Decision Series
DOE
United States
Department of
Energy
Assistant Secretary for
Policy and Evaluation
Washington, D.C. 20585
March 1978
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Research and Development
Energy, Minerals and Industry
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA-600/9-77-041
Energy/Environment
Fact Book
EP 630/9
77-0^1
-------
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-------
The Energy/
Environment Fact Book
Preface
The following collection of graphics and data were
prepared in response to a request from the White
House Energy Policy and Planning Staff. This
information comprises the draft of Chapter 11 of
the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) Fact Book.
The focus of this chapter is on those environmental
issues which, during the near and mid-term, will
prove important to the rapid development of
domestic energy resources. The most important
energy resource during this period will be coal; the
emphasis of this report is on coal. Other near and
mid-term energy sources, such as nuclear, oil shale,
oil and gas are discussed to a lesser degree. Some
sources, such as solar and geothermal, are scarcely
touched upon because of the long-term nature of
their promise. However, good references for these
can be found in the 'Further Reading ' section
at the end of the report.
Much of the information in this volume is
approximate. It represents the latest data available
in summary form. That data were drawn from
differing sources using differing assumptions is
obvious from the inconsistencies of some of the
estimates. The intent here, however, is to
communicate concepts rather than technical detail.
In pursuit of this goal, many of the qualifiers which
would otherwise accompany such scientific data
have been eliminated. It is hoped that this editing
process did no injustice to the truth. We welcome
your suggestions.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry
January 1978
Table of Contents
3 Standards and Trends
23 Alternative Fuels and Processes
33 Pollution Controls
47 Health and Environment
59 Regional Issues
73 Further Reading
74 References
-------
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Standards
and Trends
Introduction
Contents
Energy systems, especially electric power
generating plants, can impose upon the
environment in many ways. Federal standards have
been set for a number of the major pollutants from
power plants. These standards are based upon the
measured health and welfare impacts of such
pollutants, and upon the availability of effective
technologies to control the pollutants. They set
maximum allowable levels of both air and water
pollution. These levels limit either the pollution
which a plant may emit (performance standards) or
the concentrations of pollution to which people
may be exposed (air quality standards).
Significant progress has been made in recent years
in controlling several major pollutants. Others
remain intractable. Emphasis in this section is upon
those pollutants, such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides and particles, which are most associated
with coal combustion.
4 Sources of Pollution
6 Air Quality Standards
8 National Air Pollutant Emissions
9 Air Pollution Trends
10 Sulfur Dioxide Trends
12 Sulfur Oxide Emissions
14 Total Suspended Particulate Matter Trends
16 State Air Quality Implementation Plans
20 Water Pollution Standards
-------
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-------
Emissions from
Stationary Combustion Systems
Air
Par-
ticles
Electric Generation 63.8
Industrial 28.3
Commercial/ 4.9
Institutional
Residential 3.0
Total, 103 ton/yr 7,060
Sulfur
oxides
sox,
72.5
14.5
6.7
6.3
22,100
Nitrogen
oxides
NOX,
64.8
24.7
7.3
3.2
10,950
Hydro-
carbons
HC,
34.0
22.3
12.2
31.5
353
Carbon
monoxide
CO,
33.6
14.9
7.7
44.7
1,070
BSO,
8.8
20.0
16.0
55.2
125
Organics
PPOM,
0.3
0.5
0.2
99.0
4.14
Water
BaP, solids, solids, Waste heat, ash,
Of nf or or a?
0.2 94 94 80 87
1.3 66 20 10
0.4 <1 <1 <1 1
98.1 NIL NIL NIL 2
0.40 5,000 3,700 7 9 x 10's BTU/yr 54,000
Solid waste
Desulfur-
Fly ization
ash, solids,
56 %
94 94
6 6
<1 0
0 0
36,000 3,500
aBSO = Benzene soluble organics
PPOM = Particulate polycychc organic material
BaP = Benzo (a) pyrene
Source. GCA Corp , 1976
-------
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-------
Ambient Air
Quality Standards
Pollutant
Time Period/Standard
Maximum
Permissible
Concentration
Total Suspended Participates (TSP)
Sulfur oxides (measured as
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Oxidants/ozone (OX/O3)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Annual, secondary
Annual, primary3
24-hour, secondary*3
24-hour, primary
Annual, primary
24-hour, primary
3-hour, secondary
1-hour, primary
8-hour, primary
1-hour, primary
Annual, primary
Annual, secondary
3-hour, primary, secondary
60 ug/m3
75 ug/m3
150 (jg/m3
260 ug/m3
80 ug/m3
365 ug/m3
1300 ug/m3
40 mg/m3
10 mg/m3
160 ug/m3
100 ug/m3
100 ug/m3
aPrimary: to protect public health
"Secondary to protect public welfare
"-Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbon standard does not have to be met if oxidant standard is met.
Source: 40 CFR 50
-------
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-------
Air Pollution Trends
Progress Against
CO and Particles
Improved automotive emission controls have
resulted in lower carbon monoxide levels in the air.
Control equipment, such as filters and precipitators
in industrial and electric power plants, has reduced
the concentration of particles in the atmosphere.
However, comparable progress with other
pollutants has not been achieved during the period
1970 to 1975.
