vvEPA
             United States
             Environmental Protection
             Agency
             Office of Research
             and Development
             Washington, DC 20460
EPA-600/9-78-033
November 1978
A Survey of International
Intergovernmental
Organizations: The Strategies
That They Use
to Abate Pollution
  Fr 600/9
                              PROTECTION AG'ESC?
                            08817

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                RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES

Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U S Environmental
protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series These nine broad cate-
gories were estaolished to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields
The nine  series are

      1   Environmental Health  Effects Research
      2   Environmental Protection Technology
      3   Ecological Research
      4   Environmental Monitoring
      5   Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
      6   Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
      7   Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
      8   ' Special' Reports
      9   Miscellaneous Reports
   is document is available to the public through the National ""echnical Informa-
   ii Rer.ire, Springfield, Virginia  22161

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                                        EPA-600/9-78-033
                                        November 1978
      A SURVEY OF INTERNATIONAL
  INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS:
      THE STRATEGIES THAT THEY
       USE TO ABATE POLLUTION
                  by

           Melvin L. Myers
  This survey was conducted during
        a training program at
         Indiana University
     Bloomington, Indiana 47401
 OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
       WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460

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                              DISCLAIMER
    This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Develop-
ment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
                                   n

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                                  PREFACE
     This survey was completed while I was at Indiana University participat-
ing in a long-term training program sponsored by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.  Professor Edward Buehrig of the Department of Political
Science was my mentor for the first phase of the work accomplished in the
latter part of 1976.  In that phase, nine international organizations and
the Law of the Sea Conference were studied.   The second phase addressed
seven more organizations and was completed during the first part of 1977
under the guidance of Professor Lynton K. Caldwell of the Department of
Political Science and the School of Public and Environmental Affairs.  This
second phase also added depth to the earlier material.  Dr. Jack E. Thompson,
Director of the International Organizations  and Western Hemisphere Division
in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, has been a valuable source
of information for this survey.

     International intergovernmental organizations are surveyed in this
report as policy instruments for abating pollution.  Three other important
policy instruments are available:  nongovernmental organizations, bilateral
arrangements, and transnational corporations.  Companion surveys of these
other instruments would also be useful as handbooks for the international
environmental administrator.
                                     Melvin L. Myers
                                     July 1978

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                             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
     As a result of this survey, no conclusions can be drawn concerning the
effectiveness of international organizations in abating pollution.  Availa-
ble information concentrates only on contributions and activity, not on
results and effectiveness.  There are indications, however, that at the
scientific level within organizations, such as the World Meteorological
Organization, the research objectives are met.  The scientific infrastructure
of these organizations may very well be a foundation for establishing envi-
ronmental objectives that drive international legal structures.  Moreover,
this foundation is evident in practically every organization surveyed as
well as in the United Nations Law of the Sea Conference.

     The effectiveness of international organizations is addressed in a
U.S. Senate document entitled U.S. Participation in International
Organizations.  This document states that none of 32 international
organizations with a budget under $2 million have had outside evaluations
except for financial audits by accounting firms, but about half of 33 inter-
national organizations with a budget over $2 million have had outside evalu-
ations exclusive of financial audits.  The most conspicuous organizations
having these evaluations are those concerned with banking, such as the World
Bank.  Also, to independently evaluate its programs, the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has recently
established a post of Inspector-General.

     The U.S. Senate document also reports some effort on the part of
international organizations to evaluate their effectiveness internally.
The World Health Organization (WHO), Pan American Health Organization
(PAHO), and Food and Agriculture Organization are among these.  There is
little evidence, however, of evaluations of headquarters operations as dis-
tinct from field operations.  Then too, any internal evaluation may suffer
from the lack of objectivity.

     The United States, under Public Law 93-189, is pushing the United
Nations for independent evaluations of the effectiveness of their programs.
Measurable objectives for such evaluations are being pursued by WHO, UNESCO,
the United Nations Environment Program, and the International Labor Organi-
zation.  Quite apart from formal actions, the Senate document concluded that
there is no review of the programs of international organizations by a
"watchdog" institution such as the "press," thus allowing members of the
general public to make their own evaluations.

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                                ABSTRACT
     A handbook for people involved in and being introduced to international
environmental administration and assistance has been unavailable to date.
This survey serves as such a handbook, addressing international inter-
governmental organizations and the strategies they use to abate pollution.

     It addresses 16 international organizations and the Law of the Sea
Conference and provides a ranking of organizations based on their potential
effectiveness in abating pollution.  The report surveys the background and
structure of and the strategies used by each organization.  A bibliography
for each organization and a general bibliography are also provided.

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                               CONTENTS
      Preface	    iii
      Executive Summary	     iv
      Abstract	      v
      Fi gures	     i x
      Tables	    xii

   I  Overview	      1

  II  Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development	     11

 III  North Atlantic Treaty Organization	     17
         Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society

  IV  European Communities (Common Market)	     22

   V  Counci 1 of Europe	     27

  VI  Council for Mutual  Economic Assistance	     33

 VII  Organization of American States	     37

VIII  United Nations Regional Commissions	     42
         Economic Commission for Europe

  IX  Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization	     51

   X  World Bank Group	     57

  XI  United Nations Environment Program	     63

 XII  World Health Organization	     70
         Pan American Health Organization

XIII  World Meteorological Organization	     78

 XIV  Food and Agriculture Organization	     88

  XV  International Atomic Energy Agency	     93

 XVI  United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
        Organization	     98
         International Oceanographic Commission

                                  vii

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 XVII  International  Labor Organization	     105
XVI11  Law of the Sea Conference	     110
  XIX  General  Bibliography	     113
       Appendices
          A.  Abbreviations Used in This Survey	     116
          B.  Members of the International  Organizations
                Addressed in This Survey	     117
          C.  Location of Headquarters of International
                Organizations Addressed in  This Survey	     129
                                    vm

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                                   FIGURES

Number                                                                  Page

   1       Organization chart of the United Nations system and a list
            of selected non-United Nations intergovernmental
            organizations ........................   2
   2      Map depicting 149 member nations of the United Nations as of
            January 1978 ........................   3

   3      Map depicting the 24 member nations of the Organization for
            Economic Cooperation and Development as of January 1978. .  .   6

   4      Map depicting the 12 member nations of the Council for Mutual
            Economic Assistance as of 1975 .  .  .............   7

   5      Map depicting the Group of 77, which  are signatories of the
            Treaty of Algiers as of April 1976  .............   8

   6      Organization chart of the Organization for Economic Cooperation
            and Development .......................  12

   7      Organization chart of the Environment Committee of the Organi-
            zation for Economic Cooperation and Development .......  13

   8      Map depicting the 15 member nations of the North Atlantic
            Treaty Organization as of January 1978 ...........  18

   9      Organization chart that indicates the position of the Committee
            on the Challenges of Modern Society within the North Atlantic
            Treaty Organization .....................  19

  10      Map depicting the 9 member nations  of the European Communities
            (Common Market) as of 1 January 1978 ............  23

  11      Abbreviated organization chart of the European Common Market .  24

  12      Map depicting the 18 member nations of the Council of Europe
            as of January 1977 .....................  28

  13      Organization chart of the Council of  Europe ..........  29

  14      Organization chart of the Council for Mutual Economic
            Assistance .........................  34
                                    IX

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Number                                                                 Page

  15      Map depicting the 24 member nations of the Organization of
            American States as of January 1977	38

  16      Organization chart of the Organization of American States .  .   40

  17      Map depicting the 34 member nations of the Economic Commission
            for Europe as of January 1976	43

  18      Map depicting the 32 member nations of the Economic and Social
            Commission for Asia and the Pacific as of 1973	44

  19      Map depicting the 30 member nations of the Economic Commission
            for Latin America as of 1973	45

  20      Map depicting the 42 member nations of the Economic Commission
            for Africa as of 1973	46

  21      Organization chart showing the regional economic commissions
            in the United Nations Economic and Social Council 	   47

  22      Map depicting the 104 member nations o^ the Intergovernmental
            Maritime Consultative Organization as of January 1978 ...   52

  23      Organization chart of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consul-
            tative Organization 	   53

  24      Map depicting the 132 member nations of the International Bank
            for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)  as of
            January 1978	58

  25      Organization chart of the World Bank Group	59

  26      Organization chart of the World Bank operating staff showing
            the position of the Office of Environmental  and  Health
            Affairs	60

  27      Map depicting the initial 58 member nations of the United
            Nations Environment Program in 1973	64

  28      Organization chart of the United Nations Environment Program.   65

  29      Map depicting the 147 member nations of the World  Health
            Organization as of January 1978	72

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Number                                                                  Page

  30      Organization chart of the World Health Organization 	   73

  31      Map depicting the 27 nations belonging to the Pan American
            Health Organization as of April 1978	   74

  32      Organization chart of the Pan American Health Organization. .   75

  33      Map depicting the 147 member nations of the World Meteorologi-
            cal Organization as of January 1978	   79

  34      Organization chart of the World Meteorological Organization .   80

  35      Organization chart of the staff of the World Meteorological
            Organization	   81

  36      Map depicting the 144 member nations of the Food and Agricul-
            ture Organization of the United Nations as of January 1978.   89

  37      Organization chart of the Food and Agriculture Organization .   90

  38      Map depicting the 110 member nations of the International
            Atomic Energy Agency as of January 1978	   94

  39      Organization chart of the International Atomic Energy Agency.   95

  40      Map depicting the 142 member nations of the United Nations
            Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization as of
            January 1978	   99

  41      Organization chart of the United Nations Educational,
            Scientific, and Cultural Organization 	  100

  42      Map depicting the 74 member nations of the Intergovernmental
            Oceanographic Commission as of January 1973 	  101

  43      Map depicting the 134 member nations of the International
            Labor Organization as of January 1978	106

  44      Organization chart of the International Labor Organization. .  107

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                                   TABLES
Number                                                                 Page

  1     The analytical  foundation for ranking international
         organizations based on four tenets discussed in the text	    4

  2    Pollution-abating strategies used by each international
         organization  addressed in this survey	    9

  3    Recommendations about pollution control adopted by the
         Council  of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
         Devel opment	   15

  4    Twenty CCMS pilot projects by nation responsible for project...   20
                                     xn

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                                     I

                                 OVERVIEW
     This document is a survey of international intergovernmental organiza-
tions and their strategies for abating pollution.   It is designed for use
as a handbook for those people involved in and being introduced to inter-
national environmental administration and assistance.

     The survey addresses 16 major international organizations and the Law
of the Sea Conference.  The organizations selected are those with which
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has some continuing contact.
Five organizations which could have been included but were not because of
time constraints in completing this survey are the International Civil
Aviation Organization, the Nordic Council, the International Organization
for Legal Metrology, the International Standards Organization, and the
Organization for African Unity.  The relationship of these and other inter-
national organizations to the United Nations (UN)  is displayed in Figure 1;
the membership of the UN is geographically shown in Figure 2.

     The organizations are presented in order of their potential effective-
ness to abate transnational pollution.  As can be seen in Table 1, this
ordering is based on judgements drawn from among four tenets.  These tenets
were derived from conclusions of Kennan (1970 and 1972) and guidelines of
Blake.  They are:

     •  Consider organizations with a small number of member nations first,
        for agreement and action are reached less effectively in inter-
        national organizations with a large number of members where
        national interests are numerous.

     •  Consider organizations that represent industrialized and maritime
        nations first, for they are the primary source of pollution and
        have the means to abate pollution.

     t  Consider organizations unaffiliated with the UN first, for the
        UN's voting power is swayed away from pollution abatement in the
        interest of economic development.

     •  Consider organizations that represent the industrialized democracies
        before organizations that represent the Soviet Union and the
        socialist nations and these, in turn, before organizations that
        represent the developing nations, for this is the ranking of
        interest in pollution abatement.

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| Non-United Nations




| intergovernmental




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Table 1.  The analytical foundation for ranking international organizations
          based on four tenets discussed in the text
Abbreviated Tenets
Organization ]_/
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.


6.
7.






8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.
15.

16.
OECD

NATO

EC

CE

CMEA


OAS
UNRC
ECE

ESCAP
ECLA
ECA
ECWA
IMCO
WB
UNEP
WHO
PAHO
WMO
FAO
IAEA
UNESCO
IOC
11.0
i i r> _ _ n 	 „ _i J . . A
Number of
Member
Nations
24

15

9

18

12


24

34

32
30
42
-
142
132
58
147
27
147
144
110
142
74
134
t* 	 n u L 	
Represent Affiliated Groupings
Industrialized with the Predominantly
Nations? UN? Represented
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes


No

Yes

No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
. . J - a, * _ 	
No

No

No

No

No


No

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Industrialized
Democracies
Industrialized
Democracies
Industrialized
Democracies
Industrialized
Democracies
Soviet Union
and Socialist
Nations
Developing
Nations

Industrialized
Democracies
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
Developing
Nations
	
Developing
Nations
     ]_/ See Appendix A for Abbreviations

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     These tenets also provide the basis for aggregating three groupings of
international organizations.  These are the industrial democracies, the
Soviet Union and the socialist nations, and the developing nations.

     The industrial democracies are best represented by the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); member nations of this
organization are shown in Figure 3.  The Soviet Union and socialist
nations grouping is best depicted by the Council for Mutual Economic Assis-
tance (CMEA), shown geographically in Figure 4.  The developing nations are
best depicted by the Group of 77, illustrated geographically in Figure 5.
These three groupings set the stage for analyzing strategies for abating
pollution.

     Four strategies used in abating pollution by the international organi-
zations surveyed are shown in Table  2.  These strategies are legislative
enactment, adjudication, cultivation of understanding and attitudes, and
rendering benefits.'

     Legislative enactment is a strategy in which the law-making body of
     a nation or an international organization takes official action.
     This action ranges from establishing budgets to making treaties
     or declarations.  Nine organizations surveyed use this strategy.  It
     appears that legislative enactment may be an important peer pressure
     strategy among the industrial democracies for abating pollution.
     Commitments by industrialized democracies carry an apparent impetus for
     direct action and results.

     Adjudication is a strategy in which a judicial body of a nation or
     international organization decides upon cases of territorial juris-
     diction or legislative enactment.  National courts may apply inter-
     national law based on customary law or treaty obligations or on
     national legislation that is consistent with international law.  When
     international courts such as the UN's International Court of Justice
     are used, all parties normally need to be willing participants.  Other-
     wise, the decisions lack the power of enforcement.  The European
     Communities, better known as the Common Market, is the only organiza-
     tion surveyed that uses this strategy.

     The cultivation of understanding and attitudes is a strategy to
     establish awareness of an issue by nations and nationals.  This
     strategy may be implemented by means of conferences and educational
     programs.  Thirteen organizations surveyed cultivate understanding
     and attitudes.  It also appears that the cultivation of understanding
     and attitudes may be the appropriate strategy for cooperation with the
     Soviet Union and other socialist nations.  This cooperation is
     manifested more in bilateral interactions such as detente than by
     international organizations, although the CMEA is cooperating in con-
     ferences with the UN, European organizations, and individual nations.

1 Three other strategies not used by international organizations in abating
pollution and not discussed here are territorial jurisdiction, mediation,
and coercion (Buehrig, 1976).

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Table 2.
          Pollution-abating strategies used by each international
          organization addressed in this survey
International
organization
I/


OECD
NATO
EC
CE
CMEA
OAS
UNRC
IMCO
WB
UNEP
WHO
WMO
FAO
IAEA
UNESCO
ILO






2/
Strategy

Legislative
enactment

X
3/
47
5/
6/
X
X
X

Cultivation of
Adjudication understanding
and attitudes
X
X
X X
X
X
11
B/
9/
X
X

TO/
TT/
X
T?/
1
T
T
T
-
3/
4/
5/
6/
7/

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Rendering
benefits

X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X


                                               pollution abatement
                                               Development
]_/   Listed in order of priority for effecting
2/   Organization for Economic Cooperation and
3/   North Atlantic Treaty Organization
4/   European Communities
5/   Council of Europe
6/   Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
7/   Organization of American States
8/   UN Regional Commissions
9/   Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization
TjO/  World Bank Group
11/  UN Environment Program
]_2/  World Health Organization
13/  World Meteorological Organization
14/  Food and Agriculture Organization
15/  International Atomic Energy Agency
16/  UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
17/  International Labor Organization

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     Rendering benefits is a strategy in which a nation and its nationals
     receive an advantage from a service provided by an international
     organization.  This service can be discretionary (e.g., providing a
     loan) or nondiscretionary (e.g., providing a weather report).  Twelve
     organizations surveyed render benefits.  It appears that rendering
     benefits is the appropriate strategy to use with the developing
     nations.  Discretionary benefits in the form of loans may be an effec-
     tive tool in preventing environmental problems.  The loans are contin-
     gent on proper environmental and public health precautions, thus
     providing for an assessment of the environmental impact of a develop-
     ment action and the basis for preventive action.

