EPA 440/1-73/ 027
          DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR

   PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

   AND NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE  STANDARDS
                     FOR THE
        CITRUS, APPLE  AND POTATO
                  SEGMENT OF THE

             CANNED AND PRESERVED FRUITS

             AND VEGETABLES PROCESSING

               POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
                            \
                             UJ
          UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                    NOVEMBER 1973

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                  DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                          for

        PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                          and

            NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

                        for the

        CITRUS, APPLE AND POTATO SEGMENT OF THE

CANNED AND PRESERVED FRUITS AND VEGEGETABLES PROCESSING

                 POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
                     Russell Train
                     Administrator

                    Robert L. Sansom
    Assistant Administrator for Air & Water Programs
                         X
                      Allen Cywin
         Director, Effluent Guidelines Division

                    James D. Gallup
                    Project Officer
                     November, 1973

              Effluent Guidelines Division
            Office of Air and Water Programs
          U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                Washington, D.C.  20460

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                                ABSTRACT

This document presents the findings of a study of the apple, citrus  and
potato  processing  segment  of  the  canned  and  preserved  fruits and
vegetables industry for the purpose of developing waste  water  effluent
limitation  guidelines, Federal standards of performance for new sources
in order to implement Section 30U  (b)  and  306  of  the  Federal  Water
Pollution  Control  Act Amendments of 1972  (the "Act").  The first phase
of the study is limited to processors of apple products  (except  caustic
peeled  and  dehydrated  products),  citrus  products  (except pectin and
pharmaceutical products), and frozen  and  dehydrated  potato  products.
Other  commodities  in  S.I.e. 2033, 2034, and 2037 will be covered in a
subsequent phase of this study.

Effluent limitations guidelines are set forth for the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of  the  "Best  Practicable
Control   Technology  Currently  Available",  and  the  "Best  Available
Technology Economically Achievable", which must be achieved by  existing
point  sources  by  July  1,  1977, and July 1, 1983 ,respectively.  The
"Standards of Performance for New  Sources"  set  forth  the  degree  of
effluent  reduction  which  is achievable through the application of the
best available demonstrated  control  technology,  processes,  or  other
alternatives.

The  proposed  regulations  for  July  1,   1977,  require in-plant waste
management and operating  methods,   together  with  the  best  secondary
biological  treatment  technology currently available for discharge into
navigable water bodies.  This technology is represented  by  preliminary
screening,  primary  treatment  (potatoes only) and secondary biological
treatment.

The  recommended  technology  for  Julyl,   1983,  and  for  new   source
performance  standards,  is  in-plant  waste  management and preliminary
screening, primary sedimentation (potatoes only) and the best biological
secondary treatment.  In addition,  more intensive  biological  treatment
and in a few cases final multi-media or sand filtration may be required.

Land  treatment  systems such as spray or flood irrigation are effective
and economic alternatives to the  biological  systems  described  above.
When  suitable  land  is  available,  land  treatment  is  the preferred
technology for July 1, 1977, for  July  1,  1983,  and  for  new  source
performance standards.

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                          CONTENTS

Section                                                        Page

I             CONCLUSIONS                                       1

II            RECOMMENDATIONS                                   3

III           INTRODUCTION                                      5

                Purpose and Authority                           5
                Data Sources                                    6
                General Description of the Industry             7
                  Apples                                        7
                  Citrus                                       12
                  Potatoes                                     17

                Profile of Manufacturing Processes             20
                  Apples                                       20
                  Citrus                                       23
                  Potatoes                                     27

IV            INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION                          33

                Categorization                                 33

                Rationale for Categorization                   34
                  Raw Materials                                34
                  Products and By-Products                     42
                  Production Processes                         43
                  Age of Plant                                 44
                  Size of Plant                                45
                  Plant Location                               46
                  Waste Treatability                           55

V             WATER USAGE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION           57

                Waste Water Characterization                   57

                Apples                                         58
                  Water Use and Waste Characterization         58
                  Factors Affecting Wastewater                 60
                               ill

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                   CONTENTS  (Continued)

Section

V               Citrus                                          61
                  Water Use  and Waste Characterization          61
                  Factors Affecting Wastewater                  64

                Potatoes                                        65
                  Water Use  and Waste Characterization          65
                  Factors Affecting Wastewater                  65
                  Effluent Analyses by Unit  Process             66

VT            SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS                 79

                Waste Water  Parameters of  Major
                Significance                                   79
                Rationale for Selection  of Major
                Parameters                                      79
                  Biochemical Oxygen Demand  (BOD)               79
                  Suspended  Solids  (SS)                         79
                  pH                                            80
                Rationale for Selection  of Minor
                Parameters                                      80
                  Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)                  80
                  Total Dissolved solids (TDS)                  80
                  Alkalinity                                   81
                  Ammonia Nitrogen and other Nitrogen
                    Forms                                       81
                  Total Phosphorus                              81
                  Fecal Coliforms                               81
                  Temperature                                   81

VIT           CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY                  83

                Introduction                                   83

                In-Plant Technology                             83
                  Harvesting                                   83
                  Raw Material Cleaning                         84
                  Peel Removal                                  84
                  Sorting, Trimming and  Slicing                 85
                  Transport                                     86
                  Blanching                                     87
                  Can Rinsing and Cooling                       88
                  Cleanup                                       88
                  In-Plant Reuse of Water                       90
                                 iv

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                    CONTENTS  (Continued)
Section

VII
VIII
  Waste Treatment Technology
    Preliminary Treatment Systems
    Chemical Treatment
    Primary Treatment Systems
    Biological Treatment Systems
    Performance of Various Secondary
      Systems
    Advanced Treatment systems
    Ultimate Disposal Methods

COST, ENERGY, AND OTHER NON-WATER QUALITY
ASPECTS

  Introduction

  In-Plant Control Costs
    Raw Material Cleaning
    Peel Removal
    Sorting, Trimming and Slicing
    Transport
    Blanching
    Cleanup
    In-plant Reuse of Water

  Waste Effluent Treatment and Control Costs
    Effectiveness of Waste Treatment
      Systems
    Parameters for Cost Estimating
    Levels of Treatment Technology
    Effluent Reduction Levels
    Investment and Annual Operating
      Costs-Model Plant
    Investment and Annual Operating
      Costs-Subcategory

  Energy Reguirements
    Electrical Energy
    Thermal Energy

  Non-Water Pollution Considerations
    Solid Wastes
    Air Pollution
    Noise
 92
 92
 96
 98
 99

108
110
119
                                                               125

                                                               125

                                                               125
                                                               125
                                                               126
                                                               127
                                                               127
                                                               127
                                                               128
                                                               127

                                                               129

                                                               129
                                                               129
                                                               131
                                                               132

                                                               134

                                                               134

                                                               150
                                                               150
                                                               150

                                                               151
                                                               151
                                                               152
                                                               153

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                    CONTENTS (Continued)

Section

IX            EFFLUENT PEDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH
              APPLICATION OF BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
              TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE                    155

                Introduction                                    155

                Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
                the Application of Best Practicable
                Control Technology Currently Available          156

                Identification of Best Practicable
                Control Technology Currently Available          156

                Rationale for the Selection of Best
                Practicable Control Technology Currently
                Available                                       159

                  Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities      159
                  Total Cost of Application in Relation to
                    Effluent Reduction Benefits                 159
                  Engineering Aspects of Control Technique
                    Applications                                160
                  Process Changes                               162
                  Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact        162
                  Factors to be Considered in Applying
                    BPCTCA Limitations                          162

X             EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH  THE
              APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
              ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE                           165

                Introduction                                    165

                Effluent Reduction Attainable Through
                Application of the Best Available Technology
                Economically Achievable                         166

                Identification of the Best Available
                Technology Economically Achievable              167

                Rationale for Selection of the Best  Avail-
                able Technology Economically Achievable         169
                                 vi

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                    CONTENTS  (Continued)
section

X
XI
XII

XIII

XIV

XV
     Age and Size of Equipment  and  Facilities
     Total Cost of Application  in Relation to
       Effluent Reduction  Benefits
     Engineering Aspects of  Control Technique
       Application
     Process Changes
     Non-Water Quality  Environmental Impact
     Factors to be Considered in Applying
       EACTCA Limitations

 NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

   Introduction

   Effluent Reduction Attainable for
   New Sources

   Pretreatment Requirements

ACKNOWLECGEMENTS

REFERENCES

GLOSSARY

APPENDICES

CONVERSION TABLE
169

169

170
171
171

171

173

173


173

173

175

177

181

193
                                vii

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                           TABLES

Number

1          Apples - Production by states in
           United States 1971                                  8

2          Apples - Fresh Pack and Manufactured
           Products in United States 1969-71                   10

3          Citrus - United States Production &
           Processing by State 1970-72                         13

u          Potatoes - production by States in
           United States 1969-71                               18

5          Distribution of Waste Load by
           Subcategory                                         36

6          Effect of Location for Various
           Apple Plants                                        37

7          Effect of Raw Material Mix at Various
           Citrus Plants                                       38

8          Effect of Raw Material Mix at Citrus
           Plant 123                                           39

9          Effect of Location for Various
           Citrus Plants                                       40

10         Effect of Location for Various
           Potato Plants                                       41

11         Average  (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Apple Product Styles                        47

12         Average  (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Citrus Product Styles                       48

13         Average  (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Potato Product Styles                       49

1U         Effect of Waste Heat Evaporator for
           Various Citrus Plants                               50
                               viii

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Number

15         Average (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Potato Peelers                              51

16         Average (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Apple Plant Sizes                           52

17         Average (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Citrus Plant Sizes                          53

18         Average (Range) of BOD and Flow for
           Various Potato Plant Sizes                          54

lq         List of Apple Industry Waste Load                   59

20         List of Citrus Industry Waste Load                  63

21         List of Potato Industry Waste Load                  69

22         Water Usage and Waste Characterization
           in Apple Processing                                 70

23         Water Usage and Waste Characterization
           in Citrus Processing                                74

24         Water Usage and Waste Characterization
           in Potato Processing                                76

25         Effectiveness of Various Secondary
           Treatment Systems                                   109

26         Effectiveness and Application of Waste
           Treatment Systems                                   130

27         Effluent Treatment Sequence by Subcategory
           to Achieve Various Levels of Effluent
           Reduction                                           137

28         Investment and Annual Costs:  Preliminary,
           Primary, and Biological Waste Treatment
           Systems                                             138

29         Investment and Annual Costs:  Advanced
           Waste Treatment Systems and Ultimate
           Disposal                                            139

30         Investment and Annual Cost by Effluent
           Reduction Level for Apple Juice                     140
                                ±x

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Number                                                        Page

31         Investment and Annual Cost by Effluent
           Reduction Level for Apple Products

32         Investment and Annual Cost by Effluent
           Reduction level for Citrus Products                  142

33         Investment and Annual Cost by Effluent
           Reduction Level for Frozen Potato Products           143

34         Investment and Annual Cost by Effluent
           Reduction Level for Dehydrated Potato
           Products                                             144

35         Total Investment and Annual Cost for Each
           Effluent Reduction Level by Subcategory
           and Size                                             145

36         Total Subcategory and Industry Investment
           Cost for Each Level of Effluent Reduction            146

37         Total Subcategory and Industry Annual Cost
           for Each Level of Effluent Reduction                 147

38         Total Capital Investment to Meet Each
           Level of Effluent Reduction                          148

39         Total Annual Cost to Meet Each Level of
           Effluent Reduction                                   149

40         Recommended Effluent Limitation Guidelines
           for 1 July 1977   (Maximum Thirty Day Average)        157

41         Effluents from Biological Secondary
           Treatment Systems                                    161

42         Recommended Effluent Limitation Guidelines
           for 1 July 1977  (Maximum Daily Average)              164

43         Recommended Effluent Limitation Guidelines
           for 1 July 1983  (Maximum Thirty Day Average)         167

44         Recommended Effluent Limitation Guidelines
           for 1 July 1983  (Maximum Daily Average)              172
                                x

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                                FIGURES
Number                      Title                     Page

1    Number of Operating Apple Processing
     Plants in United States                            9

2    Citrus Processing Plants                          15

3    Potatoes - Number of Ooerating
     Canned & Frozen Plants in United States           19

U    Water Flow Diagram - Apple Slices  (Frozen)        71

5    Water Flow Diagram - Apple Sauce (Canned)         72

6    Water Flow Diagram - Apple Juice                  73

"?    Water Flow Diagrams - Juice, Oil,  Segments,
     and Peel Products (Citrus)                        75

3    Water Flow Diagram - Dehydrated Potato Flakes     77

9    Water Flow Diagram - Frozen Potato Products       78

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                               SECTION I
                              CONCLUSIONS

The  purpose  of  this  report  is  to  establish  waste  water effluent
limitation guidelines for a segment of the canned  and  preserved  fruit
and  vegetable  industry.   This  segment  consists of processors of the
following products: apple products  (except caustic peeled and dehydrated
products);   all  citrus  products   (except  pectin  and   pharmaceutical
products);   and all frozen and dehydrated potato products.  A conclusion
of this study is that  this  segment  of  the  industry  comprises  five
subcategories:
   1.  Apple Processing
   2.  Apple Processing
   3.  Citrus Processing
   4.  Potato Processing
   5.  Potato Processing
Apple Juice
Apple Products Except Juice
All Products
Frozen Products
Dehydrated Products
The  major  criteria  for the establishment of the subcategories are the
five day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) and the suspended solids  (SS)
in the plant waste water.  Subcategorization is required on the basis of
raw  materials  processed  and products produced.  Evaluation of factors
such as ager size and  location  of  plant,  production  processes,  and
similarities  in  available  treatment and control measures substantiate
this industry Subcategorization.

The wastes from all subcategories are amendable to biological  treatment
processes  and  several  apple, citrus, and potato processing plants are
able to achieve high levels of effluent  reduction   (BOD  and  suspended
solids)   through  secondary biological treatment systems.  The following
plants are currently achieving at least the effluent reduction  required
through the application of Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
Available:  four  apple  plants  including  one juice plant; five citrus
plants;  and four frozen potato plants  including  one  dehydrated  plant
(see  Table  U1).   It  is  estimated  that the costs of achieving these
limits by all plants within this segment of the industry will be between
$17  and  $26  million   ($11.6  million  for  land  and  land  treatment
facilities  included).   Costs of $17 million would increase the capital
investment in the industry  segment  by  about  1.U  percent  and  would
increase  the retail price of the products produced by approximately 2.3
percent.

With present secondary biological  treatment  systems  without  advanced
treatment  methods  such  as sand filtration, at least one apple, citru-s
and potato  plant  in  each  of  the  five  subcategories  is  presently
achieving  the  high  levels  of  effluent  reduction  required  by  the
application  of  the  Best  Available  Control  Technology  Economically
Achievable  (see  Table 41).  It is estimated that the costs above those
for 1977 for achieving the  1983  limits  for  all  plants  within  this

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segment  of the industry will be an additional $12 million.   These costs
would increase the capital investment  by  about  1.0  percent  and  the
retail price of the products produced by approximately 1.6 percent.

It  is  concluded  that  land  treatment  is an effective and economical
alternative where suitable and adequate land is available.   Over  forty
apple,  citrus, and potato processors utilize this technology to achieve
minimal waste water discharge.

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                               SECTION II

                            RECOMMENDATIONS
The waste water effluent reduction limitations  attainable  through  the
aoplication   of  the  Best  Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently
Available  are  based  on  the  performances  of   exemplary   secondary
biological  systems  treating apple, citrus or potato waste water.  Best
Practicable  Control  Technology  Currently   Available   includes   the
following  treatment components:  for the apple juice and apple products
(except juice)   subcategories   (except  caustic  peeled  and  dehydrated
products)   —  preliminary screening and secondary biological treatment;
for the citrus products subcategory  (except  pectin  and  pharmaceutical
products)   —  cooling  towers  for  weak cooling wastes and preliminary
screening and secondary biological treatment for process  waste  waters;
for   the   frozen  and  dehydrated  potato  products  subcategories
preliminary screening, primary sedimentation, and  secondary  biological
treatment.   Where sufficient quantities of suitable land are available,
land treatment such as spray irrigation is an attractive alternative  to
biological treatment in order to achieve BPCTCA limitations.

Recommended  BPCTCA guidelines are set forth in the following tabulation
including maximum limitations for any one day  and  maximum  limitations
for  the  average  of  daily values for any period of thirty consecutive
days;
Subcategory (1)
Apple Juice
Apple Products
 (Except Juice)

Citrus Products
Potato Products
 (Frozen)

Potato Products
 (Dehydrated)
  Effluent
Characteristic
    EOD5
Suspended Solids

    EOD5
Suspended Solids

    BOD5
Suspended Solids

    EOD5
Suspended Solids

    BOD5
Suspended Solids
    Maximum
  Daily. Average
kg/kkg    Ib/T
    Maximum
Thirty Day Aye.
kg/kkg     lb/T
0.80
1.00

1.40
1.80

1.00
2.20

4.75
8.75

4.00
8.00
 1.60
 2.00

 2.80
 3.60

 2.00
 4.40

 9.50
17.50

 8.00
16.00
                     0.20
                     0.25

                     0.35
                     0.45

                     0.25
                     0.55

                     0.95
                     1.75

                     0.80
                     1.60
           0.40
           0.50

           0.70
           0.90

           0.50
           1.10
           1.
           3,
90
50
           1.60
           3.20
(1)   For all subcategories pH should be between 6.0 and 9.0,

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The waste water effluent reduction limitations  attainable  through  the
application  of  the  Best  Available  Control  Technology  Economically
Achievable are based on the performance of the best secondary biological
system  treating  apple,  citrus  or  potato  waste  water.   For   each
subcategory  Best  Available  Control Technology Economically Achievable
includes Best Practicable Control Technology  Currently  Available  plus
additional  secondary  biological treatment.  Advanced treatment such as
sand filtration could also be used.  Recommended waste water  guidelines
are set forth in the following tabulation:
Subcategory(1)


Apple Juice
Apple Products
  (Except Juice)

Citrus Products
Potato Products
  (Frozen)

Potato Products
  (Dehydrated)
  Effluent
Characteristic
    BOD5
Suspended Solids

    BOD5
Suspended Solids

    BODJ5
Suspended Solids

    EOD5
Suspended Solids

    EOD5
Suspended Solids
  Maximum
Daily Average
kg/kkg   lb/T
 0.28
 0.40

 0.28
 0.40

 0.20
 0.32

 0.80
 1.35

 0.80
 1.35
0.56
0.80

0.56
0.80

0.40
0.64

1.60
2.70

1.60
2.70
            Maximum
        Thi rty_Day_Ave.
        kg/kkg        "
0.07
0.10

0.07
0.10

0.05
0.08

0.16
0.27

0.16
0.27
0. 14
0.20

0. 14
0.20

0. 10
0. 16

0.32
0.54

0.32
0.54
 (1) For all subcategories pH should be between 6.0 and 9.0.
The  waste  water effluent reduction limitations for new  sources are the
same as those attainable through the application of the   Best  Available
Control  Technology  Economically  Achievable.   These  limitations  are
possible because of the present availability of the treatment  technologv
to attain this level of effluent reduction and because new   source  site
selection  can  assure  land  availability for land treatment  facilities
 (such as spray irrigation) .

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                              SECTION III

                              INTRODUCTION



                         PURPOSE_ANP AUTHORITY

On October 18, 1972, the Congress  of  the  United  States  enacted  the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.  The Act in part
required  that  the  Environmental  Protection  Agency   (EPA)   establish
regulations,  providing  guidelines  for  effluent  limitations  to   be
achieved  by  "point  sources"  of  waste water discharge into navigable
waters and tributaries of the United States,

Specifically, Section 301 (b) of the Act requires the achievement by not
later than July 1, 1977, of  effluent  limitations  for  point  sources,
other than publicly owned treatment works, which require the application
of the Best Practicable Technology Currently Available as defined by the
Administrator  pursuant  to  Section  304(b) of the Act.  Section 301(b)
also requires the achievement  by  not  later  than  July  1,   1983,  of
effluent  limitations  for  point  sources,  other  than  publicly owned
treatment works, which require the application  of  the  Best  Available
Technology  Economically  Achievable  which  will  result  in reasonable
further progress toward the national goal of eliminating  the  discharge
of  all  pollutants, as determined in accordance with regulations issued
by the Administrator pursuant to Section 304(b)  of the Act.   Section 306
of the Act requires the achievement by new sources of a federal standard
of performance providing for the control of the discharge of  pollutants
which  reflects  the  greatest  degree  of  effluent reduction which the
Administrator determines to be achievable  through  application  of  the
best  available  demonstrated  control  technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives, including, where practicable,  a standard
permitting no discharge of pollutants.

Section 30U(b) of the Act requires the Administrator to publish within 1
year of enactment of  the  Act,  regulations  providing  guidelines  for
effluent  limitations  setting  forth  the  degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the  application  of  the  Best  Practicable  Control
Technology  Currently  Available  and  the  degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of  the  best  control  measures  and
practices   achievable   including  treatment  techniques,  process  and
procedure innovations, operation methods and  other  alternatives.   The
regulations  proposed  herein  set forth effluent limitations based upon
raw material used, products produced,  manufacturing  process  employed,
and  other  factors.   The  raw  waste  water  characteristics  for each
subcategory were then identified.  This included an analysis of  (1)   the
source  and volume of water used in the process employed and the sources
of waste and waste  waters  in  the  plant;  and   (2)   the  constituents

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(including thermal)  of all waste waters including toxic constituents and
other  constituents which result in taste,  odor and color in water.   The
constituents of  waste  waters  which  should  be  subject  to  effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance were identified.

The  full  range  of  control and treatment technologies existing within
each subcategory was identified.  This  included  an  identification  of^
each  distinct control and treatment technology, including both in plant
and end-of-process technologies, which are existent or capable of  being
designed  for  each  subcategory.  It also included an identification in
terms  of  the  amount  of  constituents  (including  thermal)  and  the
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of pollutants, of the
effluent  level  resulting from the application of each of the treatment
and control technologies.  The problems, limitations and reliability  of
each  treatment  and  control technology and the required implementation
time was also identified.  In addition, the non-water  quality  environ-
mental   impact,  such  as  the  effects  of  the  application  of  such
technologies upon other pollution problems were  also  identified.   Th<=
energy  requirements  of  each of the control and treatment technologies
were identified  as  well  as  the  cost  of  the  application  of  such
technologies.

The  information,  as  outlined  above,  was  then evaluated in order to
determine what levels of technology constituted  the  "Best  Practicable
Control   Technology   Currently  Available"  and  the  "Best  Available
demonstrated control technology, processes, operating methods, or  other
alternatives".   In  identifying such technologies, various factors were
considered.  These included the total cost of application of  technology
in  relation to the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such
application, the age of equipment and facilities involved,  the  process
employed, the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
control  techniques,  process  changes,  non-water quality environmental
impact  (including energy requirements) and other factors.


                             DATA SOURCES

The segment of the Canned and Preserved Fruits and  Vegetables  Industry
category  selected  for  this phase I effort includes s.I.C. codes  2033,
2034,  and  2037  for  apple  processors  (except  caustic  peeled   and
dehydrated    products) ,    citrus   processors    (except   pectin   and
pharmaceutical products), and potato processors  (frozen  and  dehydrated
products).  The remaining fruit and vegetable processors in those S.I.C.
codes  will  be  covered  in  a later phase of this study.  The data and
recommended  effluent  guidelines  contained  in  this   document   were
developed  from  information  derived  from  a number of sources.  These
sources included review and  evaluation  of  available  literature,  the
results   of  EPA  research,  development  and  demonstration  projects,
consultation with qualified experts in the  field,  correspondence  with
industry   associations,   EPA   Permit   data,  data  from  states  and

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municipalities, and correspondence with individual  processors  and  on-
site  visits  and  interviews.   Visits  were made to, and historic data
reviewed at, more than 130 processing plants; sampling and analysis were
carried out at 38 of these plants.  The principal source  of  raw  waste
and  treated  effluent  data  was  current  and  historical  information
gathered from individual plants.  Visits were made  to,  and  historical
data  reviewed  from  more than 40 apple processing plants, more than 50
citrus processing plants and more  than  40  potato  processing  plants.
Appendix  C  contains the format for this collected data.  Sampling data
was gathered from 13 apple plants,  13  citrus  plants,  and  12  potato
plants.   The  purpose  of  this  data was to supplement or confirm data
supplied by the processcr or other sources.  The success of this  effort
is  reflected  in  Section  V with the computation of industry raw waste
loads.   Sixty-two  different  plants  actually   contributed   to   the
computation.   All  references  used  in  developing  the guidelines for
effluent limitations  and  standards  of  performance  for  new  sources
reported  herein  are  included  in  Supplement  B  to this document.  A
listing of apple plants (AP-101 to AP-142), citrus plants  (CT-101 to CT-
149), and potato plants  (PO-101  to  PO-136)  used  in  this  study  is
presented in Appendix A.

                    GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY

ApjDles_


The  apple  was  introduced  into the western part of the country in the
middle of the nineteenth century.  Apples cannot be grown satisfactorily
in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  because  of   climatic
conditions.   Because  the  fruit  requires  a relatively constant, cool
temperature, production has been concentrated in relatively few  states.
For the last three years,  the average national apple production has been
almost  three  million  kilo-kilograms.   About  70 percent of the total
production are obtained from six leading states (Table 1).

In 1971, there were 164 apple processing plants  located  in  28  states
(Figure  1).   In  that  year  total  production  was  2.8 million kilo-
kilograms.  Of this total,  about 57 percent went for fresh pack  and  43
percent  for  processing.    Of  the  total  crop,  apple sauce and other
canning took 18 percent; frozen products 3 percent, and  dried  products
less  than  2  percent.   Other  products,  which consist mostly of apple
juice and vinegar, accounted for over  20  percent  of  the  total  crop
(Table  2) .   By  geographic  distribution,  about  50  percent  of  the
processed apple products is obtained from the states  of  Michigan,  New
York  and  Pennsylvania,  while  the  states of Washington, Virginia and
California each contributed about 11 percent.  The remaining 17  percent
of  processed  apple  products is obtained from 22 states, where most of
the processing is concentrated in the production of vinegar.

-------
                           TABLE 1
          APPLES -  PRODUCTION BY STATES  IN U.S.  1971
                No.  Of
                  Fresh Pack
     Processed
Location
Michigan
New York
California
Washington
Pennsylvania
Virginia
Other States
Processing
Plants
35
28
21
15
9
7
49
M kg
136.2
160.3
50.8
415.9
84.0
89.0
650.7
M Ibs.
300.0
353.0
112.0
916.0
185.0
196.0
1,433.3
M kg
190.7
259.7
130.8
128.9
145.3
128.9
202.8
M Ibs.
420.0
572.0
288.0
284.0
320.0
284.0
446.8
   TOTAL
164
1,586.9    3,495.3
1,187.1 2,614.8
Source:   Agricultural Statistics - 1972
         U.S. Department of Agriculture
                                 8

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                              TABLE 2




      APPLES - FRESH PACK AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS IN U.S.  1969-71
ITEM



Fresh



Canned



Dried



Frozen



Other



     TOTAL
1969
M kg
1,682.
634.
127.
94.
509.
3,065.

9
8
2
3
5
3
M Ibs
3,707.
1,398.
280.
207.
1,122.
6,751.
•
0
3
2
6
2
8
1970
M kg
1,597.
539.
84.
82.
552.
2,857.

9
9
9
1
7
4
M Ibs
3,519.
1,189.
187.
180.
1,217.
6,293.
•
5
3
0
8
3
9
1971
M kg
1,586
496
44
77
569
2,774

.9
.4
.2
.3
.1
.0
M
3,
1,


1,
6,
Ibs.
495.3
093.5
97.4
170.3
253.6
110.1
  Source:  Agriculture Statistics - 1972, U. S. Department of Agriculture
                                     10

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Consumption of  canned  apples  and  apple  sauce  has  remained  almost
constant  over  the last ten years.  Frozen and dried products have also
failed to exhibit any real growth.  Only apple juice products show signs
of increased consumer acceptance, with larger volumes of domestic apples
channeled to this outlet and increased juice imports apparently  findina
a  ready  market.   Trade  reports  indicate  that apples are being used
increasingly in the production of wines.

Product Classification

The U. S. Bureau of Census  classifies  the  apple  processing  industry
within   Standard   Industrial  Classification   (SIC)  203,  Canned  and
Preserved Fruits and Vegetables.   A  detailed  list  of  product  codes
applicable to the apple processing industry is contained in Appendix B.

Growth Projections

The  processing  of  apples  will continue to be concentrated in the six
leading states of Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Washington, Virginia
and California.  Statistics covering the last few  years  indicate  that
the  production  of  apples  in  the  eastern  United  States  increased
slightly; central U. S. production remained almost constant and that  of
the  western  states   (predominately  fresh  pack)  was  down  slightly.
Increased demand for apple juice is expected to exert an upward pressure
on apple production.  The new  factor  in  the  apple  industry  is  the
rapidly  increasing  use  of apples for the production of wine.  If this
trend continues, a substantial tonnage of apples  will  be  required  to
satisfy this market sector.

The  technology  of  harvesting  apples  and  processing  them  has been
relatively static for a number of years.  Some of the factors  that  are
bringing about changes in the industry are:

1.  Mechanical harvesting is increasing in order to reduce labor costs.

2.  Concern over waste generation and treatment has resulted in interest
in  such  waste  reduction techniques as dry caustic peeling and hot gas
blanching.


3.  Because of improvements in controlled atmosphere storage, the season
for processing apples will become progressively longer.

It is estimated that about 1.5 million kilo-kilograms of apples will  be
processed by 1977.
                                   11

-------
Citriis

Citrus is the largest fruit crop in the United States, with a farm value
exceeding  $400  million annually in recent years.  Primarily because of
climate, citrus  production  is  concentrated  in  Florida,  California,
Arizona  and  Texas  (Table  3).   During  the  1950's  and early 1960's
production was low.  Beginning in 1963,  production  increased  steadily
because   of   improvements   in  technology,  management  and  cultural
practices.  Since 1950, Florida citrus output has more than doubled  and
now   represents   about   three-fourths  of  total  U.  S.  production.
California citrus production has fallen to 18 percent of total output in
recent years as land has been  converted  to  housing  and  other  uses.
Arizona  and  Texas,  together,  produced  approximately  5  percent  of
domestic citrus output.

There are 97 citrus processing plants in 14 states  (Figure 2).   Florida
has 53 plants, representing more than 54 percent of the total  (Table 3),
During  the last two decades, there has been a striking shift in the use
of citrus from fresh to processed forms.  This mainly reflects the sharp
increase in the use of Florida production for processing.  In  the  1971
season, Florida packed 97 percent of the citrus products produced in the
United  States.   Marketing  patterns  favor  fresh  citrus  in Arizona,
California and Texas.  Eut even in these states the proportion of citrus
used fresh has declined.

Processed  forms  include  frozen,  chilled  and   canned.    Commercial
introduction  of  frozen  concentrated citrus juices in the mid - 1940's
stimulated a rapid  and  dramatic  increase  in  processing  of  Florida
citrus.  Since that time, the rate of increase in citrus used for frozen
concentrated  citrus  juices  has  been dramatic.  The proportion of the
Florida citrus crop dedicated to juice production has increased  from  6
to  70  percent.  The increased volume of citrus used for chilled citrus
products has also had an impact on processing use.   The  proportion  of
the Florida citrus used for chilled citrus products has increased from 3
percent  in  1945  to 14 percent in the 1971 season.  In contrast to the
sharp increase in utilization of  citrus  for  frozen  concentrated  and
chilled  products,  the  volume  of  Florida citrus used for canning has
decreased sharply.
                                   12

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15

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Annual per capita consumption of citrus,  fresh and processed combined on
a fresh weight equivalent basis, shows an erratic trend during the  last
two decades.  In general, fresh consumption has decreased,  but processed
citrus  consumption  has  increased,  led  by a sharp increase in frozen
items.  Per capita consumption  of  frozen  concentrated  citrus  juices
increased from 6.8 to 16.3 kg (15 to 36 Ibs)  over the past two decades.