71 72
Source: U S EPA, 1976 b
73
74
75
Air Pollution Trends:
Emissions by Source
Legend:
Transportation
Industrial Processes
Stationary Source
Fuel Combustion
Solid Waste &
Miscellaneous
20
10
Year 70 71 72 73 74 75
20
10
Year 70 71 72 73 74 75
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Carbon Monoxide
Year 70 71 72 73 74 75
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-------
Air Quality
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Status of Compliance with Ambient
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Areas in Compliance
Area with Violations
Areas with Inadequate Data-
Status Unknown
Source- U S EPA, 1976a
11
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-------
Key:
SOX Emission Densities
Greater than 99,999 kg/km2
50,000 - 99,999 kg/km2
10,000 - 49,999 kg/km2
Less than 10, 000 kg/km2
Normal July Surface Wind Direction
Sources: Sulfur oxide emissions data from Teknekron, 1977
Wind direction data from NAS, 1975
13
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ui sajej ja/v\o[ pue sBaiE sa^e-j jeajQ pue jseaqyo^
aq; ui ;uauiaAOjduii la^cajS q^m '/ujunoo aqj
p syed snoueA ui paiayip aABq sajBJ }uauaaAOjdui[
•prepUEjs /\ji|enb JIB /iaBuiud p9SBq-q}|Baq aqj usqj
jaqBiq S|aAa| oj pasodxa are /Sajunoo aqj jnoqBnojqj
a|doad jamaj juaoaad gg }Bq} }|nsai aq^ qjim 'jsa^i
jad juaoiad jnoj jo ajej B JB juatuaAoidiui |BJauaB
B /v\oqs OZ.61
•saiajqojd qt|Baq snouas '
UBD pus sanssij Sunj ui paqiui
10
u/v\oqs
uaaq aABq 'sapmsd auij aqj /\||Bioadsa 's
qong 'uja|qojd pBaidsapim e aaB ajaqdsoinjB aqj
ui papuadsns SJSILU pus 'a>joujs '^snp jo sapijasj
papuadsn§
-------
Air Quality Control Regions
Status of Compliance with Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Suspended Participates
Areas in Compliance
Area with Violations
Areas with Inadequate Data
Status Unknown
Source. U S EPA, 1976a
15
-------
91
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qji/w 5uo|B '(sdIS) sueld
•jas
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joj sprepuB^s q;im rtjduioo oj ajBnbapeui a^B suB|d
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aaooi jo auo JQJ spiepuBjs jaaoi oj ajsnbapBui
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uoipajoy lejuaujuoaiAug 'g -Q aqj /Sq suB|d asaq}
jo mamaj y 'SpjspuBjs Ajipnb JIB |euoi}Bu jaaui
|[i/v\ ji /v\oq 'SJOJJUOD uoijn||od pus 'uopenodsuBJj
'juatudojaAap jo UB|d aAjSuaqajduioD
B qBnojqj 'moqs o} pajmbai si ajs^s
10}
-------
Summary: Number of Pollutants for
Which Revisions Are Necessary.
ALASKA
HAWAII
Key: Plan Revisions Required for
= No pollutants
Source U S. EPA, 1977g
[ J = 1 pollutant
= 2 pollutants
= 3 pollutants
= 4 or more pollutants
17
-------
sjuepixQ
sapixQ
joj uoijsnqoiOD
(BOD LUOJJ ai
-------
Sulfur Dioxide
Total Suspended Particulates
Source Adapted from
U S EPA, 1977 g
19
-------
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•ajqej Bui/SueduiooDB aq} ui uaAiS aae jue}n||od qoca
joj saBiBqosip a|qemo||v -suoi;Baado }UB|d aa/v\od
uio.1} jjnsaj }eqj s^UBjnijod Dijpads aqj joj pajp
ui aaB spaepucjs puB sauippinB uoi}n||od -ia}B/y\
-------
Steam-Electric
Power System
Allowable Discharges
Allowable Discharge is Effluent Flow Multiplied by the Following Concentrations in mg/la
Pollutant
Characteristic
Effluent
Low Volume Wastes
Bottom Ash Transport
Fly Ash Transport
Metal Cleaning Wastes
Boiler Blowdown
Cooling Tower Blowdown
Area Runoff
PH
6.0-9 0
6 0-9.0
6.0-9 0
60-90
6 0-9.0
6.0-9.0
60-90
Total
Max.
100
100
100
100
100
Not
Suspended
Solids
b Avg.b
30
30
30
30
30
to exceed 50
Oil
and
Grease
Max.
20
20
20
20
20
Avg.
15
15
15
15
15
Copper, Iron, Free Available
Total Total Chlorine0 Corrosion
Inhibitor41
Max. Avg. Max. Avg. Max. Avg.
10 10 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 10 1.0
0.5 0 2 NDAb
a-No discharge of polychlorinated biphenyl compounds such as those used for transformer fluid is allowed.
"-Abbreviations used: Max. = Daily maximum; Avg = Daily average for thirty consecutive days; NDA = No detectable amount
c-Chlorine may not be discharged on the average from any unit for more than two hours m any one day.
"-Includes zinc, chromium, and phosphorous
Source: 40 CFR 423
21
-------
••I*?
IU \
-------
Alternative Fuels
and Processes
Introduction
Contents
Different fuels, and different ways of using the same
fuel, can produce dramatically different pollutant
loads. In addition, these various fuels and processes
each impose a range of demands on other
resources, especially water. Choosing the right mix
of fuels and processes requires a workable balance
between energy needs, fuels, technologies,
environmental constraints and other demands
upon our limited resources.
24 Alternative Fuels and Air Pollution
25 Sulfur Emissions from Coal Combustion
26 Emerging Energy Technologies
27 Nuclear Energy
28 Water and Energy Development
30 Energy Processes and Water
23
-------
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SUOISSIUI3
asfj
-------
Sulfur Emissions
from Coal Combustion
Each Coal Is Unique
There is no such thing as a "typical" coal. Coals from
different regions will vary widely in heat value per
ton, moisture, ash and sulfur content. For example,
many western coals are lower in sulfur content than
eastern coals, but they are also lower in heating
value. Hence, a greater quantity of western coal
would have to be burned to produce the same
amount of heat. As a result, the advantage of lower
sulfur content in the western coals is at least partially
offset by the requirement to burn more of these
coals to obtain the same amount of heat. Such
considerations make the choice of pollution control
strategies for a particular site or application into an
increasingly complex task.