     Drawing from these tenets, groupings, and strategies, one can
establish a hierarchy of national priorities for the international adminis-
tration of pollution abatement.  First, we could emphasize direct action
through organizations representing the "industrial democracies" by using
legislative enactment and adjudication.  Second, we could pursue cooperation
with organizations representing the "Soviet Union and other socialist
nations" by cultivating understanding and attitudes.  Third, we could
assist those organizations (and their members) that represent the "devel-
oping nations" by rendering benefits.

     As mentioned earlier, the organizations addressed in this survey are
presented in order of their potential effectiveness in abating transnational
pollution.  Following this ordering, the penultimate section is devoted to
the UN Law of the Sea Conference, an attempt to legislate protection of
the oceans.  The final section contains a general bibliography.
                                     10

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Observer.

     OECD instituted an early warning procedure on 18 May 1971. Under this
procedure, member nations have agreed to inform other member nations of
actions that may be undertaken within their nation which will likely have
adverse effects on people or the human environment.  This is a. form of
legislative enactment whereby nations have come to an agreement.  The effect
is one of rendering benefits, however.

     In 1972, OECD launched an investigation of polychlorinated biphenols
(PCB's), and on 13 February 1973 drafted the first international agreement
aimed at limiting and controlling production of chemicals which may harm
the environment, in this case PCB's.  Agreement concerning labeling of
products containing PCB's was still being debated at the Council's meeting
in July 1976.  This agreement would exemplify use of the strategy of
legislative enactment in abating pollution.

     The Council adopted a recommendation of "guiding principles concerning
economic aspects of environmental policies" on 26 May 1972.  Two aspects
are cost allocation through the "polluter-pays" principle; and harmony of
environmental standards among nations but at the same time recognizing
different national environmental policies.  Other recommendations that have
been adopted by the Council are presented in Table 3.
                                    14

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Table 3.  Recommendations about pollution control adopted by the
          Council of the Organization for Economic Cooperation
	and Development	
     Date                              Recommendation

18 September 1973	 Measures to reduce all anthropogenic
                                   emissions of mercury to the
                                   environment

18 June 1974	 Guidelines for action to reduce
                                   emissions of sulfur oxides and
                                   particulate matter from fuel
                                   combustion on stationary sources

14 November 1974	 Assessment of the potential
                                   environmental effects of chemicals

                                 Analysis of the environmental
                                   consequences of significant public
                                   and private projects

                                 Noise prevention and abatement

                                 Traffic limitation and low-cost improve-
                                   ment of the urban environment

                                 Measures required for further air
                                   pollutants control

                                 Control of eutrophication of waters

                                 Strategies for specific water pollutants
                                   control

                                 Energy and the environment

                                 Implementation of the polluter-pays
                                   principle

                                 Principle concerning transfrontier
                                   pollution

11 May 1976	 Equal right of access in relation to
                                   transfrontier pollution

28 September 1976	 Comprehensive waste management policy

12 October 1976	 Reduction of environmental impacts from
                                   energy production and use

                                 Principles concerning coastal management


                                    15

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY II
d'Arge, Ralph C.  and Allen V. Kneese:  Environmental Quality and Inter-
     national Trade.  In David A.  Kay and Eugene B. Skolnikoff (eds.), World
     Eco-Crisis:   International Organizations in Response.  University of
     Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1972, pp. 255-301.

MacDonald, Gordon J.:  International Institutions for Environmental Manage-
     ment.  In David A.  Kay and Eugene B. Skolnikoff (eds.), World
     Eco-Crisis:   International Organizations in Response.  University of
     Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1972, pp. 207-235.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development:  Environment
     Directorate.  Environment Policy in the OECD with Special Reference to
     the Programme on cJater and Air.  Paris, 1971.

	:  Environment Directorate.   Governmental Responsibilities for the
     Application and Control of Technology in Relation to Man's Environment.
     Paris, 1971.

	:  Environment Pirectorate.   Mandates of Sector Groups and Ad Hoc
     Groups.  Paris, 1971.

         Environment Directorate.   Report of the Study Group on Innovation
     in Urban Environment.  Paris, 1971.

    	:  OECD History--Aims--Structure.  Paris, June 1973.

    	:  OECD at Work for Environment.  Paris, July 1973.

    	:  1974 OECD Catalogue of Publications.  Paris, 1 March 1974.
         Japan's Actions to Preserve the Environment:  The Fight for
     Clean Air as an E'xample.  The OECD Observer.  No. 69.  Paris, April
     1974, pp. 35-39.

     	:  Research and Related Activities of the Development Centre in  1975.
     Paris, 15 May 1975.

     _:  OICD_at_a_Gljince.  Paris, July 1975.

     	:  Council Minuses of the 423rd Meeting, Chateau de  la Muette.
     Paris, 20 July  1976.

     	:  .P_ECD__and the Environment.  Paris, 1976.

                                    16

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                                    Ill

                 NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO)
Background and Structure

     The North Atlantic Treaty was signed on 4 April 1949 and became
effective on 24 August 1949.  Signatories were Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the
United Kingdom, and the United States.  Greece and Turkey acceded to the
Treaty on 18 February 1952, and the Federal Republic of Germany acceded on
9 May 1955.   (France subsequently withdrew from the military part of NATO
in 1966.)  Figure 8 shows the membership of NATO as of 1 January 1978.

     Under the Treaty, the North Atlantic Council, composed of representa-
tives of member nations, was created.  The Council could establish other
bodies as needed, including specialized committees and groups, the Inter-
national Secretariat and a military committee which serve the Council,
military commands, and military and civilian agencies.  The Council set up
a Committee of Three on Non-Military Cooperation in May 1956.  As a result
of this Committee's recommendations, several specialized committees were
formed, including the Science Committee.  Great interest in this Committee
encouraged the United States to promote the establishment of a Committee on
the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) to deal with the quality of human
life.  The CCMS was established on 6 November 1969 and has devoted its
effort to studying problems of the environment.  Figure 9 shows the report-
ing line of CCMS within NATO.

Strategies Used

     To achieve its goals, CCMS uses the "pilot country1' approach, an
orientation to action rather than research, and a policy of open publicity.
Perhaps the pilot country approach is the most unique feature of CCMS,
whereby one nation takes responsibility for a new environmental project.
The pilot country is responsible for planning, paying for, and reporting on
a project and, if able, acting; each pilot country manages its own projects.
There is no need to involve NATO as a whole.  Fortunately, because of their
commitment, pilot countries take their projects seriously; they can also
cooperate with other countries as copilots in a project if they wish.  The
strategy used  in the pilot projects is to cultivate understanding and atti-
tudes through  symposiums, meetings, and demonstrations by the pilot and
copilot countries.

     CCMS pilot projects and countries include those shown in Table 4.


                                    17

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Table 4.  Twenty CCMS pilot projects by nation responsible for project
	Projects	Nations	

1.   Ocean oil spills.	 Belgium
2.   Disaster assistance	 United States
3.   Environmental and regional planning	 France
4.   Road safety  (seven projects)	 United States, et al
5.   Air pollution	 United States
6.   Inland water pollution	 Canada
7.   Coastal water pollution	 Belgium
8.   Advanced health care	 Federal Republic of
                                                          Germany
9.   Advanced wastewater treatment	 United Kingdom
10.  Urban transportation	 United States
11.  Disposal of  hazardous wastes	 Federal Republic of
                                                          Germany
12.  Solar energy	 United States
13.  Geothermal energy	 United States
14.  Rational use of energy	 United States
15.  Remote sensing in the control
       of marine  pollution	 France
16.  Air pollution assessment
       methodology and model ing	 Federal Republ ic of
                                                          Germany
17.  Automotive propulsion/low
       pol 1 ution  power systems	 Uni ted States
18.  Nutrition and health	 United States
19.  Flue gas desulfurization	 United States
20.  Drinking water	 United States
NOTE:  Projects are listed in essentially chronological order
                                    20

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY III


Huntley, James R.:  Man's Environment and the Atlantic Alliance.  (2nd ed.)
     North Atlantic Treaty Organization.  Brussels, October 1972.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization:  The First Twenty Years.  Brussels, 1969.

	:  Facts and Figures.  Brussels, January 1976.

Ruhl, Lothar:  The Nine and NATO.  The Alliance and the Community:  An
     Uncertain Relationship.  The Atlantic Institute for International
     Affairs.Paris, July 1974.

Strausz-Hupe,  [Robert] :  CCMS:  Pilot Study on Teledetection for the
     Pollution of the Seas.  Department of State airgram from the American
     Embassy, Paris, to the Department of State, Washington, D.C.,
     27 October 1976.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency:  NATO Committee on the Challenges of
     Modern Society  (CCMS) Work Program.  Internal document, Washington,
     D.C., March 1977.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson for
     the Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp. 84-89.
                                   21

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                                    IV

                   EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (COMMON MARKET)
Background and Structure

     The European Communities resulted from a series of three treaties.   The
first established the European Coal  and Steel Community (ECSC) on 18 April
1951, the second established the European Economic Community on 25 March
1957, and the third established the  European Atomic Energy Community--also
on 25 March 1957.  The original membership included Belgium, the Federal
Republic of Germany, France, Italy,  Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.  A
fourth treaty concerning the accession of Denmark, Ireland, Norway, and the
United Kingdom to the European Economic Community and the European Atomic
Energy Community was signed on 22 January 1972.  Norway, however, did not
ratify the treaty; thus, there are currently 9 members of the Communities.
See Figure 10.

     The European Communities have four primary common institutions.  These
are the European Parliament (or Assembly), the Court of Justice, the Council
of Ministers, and the European Commission.  The Parliament provides demo-
cratic control; the Court of Justice provides judicial control; the Council
of Ministers and the European Commission provide executive action.  See
Figure 11.  There are also three institutionalized committees:  the Economic
and Social Committee, the ECSC Consultative Committee, and the Scientific
and Technical Committee.

     The European Parliament meets once a year and is composed of members
elected by direct universal suffrage.  Until a uniform procedure is agreed
to, it will consist of delegates designated by the parliaments of the
respective member nations.  There are 198 delegates, and each nation is
assigned a specified number of delegates.  The Parliament discusses in open
session a report submitted to it by the Commission.  The Parliament has the
power to dismiss the whole Commission.

     The Court of Justice consists of nine judges, insuring that the law  is
observed through the interpretation and application of the treaty.  The
Council of Ministers represents the member nations and is responsible for
making unanimous decisions whenever required by the treaty.

     The European Commission is the executive branch of the Communities and
consists of 13 nationals of the member nations.  Special responsibilities
are assigned to each member of the Commission.  The Commission comprises  a
president, five vice-presidents, and seven other members.  Environmental


                                    22

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policy, in addition to transport and the protection of the consumer
interests, is a responsibility assigned to one of the vice-presidents.

     The operational organization of the Commission is the Secretariat-
General.  The Secretariat-General is responsible for the organizational
components—Legal Service, Spokesman's Group, Statistical Office, Adminis
tration of the Customs Union, and the Environment and Consumer Protection
Service.

Strategies Used

     The environmental policies used by the individual members of the
European Communities are different and diverse.  The Council of Ministers
seeks to coordinate national measures to improve the quality of life.

     The Council adopted an environmental program on 22 November 1973 based
on the "polluter-pays" principle.  This program stressed pollution preven-
tion, natural resource management, control of economic growth, consideration
of environmental impacts, and seeking solutions to common environmental
problems.  Outlined in the initial action plan were programs for clean air,
clean water, control of ocean pollution, and control of waste.  (One specific
interest is to clean up the Rhine River.)  Communities' action at interna-
tional conventions on the environment was a part of the adopted program.

     On 24 March 1976, the Commission presented a draft resolution to the
Council entitled, "Continuation and Implementation of a European Community
Policy and Action Programme on the Environment."  This draft resolution
presents an action program for the European Communities from 1977 through
1981.  The Commission will propose directives or resolutions to the Council.
Once a directive is adopted by the Council, the Commission will monitor the
member nations to assure compliance.  The Court will resolve disputes regard-
ing interpretations of the treaties and of Council resolutions.

     The Council has also established procedures for inventorying environ-
mental information jointly with the United Nations Environment Program.
The Commission has launched an education program that deals with the
environment.  Thus the European Communities use the strategies:  legislative
enactment, adjudication, rendering of benefits, and cultivation of under-
standing and attitudes.
                                     25

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY IV
European Communities:  Treaties Establishing the European Communities,
     Treaties Amending These-Treaties, Documents Concerning the Association.
     Brussels, 1973.

	:  European Community:  The Facts.  European Community Information
     Service, Washington, D.C., February 1974.

	:  Europe^and Its Environment, Programme for a Better Quality of
     Life.  Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
     Luxembourg, 1975.

	:  Environment Programme, 1977-1981.  Bulletin of the European
     Communities, Suppl.  6/76.  Commission of European Communities, Brussels,
     1976.

	:  Directory of the Commission of the European Communities.  Brussels,
     February 1976.
	:  Proposal for a Council Directive on Toxic and Dangerous Wastes.
     Official Journal of the European Communities.  Vol. 19, No. C194/2,
     19 August 1976, pp. 2-7.

	:  Proposal for a Council Directive on the Quality Requirements for
     Waters Capable of Supporting Freshwater Fish.  Official Journal of
     the European Communities.  Vol. 28, No. C202/3, 28 August 1976,
     pp.. 3-10.

Ruhl, Lothar:  The Nine and NATO.  The Alliance and the Community:  An
     Uncertain Relationship.  The Atlantic Institute for International
     Affairs, Paris, July 1974.
                                      26

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                                     V

                             COUNCIL OF EUROPE
Background and Structure

     The Council of Europe was created on 5 May 1949 by a treaty signed in
London on behalf of the Governments of Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.  The
treaty became effective on 3 August 1949.

     Subsequent signatories were Greece, Turkey, Iceland, the Federal Repub-
lic of Germany, Austria, Cyprus, Switzerland, Belgium, and Malta.  See
Figure 12 for a map showing all current members.  The Council of Europe
facilitates economic and social progress taking into account common heritage.
Defense does not fall within the scope of the Council of Europe.

     The three purposes of the Council are a united Europe, an outward-
looking Europe, and a peaceful, just, and prosperous world.  This is the
first international organization to work for a united Europe, and its 18
member nations have a total population of 300 million people.

     The Council of Europe consists of a Committee of Ministers and a
Consultative Assembly, both served by a Secretariat.  The Committee of
Ministers, composed of one representative from each member nation, provides a
a forum for the conclusion of conventions or agreements or the setting of
common policy either self-initiated or at the recommendation of the Consulta-
tive Assembly.  The Consultative Assembly engages in debate and makes
recommendations to the Committee of Ministers.  It has 147 representatives
from member nations selected from among and by the parliaments of each
nation.  The Secretariat is the permanent staff, numbering about 600, of the
Council of Europe and is directed by a Secretary-General.  Figure 13 displays
the organization of the Council of Europe.

Strategies Used

     The Consultative Assembly passed a recommendation that promoted conser-
vation of flora and fauna.  On 5 December 1962, the Committee of Ministers
passed a resolution authorizing the Secretary-General to convene a commit-
tee of experts, later to become the European Committee for the Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources.  The Committee provides information and
education and promotes conservation.
                                     27

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     The stress on the protection of natural  habitats resulted in establish-
ing an ad hoc Sub-Committee on Fresh Water Pollution Control.   On 6 May 1968,
the Council  of Europe launched by resolution  a freshwater conservation cam-
paign.  A major project was the European Conservation Year in  1970 resulting
from the European Conference on Nature Conservation, 9 to 13 February 1970,
in Strasbourg, France.