Chilled  citrus  juice  consumption increased from 0.8 to 3.8 kg (1.7 to
8.5 Ibs)  over the same period.  Because of the rapid rise in frozen  and
chilled  juice  consumption,  canned  citrus juice consumption decreased
substantially from 5.2 to 3.2 kg (11.5 to 7 Ibs).  Consumption of canned
orange sections and citrus salad combined has also been erratic and  has
accounted  for  less than 2 percent of processed per capita consumption.
However,  consumer demand for processed citrus appears to be increasinq.

Product Classification

The citrus processing industry is classified under SIC  Group  No.  203,
Canned  and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables.  A. detailed list of product
codes covering  the  products  of  the  citrus  processing  industry  is
contained in Appendix B.

Growth Projection

Citrus  for fresh use will continue to be grown in three western states.
However,  because of the increasing demand for frozen concentrated juice,
it is expected that more citrus grown in California and  Texas  will  be
processed.   Florida will continue to be the leading state for processed
citrus products and production can be expected to  expand  substantially
with time to meet the rising demand.

Chilled  citrus  juices  cannot  be  made  from stored fruit but must be
processed immediately after harvesting.  For this reason, the processing
season is short and there is little incentive to  increase  plant  size.
Tn  the production of frozen concentrated juice, however, the processinq
season is extended through the use of stored concentrate and there is  a
trend   toward   processing   plants  of  larger  capacity.   Processina
techniques have been relatively static  in  recent  years  although  the
pressure  for  water  pollution  control  has  resulted in some changes.
waste heat  evaporators  are  being  introduced  to  treat  odor-causing
wastes.

It is estimated that the quantity of citrus processed will increase to 9
million kilo-kilograms by 1977.
                                   16

-------
Potatoes_

The  potato  was  first  introduced into the Northern American continent
from England in 1621.  Curing the 18th and  19th  centuries  the  potato
became  a significant source of food in Europe, but because of its short
storage life it was not completely utilized.  During the latter half  of
the  18th  century there was experimentation with various types of dried
potatoes.  However, little was  accomplished  in  this  direction  until
World   War   I  when  a  number  of  dehydrated  potato  products  were
manufactured for military use.  Since that time,  potatoes  have  ranked
high among crops utilized chiefly for food.

The  average  annual United States potato production over the last three
years was approximately 14 million kkg (315  million  hundred  weights).
Two-thirds  of  this total was obtained from seven leading states (Table
4).  About 40 percent of total national potato production  is  used  for
processing.  In 1972, there were 112 canned and frozen potato processing
plants in 31 states  (Figure 3).

Demand  for   potatoes and potato products has changed markedly over the
past decade.  Annual per  capita  consumption  increased  from  47.2  kg
(108.4  Ibs)  in  1961 to 54.12 kg  (119.2 Ibs)  in 1971.  The increase in
consumption is credited entirely to processed  use.   In  contrast,   per
capita  consumption  of fresh potatoes has fallen substantially.  Frozen
french fries have paced the growth of processed potato products.  Frozen
products now account for about 45  percent  of  all  potatoes  used  for
processing.

Dehydrated  potatoes  account  for about 20 percent of all potatoes used
for processing.  Per capita consumption of canned potatoes has  remained
almost  constant  at  about 5 percent and the production of potato chips
account for 30 percent of potatoes.

Product Classification

The potato processing industry  is  classified  under  SIC  Groups  203,
Canned  and  Preserved  Fruits and Vegetables, 204, Grain Mill Products,
and 209,  Miscellaneous  Food  Preparations  and  Kindred  Products.   A
detailed  list of product codes within the foregoing groups is presented
in Appendix B.

Growth Projections

Potato production in the 1960's trended generally upward due  to  larger
output  of North Dakota, Idaho and Washington.  Demand for potatoes will
increase in the years ahead  due  to  population  growth  and  continued
increases  in  demand  for  processed convenience products.  Projections
indicate that processed potato products will account  for  approximately
75 percent of total
                                   17

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food  use  of  potatoes by 1980.   Frozen potato products are expected to
remain the leading item  amonq  the  processed  forms.   Consumption  of
dehydrated  potatoes  will  increase  only  slightly, while fresh potato
consumption is projected to continue its long downward trend  to  a  per
capita consumption in the range of 15.9 kg to 18.2 kg (35 to UO Ibs).

The  size  of  processing plants has increased in recent years, and this
trend is expected to continue under the  pressures  of  competition  and
increased  complexity of manufacturing and marketing operations.  Excep^-
for  the  introduction  of  dry  caustic  peeling,   potato   processing
technigues  have  not  changed substantially in recent years.  Increased
water pollution control activity  is  expected  to  have  an  impact  on
processing  plants  in  the  form  of  better  in-plant control of
generation and water consumption.

                   PROFILE OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Apple s_

General

There are three basic products which  are  made  from  apples  in  large
volume:  a)  slices, b) sauce, and c) juice (cider).  Other products such
as dehydrated apple pieces, spiced apple rings, spiced whole apples, and
baked  apples,  are  all  produced in much lesser volume and are usually
oroduced in conjunction with one of the major products   (slices,  sauce,
juice) .
     apple  harvest  begins  in some locations in midsummer and in other
areas extends through the fall season.  In recent years, the  processing
season  which  begins  with the harvest of apples has been extended well
beyond the harvest period by placing an increased amount  of  apples  in
controlled  atmosphere  storage. Conseguently, when there is an adequat0
or abundant supply of apples, most large processors can, and usually do,
operate their plants over a seven to eight month period.

Curing the early fall, at the peak of the harvest season,  many  of  the
apple  processors  will  operate  their  plants on a two or three shift,
f iv°-day-per-week basis.  However, when the apples are no  longer  being
delivered  directly  from  the field, the processor usually operates his
plant on one shift for processing, followed by a cleanup shift.

Later in the operating year, depending upon the availability of  apples,
the processor may operate his plants on even a more sporadic schedule.
                                   20

-------
Processing Steps

Apple  processing usually includes storage, washing and sorting, peeling
and coring, slicing, chopping, juice extracting, dehydrating, deaerating
and cooking.  End products in approximate order of pack size  are  apple
sauce, apple juice, and frozen and canned apple slices.

CA __ IContro^lJLed __ Atmosphere) __ Storage ~ Tne proper ripeness of the apple
directly reflects on the final product quality.  An overripe apple  will
cause  a  poor flavor in the product, while an unripe apple will produce
an off-color and a poor  flavor  in  the  product.   In  the  controlled
atmosphere  storage,  the  temperature  and  relative  humidity  of  the
recirculated air is closely controlled.  To  meet  the  demands  of  the
fresh  market,  the apples are periodically removed from storage, graded
or sorted, and the proper quality fruit is directed to the processor.
Wi.§.i}iQ.2_iI}d_Sorting ~ Apples that are received from either the field  or
CA  st6rage must be thoroughly washed to remove all residues that may be
on the fruit.  To ensure removal, in some instances, chemicals or deter-
gents are added to the wash water.  The water, or a large portion of it,
is often reused within the washing system to  conserve  wash  water  and
reduce  the volume of waste effluent leaving the processing plant.  This
can be accomplished by  (1) periodically draining the washing system,  or
(2)  regulating the overflow and makeup water addition to the system.

The purpose of sorting is to remove the smaller, misshapened or inferior
fruit  and  redirect  this fruit into products, such as juice, which can
accept the lower-quality raw material.
       _           ~ Mechanical peeling is the most popular  method  for
removing  the  apple  peel.   This  is  particularly true where a sliced
product is being produced.  The mechanical peeler  can  be  adjusted  to
remove a greater or lesser percentage of the imperfections in the fruit.
The  peel  and  core  particles  are  often  collected  and  used in the
production of either juice or vinegar stock.  In  a  mechanical  peeling
operation,  the  peel  and  core  fraction  represents  approximately 35
percent of the apple processed.

Steam and caustic peeling are also used by  apple  processors;  however,
these  methods are more successful in manufacturing a sauce product than
with a sliced product.  The peel loss is not as great in caustic peeling
when compared to mechanical peeling.  It is often desirable to remove  a
greater  percentage of the peel in the manufacture of slices or sauce to
ensure the complete elimination of surface imperfections.

The peel removed by  caustic  treatment  cannot  be  utilized  in  cider
manufacture,  but  the  core, if properly handled, is still suitable for
use as a raw material for cider processing.  In the  steam  and  caustic
type peelers, the final removal is accomplished by a rotary washer using
water  sprays.   A  few  of the apple processors have installed abrasive

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type scrubbers to replace the conventional rotary washers.   The  peelina
and  coring  operations  represent  a major source of waste to the apple
processing industry and, wherever possible, operating procedures  should
be  used  to minimize the contact between cut portions and wash water to
reduce the amount of soluble constituents lost to the waste effluent.  A.
certain amount of water is still required to  prevent  browning  of  the
apple particles.

Slicing - If fresh apple slices are the end product, these slices can be
cut  after  the  core has been removed or simultaneously as the apple is
being cored.  The apple slices are washed, graded and  inspected  before
packaging  as  fresh  apple slices or further processed into dehydrated,
frozen, or canned products.
   .                 apple slices are to be either frozen or canned, they
are deaerated by immersion in a brine solution while a vacuum is  pulled
on  the  tank.  The brine is then drained from the slices which are then
either frozen and packaged or cooked prior to canning.

Canning - In the canning of apple slices, the slices are steam  blanched
or  Dre-heated, placed into the can while still hot, sealed, and further
cooked to assure preservation.

Product Styles

Slices - Apple slices are processed from solid fresh  apples  of  proper
maturity  and  proper  ripeness.   After  the apples are washed, sorted,
peeled and cored, they are sliced by cutting segments longitudinally and
radially from the core centerline.  The slices are further inspected and
packaged for immediate use as a fresh product, or they can be dehydrated
in a tunnel drier and packaged as dehydrated apple slices.  If either  a
frozen  or canned product is required, the apples are deaerated prior to
processing.

Sauce - Apple sauce is prepared from comminuted or chopped apples  which
may  or  may  not have been previously peeled and cored.  In addition to
removal of the peel and core, good manufacturing practice  dictates  the
separation  of  bruised  apple particles, carpel tissue and other coarse
hard extraneous materials.  The apples are  washed,  sorted,  cored  and
Dueled  in  a manner identical to the manufacture of slices.  Flavor and
consistency are adjusted with water and sugar, generally in the form  of
liquid sugar.

The  cored apple is sliced or diced into small pieces, cooked a.nd, while
still hot, passed through a finisher for removal of  any  large  foreign
particles.   The hot apple sauce from the finisher is inspected, and any
remaining foreign particles are removed prior to canning and cooling.

A_p_ple_Juice __ [Cider]_ - Apple  juice   (cider)   is  an  unfermented  liquid
prepared  from  1)   fresh  whole sound apples or 2) apple pieces such as


                                   22

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cores and peelings obtained from either a slice or a sauce manufacturing
operation.  If whole apples are used, they  are  washed  and  comminuted
before  pressing.  The pressed juice is screened to remove large foreign
particles  and  frequently  clarified  by  diatomaceous  earth  pressure
filtration.   The  apple  juice is then heated to assure preservation of
the product in hermetically sealed containers.

A concentrated apple juice can be made from  the  single-strength  juice
through  the  removal of water (evaporation) .  The concentrate is stored
or packaged in bulk containers (55-gallon drums) .  In the manufacture of
apple juice (cider) , it is not customary to  either  peel  or  core  the
apple.   Consequently,  there  is  not  the  large amount of waste being
discharged at this portion of the process.

Vinegar stock is made in a manner  similar  to  the  pressing  of  apple
cider.  However, the vinegar stock is made from poor quality apples.  It
is  never  clarified  to  the same degree as apple cider; however, it is
usually concentrated prior to bulk shipment in tank cars to the  vinegar
processing plant.

Citrus

General
     citrus industry is concentrated in two areas of the U.S.  The major
portion, approximately 80 percent of the industry, is located in Florida
and the remaining 20 percent is located in the southwestern part of  the
U.S.    (California,  Arizona  and  Texas).  Oranges, grapefruit, lemons,
tangerines (mandarins)  and limes, ranked in the order of importance, are
all processed into citrus products and co- products such as juice,  dried
peel,  oil,  segments  and  molasses.   A  few  citrus  processors  also
manufacture such items as pectin, flavorings, essence,  Pharmaceuticals,
etc.   Citrus  juice,  single- strength  and  concentrated, is by far the
major product of the citrus processing industry.

Citrus is both harvested and processed only  in  four  states,  Florida,
California, Texas and Arizona.  In the eastern area, Florida, 90 percent
of  all  fruit picked is sent directly to the processing plant.  Only 10
percent of the fruit harvested in this area is directed to  the  packing
house  where it is graded, and the poorer quality fruit is redirected to
the processor.  In the southwestern  region  of  the  U.S.   (California,
Arizona  and Texas) normally all fruit is sent first to a packing house,
where the fruit is graded for the fresh-table market, and the  remaining
fruit  is  then  sent  to  the  processor.   The  only exception to this
procedure occurs when, because of low temperatures in a given area,  the
fruit  on  the trees becomes frozen.  In an effort to salvage as much of
the fruit as possible,  the  frozen  fruit  is  immediately  picked  and
shipped directly to the processor as .field run fruit.
                                   23

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Processing Steps

There  are  a  number  of  similar  or  identical  process  steps in the
manufacture of  most  citrus  products.   For  example,   the  receiving,
washing,  intermediate  storage, extraction and finishing, process steps
are common to all single strength juice plants.  In addition, the  juice
concentrating  process step must be added for the production of a frozen
concentrate.  In the manufacture of citrus segments  the  process  steps
which  are  common  to all citrus segment plants are mechanical peeling,
caustic treating, sectionizing, canning or bottling, and  cooling.   The
peel  and  pulp  (including  rejected  fruit) are processed into a dried
citrus pulp and a molasses.  These can be marketed as separate items  or
the molasses can be added back to the dried citrus pulp.
                    shing - When the fruit is received at the processing
plant,  it  is  transferred to intermediate storage prior to processing.
This storage is usually sized to hold one to three days supply of  fruit
for  the  plant.   When  needed, the fruit is withdrawn from storaae and
washed before processing  to  remove  any  foreign  materials  including
oesticides and insecticides that are adhering to the fruit.  Either high
pressure  water  sprays or immersion in water, in combination with brush
scrubbers, is the conventional  method  of  fruit  cleaning.   All  free
surface  water  must  be  drained from the fruit prior to extracting the
juice.

Extraction - In this process step the raw citrus juice is extracted from
the fruit by mechanical methods.  In a reamer type extractor, the  fruit
is  cut into halves and each half reamed separately to remove the juice.
In another system the juice is extracted from the whole fruit through  a
hollow  tube  while  pressure  is applied to the exterior surface of the
fruit.  In another procedure, the fruit is sliced and the juice  removed
from  the  fruit  halves  by  pressure on the exterior of the fruit.  An
average yield of juice is 480 1/kkg  (115 G/T) of fruit processed.
Finishing -  Mechanically  extracted  juice  contains  seeds,  pips  and
segment  membranes   (rag)  that  must  be  removed.   This separation is
usually accomplished by a screw or paddle  type  finisher  (pulp  press)
wher°  the  pressure applied and the size of the perforations  (openings)
control the degree of solids removal.  The finished juice is blended and
ready for canning or bottling as a single strength juice.

A fruit base drink can be manufactured by washing the citrus pulp solids
discharged from the  finisher with water and  separating  the   solids  in
another finisher.  The washed pulp is transferred to the peel  process.

Juice __ Concentration - In concentrating citrus juice to 42° or 65° Brix,
it is necessary to remove practically all of the pulp  solids.   If  the
finisher  cannot  be adjusted to remove a sufficient quantity  of solids,
then it is  necessary  to  desludge  the  single  strength  juice  in   a
centrifuge.   The  removal  of solids reduces the viscosity of the juice


                                   24

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during the concentration procedure.  The citrus juice is concentrated in
evaporators (rising  or  falling  film)  that  have  been  designed  for
operation  at  a  high  vacuum  and  a  short residence time.  If citrus
essence is to be recovered from the juice,  this  must  be  accomplished
during the concentrating of the raw citrus juice.

Peeling - In this process step the peel is mechanically removed from the
fruit.   First  the fruit is scalded with steam and cooled to loosen the
peel.  The fruit is manually placed or positioned into a  receiving  cup
of  the mechanical peeler, and is retained in the cups while the peel is
scored and mechanically stripped from the fruit.   The  peel  is  trans-
ferred  to  the  peel  process  part  of  the  plant  or  sold  to other
processors.

Caustic^Treatment - A caustic solution is applied to  the  whole  peeled
fruit  by  dipping  or  spraying.   The  caustic  treatment  removes any
adhering rag or membrane prior to sectionizing.   After  treatment,  but
prior to sectionizing, all liguid caustic is thoroughly removed from the
fruit by washing with water.

Segmenting  -  The segmenting process is either a manual or a mechanical
operation.  The manual or hand method produces a higher quality  segment
with  less  waste  being  generated  than  with the automatic sectioning
machines.  The sectioned fruit is inspected  and  packaged  in  cans  or
bottles.

Peel	Shaving  - A number of the citrus processors quarter and shave the
peel to recover the citrus oil.  This cold pressed oil is a valuable co-
product if lemons or  grapefruit  are  being  processed.   Mandarin  and
orange  oils  are  of  lesser commercial importance.  To release the oil
from the peel, the  citrus  halves  are  quartered  and  passed  between
knurled   pressure  rolls  to  break  the  oil  sacs  in  the  peel.   A
recirculated water stream is sprayed into the  shaver  to  pick  up  the
citrus oil being released from the shaved peel.

Citrus  peel  may  also  be shaved or deragged to produce a peel product
acceptable for drying and ultimate use as a food ingredient (cake mixes,
orange marmalade).

Products and co-products

In a large citrus processing plant a  number  of  the  products  or  co-
products  will  be  made.   Process  descriptions  of the more important
products are outlined below.

Single Strength Juice - In this process, the raw juice is extracted from
the fruit.  The suspended solids (seeds, pulp, etc.)  are  then  removed
from  the  raw  juice  in a paddle or screw type finisher.  The filtered
juice from the finisher is blended and  bottled  for  sale  as  a  fresh
chilled juice or pasteurized and canned as a single strength juice.


                                   25

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Concentrated_Jud.ce - In the production of concentrated citrus juice,  the
process  is  identical  to  that  employed  for  single  strength juice.
However, in the finishing step  (removal  of  pulp  solids)   a  thorough
removal  of  the solids from the juice is required.   The clarified juice
is then concentrated by evaporation to a U2° Brix  as  a  frozen  citrus
concentrate  or 65° Brix as a canned concentrate.  A large percentage of
the concentrated juice is put into 55-gallon  drums.   These  drums  are
frozen and stored for later processing.

Cold __ Pressed __ Oil  -  In  one method of citrus oil recovery, the oil is
released from the peel by breaking the oil sacs on the peel surface  and
collected  by  means of water sprays or rinse.  The water/oil mixture is
then separated by a centrifuge into  three  phases  -  cream  (oil/water
emulsion) ;  water  phase;  and sludge.  The citrus oil is recovered from
the cream in a high-speed centrifuge.  The water phase from  the  three-
phase  centrifuge  is  recycled  as wash water to pick up additional oil
being released from the peel.  This water/oil mixture is returned to the
three-phase centrifuge.

Segments - The citrus segments are packaged as  two  separate  products:
sections  and  salad  which  can be either canned or marketed as a fresh
chilled product.  The  processes  for  making  these  two  products  are
identical.   The  only  difference  is that the salad usually contains a
higher percentage of trcken segments and is considered a slightly  low^r
quality product.

In  processing sections or salad the fruit is washed, segmented  (peeled,
caustic treated and sliced) then canned  or  bottled  as  chilled  fresh
fruit.
                                      ~ 1° recent years the major citrus
processors have found it to be economically attractive to install  waste
heat  evaporators  in  conjunction  with  their meal driers and molasses
production.   The  process  described  here  includes  the  waste   heat
evaporator.   However,  it  should be recognized that the smaller citrus
processor may deliver his peel to another  processor  or  dry  the  peel
without pressing as a whole citrus peel.

In  the  production of dried citrus peel and molasses, the peel and pulp
residues are collected and ground in a hammermill.  Lime is  mixed  into
the  ground mixture for pH adjustment, and the ground peel is fed into a
pulp press to remove excess water.  The pressed peel is  conveyed  to  a
direct  fired  hot air drier while the liquor from the press is screened
to remove large solids which are recycled back to the press.  The  press
liquor  is concentrated to a molasses in the waste heat evaporator.  The
exhaust gases from the meal drier supply the heat for the  concentration
of  the  press  liquor into a molasses product.  D'limonene is recovered
from the press liquor through the condensation of  these  exhaust  gases
as they are released from the meal drier.
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Potatoes


General

The  potato  processing industry is normally classified according to the
products manufactured.

    1.  Potato Chips  (snack food)            30 percent
    2.  Frozen Potato Products               45 percent
    3.  Dehydrated Potato Products           20 percent
    U.  Canned, Hash, Stew and
          Soup Products                       5 percent

Only these processes which are classified under  items  2  and  3  above
(frozen  and dehydrated) will be considered in this report.  Potato chip
manufacture and canned potatoes will be considered as part  of  a  later
study.

In  the manufacture of potato products, the most important consideration
is the selection and procurement of a uniform high quality raw material.
The processor would like the raw material received at his plant to  have
high solids content, low reducing sugars content, thin peels and uniform
size  and  shape.  High quality potatoes are particularly important when
the plant operation is carried out over a long time period and the major
portion of the potatoes used as raw material have been placed in storage
for  a  period  of  several  months.   Most  of  the  potato  processing
operations  are  shut  down  during much of the summer when the potatoes
from the preceding harvest do not have desirable processing qualities or
they are no longer in desirable supply.

The quality of the raw potatoes and type of  manufacturing  process  are
the outstanding factors determining the amount of waste generated in the
manufacture of different potato products.

The  current  trend  of  industry  is  to  produce  a greater variety of
products or styles, thus utilizing a greater amount of the undersize and
undesirable potatoes vhich would otherwise be used for starch  or  flour
production.   The  potato  peelings,  discarded pieces and residues from
other processing wastes are usually fed  to  cattle.   The  low  quality
potatoes usually produce larger amounts of waste and represent a loss of
yield  to  the  processor.  However, regardless of raw material quality,
different manufacturing processes produce varying quantities  of  wastes
and different waste constituents.
                                   27

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Processing Steps

Most  potato  processes  have  a number of steps which are common to the
manufacture  of  potato  products,   i.e.,  storage,  washing,   peeling,
slicing,  blanching,  followed by a further processing step in which the
final product character is determined.
        ~ To achieve maximum use and  efficiency  of  his  manufacturing
facilities, the processor attempts to operate his plant on a year-round,
continuous  basis.   Thus,  it  is  necessary  for  large  quantities of
potatoes to be placed into storage at the end of each harvest for future
use.  The potatoes are often  stored  for  many  months  prior  to  use.
Today,  below-ground  storage  systems,  cellars,  are  gradually  being
abandoned in favor of above-ground construction.  In either instance, it
is necessary to maintain a high relative humidity to prevent dehydration
of the stored potatoes.  Shrinkage during long-term improper storage can
result in a 90 percent water  loss  by  evaporation  and  a  10  percent
carbohydrate  loss  by respiration.  However, proper temperature control
and air recirculation will prevent these losses as well as  prevent  the
occurrence of blackheart, mahogany browning, and stem rot.
                           potatoes  that  are received from the storage
cellar or field are directed into a water flume or transport  system  by
high  pressure  water  hoses.  In this manner the potatoes are withdrawn
from the intermediate plant storage and  transported to  the  processing
area.   The  potatoes  are withdrawn from the flume system by means of a
metering wheel and fed into the process system.  The transport water  is
normally  pumped  to a settling basin for silt removal and then returned
to the receiving system.

Prior to processing, it is necessary to  wash  the  potatoes.   This  is
accomplished   by   passing  the  potatoes  through  a  rotary  drum  or
cylindrical washer where the  potatoes  are  scrubbed  with  brushes  or
merely  by  tumbling  them  together.   In  this  washing  operation the
potatoes are also subjected to water sprays for the removal  of  foreign
material  and  soil particles.  Following the rotary washer the potatoes
pass over a short drainage belt which permits internal recirculation  of
the  wash  water.  An inspection of the potatoes is made on the drainage
belt, and the undesirable whole potatoes removed.

Peelincj - There are a number of methods for the removal of peel from the
potato.  These methods usually involve  a  pretreatment  with  chemicals
 (lye) or heat  (steam) which are followed by water sprays, abrasive rolls
or   rubber  studded  rolls to remove the peel from the potato.  The peel
loss, including trimming, can result in 15 to 30  percent  loss  of  the
potatoes  processed.   The  combination of the above peeling methods has
resulted in four systems which are known in  the  industry  as  abrasive
peeling, steam peeling, lye  (caustic) or wet lye peeling and dry caustic
peeling.   All these methods can be designed as either a continuous or a
                                   28

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batch system.  No simple peeling method provides the highest  degree  of
peel removal for all potato products or raw potato types.

Abrasive  peelers  have  rough  coated rolls which rotate and remove the
peel and small portions of the tissue by mechanically abrading  it  from
the  surface  of  the  potato.   Water  sprays  are  used  to remove the
particles of peel from the abrasive rolls and also  the  peeled  potato.
The  potatoes  are also rotated to insure removal of peel from all sides
of the potato.  Abrasive peeling is normally employed in the manufacture
of potato chips.  In this style of prpduct it is not essential  to  have
complete peel removal.

Steam  peelers  expose  the  potatoes  to  high pressure steam for short
periods of time.  After the steam treatment the potatoes are brushed and
sprayed with water to remove the cooked peel particles.   Steam  peeling
is  an excellent procedure for producing a completely peeled product and
is extremely effective on new or thin skinned potatoes.

Lye (caustic) peelers immerse or dip the potatoes in a hot lye solution.
Longer immersion times are required at lower temperatures  and  the  lye
consumption increases with higher caustic concentrations.  After removal
from  the  hot lye solution, the potatoes are held for a short period of
time to allow for the softening of the peel.  The  loose  peel  is  then
removed  by  brushes and water sprays in a manner similar to the removal
of peel after steaming.  If caustic treatment is used, the potatoes must
be thoroughly washed to remove all traces of caustic along with the peel
prior to further processing of the potato.

Dry caustic peelers are a recent modification of lye peelers.   In  this
peeling  process  the potatoes are treated with a lye solution and after
removal of the excess lye solution by draining, the potatoes are exposed
to infrared heating.  The caustic treated peel which has  been  loosened
is  removed  by an abrasive scrubber utilizing one-half-inch-long rubber
studs on rapidly  rotating  cylinders  developed  by  the  USDA  Western
Utilization  Research  Laboratory.  The peel is removed in this abrasive
scrubber with minimal rinsing.  This method  of  peel  removal  has  the
beneficial  effect  of  substantially  reducing  the  volume and organic
strength of the waste streams.  In actual plant operation, the  peelings
are collected as a slurry having a 15 to 25 percent solids content.

A  recent  extension of this new development in peel removal has been to
use the abrasive  scrubber  (USDA  design)  with  other  types  of  peel
treatment.    A  similar  reduction in waste loads has been realized when
this scrubber has been employed with steam peelers or  the  conventional
lye  peelers.   The  reduction  in  water  volumes  and  waste  loads is
eguivalent to that attained when the scrubber is used in the dry caustic
peeling system.

The trimming process should be considered as part of the  peel  removal.
In  this process the presence of eyes, blemishes, and remaining peel are


                                   29

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often detected electronically,  which directs  the  imperfect  potato  to
the  trim  table  where  the  imperfections  are manually cut out of the
potato.  The degree of completeness of trimming is usually determined by
the desired end  product  or  style.   All  solids  wastes  from  either
trimming or peeling can be directed toward cattle feed.

Siicing/Dj.cing  - In this process step, slicing or dicing, the potato is
cut or subdivided into smaller pieces.  The size and  shape  into  which
the  potato  is  subdivided  is  dependent upon the end product.  In any
cutting process  a  number  of  potato  cells  are  ruptured,  releasing
considerable  amounts  of  starch.   The more extensive the cutting, the
greater the amount of starch that is released.  This  starch  is  washed
from  the  surface  of  the  potato  pieces  and  usually appears in the
transport or cutting water.

Many processors are now installing hydroclones to remove the  starch  in
the  form  of a slurry from the wash water.  This crude starch slurry is
then shipped to a starch processor for further refining.
          ~ After peeling  and  slicing   the  potato,  the  pieces  are
blanched  to deactivate the enzymes, to remove surface air, to partially
cook to form a grease barrier on the particle and if necessary to remove
excessive sugars.  Blanching also can be used  to  effect  a  degree  of
sterilization.   Either  steam  or water is used for blanching potatoes.
Steam is used when it is necessary to minimize leaching; water blanching
is employed when it is necessary to remove constituents such  as  sugars
from  the potato pieces.  It is common practice to arrange the blanchers
for series flow of the potato  pieces  and  parallel  flow  of  the  hot
blanching  water.  For dehydrated potato products, the potato pieces are
water-blanched, water-cooled, and then steam-blanched or cooked prior to
mashing and mixing.

Product Styles

Following the blanching process, the potatoes can be  further  processed
into products of two major categories:  frozen and dehydrated.
frozen   Potato __ Products ___ IZJZSSSi^ __ Fries.* __ S|*§]2 __ BrownA_^etc..l_-In  the
manufacture  of  frozen  potato  products,  many  processors  add   back
ingredients after blanching and prior to frying and cooking.  The frying
is  accomplished  in  a continuous belt unit at a temperature of 300° to
350°F.  Following frying, the potato pieces are quick frozen in a tunnel
freezer, then  inspected,  sorted  and  sized  prior  to  packaging  and
warehousing.  The only waste loads which are generated from this portion
of the process are wastes from the fryer- scrubber, clean-up of the fryer
and freezer belts, freezer thawing, cooling water, etc.


Dehydrated __ Potato _ Products __ l§ranulesx _ Fl§JSSSx^_Slices]_  - The potato
slices or dices which are dehydrated  as  individual  pieces  are  dried


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following  blanching  in  an  atmospheric  recirculated  air  tunnel   or
conveyor drier.  If granules or flakes are to  be  processed,   then  the
blanched  potato  pieces  are  mashed and conditioned prior to drying as
flakes on a drum drier (flaker)  or as granules in a fluid bed  drier.
                                   31

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                               SECTION IV

                        INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION

CATEGORIZATION

In developing waste water effluent limitation guidelines  and  standards
of  performance  for  the  Canned  and  Preserved  Fruits and Vegetables
Industry, a  judgment  must  be  made  as  to  whether  limitations  and
standards  are appropriate for different segments (subcategories)  within
the industry.  The first phase of the study is limited to processors  of
apple  products  (except caustic peeled and dehydrated products),  citrus
products (except pectin and  pharmaceutical  products)  and  frozen  and
dehydrated  potato  products.   Other  commodities  will be studied in a
subsequent study.  In order to  identify  any  such  subcategories,  the
following factors were considered.

