EPA/174/K-84/005
ption
Your Guide To The
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
m
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Contents
3 History and Organization of
EPA
5 Water Quality
6 Safe Drinking Water
9 Air Quality
11 Waste
14 Pesticides
16 Toxic Substances
19 Radiation
21 Research and Development
23 Enforcement of
Environmental Laws
24 Appendix I EPA Regional
Offices
25 Appendix II EPA Research
Facilities and Centers of
Excellence
- lie*; • • t
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Preface
Our environment has been threatened by
many decades of human activities
undertaken without regard for the effects
on the life-sustaining, economic, and
recreational value of the air, land, and
water. To protect and restore the quality
of these essential and irreplaceable
resources, Congress enacted a series of
laws which have brought about significant
environmental improvements though
many challenging problems remain
The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) is responsible for executing
the federal laws protecting the
environment. Questions concerning air,
water, and land affect nearly every aspect
of our lives. As our understanding of
environmental issues has grown, so have
EPA's responsibilities. This booklet
describes how EPA addresses the major
environmental problems confronting our
nation.
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Associate Administrator
for International Activities
Administrator
Deputy Administrator
Associate Administrator
for Regional Operations
Assistant Administrator
for Administration and
Resources Management
Assistant Administrator
for Enforcement and
Compliance Monitoring
General Counsel
Assistant Administrator
for Policy, Planning,
and Evaluation
Assistant Administratoi
for External Affairs
Office of
the Comptroller
Office of
Policy Analysis
Office of
Intergovernmental Liai!
Office of
Administration
Office of
Standards and Regulations
Office of
Congressional Liaison
Office of
Information Resources
and Management
Office of
Management Systems
and Evaluation
Office of
Public Affairs
Office of
Federal Activities
Office of
Human Resources
Management
Office of Administration
Cincinnati, OH
Office of Administration
RTP, NIC
Assistant Administrator
for Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
Assistant Administrator
for Pesticides and
Toxic Substances
Assistant Administrator
for Water
Assistant Administrator
for Air and Radiation
Assistant Administrator
for Research and
Development
Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
Office of
Solid Waste
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Office of
Pesticide Programs
Office of
Monitoring Systems
and Quality Assuranc
Office of
Ground-water Protection
Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response
Office of
Toxic Substances
Office of
Mobile Sources
Office of
Environmental Engine
and Technology
Office of
Drinking Water
Office of Waste
Programs Enforcement
Office of
Radiation Programs
Office of
Environmental Proces
and Effects Research
Office of Water
Program Operations
Office of Water
Enforcement and Permits
Office of
Health Research
Region 7
Kansas City
Region 1
Boston
Region 2
New York
Region 3
Philadelphia
Region 5
Chicago
Region 8
Denver
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taff Offices
dmimstrative Law Judges
ivil Rights
mall and Disadvantaged
usiness Utilization
cience Advisory Board
History and Organization of EPA
nspector General
Office of Audit
Office of Investigations
Office of Management
and Technical Assistance
Assessment
Office of
Research Program
Management
Office of
Exploratory Research
Office of
Health
and Environmental
Assessment
Region 9
San Francisco
Region 10
Seattle
The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency was created through an
Executive reorganization plan designed to
consolidate a number of federal
environmental activities into a single
agency. The plan (Reorganization Plan #3
of 1970) was sent to Congress by
President Nixon on July 9, 1970, and EPA
was formally established as an
independent agency in the Executive
Branch on December 2, 1970.
EPA was formed by putting together
15 components from five Executive
departments and independent agencies.
Air pollution control, solid waste
management, radiation, and the drinking
water program were transferred from the
Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (now the Department of Health
and Human Services). The federal water
pollution control program was taken from
the Department of the Interior, as was
part of a pesticide research program.
From the Department of Agriculture, EPA
acquired authority to register pesticides
and to regulate their use, and from the
Food and Drug Administration the
responsibility to set tolerance levels for
pesticides in food. EPA was assigned
some responsibility for setting
environmental radiation protection
standards from the old Atomic Energy
Commission, and absorbed the duties of
the Federal Radiation Council
The enactment of major new
environmental laws and important
amendments to older laws in the 1970's
greatly expanded EPA's responsibilities.
The Agency now administers nine
comprehensive environmental protection
laws: the Clean Air Act (CAA); the Clean
Water Act (CWA); the Safe Drinking
Water Act (SDWA); the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA, or
"Superfund"); the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA); the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA); the Toxic Substances
Control Act (TSCA); the Marine
Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
(MPRSA); and the Uranium Mill Tailings
Radiation Control Act.
The Agency is directed by an
Administrator and a Deputy Administrator,
who are appointed by the President with
the advice and consent of the Senate.
Nine Assistant Administrators, who
manage specific environmental programs
or direct other Agency functions; the
Agency's General Counsel; and its
Inspector General also are named by the
President and subject to Senate
confirmation. Ten Regional Administrators
across the country cooperate closely with
state and local governments to make
sure that regional needs are considered
and that federal environmental laws are
properly implemented. (Appendix I lists
these Regional offices.) The Agency's
executive staff includes Associate
Administrators for International Activities
and Regional Operations. The chart shows
how EPA is organized.