     On 23 September 1961, the Assembly adopted a recommendation to convene
the European Conference on Air Pollution.   The Committee of Ministers
acted on the proposal, and the Conference was held at Strasbourg from
24 June to 1 July 1964.   As a result of the Conference, the Committee of
Ministers passed a resolution to set up the Committee of Experts on Air
Pollution.  This Committee widely circulated  a declaration containing two
principles:   (1) the polluter pays for control and (2) prevent pollution
before it happens.  This Committee also launched a program of  work focusing
on specific  problems such as sulfur dioxide emissions presumably from coal
combustion.   Representatives of other international  organizations were
invited to attend the Committee's meetings.

     Two subcommittees were instructed to study and develop recommendations
on specific  air pollution problems.  Problems were addressed in 1969 and
1970 and resulted in recommendations on transfrentier pollution problems
and studies  of sulfur dioxide emissions, fuel additives, pollution and
its relationship to urban planning, emission  standards, and criteria
used for air quality.  The Committee of Ministers adopted four resolutions
in 1970 and  1971.  These cover:  (1) town and country planning and air
pollution control, (2) control of sulfur dioxide emissions, (3) trans-
frontier pollution problems, and (4) limiting motor vehicle emissions.

     The Council of Europe proclaimed 1970 as European Conservation Year--
opened by the European Conservation Conference in Strasbourg in February
1970.  The declaration of the Conference called for planning,  international
standards, and European harmony in legislation and regulation  in the con-
servation of nature.  More than 30 guidelines to action were proposed.

     In 1969 the Committee recommended the control of groundwater pollution.
In December  1970 the Committee established an ad hoc Committee of Experts
to prepare a convention to protect internationa"  fresh waters  from pollu-
tion.  Its proceedings have been confidential.

     As of 1972 the Committee was giving attention to:  (1) exchange of
information  on national  regulations and practices in air pollution control,
(2) comparative studies of ways to reduce emissions from industrial estab-
lishments, (3) reduction of motor vehicle, vessel, and aircraft pollution,
and (4) public information and education in air pollution and  its control.

     The Council has maintained an active interest in groundwater contami-
nation.  They have also been concerned with the disappearance  of wildlife,
the ecological consequences of the use of pesticides, the disposal of solid
wastes, public health and medical assistance, preservation of  historic and
                                    30

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artistic sites, and the consideration of the conservation of nature in
regional planning and development.  Soil conservation is an area of devoted
concern.  A study, "Aspects of Soil Conservation in the Different Climatic
and Pedologic Regions of Europe," was published in 1972.

     A 5-year environmental program of work commenced in January 1972.  This
program was being considered by the Committee of Ministers for the Council
of Europe.

     The Council of Europe follows a typical sequence of strategies.  First,
by treaty, an international organization is established.  This organization
then, by resolution, establishes conferences that cultivate understanding
and attitudes.  As a result the organization establishes a policy or organi-
zational element by legislative enactment.  And finally, a system to render
benefits ensues; the Council of Europe has done this through a "Nature and
Environment" publication series and a few "How To..." technical booklets on
pollution measurement.
                                    31

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY V
Council of Europe:  Council of Europe.  Directorate of Information,
     Strasbourg, France (no datej .

	:  How the Council of Europe Works.  Strasbourg, France [no date].
	::   Manual of the Council of Europe:  Structure, Functions and
     Achievements.  Stevens and Sons Limited, London, 1970.

	::   Committee of Experts on Air Pollution Control.   Strasbourg, France,
     1972.

	:   AiM^ollution Manual of Experiments.  Strasbourg, France, 1975.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environment Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson for the
     Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp. 100-103.
                                     32

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                                    VI

         COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE (CMEA OR COMECON)
Background and Structure

     The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was established at
an economic conference in Moscow on 25 January 1944.  The CMEA held no
meetings between 1944 and 1954; it reconvened in 1954 and in 1956 began
comprehensive planning for economic coordination.   Albania, Bulgaria, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, the Democratic Republic of Germany, Hungary, Mongolia,
Poland, Romania, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics are members.
Yugoslavia is an associate member, and an agreement of association with
Finland was signed in March 1973.  Albania has not participated since 1961.
See Figure 4.  Nations having observer status are Vietnam, Laos, Angola, and
Ethiopia.  In 1978 Vietnam requested full membership in CMEA.

     The purpose of CMEA is to stimulate planned economic development of its
members, economic and technical progress, industrialization, labor produc-
tivity, and the welfare of the people.  The CMEA Secretariat maintains close
relations with the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE).  In fact the
representatives of member nations of CMEA participate in both groups.  CMEA
also participates in meetings with the Nordic Council.

     CMEA consists of four bodies:  the Session of the Council, the Execu-
tive Committee of the Council, Standing Commissions, and the Secretariat.
The Session meets biannually and is composed of delegates from each member
nation.  One representative from each nation sits on the Executive Committee
that meets every 2 months.  Commissions are established by the Session of
the Council.  There are currently 16 commissions.   The Secretariat is
composed of a Secretary of the Council, his deputies, and staff who are
responsible for Secretariat functions.  The Secretariat has its headquarters
in Moscow.  Although the Council of Plenipotentiaries (see Figure 14) is of
obvious importance, its place in the CMEA structure is unknown, based on
Bibliography VI.

Strategies Used

     CMEA nations and Yugoslavia cooperate in an overall program organized
by the Council for Environmental Protection and Improvement.  Under this
program, they have cooperated in the completion of close to 300 studies
centered around research in 1976.  A report, "Environmental Protection,"
detailing the principles of environmental education, was prepared for use in
designing curricula for primary, secondary, and higher schools.  Another


                                     33

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report was prepared by the Council of Plenipotentiaries--"Socioecononric,
Organizational, Legal, and Pedagogical Aspects of Environmental Protection."
This Council documented analytical measurement methods for organic and non-
organic air pollutants and for bacteria in drinking and surface water in a
report entitled, "Hygienic Aspects of Environmental Protection."  The methods
discussed are used by researchers, sanitarians, and industrial enterprises
within the CMEA nations.  Establishing noise standards is being considered.
This same Council performed an analysis, "Conservation of Ecosystems and
Landscapes," of the structures and functions of biogeocenosis to be used in
the development of fundamental theories of rational use and management of
natural resources.  Some of these concepts are being used in the reclamation
of landscapes that have been disturbed by industrial activity.

     A significant effort has been indicated in protecting the air from
pollution.  Specialists of CMEA cooperating organizations have focused
efforts on developing low-waste and nonwaste technology and pollution
control systems.  Methods for measuring pollutants emitted from motor
vehicles have been investigated.  The Council of Plenipotentiaries has pub-
lished the results of 16 studies in "Meteorological Aspects of Atmospheric
Pollution."

     Also published was "Protection of Waters from Pollution."  Again, waste-
free technology is a primary focus.  Radiation safety is also pursued.

     CMEA uses legislative enactment in establishing cooperative arrangements
with UNEP, UNESCO, UN, and ECE; cooperation is evident between CMEA and
Finland.  As a result of the many CMEA publications that are made available
to its members, rendering of benefits takes place.  The cultivation of
understanding and attitudes is also evident.  As an example, there are
regular joint meetings of the Conference of Heads of Water Economy Bodies of
CMEA member nations and of the Council for Environmental Protection and
Improvement.  One meeting, held in 1976, was attended by representatives
of other international organizations.
                                     35

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY VI


Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Secretariat:  Information on
     Co-operation of the CMEA Member Countries in the Field of Environmental
     Protection and Improvement and the Related Rational Use of Natural
     Resources.  Moscow, February 1977.

Peaslee, Amos J.:  International Governmental Organizations Constitutional
     Documents.  Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1974, pp.  326-336.

Rada pro zivotni postredi  [conseil pour 1'environnement du gouvernement de
     la re"publique socialiste tcheque (Czechoslovak Republic)] : les
     problemes relatifs a Tenvironnement dans les pays--membres du
     conseil del'assistance economique mutuelle.  Informations sur
     1'environnement.Propogagni Tvorba, Prague, 1973.

Reuter:  Vietnam Said to Request Membership in Comecon.   The Washington
     Post. Washington, D.C., June 29, 1978.
                                     36

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                                    VII

                    ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS)


Background and Structure

     The International Union of American Republics was established in
Washington, D.C., on 14 April 1890.  In 1910 it was renamed the Pan American
Union.  The Ninth International Conference of American States, meeting in
Bogota, Colombia, adopted a charter in 1948 wherein the Pan American Union
became the General Secretariat of the Organization of American States (OAS).
On 27 February 1970, the Pan American Secretariat became the General Secre-
tariat as a result of amendments to the charter.

     The Organization's purposes are:

     •  To strengthen the peace and security of the American continents.

     t  To prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the peaceful
        settlement of disputes that may arise among member nations.

     t  To provide for common action on the part of the member nations in the
        event of aggression.

     •  To seek the solution of political, juridical, and economic problems
        that may arise among member nations.

     •  To promote economic, social, and cultural development of member
        nations through cooperation.

     Membership in the OAS comprises 24 Western Hemisphere nations:  Argen-
tina, Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, the United States,
Uruguay, and Venezuela.  Cuba, although a member, has been excluded from
participation since 1962.  See Figure 15.

     The General Assembly of OAS has three councils reporting to it:
(1) the Permanent Council, (2) the Inter-American Economic and Social
Council, and (3) the  Inter-American Council for Education, Science, and
Culture.  The General Secretariat, headquartered in Washington, D.C., is
responsible to the General Assembly and the councils.  In addition it ful-
fills functions assigned to it by the charter.  Several specialized organi-
zations report to both the General Assembly and the General Secretariat.


                                     37

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One of these is the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), also a regional
arm of the World Health Organization.  Others can be seen in Figure 16.

     OAS has four official languages:  English, Spanish, Portuguese, and
French.  In addition to the Washington, D.C. office, OAS maintains 22 offices
in the capitals of member nations, an office in Europe, and an office at the
Latin American Free Trade Association in Montevideo, Uruguay.  The General
Assembly meets once a year.

Strategies Used

     Environmental assessments have been provided as a discretionary benefit
by OAS.  With financial support from UNEP and the UN Development Program,
OAS contracted an environmental study of the development of the Bermejo River
in Argentina.  This study started in September 1975.  Such assessments have
also been made of the Pilcomayo River Basin of Argentina, Paraguay, and
Bolivia in February 1975 and of the Upper Paraguay Basin of Brazil in
April 1976.

     PAHO has increased its efforts to render benefits.  A program for
exchanging information on environmental health matters is given priority.
                                     39

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY VII
Council on Environmental Quality:  International Events.  Environmental
     Quality--!976:  The Seventh Annual Report of the Council on Environ-
     mental Quality.  Washington, D.C., September 1976.

Organization of American States:  The PAS at Your Fingertips.  OAS General
     Secretariat, Washington, D.C., 1972.

	:  Organization of American States:  A Handbook.  OAS General
     Secretariat, Washington, D.C. 1972.

	:  The Pa n Ame r i c a n S to ry.   OAS General Secretariat, Washington, D.C.,
     1973.

Pan American Health Organization:  Pan American Health Organization.
     Washington, D.C., 1973.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson for the
     Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp. 98-99.
                                     41

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                                   VIII

                    UNITED NATIONS REGIONAL COMMISSIONS
Background and Structure

     The five regional economic commissions are subsidiaries of the United
Nations Economic and Social  Council  (ECOSOC).   Their dates of establishment
are:

     (1)  Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)	 1947
     (2)  Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
            Pacific (ESCAP)	 1947
     (3)  Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA)	 1948
     (4)  Economic Commission for Africa (EGA)	 1958
     (5)  Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA)	 1973

     The United States is a  member of ECE, ESCAP, and ECLA.  ECWA began
operations on 1 January 1974.  Its members consist of UN members of western
Asia that use the ECOSOC services at the Beirut, Lebanon office.  ECOSOC
barred South Africa frorr ECA participation on 30 July 1963.  See Figures
17-20.

     The purposes of the regional commissions are to:  (1) act concertedly
on economic problems in the  respective regions, (2) enhance economic rela-
tions among members and between its members and other nations, (3) study
economic and technological problems of the region, and (4) collect, evaluate,
and disseminate economic, technological, and statistical information.  In
addition, ESCAP, ECLA, ECA,  and ECWA (5) promote economic development
especially through coordinated policies, and (6) consider social aspects of
economic development.

     Each commission reports annually to and is under the general super-
vision of ECOSOC.  Each commission may, with ECOSOC approval, establish
subsidiary bodies.  These bodies include committees on different economic
sectors or problems.  ECE has a Coal Committee but also has Senior Advisors
to ECE Governments on Environmental Problems and has a Committee on Water
Problems.  ESCAP has a Committee on Industry and Natural Resources.  ECLA
has among its subsidiaries the Trade Commission, and ECA has among its
subsidiaries the Conference of African Demographers.  See Figure 21.

Strategies Used

     ECE contains the primarily industrial nations of the world, so one sees


                                     42

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the greatest concern about pollution from this region.   In 1971 the group.
Senior Advisors to ECE Governments on Environmental Problems, was named as
a body of ECE.  Its purposes were to survey the state of the environment and
environmental institutions in member nations, review the environmental work
other international organizations were doing in the region, organize the
exchange of environmental information among members, examine decision-making
tools, and promote international action and arrangement.  The latter purpose
was envisioned to be either on an industry-by-industry  basis or between con-
tiguous nations.  A Symposium on Problems Relating to Environment was held
in Prague, Czechoslovakia in May 1971.  At this symposium, 27 ECE nations
submitted monographs on their own problems, emphasizing socioeconorrtics.
Conclusions were submitted to the Senior Advisors.

     A first Session of the Senior Advisors met at Geneva from 29 November
to 3 December 1971.  They evaluated the conclusions of  the Prague Symposium
and considered follow-up action.  They considered the ECE contribution to
the UN Conference on the Human Environment and reviewed environmental work
of other ECE subsidiary bodies.   A compendium, "Environmental Activities of
Other Principal International Organizations Working in  the ECE Region,"
was prepared for a meeting of the Senior Advisors in Geneva from 21 to 22
February 1977.

     Concern in Europe regarding water pollution dates  back at least to 1956.
In 1961. a Conference on Water Pollution resulted in a  Declaration of Policy
on Water Pollution Control.  A seminar was held in Vienna in 1973 to address
water pollution resulting from agriculture and forestry.  An ad hoc group
of experts on water quality and supply has been established.

     ECE has also published several studies on air pollution.  A seminar on
desulfurization of fuels and gases was held in Geneva in 1970.  A seminar on
air and water pollution from the iron and steel industry was held in the
Soviet Union in 1971.  Several other similar seminars have been held.
Interest has also been directed at statistical problems.

     ESCAP has shown little interest in environmental concerns.  Its
primary interest has been in economic development.  ESCAP met at a seminar
on development and the environment in Bangkok, Thailand from 17 to 23
August 1971.

     At the end of the 1950's, ECLA undertook research  at the member level
on water resources, including water supply and pollution.  With the approach
of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, ECLA conducted a seminar on
problems of the human environment at Mexico City in September 1971.
Regional planning emerged as an important consideration.

     ECA has concentrated on economic development.  In  preparation for the
1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, ECA met at a regional seminar
at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia from 23 to 24 August 1971 to consider environmental
problems and to prepare the African governments for the Conference.  At the
seminar, the cost of environmental protection and the "transplantation" of
polluting industries were considered.  Four committees  were formed to cover
                                     48

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environmental problems.   These were the Committee on Human Settlements, the
Committee on Natural Resources, the Committee on Development and Industrial-
ization, and the Committee on Manpower and Environment.