         1.  Raw material
         2.  Products and by-products
         3.  Production processes
         4.  Age of plant
         5.  Size of plant
         6.  Plant location
         7.  Waste treatability


After  considering  each  of  these  factors,  it was concluded that, the
segment of the Canned  and  Preserved  Fruits  and  Vegetables  industry
included  in  this  study  consisted  of  three different raw materials:
apples,  citrus,  and  potatoes.   The  apple  and   potato   processing
industries  were  further  subdivided  into two subcategories each.  The
subcategorization selected for the purpose  of  developing  waste  water
effluent limitations guidelines and standards are as follows:


         1.  Apple Processing:  Apple Juice
         2.  Apple Processing:  Apple products except juice
         3.  Citrus Processing:  All products
         4.  Potato Processing:  Frozen products
         5.  Potato Processing:  Dehydrated products

 The differences in raw waste characteristics for the five subcategories
are  given  in  Table  5.   The  rationale for this subcategorization is
detailed through out the remainder of this section.
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                      RATIONALE FQR^CATEGORIZATION


B§ 5L_ Material

Table 5 compares the waste water character and water  usage  for  apple,
citrus  and  potato  processing.    From the quality and amount of waste
water generated it is obvious that apples are different from citrus  and
each  is  different  from  potatoes.   Their  chemical  composition  and
physical character also emphasize differences from apples to  citrus  to
potatoes.

A  number  of  different  varieties  of  apples  are  used  in the apple
processing industry, and a single plant generally  processes  more  than
one  variety.   Some varieties are grown primarily for the table market,
and in other areas apples are  grown  specifically  for  the  processing
plant; i.e. the Gravenstein in the Western, and the York Standard in the
eastern  part  of  the  U.S.   When  those  varieties,  i.e.  Delicious,
Jonathan, etc., which are grown for the table market, are  removed  from
storage,  that  fruit not meeting the table of fresh market standards is
directed to the processing plant.  It is these apples that  are  shipped
from  one  region to another to extend the canning season in apple-short
regions.  For instance, Delicious apples from Washington are shipped  to
California  to plants that usually process the locally grown Gravenstein
variety.

Table 6 compares the waste character of  6  eastern  apple  plants  with
three  west  coast  plants.   The  average  BOD  indicates  that neither
geographic  location  nor  apple  variety  significantly  affects  waste
loadings.

Citrus  fruits  include  oranges,  lemons, limes, grapefruits, and other
varieties such as tangerines that are grouped under the heading exotics.
Effluents from processing oranges, lemons, grapefruits,  etc.,  are  all
essentially alike.  Differences in fruit or size of fruit do not produce
different waste loads.

-------
Table 7 shows the effect of various ratios of grapefruit (lemons, limes,
etc.) to oranges on the waste loading.  The average BOD decreases, then,
increases  and  decreases  again  as  the ratio of grapefruit to oranges
increases from zero to over 50 percent.  Table 8  compares  the  BOD  in
kg/kkg  (Ib/ton)   at  one  plant in 1970 with the ratio of grapefruit to
oranges in its raw material mixture.  There is no-trend  or  correlation
between the variety of fruit and waste water quality or character.

Table  9  compares  the waste character of 25 Florida citrus plants with
two California plants.  The average BOD indicates  that  neither  citrus
type nor geographic location significantly affect waste loadings.

A  number  of  different  varieties  of  potatoes are used in the potato
processing industry.  Seme are particularly  well  suited  to  the  pro-
duction  of a specific product, such as french fries, and  are grown for
that  purpose.   Although  there  may  be  variations  in  waste   loads
associated  with the variety of potato being processed, these variations
are not significant as shown  in  Table  10  which  compares  the  waste
loading  for 9 western potato plants  (Idaho, Washington and Oregon)  with
three eastern plants.   The similarity between the  BOD values  indicates
that neither potato variety nor geographic location significantly affect
waste loading.

In  summary  it  has  been  shown  that  differences exist among apples,
citrus, and potatoes but that other differences such as variety  of  raw
material  and  geographic  location  do not seriously affect waste water
loadings.    These  similarities  and  differences  attributable  to  raw
material support the present subcategorization.
                                   35

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-------
                                    TABLE  6
                    EFFECT OF LOCATION  FOR  VARIOUS  APPLE PLANTS
                           (OTHER THAN  JUICE  ONLY  PLANTS)
                                                         BOD
3CATION
ist
NUMBER
PLANTS

  6

  3
       kg/kkg
 AVERAGE(RANGE)

 5.75(1.4-8  .5)

 6.5 (3.4-10.1)
     Ib/T
AVERAGE(RANGE)

11.5(2.8-17.0)

13.0(6.8-20.2)
                                                        FLOW
ist

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  3
       1/kkg
AVERAGE(RANGE)

 2290(1790-2790)

 2640(1190-6050)
    pal/T
AVERAGE(RANGE)

 550(430- 670)

 630(285-1450)
                                      37

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                                      TABLE  9


                    EFFECT OF LOCATION  FOR  VARIOUS  CITRUS PLANTS


                                                            BOD
                        NUMBER                     kg/kkg            Ib/T
LOCATION                PLANTS               AVERAGE(RANGE)     AVERAGE(RANGE)

Florida                  25                  3.05(0.45-8.5)     6.1(0.9-17.0)

California                2                  5.3  (2.35-8.25)   10.6(4.7-16.5)

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Products and gy-Products

There  is  not  a  primary  product  that  relates  apples  to citrus to
potatoes.  The primary product from apples is  applesauce;  the  primary
product  from  citrus is juice; and the primary product from potatoes is
frozen french fries.

The differences in primary product styles  emphasize  the  diversity  of
industry  practices  within the apple, citrus, and potato segment of the
industry.  Never-the-lessr it is important to compare waste  loads  from
various  products  and  product mixes to determine whether plants can be
grouped on a basis of similar raw waste characteristics.

The apple product styles considered included slices, sauce and juice  or
cider.   The  processing  of  slices or sauce is similar up to the final
step of either canning, freezing  or  dehydrating.   The  difference  in
contributions of the final operation to waste water production and waste
characteristics  is  small.  Table 11 compares the waste characteristics
for various apple product styles.  Three  apple  juice  plants  have  an
average  BOD  of 2.05 kg/kkg  (4.1 Ib/T).  The average BOD for five other
apple products and product mixes were similar.  The average  BOD  values
ranged  from a low of 2.05 kg/kkg (U.1 Ib/T)  to a high 6.85 kg/kkg  (13.7
Ib/T).  While these BOD values are  similar  to  each  other,  they  are
significantly  different  from the BOD from juice processing.  The water
usaaes are similar regardless of apple product or product  mix  although
one  flow  value  is  high  due to excessive water usage at one of three
plants in the group.  Thus, similarity of flow and BOD allow  all  apple
products  except juice to be grouped in a single subcategory.  The large
BOD differences of these plants  with  juice  plants  requires  separate
categories.

The  citrus  product styles considered included juice and segments.  Oil
recovery and peel processing to cattle feed are considered  co-products.
Some  plants  usually, produce only juice. The waste peel problem is met
by shipping the peel to other processors for conversion to  cattle   feed
or,  in  rare  cases,  the  peel  is disposed of as solid waste.  Citrus
segments are manufactured as a specialty product along with  the  normal
production  of  citrus  juice.   The better quality fruit is used in the
processing of segments while the poorer quality of fruit  is directed  to
juice  manufacture.   The  conversion  of the citrus peel to cattle  feed
also solves an otherwise difficult disposal problem.   The  recovery  of
citrus  oil  is widely practiced in the industry.  This oil is recovered
from the surface of the peel as a cold-pressed oil.  Highly contaminated
waste streams are produced as part of the oil recovery process, and  care
must be taken to keep oil out of biological treatment  systems.   Tt  is
common  practice  in  the  larger plants to recover oil/water waste  as a
sludge and dispose of it through the waste  heat  evaporator.   Although
the  citrus  peel  manufactured  into  cattle  feed  is considered a by-
product, there is a strong economic incentive to produce  this product.

-------
Table 12 compares the BOD for various citrus products  and  product  and
co-product  mixes.   Seven  different product styles have an average BOD
from 3.15 to 3.5 kg/kkg  (6.3 to 7.0 Ib/T).  The water  usages  are  also
similar  for  the  various  products considering the wide range in data.
Thus, the similarity of raw waste characteristics among  various  citrus
products and co-products confirm a single citrus processing category.

within  potato  processing,  two  products  were  considered: frozen and
dehydrated products.  It was shown earlier that processing of frozen  or
dehydrated  apples  was  similar up to the final operation and that only
minor waste differences occur.  There are, however, differences  between
dehydrated and frozen potato processing  (See Sections III and V).  Table
13  compares the BOD and flow for frozen potato products with dehydrated
products.  There are significant  differences  in  BOD  11.05  and  22.9
kq/kkg  (22.1 and 45.8 Ib/T).


Three  plants  producing  both  frozen  and  dehydrated styles wr-re also
considered.  At one plant complete 1972 data was available.  The  annual
raw  potato  mix to frozen and dehydrated products was used to calculate
the waste load using the average BOD for frozen and dehydrated  products
(Table  13).   The  calculated  BOD  value  of  14,95 kg/kkg (29.9 Ib/T)
compared satisfactorily with its actual value of 13.8 kg/kkg (27.6 Ib/T)
(Table 13) .  Thus,  the  waste  characteristics  indicate  two  separate
categories for potato processing.

Table  5  summarizes  the raw waste load and water usage for each of the
five product subcategories determined above.  The citrus processing  ROD
is  similar  to  the  BOD from the two apple subcategories but different
from the two  potato  subcategories.   The  citrus  processing  flow  is
similar  to  the  water  usage  from  the  two  potato subcategories but
different from the two apple subcategories.   This  data  confirms  that
five  subcategories  are  needed  for the purpose of developing effluent
limitation guidelines and standards.

Production Processes

Industrial processing practices within the fruit and vegetable  industry
are  diverse  and produce different waste loads.  However final products
relate directly to the processes employed and since final products  have
been  previously  used  for  subcategorization, the many differences and
similarities  in  production  processes  support   the   five   industry
subcategories.  There are a few processing differences that occur within
these  subcategories  and  these  must  be considered to determine their
effect on raw waste loads and categorization.

In apples,  two different peelers are used.  The mechanical  peelers  are
the  most  popular.   The  peeler can be adjusted to remove a greater or
lesser percentage of the fruit imperfections and the resulting peel  and
core  can  be  collected  and  used in the production of juice.  Caustic


                                   43

-------
peelers are also used by apple processors.   The  peel  loss  is  not  as
qreat  in  caustic  peeling  when  compared  to mechanical peeling.   The
resulting peel waste, however, cannot be  utilized  in  juice  or  cider
manufacture.   However, sufficient data is not available to evaluate the
effect of caustic peelers on  waste  waters  from  the  apple  industry.
Therefore, apple processors utilizing caustic peelers will be considered
in a later study.

In  the citrus industry there are variations in the exrracting equipment
used.  Large plants may in fact use more than one style of machine in  a
given process step.  citrus waste loading data does not show differences
attributable  to  the  different  machines.   Another  process variation
within the citrus industry is the utilization of waste heat evaporators.
Many large citrus plants use the exhaust gases from the  meal  dryer  to
supply  heat  for  the  concentration  (recovery)  of high strength wastes
(such as press liguor) in the waste heat evaporator.  Table 1U  compares
the  average  BOD  frcm  plants  with  waste  heat evaporators to plants
without the evaporator.  The result is interesting in that  the  average
BOD  is  a  little  higher  when  the  waste heat evaporator is present.
However, the similarity in the average and BOD range  is  sufficient  to
confirm  the citrus categorization without regard to presence or absence
of the waste heat evaporator.

Other than variations in production processes which are associated  with
product  style,  the only process step exhibiting significant variations
in waste production in potato processing is that  of  peeling.   Peeling
methods  may  be  placed  in  four  groups; wet lye, dry lye, steam, and
abrasion.  There are further variations, depending on  the  system  used
for separating the softened peel.  A low water usage scrubber can result
in  substantially  lower  waste  loads  than older wet lye installations
using water sprays for peel removal.


Table 15 attempts to differentiate various peeling  methods  from  total
raw  waste  characteristics.   Limited data indicates that BOD effluents
from wet caustic systems can be reduced by a low  water  usage  scrubber
and  that caustic systems followed by a USDA scrubber can reduce the BOD
further.  However, the BOD and water  usage  data  in  Table  15  cannot
differentiate  peeler  methods.  Therefore, further subcategorization by
peeler method is not possible.

Thus, production processes are  either  associated  with  final  product
style   or   do   not   have  an  important  impact  on  categorization.
Accordingly,   production   processes   support   the   five    industry
subcategories developed earlier.

Age of Plant

The  age  of  a  plant is somewhat difficult to define.  Some processors
give the date of the founding of the  company,  which  may  bear  little

-------
relationship to the age of the processing equipment.  The average age of
the  old plus the new process equipment is more meaningful, although the
average of very old and very new  equipment  is  less  meaningful.   The
industry   is  competitive,  so  that  older  units  that  prove  to  be
inefficient are usually replaced.  No correlation was found between  any
measures of plant age and waste character or water usage.

Size of Plant

The  size  of  an  apple,  citrus,  and potato plant is important from a
technical as well as an economical standpoint.  A small  plant  may  not
have as many end-of-process treatment alternatives as a large plant, but
may  have more in-plant control alternatives than a large complex plant.
The importance of size has been realized in the  fruits  and  vegetables
industry and size has been thoroughly considered in this categorization.

Table  16 compares waste character and water usage for apple plants with
capacity less than 9.1 kkg per hour  (10 T/hr.) and capacity greater than
9.1 kkg/hr. (10 T/hr).  Only apple plants whose only  product  is  juice
are  omitted.    The  EOD  for the two plant sizes are very close 5.Q and
6.15 kg/kkg (11.8 and 12.3 Ib/T).  The ranges of BOD are  also  similar.
There  is  a  large  difference  in  water  usage but this difference is
attributable  to  a  single  plant  with  high   water   flows.    Thus,
similarities in raw waste load suggest apple plant size does not have an
impact on categorization.

Table  17 compares various citrus plant sizes with waste character  (POD)
and  water  usage.   The  initial  comparison  is  between  plants  with
capacities   greater   or  less  than  320  kkg/day  (350  T/day).   The
differences in BOD 3.2 and 3.3 kg/kkg (6.4  and  6.6  Ib/T)    and  water
usacre  8,390  and  10,600 1/kkg (2010 and 2540 gal/T)  are not considered
significant especially in view of the large ranges of BOD and flow data.
The second comparison is between plants with a capacity of 910  to  2000
kkg/day  (1000  to  2200 T/day)  and plants with a capacity less than 910
kkq/day (1000 T/day)  or a  capacity  greater  than  2000  kkg/day   (2200
T/day).   Again, the variability of the data is large and the similarity
of average BOD and flow values suggest citrus plant size does  not  have
an important impact on categorization.

Table  18 compares various ootato plant sizes with waste character  (BOD)
and  water  usage.   Frozen  and  dehydrated  products  are   considered
individually.    Comparisons  for  frozen  potato products include plants
with capacity greater than and less than 360  kkg/day  (400  T/day)   and
also  450  kkg/day (500 T/day).   Neither the differences in BOD or water
usage appears to be important.   The variability  of  the  data  and  the
impact  of a single plant is shown by the high average BOD (25.65 kg/kkq
(51.3 Ib/T) )  for plants with capacity less than 360 kkg/day (400  T/day)
and  low BOD 20.35 kg/kkg (40.7 Ib/T) for plants with capacity less than
450 kkg/day (500 T/day).  Comparisons  for  dehydrated  potato  products
include plants with capacity greater than and less than 360 kkg/day (400


                                   45

-------
T/day)   as  well  as  450  kkg/day  (500  T/day).    There  are  apparent
differences in  BOD  and  flow  for  small  and  large  plants  but  the
variability of BOD and flow data as well as the limited data base (seven
plants)   must  be considered.  Also, higher flows are observed at plants
with lower BOD values and lower flows with plants  with  higher  BOD  so
that  treatment  design  differences which would influence capital costs
are less important.  In summary, no  correlation  exists  between  waste
characterization  and  water  usage  data  and size of dehydrated potato
plants.

It is therefore concluded that size of plant is not a satisfactory basis
for further industry sutcategorization.

Plant Location

It is  reasonable  to  expect  that  plant  location  could  affect  the
selection  of  waste  treatment alternatives for any plant in the fruits
and vegetable industry.  If the technical and  economic  feasability  of
achieving  an  effluent  reduction  is dependent on plant location, then
additional subcategories must be established.  In the earlier discussion
of raw material, it was determined that geographical  location  did  not
affect  the  raw  waste  loading for either apples or citrus or potatoes
(See Tables 6, 9 and 10).  However,  in  this  section  availability  of
land, climate, and of high quality water is evaluated to determine their
effect  on   effluent  reduction  for  apple,  citrus, or potato plants.
Spray or flood irrigation is used  throughout  the  apple,  citrus,  and
potato  subcategories.   Irrigation requires relatively large amounts of
land , but where inexpensive land of acceptable character is  available,
spray  irrigation  may te the least expensive solution to waste disposal
problems.  Biological systems such as activated sludge require much less
land than spray irrigation, but the amount of  land  required  could  be
difficult and expensive to acquire for a plant located in an urban area.
In  general,  however,  plants  located  in  urban  areas  are served hy
municipal sewers.  Land availability  requirements  will  influence  the
choice  of  treatment  technology  to be used in a particular situation.
However, sufficiently high  levels  of  treatment  are  achievable  with
treatment processes which are not land-intensive.   Thus, availability of
land  does  not  seriously  affect  the  achievement  of a high lev^l of
effluent reduction for apple, citrus, or potato plants.

-------
                                     TABLE 11
           AVERAGE (RANGE) OF BOD AND FLOW FOR VARIOUS APPLE PRODUCT  STYLES
PRODUCT STYLE
                     FLOW
NUMBER        1/kkg           gal/T
PLANTS   AVERAGE(RANGE)  AVERAGE(RANGE)
                                                       BOD
                                            kg/kkg           Ib/T
                                         AVERAGE(RANGE)  AVERAGE(RANGE)
Juice
Sauce
Sauce
Apple
Only
Only
& Juice
Products
3
3
3
9
2880(1880-3540 )
3400(1380-6050)
1690(1190-14800)
3920(1190-14800)
690(450- 850)
815(330-1450)
405(285-3550)
940(285-3550)
2.
5.
6.
6.
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5
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4.1( 3
10. 7( 6
13.7(11
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.8-15.0)
.6-17.0)
.8-20.2)
(except Juice Only)
All Apple
 Products

Slices with
Apple Products
12    3660(1190-14800)   875(285-3550)


 3    6635(1790-14800)  1595(430-3550)
                                          5.0  (1.4-10.1)  10.0(2.8-20.2)
                                          5.85(1.4-10.1)  11.7(2.8-20.2)

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                              TABLE 14
      EFFECT OF WASTE HEAT EVAPORATOR FOR VARIOUS CITRUS PLANTS
                                              BOD
WASTE HEAT
EVAPORATOR

Present
NUMBER
PLANTS

  10
    kg/kkg
 AVERAGE(RANGE)

 3.25(0.45-8.5 )
     Ib/T
AVERAGE(RANGE)

6.5(0.9-17.0)
Absent
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 3.2 (0.7-8.25)
6.4(1.4-16.5)
Present

Absent
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  17
               FLOW
     1/kkg                gal/T
 AVERAGE(RANGE)       AVERAGE(RANGE)

10500( 710-19970)    2520(170-4790)

 9800(1360-24950)    2370(325-5980)
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Climate can affect the performance of  apple,  citrus  or  potato  waste
water  treatment  facilities.   Biological  processes  are  affected  by
temperature.  Low temperatures tend to reduce the rate of  reduction  of
BOD5,  and  activity may essentially cease where the waste water reaches
freezing temperatures.  However, trickling filters and other  biological
devices  have  been  successfully  operated in freezing weather (Section
VII), particularly in potato processing  (PO-128).

Climate can also affect the rate of evaporation and the total amount  of
net evaporation from ponds.  This may affect the size of ponds or drying
fields required for a given loading, but will rarely preclude their use.
Thus,  climate does not seriously affect the achievement of a high level
of effluent reduction for apple, citrus, or potato plants.

The availability of inexpensive high quality water is not a  problem  at
the  present  time  at  most apple, citrus, or potato processing plants.
Only one or two isolated  cases  can  be  found  where  plentiful  water
supplies  are  not  available,  although  some processors are located in
areas of expensive water.  These processors  are  usually  more  careful
about  water conservation than processors  with plentiful water supplies
who have little incentive to conserve water.  Nevertheless, these plants
without plentiful water are  not  at  a  serious  economic  disadvantage
because of water costs.

In  the  future water conservation is expected to be much more important
as a means of reducing the cost of solving waste effluent  problems  and
saving  a  natural  resource.  Thus, it appears that the availability of
water has no  serious  effects  on  the  achievement  of  high  effluent
reductions  in  the  apple,  citrus,  or  potato  industry.  In summary,
neither availability of land  nor  climate  nor  availability  of  water
seriously  affect  the feasability of achieving a high level of effluent
reduction.  Accordingly, it is not necessary  to  further  subcategorize
the  apple,  citrus,  or  potato  industry  due  to  effects  from plant
location.

Waste Treatability

Liquid wastes generated in the processing of apples and potatoes contain
principally biodegradable organic matter in soluble and suspended  form.
As   detailed  in  Section  VII,  practicable  treatment  processes  are
available to reduce the BOD contained in these wastes to levels suitable
for discharge.  Also described  in  Section  VII  are  in-plant  control
systems   which   result   in  high  levels  of  waste  reduction.   The
availability  of  such  treatment  and  control   processes   makes   it
unnecessary to subcategorize based on waste treatability.

The   wastes   generated   by   the   citrus  industry  are  essentially
biodegradable  but  pose  special  considerations  in  the  design   and
operation  of  the treatment processes discussed in Section VII.  Citrus
oil,  which occurs in the skin and elsewhere in the fruit is biologically


                                   55

-------
digested only with  difficulty.   In  the   operation   of  standard   wast^-
treatment processes (e.g., activated sludge), special  cnrr must b« tak^-n
to  maintain a low  concentration of oil  because of  it 3 arl^-c^s0  inrar*- c>-
Fii ic i cci.'jjp. isn-.i;.   Closf control  of _.,^a,,t  operating con^i 11 r-nr,  ir' rroui >"•"• ^
tv, ^-, oi'j Iilcsir, r.:cus growth  ano tl.-.- p/od action of a  -? udcv *-lu:'  In  •!--.-'-
"til. i'~ ..li'/   t •'.'    lewater.    Despite-  s-.hese   dif f iculi i f ?".,  i •"   ; ar  b<-r,
"I- .:_.!!.;, r. .»t ??; -; I. a i such processes ar, ami \.v> ted sludge,  t. - ^ 7'-1. •>-,;.   f ^. "• + - r ,
ci>. 1 ^ i-.-.d   lagooair/j,  alternatitig  aerobic  and anaerobic r';.,1-;  jp.'l orrvy
iirigatiOn can be expected to treat wastes  from applf-f  c;.tr"r, -r   ro4:!1--:-
processing plants,  and subcategori zation on the basin  of <-r^at-abi lity i •••-
not necessary.
                                       56

-------
                               SECTION V

                 WATEP USAGE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION


                      WASTE WATER CHARACTERIZATION

Water is extensively used in all phases of the food processing industry.
For  example, it is used as one of the following:   (1) a cleaning agent
to remove dirt and foreign material,  (2)   a  heat  transfer  medium  for
heating   and   cooling,  (3)   a  solvent  for  removal  of  undesirable
ingredients from the product,   (4)  a carrier  for  the  incorporation  of
additives  into  the  product,  and   (5)   a  method  of transporting and
handling the product.

Many of the steps used in the process of canning and freezing fruits and
vegetables are common to the industry as a whole, and the  character  of
the  waste waters are similar in that they contain biodegradable organic
matter.  Typically, the fruit  or  vegetable  is  received,  washed  and
sorted  to  prepare  it  for subsequent processing.  Commodities such as
apples, citrus and potatoes are then usually peeled when the end prnduc-t-
style is in a solid form (slices,   cubes,  or  powder).   If  the  final
product  is  a  juice  or  liguid  product, the peel is not removed from
either the citrus or the apples.  Subsequent process steps following *~he
peel  removal  in  which  water  may  be  used  are  trimming,  slicing,
blanching,   cooling,  concentrating  and  can  washing/cooling.   Water
transport may be used in one or more parts of the process,  and  cleanup
is common to all processes.

Although  the steps used in processing the various commodities display a
general similarity, there are variations in the equipment  used  and  in
the amount and character of the waste waters produced.

This  section  presents data relating to cooling and process water usage
and waste  characterization  for  each  of  the  industry  subcategories
established  in  Section  IV.    The  available  data from plants in each
subcategory were  evaluated  to  determine  current  practices  in  each
commodity as well as each subcategory.

Toward the end of the section, unit process data is compiled in order to
determine plant water usage and waste characterization representative of
a synthesized plant with minimum water usage.

The  parameters  used  to  characterize  the raw effluent were the flow.
Biochemical  Oxygen  Demand   (BOD),  and  suspended  solids   (SS).    As
discussed  in Section VI, BOD^ and SS are generally considered to be the
best available measure of the waste load.
                                   57

-------
Water Use and waste characterization

Table 19 lists raw  waste  loadings  for  BOD  and   SS   from   12   plants
representing  the  apple processing industry.  These twelve plants range
in size from 3,700 to 43,100 kilograms/hour  (U.I to  47.5 tons  per  hour),
The water usage of these plants varied  from  1190  liters  per  thousand
kilograms   (285  gallons  per  ton)  to  14,800 1/kkg  (3550 G/T) with  an
averaae flow of 3,660 1/kkg  (875 G/T).  The  plant   using  14,800   1/kkg
(3550  G/T)   was  far  removed  from the  other with  the  next closest  ono
using 6,050 1/kkg (1450 gallons per ton).  The BOD ranged  from  1.4   to
10.1  kilograms  per  thousand  kilograms   (2.8 to 20.2  Ibs per  ton)  and
aq-iin the high water user had the  highest BOD.  The  average BOD  for  th^
12  plants  was  5.0 kg/kkg  (10.0  Ib/ton) .   Suspended  solids ranqvr* fron;
0-15 to 1.05 kg/kkg  (0.3 to  2.1  Ib/ton)  with  the  average   beina  0.5
ka/kka  (1.0 Ib/ton).  Data from plants  utilizing processes  excluder] from
this  study (caustic peelers) or plants processing products not  included
in this effort  (dehydrated apples) are  not represented  in Table  19.

The average Ibs of BOD per ton for various product styles was   discussed
in  Section  TV  (See Table 11).  The BOD  average ranged  from 2.05  kq/kVn
(4.1 Ib/ton) for juice to 6.85 kg/kkg  (13.7  Ib/ton)  for   the   sauce  and
juice  group.  The POC averages for all the  groups compared  favorably to
the BOO of  5.0 kg/kkg  (10.0  Ib/ton) for  all apple  products   with  th^-
^xc<-ption   of the plants producing juice.  The flow  averages ranned from
169Q to 6,635 1/kkg  (405 to  1595 G/T) with the  average   for   all   spple
products b^ing 3,660 1/kkg  (875 G/T).
                                    58

-------
                                    TABLE 19
                        LIST OF APPLE INDUSTRY WASTE  LOAD
(AP)
CODE PRODUCT STYLE
   CAPACITY
kg/hr   T/hr
            FLOW
          1/kkg gal/T
                   BOD
                kg/kkg Ib/T
(All Product Styles)
   AVERAGE           14.8
No. Samples            12
                         SS
                      kg/kkg Ib/T
126
134
136
140
139
121
114
103
107
141
133
128
SA & SL
SA
JUICE
SL
SA & SL & JUICE
SA
SA & JUICE
SA & JUICE
SA & JUICE
JUICE
JUICE
SA
8
5
9
6
31
15
43
21
15
12
4
3
.6
.0
.1
.3
.0
.9
.1
.4
.9
.5
.5
.7
9
5
10
7
34
17
47
23
17
13
5
4
.5
.5
.0
.0
.2
.5
.5
.6
.5
.8
.0
.1
1790
2790
1880
14800
3340
1380
1190
2130
1750
3210
3540
6050
430
670
450
3550
800
330
285
510
420
770
850
1450
6.
3.
1.
10.
1.
7.
8.
6.
5.
2.
2.
5.
05
4
6
1
4
5
5
25
8
0
55
0
12.
6.
3.
20.
2.
15.
17.
12.
11.
4.
5.
10.
1
8
2
2
8
0
0
5
6
0
1
0

0.
0.
0.
0.


,
,
,
,
1.

95
35
35
70
-
-
3
35
15
40
05
_
1.
0.
0.
1.
-
-
0.
0.
0.
0.
2.

9
7
7
4


6
7
3
8
1
(APPLE JUICE)
   AVERAGE
No. Samples
 8.7
   3
       16.3
         12
9.6
  3
(APPLE Products Except Juice)
   AVERAGE            7.9    8.7
No. Samples             5      5
          3660
            12
2880
   3
                  5360
                     5
        875
         12
690
  3
                 1290
                    5
         5.0
          12
2.05
   3
                 6.4
                   5
      10.0
        12
4.1
  3
               12.
       0.5
0.3
  3
              0.8
                3
      1.0
        9
,6
 3
               ,6
               3
SA = Apple Sauce
SL = Apple Slice
                                           59

-------
Factors Affecting Waste Water

The  condition  of the raw fruit has an important bearing on the quality
of the waste water.  Fruit condition varies during the processing season
because at the start of the season freshly picked  fruit  is  processed,
while  at  the  end of the season, the fruit has been stored for several
months.  The waste water quality can be expected to vary  from  year  to
year as well, in response to yearly changes in fruit quality.

The tyne of peeling employed has a marked effect on waste water quality.
In particular, caustic peeling produces a higher BOD and SS loading than
mechanical  peelers.   Variations  can also be expected among mechanical
peelers.  It should be noted, however, that higher waste water  loadings
do  not  necessarily  iirply  higher  fruit  loss.   Also  the waste load
generated by mechanical peeling falls to the floor, or  is  returned  by
the equipment and eventually appears in the cleanup water.


Water  usage  can  also be expected to affect waste water quality.  Data
indicate that decreased water usage tends  to  concentrate  the  organic
materials in the water.  This effect is desirable since the reduction in
effluent volume reduces the costs of disposal or treatment.

Tn  Section  IV  the  differences in plant size  (See Table 16) and plant
location  (See Table 6) were determined to have no significant effect  on
waste  water  character.   One  of  the most important factors affecting
waste water quantity is the attitude  of  the  management  and  workers.
Where water has been cheap and waste disposal has not been considered to
be  an  important problem, water usage can be excessive.  As an exampl^,
plants AP-13U and AP-128 both produce sauce,  but  the  water  usage  is
2,790  1/kkg  (670 G/T) and 6,050 1/kkg  (1,U50 G/T) respectively.  There
are no readily explainable reasons for the difference.
Wat^r transport adds to water usage, particularly where the water is not
recycled.  One type of mechanical peeler requires the apples to  be  fed
to  the  peeler  by  water  transport.   The  use of this type of peeler
therefore requires more water than a manual feed peeler.

The majority of plants, especially the smaller ones, currently appear to
be using once-through cooling water in the  cooking  and  cooling  step.
They  also  do  not  segregate  can  wash  and can cooling water.  Water
consumption can te reduced by recirculating cooling water.

It has been found that the use of high-pressure pumps for supplying  the
cleanup water reduces the amount of water required.  Substantial savings
in cleanup water can also be achieved by a practice of turning off hoses
when  not  in  use.  A plant operator has offered the opinion that about
                                   60

-------
one half of the clean-up water could be saved, but no quantitative  data
are available.

Plant age is defined in this report as the average age of the processing
equipment.  Process equipment, even in long established companies, tends
to  be  relatively nev» or in new condition.  Older equipment tends to be
less efficient and, because the  industry  is  competitive,  inefficient
equipment is usually replaced.