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Oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries,
underground aquifers, and wetlands are
essential, in one way or another, to all
forms of life, and play a central role in
much of our economic activity and
recreation.
These functions have been seriously
threatened by the long- standing use of
natural bodies of water as dumping
places for human and industrial wastes,
by the destruction of major parts of water
systems such as wetlands, and by poor
land management practices that choke
waters with sediment and poison them
with toxic pollutants.
Water pollution has two major origins.
point sources and nonpoint sources. Point
sources are specific points of discharge,
such as outfall pipes from industrial
facilities or sewage treatment plants
Nonpoint sources, on the other hand,
cannot be located so precisely. Runoff
from city streets, from construction sites,
and from farms and mines are examples
of nonpoint sources Both sources
contribute heavily to the pollution of our
nation's waters
Water has been polluted by many kinds
of substances Some pollutants, such as
sewage from households, are discharged
in very large amounts Unless treated,
sewage can overload the natural capacity
of water bodies to cleanse themselves.
Other pollutants, toxic substances, can
cause damage to our waters, even in
very small amounts.
The first federal legislation to protect
our waters from pollution was the Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1899 Congress
enacted stronger legislation in 1948,
1956, 1965, 1966, and 1970 However,
EPA's current program of water pollution
control is based upon the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972, also known as the Clean Water
Act Amendments passed in 1977 and
1981 made some important changes, but
the basic objectives and procedures of
the Clean Water Act remained
The major objective of the Clean Water
Act is to restore and maintain the
"chemical, physical, and biological
integrity of the Nation's waters " The Act
seeks to secure "water quality which
provides for the protection and
propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife,
and provides for recreation in and on the
water." Progress toward this objective
has required spending billions of dollars
and the control of hundreds of thousands
of water pollution sources.
The Act requires each state to set
water quality standards for every
significant body of surface water within
its borders Water quality standards
represent the goals which pollution
controls are meant to secure To set
these standards, states specify the uses
of each body of water (such as drinking
water, recreation, commercial fishing) and
restrict pollution to levels that permit
those uses.
To curb pollution from household and
commercial sewage, the Act requires that
all publicly-owned municipal sewage
systems provide secondary treatment of
wastewater (a bio-chemical process)
before it is discharged
Since few communities could afford
the facilities needed to provide such
treatment, Congress established a
financial assistance program of
construction grants as part of the 1972
law. Under this program, EPA provides
funds to the states, which allocate the
money to local communities to help
finance new or improved treatment
facilities. In the first 10 years,
construction grants to the states
amounted to about $33 billion
Amendments enacted in 1981 reduced
the federal share in funding new facilities,
but EPA still expects to provide about
$24 billion in construction grants during
the program's second decade.
To ensure that communities meet
treatment requirements, sewage facilities
must secure permits under the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES). The permits specify the types
and amounts of pollutants that may be
discharged.
Industries discharging pollutants into
waterways or publicly-owned sewage
systems also are subject to control
requirements, with an ultimate goal of
completely eliminating the discharge of
pollutants into the Nation's waters
Nationwide standards are established by
EPA for industrial pollutants, with specific
requirements tailored to the availability
and economic feasibility of control
technology. These effluent limitations will
become increasingly stringent through
the 1980's, particularly for discharges of
toxic pollutants
Like municipal dischargers, industrial
point source dischargers must secure
permits under the NPDES program.
Industries using public sewage systems
must meet pretreatment standards
designed to prevent the discharge of
pollutants, particularly toxics, that
adversely affect or simply pass through
secondary treatment facilities
Sometimes, however, even stringent
control of industrial and municipal point
sources is not enough to attain stipulated
water quality standards. There are two
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Safe Drinking Water
major reasons for this First, many bodies
of water are heavily polluted by nonpoint
sources Second, even with stringent
controls, the amount of pollution
discharged from point sources may be
too much for the receiving water to
accept. This may be the case in urban
regions particularly.
To bridge this gap, state and local
governments must devise plans laying
out the steps they will take to bring water
quality up to acceptable levels. In general,
these plans will involve a mixture of
controls on nonpoint sources and more
stringent controls on point sources,
including a general prohibition against the
discharge of toxic materials in toxic
amounts. To determine if they are
discharging toxic amounts, sources may
be required to conduct biological tests on
fish and shellfish in receiving waters.
Such tests are often more useful than
standard chemical tests for showing the
effects of complex pollutant mixtures.
Funding to the states for planning their
control strategies is provided through
EPA's water quality management
program.
Two other programs that are important
in the protection of water resources are
the dredge and fill permit system and the
regulation of ocean dumping.
Under section 404 of the Clean Water
Act, EPA and the U.S Army Corps of
Engineers are jointly responsible for
protecting waters against degradation and
destruction caused by disposal of
dredged spoils or fill This protection
extends to the Nation's wetlands - its
marshes, swamps, bogs, and similar
areas. Wetlands are vital elements of
natural water systems, providing flood
control benefits, habitats for fish and
wildlife, and natural pollution filters.
Permits to carry out dredge and fill
activities are granted by the Corps of
Engineers, subject to EPA approval.
Under the Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, EPA is
required to protect the oceans from
indiscriminate dumping of wastes. The
Agency is authorized to designate safe
sites for dumping, to issue permits for
dumping, and to assess penalties for
improper dumping.