     The latter three commissions (ESCAP, ECLA, and ECA) maintain, as a
primary concern, economic development.  This concern was described by a panel
of economic experts at Founex, Switzerland in June 1971.  This panel was con-
vened by the Secretary-General of the Stockholm conference.  They reported
(Bishop and Munro, p. 353):

          The major environmental problems of developing
     countries...are predominantly problems that reflect
     the poverty and very lack of development of their
     societies.  They are problems, in other words, of both
     rural and urban poverty.  In both the towns and in the
     countryside, not merely "the quality of life," but
     life itself is endangered by poor water, housing,
     sanitation and nutrition, by sickness and by natural
     disasters.  These are problems, no less than those of
     industrial pollution, that clamour for attention in the
     context of the concern with human environment.  They
     are problems which affect the greater mass of mankind.

     The ECE, composed of industrialized nations of both Western and Eastern
ideologies, is starkly different from the other commissions.  The ECE nations
are faced with pollution problems; the other commissions are faced with
economic development problems.  ECE uses both rendering of benefits and cul-
tivation of understanding and attitudes while the other commissions use
primarily the latter strategy.
                                     49

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY VIII
Bishop, Amasa S.  and Robert D. Munro:  The UN Regional Economic Commissions
     and Environmental Problems.  In David A. Kay and Eugene B. Skolnikoff
     (eds.), International Organization:  International Institutions and
     Environmental Cr i s i s~Vol. 26, No. 2.University of Wisconsin Press,
     Madison, Spring 1972", pp. 348-371.

United Nations:  1973 Yearbook of the United Nations.  Vol. 27.  Office of
     Public Information, United Nations, New York, 1976, pp. 1018-1020.

United Nations Economic and Social Council, Economic Commission for Europe,
     Senior Advisors to ECE Governments on Environmental Problems:  Environ-
     mental Activities of Other Principal International Organizations Work-
     ing in the ECE RegiolT(4th Rev.)  New York, 30 November 1976.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson for the
     Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp. 30-44.
                                     50

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                                    IX

        INTERGOVERNMENTAL MARITIME CONSULTATIVE ORGANIZATION (IMCO)


Background and Structure

     The UN Maritime Conference of 1948, held in Geneva, resulted in the
drafting of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization Con-
vention.  The Convention required ratification by at least 21 nations, 7 of
which must individually exceed 1 million gross tons of shipping annually.
This requirement was met on 17 March 1958.  The first IMCO Assembly met in
London in January 1959.  There are 104 members of IMCO; in 1968 there were
only 68.  See Figure 22.

     IMCO consists of five elements:  the Assembly, the Council, the Mari-
time Safety Committee, the Secretariat of IMCO, and the Environmental Protec-
tion Committee.  Normally, the Assembly meets in London every 2 years.  It
consists of representatives of each of the member nations.   (Hong Kong has
associate member status.)  The Assembly considers a program of work, budget,
and financial regulations.  It elects the Council and approves the appoint-
ment of the Secretary-General of the Secretariat.  See Figure 23.

     The Council consists of 18 representatives of member nations.  Each
Council member has a term of 2 years.  It meets semiannually and governs
IMCO between Assembly sessions.

     The Maritime Safety Committee consists of 16 representatives of member
nations.  Each representative is elected for a term of 4 years by the
Assembly.  The Committee is concerned with maritime safety and with pre-
venting pollution of the sea by oil spills.

     The Secretariat, located at IMCO headquarters in London, is directed by
a Secretary-General.  There are also a Deputy Secretary-General and several
international civil servants.  The Secretariat has four divisions.  The
Technical Division has three sections:  the Ship Construction Section, the
Navigation Section, and the Cargoes and Related Matters Section.  The
latter Section deals with oil pollution of the sea.  There are also the
Administrative Division, the Technical Cooperation Division, and the Legal
Division.  On 23 November 1973, the IMCO Assembly established the Environ-
mental Protection Committee.
     An ad hoc diplomatic conference was held in London in April-May 1954 at


                                     51

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the invitation of the United Kingdom.   The resulting 1954 International Con-
vention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil was assigned to
the Government of the United Kingdom and took effect in July 1958.  The
Convention was the first international effort to prevent ships from polluting
the sea with oil.  The Convention was  assigned to IMCO in 1959, and in 1960
IMCO was also made responsible for the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea.

     In 1962, the Oil Pollution Convention was amended by another Interna-
tional Conference.  These amendments extended the Convention to apply also
to smaller ships and to prohibit oil discharges in zones not formerly
covered.  As of March 1973, 47 nations had agreed to these restrictions.

     The Sixth IMCO Assembly met in October 1969 and approved even more
extensive amendments to the Convention.  The principle followed was the total
prohibition of oil discharge.  The restrictions limited the total discharge
of oil, limited the maximum rate of discharge based upon distance, and
prohibited the discharge of oil within 80 kilometers of any land body.
Procedural requirements were also established such as record-keeping and
international communications.  As of March 1973, 15 nations, representing
70 percent of the world tanker fleet,  had ratified these amendments.

     The Seventh IMCO Assembly met in  October 1971 and at the encouragement
of Australia recognized the Great Barrier Reef as a zone in which oil dis-
charges would be prohibited.  Attention was also focused on publishing
information regarding facilities in ports for receiving oil residues from
ships.

     The preceding actions relate to deliberate pollution of the sea by oil.
Accidental spillages have also been considered.  The IMCO Assembly convened
an Extraordinary Session in November 1968.  This Assembly met as a result of
the stranding and wrecking of the Torrey Canyon off the coast of Great
Britain in 1967.  It considered and approved measures to prevent the recur-
rence of like accidents and action to  be taken when such accidents do occur.
Mandatory use of specified navigation  equipment and publications was adopted.
Traffic control schemes designed to avoid accidents were approved.  Limita-
tions on tank size and configuration were adopted as were systems for
reporting oil spills.  A manual, "Practical Information on Means of Dealing
with Oil Spillages," was prepared by IMCO in 1973.

     Design criteria are also being adopted in an attempt to prevent spills
of hazardous and noxious chemicals.  A safety code is being developed for
different types of ships.  As an example, double-hulled ships are more
likely to survive a collision than are single-hulled ships.  Also, nuclear
substances have been considered.

     The Council of IMCO established a Legal Committee in 1967 to recommend
action concerning legal problems resulting from the Torrey Canyon accident.
As a result, legal conferences were held in Brussels, in November 1969 and
December 1971.  These conferences adopted three international conventions.
One relates to the extent that a nation can take action when threatened by
                                      54

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pollution from outside its territorial sea, another provides for the lia-
bility of a shipowner, and a third provides for compensation to be paid to
victims.

     In October and November 1973, the IMCO Assembly adopted the Convention
on the Prevention of Pollution from Ships to control all pollution originat-
ing from vessels.  This Convention set regulations for preventing pollution
by oil, noxious liquids, harmful substances, sewage, and garbage; reporting
breaches of the Convention; and resorting to arbitration.  This Convention
superseded the 1954 International Oil Pollution Convention, as amended.

     At this 1973 IMCO Assembly, the United States presented a proposal to
establish a permanent committee on marine pollution.  IMCO established this
committee with a regulatory function in connection with the Convention then
under negotiation.

     A 1973 IMCO Protocol on Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine
Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil also extended international principles
for substances other than oil.  These principles include good neighbor!iness,
liability to compensate for unnecessary interference, and arbitration.

     IMCO resulted from a treaty.  Strategies used by IMCO were to cultivate
understanding and attitudes through conferences and to legislatively enact
environmental management and policy through conventions that require the
concurrence of member nations.  Publications constitute a form of guidelines
that can be interpreted as cultivation of understanding.
                                     55

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY IX
Friedheim, Robert L.:   Ocean Ecology and the World Political  System.   In
     John Lawrence Hargrove (ed.),  Who Protects the Ocean?  West Publishing
     Co,., St.  Paul, Minnesota,  1975, pp. 151-190.
                    and
                    Who
               David Menzel:
               Protects the
  Oceanic Pollution.  In John Lawrence
Ocean?  West Publishing Co., St. Paul,
Goldberg, Edward D.
     Hargove (ed.),  	
     Minnesota, 1975, pp.  37-61.

Go!die, L.F.E.:  International  Maritime Environmental  Law Today—An
     Appraisal.  In  John Lawrence Hargrove (ed.), Who Protects the Ocean?
     West Publishing Co,,,  St.  Paul, Minnesota, 1975, pp. 63-121.
Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization:
     What It Does. How It Works.   London, June 1968.
                                              IMCO:   What It Is,
    	:   Activities of the Intergovernmental  Maritime Consultative Organi-
     zation in the Field of Marine Pollution.   Prepared by the IMCO Secre-
     tariat for the information of participants at the 1973 Conference on
     the Prevention and Control of Oil  Spills, Washington, D.C., 12-15 March
     1973.
Lawless,
     New
Edward W.:   Technology and Social  Shock.   Rutgers University Press,
Brunswick,  New Jersey, 1977.
U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson for
     the Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp. 66-67.
                                     56

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                             WORLD BANK GROUP
Background and Structure

     The World Bank Group has a membership of 132 nations and has subscrip-
tions exceeding $20 billion.   See Figure 24.   It is composed of the Inter-
national Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the Inter-
national Finance Corporation (IFC), and the International Development Asso-
ciation (IDA).

     The World Bank Group represents an exception in control, for it does
not rely on the "one nation,  one vote" principle.  Voting power is propor-
tional to contributions to the World Bank's capital.  The United States
contributes 40 percent to the World Bank's capital, and thus holds 40 per-
cent of its voting power.  Although this does not constitute a majority,  it
is enough to enable the United States to maintain a decisive voice in naming
presidents of the Bank.  All  presidents have been U.S.  citizens.

     The headquarters of the World Bank is located in Washington, D.C.  All
of the powers of the Bank are vested in a Board of Governors.  Each member
nation of the Bank is represented by one Governor and one alternate Gover-
nor; the alternate votes only in the absence of the Governor.  The Bank is
operated by 12 Executive Directors, 5 of whom are appointed by each of the
5 members who hold the largest number of shares; the remaining 7 Executive
Directors are elected by the Board.  The Executive Directors select a
president to be their chairman and the chief of the operating staff of the
Bank.  See Figure 25 for an organization chart of the World Bank Group and
Figure 26 for a chart of the World Bank and the position of the Office of
Environmental and Health Affairs within the Bank.

     In 1960, IDA was established as an affiliate of the World Bank, and  its
president acts as the president of IDA.  IDA provides interest-free loans to
developing nations for periods of up to 50 years.  By 1962, it had committed
most of its original $765 million.

     IFC is also an affiliate of the World Bank.  It provides loans to
assist private capital investment in the developing nations.  The World
Bank president is also the IFC board chairperson.

Strategies Used

     In 1970, Mr. Robert S. McNamara, President of the World Bank Group,  in
                                     57

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an address to ECOSOC remarked that spending a little to prevent environmen-
tal damage could save a lot when one considered how expensive damage to the
environment could be.  He announced that a unit had been established to
determine the environmental consequences of development projects being con-
sidered for financing.

     Late in 1970, the position of Environmental Advisor was established
within the World Bank.  The function of this position was "to review and
evaluate every investment project from the standpoint of its potential
effects on the environment."  Initial  staff guidelines were expanded and
published by the new Environmental Office in a 1972 handbook, "Environmental,
Health, and Human Ecologic Considerations in Economic Projects."  An expanded
English edition was published in 1974.

     At the 1973 Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors of the World Bank,
Robert S. McNamara announced the establishment within the Bank of an Office
of Environmental Affairs.  Its procedure allows other agencies to evaluate
development projects prior to the World Bank Group's evaluation.  These
agencies include the UN Development Program and the World Health Organiza-
tion.  Should the World Bank Group determine that safeguarding or mitigating
measures are needed, cost for these measures is incorporated into the
financing of the project.  The progress in assuring compliance with these
measures is monitored by both the World Bank Group's appropriate Regional
Office and the Office of Environmental and Health Affairs.  Checklists have
been developed for a number of sectors including textiles, tourism, power
stations, paper plants, steelmaking, irrigation systems, fertilizer facto-
ries, harbor facilities, and more.  Safeguards have been negotiated on a
number of projects at a typical incremental cost of about 2 to 3 percent of
the total cost of the project.

     The-World Bank Group has used a project-by-project approach in its
assessments and plans to continue using this approach.  However, it is pre-
paring to consider funding environmental projects as development projects.
The strategy used by the World Bank Group is the rendering of discretionary
benefits.
                                     61

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY X
Bishop, Amasa S.  and Robert D.  Munro:   The UN  Regional  Economic  Commissions
     and Environmental  Problems.   In David A.  Kay and Eugene  B.  Skolnikoff
     (eds.), International  Organization:   International  Institutions  and
     Environmental  Crisis.   Vol.  26, No.  2.  University  of Wisconsin  Press,
     Madison, Spring 197?",  pp.  348-371.

Davis,  David Arthur:  The Role  of the  WMO in Environmental  Issues.   In David
     A. Kay and Eugene B.  Skolnikoff (ed.),  World Eco-Crisis:   International
     Organizations  in Response.   University of Wisconsin Press,  Madison,
     1972,  pp.  171-182.

International Bank  for Reconstruction  and Development:   Inaugural  Meeting of
     the Board of Governors of  the International  Bank for Reconstruction and
     Development in Savannah, Georgia, 8-18 March 1976.   Washington,  D.C.,
     May 1976,  pp.  23-29.

McNamara, Robert S.:  A Critical  Truth.   Bulletin of the Atomic  Scientists.
     Vol. XXVIII, No. 7, September 1972,  pp. 39-43.

U.S. Senate:  1972  Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson  for the
     Committee on Commerce, Washington,  D.C.,  February 1972,  pp.  60-62.

World Bank:  The World Bank and the World Environment.   Washington, D.C.,
     September 1971.

	:  The World  Environment  and the World Bank.   International  Bank for
     Reconstruction and Development, Washington,  D.C., June 1972.

	:  Summary of Proceedings,  1973  Annual Meeting of  the Board  of
     Governors, Nairobi, Kenya,  24-28  September 1973.

	:  Environmental, Health  and Human Ecologic Considerations in  Economic
     Development Projects.   Washington,  D.C.,  May 1974.

	:  Environment and Development.   Washington,  D.C., June 1975.
                                     62

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                                     XI

                  UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM (UNEP)


Background and Structure

     In the summer of 1968, the Swedish Government placed on the agenda of
the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) an item on the
"human environment" which would lead to the creation of the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP).  Later in 1968, the UN General Assembly decided
to convene a UN conference on the Human Environment.

     Nongovernmental international organizations were involved in preparing
for the Conference.  These included the International Union for Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources and the International Council  of Scientific
Union (ICSU) through its Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment
(SCOPE).  Under the auspices of the Institute on Man and Science of
Rensselaerville, New York and the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, an
international workshop was held in Aspen, Colorado in May 1971 to set general
institutional guidelines for decision-making for the Conference.

     The UN Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden
in June 1972.  The General Assembly of the UN at its Twenty-Seventh Session
created UNEP on 15 December 1972 with (1) a Governing Council  for the
Environment Program composed of 58 member nations elected by the General
Assembly, (2) a small Environment Secretariat to serve as a focal point for
environmental coordination within the UN, (3) an Environment Fund to finance
environmental programs, and (4) an Environmental Coordination  Board directed
by an Executive Director.  The Secretariat serves the Governing Council.   The
Council determines the use of the Environment Fund and prescribes initiatives
in response to the Action Plan for the Human Environment.  See Figures 27 and
28.

Strategies Used

     The first session of the Governing Council of UNEP was held in Geneva,
12 to 22 June 1973.  It considered an Action Plan for the Environment, the
Environment Fund, and the UN Conference titled Exposition on Human Settle-
ments scheduled for 1976 in Vancouver, British Columbia.  The  Action Plan
was adopted establishing Earthwatch which will be addressed later.

     In accordance with the General Assembly decision, UNEP headquarters  was
established at Nairobi, Kenya on 1 October 1973.  The Environment Coordina-
tion Board held two 1-day sessions, one in Geneva on 9 April 1973, and one


                                     63

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in New York on 23 October 1973.   It considered UNEP organizational  coopera-
tion with UN members.

     The voluntary Environment Fund reached $12 million by the end  of 1973.
In 1973, 78 projects were approved by the Governing Council  for support by
UNEP, primarily for meetings, conferences, seminars, training courses,  and
workshops.