SO2 Emissions from
Burning Different Coals'
HEAT BASIS
(LBSSO2/106BTU)
ELECTRICAL GENERATION
1000 MWe PLANT*1
(Tons SO2/Year)
% Sulfur in Coal
Western Coal at 9000 BTU/lbb
Eastern Coal at 13000 BTUC / Ib Western Coal at 9000 BTUb / Ib
Eastern Coal at 13000 BTUc/lb
2
6
1 0
3 0
50
70
4
1.3
2.1
6.3
10.6
14.8
3
9
1.5
4.4
7.3
10.2
14,000
44,000
71,000
210,000
360,000
500,000
10,000
30,000
50,000
150,000
250,000
340,000
Does not meet EPA standard. 1 2 Ib SO2/106 BTU.
Assumptions: a-Based on 5% sulfur residue in ash
"-Typical of high-ash Western coals with percent Sulfur 2-3 0
c-Typical of high quality Eastern steam coals.
d-No SO2 controls; 75% operating time, 33% thermal efficiency, 67 3 x 1012 BTU/year thermal input.
25
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-------
Nuclear Energy Questions of Security and Wastes
Just as with coal, nuclear fuel has its attendant
environmental problems and controls. The
environmental issues associated with nuclear power
involve the entire nuclear fuel cycle from mining
and milling of ore through enrichment, use,
Quantities of
Radioactive Wastes
Volume of Low Level Wastes *
Buried in Commercial
Disposal Sites
200-1
38 5%
160-
K 14-
10-
0
-------
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-------
Daily Water Usage —
Power Plants
and Municipal Use
Total Daily
U.S. Consumption
of Water for 1975
10-1
75-
5 -
25-
500 MWe
Nuclear
Plant
500 MWe
Fossil
Fueled
Plant
Domestic
Central—
City with
Population
of 20,000
Source Derived from data on other charts on this page
200 -|
150-
100-
50-
0
Source Based on Hittman, 1976
ffl
Crop
Irrigation
29
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-------
Pollution
Controls
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the techniques, and their
costs, for reducing air pollution from coal-burning
systems. Some of the needed technologies are not
yet available, especially for industrial-scale
combustion systems. Such technologies, including
coal gasification and fluidized-bed combustion, are
currently being developed. Estimates are that,
between 1976 and 1985, this country will spend
more than $30 billion to control pollution from
energy generating processes.
Contents
34 Environmental Problems/Controls
36 Pollution Control Technologies
38 Low-Sulfur Coal
40 Coal Cleaning
42 Scrubbers
44 Costs of Alternative Control
45 The Bottom Line
33
-------
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SJOJJUO3 /
-------
Environmental Problems /
Control Technologies
Extraction
Coal
Underground Mining
Surface Mining
Runoff Solids ^
Acid Drainage
Sediments
Air Particles
Solid Waste '
Petroleum
Control /Treatment of Runoff
^ Weil-Managed Mine
Restoration and Reuegetation
Processing / Conversion
Physical Coal Cleaning
High-sulfur Solid Waste *• Recover Sulfur
Gasification /Liquefaction (?)
Organic Wastes
— Carcinogens /
Solid Waste
Treatment
*• Landfill
Fugitive/Accidental ^ Design to Eliminate
Release of Toxins,
Carcinogens
Oil and Gas Wells
Emissions
Liquid Wastes
— Organics
—Saline
Materials
— Runoff Solids
Uranium
Surface Mining
Radioactive \
Tailings
Air Particles
Radioactive
Runoff
Solid Waste
Sediments y
Emissions
^ Biochem /Phys -Chem
Treatment
>• Remject Brines
>• Phys -Chem Treatment
Contain All Radioactive Wastes
Non-Radioactwe Waste
Refining
Emissions
Liquid Wastes
—Runoff Solids
Refining
Fugitive Emissions
of Radioactive
Gases
Radioactive Solid
Residues '
^ Phys -Chem Treatment
Contain A/I Radioactive
Emissions
^ Long-term Storage of Radio-
active Waste
Decommissioning of "Hot"
Structures / Equipment
Power Plants
Flyash and Smoke
Particles
Solid Waste (Ash)
Industry
Flyash and Smoke
Particles
Solid Waste (Ash)
Commercial /
Nitrogen Oxides —
Particles
Solid Waste (Ash)
Generation
(Conventional)
C/ean/C/eaned Coal (?)
cation, Flue Gas Treatment
trostatic Precipitators,
Scrubbers
^ Well-Manaqed Landfill
>• Fluidized-Bed Clean / Cleaned
Coa/f), Scrubbers
>• Electrostatic Precipitators,
Baghouses, Cyclones,
Scrubbers
*• Landfill
Residential
^ Combustion Modification
(?) = Technologies not yet available
Source. Adapted from U S EPA, 1977 e
35
-------
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Applicability poi^t
« Q _i_ . f Reduction
anO diaiUS Ol Pollutantsand Efficiency
Pollution Control c^r*****, w
Technologies IS£L
Desulfurization
Physical Coal
Cleaning
Chemical Coal
Cleaning
Use of Low-Sulfur
Coal
Fluidized Bed Combustion
(with chemical sorbent)
Coal Gasification
Low BTU
High BTU
Coal Liquefaction
Petroleum Desulfurization
For NOX
Combustion
Modification
Flue Gas Denitrification
Petroleum Denitrification
For Paniculate Matter
Inertial Devices (Cyclones)
Electrostatic Precipitators
Wet Scrubbers
80-95
20-40
10-60
12-30
80-90
90-95
90-95
90-95
High
20-80
60-95
80-90
98
>99
80-98
Utility
Current (New and existing
plants)
Current (Limited
availability)
Post-1980
Current (Limited
availability)
Post- 1980
(Widely Applicable)
Post- 1980 (More
applicable to new units)
Post- 1980 (New and
existing units) (high costs)
Post- 1985 (New and
existing units)
Current (Fully applicable)
Current (Applicable to
certain types of units only)
Post- 1985
Current
Current (Widely applicable)
Current (Widely applicable)
Current
Time Frame of Applicability
Industrial
Current for Large-Scale
Installations Only— about 1980
Current (very limited
availability)
Post-1980
Current (Limited
availability)
Current (Or very
near-term)
Applicable Only to
Largest Units
Post- 1980 (Widely
applicable) (high costs)
Post- 1985 (probably
applicable to larger units only
Current (Fully applicable)
Current — widely applicable
for larger units
Post-1985
Current— widely applicable
for all size of units
Current for Larger Installations
Current for Larger Installations
Current
Residential and
Commercial
Not Applicable
Current (very limited
availability)
Post-1980 (Limited
applicability)
Current (Limited
availability/applicability)
Not Fully Evaluated
Not Applicable
Post- 1980 (Widely
applicable) (high costs)
Under Evaluation
Current (Fully applicable)
Partially Applicable
(Under evaluation)
Not Applicable
Current— widely
applicable
Not Required
Not Required
Not Required
Sources: U.S. EPA, 1977i; Ponder, 1976a, Shimizu, 1975.