Water quality is protected by nearly all
of the laws EPA administers. Air pollution
controls, for example, keep harmful
pollutants from entering the water from
the atmosphere Laws governing
radiation, toxic substances, and pesticides
also deal with special pollution problems
which may affect water quality. In
addition, a major objective in regulating
solid wastes Is to prevent the
contamination of ground water and
surface waters by the seepage of harmful
substances from disposal sites.
Less than 100 years ago, epidemics of
waterborne diseases were a major public
health menace in the U S. Today, we
hardly give them a thought. Twentieth
century methods of water purification —
particularly chlonnation — have been
remarkably effective in reducing instance:
of cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and
infectious hepatitis. Waterborne diseases
still occur with unnecessary frequency,
but major epidemics have been all but
eliminated in this century.
In recent years, however, public health
professionals have become increasingly
concerned about other contaminants in
our water supplies. These include
inorganic chemicals such as nitrate,
arsenic, and lead, as well as toxic organic
chemicals which have been produced in
ever-growing volumes Certain pesticides
also have been added to the list of
contaminants that have found their way
into drinking water in some places. Some
of these pollutants are harmful even in
small amounts, and can be extremely
difficult to remove once they have
contaminated a water supply.
To deal with these problems, Congress
passed the Safe Drinking Water Act of
1974, and amended that act in 1977.
Under the Act, EPA establishes national
standards for drinking water from both
surface and ground water sources
(Ground water comes from underground
aquifers ) These standards provide
maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for
pollutants m drinking water. States are
primarily responsible for enforcing the
standards, with financial assistance from
EPA
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The Safe Drinking Water Act also
authorized EPA to protect aquifers against
contamination from the disposal of
wastes by injection into deep wells.
Some states have assumed responsibility
for managing these underground injection
control programs as they develop their
own regulatory systems.
Ground water sources are very
vulnerable to serious, perhaps
irreversible, contamination from other
sources, such as leachate from hazardous
waste landfills or leaking underground
storage tanks Protection of essential
aquifers is one of the major
environmental challenges of the 1980s
EPA has developed a comprehensive
strategy to safeguard ground water and
has established a separate staff within its
Office of Water to oversee this effort
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People have known for centuries that air
can carry poisons. That's why miners
used to take canaries with them into the
coal pits. A dead bird meant the presence
of lethal gases. But before the
smokestack boom of the industrial
revolution, "bad air" was an isolated
phenomenon. By the beginning of the
.twentieth century, however, it was a
common urban characteristic, and by
mid-century, it had become a serious,
sometimes fatal, health hazard. In 1952,
for example, a "killer fog" in London was
responsible over five days for some 4,000
more deaths than would have occurred
normally in the same period of time
Air pollution is not limited to
industrial cities. Automobile exhaust is a
major contributor to air pollution; heavy
traffic can cause air quality problems
even in cities with little or no industry.
Neither is air pollution a respecter of
boundaries. Its effects frequently appear
far away from its sources.
Federal legislation to control air
pollution was first enacted in 1955, and
strengthened in 1963, 1965 and 1967.
However, it was the Clean Air Act of
1970 that shaped the control program we
have today. Congress reviewed and
amended the law in 1975 and 1977, but
retained the basic principles of the 1970
Act.
The fundamental objective of the Clean
Air Act is the protection of the public
health and welfare from harmful effects
of air pollution. To define this goal, EPA
sets two kinds of National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) specifying
maximum acceptable levels for pollutants
in outdoor air. Primary standards set
limits which protect human health,
including "sensitive populations" such as
children, asthmatics or the elderly.
Secondary standards protect plants,
animals and material from harmful effects
of air pollution
EPA has set primary and secondary
standards for six criteria pollutants:
carbon monoxide; nitrogen oxides;
ozone; lead; sulfur-oxides; and
particulates. These standards are based
on medical and scientific evidence of a
pollutant's health and environmental
effects. EPA reviews this evidence every
five years and analyzes any new data
available. If the review indicates changes
are needed, the standard is revised.
Some regions of the Nation, such as
national parks and wilderness areas, have
exceptionally good air quality—better, in
fact, than the quality that could be
assured by the primary and secondary
standards. To retain this quality, such
areas must meet prevention of significant
deterioration (PSD) standards established
to preserve the pristine air and clear
vistas that contribute to the natural
beauty of these national lands.
The Clean Air Act also requires that
EPA establish National Emissions
Standards for Hazardous Pollutants
(NESHAPS) to control the emission of
substances so toxic that even small
amounts may adversely affect health.
EPA has established NESHAPS for
asbestos, beryhum, mercury, and vinyl
chloride, and has proposed standards for
benzene and arsenic.
Most air pollution comes from
stationary sources, such as factories,
power plants, and smelters, or from
mobile sources— automobiles, buses,
trucks, locomotives, and airplanes. Some
facilities, such as major highways and
shopping centers, are called indirect
sources because traffic concentrates at
those places and increases local pollution
levels.
To control pollution from mobile
sources, the Clean Air Act and supporting
regulations provide for automobile
emission controls that have become
more stringent as increasingly effective
technology has developed. The use of
catalytic converters and unleaded
gasoline in newer model cars has been
particularly important in achieving better
air quality despite a continuing rise in the
number of motor vehicles on the road.