     A Symposium on Population,  Resources, and the Environment was  convened
by the Population Commission in  preparation for the World Population Confer-
ence scheduled for August 1976 in Bucharest,  Romania.   The symposium was
held in Stockholm from 26 September to 5 October 1973.

     Earthwatch has two components, the Global Environmental  Monitoring
System (GEMS) and the International Referral  Service (IRS).   These  systems
are designed to provide early warning of significant environmental  risks.
They also provide information useful  in governmental decision-making.

     The Environment Fund, as of April 1975,  had financed 250 projects; about
half were cooperative projects with other UN  organizations.   The Fund has
$113 million pledged to it by UN member nations over the 1973-1977  period.

     UNEP also prepares an annual report, "State of the Environment."   The
1975 report addresses environmental pollution as it affects  human health.
It also addresses marine pollution, food chain contamination, drinking-water-
supply pollution, and damage to  the earth's buffer zone (atmosphere).

     The Third Session of the Governing Council was held in  Nairobi, Kenya
from 19 April to 2 May 1975.   Participants endorsed a  three-level approach
for their Action Plan:  Level One—the "State of the Environment" should
identify emerging problems for governments; Level  Two--UNEP  should  be based
on objectives set by governments and a program of action should be  estab-
lished to meet those objectives; Level Three—identify projects at  Level
Two for funding by the Environment Fund.  This Session agreed that  a second
Conference on the Human Environment be scheduled not earlier than 1980.

     The Fourth Session of the Council was held in Nairobi from 30  March to
14 April 1976.  Participants decided, among other things, that an Inter-
national Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals should form part of UNEP's
Earthwatch Program.  They also requested the  Executive Director to  explore
with the World Bank ways and means to ensure  that environmental considera-
tions be taken into full account in their program.

     The Conference of Plenipotentiaries of the Coastal States of the Medi-
terranean Sea was held in Barcelona,  Spain, from 2 to 16 February 1976.  One
of the resolutions adopted by this 15-state conference was to ask UNEP  to
convene a meeting in Monaco in 1977 to review their Mediterranean Action
Plan for protection ard improvement of the Mediterranean.

     UNEP was created by legislative enactment in the UN General Assembly  to
protect and enhance the human environment.  Its primary focus has been  to
                                     66

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cultivate understanding and attitudes; however, its potential is growing for
rendering benefits in the form of information from environmental monitoring.
The potential is also present for rendering discretionary benefits through
its Environmental Fund.
                                     67

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                               BIBLIOGRAPHY XI
Dworkin, Daniel M.  (ed.):   Environment and Development.   Collected papers,
     summary reports, and  recommendations, SCOPE/UNEP Symposium on Environ-
     mental Sciences in Developing Countries,  Nairobi [Kenya],  11-23 February
     1974.  Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment Miscellaneous
     Publication, Indianapolis, 1974.

	:  Environmental Sciences in Developing  Countries.   Summary reports  and
     recommendations SCOPE/UNEP Symposium on Environmental  Sciences in
     Developing Countries, Nairobi [Kenya], 11-23 February 1974, Scientific
     Committee on Problems of the Environment, Indianapolis,  1974.

Gardner, Richard N.:  The  Role of the UN in Environmental  Problems.  In David
     A. Kay and Eugene B.  Skolnikoff (eds.), World Eco-Crisis:   International
     Organizations  in Response.  University of Wisconsin  Press, Madison,
     1972, pp. 69-86.

Hardy, Michael:  The United Nations Environment Program.   In  Ludwik A.
     Tedclaff and Albert E. Utton (eds.), International  Environmental  Law.
     Praeger Publishers, Inc., New York, 1974, pp. 57-77.

National Research Council:  Early Action on the global  Environmental
     Monitoring System.  National Academy of Sciences,  Washington, D.C.,
     1976.

United Nations:  The United Nations Environment Programme.  United Nations
     Environment Program,  Nairobi, Kenya, June 1975.

	:  The United Nations Environment Programme:  A Brief Introduction.
     United Nations Environment Program, Nairobi, Kenya,  June 1975.

	:  Questions  Pertaining to the Environment.  1973 Yearbook of the
     United Nations.  Vol. 27.  Office of Public Information, United Nations,
     New York, 1976, Ch. VI, pp. 365-375.

	:  Coastal States Sign Anti-Pollution Convention to Protect Mediter-
     ranean Sea.  UN Chronicle.  Vol.  XIII, No. 3, March  1976,  pp. 28 and
     57.

	:  Environment Council Ends Fourth Session:  Commitment to Cause Said
     Reaffirmed.  UN Chronicle.  Vol.  XIII, No. 5, May 1976,  pp. 21-23.
                                    68

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency:   International  Organizations Involved
     in the Environment.  An internal  unpublished compendium.   Office of
     International Activities, Washington, D.C., 1975.

	:  United Nations Environment Program International  Referral System:
     Introduction.  Washington, D.C.,  October 1975.

	:  Phone Directory for United Nations Environment Program Departments,
     Washington, D.C., 1977.
                                    69

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                                    XII

                      WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)


Background and Structure

     A declaration was adopted at the 1945 United Nations San Francisco
Conference that drew attention to the need for an international  health
organization.  A Technical Preparatory Committee representing 16 nations met
in Paris from 18 March to 5 April 1946 to draft a constitution for considera-
tion at an International Health Conference.   On 22 July 1946, 61 nations of
the International Health Conference met in New York and signed the constitu-
tion of the World Health Organization (WHO),  and the WHO Interim Commission
was simultaneously established.  The constitution became effective when it
was ratified by 26 nations on 7 April 1948.   The first World Health Assembly
met in Geneva from 24 June to 24 July 1948.   WHO took  over the functions of
the Office International d'Hygiene Publique,  the League of Nations; Health
Organization, and the peacetime work of the Health Division of the UN Relief
and Rehabilitation Agency.  WHO became a specialized agency of the UN on
1 September 1948.  In 1949, the Pan American  Sanitary  Bureau became the
WHO Regional Office for the Americas.

     The purpose of WHO is to attain the highest possible level  of personal
health for all.  The WHO constitution defines health as "a state of com-
plete physical, mental, and social well-being and not  merely the absence of
disease or infirmity."

     WHO devotes its efforts to health problems of nations that cannot solve
them with their own resources.  A large portion of these efforts goes to
giving technical assistance and advice and providing technical publications.
WHO has set international standards for biological substances and for pesti-
cides.  WHO has drawn up and administered international health regulations.

     There are 147 nations belonging to WHO,  each represented in the World
Health Assembly.  The Assembly meets annually in Geneva.  WHO's activities
are governed by the World Health Assembly and an Executive Board.  The
Executive Board is derived from the designation of eight member nations
annually by the Assembly, and those designated in turn name a person to
serve on the Board for a period of three years.  The Board has 24 members
and meets twice each year.  The Board normally devotes one year to a
specific problem (e.g., publications).  A Secretariat of WHO is headed by a
Director-General and several Assistant Directors-General (each responsible
for a number of Divisions) reporting to him.   The headquarters is in Geneva
and employs 4,500 people.  WHO is distinctive in having several  regional
                                    70

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offices, each responsible for activities in its respective area.   Regional
offices are located at Brazzaville, Congo for Africa;  Washington,  D.C.  for
the Americas; Alexandria, Egypt for the eastern Mediterranean;  Copenhagan,
Denmark for Europe; New Delhi, India for Southeast Asia;  and Manila,  the
Philippine Islands for the western Pacific.  See Figures  29 and 30.

     The regional office for the Americas is the same  as  that for  PAHO.   PAHO
predates WHO as the International Sanitary Bureau, the parent entity  of PAHO.
The Bureau was formed as a result of the Second International Conference of
American States in Mexico City in 1902.  Eleven nations were represented.
This was a time of epidemics of smallpox, malaria, typhus, and  yellow fever.
These epidemics resulted in stringent quarantines among nations.   An  inter-
national sanitary policy was adopted, periodic public  health conventions
were planned, and an executive board, the International Sanitary  Bureau, was
established in Washington, D.C.  PAHO's Pan American Center for Sanitary
Engineering and Environmental Sciences is located in Lima, Peru.   This  Center
deals with air and water pollution and community planning.  PAHO  has
recently, in its growing efforts in environmental health  sciences, estab-
lished a Pan American Center for Human Ecology and Health in Mexico  City.
This Center examines the health effects of air, soil,  and water pollutants  on
man and develops indices of environmental quality.

     PAHO has six area offices in addition to its headquarters  office.
Area I Office is located in Caracas, Venezuela, serving Barbados,  Belize,
Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, and some of the  possessions
of France, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom in  the Americas.   Area  II
Office is located in Mexico City, serving Cuba, the Dominican Republic,
Haiti, and Mexico.  Area III Office is located in Guatemala City,  Guatemala,
serving Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Panama.
Area IV Office is located in Lima, serving Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,  and
Peru.  Area V Office is located in Brasilia, serving Brazil.   Area VI Office
is located in Buenos Aires, Argentina, serving Argentina, Chile,  Paraguay,
and Uruguay.  The Washington, D.C. Office is responsible  for the  United
States, its possessions, and Canada.  A field office in El Paso,  Texas  is
concerned with health along the United States and Mexican border.   See
Figures 31 and 32.

Strategies Used

     WHO documented its early interest in pollution control in  1961  with a
monograph concerning air pollution.  Before 1961 WHO was  concerned with
sanitation, including water pollution and solid waste  disposal.  In  1963,
WHO sponsored an Inter-Regional Symposium on Criteria  for Air Quality and
Methods of Measurement.  A WHO Expert Committee on Environmental  Health
Aspects of Metropolitan Planning and Development noted in 1964  that noise
and vibration exert deleterious effects especially on  the nervous  system.
At an October 1968 Symposium on Urban Climates and Building Climatology
jointly sponsored by both WHO and WMO, it was stressed that regard must be
given to predicting pollution levels.
                                    71

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     In 1971, WHO established international  reference centers for air
pollution, one in Rockville, Maryland and one in London, England.  Three
regional centers, one each in Moscow, Tokyo, and Nagpur, India; a series of
national centers; and a PAHO network were also established.   In that same
year WHO studied the implications of water quality on public health and
provided technical  assistance to member nations.

     The 1972 Stockholm Conference called for WHO to set primary standards to
protect human health from pollutants in air, water, and food.  Through
resolutions it has developed recommended standards for drinking water, air
pollution, food additives, and pesticide residues.

     The criteria that WHO developed are published as guides.  In 1974, WHO
cosponsored a symposium on environmental epidemiology and toxicology with the
European Communities and the U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency.  In 1975,
WHO cooperated with FAO in a food anticontamination program funded by UNEP
through GEMS.  Funding through GEMS also allowed cooperation between WHO
and UNESCO in a worldwide water quality project.

     WHO, recognized as having the responsibility for environmental health
criteria, uses the resolution approach in setting criteria, but depends
on experts who first cultivate understanding and attitudes by means of
meetings and symposiums.  WHO renders benefits in the form of technical
assistance, expert advice, and publications.
                                     76

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                            BIBLIOGRAPHY XII
Pan American Health Organization:  Letter dated 25 October 1973 from
     Harry G. Hanson to Emily S. Lodge of the U.S. Environmental  Protection
     Agency.

	:   Proposed Program and Budget Estimates:  Pan American Health Organi-
     zation, 1979; World Health Organization, Region of the Americas, 1980-
     1981; Pan American Health Organization, Provisional  Draft, 1980-1981.
     Official Document of the Pan American Health Organization, No.  154.
     Washington, D.C., May 1978.

United Nations:  1973 Yearbook of the United Nations.  Vol. 27.  Office of
     Public Information, United Nations, New York, 1976,  p. 910.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren  G. Magnuson for
     the Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February, 1972, pp. 74-78,
     99.

World Health Organization:  The Second Ten Years of the World Health
     Organization, 1958-1967.  Geneva, 1968.

	:   The Work of WHO, 1971.  Official Records of the  World Health
     Organization, No. 197.  Annual report of the Director-General  to the
     World Health Assembly and to the United Nations, Geneva, 1972.

    _:  The Work of WHO, 1972.  Official Records of the World Health
     Organization, No. 205.  Annual report of the Director-General  to
     the World Health Assembly and to the United Nations, Geneva, 1973,
     pp. 96-97.

    _:  The Work of WHO, 1973.  Official Records of the World Health
     Organization, No. 213.  Annual report of the Director-General  to the
     World Health Assembly and to the United Nations, Geneva, 1974.

    _:  The Work of WHO, 1974.  Official Records of the World Health
     Organization, No. 221.  Annual report of the Director-General  to the
     World Health Assembly and to the United Nations, Geneva, 1975.

    _:  The Work of WHO, 1975.  Official Records of the World Health
     Organization, No. 229.  Annual report of the Director-General  to the
     World Health Assembly and to the United Nations, Geneva, 1976.
                                    77

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                                   XIII

                  WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO)


Background and Structure

     The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)  was set up in 1951  and
became a specialized agency of the UN in December of that same year.   A
World Meteorological Convention was adopted in Washington,  D.C.  in 1947.
This Convention was ratified by enough nations in 1951  so that WMO,  a
governmental organization, replaced the International  Meteorological
Organization, a nongovernmental organization that had  been  established in
1873.  The World Meteorological Congress approved a draft of an agreement
between the UN and WMO in 1951 which would recognize WMO as a specialized
agency of the UN.   The UN General  Assembly approved the agreement in  Decem-
ber 1971.  There are 147 member nations as shown  in Figure  33.   Each  member
maintains its own meteorological service.

     WMO consists of a Congress, an Executive Committee, a  Secretariat, six
regional associations, and eight technical commissions.  The Congress, com-
posed of representatives of all member nations,  is the supreme power  of WMO
and meets at least once every 4 years to set policy and to  plan a program
and a budget.  The Executive Committee, WMO's decision-making body.,  has 21
members and meets annually.   Some nations  are permanent representatives
while others take turns as representatives.  The  Executive  Committee  admin-
isters, finances, and ensures that activities are conducted as the Congress
has decided.  The Secretariat, headed by a Secretary-General, is the  perma-
nent staff of WMO.  Based in Geneva, it carries  out the technical and
administrative work of WMO and coordinates the work of eight Commissions.
The regional associations, made up of members located  within their respec-
tive regions, are responsible for carrying out tasks as assigned by  the
Congress and Executive Committee.   The technical  commissions are composed
of members nominated by other members, and they  are responsible for main-
taining knowledge in arid promoting development of their respective fields.
See Figures 34 and 35.

     There are two groupings of technical  commissions.   A basic grouping
consists of the three commissions:  the Commission for Basic Systems  and the
Commission for Instruments and Methods of  Observation  are responsible for
basic operations and facilities; the Commission  for Atmospheric Sciences is
responsible for research in atmospheric sciences.

     The other grouping consists of five applications  commissions:  the
Commission for Aeronautical  Meteorology, the Commission for Agricultural
Meteorology, the Commission for Marine Meteorology, the Commission for

                                     78

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Hydrology, and the Commission for Special  Applications of Meteorology and
Climatology.  These are responsible for promoting applications to economic
and social activities.  The latter Commission,  among other responsibilities,
considers applications of meteorology and  climatology to environmental
problems such as human ecology, health, and the relationships between disease
and air pollution including both short- and long-term effects.  A Working
Group on Applications of Meteorology and Climatology to Environmental
Problems reports to this Commission.

Strategies Used

     WMO provides an international liaison function.  Global  exchange of
meteorological data takes place between nations many times each day.   Inter-
national guidelines and technical regulations are issued to assure necessary
standardization of instruments and methods of observation.  The WMO Bulletin
is published quarterly for member nations  and other interested parties to
provide information on WMO activities and  developments in meteorology.  WMO
also publishes a variety of manuals and technical studies.

     WMO has four main programs:  the World Weather Watch (WWW), the Research
Program, the Technical Cooperation Program, and the Program on the Interac-
tion of Man and His Environment.  WWW is a program designed to improve the
collection of meteorological data on a global scale and to ensure complete
availability of this data internationally.  The first 4-year plan was
approved in 1967.  Developing nations are  actively involved in this program.

