Development Systems for a Technology Assessment of Western Energy
Resource Development. This report describes the six energy resources, where they are lo-
cated, their quantities, and characteristics, the technologies for developing them, the inputs
and outputs of these technologies, and the laws and regulations that will control their deploy-
ment. This background and supporting report will be available in late 1977.
-------
2. The Impacts of Western Energy Resource Development. A final impact analysis report incor-
porating a number of extensions and refinements to the analyses reported in this Executive
Summary will also be available in late 1977.
The final project report will be a synthesis of results drawn from four major sources: The Energy
Resource Development Systems and Impact reports listed above, the series of policy papers, and
several subcontractor reports. A draft of the final report will be distributed widely for comment in early
12 1978 and the final report will be distributed by late 1978.
For copies of the full report or further information, contact:
In/in L. (Jack) White, Project Director
Science and Public Policy Program
University of Oklahoma
601 Elm Street
Norman, Oklahoma 73019
or
Steven E. Plotkin, EPA Project Director
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
RD-681
401 "M" Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
------- |