To help ensure compliance with air
quality standards by stationary sources,
EPA sets New Source Performance
Standards that limit emissions allowed
from new industrial plants and existing
plants that are substantially modified. By
requiring uniform emission limits on new
sources regardless of location, Congress
has prevented air pollution controls from
becoming a source of regional rivalry.
Standards are now in effect for most
major industries.
Since national performance standards
apply only to new or modified plants,
these controls generally are not adequate
in themselves to assure acceptable air
quality. State governments must
therefore draw up and enforce Sfafe
Implementation Plans (SIPS), which spell
out additional measures that will be
undertaken to achieve compliance.
Typically, these include controls on older
industrial plants and other stationary
sources of pollution, along with measures
to cut back traffic volumes or in other
ways reduce emissions related to motor
vehicles. SIPS are subject to EPA
approval. If a State plan is not acceptable,
EPA is required to provide an
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implementation plan which the State
must then enforce.
Some rural areas have air quality
problems, but atmospheric pollution is
primarily an urban problem. And it can
pose a cruel dilemma for the nation's
older cities, which seek to regain their
economic vitality by attracting new
industrial development. New industry
means new sources of pollution, and this
can threaten progress already made in
cleaning up the air
EPA has sought innovative approaches
to pollution control that will allow both
new industrial development and
continued progress toward cleaner air.
One such approach is the bubble
concept, which treats a plant as though it
were covered by an imaginary bubble
with only one opening through which
pollutants can reach the surrounding air
Instead of having to meet emissions
limits at each individual stack or source
within a facility, managers can devise an
overall control plan that may save millions
of dollars without compromising progress
toward improved air quality. Another
approach is emission trading. This allows
a company to receive credits for reducing
emissions below levels required by EPA
and the State implementation plan. With
State approval, another company that
wants to expand its facilities or put up a
new plant may buy the credits earned by
the first company. Again, the result is
economic growth accompanied by
continued progress in air quality.
In recent years, the nation has seen a
steady improvement in air quality Since
1975 the ambient levels of all six criteria
pollutants have decreased, in some cases
dramatically. Ambient lead, for example,
has dropped already by 64 percent,
largely due to the increasing use of
unleaded gasoline. Particulate levels
decreased by 15 percent, ozone levels by
18 percent, carbon monoxide levels by 31
percent, and sulfur dioxide levels by 33
percent. Although nitrogen dioxide levels
increased between 1975 and 1979, they
began dropping in 1979; by 1982,
ambient levels were the same as in 1975,
and well below the standard The number
of times that the standards were
exceeded also dropped significantly
during this time.
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Waste
The numbers alone are overwhelming.
We Americans discard billions of tons of
solid waste every year, and we all want it
to go somewhere else
In the past, it usually did go away. The
philosophy was "out of sight, out of
mind." Through ignorance or
carelessness, we literally dumped it
anywhere, regardless of the
consequences Now we know that
irresponsible disposal methods not only
put off real solutions, but can cause
severe health and environmental effects
Improper disposal, particularly of
hazardous wastes, can contaminate
surface and ground water and contribute
to air pollution.
Congress recognized the serious
problems associated with waste disposal
as early as 1965, when the Solid Waste
Disposal Act was passed By the
mid-1970's, however, it was clear that a
more vigorous national effort was
needed In 1976, Congress enacted the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA), which authorized EPA to regulate
current and future waste management
and disposal practices. Congress was
particularly concerned about the
management of hazardous wastes, the
careless disposal of which we now have
learned may lead to the contamination of
entire neighborhoods and communities.
At Love Canal in New York, for example,
hazardous waste buried over a 25-year
period contaminated ground and water
and finally forced the evacuation of an
entire neighborhood In Times Beach,
Missouri, oil contaminated with highly
toxic dioxm was sprayed on roads,
eventually leading to a federal "buyout"
of all homes and businesses in the
community.
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RCRA can help prevent future Love
Canals and similar tragedies, but it does
not address a legacy of abandoned waste
sites or emergencies created by spills or
other releases of hazardous substances.
To deal with these situations, Congress in
1980 passed the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA, or
"Superfund"). Financed for the most part
by a tax on chemical manufacturers,
Superfund sets up a $1.6 billion trust
fund over five years and gives EPA the
authority to respond to hazardous
substance emergencies which threaten
public health or the environment.
RCRA
Although RCRA has important provisions
encouraging sound municipal disposal
practices and resource recovery, EPA's
major priority under the Act has been the
development of "cradle-to-grave"
regulations governing the generation,
storage, transport, treatment, and
disposal of hazardous wastes. These
wastes include toxic substances,
caustics, pesticides, and other flammable,
corrosive, or explosive materials. EPA
recently estimated that over 71 billion
gallons of such wastes are produced
every year That amounts to more than
one ton of waste for every man, woman,
and child in the country.
To carry out RCRA's provisions, EPA is
responsible for:
• identifying the characteristics of
hazardous wastes in general and
identifying specific hazardous wastes;
• developing standards applicable to
generators and transporters of hazardous
wastes, and to operators of hazardous
waste treatment, storage, and disposal
facilities. Under these standards,
- generators must identify the wastes
they produce and report the means of
on-site treatment, storage, or disposal.