     The Research Program is aided by WWW  which provides a complete system
for storing and analyzing global weather data.   A Global Atmospheric
Research Program, planned in conjunction with the International Council  of
Scientific Unions, is composed of several  subprograms.  Large-scale motions
of the global atmosphere are studied in the Global Subprogram.  The Tropical
Subprogram is concerned with deep convection systems in the tropics.   The
Air/Sea Subprogram is concerned with exchange processes between the atmo-
sphere and its underlying surfaces.  The Global Atmospheric Research Pro-
gram  is attempting to enable meteorologists to predict weather more than
10 days in the future.  A subprogram to consider methods to modify weather
may also be established.

     The Technical Cooperation Program participates with the UN Development
Program in developing meteorological services in many nations.  Training is
an integral part of the program.  In 1970, technical assistance was provided
to 87 nations at a cost of $5 million.

     The Program on the Interaction of Man and His Environment includes  a
broad range of activities aimed at applying meteorological knowledge to
human activities.  This application spans  the interests of the applications
commissions.  The study of atmospheric and water pollution is increasing.
Marine pollution is an especially active area.   There is collaboration
with other organizations in the Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects
of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) and the Integrated Global Ocean Station
System (IGOSS).  The Commission for Hydrology directs the study of inland
                                     82

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water pollution.  Correspondingly, because of HMO's involvement in hydro-
logical studies, Caldwell (p.  178) has suggested that it should be reorga-
nized as the primary agency for global monitoring of geophysical  changes.
A new name, World Geophysical  Organization, was suggested.

     The Commission for Agricultural  Meteorology has published the results
of a study of air pollution damage to crops in a Technical  Note entitled,
"Air Pollutants, Meteorology,  and Plant Injury."  A Technical  Note,  "Urban
Climates," has also been published.   The following is a chronology of WMO
activities concerning environmental  pollution.

     •  At the Twenty-First Session  of the WMO Executive Committee (in Geneva
        from 29 May to 13 June 1969)  the topic, "Air Pollution Meteorology,"
        was discussed.

     t  The UN General Assembly required action of WMO in the  study  of marine
        pollution (Resolution  2467B:   XXIII).

     •  The International Oceanographic Commission (IOC) at its Sixth Session
        in September 1969 adopted a  general plan and implementation  program
        of IGOSS.

     •  WMO was represented by an observer at the First Session of the UN
        Conference on the Human Environment Preparatory Committee Meeting  in
        New York in March 1970 to draw up guidelines for a  conference agenda.

     •  The Executive Committee of the Panel of Experts on  Meteorological
        Aspects of Air Pollution, at its First Session, 11  to  15 May 1970,
        in Geneva, estimated that about 10 baseline stations would be needed.

     9  At an FAO Technical Conference on Marine Pollution  in  Rome in
        December 1970, it was  suggested that the atmospheric baseline
        stations should include the  ocean environment.

     •  At the second session  of the Preparatory Committee  in  Geneva in
        February 1971, WMO offered to host a session of the intergovernmental
        working group on environmental monitoring.   This session  was held at
        WMO headquarters in Geneva in August 1971.

     •  The Executive Committee Panel of Experts on Meteorological Aspects
        of Air Pollution held  its Third Session in EPA facilities in Raleigh,
        North Carolina in April 1972.  It was noted at that meeting  that six
        members had expressed  an interest in a WMO network  of  stations for
        the measurement of background air pollution.

     •  The 1972 Stockholm Conference gave WMO the responsibility to estab-
        lish 10 baseline stations, remote from all  pollution sources, to
        monitor global trends  of atmospheric constituents and  properties.
        WMO was also given the responsibility to set up not less  than 100
        regional monitoring stations.
                                    83

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•  WMO was represented at the second session of the International
   Coordinating Council for the Man and the Biosphere (MAB)  Program
   of UNESCO held in Paris in April 1973 where the development of  MAB
   was reviewed.

•  A Joint WMO/WHO Technical Conference on the Observation and Measure-
   ment of Atmospheric Pollution was held in Helsinki,  Finland in  July
   and August of 1973.  They met regarding background stations, and the
   Conference was supported by UNEP.

•  A Second Session of the Joint IOC/WMO Planning Group for IGOSS  met in
   Geneva in August 1973, and outlined and approved an  operational  plan
   for an IGOSS Pilot Project for Marine Pollution Monitoring.

•  A Technical Committee for Air Quality under the International Organi-
   zation for Standardization (IOS) met in Washington,  D.C.  in Septem-
   ber 1973.  WMO participated with IOS in setting standards for wind
   shields used on measurement devices which measure sulfur oxides,
   carbon monoxide, and particulate matter.

t  A WMO consultant visited 11 countries in Region I (Africa) and  Region
   II (Asia) during the latter part of 1975 to initiate the establish-
   ment of regional atmospheric pollution stations.   This  followed a
   1974 visit in which advice was given on siting, instrumentation, and
   operation of regional stations, and training personnel  for the
   regional stations.

t  A research and training objectives meeting of MAB's  Pollution
   Monitoring and Research Project was held in Moscow in April  1974.

t  As a result of an intergovernmental meeting in Barcelona in January
   and February 1975, concerning protection of the Mediterranean Sea,
   IOC and WMO will implement baseline studies by monitoring petroleum
   hydrocarbons in the marine waters.  This will be done within the
   framework of an IGOSS Pilot Project on Marine Pollution.

t  The Fourth Joint Session of the Working Committee for IGOSS and the
   Executive Committee Panel of Experts on Meteorological  Aspects  of
   Ocean Affairs met in Paris in February 1975.  There  the relevant
   activities of IOC and WMO regarding the Pilot Project on Marine
   Pollution Monitoring were reviewed.

•  The Seventh World Meteorological Congress met in Geneva in 1975 and
   noted the concept that the ocean and the atmosphere  constitute  an
   inseparable whole in the marine physical environment.

•  There was a meeting of experts in Raleigh, North Carolina in Septem-
   ber 1975 regarding turbidity measurement.  The meeting  was requested
   by the Executive Committee of the Panel of Experts on Environmental
   Pollution specifically to consider the suitability and  availability
   of sunphotometers.
                               84

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     •  A joint WMO/IOC task team met in Grenoble, France in September 1975
        to discuss monitoring of marine pollution, especially methods for
        measuring hydrocarbons entering the sea from the air.  That same
        month IOC, WMO, and UNEP consulted in Malta concerning the coordina-
        tion of projects in the Mediterranean Sea.

     •  A WMO consultant visited Kenya in September and October 1975
        regarding the placement of a baseline station on Mt. Kenya.

     The primary strategy for WMO is rendering benefits in the form of
technical assistance (discretionary) and increasingly in the form of
information (nondiscretionary).   It issues agreed-to regulations for stan-
dard instruments and methods and is also heavily involved in the cultivation
of understanding and attitudes.
                                     85

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY XIII
Caldwell, Lynton K.:   In Defense of Earth:   International  Protection of the
     Biosphere.   Indiana University Press,  Bloomington,  1972.

Davies, David Arthur:   The Role of the WMO  in Environmental  Issues.   In David
     A. Kay and Eugene B. Skolnikoff (eds.),  World Eco-Crisis:   International
     Organizations in Response.  University of Wisconsin Press,  Madison,
     1972, pp. 161-170.

U.S. Senate:   1972 Survey of Environmental  Activities of Environmental
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G.  Magnuson for the
     Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp. 79-81.

Wall en, C.C.:  Special Environmental Report No.  4.   A Brief  Survey of
     Meteorology as Related to the Biosphere.  WMO-No,  372,  Geneva,  1974.

World Meteorological  Organization:  Structure and Terms  of Reference of Tech-
     nical Commissions.   General Regulations.  Annex III.  Regulation 172,
     Geneva,  [no date),  pp. 83-91.

       :  A Brief Survey of the Activities of the World Meteorological
     Organization Relating to Human Environment.   Geneva,  June 1970.

    __:  Meteorology and the Human Environment.   WMO-No.  313,  Geneva, 1971.
         Special Environmental Report No.  2.   Selected Papers on Meteorology
     as Related to the Human Environment.   WMO-No.  312,  Geneva, 1971.

    __:  Weather and Man, the Role of Meteorology in Economic Development.
     WMO-No. 143, Geneva, 1964, pp. 73-74.

    _:  Meteorology and Ocean Affairs.   WMO Bulletin.   Vol.  XIX, No.  3,
     July 1969, pp. 165-170.

    __:  Air Pollution Meteorology.  WMO Bulletin.   Vol. XVIII, No. 4,
     October 1969, pp. 230-232.

    _:  WMO and the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
     WMO Bulletin.  Vol. XX, No. 1, January 1970, pp. 2-5, 26.

    __:  Meteorology and Ocean Affairs.   WMO Bulletin.   Vol.  XIX, No.  3,
     July 1970, pp. 185-188.
                                     86

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_:   Meteorological  Aspects  of Air Pollution.   WMO  Bulletin.   Vol.  XIX,
 No.  4, October 1970,  pp.  243-244.

	:   Twenty-Five Years of  United  Nations  Activities.   WMO  Bulletin,
 Vol.  XIX,  No.  4,  October  1970, pp.  208-212.

  :   WMO:   What It Is, What  It Does,  How  It Works.  Geneva,  1971.
	:   WMC and the United Nations  Conference  on  the  Human  Environment.
 WMO Bulletin.   Vol.  XXI,  No.  1,  January  1972,  pp.  2-5.

___:   Meteorology and  the Environment.   WMO  Bulletin.   Vol. XXI,  No.  3,
 July 1972,  pp.  166-167.

_:   United  Nations Conference on the  Human Environment.  HMO Bulletin.
 Vol. XXI, No.  4,  October 1972,  pp.  206-210.

	:   Meteorology and  the Environment.   WMO  Bulletin.   Vol. XXII, No. 4,
 October 1973,  p.  233.

_:   Joint IOC/WMO Planning  Group for  IGOSS.   UNO  Bulletin.  Vol. XXIII,
 No.  1,  January 1974,  p.  47.

	:   Measurement of Atmospheric  Pollution.   WMO  Bulletin.  Vol.  XXIII,
 No.  1,  January 1974,  p.  64.

_:   Meteorology and  the Environment.   WMO  Bulletin.   Vol. XXIII, No. 1,
 January 1974,  p.  43.

	:   Meteorology and  the Environment.   HMO  Bulletin.   Vol. XXIII, No. 3,
 July 1974,  p.  172.

	:   Meteorology and  the Environment.   WMO  Bulletin.   Vol. XXIV, No. 2,
 April  1975, p.  127.
_:   Meteorology and  Ocean  Affairs.  WMO  Bulletin.  Vol. XXIV, No. 3,
 July 1975,  pp.  177,  179.

	:   Commission  for Marine  Meteorology.   WMO Bulletin.  Vol. XXIV, No. 4,
 October 1975, p.  245.

_:   Pollution Monitoring and  Research.   HMO Bulletin.  Vol. XXIV, No. 4,
 October 1975, p.  262.

	:   Meteorological Applications  and the  Environment.  WMO Bulletin.
 Vol.  XXV, No. 1,  January 1976, pp. 30, 39.

__:   Meteorology and  Ocean  Affairs.  WMO  Bulletin.  Vol. XXV, No. 3,
 July 1976,  p. 181.

	:   Adnrini strative Pi rectory.  Part 2.   Geneva,  [no date].
                                 87

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                                    XIV

                  FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO)


Background and Structure

     In 1943 the UN Conference on Food and Agriculture met at Hot Springs,
Virginia and recommended actions concerning food and agriculture.   Forty-four
nations were represented.   An Interim Commission of representatives of the
44 nations was established in Washington,  D.C.  to design an organization to
assure that these recommendations were implemented.   This  work resulted in
a conference of 42 nations in Quebec in October 1945 at which FAO was  formed.
FAO was the first of the permanent specialized  agencies of the UN.   On
1 February 1946 there were 42 members of FAO.   There are now 144 members.
See Figure 36.

     The purposes of FAO are to:

     •  Raise the level of nutrition and standard of living of the people
        of member nations.

     t  Improve the production and distribution of food and agricultural
        products.

     •  Improve the conditions of rural populations.

     •  Contribute to an expanding world economy.   The use of science  is a
        central aim.

     FAO is composed of a Conference, a Council, and a Director-General and
staff.  Each member nation is represented  on the Council.   Other interna-
tional organizations may be represented at the  Council.  Normally the
Council meets every 2 years and it determines  policy and approves a budget.
The Council consists of 24 member nations  elected by the Conference; either
the Conference or Council  may establish commissions.  The  Director-General  is
appointed by the Conference.  He has full  power to direct the work of  FAO
and to appoint its staff.   Four departments involved in environmental  matters
are:  Economic and Social  Policy, Agriculture,  Fisheries,  and Forestry.  See
Figure 37.

Strategies Used

     FAO experiences a dual environmental  problem.  Some of the activities
FAO encourages result in pollution; other activities FAO is involved in are


                                     88

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affected by pollution.

     Aquatic pollution presents a serious threat to fish.  FAO was actively
involved in the UN Convention on the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by
Oil in 1954.  A global monitoring system was recommended as a result of a
December 1970 FAO Technical Conference on Marine Pollution and Its Effects on
Living Resources and Fishing.

     Also of concern is the contamination of food.   Jointly with WHO, FAO
has established a food standards program with the Economic Commission of
Europe providing a group of experts.  An FAO/WHO "Codex Alimentarius" Com-
mission has been established.

     Pesticide residues from which possible contamination of food may result
are of particular interest to FAO.  This represents one of FAO's dual prob-
lems:   it encourages pesticide use but is also concerned with pesticide
contamination.  This concern has resulted in the publication of "Guidelines
for the Drafting of Legislation for the Registration for the Marketing and
Sale of Pesticides."  In 1964, FAO developed a computerized system for use
in optimizing the application of fertilizer and herbicides based upon soil
properties so as to prevent pollution.  FAO has studied water quality
criteria for fish as related to pesticide pollution and pulp and paper mill
effluent.

     FAO is involved in preparing a world soil map.  One potential use of
this map is matching possible radioactive pollution with higher calcium
content in the soil.  FAO has assisted members in land-use planning
particularly through its European Forestry and Agricultural Commissions.

     Pollution abatement assistance is given to member nations by means of
seminars.  Emissions from forest burning have been a concern.  The regional
fores try,commissions of FAO have rendered benefits through their publica-
tions  and seminars and by providing the services of field experts.
                                    91

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY XIV
Food and Agriculture Organization:   FAQ:   Cornerstone for a House of Life.
     Washington, D.C., 1946.

      :  Constitution, Rules Adopted by the Conference,  Financial Regulations
     and Rules of Procedure for the Council.  Rome, September 1958.

	:  The Methodology of Conservation  of Forest Genetic Resources:   Report
     on a Pilot Study.  Rome, 1975.

	:  Report of the Ad Hoc Government  Consultation on Pesticides  in
     Agriculture and Public Health.  Meeting held in Rome, April  1975.  Rome,
     1975.

      :  Pollutants in the Aquatic Environment:   Detection, Measurement, and
     Monitoring.  Rome, 1976.

	:  Report of the Council of FAQ.   Sixty-Ninth Session, Rome,
     12-16 July 1976.  Rome, 1976.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the  United  Nations  and United Nations
     Environment Program:  Report of the  Advisory Committee on Marine
     Resources Research:  Working Party on Marine Mammals.  Food  and Agri-
     culture Organization, Rome, March 1977.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson for the
     Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972, pp.  68-73.
                                    92

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                                    XV

                 INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA)
Background and Structure

     The International Atomic Energy Agency was established on 26 October
1956 in New York City.  Eighty-one nations unanimously approved a statute
creating the organization.  Arrangements were made by a Preparatory Commis-
sion of 18 nations to bring it into operation.  These arrangements were made
at a Statute Conference meeting in New York and Vienna, respectively, in
1956 and 1957.  There are 110 member nations.  See Figure 38.