                                 Citrus

Water Use And Waste Characterization

Waste  waters  from  citrus processing plants contain organic carbon and
matter in suspended and dissolved form.  The  quantity  of  fresh  water
intake  to  plants  ranges  between  710  and 24,950 liters per thousand
kilograms (170 and 5,980 gallons per ton)  of raw material.  Fresh  water
use  is highly contingent upon in-plant conservation practices and reuse
techniques and averages approximately 10,110 1/kkg (2425 G/T) of  citrus
processed.   The  nature and amounts of these water reuses as influenced
by in-plant controls and operational practices have a substantial effect
on resulting waste water quantities and characteristics.   Reduction  in
water  use  with  resulting  minimum  waste water volumes promises fewer
problems  in  waste  handling  and  disposal,  and  greater  economy  of
treatment.

About two-thirds of the total solids in citrus juices are sugars and the
same  may be said of the waste water.  Because of this citrus wastes are
highly putrescible.   Citrus  wastes  contain  pectic  substances  which
interfere  with settling of the suspended solids.  Primary clarification
of citrus waste water is not as effective as  with  most  other  wastes.
Citrus  waste  water  contains  a small amount of the essential oil that
occurs mostly in the fruit peel.  This oil is bacteriostatic but usually
does not interfere with treatment procedures unless it accumulates in an
anaerobic sludge digester.  Citrus wastes are deficient in nitrogen  and
phosphorus   compounds;   treatment  by  biological  procedures  may  be
accelerated by adding these nutrients.  Citrus waste  water  usually  is
somewhat acid because of the citric acid it contains.  However, alkaline
materials  used  in  cleaning  the  equipment  and  lye-bath  water from
sectionizing operations tend to make the waste water  alkaline,  and  at
times very strongly so.

The  volume  of  citrus  waste  water  fluctuates through the harvesting
season which usually begins in October and ends in June.  The production
of frozen orange concentrate is a continuous operation, running  twenty-
four  (24)  hours  per  day  until  it  becomes  necessary  to clean the
equipment.  On the other  hand,  the  other  processing  operations  are
mostly  a  one or two shift operation daily, and may shutdown completely
on weekends or holidays, depending on fruit supply  and  market  demand.


                                   61

-------
The  volume  of  waste water changes markedly when the production run is
over and clean-up operations begin.

The strength of citrus waste water  also  shows  considerable  variation
depending  upon  the processing operations that are running at the time.
Cleaning of equipment at the end of the production run  will  alter  the
strength  of  the  waste  water  significantly.   The  strength  may  be
increased at the beginning of clean-up, then  lowered  as  the  cleaning
progresses.   The  pH  iray  change from mildly acid to strongly alkaline
during this time.  This is especially true when evaporators are "boiled-
out" or the lye baths of the sectionizing operations are discharged.

The changes in  strength,  volume,  and  pH  are  such  that  biological
treatment  of  the  waste  is rendered difficult unless fluctuations ar^
leveled out.  This is accomplished by a surge tank with suitable  mixing
facilities  placed  ahead of the treatment plant or with treatment plant
design to handle these fluctuations.

Table 20 lists actual raw waste loadings for BOD and SS from  27  plants
representing the citrus processing industry.  These plants range in size
from  27  to  5,710 kkg/day  (32 to 6300 tons/day).  The products include
juice or segments only; juice or segments and oil; juice, oil, and fe°d;
juice, segments, and feed; juice and segments; and juice, segments,  oil
and  feed.  The water usage ranges from 710 to 24,950 1/kkg  (170 to 5930
G/T).  The BOD range from a low of 0.45  to  8.5  kg/kkg  (0.9  to  17.0
Ib/ton)   with  an  overall  average  of  3.2  kg/kkg  (6.4 Ib/ton).  The
suspended solids ranged from 0.02 to 7.95 kg/kkg  (0.04 to  15.9  Ib/ton)
with  an  average  of  103  kg/kkg   (2.6 Ib/ton).  Plants with both land
treatment systems and secondary treatment systems were used.

In section IV  (see Table 12), BOD and flow were  discussed  for  various
product styles.  The EOD ranged from 0.45 to 8.5 kg/kkg  (0.9 to 17.0 Ibs
oer ton) for citrus products without segments, citrus products with oil,
and  citrus  products  \*ith  feed  respectively;  their  respective  BOD
averages were 3.15, 3.2  and  3.25  kg/kkg   (6.3,  6.4  and  6.5  lb/T>.
Segments  had  a  BOD  of  3.5 kg/kkg  (7.0 Ib/ton) which was the highest
average of the group, but only  2  plants  were  represented.   The  BOD
averages  of the different groups varied from  3.15 to 3.5 kg/kkg  (6.3 to
7.0 Ib/ton) which compares very well with the  3.2  kg/kkg   (6.4  Ib/ton)
for  the  27  plants  products  all  types of  products.  The water usage
ranged from 710 to 24,950 1/kkg  (170 to  5980  G/T)  with  the  averages
ranging  from 7455 to 11,380 1/kkg  (1790 to 2730 G/T), which compares to
the 10,110 1/kkg  (2425 G/T)  for the average of the total 27 plants.
                                    62

-------
                                  TABLE 20
(CI)
CODE PRODUCT STYLE
 LIST OF CITRUS INDUSTRY WASTE LOAD

   CAPACITY        FLOW           BOD

kkg/day T/day    1/kkg gal/T    kg/kkg  Ib/T
     SS

kg/kkg Ib/T
137
139
101
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
114
115
116
118
119
122
123
125
126
127
128
129
130
133
143
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
J
S
J
S
J
J
J
J
J
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&

&

&
&
&
&

0
0
0
0
S
0
0
0
S
0
0
0
0
0
S
S
0
0
0

0

0
S
S
0


&
&
&

&
&

&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&

&

&

&
&
&



F
F
F

F
F

0 & F
F
F
F
F
F
F & 0
F
F

F

F

F
0 & F
0


AVERAGE
No.
of J
3am
pj
Les
3
125
1000
190
320
1130
2270
2090
1090
3410
2860
2860
1840
2450
1840
1225
770
5710
1020
3810
27
5080
225
285
1730
1140
1020
980
1720
27
140
1100
210
350
1250
2500
2300
1200
3760
3150
3150
2025
2700
2025
1350
850
6300
1125
4200
32
5600
250
315
1910
1260
1125
1080
1900
27
1630
9090
1360
7550
9590
10010
9590
4380
16180
12430
8010
19970
17010
7260
8630
7130
19060
2085
6960
10570
710
4340
24730
19180
4380
24940
6210
10,120
27
390
2180
325
1810
2300
2400
2300
1050
3880
2980
1920
4790
4080
1740
2070
1710
4570
500
1670
2535
170
1040
5930
4600
1050
5980
1490
2425
27
2
6
8
0
5
2
2
0
5
2
1
8
6
0
3
1
1
6
1
4
0
2
1
3
1
2
2
3

.35
.7
.25
.7
.6
.6
. 3
.7
.0
.65
.3
.5
.55
.95
.15
.45
.6
.4
.6
.35
.45
.65
.35
.2
.4
.3
.75
.2
27
4
13
16
1
11
5
4
1
10
5
2
17
13
1
6
2
3
12
3
8
0
5
2
6
2
4
5
6

. 7
.4
. 5
.4
. 2
. 2
. 6
.4
.0
. 3
. 6
.0
.1
.9
.3
.9
.2
.8
.2
.7
.9
.3
.7
.4
.8
.6
.5
.4
27
0
2
1
0
1

1
0
1

0
7
1


0

1
0

0
0


1


1

.02
.7
.05
.17
.55
--
.55
.36
.31
--
.25
.95
. 2
--
--
.65
--
.25
.9
--
.02
.40
--
--
.15
--
--
.3
17
0
5
2
0
3
-
3
0
2
-
0
15
2
-
-
1
-
2
1
-
0
0
-
-
2
-
-
2

.04
.4
.1
.34
. 1

.1
.72
.62

.50
.9
.4


.3

.5
.8

.04
.79


.3


.6
17
J = Juice
S = Segment
0 = Oil
F = Peel Products
P = Pectin
                                         63

-------
Factors Affecting Waste Water

Table 7 which is discussed in Section IV gives the ratio  of  grapefruit
to  oranges  and the resulting raw waste loadings and water usage.   Also
discussed in Section IV is Table 8 that shows the raw product mix  at  a
single  plant  for  one  month.    As these tables illustrate there  is no
correlation in waste  loads  when  different  ratios  of  grapefruit  to
oranges are processed.  Plant location (See Table 9) was also determined
to  be  an  insignificant  variable.  The climate is very similar in the
principal growing areas.  Although citrus may be  held  in  storage  for
brief  periods in California, the fruit is usually processed as received
from the field in Florida.  Approximately 90 percent of the citrus  grown
in California goes to the fresh market.  No significant change in  waste
loads could be tied to these differences.

The  type of juice extractor used has a pronounced effect on waste  water
guality.  If the extractor liberates  the  oil  at  the  time  of  juic^
extraction,  and  the oil is not collected but allowed to become part of
the waste effluent, a much more degraded effluent will result.

The quantity of waste water from the oil/peel products process is  small
but contains a high concentration of contaminants.  This material can be
satisfactorily  disposed  of  by  spray irrigation when mixed with  other
effluent steams but is difficult to treat in activated sludge or similar
biological systems.  This material can also be  added  directly  to  the
peel  before  it is dried or sent to the molasses evaporators.  As  shown
in  Table  14,  availability  of  a  waste  heat  evaporator  does    not
significantly affect the raw waste loading.

Plant age is defined in this report as the average age of the processing
equipment.   Processing  equipment,  even in long established companies,
tends to be relatively new or in new condition.  Older  equipment  tends
to   be  less  efficient,  and  because  the  industry  is  competitive,
inefficient equipment is usually replaced.  In all plants  visited,  the
processing equipment was determined to be relatively new on the basis of
visual inspection.  As a result of this, no difference can be attributed
to effluent quantity or quality due to plant "age."

Perhaps  the most important factor affecting waste water quantity is the
attitude of the management and workers.  Where water has been cheap  and
waste disposal has not been considered to be an important problem,  water
usage  can  be excessive.  Water transport also adds to water usage.  Tn
many cases this  water  can  be  recycled.   Barometric  condensing  and
cooling waters, which are relatively clean, can be recycled if a cooling
tower  or  large  pond  were included in the circuit.  This could reduce
water usage by 30 to 70 percent depending on the plant.

Neither waste water quality or quanity are  influenced  by  plant  size.
Small  plants   (less than 910 kkg  (1,000 tons) of raw material processed

-------
per day) produced essentially the same quality
water as large plants.   (See Table  17).
and  quantity  of  waste
                               Potatoes

Water Use and Water Characterization

Table  21  gives  the  raw  loadings  for  BOD  and  SS  from   23 plants
representing the  frozen  and  dehydrated  potato  processing   industry.
These  23  plants  range in size from 180 to  1630 kkg  (200 to  1800 tons)
per day. The BOD ranged from 4.45 to 36.95 kg/kkg  (8.9 to  73.9  Ib/ton)
with  an average  of  18.1 kg/kkg (36.2 Ib/ton).  Suspended solids ranged
from 3.8 to 45.5 kg/kkg  (7.6 to 91.0 Ib/ton) with  an  average  of  15.9
kg/kkg  (31.8 Ib/ton).  Water usage ranged from 4090 to 15,510  1/kkg  (980
to 3720 G/T)  with an  average of 10,270 1/kkg  (2460 G/T).

Table  13  lists  the  EOD  and flows for various potato product styles.
Frozen products with  data from 13 plants had  an  average  BOD  of  22.9
kg/kkg   (45.8  Ib/ton) with a range of 4.45 to 36.95 kg/kkg  (8.9 to 73.9
Ib/ton)  and an average flow of  11,320  1/kkg   (2710  G/T).    Dehydrated
products  with  data  from  7  plants had an average BOD of  11.05 kg/kka
(22.1 Ib/ton)  with a  range of 7.75 to 15.2 kg/kkg  (15.5 to 30.4 Ib/ton).
The average flow was  8770 1/kkg (2100 G/T).  Three plants producing both
frozen and dehydrated products had a average BOD of  13.8  kg/kkg   (27.7
Ib/ton)  and an average flow of 9260 1/kkg (2220 G/T) .


Factors Affecting Waste Water

The  quality  of the waste water is affected by the condition  of the raw
product.  Sometimes early in the processing season,  the  waste  loading
will  go  up  due  to  freezing  in the fields.  Potatoes shrink or lose
weight during storage.  This weight loss is composed of water  loss  from
the tubers, carbon dioxide loss and decay losses as a result of rotting.
The  amount  of  these losses are determined by storage conditions, such
as:   (1)  temperature,  humidity,  evaporating  power   of    the   air,
composition  and  movement of the air; and  (2) maturity and  condition of
the potatoes at the time of storage.  Usually the  longer  the  potatoes
are  stored,the  higher will be the waste loading and many plants show  a
marked increase in waste  loading  toward  the  end  of  the  processing
season.


In Section IV, the differences in size and location of potato  processing
plants   (See  Tables  10  and 18)  were determined to have no significant
effect on waste water character.  One of the important factors  affecting
waste water quantity  is the attitude  of  the  management  and  workers.
                                   65

-------
Where water has been cheap and waste disposal has not been considered to
be an important problem, water usage can be excessive.

                   Effluent Analyses By Unit^Process


The  following  raw  waste  characteristics have been tabulated from the
best available in-plant unit process waste characteristics.   Total  raw
waste  effluent values can be calculated but caution must accompany such
a tabulation.  The tabulations should not be used  to  develop  effluent
limitation guidelines.  The waste characteristics of primary concern are
RODS  (five-day  biochemical  oxygen  demand) and SS  (suspended solids).
The following tabulations summarize BOD5, SS and water usage  values  by
process  steps  for  apples,  citrus,  and  potatoes.   They  have  been
synthesized from available data acguired through in-plant sampling  with
some supplemental in-plant data acquired from processors.  In only a few
cas°s  was  complete in-plant data available.  Information from 10 anpl?
plants, 20 citrus plants, and 15 potato plants was used to develop th<=s<=
tabulations.   The  tabulations  are  not  used  to   develop   effluent
guidelines.    The  purpose  of  this  presentation  is  to  show  wher<=
substantial water savings can be realized and where  substantital  wastp
reductions  can  be  accomplished.   They  should not be used to develop
effluent limitations.


Washing, as listed in Table 22, includes receiving and sorting  as  well
as  fruit  cleaning.  The apples are dumped into a water filled tank and
are washed with water sprays after leaving the tank  or  the  associated
water  transport system.  Mechanical peeling, slicing and deaeration are
treated as separate process steps.  Cooking and cooling  waters  can  be
kept  separate  and  are shown as individual values.  Cleanup  (floor and
eguipment) normally occurs in a separate work shift,  following  one  or
two processing shifts.

Although  it  is  not  yet general practice in the industry, some plants
recycle the water used for can cooling through a cooling tower or  spray
pond.  When recycling, the small amount of spray water used to clean the
cans  following cooking is kept separate from the cooling water in order
to keep organic  material  out  of  the  cooling  water.   In  this  and
subsequent tabulations, the can wash water is included in the water used
for  cooking.   We  estimate  that the cooling water requirements can be
reduced to about 5 percent of the once-  through  requirement  of  1,182
1/kkg   (283 G/T) or to a level of 58 1/kkg  (14 G/T) as used in Table 22.
The latter figure is used for the  cooling   step  in  apple  processing.
Seven  of  ten plants contributing data listed in Table  22 are primarily
sampled plants processing stored fruit  near  the  end   of  the  canning
season.   The ten plants make different apple products and product mixes
and range in size from less than 3.6 kkg/hr  (4 T/hr)  to more  than   28
kkg/hr   (31  T/hr).   As  shown  on the accompanying water flow diagrams
figures 4-6, the production of each product  style   (sauce,  slices  and


                                   66

-------
juice)   employs  a  different  set  of  operations.   Water  usage  arid
characterization can be determined for the production of  slices,  sauce
and  -juice.  Water usage for the three product styles  (sauce, slices and
juice) are presented in Figures 4-6.  The process steps employed in  the
manufacture  of  sauce  are washing, peeling, slicing, cooking, cooling,
transport and cleanup.   The  process  steps  for  slices  are  washing,
peeling,  slicing,  deaerating, cooking, cooling, transport and cleanup.
The production of juice involves only washing (including  receiving  and
sorting),  transport,  cooling  and  cleanup.  Data from about 20 citrus
plants processing different citrus products and co-products  contributed
to  the  tabulation given in Table 23.  Fruit cleaning, as used in Tab] (=>
23, includes washing, as well as receiving and sorting.  The  citrus  is
sometimes  stored in bins and upon leaving the bins is washed with water
sprays and/or roller brushes with sprays and sometimes detergent.  Juice
extraction may be accomplished by slicing the citrus in half and reaming
each  half  simultaneously.  After extraction, the peel and the majority
of the pulp are separated from  the  juice  and  may,  or  may  not,  be
processed  for  citrus  oil  and  other  by-products.   Depending on the
extractor, oil may or may not be liberated from the peel at this  point.
The  juice  is  next  passed  through a  finisher and may then be either
processed  into  single   strength    (S.S.),    which   involves   juice
pasteurization/homogenization  and  can  cooling,  or concentrated which
involves evaporation of the juice.  The majority of the cleanup normally
occurs in a separate work shift, following one, two, or two and one-half
processing shifts.

Oil/peel-pulp by-products are manufactured from plants  that  have  some
type  of  juice  operation.  Additional water flows involved include the
waste heat evaporator condensate, the waste heat evaporator's barometric
condensate, the waste heat evaporator's scrubber effluent, and  the  oil
lean residue from the d-limonene residue separator.

The  production  of  segments involves waste water from peeling, caustic
treating, washing, cooking, cooling and cleanup.

By referring to Figure 7, it is possible to develop water usage  figures
for  plants  making various product combinations.  Water use figures for
juice and oil processing, segment processing and  juice,  oil  and  peel
product  processing can be determined.  The figures are the summation of
the water flows from each of  the  process  stops  required  to  produce
juice, oil, segments and peel products with minimum water usage.

There   is   a   degree   of  variability  for  water  usage  and  waste
characterization among  the  products  and  product  combinations.   The
majority  of  this  variability  is attributable to differences in plant
operation and plant management and difference  in  availability  of  raw
material,  water,  and waste treatment facilities.  Minor differences in
size,  age  and  location  of  plants  also  contribute  to  the   total
variability.    Even   without   consideration   of   these  sources  of
variability, there is sufficient similarity for water  usage  and  waste


                                   67

-------
character  among  -the  product combinations to support a single category
for the citrus industry.
Fifteen  potato  plants  processing  frozen  and/or  dehydrated   potato
products contributed to the waste characterization given in Table 24.
In  each  of  these  potato  processing subcategories, there are several
processing steps using large quantities of water  which  are  common  to
both categories.

"For  example,  it  is  common  practice to use water hoses to remove the
potatoes from storage and direct them into a water transport system  for
delivery  to  the  process area.  In an exemplary water usage plant, the
water which is used  to  receive  and  clean  the  potatoes  is  usually
segregated  from  the  process  water.   The receiving/cleaning water is
recycled through a settling basin where there  is  sufficient  retention
time  to allow the solids to settle out in the basin.  The make up water
to this closed system is added by water sprays which are  positioned  to
rinse the potatoes as they enter the process.

Three methods of peeling are in current industrial use within the frozen
and dehydrated potato processing industry: dry caustic, conventional wet
caustic  and steam.  With the conventional wet caustic and steam peeling
systems, large quantities of water were used for removal of the  treated
peel.   This  results  in large waste loads appearing in the plant waste
effluent discharge as can be seen in Table 2U.

During the slicing step, large quantities of water are  used  to  remove
any  starch  adhering  to the surface of the pieces.  This water is also
used to convey the pieces to the blanching step.

Water blanching is required for  both  frozen  and  dehydrated  products
since  a  large amount of the leachables must be removed from the potato
pieces during the blanching step.  In the case  of  frozen  products,  a
three  step  series  blanching  system  is  used.   While for dehydrated
products the water blanching step is followed by a  water  cooling  step
and then a cooking step.

The  frozen  products are usually french fried while the majority of the
dehydrated products are dried in a flake or granule form.

As shown on the accompanying water  flow  diagrams   (Figures  8-9),  the
production  of  dehydrated  and frozen products employ different process
steps.  Water usage and waste characterization can be determined for the
production of both products.   As  mentioned  earlier,  the  tabulations
should   not   be  used  to  develop  waste  water  effluent  limitation
guidelines.   The  tabulations  are  presented  only   to   show   where
substantial  water  savings  can be realized and where substantial waste
reductions can be accomplished.


                                   68

-------
                                   TABLE  21
                    LIST OF POTATO  INDUSTRY  WASTE  LOADINGS
(PO)
CAPACITY
CODE PRODUCT STYLE kkg/day T/day
131
132
110
116
125
130
101
102
103
108
109
111
112
115
136
107
113
122
127
128
123
129
114
F
F & D
F
F
F
F
F & D
F
F
F
F
F
F
D
D
D
D
D
F
F & D
D
F
D
360
430
320
450
340
540
1130
1630
540
630
1040
725
910
220
590
540
500
340
450
135
230
180
450
400
475
350
500
375
600
1250
1800
600
700
1150
800
1000
240
650
600
550
375
500
150
250
200
500
FLOW
1/kkg
11800
8590
14560
12510
10880
10430
12800
15510
10090
10340
13430
11260
12510
8760
7760
7010
6530
11800
4090
6380
7460
9630
12010
gal/T
2830
2060
3490
3000
2610
2500
3070
3720
2420
2480
3220
2700
3000
2100
1860
1680
1565
2830
980
1530
1790
2310
2880
BOD
kg/kkg
25.
13.
36.
15.
29.
35.
13.
31.
25.
32.
20.
16.
12.
8.
10.
10.
15.
9.
4.
13.
7.
11.
15.
4
9
95
1
25
8
95
95
45
25
75
9
3
6
4
75
2
45
45
75
75
0
2
Ib/T
50.
27.
73.
30.
58.
71.
27.
63.
50.
64.
41.
33.
24.
17.
20.
21.
30.
18.
8.
27.
15.
22.
30.
8
8
9
2
5
6
9
9
9
5
5
8
6
2
8
5
4
9
9
5
5
0
4
SS
kg/kkg
6.55
11.75
--
8.9
22.1
27.8
11.2
45.5
12.6
29.3
23.85
--
--
--
12.15
9.8
--
--
5.1
11.8
3.8
12.5
--

Ib/T
13.1
23.5
--
17 .8
44 .2
55.6
22.4
91.0
25 .2
58.6
47.7
—
__
—
24. 3
19.6
—
—
10. 3
23.6
7.6
25.0
--
(All Product Styles)

    AVERAGE           550     610
 No. Samples           23      23

(FROZEN PRODUCTS)

    AVERAGE           625     690
"Jo. Samples            13      13

(DEHYDRATED PRODUCTS)

    AVERAGE           410     450
'Jo. Samples             7       7
10270  2460
   23    23
11300  2710
   13    13
 8760  2100
    7     7
18.1   36.2  15.9    31.8
   23    23    16      16
22.9   45.8  19.4    38.8
  13     13    10      10
11.05  22.1   8.6    17.2
    773       3
F = FROZEN PRODUCTS
n = DEHYDRATED PRODUCTS
                                         69

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                               SECTION VI


                   SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

WASTE WATER PARAMETERS_gF_MAJOR_SIGNIFCANCE

A thorough analysis of the literature, industry data and  sampling  data
obtained  from  this  study,  and  EPA Permit data demonstrates that the
following waste water parameters are of major  pollutional  significance
for  the  apple,  citrus and potato processing segment of the canned and
preserved fruits and vegetables industry:

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5-day, 20° C., BOD5)
Suspended Solids (SS)
pH
Rationale for selection of Major Parameters	

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

This parameter is  an  important  measure  of  the  oxygen  utilized  by
microorganisms in the aerobic decomposition of the wastes at 20°C over a
five  day  period.   More  simply,  it  is  an  indirect  measure of the
biodegradability of the organic pollutants in the waste.   BOD{>  can  be
related  to  the  depletion  of  oxygen  in a receiving stream or to the
requirements for waste treatment.

If the BOD^5 level of the final effluent of a  processing  plant  into  a
receiving body is too high, it will reduce the dissolved oxygen level in
that  stream  to  below  a  level that will sustain most fish life; i.e.
below about  U  mg/1.   Many  states  currently  restrict  the  BOD^  of
effluents to below 20 mg/1 if the stream is small in comparison with the
flow  of the effluent.  A limitation of 200 to 300 mg/1 of BOD5 is often
applied for discharge to municipal  sewer,  and  surcharge  rates  often
apply if the BOD5 is above the designated limit.

Suspended Solids

This  parameter measures the suspended material that can be removed from
the waste waters by laboratory filtration, but does not  include  coarse
or  floating  matter  than  can  be  screened  or  settled  out readily.
Suspended solids are a visual and easily determined measure of pollution
and also a measure of the material that may settle in tranquil  or  slow
moving  streams.   A  high level of suspended solids is an indication of
high organic pollution.
                                   79

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pH

pH is an important parameter for providing  in-process  quality  control
for  recycling  of  process water.   Biological treatment systems operate
effectively at a pH range between 6.0 and 9.0.   These  systems  can  b^
rendered  ineffective by intermittent dumping of highly acidic or highly
alkaline wastes such as caustic tanks used for peeling.


Rationale_f or^Se_lection_of_Mingr_Parameters	

Chemical Oxygen Demand  (COD)

COD is  another measure of oxygen demand.  It  measures  the  amount  of
oraanic  and  som*3  inorganic  pollutants  under  a carefully controlled
direct chemical oxidation by a dichromate-sulfuric acid reagent.  COD is
a much more rapid measure of oxygen demand than BOD5 and is  potentially
very useful.

cm   provides  a  rapid  determination  of  the  waste  strength.   lt^
mr .i^iirpnient will indicate a serious plant or treatment malfunction  lorn;
before  th^  RODj>  can  be run.  A given plant or waste treatment system
usually has a relatively narrow range of COD:ROD^ ratios, if  the  wast0
characteristics are fairly constant, so experience permits a judgment to
bp  made  concerning  plant operation from COD values.  In the  industry,
COD ranges from about 1.6 to 10 times the BODj>; the ratio may be to  the
low  «nd  of  the  range for raw wastes, and near the high end  following
secondary treatment when the readily degraded material has been  reduced
to very low levels.

In  summary,  BOD  and COD measure organic matter which exerts  an oxygen
demand.  Both COD and EOE are useful analytical tools for the processor.
However,  no  COD  effluent  limitations  are   required   because   BOD
limitations have been established.
Total Dissolved Solids  (TDS)

The  dissolved  solids  in waste water are mainly inorganic salts.  They
are  particularly  important  as  they  are  relatively  unaffected   by
biological treatment processes and can accumulate in water recirculation
systems.   Failure  to  remove them may lead to an increase in  the total
solids level of ground waters and surface water sources.  The   dissolved
solids  in  discharge  water,  if  not  controlled,  may  be  harmful to
vegetation and may also preclude various irrigation processes.  There is
not sufficient data available to establish effluent limitations for TDS,
but at land treatment systems TDS must be managed to insure satisfactory
performance without damage to the physical properties of the soil or  to
the quality of the ground waters.


                                   80

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Alkalinity

The  measure of alkalinity is an indicator of bicarbonate, carbonate and
hydroxide present in the waste water.  The alkalinity of  water  appears
to  have  little  sanitary  significance.   Highly  alkaline  waters are
unpalatable, and may adversely affect the operation of  water  treatment
systems.   However, pH limitations require the control of alkalinity and
thus no alkalinity limitations are needed.

Ammonia Nitrogen and Other Nitrogen Forms

Neither apple, citrus or potato effluents contain significant quantities
of nitrogen.  The three most common forms  of  nitrogen  in  wastes  are
organic,  ammonia  and  nitrate.   Organic nitrogen will break down into
ammonia, nitrogen and nitrate.  When  ammonia  nitrogen  is  present  in
effluent  waste  water,  it  may  be  converted  to  nitrate nitrogen by
oxidation.  When ammonia and nitrates are added to ponds and lakes, they
contribute to euthrophication.  Since fruit  and  vegetable  wastes  are
generally deficient in nitrogen, no nitrogen limitations are required.

Total Phosphorus

Phosphorus like nitrate is linked directly to the eutrophication process
of   lakes  and  streams.   Sampling  shows  no  significant  levels  of
phosphorus in apple, citrus or potato  waste  water.   When  applied  to
soil,  phosphorus  does  not  exhibit  a  runoff potential because it is
readily absorbed tenaciously on soil particles.  In this case,  movement
of  phosphorus  to  ground water is essentially precluded and runoff can
only occur if actual erosion of the soil takes place.  Since  fruit  and
vegetable  waste  waters  are  generally  deficient  in  phosphorus,  no
phosphorus limitations are needed.

Fecal Coliforms

Significant numbers of fecal coliforms are generally not found in apple,
citrus or potato waste  waters  unless  sanitary  waste  is  mixed  with
process  waste.   In order to insure that the bacteriological quality of
waste waters does not create a problem all  sanitary  wastes  should  be
handled separately frcm process waste waters.  Because coliforms are not
a major constituent of the raw waste water and because in-plant reuse of
water,  waste water retention and land disposal minimize bacteriological
problems, fecal coliform effluent limitations are not required.


Temperature

The temperature of effluent waste water is important, since  release  of
water  at  elevated temperatures into surface or ground water formations
could result in damage to the micro-ecosystems.  The design of treatment
facilities is  also  dependent  upon  the  plant  effluent  temperature.


                                   81

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However,  high -temperature wastes are not associated with apple, citrus,
or potato processing.  Thus, guidelines for temperature are not needed.
                                   82

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                              SECTION VII


                    CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

                              INTRODUCTION

The characterization of the waste  effluents  has  provided  a  specific
description  of  the  waste  streams  resulting from the food processes,
involving identification of the origin of the various waste  streams  in
the  process, as well as waste water quality and quantity.  This permits
identification of the process steps which are the major contributors  to
the  flow  and  waste  loadings  of  the  total  waste  effluent stream.
Comparisons can be made between similar  or  alternative  operations  in
other  processing  facilities that perform the same function but produce
differing  amounts  of  waste.   The  data   provide   information   for
consideration  of  in-plant  separation  of  the  most significant waste
streams for separate treatment within  the  processing  plant  and  also
provide  valuable  insight into the properties of the wastes present and
indication of their treatability.
Waste characterization studies cannot be adequately discussed without  a
basic conception of the sources of wastes generated in apple, citrus and
potato  processing.   A  discussion of the eight basic sources of wastes
are presented herein.  It must be realized, that there are many  process
variations  within production operations and all eight waste sources may
or may not be present.  However, when required by production  operations
each process is present regardless of size, age, or location of plant.

Harvesting

This operation can be defined as removal of the product from its growing
environment,  its  collection  and  its transportation to the processing
plant.  The present systems of picking  include  combinations  of  human
effort  and  machine utilization, with a gradual, but steady increase in
the latter.  The increased  use  of  mechanical  means  of  picking  has
increased  the  amounts  of  soil  and  organic solids included with the
product, and has resulted in a  higher  organic  load  from  damaged  or
spoiled  raw  products.   This  trend  has also increased the amounts of
water necessary for washing and cleaning the product.   Current  studies
have  suggested the possibility of relieving the waste load at fruit and
vegetable processing plants by field washing  techniques.   The  use  of
economically   feasible  and  aesthetically  acceptable  procedures  for
sorting, cleaning and sanitizing these  crops  in  the  field  has  many
potential  advantages.   Rejected  raw  product,  plant materials, field
soil, and wash waters remain in the field.  Waste disposal there can  be


                                   83

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by  methods  both simpler and less costly than the methods available for
waste materials hauled into urban communities.