- transport of such wastes is monitored
through a uniform manifest system which
ensures a verifiable record of the origin,
route, and destination of each shipment
- treatment, storage, and disposal
facilities must have permits to operate,
and their design must be adequate to
prevent dangerous waste from leaching
through the soil and contaminating water
sources. Active land disposal sites must
be monitored constantly to prevent
ground-water contamination, closed sites
must be capped properly, as well as
monitored. In addition, owners or
operators of such facilities must
demonstrate financial responsibility for
damage occurring during active
operations, and set aside funds for
monitoring and maintenance after the site
is closed.
Another major goal under RCRA is to
encourage states to develop
comprehensive programs for managing
non-hazardous solid waste, and every
state now has a solid waste management
agency. EPA has supported research and
demonstration projects to stimulate
promising new methods of waste
disposal, resource/energy recovery, and
innovative technology. The Agency also
has laid out guidelines for developing
waste management plans, established
criteria for classifying land disposal
facilities according to their environmental
acceptability, and published a national
inventory of unacceptable facilities
Superfund
Superfund authorizes EPA to respond
immediately to situations or sites that
pose a danger to public health or the
environment. While some emergencies
occur because of accidents in the
handling or transporting of hazardous
wastes, the vast majority of hazardous
waste emergencies are the result of
improper or uncontrolled disposal
practices in the past. EPA already has
identified some 17,000 uncontrolled
hazardous waste sites across the country
and estimates that the total could reach
22,000.
Superfund authorizes EPA to take the
following direct actions in emergency
situations:
• Immediate removals are begun in
cases of imminent danger (oil spills, tram
derailments, leaking barrels, fires, explo-
sions, etc.). Their objective is to bring the
situation under control by stabilizing or
stopping the release of the hazardous
substances The law ordinarily limits
immediate removal actions to six months
and total costs of one million dollars.
• Planned removals are carried out when
a hazard is substantial, but does not
necessarily require immediate removal.
The objective is to minimize any increase
in danger or exposure that might
otherwise occur. Planned removals are
complete when the situation is stabilized
and the imminent threat is abated. They
are subject to the same time and cost
limitations as immediate removals.
Superfund also authorizes the Agency
to take long-term, remedial actions to
achieve a permanent cleanup of hazardous
waste sites Remedial actions are permit-
ted only at sites identified on EPA's
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National Priorities List More than 500 sites
in 47 States and five territories have been
declared eligible for remedial actions.
EPA encourages owners to clean up
abandoned sites voluntarily, but if the
owners are unknown, or unable or
unwilling to assume the cleanup
responsibility, EPA and the states will
perform the work. In such cases, the
owners may be liable for punitive
damages of up to triple the costs of
federal remedial work. When EPA and
states perform cleanup work, the state
contributes 10 percent of the costs for
privately-owned sites, and 50 percent for
publicly-owned sites. In addition to
cost-sharing, states participate in site
selection and in establishing cleanup
priorities States also must designate
approved sites to receive wastes
removed in cleanup operations.
Both RCRA and Superfund activities
tend to generate intense public interest
and involvement. Congress has been
careful to protect the interests of affected
citizens by including specific public
participation requirements in the enabling
statutes. Public participation means that
there is ample opportunity for citizens to
air their views, that the public is given an
opportunity to understand clearly the
programs and actions proposed, and that
officials respond substantively and in a
timely fashion to public concerns. RCRA
legislation, for example, requires EPA and
the states to assist and encourage public
participation in the development, revision,
implementation, and enforcement of
actions taken under its authority A key
aspect of any Superfund response is to
ensure that local citizens' and officials'
concerns are taken into account and that
information about the site is widely
distributed.
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Pesticides
Pesticides are chemical or biological
substances used to control unwanted
plants, insects, fungi, rodents or bacteria
About 35,000 products are registered for
such use in this country, and we use
more than a billion pounds of these
pesticides every year on farms and in
homes, hospitals, commercial
establishments and elsewhere.
Pesticides have contributed greatly to
modern agricultural productivity and to
improved public health through control of
disease-carrying pests. But pesticides
have a dark side, too. Many of them are
extremely toxic and cause serious harm,
even death, if spilled on the skin, inhaled,
or otherwise misused. We know that
some pesticides have caused severe
damage to wildlife populations Now
studies are showing evidence that
pesticides may cause long-term adverse
health effects such as cancer and genetic
damage in people, as well. Many
pesticides persist in the environment over
long periods of time and have been found
to accumulate in the tissues of people,
animals, and plants Repeated
applications of pesticides may also lead
to resistant pest populations, which then
may require ever stronger doses for
control.
EPA regulates pesticides under two
laws: the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
and Rodent/cide Act (FIFRA) and the
Pesticide Amendment to the Federal
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).
436,
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As originally enacted in 1947, FIFRA
made it illegal to detach or destroy
pesticide labels and provided for pesticide
inspections It applied, however, only to
products in interstate commerce and did
not address pesticide-related health or
environmental problems. In 1972,
Congress amended the law to provide
much broader regulatory coverage;
further changes were enacted in 1975,
1978 and 1980.