37
-------
•seaie aasn oj uotjepodsueij ioj s|anj
jo uoipnpcud ao aaMod jo uotjBJauaS a;is
-auiui aq; ui aq ||am /\em S|BOD ujajsa/v\ jo asn jofeiu
y -spjepuejs uoijn||od JIB Buijaaoi jo spoqjaiu
(pauiqujoo jo) SAgeujajje jeiaAas jo sojuiouoDa
aqj aouepq ^snui ;sa/v\piiu pue jsea aqj ui jauunsuoD
(BOD aq; 'msBy -S[BOO uiajsea qjim pajeduioo sjsoo
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ui moj OSJB aae sieoo uaaisa/v\ anjins-moj
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e }Bq^ UBatu spjBpuB^s |B}uaiuucuiAua
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•siuBjd lamod paiij-jBOD LUOJJ suoissitua jnjjns aqj
But||oajuoo oj qDBoaddB auo si |BOO an}|ns-MO| jo asf)
|an j
11*03
-------
Low Sulfur Coal Reserves Vs.
Steam Electric Power Generation
Coal reserve estimates
adjusted for heating values
J34% of Reserve
Hawaii: Negligible Reserves and Consumption
Alaska: Potentially Large Reserves, Minimal Consumption
Source- Adapted from U S. DO1, 1975
Key:
Steam Electric Power Generation
Q > 1.5 Million KwH per Square Mile
D 0.5 - 1.5 Million KwH per Square Mile
n 0-0.5 Million KwH per Square Mile
39
-------
Ofr
'UMOqS
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SB rt[uo aAaas pUB 's3[doiBS jo -laqomu pajjuiii
B uo pasBq a*B saiBiui;sa A;ijiqBUBa]o aBB^uaoaad
aq;jBq; ajou pjnoqs auo 'osjy -jaqjous oj
uogeDO] auo LUOJJ ^[jeaaS saueA aanseaoi aayBj siqj_
•;ua}uoo /\6aaua ;ou ';q5ia/v\ jo suuia; ui ua/\iB are
suoiSaa snouBA ui aAjasai jo sapi^uBnb aqj jBqj ajou
pjnoqs aapsaa aq; 'jjBqs ajisoddo aq; Buijajdaajui uj
JBOD 'p pea;suj ao 'oj uoijippB ui pajinbaa
aq Him spoqjaui ]oa;uoD aaq^o 'pajeSpoioad
aaB spJBpuBjs juaBuujs aaoiu uaqA/\ -sp-iBpuBjs
uoissima ZQS luauno jaaui oj ^[}uapi};ns pausap
aq UBD S|BOD auuog • jaq^oue 01 UOIJBDO] DiqdBj5oaS
auo oioaj /i[pa>jaeai saueA qoiqm 'uotjisodmoD
sji uodn spuadap JBOO B jo (<^i[iqeuBap,,
aqX 'auiui aqj ;e jnjjns jo junouie ;ueoijiu8is
B aAotuaa UBD [BOD (SuiuBap ^[(BDjs^qd) Bui^BJBdas
/5uiqsBM pue SuiqsnjD p spoqjaiu paqsijqBjsg
-------
Coal Deposits and
Physical Cleaning
Potential New Standards
Figures on ability to meet EPA SC>2 standards refer to current new source emission standard of 1 2 Ib. SO2 per million BTU
A more stringent new standard is currently being considered by EPA If promulgated, the new standard would, in effect,
reduce the percentages of "as mined" or "physically cleanable" coal capable of meeting the standard
Notes:
(1) Quantities of reserves in each region (given in tons) are not proportional to energy content For example, much of the vast reserves in the western region
consists of types of coal with low heat content
(2) In this chart, 50% of deep coal is considered "recoverable reserve" m the "deep mined" category, and 85% of shallow coal is considered recoverable in the
"surface mined" category
(3) Results reported above for ability to meet SOX standards on an "as mined" basis or "physically cleanable" basis reflect percentages reported for 455 samples
from all regions Because the cleanability and sulfur content of coal varies greatly within very localized areas, many more samples would be required to give
precise estimates of the coal cleanability within each region Percentage estimates given above refer to technical capabilities, and do not necessarily reflect
economic conditions
Western Region
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) . . 141
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined .... 70 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2 Standards (see note 3) . . 94-98 %
.Western Midwest Region
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) ... 11
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined 3 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2Standards < 6 %
Eastern Midwest Region
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) ... 51
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined 1 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2Standards 2-4%
Northern Appalachian Region
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) ... 36
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined 4 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2 Standards 12 - 31 %
Southern Appalachian Region
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) ... 20
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined .... 35 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2 Standards 50 - 63 %
Alabama Region
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) .... 1
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined .... 30 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2 Standards < 40 %
Summary of U. S. Coals
Recoverable Coal Reserves (billion tons) . . 260
Meets EPA SO2 Standards as Mined 14 %
Physically Cleanable to Meet
EPA SO2 Standards 24 - 32 %
Sources:
Hall, (undated)(Recoverable reserve data).
Cavallaro, 1976 (Cleanability data).