This technique is only suitable for the raw material which needs  to  be
processed  right after harvesting.  For example, the tomato industry has
applied this technique very successfully.   But  as  far  as  the  three
discussed  commodities,  only  citrus  has the possibility to adapt this
method.  Apples and potatoes both are usually placed into storage  after
harvesting for processing later in the season; and storage of wetted raw
crops  will  increase  the  possibility  of spoilage.  The technique, if
applied to citrus, would reduce water and waste loadings  only  a  small
amount.  Therefore it is not practical to apply field washing techniques
for these commodities.

Raw Material Cleaning

After  harvesting,  the raw material (such as apples or potatoes) either
is placed into storage cr goes directly to the processing plant.   Fruit
is  often  given  a  preliminary  washing  to  remove  soil  and organic
materials before preparing for processing.  A common method is  to  drop
the  product  directly  into water which acts as a cushion for unloading
the fruit.  The raw material is separated from  much  of  the  remaining
leafy  and  stem material, soil residues, seeds, and pesticide residues.
After this initial wash, the raw material cleaning operations contribute
minor pollutants to the waste water.

Apples and potatoes are stored for processing later in the  season.   If
the  storage  house  is  located in a different area from the processing
plant, the raw material could be washed as it is withdrawn from  storage
and  sorted  for  the  fresh  market.   This  way, the waste load at the
processing plant could te reduced.

In the case of potatoes, the increased mechanization of  harvesting  has
increased  the  quantity  of  soil  or  dirt  pickup  at harvest.  These
increased  soil  loads  can  require  more  thorough  water  washing  or
alternate  cleaning  systems.   Therefore,  if  the washing is done at a
storage  site  removed  from  the  processing  plant   it   could   save
approximately 8 percent of the total water usage at the processing plant
and eliminate the need or at least reduce the size of the silt pond.

Peel Removal

In  the  case  of the fruits, apple and citrus, where it is necessary to
remove the peel, the conventional system employs a mechanical  means  of
peel removal.


In  citrus  processing,  the  manufacture of  segments involves a hot lye
treatment to remove the rag and membrane from  the  whole  peeled  fruit
prior  to  sectionizing.  This hot alkaline treatment also results in an


                                   8U

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excessive waste effluent load.  Less than 15 percent of the total citrus
harvest is sectionized and receives a caustic treatment.

The peeling of potatoes generates higher waste loads  than  those  which
are  produced  by either the apple or citrus peeling operations.  In the
potato processing industry, excluding potato chip manufacture, there are
two generally accepted methods of peel treatment, caustic and steam.  In
the case of the caustic, either a hot dip or hot spray  contact  can  be
used.   In  the  dry caustic system, the alkaline solution is baked into
the skin of the potato prior to peel removal.

Water sprays or rubber abrading (USDA development)  are the two principal
means of removing the loosened peel following treatment.  If the peel is
removed by water sprays, then the  waste  effluent  load  in  the  water
system  is increased; however, if the loosened peel is removed by rubber
abrading and brushing with added water,  the  peel  is  collected  as  a
slurry  and  may be disposed of as animal feed.  Different treatment and
peel removal operations do not significantly affect the  waste  effluent-
load  based  on data from Section IV.  However, information from vendors
and other sources indicates that peeling represents 20  percent  of  the
effluent flow, over 50 percent of the BOD and over 60 percent of the SS.
In  addition, when the USDA scrubbers are utilized, peel wastes are only
half as great.

Almost all frozen potato products, french fries, hash browns, etc.,  are
caustic  treated  prior  to  peeling.  The caustic system (either wet or
dry) is  used  because  of  the  thorough  peeling  required  for  these
products.  Dehydrated potato products are peeled with either the caustic
or steam peel system.


Sorting, Trimming & Slicing

Sorting  and  grading operations may take place at various points in the
process prior to packaging and may occur more  than  once  in  the  same
process.   The  primary  purpose  of these operations is to remove those
pieces with undesirable blemishes or grade or sort for size and shape.

Separations as to quality of the product are most often  done  by  hand,
while  size separations are done by mechanical means.  Wastes from these
operations consist of whole pieces, miscellaneous  organics  and  juice.
Trimming  operations  are defined as the removal of unwanted portions of
the product.  These wasted portions consist of blemishes,  cores,  pits,
and  peels.   Blemish  removal  is  done  by  hand  and results in waste
products consisting of pieces and juice,  cores and pits are most  often
removed mechanically.

In  the  processing  cf apples, the water exposed to the interior of the
fruit, apple slices or dices, as they are cut, washed,  or  transported,
can  be  recirculated for a given period of operation, thus allowing the


                                   85

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soluble and suspended solids to build up in the water system.    When  it
is  necessary  to  replace  this  water  because of product quality, the
contaminated water can te further concentrated by evaporation  and  then
used  as  a  vinegar  stock.   Of  course,   the above system really only
applies to the manufacture of  apple  slices.    In  the  manufacture  of
sauce, the apple pieces are cut and dropped directly into the cooker and
thus, as in the manufacture of cider, little BOD5 is generated.

Tn  the  sorting  or  trimming  process  only in the citrus sectionizing
process does the interior of  the  fruit  contact  the  water  used  for
fluming.

In  the  processing  of  the potato, the cutting  (slicing)  of the potato
frees quantities of starch which is washed from the potato  pieces  into
the  wash  or  slicing  water.   If  this water is maintained at ambient
temperatures and recirculated within  the  system,  it  is  possible  to
remove  with  cyclones  a  concentrated  stream of crude starch as it is
built up in the recirculated water.  This starch slurry can be  sold  to
potato  starch  processors  as  a  starting  raw  material.  This system
 (removal of starch from slicing and washing water)  is  currently  being
employed on a small scale by several pctato processors.

Transport

Various  means  have  been  adopted  for  conveying  fruit  or vegetable
products at unloading docks into and through the process  plant.   These
include  fluming,  elevating, vibrating, screw conveyor, air propulsion,
negative air, hydraulic flows and jet or air blast.  Among them,  flume,
belt,  and  pump transport systems are the most common means.  Water, in
one way or another, has been  extensively  used  in  conveying  products
within  plants  because it has been economical and because it serves not
only as conveyance but also for washing and cooling.  It is also assumed
that  there  was  some  sanitary  significance  for  both  product   and
equipment.   Therefore, flume transport requires much greater quantities
of water than either cf  the  other  two  common  methods  and  produces
correspondingly  greater  waste volumes, as well as resulting in greater
leaching of organics into waste stream, such as sugars and acid from cut
apples, and starch from cut potatoes.  Since the extent of leaching is a
function of contact time in the fluid, it would  behoove  the  processor
from  a  loss-minimization standpoint, to keep product detention time in
such flumes to a minimum.  Usually the  transport  water  is  reused  by
recycling.

Pumping,  employing  a  high percentage of recirculated water, is almost
always used for transporting these three  commodities.   The  increasing
importance  of  waste water treatment has focused attention on alternate
conveying systems.  Air conveying eliminates the use of water, but it is
only suitable for raw materials of small size and  not  easily  damaged,
such  as peas.  Air conveying is not practical for the three commodities
under consideration.  Most  likely, a mechanical belt system will replace


                                   86

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many of the flume systems.  A  small  amount  of  chlorinated  water  is
needed  to  spray  on  the  belt  for  sanitation  purposes  during  the
operation.  Also, it is necessary, through the use  of  brushes,  vapors
and  water  sprays,  to  prevent  the buildup of organic material in the
conveyor system.

In many instances, the transport water is also used to cool the  product
after  blanching  or  tc wash the pieces after a cutting operation or to
prevent oxidation of the product.  In this manner, the  transport  water
serves  a  dual  or  irulti^ purpose function.  Thus, the particular water
transport system must be carefully  evaluated  before  conversion  to  a
mechanical conveying system.

Blanching

The  blanching  of  vegetables  and some fruits for canning, freezing or
dehydration has several purposes:

     1.  Elimination of intercellular air to reduce or
         eliminate subsequent oxidation.

     2.  Removal of starch and the inactivation of enzymes.

     3.  Destruction of bacteria.

     4.  Improvement cf product texture.

     5.  Reduction of color loss in subsequent operations.

Vegetables  are  blanched  either  in  water  or  in  steam  at  various
temperatures  and  times.   Water blanching is generally used for canned
vegetables and steam blanching for frozen or dehydrated vegetables.

Vegetables are water blanched prior to canning in order  to  remove  air
and to leach solubles for clarity of brine.  These are factors appearing
in  the USDA grades of canned vegetables.  For freezing and dehydration,
destruction of enzymes is more important.  Blanching  in  water  removes
more  solubles, including minerals, sugars and vitamins, than does steam
blanching.  Steam blanching will in many instances use  less  water  and
have  a  greater  yield  of  product  than  water blanching because of a
reduced amount of leaching that takes place.

In  European  food  processing  plants,  the  blancher  water  is  often
recirculated  to  permit  a  buildup  of soluble solids within the water
system.  This procedure will decrease the product loss, but it can  also
adversely affect the removal of undesirable leachables from the product.

The  pollution  loads  from  blanching  are a significant portion of the
total pollution load in the effluent stream  during  the  processing  of
                                   87

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certain  vegetables.   The  blanching of potatoes may contribute over 20
percent of the BOD waste load.

In addition to the conventional hot water and steam blanching methods, a
number of alternative methods have been explored in an effort to  reduce
the  waste  water  volume  derived  from  this  process.   Fluidized bed
blanching and IQB (individual quick blanching)  have  been  investigated,
but neither appear to have the potential for almost complete elimination
of  waste  water.  Hot air blanching has received periodic interest, but
the requirement of recirculating large volumes of air and also the  high
energy  costs  have hindered the commercial development of this concept.
More recently, microwave and hot gas blanching (based on the direct  USQ
of  hot  natural  gas combustion products as the major heat source)  have
shown promise for substantially reducing the volume of waste water while
providing commercially  acceptable  blanching.   The  capital  costs  of
microwave blanching are too high for a seasonal operation.  Blanching is
not  required  in  many  apple  and  citrus operations and the low water
volume methods discussed would be less applicable to  products  such  as
potatoes,  where  a  desirable  function  of  hot water blanching is the
removal of some of the leachable soluble solids.

Another possibility which was considered was to not only clean, but also
blanch the  vegetable  products  at  decentralized  locations  close  to
harvest   areas.    The  blanched  product  then  would  be  cooled  and
transported to a centralized plant for either canning or freezing.  This
processing concept has the advantage of using spray irrigation  for  the
disposal  of  the  blanching  waste load to areas which are more readily
available and acceptable.

Can Rinsing and Cooling

The product is transported to the canning department where it is  placed
in  containers  which  are  then  filled  with  juice,  syrup  or brine.
Spillage of product and liquid  are  the  major  waste  sources  in  the
packing operation.

To  seal the containers under vacuum, open cans are heated to expel air.
Additionally, some products are cooked in the can in continuous cookers.
After such heat-producing treatment, the sealed cans must be cooled  and
water  from  a  recirculated  water  system  is  commonly  used for this
purpose.  Little organic contamination of the  water  occurs,  but  very
large  volumes  are  required.  From 11 to 26 percent of the plant water
flow may be required in the can cooling operation.

Cleanup

Wastes resulting from periodic house cleaning are generated  from  every
portion  of  the process.  Due to their short term and transient nature,
they are almost impossible to characterize individually.
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In a typical apple, citrus or potato processing plant up to 35   percent
of the total waste load may originate from the clean-up operations.  The
amount and strength of wastes generated in clean-up will depend upon the
age, condition and layout of the plant as well as the specific operating
practices  employed.   Some of the many techniques used to control waste
generation  from  clean-up  activities  are  listed  below.   Most   are
presently  used  in  the  food  processing  industry;  each  of  them is
applicable.

1.  High pressure nozzles with specially designed nozzels to
    minimize water use.

2.  Automatic shut-off on clean-up hoses so that water flow
    stops when the hose is put down.

3.  Automatically timed clean-up cycles where the water flow
    shuts down after predetermined interval.

1.  Automatic cleaning of conveyers, piping and other equip-
    ment wherever possible.

5.  The use of squeeges in place of water for cleaning up
    spilled solids.

6.  Cleaning gutters of solids promptly before solubles can
    be leached into the water.

7.  Pulling the drain bracket only after cleanup has been
    completed.

8.  Separation of flows from various cleanup operations.

9.  Automatic monitors that alert plant management to
    increases in waste flow for strength attributable to
    improper cleanup practices.

10. One plant has an employee whose full-time responsibility
    is to monitor cleanup operations and to minimize water
    use and waste generation.

11. The use of special cleanup crews, specifically trained
    for this function.

12. Minimum use of water and detergent, consistent with
    cleaning requirements.

The clean-up for apple processing is much higher than for either  citrus
or  potatoes.   This  is  attributed to the method of operations used in
apple processing where there is often excessive spillage  of  wastes  on
the  floor  from mechanical peelers.  This waste is periodically cleaned


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up once or twice a shift.  There are low  waste  loads  attributable  to
mechanical  peeling  and  this  load represents only the transport water
associated with this process step.  Much of the waste load is  generated
after shutdown of operations when the plant is cleaned up.

In  the  case  of  potatoes  and  citrus,  the processing plants usually
operate nearly 24 hours per day.   Consequently,  there  is  a  tendency
toward  continuous clean-upr rather than a separate clean-up shift as in
the case of apples.

In-Plant Reuse of Water

A number of studies have been  made  in  the  food  processing  industry
related  to  the possible in-plant reuse of water.  The results of these
studies indicate that the acceptability of procedures for reuse of water
in processing operations requires such consideration as:

1.  Water is an excellent solvent and is readily modified,
    chemically, physically, and microbiologically for its
    intended use.  A particular use may or may not render
    water suitable for upstream application, such as fruit
    or vegetable washing.  Recovered downstream, the water
    may be suitable for further use only when given enough
    treatment to be considered as a potable water.

2.  The soil, organic or heat loads in the used water may
    be such that considerable treatment is necessary to
    render it suitable for reuse.

Water recirculation using cooling towers is a  common  method  of  water
conservation  in  food  packing  plants.  Cooling tower blow-down can be
used for supply water with  the  various  subprocesses,  and  evaporator
waters may be reused for processes such as initial washing.

Perhaps  the  most  extensive  work on feasibility in reuse of water has
been done with "counter-current" flow systems.  An example is the use of
cooling water to wash products following blanching, and  this  water  in
turn  used  for initial washing of incoming raw product or the blanchinq
of the product and then washing the incoming raw material. Consideration
has been given to segregation of various waste  waters  in  the  process
plant  for immediate reuse or reuse after suitable treatment for certain
operations.  Due to bacteriological and product quality  considerations,
the  treatment required for reuse of the water may be relatively simple,
such as  chlorination  and  screening  or  may  become  quite  involved,
requiring  sedimentation,  flocculation,  and  filtration  or other unit
operations.

Multiple use  of water is  being applied  in  commercial  processing  of
fruits  and  vegetables.  This has unquestionably permitted conservation
of water and greater efficiency in the treatment required for the  total


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plant effluent.  However, in some instances it has not reduced the total
amounts of organics being generated per ton of product.

In  some  citrus  processing plants, the recycling of can-cooling water,
barometric condenser water, refrigeration cooling water, water for  pump
seals,  and cooling water for heat exchangers are all being successfully
recycled. There are two factors to be  considered  in  conditioning  any
waste water for reuse:

1.  The economic factor, that is, the cost of fresh water
    versus the cost of treating and recirculating it for
    reuse, and the cost of disposal of waste water following
    its use.

2.  The acceptability of the treated water for its intended
    use.  The costs for treatment of water depend on the
    condition of the water and the treatment required to
    recondition it.  If the water has acquired salt, sucrar,
    starch, acids, or other organic or suspended materials,
    extensive treatment may be necessary.  On the other hand,
    such treatment may be necessary anyway to reduce the
    total effluent degradation, or because such effluent can-
    not be discharged into either municipal systems or
navigable water systems without treatment.

A  reduction  in  water  use  within  the  process plant does not always
reflect immediately an equivalent reduction  in  the  waste  load  being
generated.   Accordingly,  a  few  processors  may not realize immediate
benefits from a water reuse program.  However, as more  stringent  waste
effluent  limitations  are  set  and  the  industry moves closer to zero
discharge of pollutants, the reduction in the water usage  will  reflect
in lower investment and operating costs for disposal of wastes.

Many of the in-plant controls described above are presently practiced at
apple,  citrus  and potato plants.  From Section V  (Tables 19-21), there
are several plants that have exemplary raw waste loads. An apple  sauce,
slice,  and  juice  plant has a raw waste BOD of 1.4 kg/kkg  (2.8 Ib/ton)
compared to the average of 5 kg/kkg (10 Ib/ton).   A citrus  juice,  oil
and  feed  processing  plant  has  a  water usage of only 710 1/kkg (170
gal/ton), BOD of 0.45 kg/kkg (0.9 Ib/ton) and SS of  0.02  kg/kkg   (0.04
Ib/ton).   These values compare with average flow values of 10,120 1/kkg
(2425 gal/ton), average BOD of 3.2 kg/kkg (6.4 Ib/ton) and average SS of
1.3 kg/kkg  (2,6 Ib/ton).  A frozen potato plant has  a  water  usage  of
4090  1/kkg (980 gal/ton) and a BOD of 4.45 kg/kkg  (8.9 Ib/ton) compared
with average values of 11,300 1/kkg (2710 gal/ton)  and 22.9 kg/kkg  (45.8
Ib/ton).  Thus, there are processors achieving high levels of  pollutant
reduction through in-plant waste management techniques.

The exemplary raw waste loads described above are applicable to the best
available  technology economically achievable.  However, exemplary waste


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water treatment systems currently operational at processing plants  have
been  used  to determine the best available level of effluent reduction.
While these in-plant controls are not required to  meet  the  standards,
their utilization is encouraged.

                       £ASTEJTREATMENT_TTCHNOLOGY


PRELIMINARY TREATMENT SYSTEMS

In  modern  cannery practice there has been an almost uniform acceptance
of the need for separating solid  wastes  from  the  principal  effluent
waste  stream.   Treatment  processes  employed  in  this separation are
physical  in  nature  and  include   screening,   plain   sedimentation,
hvdroclones and flotation.  These processes are applicable to all apple,
citrus or potato plants regardless of size, age or location.

Flow Equalizing Tank

Flow  equalization  facilities  consist  of  a  holding tank and pumping
equipment designed to reduce the fluctuations in flow of waste  effluent
streams.   They  can  be  economically advantageous whether a processing
plant is treating wastes or discharging into a  city  sewer  after  some
pretreatment.  The equalizing tank stores waste water either for recycle
or  to  feed the flow uniformly to treatment facilities throughout a 24-
hour day period.

Screening

Screening is the most widely accepted method of preliminary treatment of
cannery wastes.   Ordinarily,  its  cost  is  nominal  relative  to  the
benefits  derived  in  the  reduced  load  on  waste treatment or sewage
facilities.  However, it is not usually considered as an economic method
of solids separation when high degrees of removal are required.   Recent
improvements  in the fabrication of screen cloths are permitting smaller
particulate matter to be removed.  Also, the introduction  of  synthetic
cloths  (polyester, nylon, polyethylene) has resulted in low maintenance
costs.  Screens utilizing synthetic cloth with 5 to 10  micron  openings
are commercially available and have a good resistence to blinding.

Three  types  of  screens  have  been used for screening food processing
wastes:  stationary, revolving, and vibrating.  Most of the  screens  in
current  use are of the rotary type, but the vibrating screens have been
favored because they tend to have fewer clogging problems, to provide   a
drier screenings discharge, and to produce more compact solids.

Nearly  all  processing  plants  use  some  form  of screening.  Primary
screens are usually equipped with a screen cloth in the size range of 20
to 40 mesh.  However,  because  of  the  industrial  preference  to  use
relatively simple, standard equipment, there has been a gradual shift in


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the  direction  of stationary wedge-wire screens with an equivalent mesh
opening.  This does not represent any real change with  respect  to  the
removal of solids for waste control.

Stationary  Screeng  - The primary function of a stationary screen is to
separate or "free" the solids from the transporting fluids.  This can be
accomplished in several ways, and in most older  concepts  only  gravity
drainage  is  involved.   A  concave screen has been designed using high
velocity pressure- feeding.  This design employs bar interference to  the
slurry  which  cuts off thin layers of the flow over the curved surface.
This method can very effectively handle  slurries  containing  fatty  or
sticky  fibrous suspended matter.  Openings between the bars or wires of
0.025 to 0.15 cm  (0.010 to 0.060 inches) meet normal screening needs.
B2i§.£Y_§£r.§e.D§ ~ °ne "type of barrel or rotary screen, driven by external
rollers, receives the waste water at one open  end  and  discharges  thp
solids  at  the  other  open  end.  The liquid flows outward through thp
screen  (usually stainless steel screen cloth or perforated metal)  to  a
receiving  box  and effluent piping mounted below the screen with a line
of external spray nozzles directed on the screen.  This type is  popular
and  may  be useful in removing solids from waste streams containing low
solids concentrations.

Vibjrating_Screens - The effectiveness of vibrating screens depends on  a
rapid motion.  They operate between 900 rpm and 3600 rpm; the motion can
either  be  circular,  straight line, or three dimensional, varying from
0.08 to 1.27 cm (1/32 to 1/2 inch) total travel.  The speed  and  motion
are selected by the screen manufacturer for the particular application.
Most  important in the selection of a proper vibrating screen is the
of the proper cloth.  The capacities of vibrating screens are  based  on
the  percent  of open area of the cloth.  The cloth is selected with the
proper combination of strength of wire and percent of open area.  If the
waste solids to be handled are heavy and abrasive,  wire  of  a  greater
thickness  and diameter should be used to assure long life.  However, if
the material is light  or  sticky  in  nature,  the  durability  of  the
screening  surface  may be the smaller consideration.  In such a case, a
light wire may be necessary to provide  an  increased  percent  of  open
area.

The effectiveness of screening the raw waste load from a food processing
plant is illustrated by the following examples:

1.   A 2U-mesh oscillating screen removed 60 percent of
     the suspended solids from a potato-carrot waste
     effluent.

2.   A 28-mesh rotary screen removed 79 percent of the
     suspended solids from a tomato processing waste
     effluent.


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There  is  a  good deal of experimentation under way in the direction of
better solids removal equipment  which  uses  finer  mesh  screens.    An
example  of this new technology is the micro-screen.  The impact on this
development on waste loads is difficult to assess at this time.   The use
of fine mesh screens such as the micro-screen will require some sort  of
pre-screening ahead of it to act as an insurance or protective device.

Grease Removal  (Catch Basins)

Most  waste  treatment  plants  do  not possess the facilities to handle
large amounts of grease.  Adequate grease trapping should be provided at
the processing plant and,  in  some  cases,  emulsion  breaking  may  be
required to remove the oil and grease.

The  presence  of grease and related wastes often causes severe problems
in the waste treatment facility.  In one instance, the processing  plant
was producing french fried products, and many of the wastes generated in
this  process  were  highly  emulsified,  compounding the grease removal
problem.  Improved grease trapping facilities at various points  in  th°
plant were necessary to correct the problem.

In  the  past  twenty  years, with waste treatment gradually becoming an
added economic incentive, catch basin  design  has  been  improved,  the
concern  shifting toward overall effluent quality improvement and toward
by-product recovery.  Gravity grease recovery systems will remove 20  to
30  percent of the BOE5, 40 to 50 percent of the suspended solids and 50
to 60 percent of the grease  (hexane solubles).

Most gravity grease recovery  basins   (catch  basins)  are  rectangular.
Flow  rate  is the most important criterion for design; 30 to UO minutes
detention time at one hour peak flow is a common sizing factor.  The use
of an equalizing tank ahead of the catch basin obviously  minimizes  the
size requirement for the basin.  A shallow basin - up to 1.8m (6 feet) -
is  preferred.   A  "skimmer" skims the grease and scum off the top into
collecting troughs.  A scraper moves the sludge at  the  bottom  into  a
submerged hopper from which it can be  pumped.

Usually two identical catch basins, with a common wall, are desirable so
operation  can  continue if one is down for maintenance or repair.  Both
concrete and steel tanks are used for  the catch basin.

Flotation

A high percentage of the solids in carbonaceous food  processing  wastes
can  be  removed  by  vacuum  flotation.  When wastes are subjected to a
short period of aeration with 0.185 to 0.37  cubic  meters  of  air  per
thousand  liters   (0.025  to 0.05 cubic feet of air per gallon) of waste
effluent, then passed on to a compartment where the  large  air  bubbles
can escape, and finally the liquid is  sent to a holding tank where it is
subjected  to a vacuum of about 0.27 to 0.33 atmospheres  (8-10 inches of


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mercury).  The solids quickly rise to  the  surface  with  the  released
small  bubbles  forming  a  relatively  dense  mat  which  is removed by
mechanical skimmers.

There are three process alternatives varying  by  the  degree  of  waste
water  that  is  pressurized and into which the compressed air is mixed.
In the total pressurization process the entire  waste  water  stream  is
raised  to  full  pressure  for  compressed  air  injection.  In partial
pressurization, only a part of the waste water stream is raised  to  the
pressure  of  the  compressed air for subsequent mixing.  In the recycle
pressurization process, treated effluent  from  the  flotation  tank  is
recycled  for  mixing  with the compressed air and then, at the point of
pressure  release,  is  mixed  with  the  influent  waste  water.   This
alternative  has  a side-stream of influent entering the retention tank,
thus reducing the pumping required in the total pressurization  process.
Operating  costs may vary slightly, but performance is essentially equal
among the alternatives.

Improved  performance  of  the  air  flotation  system  is  achieved  by
coagulation of the suspended matter prior to treatment.  This is done by
pH  adjustment  or the addition of coagulant chemicals, or both.  A slow
paddle mix will improve flocculation.

Since there are only a few installations of flotation units in the  food
processing  industry,  it  must  be  recognized that experience with the
application of this technique is limited.

One example of a flotation unit is in the treatment of tomato and  peach
waste water.  Flows of 285,200 liters/square meter  (7,000 gallons/square
foot)  of surface area per day were attained in this pilot installation,
while removing 50 to 80 percent of the suspended solids.

Sedimentation

Sedimentation without prior chemical treatment has been used in the food
processing industry.  For example, a  waste  flow  of  720,000-1,665,000
liters  per  day  (190,000-440,000  gallons  per day)  was settled (after
screening)  in two concrete settling tanks 15.2 meters  (50 feet)  long  by
3.7  meters  (12 feet)  wide by 0.9 meters (3 feet)  deep with a detention
time of about 1.5 hours.  The settled sludge was allowed  to  accumulate
to  a  depth  of  about 30.5 cm (12 in)  over a 3 to 7 day period and was
then removed and hauled to  fields  for  disposal.    Later  improvements
provided  for  continuous  mechanical  sludge  removal from the settling
tanks.

sedimentation was used in this instance to reduce the solids loading  on
another  part of the treatment process.   It was found that sedimentation
prior to lagooning lessened the odor from lagoons.    Primary  sedimenta-
tion  has  been  found  to  reduce the BOD5 between 50 to 80 percent and
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reduce the suspended  solids   between
characteristics of the waste water.
30  to  75%,  depending  on  the
An  example  of  a  dual  sedimentation  system is the potato processing
industry where it is general practice to utilize  primary  sedimentation
of  the  plant  effluent  and  a  separate sedimentation system for silt
water.  Potato wash water is reused  after  it  has  been  pumped  to  a
clarifier or holding pond for removal of settleable solids.

If  settling  tanks  are  used, the settled solids must be collected and
withdrawn from the bottom of the tank.  In municipal  sewage  treatment,
the  solids are continually collected by mechanical means through chain-
driven wooden scrapers moving slowly along the bottom of the rectangular
tank.


Centrifugal Separation

The centrifugal separation of cannery waste solids has not received wide
acceptance in the food processing industry, apparently because  of  both
high  capital  cost  and  high power cost.  In some instances horizontal
bowl centrifuges have been installed and in other instances  hydroclones
have been employed.

Hydroclones  are  experiencing  the  greater  degree  of acceptance than
centrifuges because of low initial cost and operating cost.    Currently,
they  are  not  only being installed on waste effluent streams to remove
some of the organic solids but also on in-plant potato processing  flows
to recover crude starch slurries.

Centrifuges  can  probably  remove  at  least as much BOD5_ and suspended
solids as does primary sedimentation.  One potato processor has reported
a BOD reduction of 1700 mg/1 through the use of hydroclones in the waste
effluent stream leaving the plant.

CHEMICAL TREATMENT

pH Adjustment

Caustic is often used in  peeling  potatoes  and  apples.   The  use  of
caustic  may  raise  the  pH  of  the total effluent enough to disrupt a
biological treatment,  in  which  case  the  pH  is  adjusted  to  avoid
"slugging"  the  system  with caustic.  Although high pH accompanies lye
peeling, processors handle peel wastes in a manner that does not  affect
the  value of the solid waste as feed for livestock.  Fruit, tomato, and
root crops peeled in other ways may yield an effluent  with  neutral  or
low  pH.   Drastic  fluctuations  in pH occur when lye peeling tanks are
dumped periodically and smaller fluctuations may result from the caustic
solutions used in plant cleanup.  The pH  of  the  waste  water  can  be
adjusted  by  the  addition  of  an  acid,  for instance, sulfuric acid.
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Another situation requiring pH adjustment can arise when fruits  contain
acid  and  pectin, such as citrus or apples.  In some biological systems
trouble is encountered Viith bulking sludges associated with  filamentous
growth.  Increasing the pH, for instance by adding lime, may correct the
problem.

Biological  systems  function  at  their  optimum when the pH is neutral
(i.e. 7.0), and they will operate effectively at a pH range between  6.0
and 9.0.

Chlorination

Chlorination  is  also  used  for  odor  control  and is chiefly used in
municipal water treatment as a disinfectant and partially to reduce  the
BOD5 of the treated effluent.  (Biological processes should be relied on
to  provide  BOD^  reduction,  rather  than  Chlorination).  Chlorine is
available in powdered form, as liquefied  chlorine,  and  in  solutions.
Adding  Chlorination  to  a  treatment  process  presents  the  need  to
construct chlorine handling facilities consisting of storage, phase con-
version, mixing, and detention facilities for effluent.  Since  chlorine
is  a  hazardous  substance,  special  safety precautions in storage and
handling are required.  Dose rates for chlorine for domestic sewage  are
usually  in  the range of 3 to 15 parts per million with detention times
up to one hour in duration.  Dosage should be high enough to  provide  a
chlorine   residual   in  the  effluent  to  assure  protection  against
pathogenic bacteria.

Chlorination is used to  inhibit  algae  growth.   This  is  of  special
importance  for  correcting  one  type of bulking sludge problem in some
activated sludge plants.

Chlorination may also be used for disinfection and to  oxidize  residual
organic  material.   It is practiced on treated wastewaters to a limited
degree.  This practice can be expected to become common  to  permit  the
recycle of highly purfied waters.

Chlorine also provides a residual protection against bacteria that other
disinfectants   such  as  ozone  or  bromine  do  not  provide.   Actual
Chlorination  rates  should  be  based  on  laboratory  testing  of  the
effluent.

Nutrient Addition

Cannery  waste  water  is  generally  deficient  in  both  nitrogen  and
phosphorus from the standpoint of the ratio of these elements to organic
matter  that  is  required  for  optimum  biological  treatment.    This
situation  can  be  corrected by adding ammonia and phosphoric acid, for
example, to the waste water before biological treatment.  The  chemicals
should be added after initial screening and settling to avoid their loss
to the solids removed in these steps.


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Chemical coagulation and Precipitation

Chemical  precipitation  of  cannery  wastes  has been used with varying
degrees of success.  Investigators have reported reductions in  BOD5  as
high as 89 percent.  In almost all instances lime was the coagulant used
whether singularly or in conjunction with another coagulant or coagulant
aid.   Doses of coagulants reguired were much higher for food processing
wastes  than  those  required  for  domestic  sewage  alone,  since  the
suspended  solids  concentrations  in  food  processing  wastes are much
higher than domestic wastes.
Most chemical precipitation  processes  in  use  are  batch  type;
continuous  processes  have  also been reported.  With the fill and draw
technique a minimum of two tanks is required for treatment.  This system
has the advantage of  permitting  easy  handling  of  large  volumes  of
sludge.   The  continuous  flow  system has the disadvantages of minimum
flexibility  in  maintaining  optimum  dosages  and  its  inability   to
accommodate removal of large sludge volumes.