Under these amendments, EPA is
responsible for registering specified uses
of pesticide products on the basis of both
safety and benefits. FIFRA requires EPA
to determine whether a pesticide can
perform its intended function without
causing unreasonable adverse effects
upon human health or the environment
while taking into account the potential
benefits of the proposed use This
balancing of risks and benefits underlies
all basic regulatory decisions under the
Act.
Manufacturers of pesticides are
required to provide data on the potential
for skin and eye irritation; hazards to
non-target organisms including fish and
wildlife; the possibility of acute poisoning,
tumor formation, birth defects,
reproductive impairments, or other
serious health effects; the behavior of
the chemical in the environment after
application; and the quantity and nature
of residues likely to occur in food or feed
crops
Amendments to FIFRA enacted in 1972
also require EPA to assess the safety of
pesticide chemicals already in use. Most
older pesticides do not meet the
standards of testing required now. In the
re-registration process, therefore,
manufacturers of these older products
must meet the same testing standards
which new chemicals must meet. This
normally requires undertaking and
completing various tests which are then
reviewed by the Agency to determine
whether products may remain on the
market.
If a pesticide ingredient poses a special
concern due to a perceived health or
environmental risk, the Agency can
conduct a special review of the product's
risks and benefits. The review process
allows all interested parties — the
general public, environmentalists,
pesticide users, manufacturers, and
scientists — to participate At the
conclusion of a special review, EPA may
decide to continue, restrict, or cancel
pesticide uses under consideration. A
regulatory decision to cancel uses of a
pesticide may be appealed to the EPA
Administrator for an adjudicatory hearing
EPA inspectors periodically check
marketed pesticide products for their
conformity with label claims concerning
content, effectiveness, and safety. Labels
also are reviewed to ensure that their
claims agree with those accepted by EPA
at the time of registration Penalties for
non-compliance may range from informal
notices to manufacturers to initiation of
civil or criminal proceedings
Finally, EPA is required to classify and
certify all pesticide products for either
general or restricted use General use
pesticides are considered safe for use by
anyone, provided label directions,
restrictions, and precautions are carefully
observed. Restricted pesticides may be
used only by persons who have been
certified as trained applicators. Training
and certification is administered through
EPA-approved state pesticide programs.
FFDCA
Pesticide provisions of the FFDCA
require EPA to establish tolerances for
pesticide residues on feed crops and raw
and processed foods. Tolerances are
established at levels well below amounts
that might cause harm to people or the
environment. For agricultural
commodities, tolerances are enforced by
the Food and Drug Administration, in
meat, poultry, and fish products, they are
enforced by the U S. Department of
Agriculture.
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Toxsc Substances
Chemicals are a vital part of our lives, and
most of them are not dangerous to our
health or the environment if used
properly. But some are toxic substances
that even in minute amounts can cause
death, disease, genetic damage, or
severe environmental harm. Toxic
substances include a number of
manufactured chemicals, as well as
naturally-occurring heavy metals and
other materials. The damage already
caused by uncontrolled releases of these
substances has been enormous.
Polychlormated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxm,
and asbestos are now among the toxic
materials whose common use in earlier
years has left a legacy of contamination
that plagues wide areas of the country
today.
It was to provide a safeguard against
the introduction of additional
contaminants to our environment and to
address the risks posed by existing
chemicals that Congress in 1976 passed
the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
TSCA is intended to identify and control
chemicals that pose an unreasonable risk
to human health or the environment
through their manufacture, processing,
commercial distribution, use, or disposal
(Eight categories of chemical products are
exempt from TSCA because they are
regulated under other laws These include
pesticides, tobacco, nuclear materials,
firearms and ammunition, food, food
additives, drugs, and cosmetics )
One of EPA's major regulatory tools
under TSCA is its authority to screen new
chemicals through the premanufacture
notification process. Manufacturers are
required to notify EPA at least 90 days
before producing or importing a new
chemical substance. This enables the
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Agency to assess the potential risks of a
new chemical before manufacture begins.
If a chemical substance is suspected of
posing an unreasonable risk, but key data
are missing, EPA may require
manufacturers to test the substance for
toxicity, cancer-causing potential,
reproductive effects, or other
characteristics. In addition, an Interagency
Testing Committee of government
experts advises EPA if certain chemicals
should be tested. Chemicals deemed to
be harmful may be regulated in a number
of ways, ranging from labeling
requirements to outright bans on the
manufacture or use of especially
hazardous substances. If appropriate, EPA
may also refer chemicals to other Federal
agencies with regulatory responsibility
over toxic chemicals. These agencies
include the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration; the Food and Drug
Administration; the Consumer Product
Safety Commission; and the Food Safety
and Quality Service of the Department of
Agriculture.
TSCA also requires EPA to develop and
keep current a comprehensive chemical
inventory. This inventory, which is based
on information submitted by chemical
manufacturers, processors, and
importers, presents an overall picture of
the chemicals used for commercial
purposes in the U.S. (Although there are
well over four million known chemical
compounds, most of these are used only
in research and development TSCA is
applicable only to those chemicals in
commercial use.) Chemicals not on the
inventory must be reviewed by EPA
before they can be manufactured in or
imported into the U.S.