     The Agency's purpose is to promote the use of atomic energy for peace-
ful uses.  It has a General Conference, a Board of Governors, and a Secre-
tariat headed by a Director-General.  The General Conference is a meeting of
all member nations taking place once a year and lasting about a week.  They
review the work of the IAEA and approve the annual budget.  The Board of
Governors consists of 25 government representatives and meets four times a
year.  The Board approves programs and decisions and submits the budget to
the Conference.  The Secretariat prepares the programs and budgets for
approval.  It carries out the approved programs.  There are about 1,000
staff members of the Secretariat.   Each year, about 40 different advisory
groups meet to consider specific problems.  See Figure 39 for more detail.

Strategies Used

     From 1961 through 1971, IAEA published 27 technical documents concerning
nuclear waste management; IAEA also considers ways to use nuclear techniques
to benefit the environment.  One way is to provide alternatives to chemical
food preservatives.  A number of nations have cleared several irradiated
food products for human consumption.

     The list of possible benefits to the environment goes on.   Isotopes can
be used for tracing underground water.  Nuclear techniques may offer novel
solutions to water treatment.   Neutron activation is applicable to the
measurement of the elemental composition of samples of air.

     The IAEA addresses the problems of waste produced at nuclear establish-
ments.  Three philosophies for solution are:   dilute and disperse, delay and
decay, and concentrate and contain.  Also, fast breeder reactors are seen
as a panacea to the problem of depleting our uranium reserves.
                                    93

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     In April 1970 IAEA in cooperation with the European Atomic Energy
Community initiated an International  Nuclear Information System.   As of
July 1971, 40 member nations and 11  international  organizations agreed to
prepare available nuclear information for processing with subsequent distri-
bution to members by IAEA.

     In November 1970, a panel  convened to prepare a report which recommended
the IAEA establish an international  register of all  substantial releases
of radioactive wastes into the  seas  or oceans.   IAEA and WHO are considering
setting up a central depository for  data on radioactivity released into the
environment.  In a joint venture IAEA, UNESCO,  the Monegasque Government,
and the Oceanographic Institute of Monaco are studying the effects of radio-
activity on marine life at the  International Laboratory of Marine Radioac-
tivity,

     An intergovernmental conference was held in London from 30 October to
13 November 1972 in response to a recommendation of the UN Conference on the
Human Environment.  A Convention on  the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping Wastes and Other Matter was  adopted there.  Under this convention,
IAEA was entrusted with responsibility to prohibit the dumping of high-level
radioactive matter at sea.  It  was also entrusted with the responsibility
for requiring a prior permit for the dumping of all  other radioactive matter
at sea.

     IAEA primarily cultivates  understanding and attitudes but also renders
benefits in the form of technical information.   It has recently been given
regulatory responsibilities through  legislative enactment, although the
strategy for implementation is  unclear.
                                     96

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                               BIBLIOGRAPHY XV
International Atomic Energy Agency:
     Vienna, after 1971.
Nuclear Energy and_the Environment,
	:  The Agency's Extended Programme for 1973 Relating to the
     Environment.  Memorandum by the Director-General.  Vienna,
     29 January, 1973.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental Activities ofInternational
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson
     for the Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972,
     pp. 55-57.
                                     97

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                                    XVI

                  UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL,  SCIENTIFIC,
                    AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION  (UNESCO)


Background and Structure

     During 1 to 16 November 1945 representatives of 44 nations met. in
London to write the constitution for the UN Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO).   Seven of the  original  51  signatories of the
UN Charter were not present:  Ethiopia, Costa  Rica,  Honduras,  Paraguay,  the
Soviet Union, Byelorussia, and the Ukraine. Venezuela  came as an observer.
The constitution was adopted on November 16.   An agreement between UNESCO
and the UN was approved by the General Assembly at its  October-December  1946
session.  This established UNESCO as a specialized agency  of the UN.  Current
membership in UNESCO numbers 142.  See Figure  40.

     UNESCO promotes collaboration among nations; education, science, and
culture are used to further respect for justice, law, and  human rights.   In
the international arena, UNESCO is responsible for programs of primary,
secondary, and higher education; fundamental adult education;  teacher train-
ing; mass communications; and scientific research and training.

     UNESCO consists of a General Conference,  an Executive Board, and a
Secretariat.  Each member nation has up to five delegates  representing it on
the General Conference.   Each member has one vote.  The Executive Board
consists of 24 members elected by the General  Conference.   The Board prepares
the agenda for the General Conference.  The Secretariat consists of a
Director-General and a staff.  The Director-General  is  nominated by the
Executive Board and appointed by the General Conference for a  6-year term.
See Figure 41 for more detail.

     Each member is required to arrange the establishment  of a national  com-
mission or cooperating body.  These bodies provide a liaison between UNESCO
and the scientific, educational, and cultural  life of the  respective nation.
This requirement is unique for it requires the development of  an organization
within the member nations.  UNESCO has sanctioned and taken action to
protect cultural monuments.

     In 1960, the International  Oceanographic  Commission (IOC) was estab-
lished as a semi autonomous subsidiary of UNESCO.  IOC has  74 member nations
and promotes "scientific investigation with a  view to  learning more about
the nature and resources of the oceans through the concerted actions of  its
members."  See Figure 42.
                                     98

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     In 1975, the UNESCO General  Conference resolved that Zionism was a
racist philosophy.  In protest, the United States stopped funding UNESCO.
Only in 1977 has serious consideration by the U.S.  Congress  been given to
funding UNESCO again.

Strategies Used

     UNESCO and France sponsored  a conference at Fontainebleau in 1948 that
led to the establishment of a nongovernmental organization,  the International
Union for Conservation of Nature  and Natural  Resources (IUCN).  IUCN has
historically been the primary international organization concerned with
protecting the natural environment.

     IOC and UNESCO's Office of Oceanography have played a coordinating role
for international scientific cooperation regarding  the seas.   UNESCO and
IOC sponsored the International Indian Ocean Expedition of 1959-19(56 with
the participation of 23 nations,  FAO, and WHO.   UNESCO and India established
the Indian Ocean Biological Center.  UNESCO and IOC have sponsored training
programs concerning oceanography  and fisheries.   UNESCO and  FAO jointly
publish a quarterly newsletter, International Marine Science.

     The biosphere first became a subject of social concern  with a resolution
adopted in November 1966 at the Fourteenth Session  of the General Conference
of UNESCO.  As a result, UNESCO organized an Intergovernmental Conference  of
Experts on the Scientific Basis for Rational  Use and Conservation of the
Resources of the Biosphere which  met in Paris from 4 to 13 September 1968.
This Conference is known as the Biosphere Conference.  The UN, FAO, WHO,
IUCN, and the International Biological Program assisted UNESCO with this
Conference.  The Biosphere Conference went beyond the typical  exchanging of
views and experience by adopting  20 recommendations for future action.  These
recommendations applied to participating governments, the UN system, and
UNESCO.

     A proposal for a Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Program was  approved in
October 1970 at the Sixteenth Session of UNESCO's General Conference.  This
Program resulted from a plan developed by the Secretariat, UNESCO's Advisory
Committee on Natural Resources Research, and five working groups of experts.
The MAB Program contains 23 projects.  As an example, Project 14 is concerned
with "Research on Environmental Pollution and Its Effects on the Biosphere."
UNESCO acts as a catalyst in coordinating the execution of these projects
with other specialized UN agencies and with nongovernmental  organizations.

     In conjunction with its interest in environmental matters related to
forests and arid zones, UNESCO has pursued an active interest in protecting
cultural monuments.  As an example, in 1964 UNESCO was asked by the Egyptian
Government to salvage monuments doomed to be inundated by water of Lake
Nasser when the Aswan High Dam was finished.   UNESCO assembled teams of
scientists, engineers, and stonecutters and accomplished the largest archae-
ological reconstruction ever undertaken.  Fifty-two nations  contributed to
this effort.
                                    102

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     The primary strategy used by UNESCO is to cultivate understanding
and attitudes through conferences, publications, and cooperative studies
                                    103

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY XVI
Blaisdell, Donald C.:  International Organization.  Ronald Press Co.,
     New York, 1966, pp".  135, 156.

Laves, Walter H.C. and Charles A. Thomson:  UNESCO:   Purpose, Progress,
     Prospects.  Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1957.  Kraus
     Reprint Company, New York, 1968.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization:
     International Co-ordinating Council of the Programme on Man and
     the Biosphere (MAB).  MAB Report Series No.  38, Paris, January 1976,

	:   Programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB), Task Force on
     Project 14:  Research on Environmental Pollution and its Effects
     on the Biosphere.  MAB Report Series No.  32, Paris, 1976.

	:   A Comprehensive Plan for the Global Investigation of Pollution
     in the Marine Environment and Baseline Study Guidelines, Inter-
     governmental Oceanographic Commission Technical Series 14, Paris,
     1976.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental_Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. Magnuson
     for the Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972,
     pp. 48-54.
                                     104

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                                    XVII

                  INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION (ILO)
Background and Structure

     The International Labor Organization (ILO) was founded in 1919 and
signed an agreement with the UN on 30 May 1946 to be a specialized agency
of the UN.  There are 134 members of the ILO.  See Figure 43.

     ILO has a Governing Body composed of government, employer, and worker
members; a General Conference of representatives of the member nations; and
an International Labor Office controlled by the Governing Body.  The
Director-General of the International Labor Office is appointed by the
Governing Body.  The Conference considers and concludes international con-
ventions and resolutions.  The Governing Body makes decisions regarding
these resolutions leading to actions by the Director-General.  See Figure 44.

Strategies Used

     ILO got involved in exposures of workers to pollution at the Sixth
Meeting of the Joint ILO-WHO Committee on Occupational Health in 1969.
The purpose of this meeting was to review standards of exposure to air-
borne substances.

     The Fifty-Fourth Session of the International Labor Conference adopted
a resolution in June 1970 concerning ILO participation in the Stockholm
Conference.  The importance of the working environment was to be stressed
within the total environmental context.

     The Fifty-Seventh Session of the International Labor Conference adopted
a resolution in 1972 that ILO was to work at improving the environment of
workers.

     The 189th Session of the ILO Governing Body decided during February
and March 1973 to convene a Meeting of Experts on Control of Atmosphere
Pollution in the Working Environment.  There were three Meetings of Experts
held during 1973 and 1974 to prepare recommendations for an international
instrument on the subject.  The first meeting in November 1973 addressed
possible international regulations on the safe use of asbestos.

     The 191st Session of the ILO Governing Body decided in November 1973,
to place the working environment on the agenda for the Sixty-First Session
                                    105

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of the International Labor Conference.   There were two aspects:   (1) air
pollution and (2) noise and vibration.   This subject was the sixth item on
the agenda.

     The 192nd Session of the Governing Body decided in February and March
1974 to convene a Meeting of Experts on Noise and Vibration in the Working
Environment.  The Fifty-Ninth Session of the International  Labor Conference
adopted a resolution in 1974 stressing  the global aspect of the  environment
and the need to protect the worker in the workplace from stresses such as
air pollution and noise.,

     A Meeting of Experts on Noise and  Vibration in the Working  Environment
took place in Turin, Italy 2 to 10 December 1974.  The experts considered
the development of exposure standards from available criteria, the control
and prevention of noise and vibration,  and suggestions of action at the
plant, national, and international levels.  They drew up proposals regarding
a code of practice.  The ILO Governing  Body at its 195th Session in Geneva,
from 4 to 7 March 1976, took note of the "Report on the Meeting  of Experts
on Noise and Vibration in the Working Environr.ient."

     ILO uses legislative enactment to  influence control of pollution with
the use of another strategy, cultivation of understanding and attitudes.
Through meetings of experts and the resulting reports, the ILO promotes
awareness of problems on a global scale.
                                    108

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                              BIBLIOGRAPHY XVII
International Labour Office:  The International Labour Code, 1951.
     The Constitution of the ILO.  Geneva, 1952, pp. 3-25.

	:  Official Bulletin.  Vol. 58, Series A, No.  2, 1975, pp.  139, 161
	:   Activities_ of_the ILO. 1975.  Report of the Director-General
     to the International Labour Conference, Geneva, 1976.

	:   Working Environment.  Report VI (2).  International Labour
     Conference, Reports of the 61st Session, Geneva, 1976.

U.S. Senate:  1972 Survey of Environmental  Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G.  Magnuson
     for the Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C.> February 1972,
     pp. 63-65.
                                     109

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                                   XVIII

                         LAW OF THE SEA CONFERENCE
Background and Structure

     The UN General Assembly convened two Law of the Sea Conferences,
one in 1958 and the other in 1960, following 10 years of preparation by
the UN International Law Commission.   The first Conference dealt with
territorial seas, contiguous coastal  zones, the high seas, fishing and
conservation of living resources, and the continental shelf.   The second
Conference dealt with the breadth of the territorial sea and  fishing limits.
Only the first Conference produced legal instruments.

     Since then, an awareness of pollution of the seas has developed.  Along
with this trend, there have been steady increases in fish catches, oil
production, and mineral explorations.

Strategies Used

     To address some of the problems resulting from these trends the UN
General Assembly resolved to convene the Third UN Conference  on the Law of
the Sea on 17 December 1970.  The following organizations were invited to
assist in preparing for the conference:  UNESCO and its International Ocean-
ographic Commission, FAO and its Committee on Fisheries, WHO, IMCO, WMO, and
IAEA.

     The Third Conference opened in New York on 3 December 1973.  The
Conference had the mandate to produce a single comprehensive  convention
through consensus.  All efforts at consensus were exhausted prior to voting,
and there were cooling-off periods between sessions prior to  any voting.

     A substantive session of the Conference followed in Caracas, Venezuela
from 20 to 29 June 1974..  Three committees were established;  one worked on a
marine pollution and scientific research draft which was originally prepared
by a UN Sea-Bed Committee in 1968.  A second substantive session began in
Geneva on 17 March 1975 at which a complete negotiating text  was formulated.

     A major issue in the text was defining the territorial sea.  Another
issue was the protection and preservation of the marine environment.  The
text provided a definition of "pollution of the marine environment" that
placed the obligation of protection from pollution on the nations:  they
would be responsible for their territory, including vessels and aircraft
registered with the respective nations.  Offshore terminals would also
                                     no

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come under the nation's jurisdiction.  Disputes would be settled by a
proposed International Sea-Bed Authority.

     The Conference opened its Fourth Session in New York on 15 March 1976.
A revised four-part text, prepared by the chairpersons of the three Commit-
tees, was presented to the Conference as a basis for negotiation.  The third
part of this revised text concerned the environment, research, and technol-
ogy.  It recommended that, nations would have varying powers to enforce anti-
pollution regulations; these regulations would depend on which sea areas
were involved and whether the nation was the country of registry, a coastal
nation, or a port nation.  The proposed sea areas were a 19-kilometer
territorial sea, a contiguous zone extending up to 39 kilometers from shore,
a 320-kilometer economic zone, the continental shelf underlying these areas,
archipelagic waters, and the high seas.  An economic zone would give national
rights to the resources located therein, but navigational rights would be
given to all nations.   The next session of the Conference was held in New
York from 2 August to 17 September 1976.

     A sequence of strategies was used by the UN.  First, the General
Assembly passed a resolution to establish a conference which was to draw up
a convention; thus legislative enactment led to cultivation of understanding
and attitudes.  The next step was to lead to adoption of the convention as
a statute by the General Assembly, thus, legislative enactment.  This
action would lead to two other strategies, adjudication for the high seas
and territorial jurisdiction for the other categories of the seas.
                                     Ill

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                             BIBLIOGRAPHY XVIII
Birnie, Patricia:   A Role in Search of an Organization.   A working
     paper for the Third Session of the Third UN Conference on the
     Law of the Sea, 17 March - 10 May 1975.   Sierra Club Office of
     International Environmental Affairs, New York.

Di Bari, Antonia.   International _Les_al_ Aspec ts^ of_ Marine Poll utio n
     Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche.   Rome,  T977.

United Nations:  The Law of the Sea.   Background papers.   Office of
     Public Information, United Nations,  New  York, May 1974.

         The Law of the Sea.  UN Monthly Chronicle.   Vol. XI,  No. 7,
     July 1974.

      :   Proposals for Future Negotiations Drafted at Law of Sea
     Conference.   UNJ^XoPJcll-   Vol.  XII, No.  6,  June 1975.
         Indian Ocean Conference Advocated:   Committee to Reconvene in
    _
     September.  UN Chronicle.   Vol.  XII,  Part I,  Mo.  7,  July 1975.