It  has  been  reported  that  chemical  precipitation gave smaller BOD5
removals  than  biological  filtration,  but  that  it  also  had   some
advantages  compared  to trickling filters.  Biological filters required
time to  develop  a  satisfactory  filter  flora  and  had  to  be  used
continuously,   whereas   chemical   precipitation   could  be  utilized
immediately and intermittently.  This is  particularly  advantageous  in
the seasonal canning industry.

In  some  processing  plants,  lime  and  alum  were  added to the waste
effluents from pea processing prior to screening.  This resulted in a 42
percent BOD5 removal and an 81 percent removal of the suspended solids.

Miscellaneous Chemical Additives

Chemical additives may also be added to waste waters to control  foaming
and  to control odors and to enhance solid settling characteristics such
as is accomplished by coagulating agents.
PRIMARY TREATMENT SYSTEMS

The typical primary treatment system operating in  the  food  processing
industry  consists of a clarifier and rotary vacuum filter to remove and
dewater the settled sludge from the  waste  effluent  stream.   Chemical
precipitation  may  be used for those waste sludges that are not readily
settleable, and suspended solids may be removed from  effluents  by  the
addition of an air flotation unit.
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Settling, Sedimentation and Clarification

A   substantial   portion   of  the  suspended  solids  that  cannot  be
conveniently removed by screening can  be  separated  by  sedimentation,
settling   or   clarification.    Settling   consists   of  providing  a
sufficiently large tank or pond so that the velocity  of  the  water  is
reduced.  The forces arising from density differences between the solids
and  the  water  can  then  act  and  the solids can settle.  Clarifiers
operate on the same principle  with  the  addition  of  mild  mechanical
agitation  to  assist  in  the  settling  process and the removal of the
settled solids.  As an initial step preceding  biological  treatment,  a
combination  of screening and clarification can be expected to remove 50
to 80 percent of the waste water BODj>.  With the addition  of  chemicals
for coagulation BODj> removals range from 25 percent to 40 percent of raw
influent and suspended solids removal range from 40 percent  to 70^.  It
is  also  found  that sedimentation prior to lagooning lessened the odor
from lagoons.  Clarifiers are also used  as  a  part  of  the  activated
sludge  process,  serving  to separate sludge for return to the aeration
step or to anaerobic digestion.  Settling ponds or Clarifiers  are  also
used  as  a  final  step in biological systems for the removal of solids
prior to discharge of the treated  wastewater.   In  the  processing  of
apple  or citrus waste effluents, the presence of pectin often restricts
the removal of solids by  clarification.   Therefore,  sedimentation  is
less  freguently  practiced  in  these  industries  than  in  the potato
industry.

Rotary Vacuum Filtration

The settled solids removed from the bottom of the clarifier in the  form
of  a sludge are pumped to the rotary vacuum filter, where the slurry is
concentrated by removal of water which is  returned  to  the  clarifier.
The  outside  surface  of  the  filter cylinder is covered with a filter
medium  (cloth).  The lower portion of the filter  is  suspended  in  the
liquid  slurry.   As  the drum rotates, the vacuum maintained within the
cylinder forces fluid into the cylinder leaving a layer of solids on the
outside filter medium.  As the filter rotates, the  solids  are  scraped
off  from  the  cloth.   This  method  has  been  widely  used in solids
thickening for both industrial and municipal wastes.

The dewatered solids are then discarded by one of the ultimate  disposal
technigues  or  used for animal feeds, and the water is recycled back to
the clarifier.

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS

The treatment of waste effluents by biological methods is an  attractive
alternative  when  a high proportion of the biodegradable material is in
the soluble form, as is the case in the canned and preserved fruits  and
vegetables  industry.   These  methods  are  applicable in this industry
irrespective of plant size, age or location.
                                                      i

                                   99

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Many types of microoganisms remove organic materials from liquid wastes.
Those most commonly used in treatment systems  are  heterotrophs,  which
utilize  organic  carbon  for their energy and growth.   Some are aerobic
and require molecular oxygen for converting wastes to carbon dioxide and
water.   Other  are  anaerobic  and  grow  without   molecular   oxygen.
Anaerobic  microorganisms grow more slowly than aerobes and produce less
sludge per  unit  of  waste  treated  than  do  aerobic  microorganisms.
Anaerobes  also  release  acids and methane, and their action on sulfur-
containing wastes may create odor  problems.   Some  microorganisms  are
facultative;  that  is,  they can grow in either an aerobic or anaerobic
environment.

The biological treatment of food processing wastes often lacks necessary
nutrients in the waste to sustain desirable  biological  growth.   Added
nutrients, most often nitrogen and sometimes phosphorus, may be required
for   efficient   biological   treatment   of  food  processing  wastes.
Processing wastes generally requires the  addition  of  nitrogen  before
successful   biological  treatment.   Often  this  can  be  economically
accomplished by the addition of nutrient-rich wastes from another source
for combined treatment.

A discussion of the various methods of biological treatment is presented
in the following sections.

Activated Sludge

Tn this case the active biota is maintained as a suspension in the waste
liquid.  Air, supplied to the system  by  mechanical  means,  mixes  the
reaction medium and supplies the microorganisms with the oxygen required
for their metabolism.  The microorganisms grow and feed on the nutrients
in  the  inflowing  waste  waters.   There are fundamental relationships
between the growth of these microorganisms and  the  efficiency  of  the
system to remove BOD5.

A  number  of  activated sludge systems have been designed, all of which
have their own  individual  configurations.   Basically,  these  designs
consist of some type cf pretreatment, usually primary sedimentation, and
aeration, followed by sedimentation which will allow the sludge produced
to  separate,  leaving a clear effluent.  Portions of the settled sludge
are recirculated and mixed with the influent to  the  aeration  section,
usually  at  a  proportion  ranging between 10 to 100 percent, depending
upon the specific modification ot the basic activated sludge process.

The goal of these plants is to produce an actively  oxidizing  microbial
population  which  will  also  produce  a dense "biofloc" with excellent
settling characteristics.  Usually,  optimization  of  floe  growth  and
overall  removal is necessary since very active microbial populations do
not always form the best floes.
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Activated sludge treatment plants are  capable  of  removing  90  to  95
percent  or  better  of  the  influent  BOD5_  from  fruit  and vegetable
processing plants.

Activated sludge systems will remove  over  95  percent  BOD5  in  apple
processing wastes; however, nitrogen has to be added to avoid bulking of
the activated sludge.  Nitrogen is usually added as anhydrous ammonia or
ammonium  sulfate  in  amounts  sufficient to obtain a carbon:  nitrogen
ratio of 30:1 in the waste stream.

For  treating  potato  processing  wastes  a  mixed  liquor  system   is
satisfactory,  affording  BOD5_  removals as high as 95 percent.  Contact
stabilization, removed only about 80 percent of BOD5_ and a  modification
may  not  be  considered  satisfactory  unless the processor reduces the
waste loadings by in-plant modifications.

When settled sludge  was  reaerated,  90-95  percent  BOD5_  removal  was
obtained  as long as the BOD5_ loading was less than 50 to 70 kg(lb)  BOD5_
per day per 100 kg (Ib) of sludge solids.  This rate  decreased  to  less
than 70 percent BOD5 removal when the loading rate approached 200 kg(lb)
per  day  per  100  kg(lb) of sludge solids.  The sludge formed at these
higher rates was less stable and bulking became a problem.

The treatment of citrus  wastes  using  a  step  aeration  type  system,
obtained up to 97 percent BOD5 removal (averaging 90 percent removal)  at
loadings of 2.6-4.2 kg of BOD5 per cubic meter per day (0,16 to 0.26 Ibs
of  BOD5 per cubic foot per day).  No addition of nitrogen was necessary
at these loading rates.  Higher loading rates were followed  by  bulking
primarily   caused   by  Spjrjae rot i lus.   Temperatures  above  36°C  were
detrimental and  at  U3°C  were  lethal  to  the  system.   Conventional
activated  sludge methods for the treatment of citrus wastes, 30-50 mg/1
nitrogen and 5-10 mg/1 phosphorus had to be added to obtain higher rates
of BOD5 removal and sludge with good settling characteristics.

The extended aeration modification of the activated  sludge  process  is
similar  to  the  conventional activated sludge process,  except that the
mixture of activated sludge and  raw  materials  is  maintained  in  the
aeration  chamber for longer periods of time.  The common detention time
in extended aeration is one  to  three  days,  rather  than  six  hours.
During this prolonged contact between the sludge and raw waste, there is
ample  time for organic matter to be adsorbed by the sludge and also for
the organisms to metabolize the removal of organic matter which has been
built up into the protoplasm of the organism.   Hence,  in  addition  to
high  organic  removals  from  the waste waters, up to 75 percent of the
organic matter of the microorganisms is decomposed into stable  products
and consequently less sludge will have to be handled.

In  extended  aeration, as in the conventional activated sludge process,
it is necessary to have a final sedimentation tank.  Some of the  solids
                                   101

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resulting from extended aeration are rather finely divided and therefor0
settle slowly, requiring a longer period of settling.

The  long detention time in the extended aeration tank makes it possible
for nitrification to occur.  If it is desirable for this to occur, it is
necessary to have sludge detention times in excess of  three days.    This
can  be  accomplished  by  regulating the amounts of sludge recycled and
wasted each day.  Oxygen enriched gas could be used in place of  air  in
th<=  aeration  tanks to improv^ overall performance.  This would reauir0
that the aeration tank be partitioned and  covered,  and  that  the  air
compressor  and  dispersion  system  be  replaced  by  a rotating sparg°r
system, which costs l<=ss to buy and operate.   When  co-current,
flow  and  recirculation  of  gas  back  through the liguor is
between 90 and 95 percent oxygen utilization is claimed.  Although  this
modification  of  activated  sludge has not been used  in treating apple,
citrus or potato processing wastes, it is being  used   successfully  for
treating other organic wastes


Activated  sludge  in  its  varied forms is an attractive alternative in
cannery waste treatment.  Conventional design criteria is  not  directly
transferrable  from  municipal  applications.   However,  high levels of
Qfficiency are possible at the  design  loadings  normally  employed  in
treating  other  types  of  high  strength  organic wastes.  The general
experience has been that biological solids separation  problems  can  be
avoided  if  the  dissolved  oxygen  concentration  remains  above  z°ro
throughout the aeration basin,  if  management  minimizes  very  strong,
concentrated  waste  releases, and if sufficient amounts of nitrogen ar°
available to maintain a critical nitrogen:  BOD5 rat_io.  This ratio  has
been  recommended  to be 3 to U kg(Ib) N per 100 kg(lb) of BOD5 removed.
Numerous cases have been reported of successful  combined  treatment  of
cannery  and  domestic wastes by activated sludge and its modifications.
Activated sludge systems require less room  than  other  high  reduction
biological  systems,  but  have  higher  equipment  and operating costs.
Properly designed and operated  systems  can  treat  cannery  wastes  to
achieve high BOD reductions.

Biological Filtration  (Trickling Filter)

The  trickling filter process has found application in treatment of food
processing wastes.  Very tall filters employing  synthetic  media,  high
recirculation, and forced air circulation have been used to treat strong
wastes in the 300-4000 mg/1 BOD5 range.

The  purpose of the biofilter system is to change soluble organic wastes
into insoluble organic matter primarily in  the  form  of  bacteria  and
other  higher  organisms.   As  the  filter  operates,  portions  of the
biological growth slough off and are discharged as  humus with the filter
effluent.  Usually, some physical removal system is reguired to separate
                                   102

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this insoluble organic material which can be treated by  other  suitable
methods, usually anaerobic fermentation in a sludge digestor.

Trickling  filters  are  usually constructed as circular beds of varying
depths  containing  crushed  stone,  slag,  or  similar  hard  insoluble
materials.   Liquid  wastes  are distributed over this bed at a constant
rate and allowed to "trickle" over the filter stones.  Heavy  biological
growths  develop  on  the  surface  of the filter "media" throughout the
depth of the filter and also within the interstitial spaces.

The biological  film  contains  bacteria,  (Zooglea,  Sphaerotilus,  and
Beggiatoa);   fungi  (Fusarium, Geotrichum, Sepedonium); algae, both green
and blue-green (Phormidium, Ulothrix, Mononostrona);  and  a  very  rich
fauna  of  protozoa.   A  grazing  fauna  is  also present on these beds
consisting of both  larval  and  adult  forms  of  worms  (Oligochaeta),
insects   (Diptera  and  Coleoptera  among others), and spiders and mites
(Arachnida) .

A common problem with this type of filter is the presence of flies which
can  become  a  severe  nuisance.   Insect  prevention  can  usually  be
prevented  by  chlorinating the influent or by periodically flooding the
filter.


Recirculation of waste water flows through  biological  treatment  units
are  often used to distribute the load of impurities imposed on the unit
and smooth out the applied flow rates.  Trickling  filter  BOD5  removal
efficiency  is  affected  by  temperature  and  the  recirculation rate.
Trickling filters perform  better  in  warmer  weather  than  in  colder
weather.  Recirculation of effluent increases BOD5 removal efficiency as
well  as  keeping  reaction  type rotary distributers moving, the filter
media moist, organic loadings relatively constant, and increases contact
time with the biologic mass growing on the filter media.

Furthermore, recirculation improves distribution,  equalizes  unloading,
obstructs  entry  and  egress  of  filter  flies,  freshens incoming and
applied waste waters, reduces the chilling of filters, and  reduces  the
variation in time of passage through the secondary settling tank.

Trickling  filter  BOC5  removal efficiency is inversely proportional to
the BOD5 surface loading rate; that is, the lower the BOD5  applied  per
surface  area,  the  higher  the removal efficient.   Approximately 10-90
percent BOD reduction can be attained with trickling filters.

Anaerobic Processes

Elevated temperatures (29°  to  35°C  or  85°  to  95°F)  and  the  high
concentrations  typically  found  in apple, citrus or potato wastes make
these  wastes  well  suited  to  anaerobic  treatment.    Anaerobic   or
faculative  microorganisms,  which  function in the absence of dissolved


                                   103

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oxygen, break down the organic wastes to intermediates such  as  organic
acids  and  alcohols.   Methane  bacteria then convert the intermediates
primarily to carbon dioxide and methane.  Also, if sulfur compounds  are
present  hydrogen  sulfide  may  be  generated.  Anaerobic processes are
economical because  they  provide  high  overall  removal  of  BOD^  and
suspended  solids  with  no power cost  (other than pumping)  and with low
land requirements.  Two  types  of  anaerobic  processes  are  possible:
anaerobic lagoons and anaerobic contact systems.

Anaerobic  lagoons  are  used  in  the  industry  as  the  first step in
secondary treatment or as pretreatment prior to discharge to a municipal
system.  Reductions of 85 percent in BOD5 and 85  percent  in  suspended
solids  can  be achieved with these lagoons.  A usual arrangement is two
anaerobic lagoons relatively deep  (3 to 5 meters,  or  about  10  to  17
feet),  low  surface-area  systems with typical waste loadings of 240 to
320 kg BOD5/1000 cubic meters  (15 to 20 Ib BOD5/1000 cubic feet)   and  a
detention time of several days.               "

Plastic  covers  of  nylon-reinforced  Hypalon,  polyvinyl chloride, and
styrofoam can be used  en  occasion  to  retard  heat  loss,  to  ensure
anaerobic conditions, and hopefully to retain obnoxious odors.  Properly
installed  covers  provide a convenient method for collection of methane
gas.

Influent waste water flow should be near, but not on, the bottom of  th*=>
lagoon.   In  some  installations, sludge is recycled to ensure adequate
anaerobic seed for the influent.  The effluent from the lagoon should be
located to prevent short-circuiting the flow and carry-over of the  scum
layer.


Advantages  of  an anaerobic lagoon system are initial low cost, ease of
operation, and the ability to handle shock waste loads, and yet continue
to provide a consistent quality effluent.  Disadvantages of an anaerobic
lagoon are odors although odors are not usually  a  serious  problem  at
well managed lagoons.

Anaerobic  lagoons  used  as  the first stage  in secondary treatment are
usually followed by aerobic  lagoons.   Placing  a  small,  mechanically
aerated  lagoon  between  the  anaerobic and aerobic lagoons is becoming
popular.  It is currently popular to  install  extended  aeration   units
following the anaerobic lagoons to obtain nitrification.

The  anaerobic  contact system requires far more equipment for operation
than do anaerobic lagoons, and consequently is  not  as  commonly   used.
The  equipment,  consists  of  equalization tanks, digesters with mixing
equipment, air or vacuum gas stripping  units,  and  sedimentation   tanks
 (clarifiers) .   Overall  reduction  of  90  to  97  percent  in  BOD and
suspended solids is achievable.
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Equalized waste water flow is introduced into  a  mixed  digester  where
anaerobic  decomposition  takes  place  at a temperature of about 33° to
35°C (90° to 95°F).  EOE5 loadings into the digester are between 2.4 and
3.2 kq/cubic meter (0.15 and 0.20 Ib/cubic foot), and the detention time
is between three and twelve hours,  After gas  stripping,  the  digester
effluent  is  clarified  and  sludge is recycled at a rate of about one-
third the raw waste influent rate.   Sludge  at  the  rate  of  about  2
percent of the raw waste volume is removed from the system.

Advantages  of  the anaerobic contact system are high organic waste load
reduction in a relatively  short  time;  production  and  collection  of
methane  gas  that  can  be  used  to maintain a high temperature in the
digester and also to provide auxilary  heat  and  power;  good  effluent
stability to waste load shocks; and application in areas where anaerobic
lagoons   cannot   be   used   because   of  odor  or  soil  conditions.
Disadvantages of anaerobic contractors are high initial and  maintenance
costs and some odors emitted from the clarifiers.

Anaerobic  contact  systems  are  usually  used  as  the  first stage of
secondary treatment and can be followed by the same systems that  follow
anaerobic lagoons or trickling filter roughing systems.

Other Aerobic Processes

Aerated  lagoons  have been used successfully for many years in a number
of installations for treating apple, citrus, or potato wastes.  However,
with recent tightening  of  effluent  limitations  and  because  of  the
additional   treatment  aerated  lagoons  can  provide,  the  number  of
installations is increasing.

Aerated lagoons  use  either  fixed  mechanical  turbine-type  aerators,
floating propeller-type aerators, or a diffused air system for supplying
oxygen  to  the waste water.  The lagoons usually are 2.4 to 4.6 m  (8 to
15 feet)  deep, and have a detention time  of  two  to  ten  days.   BOD5
reductions  range  from  '40 to 60 percent with little or no reduction in
suspended solids.  Because of this, aerated lagoons approach  conditions
similar to extended aeration without sludge recycle.


Advantages  of  this system are that it can rapidly add dissolved oxygen
(DO)  to convert anaerobic waste waters  to  an  aerobic  state;  provide
additional  BOD5  reduction;  and  require  a relatively small amount of
land.  Disadvantages are the power reguirements  and  that  the  aerated
lagoon,  in  itself,  usually  does not reduce BOD5_ and suspended solids
adequately to be used as the final stage in a high performance secondary
system.  Aerated  lagoons  are  usually  a  single  stage  of  secondary
treatment  and  should  be  followed  by  an aerobic (shallow) lagoon to
capture suspended solids and to provide additional treatment.
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Aerobic lagoons (or stabilization lagoons or oxidation ponds),  are large
surface area, shallow lagoons, usually 1 to 2.3 m deep (3  to  8  feet),
loaded  at  a  BOD5 rate of 22-56 kilograms per hectare  (20 to 50 pounds
per acre).  Detention times will vary from several days to six or  seven
months; thus aerobic lagoons require large areas of land.

Aerobic lagoons serve three main functions in waste reduction:

1.  Allow solids to settle out.

2.  Equalize and control flow.

3.  Permit stabilization of organic matter by aerobic and facultative
    microorganisms and also by algae.

Actually,  if the pond is quite deep, 1.8 to 2.4 m  (6 to  8 feet), so that
the  waste  water near the bottom is void of dissolved oxygen,  anaerobic
organisms may be present.  Therefore, settled solids can  be  decomposed
into   inert  and  soluble  organic  matter  by  aerobic,  anaerobic  or
facultative  organisms,  depending  upon  the  lagoon  conditions.   Th<=
soluble  organic matter is also decomposed by microorganisms causing the
most complete oxidation.  Wind action  assists  in  carrying  the  upper
layer of liquid (aerated by air-water interface and photosynthesis) down
into   the  deeper  portions.   The  anaerobic  decomposition  generally
occurring in the bottom converts solids to  liquid  organics  which  can
become nutrients for the aerobic organisms in the upper  zone.

Algae  growth is common in aerobic lagoons; this currently is a drawback
when aerobic lagoons are used for final  treatment.   Algae  may  escape
into  the  receiving  waters,  and  algae  added to receiving waters are
considered a pollutant.  Algae in the lagoon, however, play an important
role in stabilization.  They use CO2,  sulfates,  nitrates,  phosphates,
water  and  sunlight to synthesize their own organic cellular matter and
give  off  free  oxygen.   The  oxygen  may  then  be  used   by   other
microorganisms  for  their metabolic processes.  However, when algae die
they release their organic matter in the  lagoon,  causing  a  secondary
loading.   Ammonia  disappears  without  the appearance  of an equivalent
amount of nitrite and nitrate in aerobic lagoons.  From  this,  and  the
fact  that  aerobic lagoons tend to become anaerobic near the bottom, it
appears that some denitrification is occurring.

High winds can develop a strong  wave  action  that  can  damage  dikes;
Riprap,   segmented  lagoons,  and  finger dikes are used to prevent wave
damage.  Finger dikes, when arranged appropriately, also  prevent  short
circuiting  of  the  waste  water  through  the lagoon.  Rodent and weed
control, and dike maintenance are all essential for  good  operation  of
the lagoons.

Advantages  of  aerobic  lagoons  are that they reduce suspended  solids,
oxidize organic matter, permit flow control  and  waste  water  storage.


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Disadvantages are the large land required, the algae growth problem, and
odor problems.

Aerobic  lagoons  usually  are the last stage in secondary treatment and
frequently follow anaerobic or aerated lagoons.  Large  aerobic  lagoons
allow plants to store waste water discharges during periods of high flow
in  the  receiving  body  of water or to store for irrigation during the
summer.  These lagoons are particularly popular  in  rural  areas  where
land is available and relatively inexpensive.

Rotating Biological contactor


The rotating biological contractor (RBC)  consists of a series of closely
spaced flat parallel disks which are rotated while partially immersed in
the  waste  waters  being  treated.   A  biological  growth covering the
surface of the disk adsorbs dissolved  organic  matter  present  in  the
waste  water.   As  the  biomass  on the disk builds up, excess slime is
sloughed off periodically and is removed in  sedimentation  tanks.    The
rotation  of  the  disk  carries a thin film of waste water into the air
where it  absorbs  the  oxygen  necessary  for  the  aerobic  biological
activity  of  the  bicmass.   The  disk  rotation also promotes thorough
mixing and contact between the biomass and the waste  waters.   In  many
ways  the RBC system is a compact version of a trickling filter.  In the
trickling filter the waste waters flow over the media and thus over  the
microbial  flora;  in  the  RBC  system,  the flora is passed through the
waste water.

The system can be staged  to  enhance  overall  waste  water  reduction.
Organisms  on  the  disks selectively develop in each stage and are thus
particularly adapted to the composition of the waste in that stage.  The
first couple of stages might be used for removal  of  dissolved  organic
matter,  while the latter stages might be adapted to other constituents,
such as nutrient removal.

The major advantages of the RBC system are its relatively low  installed
cost,   the  effect  cf  staging  to  obtain  dissolved  organic  matter
reductions,  and  its  good  resistance  to   hydraulic   shock   loads.
Disadvantages  are  that  the  system  should be housed to maintain high
removal efficiencies and to control odors.   Although  this  system  has
demonstrated  its  durability  and  reliability  when  used  on domestic
wastes, it has not yet been fully tested  to  treat  apple,  citrus,  or
potato processing wastes.

Rotating  biological  contactors  could  be  used for the entire aerobic
secondary system.  The number of stages required depend on  the  desired
degree  of treatment and the influent strength.  Typical applications of
the rotating biological contactor, however, may  be  for  polishing  the
effluent  from  anaerobic  processes and from roughing trickling filters
and as pretreatment prior to discharging wastes to a  municipal  system.


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A  BOD5  reduction  of  over 90 percent is achievable with a multi-staqe
RBC.

PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS SECONDARY TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Table 25 shows BOD5 and SS removal efficiencies  for  various  secondary
biological  treatment  systems  used  to  treat  wastes from apple (AP),
citrus (CI)  and potato (PO)  processing systems.  These systems  are  all
in operation and many show high degrees of BOD5_ and SS reduction.  Thre^
other  multiple  aerated  lagoon  systems are also operating but are not
included because raw waste data is not available.  some of  the  systems
process  wastes  from  each subcategory within a commodity and therefore
treatment effectiveness is applicable  to  each  commodity  subcategory.
The  range  in  processing  plant capacity for the systems listed varies
from less than 453.5 kkg/D  (500 T/D) to 5,442 kkg/D  (6,000 T/D).

The most commonly used treatment systems are  multiple  aerated  lagoons
and  activated  sludge.   Each system has been used to treat waste water
from the processing of apples, citrus, and potatoes.

Table 25 lists three apple plants utilizing  three  different  treatment
systems,  each of which has at least 95 percent BOD5 removal.  There are
four citrus plants utilizing four different treatment systems,  each  of
which  has  at  least  95  percent BOD5 removal.  There are three potato
plants utilizing three different treatment systems, each of which has at
least 95 percent BODj) removal.

The similar effectiveness of each  type  of  treatment  for  the  wastes
generated by each commodity indicates similar treatability of canned and
preserved fruit and vegetable wastes.
                                    108

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                            TABLE 25
              EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS SECONDARY
                 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS
SECONDARY TREATMENT SYSTEM
                                               ^
                                        REDUCTION
                                         PERCENT
                    SS
                REDUCTION
                 PERCENT
MULTIPLE
AP
CI
CI
CI
PO
ACTIVATED
AP
CI
PO
PO
PO
AERATED
121
105 &
106
118
110
SLUDGE
140
123
101
107
128
                 LAGOONS

                109
98
98
89
87
98
                                           99
                                           97
                                           73
                                           71
                                           94
                                                              79
                   35
                   56
                   28
                   29
                   94
ANAEROBIC & AEROBIC LAGOONS
     CI   108
     PO   109
99
95
12
93
TRICKLING FILTERS
     PO   127
85
92
TRICKLING FILTER & AERATED LAGOONS
     AP   103
     CI   127
96
98
87
80
ACTIVATED SLUDGE & AERATED LAGOONS
     CI   119
     PO   128
88
98
95
                                 109

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ADVANCED TREATMENT SYSTEMS


A. discussion of advanced treatment methods is presented in this section.
^or  the most part, these methods are applicable to the treatment of the
waste streams after  secondary  treatment  involving  the  use  of  some
combination  of  biological  treatment  for  reduction  of  BODjj  and of
s^t-'-linq ponds or equipment for reduction of suspended solids.

Manv of the technologies discussed do not  in  themselves  constitute  a
complete treatment process, but would become part of a complete process.

In  evaluating  the  treatment  methods  applicable  to  effluents  from
secondary treatment operations,  it  is  assumed  that  all  particular
solids greater than 20 microns have been removed from the waste effluent
stream.

Carbon Adsorption
    reduction of tastes and odors in water supplies by adsorption of the
offending  substances on activated carbon is probably the most important
direct use of adsorption technology in water treatment.  Columns or beds
of aranular activated carbon are employed (1)  for concentrating  organic
oollutants  from  water  for purposes of analysis or,  (2) for removal of
the pollutants.  Some of the removal of color-producing  substances  and
other pollutants from water during coagulation may also be the result of
adsorption.

The  fixed  bed  or  countercurrent  operation is the most effective and
efficient way of using the activated  carbon.    The  influent  comes  in
contact  with  the  adsorbent  along  a  gradient  of  mounting residual
activity until the most active  carbon  gives  a  final  polish  to  the
effluent stream.

Partial  regeneration  of  carbon  by  thermal  volatilization  or steam
distillation  of  organic  adsorbates   is   possible,   but   available
regeneration procedures will have to be improved or new ones invented if
adsorption  is  to  become a widely useful operation in water treatment.
The use of multi-hearth furnaces such as used in the sugar refineries is
a possibility.  Difficulties  and  costs  of  regeneration  explain  why
powdered activated carbcn continues to be widely used.

Granular  activated  carbon  can  replace  other  filtering materials in
structures not unlike  present-day  rapid  filters.   Beds  of  granular
activated  carbon  can,  in fact, be made to perform as both filters and
adsorbents.  However, activated carbon filters must be  somewhat  deeper
than  sand  filters, even though they may be operated at somewhat higher
rates of flow per cubic meter  (square foot)  of bed.  For adsorption, the
rate of flow per cubic meter  (cubic foot)  rather than per  square  meter
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(square  foot)   of  bed  is,  understandably, the important parameter in
practice.

Distillation

This unit process has received wide attention as a  method  of  removing
water  from  saline  solutions where fresh water is in short supply.  It
differs from most other waste treatment processes in that the  recovered
water  is  pure  and may be recycled indefinitely.  Little work, if any,
has been done so far in transferring this new technology  to  fruit  and
vegetable processing wastes.

It  is  not  likely  to  be used in waste treatment, because the process
either uses a lot of fuel (as in a single step  flash)   or  has  a  high
capital cost (as in a multiple flash) or a combination of both.

Electrodialysis

Water  can  be  desalinized electrochemically by electrodialysis through
membranes selectively permeable to cations or anions.  Dialysis  is  the
fractionation  of  solutes  made  possible by differences in the rate of
diffusion of specific solutes through porous  membranes.   Semipermeable
membranes   are   thin   barriers   that  offer  easy  passage  to  some
constituents.  High selective membranes have been  prepared  by  casting
ion-exchange  resins  as  thin  films,   Dialytic  processes  are common
separation techniques in  laboratory  and  industry.   The  recovery  of
caustic  soda  from industrial wastes, such as viscose press liquor from
the rayon industry and mercerizing solutions,  is  an  example  of  con-
tinuous-flow dialysis.

Electrodialysis  is  only  applicable  to  saline solutions of which are
readily ionized and is not  applicable  to  the  separation  unionizable
soluble  organics  that  exist  in  effluents  from biological treatment
systems.

Eutectic Freezing

Eutectic freezing operates at the eutectic temperature of  the  incomina
water.  Down to the eutectic point, only ice is formed.  At the eutectic
point, ice crystals nucleate and grow independently of salt crystals and
other  substances  in  the  water.   Further  removal  of  heat does not
continue to lower the temperature.  Both ice and sludge freeze, and they
can then be separated because the  ice  floats  and  the  frozen  sludge
sinks.

The  freezing  breaks  down  the  sludge  and  destroys its waterbinding
capacity  which,  in  turn,   permits  better  sludge  dewatering.   Both
functions,  the  removal  of  water  in the form of ice crystals and the
concentration  of  sludge  by  freezing  have  been  demonstrated  in  a
laboratory scale only as water-inorganic salt systems.


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Filtration

Two  types of filtration will be considered in this discussion: (1)  sand
(slow and rapid)  and (2) diatomaceous earth.  A slow sand  filter  is  a
specially  prepared bed of sand or other mineral fines on which doses of
waste water are  intermittently  applied  and  from  which  effluent  is
removed  by  an under-drainage system.  The solids removal occurs mainly
at the surface of  the  filter.   BOD  removal  occurs  primarily  as  a
function of the degree of solids removal although some biological action
occurs in the top inch or two of sand.  Effluent from the sand filter is
of a high quality with EOD and suspended solids concentrations very low.