In addition to keeping its own chemical
inventory, EPA also by rule requires the
chemical industry to report on and keep
records on the manufacture, processing,
use, and disposal of chemical substances,
by-products generated by manufacture,
the number of people exposed in the
workplace, and other relevant
information, including all significant
adverse reactions to health and the
environment alleged to have been caused
by a chemical. Industry also must report
to EPA any information that indicates that
a chemical substance or mixture presents
a risk to health or the environment. These
reporting requirements enable EPA to
monitor the actual environmental and
health effects of a substance, and to take
further action if necessary.
Another of EPA's concerns is to ensure
consistency in evaluating chemical
hazards, both within and outside the
Agency. The Good Laboratory Practices
standards assure that test data submitted
to EPA conform with requirements for
administration of testing labs, the control
and management of laboratory test
animals, the documentation of tests, and
the handling of test data In addition, EPA
works closely with the 24-nation
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development to develop uniform
chemical testing guidelines.
Some toxic substances require special
attention because they are so widespread
in the environment or because they pose
serious health threats even at extremely
low levels of contamination. Particularly
troublesome substances include
polychlormated biphenyls (PCBs),
asbestos, and dioxin PCBs, for example,
were widely used for about 50 years
because of their heat resistant properties.
So persistent is this substance that
everyone in this country likely has trace
levels of it in their bodies now. Further
production of PCBs was banned
specifically by TSCA because they were
found to cause adverse reproductive
effects, skin lesions, developmental
effects, and tumors.
Another substance of concern is
asbestos, which when inhaled by human
beings causes lung cancer and
mesothelioma, a cancer of the
membranes lining the chest and
abdomen. These effects may take many
years to show up, depending on the
degree and length of exposure. Asbestos
frequently was used in buildings as a fire
retardant, and in many cases has started
to crumble and be released into the air.
Because many school buildings used
asbestos, hazards to children are a
particular concern EPA's school asbestos
rule, issued in May of 1982, requires all
elementary and secondary school
administrators to have their buildings
inspected for friable asbestos, notify
parents and employees of any asbestos
detected, and maintain records certifying
compliance with the rule. (Friable
materials are those that, when dry, may
be crumbled, pulverized, or reduced to
powder by hand pressure )
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Radiation
Ionizing radiation can be a serious
environmental contaminant. Sources of
this form of radiation include uranium
mining and milling, nuclear power
wastes, and radioactive materials used in
medicine. The health effects of
non-ionizing radiation—such as
microwaves and radiation from high
voltage power lines—are not as well
understood, but they, too, may be
hazardous.
A number of federal agencies, including
EPA, are responsible for protecting the
public from unnecessary exposure. EPA
received its authority in this area under
the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, the
Public Health Service Act of 1962, the
Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, the
Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control
Act of 1978, the Marine Protection and
Sanctuaries Act, the Clean Water Act, the
Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, and
the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act. The Agency's major responsibilities
are to set radiation guidelines, to assess
new technology, and to monitor radiation
in the environment.
To protect the public from environ-
mental exposure to excess radiation, EPA
has set standards which limit releases
from nuclear power plants, from mill
tailings at active and inactive uranium
processing sites, and from radionuclides
in drinking water. In cooperation with the
Food and Drug Administration, the
Agency has developed guidance for other
federal agencies on the use of x-rays in
medicine. EPA has proposed standards
for limiting airborne emissions of
radionuclides and for the disposal of
high-level radioactive wastes, and is
currently developing standards for the
disposal of low-level wastes. EPA also is
developing guidance for protective action
in nuclear accidents, for cleanup of
contaminated areas, for occupational
exposure, and for exposure to radiation
from non-ionizing sources.
Another EPA responsibility is to
participate in planning for radiological
emergencies. The Agency is prepared to
provide field monitoring assistance to
other federal agencies, as well as state
and local governments, in the event of an
emergency at a nuclear facility.
Finally, EPA monitors radiation in the
environment through a network of 264
stations that sample drinking water, air,
precipitation, and milk. The data from this
monitoring are used to identify trends in
environmental radiation levels, to
establish ambient levels of radioactivity,
and to assess actions needed to protect
the public.
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Research and Development
Protecting people from environmental
hazard is a complex task, made all the
harder because many actions must be
taken on the basis of incomplete
scientific information. To maintain public
trust in EPA's decisions, it is essential
that the Agency's decision makers
objectively interpret and work with the
best available scientific data.
EPA's research office provides this data
and interpretation, for the most part in six
major research areas: engineering and
technology; environmental processes and
effects; monitoring systems and quality
assurance; health effects; health and
environmental assessment, and
exploratory research.
Research in environmental engineering
and technology assesses pollution from
industrial and municipal sources, and
analyzes alternative control technologies
Examples of research include innovative
techniques for removing and disposing of
pollutants, and developing cost-effective
methods of providing safe drinking water
Environmental processes and effects
research seeks to develop the data
necessary for predicting and managing
the movement of pollutants through the
environment and for determining their
effects on ecosystems and nonhuman
organisms. Research within this area also
develops mathematical models relating
pollution emissions to air quality.
Through its research in monitoring
systems and quality assurance, EPA
develops methods to measure and
monitor pollutants, as well as ensure that
these measurements are accurate and
follow standardized procedures.
Health effects research provides the
data needed to accurately estimate
human mortality and illness caused by
pollutants. Research facilities include one
of the nation's few facilities capable of
testing human exposure, and research
areas include developing data on
dose-responses and methods of using
such data to estimate human health
effects.