41
-------
•fypedeo SuijejauaS s(uoi;eu
jno aa
pauiqoioo aqj_ '/iqsnpui /^q payiiuoioD uaaq
scq uoi||iq ^$ /S|jeau qoiq/v\ JQJ anbiuqoaj ^uiqqnaos,
(QOJ) uoijezun^nsap seB an|j e uaaq seq ajep
Sutsimoid ;soiu
-------
Costs Associated with
Various FGD Systems
for a 500 MW Plant
lime
limestone
double alkali
magnesium
oxide
wellman-lord
energy
penalty
% of plant
output
capital
costs
$/kw
added
operating
costs
mils/kwh
87
3-5%
97
3-4%
101
3-5%
101
7-8%
4.7
4.0
4.2
5.2
5.9
113
7-8%
Source- U. S. EPA, 1977 h.
43
-------
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ui saSuBJ apim a^B aaaqj 'pauiiuBxa
are auoje SJSOD joijuoo [BjuaoiaaDui uaq/y\
•Buiuinq janj jissoj ujoij Bui^nsaj aa^Boi ajBjnDi^iBd
pus 'sapixo uaBoa;iu 'apixoip injjns dn SuiuBap
jo aaqiunu B are
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jo
-------
The Bottom Line
Total Costs for Control Aggregated Expenditures
of Energy-Related
Pollution
Significant outlays will be required over the next
decade for energy-related pollution controls. Even
with such expenditures, however, it will be difficult
to meet all health-based air quality standards in all
areas.
(Millions of 1975 Dollars Except as Noted)
Industry Segment
Air Pollution
Coal Cleaning1
Coal Gasification1
Natural Gas Processing1
Petroleum Refining2
Steam Electric Power Plant3
Water Pollution
Petroleum Refining2
Steam Electric Power Plant3
Period
Covered
1976-85
1976-85
1976-85
1974-83
1975-85
1974-83
1975-85
Capital
Investment
14
120
51
3,277
20,000
2,666
5,000
Total
Annuallzed
Capital Cost
30
68
180
7991
N/A
1,064
N/A
Total
Operating and
Maintenance Cost
14
53
242
iin 1983)4
2,700
(in 1985)
(in 1983)4
500
(in 1985)
Source- U S. EPA, 1977d.
2Source. U S EPA, 1976c (Amounts shown are in 1974 dollars and exclude $330 million capital investment for facilities to provide
energy to operate EPA installations )
3Source U S EPA, 1976d
4Combmed total annualized capital costs and total operating and maintenance costs
45
-------
f
-------
Health and
Environment
Introduction Contents
The health and ecological effects of energy-related 48 Health and Environmental Effects
pollutants range from the subtle, long-term harm 54 Sulfates in Air
done by chronic exposure to sulfates, to the 56 Accidents and Non-nuclear Energy
tragedies caused by underground mining accidents. 57 CO2 from Fossil Fuel
Perhaps the most pervasive effects, however, are
the still-theoretical changes in global climate which
may be caused by the CO2 from all fossil fuel
combustion.
47
-------
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pue ssau[[i snouas asneo UBD spunoduioo uaSoajju
'}uejn||od iaje/v\ ao aie ue aaqjia sy 'saiiddns jajem
o;ui pue IIB aq; jo jno pa;Bjidpaid 10 paqjosqs
aq UBO spnpoad uoipBaj Jiaqj PUB sapixo
•sdojo pue uoi}B}aSaA jo m/v\oa5 aqi paB;aji pus
aojoosip os|B UBO s}UB}n||od asaqj_ •aBsuiBp Sunj jo
suiaoj Jiaqjo asnBD PUB Buias/^qduia ajBABiBBs
sapixo uaBoj^iu pue sapjxo jn}[ns SB qons
JIB pa}B|aa-/\6aaua 's}iiu!| amsodxa
•saSBiuep asaqj^o sjuaiuaansBam
uodn pasBq aaB AjijBnb lajBm PUB JIB ioj
'JuauauoiiAua aAipnpoad aqj puB
qj|Baq uBUinq oj op A"aqj saBBUiBp aqj jo asnaoaq
aq jsnuj
sapixQ
pue
pue
-------
Effects of Energy Pollutants —SOX and NO
Pollutant
Health Effects
Effects on Vegetation
Effects on Aquatic and
Terrestrial Organisms
Air Standards
Water Standards
Sulfur Oxides
SOX
SO2—«-SO3^H2SO4. The
heart and lungs are the ma-
jor target organs for SOX.
The presence of SOX in-
creases bronchio constriction
hence aggravating asthma
and emphysema and de-
creasing lung ventilation.
Sulfur oxides are highly tox-
ic to vegetation; effects in-
clude- interveinal necroses,
yellowing of broadleaf spe-
cies and reddish discolora-
tion of conifer needles. Acid
rains may also damage veg-
etation or alter soil condi-
tions.
Aquatic communities may be
affected by increasing acid
conditions due to acid rains.
Animals are sensitive to high
SOX concentrations
TLV for SO2 is 5.0 ppm.
Federal Primary Ambient
Air Standards for SO2 are:
365 ^g/m3 (0.14 ppm) -
24 hr. standard; 80 M3 m3
(0.03 ppm) annual standard.
The secondary standard is
1300,ug/m3 (0.5 ppm).
Nitrogen Oxides
NOX
NO-*NO2 by photochemi-
cal oxidation. NO2 is four
times as toxic as NO. At
high levels NO2 causes pul-
monary edema and death
while at low levels the effects
include emphysema, poly-
cythemia, leucocytosis and
sensitivity to infection. In ad-
dition to lung damage, liver
kidney and heart damage
may occur. Eye and skin
irritation may also occur.
NOX exposure correlates
with lung cancer induction.
NO3 and NO2 in water
may cause methemoglobi-
nemia and death. NO2~ may
cause cancer.
Adverse effects on plants
from NO2 include: defolia-
tion, chlorosis, irregular ne-
crotic spots, tip and margin
burn, high leaf gloss, inhibi-
tion of photosynthesis and
growth retardation. Middle
age, rapidly growing leaves
are most sensitive. Nitrate,
because it is an important
nutrient, is considered an as-
set in irrigation water
Nitrates in water are rapidly re-
moved by aquatic plants and
may result in eutrophication.