Slow sand filters require larger land areas than rapid filter facilities
on  the  order  of five times  (or more)  as much land; however, slow sand
filters may operate up to 60 days without cleaning, whereas  rapid  sand
filters are usually cleaned by backwashing every 24 hours.

Slow  sand filters require no extra preparatory water treatment prior to
filtration, although it is recommended,  whereas rapid sand  filters  are
designed   tc   remove  the  remainder  of  solids  after  treatment  by
coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation.  Construction costs of slow
sand filters are relatively high due tc  the  large  area  requirements;
however,  operating  and maintenance costs are relatively low since slow
sand filters may operate for long durations.  Rapid sand filters have  a
relatively  low  construction  cost  due to their low area requirements;
however, operating and maintenance costs are relatively high since  they
cannot  operate  for  loner  periods  of  time without backwashing.  Food
processing wastes are likely to cause clogging of the filters after only
a short period of operation unless adequate treatment precedes them.

Rapid filters are subject to a variety of ailments such as  cracking  of
the  bed,  formation  of mud balls, plugging of portions of the bed, jet
actions at the  gravel~sand  separation  plane,  sand  bails,  and  sand
leakage  into  the  under-drain  systems.  Usually these problems can be
minimized or eliminated by proper  design  and  plant  operation.   Sand
filters  are  well noted for their efficient removal of bacteria, color,
turbidity, iron and large microorganisms.

Diatomaceous earth filters have found use  as:    (1)   mobile  units  for
water  purification  in  the field and  (2) stationary units for swimming
pools and general water supplies.  The  filter  medium  is  a  layer  of
diatomaceous  earth built up on a porous septum.  The resulting pre-coat
is supported by the septum, which serves  also  as  a  drainage  system.
Water is strained through the pre-coat unless the applied water contains
so  much turbidity that the unit will maintain itself only if additional
diatomaceous earth, called body feed, is introduced  into  the  incoming
water and preserves the open texture of the layer.

Skeletons  of  diatoms  0.5 to 12 units in size compose the diatomaceous
earth mined from deposits.  Pre-coating requires 0.49 to 2.44 kg  (0.1 to


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0.5 Ib)  of diatomaceous earth per sq m (sq ft)   of  filter  area.   Body
feed  is  added  in  a  ratio close to 1.25:1 on a dry basis when waters
contain inorganic silts.  For organic slimes the ratio is stepped up  to
about  3:1.   The  filter  operates  at  rates of 0.8 to 2.11 liters per
minute per sq m (2.5 to 6 gpm per sq ft).  Backwashing rates of 2.46  to
3.51  liters  per  minute  per sq m (7 to 10 gpm per sq ft)  remove spent
filter cake.

There are few known applications as yet on food processing wastes.

Flotation

Flotation has previously been described as a  part  of  the  Preliminary
Treatment  System.    It  has  been primarily designed for the removal of
floatables from a waste effluent stream.   As a tertiary treatment  step,
it  would  not  be   required  if  it  had  been  used in the preliminary
treatment system.   Otherwise, it may be desirable to use  this  type  of
design either in the tertiary treatment or in-plant water reuse system.

Foam Separation

Many contaminants in waste water possess surface-active properties which
will  produce  a  foam  upon agitation or aeration.  The process of foam
separation takes advangage of this property in  order  to  remove  these
constituents  in  a  concentrated  form.    This  is  true  for many food
processing waste effluents.

Surface-active material will concentrate at a gas-liquid  interface  and
form  a  foam.  This foam is formed by the attraction of the hydrophobic
end of a molecule to the gas phase,  while the  hydrophilic  end  of  the
molecule  carries  water  in the liquid phase.   As the foam is generated
and  rises,  suspended  solids  and  other  materials  are  removed   by
entrainment.

The  process  of  foam separation has been experimentally applied to the
removal of surface-active materials, such as ABS, from  waste  solutions
and  has  also  been used to remove trace contaminants by combining them
with an added foaming agent.

Foam separation must be considered experimental  when  applied  to  food
processing  waste  effluents.   At  the present time, there are no known
installations in the food processing industry utilizing foam  separation
technology for cleanup of the waste effluent streams.

Freezing

Freezing  must  be   differentiated  from  eutectic freezing in that this
system is used only to freeze the concentrated waste effluent stream  to
permit   a  more  efficient  dewatering  of  the  sludge  solids.   This
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technology is not presently being  applied  to  the  treatment  of  food
processing wastes.
Ion Exchange

Ion  exchange  can  be  used  for  the removal of undesirable anions and
cations from a waste water.   Cations  are  exchanges  for  hydrogen  or
sodium, and anion for hydroxyl ions.

Examples are:  (1) the exchange of calcium and magnesium ions for sodium
ions  by  passage  of  water  through  a  bed of sodium zeolite which is
regenerated by brine (base or cation  exchange) ;  (2)   the  exchange  of
sodium  and  potassium  ions  as  well  as calcium and magnesium ions by
synthetic  organic  cation  exchangers,  the  cation   exchanger   being
regenerated  with  acid  and  the anion exchanger with sodium carbonate.
The precipitation of iron and manganese on  manganese  zeolite  and  the
regeneration of the zeolite with potassium permanganate are, in a sense,
examples  of  surface or contact precipitation rather than ion exchange.
Byproducts are spent washes.
The performance and  economics  of  ion  exchange  are  related  to
capacity of the resin to exchange ions and to the quantity of regenerant
required.  Since exchange occurs on an equivalent basis, the capacity of
the bed is usually expressed as equivalent per liter of bed volume.

The  treatment  of  waste  water  by ion exchange involves a sequence of
operating steps.  The waste water is passed through the resin until  the
available  exchange  sites are filled and the contaminant appears in the
effluent.  This process is defined as the breakthrough.  At this  point,
treatment  is  stopped  and  the bed is backwashed to remove dirt and to
regrade the resin.  The bed is then ready for another treatment cycle.

The normal method of water deionization has been to make the first  pass
through  a strong acid column, cation exchange resin.  Effluent from the
first column goes to a second column of anion exchange resin  to  remove
the  acid  formed  in  the  first step.  A great variety of ion exchange
resins have been developed over  the  years  for  specific  deionization
objectives for various water quality conditions.

wastewater  treatment with ion exchange resins has been investigated and
attempted over UO years; however, recent  process  developments  in  the
treatment  of  secondary  effluent  have been particularly successful in
achieving high quality effluent  at  reasonable  capital  and  operation
costs.   One  such process is a modification of the Rohm and Haas, Desal
process.  In this process a weak base ion exchange resin is  changed  to
the  bicarbonate form and the secondary effluent is treated by the resin
to convert the inorganic salts.  Next, the process includes a  floccula-
tion/aeration  and precipitation step to remove organic matter; however,


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this should not be necessary if the sand filter and/or carbon adsorption
system is used upstream of the ion exchange system.  The  effluent  from
the  first ion exchange column is further treated by a weak cation resin
to reduce the final dissolved salt content to approximately  five  mg/1.
The anion resin in this process is regenerated with aqueous ammonium and
the  cation  resin  with  an  aqueous sulfuric acid.  The resins did not
appear to be susceptible to fouling by the organic constituents  of  the
secondary effluent used in this experiment.

Other  types of resins can be used for nitrate and phosphate removal, as
well as color bodies, COD, and fine suspended matter.  Removal of  these
various  constituents  can range from 75 to 97 percent, depending on the
constituent.

The cycle time on the ion exchange unit will be a function of  the  time
required  to block or to take up the ion exchange sites available in th<=
resin contained in the system.  Blockage occurs when the resin is fouled
by suspended matter and other contaminants.  The ion exchange system  is
ideally  located  at  the end of the waste water processing scheme, thus
having the highest quality effluent available as a feed water.

The organic nature of  most  food  processing  waste  effluents  is  not
conducive  to  the  employment of ion exchange technology as a method of
treating waste effluent.  Ion exchange has found its greatest acceptance
in the treatment of inorganic contaminants and in public waterworks.


Microscreening

Microscreening has been  a  viable  solids-removal  process  for  twenty
years.   A  microscreen  consists  of  a  rotating drum with a screen or
fabric constituting the periphery.  Feedwater enters the drum internally
and passes radially through the screen with the  concomitant  deposition
of  solids  on  the inner surface of the screen.  At the top of the drum
pressure, jets of water are directed onto the screen to remove deposited
solids.  This backwash stream  of  dislodged  solids  and  washwater  is
captured in a receiving hopper inside the drum and flows out through the
hollow  axle  of  the  unit.   In  order  to reduce slime growths on the
screen, an ultraviolet lamp is continually operated in  close  proximity
to   the  screen.   The  driving  force  for  the  system  is  the  head
differential between the inside and outside of the  screen.   As  solids
are  removed  on  the  screen  a mat is formed which improves the solids
removal efficiency and also results in increased head loss  through  the
screen.   The  maximum  head  loss  is usually limited to 0.15 meters (6
inches) in order to prevent screen damage.   In  order  to  prevent  the
limiting  head  loss  from  being  exceeded,  drum  speed and wash water
pressure are increased.  In newer units automatic controls handle  these
adjustments.
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One -type of microscreen displayed efficiencies in removal of solids from
55   to  73  percent,  while  another  type  showed  57  to  89  percent
efficiencies in tabulation of average removals.  Due to  differences  in
feed  character  and  operational  techniques,  the  data  could  not b*=
compared.  Individual studies demonstrated the effects of  a  number  of
design,  maintenance  and  operational factors on the performance of the
unit:

Design

1.  Approximately one-half of the wash water applied to the
    screen actually penetrates and is removed as the waste
    stream with dislodged solids.

2.  The waste stream is usually returned to the end of the
    main plant.

3.  it is desirable tc have gravity flow from the clarifier
    to the microscreener to avoid shearing of the more
    fragile solids.

4.  Total head loss through the system is only 0.30 to O.U6
    meters (12 to 18 inches) .

5.  Prechlorination should be avoided in order to protect
    the screen.

6.  Chloride concentrations exceeding 500 mg/1 (0.0021 Ib/gal)
    may cause corrosion problems.

7.  Microscreens do not successfully remove floe particles
    resulting from coagulation by chemicals such as aluminum
    sulfate.

Maintenance

1,  screens for the pressure washing system tend to clog,
    mainly due to grease in the effluent.

2.  Most units will require frequent  (approximately once a
    week) cleaning with a hypochlorite solution which entails
    a  few hours of removal from service in order to clean
    the fabric.

3.  High iron or manganese concentrations in the feed may
    necessitate an occasional acid wash of the screen to
    destroy the resulting film buildup.

Operation
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1.  Minimum drum speeds consistent with head loss limitations
    will give the greatest removal of suspended solids.

2.  Higher pressures for the jet washing system are more
    beneficial than greater quantities of water.

3.  High solids loadings can cause severe reductions  (up to
    two-thirds design capacity) in throughput as well as
    acceleration of slime buildup.

Nitrification-Denitrification

Nitrification-denitrification is  a  two-step  process  used  to  remove
nitrogen from treated waste waters.

In  the  first  step,  after most of the carbonaceous materials has been
removed from the waste water, ammonia nitrification occurs in an aerated
system with the subsequent production of nitrites and nitrates.

The next step, den itrification, occurs in the absence of oxygen  and  is
responsible  for  converting  nitrates  to nitrogen and nitrogen oxides.
The reaction rate is increased by adding a biodegradable carbon  source,
such  as  methanol.   The  wastewater  from  the  second  step  is  then
transferred to another aeration pond where  the  nitrogen  and  nitrogen
oxide gases are removed.

Over the range of operating temperatures, denitrification can maintain a
90   percent   removal   of  total  nitrogen.   The  optimum  efficiency
temperature was found to be 30°C for most aerobic  waste  systems,  with
efficiency drops at both higher and lower temperatures.

The  system  has  been  demonstrated  on  a pilot plant scale, but it is
premature to draw conclusions as to the effectiveness and reliability of
the nitrification-denitrification process in a full-scale operation.

Ozonation

If ozone is to be employed effectively and efficiently as  a  deodorant,
decolorant and disinfectant of drinking water, its physical and chemical
properties   in   water  solution  and  their  influence  on  pathogenic
microorganisms need  to  be  known  over  the  full  range  of  possible
exposures.

Only  in  the  absence  of  organic matter does ozone follow the laws of
ideal, i.e., nonreacting, gases in water.  The distribution  coefficient
of  ozone  between  air  and  water,  i.e., the ratio of the equilibrium
concentration of ozone in the liquid phase to that in the gas  phase  at
like temperature and pressure, is then about 0.6 at 0°C and 0.2 at 20°C.
Increasing  either  the  total  pressure  of  the  system or the partial
pressure of ozone in the air raises the concentration of ozone in  water


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in  direct proportion of these pressures.  In the presence of oxidizable
substances, their nature and concentration  in  water  rather  than  thr
distribution coefficient govern the amount of entering ozone.

As  a  disinfectant,  ozone  is said to possess an all-or-none property,
implying that it produces essentially no disinfection below  a  critical
concentration   but  substantially  completes  disinfection  above  that
concentration.

Because the absorption cf ozone from  the  air  into  the  water  to  be
disinfected  is  a  matter  of contact opportunity, contactcamber design
aims at a maximization cf  (1) effective interface, (2)  driving force  or
concentration  of  differential,  and  (3)   time  of  exposure  with due
consideration of advantages to be gained by countercurrent operation.

As a rule, capital  and  running  cost  of  ozonation  equipment  cannot
compete   with  those  of  comparable  chlorination  equipment  for  the
treatment of a given water unless ozone  is  called  upon  and  able  to
remove  objectionable odors and tastes and reduce the color of the water
more effectively than chlorine in combination with activated carbon  and
coagulants.   Ozone  also  leaves no residual, thereby becoming unable to
safeguard the treated water from future pathogenic contamination.

Reverse Osmosis

Osmotic pressure drives water molecules  through  a  permeable  membrane
from a dilute to a concentrated solution in search of equilibrium.  This
natural  response  can  be  reversed  by  placing  the  salt water under
hydrostatic pressures higher than the osmotic pressure.

A good deal of experimentation has been carried out  in  an  attempt  to
apply  membrane processes  including reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration and
electrodialysis to the treatment of industrial wastes.  Reverse  osmosis
has the capability of removing dissolved and suspended materials of both
organic and inorganic nature from waste streams.  However, organic-laden
streams  tend  to  foul  reverse osmosis membranes resulting in substan-
tially decreased throughput.

At present none of  these  membrane  processes  appear  to  have  direct
application  to  the  treatment  of  the  food  processing  wastes under
consideration here.   These  processes  are  relatively  expensive  when
applied  to  the  large  volumes of waste generated and the heavy solids
concentrations in food processing waste water.   A  primary  problem  is
that  the rate of pure water production in reverse osmosis has been low,
and thus has not been economically acceptable.

Recent developments of the spiral or hollow tube reverse osmosis systems
permit large membrane areas to be incorporated into a small  space,  thus
permitting  large volumes  of water to be treated.  The use of either the
spiral or hollow tube system requires that all particles larger than  10


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to  20  microns  be  removed  from  the waste stream before entering the
reverse osmosis system.

Another problem with this system is the bacterial growth on or near  the
membrane and its damaging effect on the membrane.

Because  chlorine damages the membranes presently available, the chlori-
nation of the water cannot occur before the reverse osmosis step.

Peverse osmosis units are also  sensitive  to  both  alkaline  and  high
temperature fluids.  It is desirable to avoid both conditions if reverse
osmosis is to be used.

Solvent Extraction

This  widely  used  process  could  theoretically be employed to extract
soluble organics from treatment wastes by employing a selective solvent.
Since the solvents themselves are likely to have solubilities  in  water
comparable  to the concentration of the organics present, it is unlikely
that this process would have utility in food processing.

Ultrafiltration

Ultrafiltration uses a membrane process similar to reverse  osmosis  for
the  removal  of  contaminants  from  water.   Unlike  reverse  osmosis,
ultrafiltration is not impeded by osmotic pressure and can  be  effected
at  low  pressure  differences  of 1.3-7.8 atmospheres  (5-100 psi).  The
molecular  weight  range  of   materials  that  might  be   removed   by
ultrafiltration  is  from  500  to  500,000.   This  would  remove  such
materials as some microorganisms, starches, gums,  proteins  and  clays.
Ultrafiltration  is  finding  applications in the food industry in sugar
purification, whey desalting, and fractionation.  It can be  used  as  a
substitute  for  thickeners,  clarifiers and flocculation in waste water
treatment.  In addition to removal of the above contaminants from  waste
water, it can also be applied to sludge dewatering.

At  the  present time, because of high capital and operating costs, this
system has not found acceptance in the treatment of waste effluents.


ULTIMATE DISPOSAL METHODS

Percolation and Evaporation Lagoons

The liguid portion of cannery wastes can  be  "completely"  treated  and
discharged through percolation and evaporation lagoons.  These ponds can
be  sized  according  to  the  annual  flow, so that the inflow plus the
incidentally added water are equal to the  percolation  and  evaporation
losses.  There is, theoretically, no surface outflow in the usual sense.
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Percolation  and evaporation lagoons are subject to many of the problems
of ponds discussed previously.

The food processing and the biological solids grown in the  pond  are  a
major  operating  problem.   The soil interstices will eventually become
biologically sealed, causing percclation rates to be greatly diminished.
Unless remedial action is taken, the pond becomes largely an evaporation
lagoon.  To prevent this, annual scarification and solids  removal  will
generally be required.

There  are  two  major objections to percolation-evaporation ponds.   The
first is that under almost any loading conditions  the  ponds  may  turn
septic,  with odor problems resulting.  Secondly, there is the potential
for long-range damage to aquifers, since objectionable and  biologically
resistant  organics  iray  be  carried into the groundwater by continuous
percolation.

Spray Irrigation

Spray irrigation is  another  method  currently  utilized  by  the  food
industry  for  disposal  of  its  wastes.  The design of such systems is
rapidly becoming a highly scientific operation.  Numerous cases of  both
unsatisfactory   results   and   trouble-free   experience   have   been
encountered.  Apparently such systems must be designed with a great deal
of flexibility to handle unforeseen problems.  The hydraulic and organic
characteristics of the soil profile must be considered in the design  as
well  as  the  rates cf waste degradation.  The need to properly balance
nutrient loads to insure adequate microbiological activity and  adequate
growth of plants without undue losses of nutrients to ground waters must
be  considered.   Other  important  design  considerations  include crop
management  insuring  proper  crops  and  corp  sequences  and  climatic
conditions  considering evapotranspiration rates, precipitation and cold
weather operation.

Currently, a study is being  conducted  by  the  USDA  to  evaluate  the
practice  of  land  disposal  of potato waste water.  Several plants are
involved including PO-102, PO-114, PO-115, PO-116,  PO-121,  PO-122  and
PO-124.   Their  sizes  range  from  220  kkg/day  (240 T/day) with water
usages from 8760-15510 1/kkg  (2100-3720 gal/T) and  BOD  from  8.6-31.95
kg/kkg (17.2-63.9 Ib/T) .

The  application  rates  being  studied  range from approximately 95-168
kilograms organic matter per hectar per day  (85 to  150  pounds  organic
matter  per  acre  per  day).   Water  applications will range from 9-37
thousand cubic meters per hectar per year  (3 to 12 acre  feet  per  acre
per  year)  for  existing  disposal  sites.  Nitrogen in waste water may
range from 50 to 125 ppm total N  (much of it is  organic),  but  through
decomposition  and  mineralization,  it  should be converted to nitrate.
The fields are planted with grass and other crops that can be  harvested
to  remove  some  of the nitrogen, phosphorus and other plant nutrients.


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To  remove  the  excess  nitrogen  above  plant   growth   requirements,
denitrification  may  be  needed  to  irinimize  ground  water pollution.
Further study will be dene in this area.


Spray irrigation consists essentially of spraying the liquid waste on  a
field  at  as  high  a rate and with as little accompanying nuisances or
difficulties of operation as possible.  Pretreatment of waste  water  to
remove  solids  is  suggested  in order to prevent clogging of the spray
nozzles.  This preliminary treatment in preparation for spray irrigation
has undoubtedly already reduced the BOD of the waste water.

Wastewater disseminated by spray irrigation percolates through the  soil
and  the organic matter in the waste undergoes a biological degradation.
The liquid in the waste stream is either stored in the soil ,or  leached
to  a  groundwater.   Approximately 10 percent of the waste flow will be
lost  by  evapotranspiration  (the  loss  due  to  evaporation  to   the
atmosphere through the leaves of plants) .

Spray irrigation presents an ideal method for disposal of liquid cannery
wastes  when  a combination of suitable features exists.  These features
include:

1.  A large area of relatively flat land available at an
    economical price.

2.  Proximity of the disposal area to the cannery.

3.  Proper type of soil to promote optimum infiltration.

U.  Absence of a groundwater underlying or nearby the dis-
    posal area which is being or could be used as a public
    water supply.

5.  Absence of any suspended matter in the waste water of
    such a nature so as to cause clogging of the spray
    nozzles.

6.  Maximum salt content in waste water of 0.15 percent.

7.  Proper combination of climatic conditions conducive
    to cover crop growth, percolation and evaporation,
    i.e., sunny and relatively dry climate.

In actual  practice,  cannery  wastes   (after  adequate  screening)  are
usually  retained  in  a  "surge  tank"  of sufficient volume to provide
continuous operation of sprays.   The impounded screened waste is  pumped
to  a  header pipe and a series of lateral aluminum or lightweight lines
under ample pressure to provide each sprinkler with similar  volumes  of
waste for application to the land.


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The  amount of waste water reaching groundwater is variable quantity and
rather difficult to predict.  in some cases it might be expected that no
usable groundwater would be involved.  Considerable study  seems  to  be
needed in evaluating this potential problem.

The  following  factors  must  be evaluated in designing a land disposal
system:

1.  The site should be relatively level and well covered
    with vegetation.  A sloping site may be considered for
    controlled runoff tc a receiving water.

2.  The soil should be light in texture and have a high
    sand or gravel content.  Some organic matter may be
    beneficial, but high clay content is detrimental.

3.  Spray testing and soil analyzing prior to full-scale
    irrigation is recommended.

4.  soil cultivation should be practiced to prevent com-
    paction.

5.  Groundwater levels at the spray site should be at least
    10 feet below the surface to allow for proper decomposi-
    tion of the waste as well as more rapid percolation.

With the proper equipment and controlled application of the waste, spray
irrigation will completely prevent stream  pollution,  will  not  create
odor problems, and is usually less expensive than other methods of waste
disposal.   The amount cf land required may not, at present, be reliably
predetermined.  Since a cover crop will provide 85-90 percent more  soil
absorption,  the  type crop used is extremely important.  A typical seed
mixture for cover crop is:

              Mammoth clover          19%
              Ladino-Alsac Mixture    25%
              Alta-fescue             25%
              Redtop                  18%
              Orchard grass           13%

This mixture is sowed at the rate of 16 pounds per acre  to  produce  as
dense a cover crop as possible at the time of waste water application.

Different  types  of soils will give varying infiltration rates.  It has
been shown from soil descriptions the permeability of  each  soil  layer
has the following ranges of permeability.
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                                Range of Coefficient of Permeability, K

    Soil Type                   2!/2}ili	li/IDili	

Trace fine sand                 0.3-0.06             1.0-0.2
Trace silt                      0.24 - 0.012           0.8 - 0.04
Little silt (coarse and fine)   0.0036 - 0.006         0.012 - 0.002

Some fine silt                  0.00024 - 0.00012      0.0008 - 0.0004
Little Clayey silt
fissured clay-soils
Organic soils

Some clayey silt
Clay-soils dominating           0.00006 and lower      0.00002 and lower

Thus,  trace  fine  sand  would  be  more  suitable  for  spray or flood
irrigation than clay soils because  of  higher  rates  of  permeability.
There are, of course, other factors which must be considered.


Many of the more recently constructed ultimate disposal systems consists
of  a  combination of lagoons and land disposal.  In this type of system
large lagoons (ponds)  having retention times of  30  days  or  more  are
constructed  to  receive the waste effluents.  If odor becomes a problem
because of location, then sufficient aeration equipment is  provided  to
reduce  or  eliminate  the odor.  The waste effluent is removed from the
pond or lagoon and directed to spray irrigation.

Soil fertility, crop production, and  soil  conservation  considerations
must  of  necessity  be  used  as an ultimate basis for regulating land-
spreading operations if the system is to remain continuously effective.

Wet Oxidation

The development and continuing perfection of oxidation methods for waste
sludges and slurries that produce oxidized residues has been one of  the
major  breakthroughs in waste treatment practice.  Such residues are not
putrescible  and  the  processes  produce  little  air  pollution.   The
processes  reguire thickening as pretreatment and greater concentrating.
Furthermore, the process oxidation takes place in the presence of liguid
water at 400-600°F and usually at high pressures  of  18-103  atm  (250-
1,500  psi).  The process may be operated on a continuous or batch basis
and solids volume is greatly reduced and putrescibility nonexistent.

The current accepted practice in the  food  processing  industry  is  to
separate  the  solids  from the waste effluent streams for use as cattle
feed and in this manner receive some economic benefit.   However,  if  a
wet oxidation system for waste disposal of solids is used, then it would
be  desirable  to leave as many of the organic solids in the effluent as


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possible.  This waste effluent is oxidized and then separated  into  two
waste  effluent streams, one which is clean water (condensation)  and the
second high in oxidized solids.  It is this reason that  has  restricted
or  prevented  the  application  of  this process to the food processing
industry.

Wet oxidation reduces the COD by about 80 percent to less than 20  mg/1,
and  90 percent of the volatile solids are removed.   The effluent liguor
has a BOD between 5,000 and 9,000 mg/1.   The  residual  solids  can  be
dewatered by vacuum filtration or disposed of in lagoons or drying beds.

Fungal Digestion

A  considerable  amount of work has been done on the use of fungi in the
continuous oxidation of food processing wastes.   Funai  Im.J2e-E.fj~£ii  can
convert  organic matter into a mycelium with a sufficiently high protein
content for use as an animal feed supplement.  The work  that  has  been
done   involves   principally   wastes  from  corn  and  pea  processing
operations.  However, consideration  has  been  given  to  applying  the
process  to  other  food industry wastes.  While fungal digestion cannot
oresently be considered as a fully proven process, its further  develop-
ment  could  result  in  a significant new process approach for treating
cannery wastes with the production of a by-product with economic  value.
There  is one drawback existing in the development of this system, which
is the difficulty to harvest the finer mycelium.  Therefore, more  study
is  needed  to  be  done  in  this  area in order to reduce this cost of
separation.  New materials of construction which permit the construction
of more durable and finer mesh screen cloths will make  this  separation
economically feasible in the near future.
                                    12U

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                              SECTION VIII


           COST, ENERGY, AND OTHER NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS


                              INTRODUCTION

This  section  will  discuss  and  summarize  the  cost of treatment and
control technologies described in Section VII and will estimate the cost
incurred  in  applying  various  combinations  and/or   permutation   of
pollution  control  technologies  to  achieve  best practicable and best
available effluent reductions.  The sequence of treatment components  is
given in Table 27 for each effluent reduction level for each of the five
subcategories.    Best  practicable  effluent  reduction  is  attainable
through the application of secondary biological treatment (Levels  B  or
E)   or  land  treatment (Level D) .  Best available effluent reduction is
attainable through the application of additional biological or  advanced
treatment  (Level  C  or  F  or  G) .   The subsequent analysis will also
describe  energy  requirements  and  the  non-  water  quality   aspects
(including sludge disposal)  of the levels of technology.

The   information  presented  in  Sections  VII  and  VIII  provide  the
background  for  the  rationale  supporting  the   effluent   guidelines
presented in Sections IX,  X and XI.
Raw Material Cleaning

One  possibility  for reducing processing plant waste loads is to do the
raw material cleaning in the field.

In the case of apples and potatoes, this is  not  a  practical  approach
because most of the harvest goes intc storage prior to processing.

In  the  case of citrus it is practical to consider field washing of the
fruit when it is picked.  The presently used washing equipment could  be
assembled  in  a  portable  module  along with a recirculated wash water
system.  The fruit would be washed as it is loaded into the  trucks  for
transportation to the processing plant.

Since there is only a small waste load generated in washing good quality
fruit, the only real benefit which would be derived from cleaning in the
field  is  a  reduction  in  the  volume  of  water  used  by the citrus
processor, and thus there would be a smaller quantity of water to  treat
or dispose of by land irrigation.
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The  equipment  cost for field washing would be equal to or greater than
that already installed in the processing plant  for  washing  as  it  is
received.

Thus,  the  requirement  of  field  washing  citrus  is rejected for the
following reasons:

     1.  The processor would not have close control of
        the washing/cleaning procedure.

     2.  There would be no cost benefit to the processor.
        The cost of field washing would offset the cost of
        treating the additional quantities of wash water at the
        processing plant.

     3.  The processor presently has available water from
        other processing areas available for fruit washing.


Peel Removal

The  peel is normally removed from apples by the use of mechanical knives
which can be adjusted to remove the  desired  amount  of  imperfections.
Mechanical  peeling has a high labor cost and creates a large cleanup of
solid wastes which adhere to  equipment  surfaces  and  spill  onto  the
floor.   While  it is hoped these solids will be collected and processed
into additional  products,  no  change  from  mechanical   peeling   is
recommended.

Citrus  segment  processing employs only mechanical peeling.  The peeled
fruit is treated with caustic to remove rag and segment  membranes.   No
change is recommended.


Potatoes are treated with steam, wet lye or dry caustic systems prior to
peel removal.   In  Section  IV  processing  plant effluent differences
attributable to peeler system were negligable.  However, if water sprays
are  used to remove the peel after treatment,  the  waste  effluent  load
must be higher than if water sprays are not used.

If   the  treated  peel  is  removed by rubber abrading and brushing with
added water, this waste load does not enter the waste effluent from  the
plant.   Information  from  vendors  indicates  that  a  rubber abrading
installation might achieve approximately a  25  per  cent  reduction  in
water  usage,  a  UO  per  cent  reduction  in  BODS,  and a 65 per cent
reduction in suspended solids.                     **"

Therefore, it is recommended  (but not required)  that  the  water  spray
system  for  the removal of treated peelings be replaced with the rubber
abrading system with irinimal water usage for brushing.


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Capital costs for an installation  in  a  589.6  kkg/day  (650  ton/day)
potato  processing  plant  are  estimated  to  be  $120,000 while annual
operating cost is estimated to be $12,000.
Sorting, Trimming and Slicing

Sorting, trimming and slicing generate wastes for all three  commodities
that  are  directly attributed to the cutting of the fruit or vegetable.
For example, the larger the percentage of blemishes to be  removed,  the
greater  the  amount  of  cutting, and the higher the BOD5 load released
(excluding the blemish).  Some water volumes can be  reduced,  but  this
will  not  reflect  in  a  reduction  in  the total waste load, but will
produce a more concentrated waste effluent.

There are no in-plant changes which could appreciably reduce waste loads
in  sorting,  trimming  and  slicing,  with  the  exception  of   potato
processing, where raw starch could be recovered as a concentrated slurry
by  the  use  of  hydroclones.  This application is experimental and its
practicability may depend on the value of the recovered starch.


Transport

Replacement of water transport  systems  with  mechanical  conveyors  is
recommended  except  where the water is also serving some other function
such as washing or cooling the product.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate
this replacement cost since the size of the processing plants as well as
the   amount  of  conveying  within  each  plant  varies  widely.   Each
processing plant may have to be evaluated separately.


Blanching

Apple slices are blanched two to six minutes at 82 C (180  F)  prior  to
canning.   Steam  blanching is preferred to water blanching resulting in
the use of reduced quantities of water.  Hot-water blanching of potatoes
is preferred because of the large amount of  leachables  which  must  be
removed  during  this  process  step.   Steam  or  experimental  hot-gas
blanching does not have  the  ability  to  remove  large  quantities  of
solubles from the product.