A major factor in EPA's regulatory
decisions is the Agency's determination
of the hazard posed by various pollutants
EPA's health and enviromental
assessment research includes an effort to
provide an integrated, scientific
foundation for evaluating the health and
environmental effects stemming from
exposure to a substance and for
determining the risks of such exposure.
EPA also needs to anticipate
environmental problems and issues The
exploratory research program assesses
potential environmental trends and funds
research to meet needs for basic
scientific knowledge. EPA has 14
research laboratories and several field
stations to carry out its in-house research,
and this capability is extended through
grants, cooperative agreements, and
research contracts with universities and
other private institutions The Agency's
largest research centers are in Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, and
Cincinnati, Ohio. In addition, EPA has
special arrangements with eight academic
institutions and consortiums. Each
university or consortium specializes in an
area of particular concern to the Agency,
and carries out long-term research
programs. (Appendix II lists all EPA
laboratories and field stations and the
eight academic centers.)
EPA also relies on its Science Advisory
Board for technical advice and review
This Board is a panel of eminent non-EPA
scientists established by Congress to
advise the Agency on scientific issues
and review the quality of EPA scientific
research.
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Enforcement of Environmental Laws
EPA's mission is to protect human health
and the environment. That's the goal of
its hundreds of complicated regulations.
In most cases, the regulated community
complies with these requirements But
when regulated entities fail to comply
voluntarily, EPA can take a number of
actions. Enforcement activities may take
the form of education, technical
assistance, negotiated compliance
schedules, and ultimately, judicial
enforcement, which involves civil or
criminal proceedings in federal court
against violators.
Judicial enforcement is only one of
EPA's tools for inducing compliance, but
it is a very important one. Not the least of
its virtues is its deterrence value. By
seeking and winning large financial and
criminal penalties against significant
violators, the Agency can perhaps remove
any incentives to non-compliance EPA
will seek penalties at least as large as the
profit a company may have realized by
violating the law A major objective is to
ensure that violators are not inclined to
consider fines simply as a risk of doing
business. More and more, the courts
have shown they are willing to punish
willful polluters with criminal convictions,
substantial fines and prison sentences
To support these enforcement efforts,
EPA maintains a National Enforcement
Investigations Center in Denver,
Colorado. The Center's combination of
laboratory, investigative, and engineering
skills is often instrumental in developing
the solid evidence that enables EPA to
win its cases in court.
Another key component in the
Agency's enforcement effort is the work
of its newly-formed criminal investigation
unit. Because of their specialized training
in criminal law enforcement techniques,
these investigators have been successful
in cracking down on illegal discharges
into waterways, "midnight dumping" of
toxic substances, and the deliberate
destruction or falsification of vital
environmental reports.
Enforcing environmental laws and
regulations often calls for close
cooperation among EPA, its regional
offices, the U.S. Justice Department, and
myriad state and local agencies. All have
an important role in achieving significant
improvements in environmental quality.
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Appendix I: EPA Regional Offices
EPA Region 1
JFK Federal Building
Boston, MA 02203
(617)223-7210
Connecticut, Massachusetts,
Maine, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, Vermont
EPA Region 2
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
(212)264-2525
New Jersey, New York,
Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
Field Component
Caribbean Field Office
P.O Box 792
San Juan, PR 00902
(809) 725-7825
EPA Region 3
6th and Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, PA 19106
(215)597-9800
Delaware, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
West Virginia, District of Columbia
EPA Region 4
345 Courtland Street NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
(404) 881-4727
Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
Kentucky, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South
Carolina,Tennessee
EPA Region 5
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
(312)353-2000
Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Minnesota,
Ohio, Wisconsin
Field Component
Eastern District Office
25089 Center Ridge Road
Westlake, OH 44145
(216) 835-5200
EPA Region 6
1201 Elm Street
Dallas, TX 75270
(214) 767-2600
Arkansas, Louisiana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma,
Texas
EPA Region 7
324 East 11th Street
Kansas City, MO 64106
(816)374-5493
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri,
Nebraska
EPA Region 8
1860 Lincoln Street
Denver, CO 80295
(303) 837-3895
Colorado, Montana,
North Dakota, South
Dakota, Utah, Wyoming
EPA Region 9
215 Freemont Street
San Francisco, CA94105
(415)974-8153
Arizona, California, Hawaii,
Nevada, American Samoa, Guam,
Trust Territories of the Pacific
Field Component
Pacific Islands Office
P.O Box 50003
300 Ala Moana Boulevard
Room 1302
Honolulu, HI 96850
EPA Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA98101
(206)442-5810
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon,
Washington
Field Components
Alaska Operations Office
Room E556, Federal Building
701 C Street
Anchorage, AK 99513
(907)271-5083
Alaska Operations Office
3200 Hospital Drive
Juneau, AK 99801
(907)586-7619
Idaho Operations Office
422 West Washington Street
Boise, ID 83702
(208) 334-1450
Oregon Operations Office
522 S W 5th Avenue
Yeon Building, 2nd Floor
Portland, OR 97204
(503) 221-3250
Washington Operations Office
c/o Washington Department of
Ecology
Mailstop PV 11
Olympia, WA 98504
(206) 753-9437
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