Nitrogen (nitrate or ammonia)
should not exceed 0.3 mg/l
in lakes or 1.0 mg/l in free-
flowing streams to prevent
algal blooms Nitrate ion, a
minor component, is toxic to
aquatic organisms but they
are very resistant to nitrate.
Livestock poisoning may oc-
cur from nitrite ingestion It
is recommended that the ni-
trate plus nitrite nitrogen not
exceed 100 ppm and that
NO2-N alone not exceed 10
ppm.
TLV for NO is 25 ppm.
TLV for NO2 is 5.0 ppm.
TLV for HNO3is 2.1 ppm.
Odor perception at 0 12
ppm.
Federal Primary Ambient Air
Standard is 100 MS/™3 (0.05
ppm) as an annual arithme-
tic mean
National Interim Primary
Drinking Water Standard for
nitrate as nitrogen is 10 mg/
ml.
It has also been recommend-
ed that Nitrate-Nitrogen in
drinking water not exceed
1.0 mmg/I .
*TLV = Threshold Limit Value. The concentration of a substance to which a worker can be exposed 8 hours per day or 40 hours per week without significant health effects or discomfort.
Source: Mitre Corp., 1976.
49
-------
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puc '
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PUB
-------
Effects of Energy Pollutants —Particles, CO and CC>2
Pollutant
Health Effects
Effects on Vegetation
Effects on Aquatic and
Terrestrial Organisms
Air Standards
Water Standards
Particulate
Matter
Carbon
Monoxide
CO
Carbon Dioxide
CO 2
Particles 0 5 to 5 Oju m dia-
meter are most likely to
cause disease Chronic symp-
toms due to lung scarring in-
clude- difficulty breathing,
chest pain, cough, decreas-
ed vital capacity and heart
disease,
CO reacts with hemoglobin
to form carboxyhemoglobin.
May result in brain damage
due to oxygen deprivation.
Symptoms of exposure in-
clude: headache, dizziness,
nausea, vomiting, systemic
pain, cherry red skin color,
and fatigue.
CO2 is not ordinarily con-
sidered a toxic gas At high
concentrations it stimulates
respiration and breathing be-
comes labored. It forms car-
boxyhemoglobin and de-
prives the brain of oxygen
Symptoms of exposure in-
clude: headache, dizziness,
tinnitus, difficulty breathing,
muscle tremor, fatigue, and
unconsciousness.
Excessive dusting can clog
the stomates of plant leaves,
preventing air and water ex-
change.
Plants are insensitive to CO
levels known to affect man.
At high concentrations the
following symptoms are ob-
served: leaf curling, increas-
ed aging, reduced gravity
response, reduced leaf size,
and feminization.
Plants require CO2 for pho-
tosynthesis High CO2 con-
centrations may increase the
acidity of rain, secondarily
affecting vegetation
Suspended solids harm a-
quatic biota by reducing light
penetration, suffocating bot-
tom dwellers, physical abra-
sion and habitat destruction.
This is especially serious in
nursery or spawning site.
The following levels of sus-
pended solids are recom-
mended; <25 mg/1 (high
protection); 26-80 mg/1
(moderate); 81-40 mg/1
(low); over 400 mg/1 (very
low protection).
In water CO —> CO2
next section for effects
See
Concentrations of free CO2
rarely exceed 20 ppm in sur-
face waters. Fish can accli-
mate to concentrations as
high as 60 ppm but will try
to avoid even minor in-
creases in CO2
TLV* for nuisance particu-
lates is 10 mg/m3 total par-
ticulates
Primary National Ambient
Air Quality Standard for
Suspended Particulates is
75/jg/m3 (annual), and 260
Mg/m3 (24 hr). The second-
ary standard is 60 yug/m3
(annual) and 150/jg/m3(24
hr.)
TLV = 50 ppm. National
Primary Ambient Air Stand-
ard is: 10000 >ug/m3 for a
yearly average; 40000 >ug/
m3 for a 24 hr average.
TLV = 5000 ppm
*TLV = Threshold Limit Value. The concentration of a substance to which a worker can be exposed 8 hours per day or 40 hours per week without significant health effects or discomfort.
Source: Mitre Corp., 1976
51
-------
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pue
3PUInS
-------
Effects of Energy Pollutants — FhS and Radioactivity
Pollutant
Health Effects
Effects on Vegetation
Effects on Aquatic and
Terrestrial Organisms
Air Standards
Water Standards
Hydrogen
Sulfide
H,S
H2S is highly toxic. It is a
pulmonary irritant but its
major effect is paralysis of
the nerves governing respira-
tion leading to asphyxiation
Low level exposure may re-
sult in: fatigue, metallic taste,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
pulmonary edema, eye irri-
tation and dizziness. Chron-
ic exposure can cause kid-
ney, liver and/or brain dam-
age.
At low concentrations little
effect. At 20 to 40 ppm tan
or white markings may ap-
pear on young, growing
leaves.
H2S is extremely toxic to a-
quatic organisms. A maxi-
mum level of dissociated
hydrogen sulfide assumed to
be safe for all aquatic or-
ganisms is 0.002 ppm.
TLV = 10 ppm (skin) o-
dor perception between 1
45,ug/m3.
Uranium
Exposure to the radiation
from uranium can result in
induction of leukemia, in-
duction of neoplasms espe-
cially lung cancer, cataracts,
reduced life expectancy,
genetic effects, sterility and
suppression of immune re-
sponses. Uranium especially
accumulates in and affects
lungs, bones, kidneys and
liver.
Radiation affects plants in
the following order of sever-
ity: tall plants (most severe),
shrubs, hedges, mosses and
lichens (least severe). Fields
are generally more resistant
to radiation effects than
complex forest ecosystems
Aquatic organisms often
concentrate radioactive ele-
ments. In general the fol-
lowing order of sensitivity to
radiation exists: large herbi-
vorous mammals > small
mammals and birds > herbi-
vorous insects > filter feed-
ing aquatic invertebrates >
unicellular animals and
plants.