    __ :   The Law of the Sea.   Background papers.   Office  of Public
     Information, United Nations, New York,  March  1976.

    ___ :   Appeal for Compromise Issued as Crucial  Fourth Session of
     Law of Sea Conference Gets Under Way.   UN Chronicle.   Vol. XIII,
     No. 4, April 1976.

    __ :   Law of Sea Conference to Consider Revised Proposals
     at Next Session, 2 August - 17 September.  UN Chronicle.  Vol.  XIII,
     No. 6, June 1976.
                                    112

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                                    XIX

                           GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barros, James, and Douglas M. Johnston:  The International Law of Pollution.
     The Free Press, Nev.' York, 1974.

Blaisdell, Donald C.:  International Organization.  Ronald Press Company,
     New York, 1966.

Blake, Robert 0.:  A Strategy for American Leadership in International
     Environmental Action.  An internal U.S. Environmental Protection
     Agency report [unpublished], Washington, D.C., January 1977.

Buehrig, Edward H.:  The International Pattern of Authority.  World
     Politics.  Vol. XVII, No. 3, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
     N.J., April 1965.

	:  The Relations of States and International Organizations.  A
     syllabus.  Indiana University  [unpublished], bloomington, 1976.

Buehring, W.A.S W.K. Foell, and R.L. Keeney:  Energy Environment Management:
     Application of Decision Analysis.  International Institute for Applied
     Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 1976.

Caldwell, Lynton K.:  Environment:  A Challenge for Modern Society.  The
     Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y., 1970.

         In Defense of Earth:  International Protection pf_th_e_Blpspjiere.
     Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1972.

Caldwell, Lynton K., and Toufig A. Siddiqi:  Topic 12:  International
     Institutions and Arrangements.  Envi ronmental Policy, Law and
     Administration:  A Guide to Advanced^ S_tudy_.  Indiana University,
     School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Bloomington, 1974.

Care of the Environment in Scandinavia.  A special issue of Scandinavian
     Review.  Vol. 64, No. 4, December 1976.

Daly, Herman E. (ed.):  Toward a Steady-State Economy.  W.H. Freeman and
     Company, San Francisco, 1973.
                                    113

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Environment Canada:  An Overview of International Intergovernmental
     Relations.  Prepared by the Liaison and Coordination Directorate.
     Department of Fisheries and the Environment, Montreal, 28 April, 1977.

Hal stead, Bruce W.:  A Golden Guide to Environmental Organ vzatjj)ns.
     Western Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1972.

Hardin, Garrett, and John Baden:  Managing the. Commons.   W.H.  Freeman and
     Companys San Francisco, 1977.

Hargrove, John Lawrence:  Law, Institutions and the Global Environment.
     Oceana Publications, Inc., Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., 1972.

Kay, David, and Eugene B, Skolnikoff (eds.):  World Eco-Crisis;  Inter-
     nationa] Orgcmi_zaturns Jn JResporiSG.  University of Wisconsin Press,
     Madison, 1972. ~

Kennan, George F.:  To Prevent a World Wasteland:  A Proposal.  Foreign
               Vol. 48, No. 3, April 1970, pp.  401-413.

         After the Cold War:  American Foreign Policy in the 1970's.
     Fp£ej5_n_Affajrs_.  Vol. 51, No. 1, October 1972, pp.  210-227.

McLin, Jon:  The Group of 77.   American Universities Field StaffReports.
     West European Series Q, Vol.  XI, No.  3~, American Universities Field
     Staff, Inc., Hanover, N.H., April 1976.

National Academy of Sciences:   I ns titutiona1 Arrangements fpr_Internationa 1
     Environmental Cooperation.  A report to the Department of State by the
     Committee for International Environmental Programs,  Environmental
     Studies Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.> 1972.

Peas lee, Amos J.:  Internati onal Governmental Organizations _ Constituti onal
     Documents.  Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague", 1974.

Ruster, B., and B. Simma:  International  Protectipn_pf the Enyi rpnnienj>-
     Treaties and Related Documents.  Vol.  VI, Oceana Publications, Inc.,
     Dobbs Ferry, N~,Y., 1976.  "

Shaaban, Marian:  Survey of Strategies of International  Governmental
     Organizations in the Area of Environmental Protection.  A general
     review of sources and indexes.  Indiana University  Library
     [unpublished], Bloomington, 27 September 1976.

Teclaff, Ludwik, and Albert E. Utton (eds.):  Internati onal Environmental
     Law.  Praeger Publishers, Inc., New York, 1974.

Tew, E.S. (ed.):  Yearbook of International Organizations--1973.  14th ed.
     Union of International Associations, Brussels,  1972,
                                     114

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Tinbergen, Jan (coordinator), Antony J. Dolman (ed.), Jan van Ettinger
     (director):   RIO:  Reshaping the International Order.  A report to
     the Club of Rome.  B.V. Uitgeversmaatschappij Agon Elsevier, Amsterdam,
     1976, E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, 1976; Signet, The New American
     Library, Inc., New York, 1977.

United Nations:  Basic Facts About the United Nations.  Office of Public
     Information, United Nations, New York/ 1977"

         United Nations System of Organizations.   Office for Inter-Agency
     Affairs and Co-Ordination, United Nations, January 1978.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, arid Cultural Organization:
     Approaches to the Study of International Organizations.  International
     Socia1 Science Journal.  Vol. 29, No. 1, Paris, 1977.

U.S. Congress:  In tern at i p na1 En v i ro nmen ta1 Science.  Proceedings of the
     Joint Colloquium before the Committee on Commerce, United States
     Seriate and the Committee on Science and Astronautics, House of Repre-
     sentatives, Washington, D.C., 25 and 26 May 1971.

U.S. Congressional Research Service:  Treaties jind Other International
     Agreements on Fisheries, Oceanographic _R_esources^_ . and_ WjJdjife_ to
     Wh i c h t he^ _U_n i te d S ta te s I s Pa r ty.  Prepared at the request of Warren
     G. Magnuson, Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., 31 December 1974.

U.S. Department of State:  U.S. Priority Interests in the Envi rorimental
     Activities of International Organizations.  A" Report by the Committee
     on International Environmental Affairs, Task Force III, Washington,
     D.C.. December 1970.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency:  EPA and the Worldwide Struggle to
     Save Our Planet.  Washington, D.C.5 September 1974.

       :  A Global Environmental Concern:  EPA's Scientific Activities
              Program.   Washington, D.C., November 1977,

U.S. Senate:   1972 Survey of Environmental Activities of International
     Organizations.  Prepared at the direction of Warren G. MagnusbnT
     Committee on Commerce, Washington, D.C., February 1972.

         U.S. Participation in International Organizations.  Committee on
     Government Operations, Washington, D.C., February 1977.

Wilson, Thomas W., Jr.:  International Environmental Action, A Global
     Survey.  University Press of Cambridge, Cambridge, Mass., 197*1,"
                                     115

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                               APPENDIX A.
                    ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS SURVEY
CCMS    - Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society
CE      - Council of Europe
CMEA    - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
COMECON - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
EC      - European Communities
ECA     - Economic Commission for Africa
ECE     - Economic Commission for Europe
ECLA    - Economic Commission for Latin America
ECOSOC  - United Nations Economic and Social Council
ECSC    - European Coal arid Steel Community
ECWA    - Economic Commission for Western Asia
EPA     - United States Environmental Protection Agency
ESCAP   - Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
FAO     - Food and Agriculture Organization
GEMS    - Global Environmental Monitoring System
GESAMP  - Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
IAEA    - International Atomic Energy Agency
ICAO    - International Civil Aviation Organization
ICSU    - International Council of Scientific Unions
IDA     - International Development Association
IFC     - International Finance Corporation
IGOSS   - Integrated Global Ocean Station System
ILO     •- International Labor Organization
IMCO    - Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization
IOC     - International Oceanographic Commission
IDS     - International Organization for Standardization
IRS     - International Referral Service
IUCN    - International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
            Resources
KAB     - Man and the Biosphere Program
NATO    - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO     - Nongovernmental Organization
OAS     - Organization of American States
OECD    - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OEEC    - Organization for European Economic Cooperation
PAHO    - Pan American Health Organization
PCB     - Polychlorinated Biphenols
SCOPE   - Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment
UN      - United Nations
UNEP    - United Nations Environment Program
UNESCO  - United Nations Educational, Scientific, end Cultural Organization
UNRC    - United Nations Regional Commissions
WB      - World Bank Group
WHO     - World Health Organization
WMO     - World Meteorological Organization
WWW     - World Weather Watch
                                     116

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X
X

X
X
X

X



X
X
X



X


Bolivia



X
X
X

X

X
X





X




X


s
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X


X
X
X
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Brazil
X
X
X
X
X
X
X






X

X
X





X

Bulgaria
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X


X
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X
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X
X
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Cameroon
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X

X
X
X
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X
Canada
X


X
X
X
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X






X




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Comoros
X
X
X
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Democratic
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X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X

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119

-------

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UN REGIONAL
COMMISSIONS

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X
X
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X
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X




X


Equatorial
Guinea
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X




X


Ethiopia
X
X

X

X

X

X






X




X


-H
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
X
Finland
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X


X
France
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X
X
X




X


c
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X

X
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Gambia

X
X

X
X
X






X
X
X
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Germany, East
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X

X
X
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X
Germany, West
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X
X
X




X


,
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X

X
X

X

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X
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120

-------

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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X


Guinea
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X






X




X


Guinea-
Bissau
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X




X




X


1
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X
X
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X
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X
X
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X




X
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Honduras
X
X
X
X
X
X
X






X

X
X





X

Hungary
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X
X
X
X

X

X


X
Iceland
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X


X

X
X
X




X


-2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X


X

X
X
X




X


Indonesia
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X


X

X
X
X




X


H
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X




X
X
X




X


5-1
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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121

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X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X



X
X
X
X

X
X
X


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X
X
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X
X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X
X
X
X






X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
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Jordan
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X



X
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X

X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
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Korea, South
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X




X
X
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Kuwait
X
X
X
X
X
X

X

X


X



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X
X
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X
X
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X
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Lebanon
X

X
X

X

X
X
X
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Lesotho
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x;
X




X
x;




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I
122

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UN REGIONAL
COMMISSIONS

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1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X




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Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya















X








Liechtenstein
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X



X

X
X

X
X
X


X
1
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X
X
X




X


Madagascar
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X



X

X




X


Malawi
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X


X


X
X




X


Malaysia
X


X

X
X
X

X






X




X


Maldives
X
X
X
X
X
X

X

X
X




X
X




X


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X
X
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X
X
X
X






X


X

X


X


Malta
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X





X




X


Mauritania
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X




X
X




X


Mauritius
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X


X
X
X
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Mexico


X


X









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Monaco

X
X
X
X
X






X


X
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Mongolia
123

-------

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UN REGIONAL
COMMISSIONS

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X
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X
X
X
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X
Netherlands
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X


X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X



X

X
X

X

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X
1
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X
X
X
X
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X




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1
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
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X

X
X
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X


Pakistan
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
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124

-------

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X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
X
X
X
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Senegal
125

-------

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UN REGIONAL
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126

-------

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-------
                               APPENDIX C.
         LOCATION OF HEADQUARTERS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
                        ADDRESSED IN THIS SURVEY
Organization ]_/

UN
OdCD
NATO/CCMS
European Communities
Council of Europe
CMEA
OAS
ECOSOC
   Regional Commissions
      ECE
      ESCAP
      ECLA
      ECA
      ECWA
IMCO
WB
UNEP
WHO
   Regional Offices
      Africa
      Eastern Mediterranean
      Europe
      Southeast Asia
      Western Pacific
      Americas (PAHO)
         Area Offices
            I
            II
            III
            IV
            V
            VI
WMO
FAO
IAEA
UNESCO
   IOC
ILO
     Location

New York City, New York
Paris, France
Brussels, Belgium
Brussels, Belgium
Strasbourg, France
Moscow, Russia
Washington, D.C.
New York City., New York

Geneva, Switzerland
Bangkok, Thailand
Caracas, Venezuela
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Beirut, Lebanon
London, England
Washington, D.C.
Nairobi, Kenya
Geneva, Switzerland

Brazzaville, Congo
Alexandria, Egypt
Copenhagen, Denmark
New Delhi, India
Manila, the Philippine Islands
Washington, D.C.

Caracas, Venezuela
Mexico City, Mexico
Guatemala City, Guatemala
Lima, Peru
Brasilia, Brazil
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Geneva, Switzerland
Rome, Italy
Vienna, Austria
Paris, France
Paris, France
Geneva, Switzerland
     \l See Appendix A for Abbreviations
                                     129

-------
                             POLICY ISSUE
     This report ranks international organizations by their potential
effectiveness in abating transnational pollution.  This ranking is
based on four tenets:

     •  Consider organizations with a small number of member nations
        first, for agreement and action are reached less effectively in
        international organizations with a large number of members where
        national interests are numerous.

     •  Consider organizations that represent industrialized and maritime
        nations first, for they are the primary source of pollution and
        have the means to abate pollution.

     •  Consider organizations unaffiliated with the UN first, for the
        UN's voting power is swayed away from pollution abatement in the
        interest of economic development.

     a  Consider organizations that represent the industrialized democ-*
        racies before organizations that represent the Soviet Union and
        the socialist nations and these, in turn, before organizations
        that represent the developing nations, for this is the ranking
        of interest in pollution abatement.

     The resulting ranking is:

1.  Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
2.  North Atlantic Treaty Organization/Committee on the Challenges
      of Modern Society
3.  European Communities (Common Market)
4.  Council of Europe
5.  Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
6.  Organization of American States
7.  United Nations Regional  Commissions/Economic Commission for Europe
8.  Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization
9.  World Bank Group
10. United Nations Environment Program
11. World Health Organization/Pan American Health Organization
12. World Meteorological Organization
13. Food and Agriculture Organization
14. International  Atomic Energy Agency
15. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization/
      International Oceanographic Commission
16. International  Labor Organization.
                                 131

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POLICY ISSUE (continued)
     The tenets were not verified.   A disclaimer states that this approval
does riot necessarily signify the policies and views of EPA.

     This survey concludes that international organizations  do not publicly
disclose evaluations of their effectiveness in abating pollution.
                                  132

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
  EPA-600/9-78-033
                              2.
                                                            3 RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
 A Survey  of  International Intergovernmental Organiza-
 tions:  The  Strategies That They  Use to Abate Pollution
                                                            5 REPORT DATE
7. AUTHOR(S)
 Melvin L. Myers
                                 6 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
                                                            8 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
 Office of Research and Development
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
 Washington,  D.C.  20460
                                    November  1978 issuing date
                                                            10 PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                                            11 CONTRACT/GRANT NO
                                 13 TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                 ____ _  _____
                                 14 SPONSORTNG^AGENCY'CODE
                                   EPA/600/00
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
 Phone:   (202) 755-2532, Washington,  D.C.
16. ABSTRACT
        A handbook for people involved  in and being introduced to international
 environmental  administration and assistance has been unavailable to date.  This
 survey serves  as  such a handbook,  addressing international  intergovernmental  organiza-
 tions and the  strategies they use  to abate pollution.

        It addresses 16 international organizations and  the  Lav/ of the Sea Conference
 and provides a ranking of organizations  based on their  potential effectiveness  in
 abating pollution.   The report surveys  the background and structure of and the
 strategies used  by each organization.   A bib! iograptiy for each organization and  a
 general bibliography are also provided.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
 Developing countries
 Environment
 Earth atmosphere
 Earth hydrosphere
 Geography
 International  government
 International  law
Multilateral
  agreements
Management
Administrative law
Agreements
Leadership
Organizations
                                              b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Pollution abatement
Strategies
Environmental  administrath'
Environmental  assistance
Industrialized democracie
Socialized nations
                                              c.  COSATI Field/Group
on
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Pol icies
Public Administrat
                                               19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
                                              Ion     Unclassified
                                                                          21
                             NO. OF PAGES
                              145
      Unlimited
                    20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)

                    	Unclassified
                                                                          22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
                                            133
                                                             ff U. S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1979 — 657-060/5310

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