For occupational exposure
Um natural = 7 x 10 -11
.we/ml.
For nonoccupational expo-
sure: U natural = 3 x 10 -!2
Standards also exist for 230(j
232U 233{J 234U,235[J 236(J,
For occupational exposure:
U natural = 5 x 10-4^c/
ml.
For nonoccupational expo-
sure: U natural = 2x10-5
jjc/m\.
"TLV = Threshold Limit Value. The concentration of a substance to which a worker can be exposed 8 hours a day or 40 hours per week without significant health effects or discomfort.
Source: Mitre Corp., 1976.
53
-------
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apixoip anips uaamiaq d]qsuoi}B|aa xajduioo aqj_
snoiiag
-------
Sulfate Pollution
Concentrations, 1974
Micrograms/Cubic Meter
Above 15 10 - 14 1-9 Below 1
Source: Adapted from Teknekron, 1977.
55
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-------
CC>2 from Fossil Fuels
A Potential
Global Impact
One of the by-products of most energy use on
earth—from coal combustion in power plants to
food digestion by humans—is carbon dioxide gas.
Since the industrial revolution, increasing use of
fossil fuels has emitted increasing amounts of
carbon dioxide (CC>2) into the atmosphere.
Some monitoring studies indicate a gradual global
increase in the CO2 concentration. Extensive
research efforts are beginning to determine what
effect such an increase could have on the
environment. Some theories predict that this
increase in CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere
may serve to trap heat and cause a potentially
disastrous increase in global temperatures—the
'greenhouse effect.' This theory and others are
currently under study.
Atmospheric
Concentration of
Carbon Dioxide
325
320
315
310
Scandinavian Aircraft
55N
Only July values plotted
SEASONAL VARIATION- 15ppm
E
p.
a
§
0
10
-------
-------
Regional
Issues
Introduction Contents
Each geographic region has its own particular 60 Coal and the Land
energy-related environmental concern. Some 62 The Thirsty West
major regional concerns are: mining land 64 Coal Slurry Pipelines
disturbance in eastern and western coal areas, 66 Alternatives for Western Coal Development
water requirements for energy development in the 68 Alternative Uses of Western Coal
west, acid rainfall in the east and oil spills in coastal 70 Acid Rainfall
areas. 72 Oil in the Ocean
Margaret Bourke-White, Life Magazine©, 1954, Time, Inc
59
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-------
Coal Deposits
in the United States
Source- Adapted from U. S. Geological Survey, 1975
Legend:
H| Coal Deposits
BE Scattered Coal Deposits
A - Appaiachia
El - Eastern Interior
Wl - Western Interior
TG - Texas Gulf
PR - Powder River
FU - Fort Union
GR - Green River
FC - Four Corners
61
-------
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|[t/Y\ /^Bjaua '/woy lajew /Y\OJ jo spopad
snsid/\
-------
Water Available for
Future Development
in Upper Colorado
River Basin
Percentage
of Estimated
Future Water
Reserves
Legally allocated water (compact snare)
Assumed reliable water resources
Conservative estimate of reliable water resources
Projected
Planned
1974
1980
1990
2000
Note: Chart does not indicate water resources already committed
Source: Roach, undated
63
-------
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UB SB paaapisuoo Suiaq BJB saui[adid f\im\s [803
ij /iun|§
-------
Coal Slurry Pipeline
Water Requirements
Gillette.
Min\
11,000 \
Gulf Interstate—
Northwest Pipeline
Energy
Transportation
Systems, Inc.
Legend:
_ Existing
In Progress
Planned
Note: Numbers indicate annual water requirements in acre ft /yr
Source: Adapted from Wasp, 1975
65
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-------
Fuel Cycle
Slurry pipeline
Surface coal mine (Montana)
Slurry pipeline to Chicago
Coal-fired powerplant (Chicago)
Total for scenario
Chicago gasification
Surface coal mine (Montana)
Rail to Chicago
Low BTU gasification (Chicago)
Low BTU gas powerplant (Chicago)
Total for scenario
Omaha generation
Surface coal mine (Montana)
Rail to Omaha
Low BTU gasification (Omaha)
Low BTU gas powerplant (Omaha)
Long distance transmission to Chicago
Total for scenario
Air emissions, in
thousands of pounds/
day
Particles
52
0
147
199
67
52
0
40
160
70
27
0
42
0
140
SO2
1
0
2,976
2,977
1
120
38
247
406
1
63
39
257
0
360
HC
1
0
34
36
2
59
4
3
67
1
31
4
3
0
39
Solid waste,
in thousands
of tons/day''
0
0
9
9
0
2
14
0
17
0
2
15
0
0
17
Land use, in
thousands
of acres c
5
28
10
42
6
47
9
4
67
6
25
9
2
77
119
Occupational
health, in
Water required, thousands of
in millions of man-days lost/
gallons /day
0
32
117
149
0
0
20
117
137
0
0
21
122
0
143
year
3
NA
5
NA
4
29
20
5
58
4
30
21
5
NA
NA
Primary
product
efficiency
(in percent)
100
98
37
36
100
99
76
37
28
100
99
76
37
96
27
NA = Not available
a Totals may not add because of rounding.
b The solid wastes associated with rail haul result from coal dust blown off the rail cars
c Includes all the land in the transmission right-of-way; only a portion of the right-of-way land for the slurry pipeline because the land may be used for other purposes when the pipeline is buried; and
the portion of railroad right-of-way equal to the portion of the total railroad capacity that would be taken up by coal trains.
Source. Adapted from Radian Corporation, 1975
67
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82
82
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-------
Air emissions (pounds/hours)1
End use
Particles
SOX
NOv
CO
Solid Land
waste use
HC (tons/day) (acres)
Water Energy
required efficiency
(MGD) (percent)
Liquid fuels
Surface oil shale mine (Colorado)
Retort (mine mouth)
Crude pipeline to Chicago
Refine (Chicago)
Total for scenario
Surface coal mine (Montana)
Liquefaction (mine mouth)
Crude pipeline to Chicago
Refine (Chicago)
Total for scenario
Oil well (Gulf coast)
Crude Pipeline to Chicago
Refine (Chicago)
Total for scenario
Surface coal mine (Illinois)
Rail to Chicago
Liquefaction (Chicago)
Refine (Chicago)
Total for scenario
Gas
Surface coal mine (Montana)
High BTU gasification (mine mouth)
Gas pipeline to Chicago
Total for scenario
Surface coal mine (Illinois)
High BTU gasification (mine mouth)
Gas pipeline to Chicago
Total for scenario
Gas well (Gulf coast)
Gas pipeline to Chicago
Total for scenario
1,923
2,804
427
8,359
2,780
6,073
52
6,099
3,309
1,029
4,353
3,876
10,424
166
4,541
13,549
2,041
15,725
19,199
8,017
2,090
858
1,333
597
2,316
6,272
618
59
6,016 185,362 20,135
7,475 6,792 15,218
3,154 3 7,725
7,657 11,148 32,368
1,148
165
81,700
5,560
9,827
7,930 15,252
0 16,892
38
57
11
57
64
64
68
52
93
47
65
61
96
1 On the basis of a 10" BTU per day output from the trajectory.
Source' Adapted from Radian Corp , 1975
69
-------
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aqj ui sajej|ns pue apixoip anjjns jo uoijeijuaouoo
aqi paseaiDui seq sjanj jissoj jo 5uiumg
aqj
-------
Fish Population Declines
as the Acidity of
Lake Water Increases
% of lakes
1001
No fish
Sparse population
Good population
<4.5 4.5-4.7 47-50 50-5.5 55-60 > 6.0
pH of lake water
Note: Status of fish in 1,679 lakes in four counties
in southwestern Norway
Acidity of Precipitation has
Increased Markedly in the Eastern U. S. .
Average pH of Annual Precipitation
1955-1956
6.00
.7 60
1972-1973
5.60
Source: Adapted from Likens, 1976.
71
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-------
For Further Reading
Interagency Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program — Status Report III,
EPA-600/77-032, by the Office of Energy,
Minerals and Industry, Office of Research and
Development, Environmental Protection Agency
(April 1977).
A detailed status report of the Interagency Program
including history, organization, and the basic
rationale for the Program. Some cost figures are
given for environmental control technologies being
developed and for health and environmental effects
studies of energy use.
Energy /Environment II, EPA-600/9-77-012, by
the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, Office
of Research and Development, U S.
Environmental Protection Agency. (November
1977).
A summary of the proceedings of the second
national conference of the Interagency
Energy/Environment Programs, this report
presents an overview and status of the Program.
Principal topic areas addressed are: fuel processing,
power generation for utilities and industry,
extraction and beneficiation of fuels, integrated
technology assessment, health effects of pollutants,
atmospheric transport of pollutants, measurement
and monitoring of pollutant discharges, and
ecological effects.
A National Plan for Energy Research,
Development and Demonstration, ERDA 77-1, by
the U.S. Energy Research and Development
Administration (June 1977).
This brief, easily readable report presents the
federal research and development program for
energy development. It addresses a broad range of
topics including: the role of energy conservation,
expansion of existing fuel sources, new types of
fuels (shale oil, geothermal, solar, fuel from wastes,
etc.), nuclear energy, and environmental safety
and research.
Western Energy Resources and the Environment:
Geothermal Energy. EPA-600/9-77-010, by the
Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry. Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. (May 1977).
This document defines the extent and potential of
geothermal resources, the technology available for
development, and the constraints to growth. It
highlights major research and development efforts
being carried out by ERDA, EPA, and other federal
agencies. The report aims to provide the reader
with a balanced picture of the problems as well as
prospects for the development of geothermal
energy in the United States, and is intended to be a
general reference for use by policy-makers and the
interested public.
Geothermal Industry Position Paper.
EPA-600/7-77-092. By EPA Geothermal Working
Group, Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. (August 1977).
The environmental impact of geothermal energy
development may be less intense or widespread
than that of some other energy sources; however, it
is the first example of a number of emerging energy
technologies that must be dealt with by EPA. EPA
may consider a spectrum of options ranging from a
posture of business-as-usual to one of immediate
setting of standards. The paper discusses the
regulatory approaches and the potential problems
that geothermal energy may present in the areas of
air quality, water quality, and other impacts.
Oil Shale and the Environment,
EPA-600/9-77-033, by the Office of Energy
Minerals, and Industry, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. (October 1977).
There is an urgency to produce more domestic oil
as existing supplies dwindle and world oil prices
rise. But what we know about the environmental
consequences of oil shale development is sparse
and often speculative. However, we do know that a
relatively small region of the country will have to
bear the full burden of these environmental
consequences. Two issues become basic to the
future of oil shale: Should the resource be
developed now with all of the attendant
environmental risks, or can we afford to wait until
we find out more about the risks and their
prevention?, and: Is it fair to trade local lifestyle for
the national good?
The purpose of this report is to put oil shale
development into a realistic environmental
perspective and to describe what the government is
doing to insure that development does not exact
an intolerable environmental price.
A Practical Approach to Development of a Shale
Oil Industry in the United States, prepared by
Colorado School of Mines Research Institute, P.O.
Box 122, Golden, Colorado 80401. Prepared for
Gary Operating Company, Four Inverness Court
East, Englewood, Colorado 80110. (October
1975).
A technically accurate and easily readable report
concerning all phases of the oil shale industry. This
study puts forth a well-reasoned proposal that the
oil shale industry should be developed in a gradual,
orderly manner instead of under a crash program.
The idea has considerable merit from
environmental and financial standpoints. The
report was summarized as a Position Paper
presented to the Committee on Science and
Technology, U.S. House of Representatives
regarding the 1976 ERDA Authorization Bill, H.R.
3474(5.598).
73
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Agency, Washington, D. C., March 1976.
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75
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