No blanching is used in citrus processing.
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Cleanup

Cleanup  is  one of the largest uses of water for all three commodities.
This usage may be reduced considerably by adopting the  good  management
practices previously listed.

The  capital cost of adopting this practice is nominal.   Operating costs
should not increase significantly, since the added labor cost,  if  any,
would  be  largely  offset  by  a  reduction in water cost and treatment
costs.


In-Plant Reuse of Water

The reuse of wat°r within a food processing plant may be put into one of
two categories:   (1) water which comes in direct contact with the  fruit
or  vegetable  and  (2)  water which contacts the product in an indirect
manner.


Dijrect_Contact:  Conservation of water which is in direct  contact  with
the product can be effected by imposition of a counter flow system.  For
example,  the  water  that  is  used to cool the product after blanchina
miaht be sequentially used in the blanching step and  then  possibly  in
the  washing/  cleaning step.  It has been estimated that one-third less
water is used in a counter flow system than in  a  recirculation  system
where  the  water is recirculated within a given portion of the process.
There is also less danger of bacteria growth in a  once-through  counter
flow system than a recirculation system.

Tndirect_Contact:  Some typical uses of water which does not contact the
product directly are can cooling, barometric condenser,  heat exchangers,
refrigeration system, etc.  All of these cooling systems can use a lower
quality water than that which contacts the fruit or vegetable and, since
this  cooling  water normally has a low BOD content, it is more amenable
to recirculation and reuse.   Cooling  towers  or  ponds  are  generally
employed for removal of heat in the recirculation of watrr.

The  citrus  industry is the largest user of cooling water and therefore
offers the greatest potential for water savings.   Very  little  process
water  comes in direct contact with the fruit  (fruit washing and segment
rinsing).  Thus, the major portion of the water   (cooling  water)  in   a
citrus  plant could be reused with the addition of either cooling towers
or ponds.  It is therefore recommended that cooling towers or  ponds  be
utilized  to  recirculate  cooling  waters.   Capital  costs for cooling
towers for a 3630 kkg/day  (4000 ton/day) plant are estimated from  plant
CI-135  to  be  $75,000  and  annual operating costs are estimated to be
$7,500.   These  costs  are  based  on  actual  industry  cooling  tower
construction  costs  in   1971  dollars  based on typical small and large
citrus plants.


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Each processing plant, whether it is apples, citrus  or  potatoes,  must
make  its  own  economic assessment on in-plant water reuse.  Since most
plants have  wide  variation  in  their  processing  methods  and  plant
layouts, each reuse of water must be evaluated on the following factors:

1.  Cost of in-plant treatment.

2.  Cost of fresh water.

3.  The effect of reused water on product quality.

                              TREATMENT AND CONTROL COSTS
This  section develops capital costs and operating costs for six  (Levels
B-G) levels of waste effluent treatment for both large and small typical
plants within each of the five  subcategories.   In  addition,  we  have
estimated  that total U.S. investment required to meet each of these six
levels of treatment for each of the five subcategories as  well  as  the
pertinent  apple, citrus, and potato segment of the canned and preserved
fruits and vegetables industry.

Effectiveness of Waste Treatment Systems

Table 26 presents typical waste load reductions that may be expected  by
the  application  of  various  treatment systems to organic wastes.  The
systems include those that we have previously classified in Section  VII
as preliminary, primary, biological (secondary) , advanced and ultimate.


Parameters for Cost Estimating

The  raw  water  usage  and  raw  waste  loading  used  as the basis for
estimating costs are those listed as average industry practice for  each
of  five subcategories as previously set forth in Section V (Tables 19 -
21) .  Plants in each of the subcategories have been segmented  into  two
groups represented by a typical small plant or by a typical large plant.
The  typical  small  plants  are 91 kkg/day (100 ton/day)  for both apple
subcategories, 180 kkg/day (200 ton/day) for dehydrated potato products,
and 360 kkg/day  (UOO ton/day)  for citrus  and  frozen  potato  products.
The  typical  large plants are U50 kkg/day  (500 ton/day) for apple juice
only, 510 kkg/day (600 ton/day)  for  dehydrated  potato  products,  910
kkg/day (1000 ton/day)  for apple products except apple juice  and frozen
potato products, and 3630 kkg/day (4000 ton/day)  for citrus products.
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                           TABLE 26

    EFFECTIVENESS AND APPLICATION OF WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS
    Treatment System

Flotation
          with pH
          & Flocculants
Flotation
  control
  added
Sedimentation
Aerated Lagoons
Aerobic Lagoons
Shallow Lagoons
Trickling Filter
Anaerobic & Aerobic
  Lagoons
Anaerobic, Aerated, &
  Aerobic Lagoons
Anaerobic Contact
  Process
Activated Sludge
Extended Aeration
Chlorination
Sand Filter

Microscreen

Electrodialysis

Ion Exchange
Carbon Adsorption

Chemical Precipitation
Reverse Osmosis

Spray Irrigation
Flood Irrigation
Ponding & Evaporation
Application

Preliminary

Preliminary
                          Primary
                          Biological
                          Biological
                          Biological
                          Biological
                          Biological

                          Biological

                          Biological

                          Biological
                          Biological
                          Advanced
                          Advanced

                          Advanced

                          Advanced

                          Advanced
                          Advanced

                          Advanced
                          Advanced

                          Ultimate
                          Ultimate
                          Ultimate
  Waste Load Reduction

BOD 30% Removal
SS  80% Removal
BOD 30% Removal
SS  80% Removal

BOD 50 to 80% Removal
BOD 50 to 99% Removal
BOD 50 to 99% Removal
BOD 50 to 99% Removal
BOD 70 to 90% Removal
BOD 95% Removal

BOD 99% Removal

BOD 90 to 95% Removal

BOD 90 to 95% Removal
BOD 90 to 95% Removal
Disinfectant
BOD to 5-10 mg/1
SS  to 3-8 mg/1
BOD to 10-20 mg/1
SS  to 10-15 mg/1
Total Dissolved Solids
    90% Removal
Salt 90% Removal
BOD to 98% as Colloidal
    Organic
Phosphorus 85-95% Removal
Salt to 5 mg/1
TDS to 20 mg/1
Complete
Complete
Complete
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Levels of Treatment Technology
     the purpose of determining the cost effectiveness of various levels
of treatment it was necessary to select practical treatment  systems  to
achieve these levels.  The system design used to obtain a given level of
treatment  varies from subcategory to subcategory and there are numerous
combinations of treatment steps that will  achieve  the  same  level  of
treatment.   In  general the treatment systems consist, of one or more of
the  following  five  classes  of  treatment  technology:   preliminary,
primary, secondary, advanced, and ultimate disposal.


Preliminarv. _ Treatment^   Screens are preliminary treatment and are used
to remove solids from the waste effluent streams as they are  discharged
from  the  processing plant.  The screening of the waste effluent stream
from a food processing plant is normally the first step in the treatment
system and is the most economical method of removing large solids.  This
removal of solids protects other equipment from plugging or  damage  and
reduces  the  size  of  other  solids handling units.  There are various
types of screens which are used in these plants.  The  vibrating  screen
equipped with a 20 to UO mesh screen cloth is generally used.  In recent
years  because  more municipal sewer assessments are based on the amount
of suspended solids in  the  effluent  and  also  because  of  increased
emphasis on reuse of process water, there has been a concerted effort on
the part of the food processor to use finer and finer mesh screens.

Primary_ treatment:  Primary treatment is also used to remove solids from
the  waste  effluent  streams.  Primary treatment includes sedimentation
units with and without sludge disposal to remove settleable  solids  not
removed in the preliminary screening.  A clarifier of either circular or
rectangular  design  is used for the removal of floatable and settleable
solids.  These clarifiers  are  equipped  with  mechanical  scrapers  to
assist  in  the  removal of solids that settle to the bottom or float on
the top.  The volume of solids that is removed  from  the  clarifier  is
further  concentrated  by  a  rotary vacuum filter or a centrifuge.  The
concentrated solids can usually be sold as animal feed.  Design criteria
for estimating cost of primary systems for each  typical  size  of  each
subcategory  are primarily waste water flow and suspended solids loading
(See Tables 19-21) .


Primary treatment is not generally used in the apple or citrus industry.
If a primary treatment system is present at an apple or citrus plant, it
is usually designed without sludge disposal.  In the  potato  processing
industry,  primary  treatment  with  clarifier  sludge  concentration is
necessary and practicable because of the high suspended solids  loading.
It  is  common  practice  in the potato industry to utilize dual primary
clarifiers.  One clarifier, is used to recover solids from  the  process
waste  water.    Another  clarifier is used to settle silt and remove mud
from the raw potato wash water.  The  process  waste  water  solids  are


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collected  and  concentrated  by  a  rotary  vacuum filter.   In the cost
figures given in Table 28, dual clarifiers and a  rotary  vacuum  filter
are  included  in  the sedimentation with sludge recovery cost estimates
for both frozen and dehydrated potato plants.


Secondary	[BiologJ.cal^_Treatment: Biological treatment  is  a  secondary
treatment  system which is employed for a high reduction of BOD from the
waste effluent stream.  To achieve this high reduction in BOD  a  number
of  different  biological  systems  may be employed: biological filters,
activated  sludge,  aerated  lagoons,  anaerobic  lagoons,  and  shallow
lagoons.

Biological   treatment  systems  are  best  practicable  technology  and
multiple combinations of biological treatment systems are best'available
technology.   The design  parameters  for  these  treatment  systems  ar^
primarily  total  waste  water  flow and BOD loading (See Tables 19-21).
The estimation of cost for each typical system size in each  subcateqory
are based on these criteria.
Sand   filtration,  carbon  adsorption,  microscreening,  ion  exchanq0,
electrodialysis,  reverse  osmosis  and  ultra  filtration   have   been
considered  for  the  further  reduction  in  BOD  and  the  removal  of
undesirable soluble components from the waste  stream  to  permit  water
recycle   or  reuse.   The  advanced  treatment  was  considered  as  an
additional component to the best practicable biological treatment system
to attain best available effluent reduction.


Ultimate Disposal^ For the zero discharge of pollutants,  land  disposal
is  a  technology  currently  being  used  by  apple,  citrus and potato
processors when sufficient and suitable land is  available.   Both  land
flooding  and spray irrigation are accepted methods of disposal and have
been used as the basis of cost estimates.  The primary design  parameter
for   irrigation  systems  is  waste  water  flow   (See  Tables  19-21).
Evaporative ponds and percolation lagoons are also an accepted  form  of
ultimate  disposal  but  have  not  been  used in ultimate disposal cost
estimates.

Effluent Reduction Levels


The classes of waste treatment  systems  discussed  above  are  suitable
waste treatment systems which will perform when properly operated within
the  design  parameters and limitations of the system for apple, citrus,
or potato processing wastes.  Best  practicable  effluent  reduction  is
attainable  through  the  application  of secondary biological treatment
(Levels B or E) or through ultimate disposal by  land  treatment  (Level


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D) .    Best  available  effluent  reduction  is  attainable  through  the
application of advanced treatment (Levels C or F or G) .
     apple,  citrus,  and  potato  subcategories  regardless  of   waste
treatment  or  disposal  method  utilize  screens  to remove particulate
solids from the waste effluent as it leaves the plant.  The  higher  the
percentage of solids which are removed at this point the lower the waste
load  entering  the  treatment  system.   Screening  is Level_A effluent
reduction for each typical size in each subcategory.  Screening is  also
used in all other effluent reduction levels (Levels B - G) .

Primary  treatment is not used as universally as screening.  Only in the
case of the two potato subcategories is it necessary to  employ  primary
sedimentation  with  sludge  disposal  prior to any biological treatment
system or prior to land treatment.  Dual primary clarifiers and a rotary
vacuum filter are in the potato sedimentation with sludge disposal  cost
estimates.  Thus, reduction levels B through G for frozen and dehydrated
potato products utilize primary sedimentation.

As  discussed  earlier  in  the  section under "In-Plant Reuse of Water"
cooling towers or ponds are very important in handling the large cooling
water volumes in the citrus industry.  Thus, effluent reduction levels 2
and C and E through G for  the  citrus  processing  subcategory  utilize
cooling towers.

There  are  several  different  biological  systems  used  to  fully  or
partially achieve effluent levels  B  and  C  and  E  through  G.   Some
biological  treatment systems are dependent upon long retention times to
achieve the desired waste load reduction;  some  are  not.    Large  land
areas  may  be  required  to  accommodate some of these systems but only
limited  area  requirements  are  needed  if  mechanical  separation  or
collection devices such as centrifuges and filters are utilized.  Higher
energy,  maintenance,  and  capital  costs  are required with mechanical
equipment to attain  comparable  levels  of  waste  reduction.   Aerated
lagoons with and without settling, aerobic/anaerobic lagoons, and 30 day
shallow  lagoons  are  biological  systems used to attain Levels B and C
effluent reduction.


Effluent  levels  E,  F  and  G  utilize  activated  sludge   (secondary)
treatment.   Level  G also employs an aerated lagoon.  Effluent levels F
and G  utilize  advanced  treatment  technology  in  the  form  of  sand
filtration following secondary treatment.  This polishing filter removes
most  of  the  remaining  BOD  and  suspended solids.  Very low effluent
levels are possible.

Level D reduction is attained through  the  use  of  screening,  primary
sedimentation  (potato  only) ,  and  a  shallow  lagoon  before ultimate
disposal through land treatment.  Spray or flood irrigation is the  form
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of  land  treatment  used.    The availability of suitable and sufficient
land are limits to the utilization of this technology.

The six effluent reduction levels for each subcategory are described  in
detail  in  Table 27 by listing the sequence of waste effluent treatment
technologies utilized to attain each level of effluent  reduction.    For
example,  effluent  reduction Level B for the apple juice subcategory is
attained through preliminary screening followed by two  aerated  laqoons
(no settling)  in series.


Investment and Annual Operating Costs - Model Plant


The estimated investment to obtain the various treatment levels is shown
for  both  small  and large plants for each of the five subcategories in
Tables 30-34.   These costs are generated from Tables  28  and  29  which
list  investment  and  annual  cost  for  various  preliminary, primary,
secondary, advanced and ultimate treatment systems for small  and  large
plants.   The  annual  operating  costs  corresponding to the investment
costs are also shown in these tables.   Investment  costs  for  specific
waste  treatment  systems  are  dependent  on  the waste water flow, BOD
loading  and  suspended  solids  loading.   The  investment  costs  were
calculated  on  the  basis  of raw waste effluent data from Tables 19-21
with information supplied, from food processing equipment manufacturers,
engineering contractors and consultants.  Costs  compare  satisfactorily
with  investment  costs  collected  individually  from apple, citrus and
potato processors.  All costs  are  reported  in  August  1971  dollars.
Percentage  factors  were  added to the basic system estimate for design
and engineering  (10%) and for contingencies and omissions   (15%).   Land
costs were estimated to be $4940 per hectare  ($2000 per acre).

Variations  exist  in  plant  water flows and BOD5_ loadings; there exist
inherent inaccuracies in cost estimating which could  reflect  an  error
approaching 20 to 25 percent.

The  components  of  annual  cost  include  capital  cost, depreciation,
operation and maintenance  costs,  and  energy  and  power  costs.    The
capital  interest  costs are assumed to be 8 percent, depreciation costs
are assumed to be 5 percent and taxes and insurance are assumed to be   3
percent of the investment.


Investment and Annual Operating Costs - Subcategory


The  total  investment  costs  for  each  alternative treatment level is
calculated for  each  of  the  five  sutcategories  in  Table  35.   The
investment  cost  are  given  for  both typical small plants and typical
large plants.  The total annual costs for small and larae plants in each


                                   134

-------
subcategory are included in the tabulation.  Also, each treatment  level
includes screening (Level A) .

The   total  investment   (or  total  annual)   costs  are  calculated  by
multiplying the treatment level's capital cost ($1000)  times the  annual
raw  material  processed  by  the subcategory typical plant  (million kkg
(ton) / year)  and by dividing by the capacity (kkg (ton) /  day)  and  by
the  processing season  (day/year) .  There are assumptions with regard to
season and annual raw material processed.   The  season  for  apples  is
assumed to be 50 days/year, 216 days/year for citrus^ and 2UO days/ year
for  potatoes.   With  regard to the annual raw material processed, 0.36
and  1.09 million kkg (O.U and 1.2 million tons)  of the annual apple crop
are assumed to be processed to apple juice  and  apple  products  except
juice  respectively.    The  6. U million ton potato crop is assumed to be
processed equally intc frozen and dehydrated products.   This  assumption
is  possible  because  the  model  plants processing frozen products are
almost twice as large as the dehydrated potato model plants.  A  further
assumption  is  that  annual  raw  material  is processed equally by the
typical  small  plant  and  by  the  typical  large  plant  within  each
subcategory.   In this rationale, economic impacts for both small plants
and large plants are thereby considered.

The  total  investment  costs  for  achieving  each  level  of  effluent
reduction are listed for each subcategory and each industry in Table 36.
The total annual costs are listed in Table 37.  The total investment and
annual costs from Table 35 are summed to calculate these total costs for
Tables  36  and  37.   The assumptions are that_all plants are subject to
each treatment level and that no present treatment facilities exist.

The cost impact on the apple, citrus, and potato industry as a result of
applying each level of effluent reduction is given  in  Table  38.   Two
assumptions have been made to develop this table.  First, all plants are
not  subject to each level of effluent reduction.  For each commodity, a
oercentage of the industry was found to be disposing of their  waste  to
municipal  systems, a percentage through land treatment and a percentage
by secondary treatment techniques.  The results of our apple, citrus and
potato processing survey are indicated below:

                 Municipal       Secondary           Land
Industry         Treatment       Treatment        Treatment
                                  __ (%} __
Apple               26              20                54

Citrus              12              32                56

Potato              10              33                57
                                   135

-------
These secondary treatment factors  are  applied  to  effluent  reduction
Levels  B,  C,  E,  F  and G.   The land treatment factors are applied to
Level D.  The municipal treatment factors are not applied because  these
plants are outside the scope of this effort.

The  second  assumption  is  that treatment facilities do exist and that
only a portion of the industry subject to an  effluent  reduction  level
will have to either construct facilities or upgrade existing facilities.
It. was assumed that one-third of the industry would need to construct or
upgrade  facilities to achieve Levels B, D, and E and ninty-nine percent
of the industry would need to construct additional facilities to achieve
Levels C, F and G.  These factors are applied to the  capital  costs  in
Table 36.


The  result  of  Table  38  is  that  the  capital  investments for each
subcategory can be related to each level of effluent reduction.   Levels
B and E are the effluent reduction attainable through the application of
best  practicable  control  technology currently available.  Levels C, F
and G are the effluent reductions attainable through the application  of
the best available control technology economically achievable.  Table 39
is  a  tabulation of the total annual costs for each subcategory to meet
each level of effluent reduction.

The investment costs of meeting Levels B and D by 1977 are $2.2  million
for apples, $6.2 million for citrus and $8.68 million for potatoes for a
total  industry  cost  of $17.1 million.  The investment cost of meeting
similar  levels  of  effluent  reduction  through  application  of  more
expensive treatment technology represented by Levels E and D by 1977 are
$4.7 million for apples, $10.0 million for citrus, and $11.4 million for
potatoes  for  a  total industry cost of $26.10 million.  The investment
costs of meeting Levels B, C, and D by 1983 are $3.7 million for apples,
$12.0 million for citrus, and $13.4 million for  potatoes  for  a  total
industry  cost  of  $29 million.  The investment cost of meeting similar
levels of effluent  reduction  through  application  of  more  expensive
treatment  technology represented by Levels E, F or G, and D by 1983 are
$6.1 or $ 6.7 million for apples, $12.3 or $14.1 million for citrus, and
$13.5 or $15.1 million for potatoes for a total industry cost of $32  or
$36 million.

Therefore,  the  total  industry   (apple, citrus, and potato) investment
costs to meet 1977 levels of effluent  reduction  range  from  $17.1  to
$26.1  million and the total industry costs to meet 1977 and 1983 levels
of effluent reduction range from $29 to $36 million.
                                   136

-------














































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                        TABLE  28

             INVESTMENT  AND ANNUAL  COSTS
PRELIMINARY,  PRIMARY & BIOLOGICAL WASTE TREATMENT  SYSTEMS
WASTE TREATMENT
SYSTEM
Prel i mi nary
- Screen
Pri mary
- Sedimentation w/
Sludge Disposal
- Sedimentation w/out
Sludge Disposal
Biologi cal
- Shallow Lagoon w/
30-Day Retention
- Shallow Lagoon w/
90-Day Retention
- Aerated Lagoon
w/Settli ng
- Aerated Lagoon
w/out Settling
- Anaerobic/Aerobic
Pondi ng
- Trickling Filter
- Activated Sludge
- Spray Irrigation
w/Runoff

Prel imi nary
- Screen
Pri mary
- Sedimentation w/
Sludge Disposal
- Sedimentation w/out
Sludge Disposal
Biologi cal
- Shallow Lagoon w/
30-Day Retention
- Shallow Lagoon w/
90-day Retention
- Aerated Lagoon
w/Settl i ng
- Aerated Lagoon
w/out Settling
- Anaerobic/Aerobic
Pondi ng
- Trickling Filter
- Activated Sludge
- Spray Irrigation
w/ Runoff
APPLE
PRODUCTS
($1,000)
CAPITAL ANNUAL

2.0

48.0

25.0


15.0

50.0

27.0

15.0

70.0

130.0
240.0
25.0



5.2

150.0

70.0


50.0

105.0

93.0

65.0

160.0

540.0
595.0
100.0


1 .0

7,2

3.0


2.0

7.0

9.2

5.4

17.0

4.0
8.5
12.0



2.8

22.5

12.5


6.5

13.0

19.8

15.8

34.0

23.0
30.5
28.0

SMALL PLANTS
APPLE
JUICE
($1,000)
CAPITAL ANNUAL

1 .0

50.0

10.0


10.0

19.0

10.0

6.0

16.0

250.0
151 .0
14.0

LARGE

2.2

62.0

24.0


15.0

45.0

34.0

22.0

50.0

170.0
270.0
320.0


.3

4.5

1.5


1 .0

6.3

5.8

2.0

.32

3.0
5.0
7.5

PLANTS

.8

9.3

3.9


2.5

7.0

11 .2

6.6

11 .0

6.0
11 .0
13.5
1
CITRUS
JUICE, OIL.SEG. POTATOES
& PEEL PRODUCTS DEHYDRATED
($1,QOO) ($1,000)
CAPITAL ANNUAL CAPITAL ANNUAL

6

190

92


63

126

114

81

212

680
725
144



19

678

384


240

492

504

352

787

3,024
2,960
758
38

.2

.0

.0


.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

.0
.0
.0



.2

.4

.0


.0

.8

.0

.0

.2

.0
.0
.4


3.5

28.0

15.9


8.0

15.0

22.8

18.4

44.8

30.0
39.0
33.5



12.8

121 .9

72.0


28.0

46.7

76.2

54.7

142.1

132.8
174.4
86.4


3.3

95.0

44.0


30.0

75.0

60.0

40.0

115.0

300.0
400.0
55.0



6.9

200.0

103.0


72.0

142.0

1 30.0

92.0

250.0

780.0
805.0
168.0


1 .6

14.0

7.5


3.8

10.5

14.0

11 .0

20.0

13.0
17.0
20.0



4.0

32.0

18.0


9.0

16.3

25.0

20.0

52.0

35.0
44.0
37.0

POTATOES
FROZEN
($1 ,000)
CAPITAL ANNUAL

6.2

176.0

90.0


63.0

125.0

113.0

80.0

210.0

670.0
720.0
140.0



11 .0

345.0

195.0


124.0

243.0

245.0

175.0

450.0

1 ,480.0
1 ,470.0
359.0


3.5

27.5

16.5


7.8

1 5.0

22.2

18.0

44.0

30.0
36.0
33.0



6.7

60.0

35.5


14.7

24.5

39.2

35.0

83.0

67.0
85.0
49.0


-------
                                        TABLE 29
                              INVESTMENT AND ANNUAL COSTS
                   ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS & ULTIMATE DISPOSAL
WASTE TREATMENT
    SYSTEM
Chlori nati on
Chemical Secondary
  Treatment
Sand Filtration
Mi croscreeni ng
Nitrogen Removal
Activated Carbon
Ultrafi1tration
Ultimate Disposal
  (Based on Flow)
  (Based on BOD5)
Chlori nati on
Chemical Secondary
  Treatment
Sand Filtration
Microscreening
Nitrogen Removal
Activated Carbon
Ultrafi1trati on
Ultimate Disposal
  (Based on Flow)
  (Based on BOD5)
APPLE
PRODUCTS
($1,000)
CAPITAL ANNUAL
2
100
38
11
38
72
200
32
11

10
500
92
52
93
330
800
144
144
.6
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2

.5
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.41
22.5
7.9
3.1
3.3
3.6
51.0
8.0
2.8

1 .8
83.0
13.5
12.5
12.5
17.0
165.0
36.0
36.0
SMALL PLANTS
CITRUS
APPLE JUICE, OIL.SEG. POTATOES POTATOES
JUICE & PEEL PRODUCTS DEHYDRATED FROZEN
($1,000) ($1,000) ($1,000) ($1,000)
CAPITAL ANNUAL CAPITAL ANNUAL CAPITAL ANNUAL CAPITAL ANNUAI
1 .3
40.0
24.0
6.0
22.0
36.0
110.0
15.0
2.8
LARGE
5.5
250.0
62.5 1
27.0
60.0
180.0
.24
11 .0
5.8
1.7
1.3
1 .7
34.0 1
3.8
0.7
PLANTS
1 .0
48.0 3
0.25
7.0
7.0
9.0 1
450.0 100.0 5
75.2
14.2
18.8 1
2.0
13.95
675.0
11 1.1
69.5
112.0
420.0
,060.0
242.3
76.8

64.8
,328.0
419.2
244.8
438.4
,408.0
,088.0
,508.3
768.0
2.5
107.0
15.3
15.8
15.3
22.5
207.0
60.6
19.2

11 .52
448.0
46.7
40.8
40.8
84.0
896 .0
377.1
192.0
5.8
260.0
61 .0
26.5
60.0
175.0
440.0
88.8
21 .5

15.0
750.0
120.0
78.0
121 .0
480.0
1 ,180 .0
276.2
71 .7
.95
49.0
10.1
7.0
7.0
9.0
100.0
22.2
5.4

2.7
113.0
16.2
17.0
17.0
26.0
230.0
69.1
17.9
13
620
107
65
105
410
995
223
65

31
1 ,580
212
140
220
820
2,450
660
163
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.9
.3

.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.3
.5
2.3
98.0
14.9
14.9
14.75
21 .5
195.0
56.0
16.3

5.9
217.5
24.5
24.75
24.75
47.0
445.0
165.1
40.9
                                             139

-------
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-------
TABLE 36  TOTAL SUBCATEGORY AND INDUSTRY INVESTMENT COST FOR EACH LEVEL
                          OF EFFLUENT REDUCTION
SUBCATEGORY
                      TOTAL INVESTMENT FOR EFFLUENT REDUCTION LEVEL
                                                          ($1,000,000)
                      LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL
                SIZE    B      C      D      E      F      G
APPLE JUICE
(SOLE PRODUCT)
TOTAL
APPLE PRODUCTS
(EXCEPT JUICE)
TOTAL
CITRUS PRODUCTS

TOTAL
FROZEN POTATO
PRODUCTS
TOTAL
SMALL
LARGE

SMALL
LARGE

SMALL
LARGE

SMALL
LARGE

0.52
0.37
0.89
3.84
1.62
5.46
12.21
4.62
16.83
8.39
6.00
14.39
0
0
1
8
3
12
25
9
35
12
10
22
.92
.64
.56
.88
.34
.22
.57
.61
.18
.09
.16
.25
1
0
1
5
2
8
15
8
.04
.74
.78
.88
.39
.27
.14
.59
23.73
7
7
15
.79
.59
.38
6.08
2.18
8.26
29.04
7.20
36.24
37.97
14.84
52.81
14.98
12.16
27.14
7.
2.
04
68
9772
33.
8.
41.
43.
16.
60.
16.
13.
30.
60
31
91
37
88
25
75
57
32
7
2
10
35
9
44
47
18
65
18
14
32
.28
.85
.13
.40
.09
.49
.30
.59
.89
.08
.74
.82
DEHYDRATED
   POTATO
   PRODUCTS
     TOTAL

APPLE TOTAL

CITRUS TOTAL

POTATO TOTAL

INDUSTRY TOTAL
                SMALL  9.10
                LARGE  6.51
                      15.61

                       6.35

                      16.83

                      30.00

                      53.18
12.76   7.23 16.59  18.62  19.96
 9.36   6.16 11.23  12.56  13.59
22.12  13.39 27.82  31.18  33.55

13.78  10.05 44.50  51.63  54.62

35.18  23.73 52.81  60.25  65.89

44.37  28.77 54.96  61.50  66.37

93.33  62.55 152.27 173.38 186.88
                                    146

-------
TABLE 37  TOTAL SUBCATEGORY AND INDUSTRY ANNUAL COST FOR EACH LEVEL OF
                           EFFLUENT REDUCTION

                            TOTAL INVESTMENT FOR EFFLUENT REDUCTION
                                      LEVEL  ($1,000,000)
                          LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL  LEVEL
SUBCATEGORY       SIZE      B      C      D      E      F      G
APPLE JUICE
(SOLE PRODUCT)
TOTAL
APPLE PRODUCTS
(EXCEPT JUICE)
TOTAL
CITRUS PRODUCTS
TOTAL
FROZEN POTATO
PRODUCTS
TOTAL
DEHYDRATED
POTATO
PRODUCTS
TOTAL
APPLE TOTAL
CITRUS TOTAL
POTATO TOTAL
SMALL
LARGE
SMALL
LARGE
SMALL
LARGE
SMALL
LARGE
SMALL
LARGE



0.17
0.11
0.28
1.42
.41
1.83
2.42
.73
3.15
1.67
1.26
2.93
1.65
1.25
2790"
2.11
3.15
5.83
.40
.20
0.60
5.09
.73
5782
4.98
1.56
6.54
2.40
1.82
4.22
2.51
1.80
4T3T
6.42
6.54
8.53
.20
.18
0.38
1.32
.54
1.86
3.50
2.03
5.53
1.57
1.64
3.21
1.39
1.27
2.66
2.24
5.53
5.87
.21
.09
0.30
1.14
.40
1.54
2.31
.95
3.26
1.11
1.01
2.12
1.09
.89
T798"
1.84
3.26
4.10
.44
.18
0.62
2.09
.56
2.65
3.05
1.17
4.22
1.36
1.17
2.53
1.42
1.07
2.49
3.27
4.22
5.02
.52
.23
0.75
2.74
.95
3.69
3.95
1.44
5.39
1.66
1.41
3.07
1.79
1.29
3.08
4.44
5.39
6.15
INDUSTRY TOTAL
11.09 21.49  13.64   9.20  12.51  15.98
                                      1U7

-------
TABLE 38   TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT TO MEET EACH LEVEL OF EFFLUENT
                                  REDUCTION

                          CAPITAL INVESTMENT   ($ Million)       TOTAL
EFFLUENT APPLE
LEVEL JUICE
B
C
D
E
F
G
(1977)
(1983)
(1977)
(1977)
(1983)
(1983)
.06
.19
.32
.55
.84
.92
APPLE
PRODUCTS
.36
1.70
1.47
2.39
3.51
4.02
CITRUS
PRODUCTS
1
7
4
5
7
9
.78
.59
.39
.58
.94
.72
FROZEN
POTATOES
1.
4.
2.
2.
4.
4.
57
14
89
96
00
82
DEHYDRATED
POTATOES
1
3
2
3
4
4
.70
.83
.52
.03
.13
.90
INVESTMENT
BY LEVEL
5
17
11
14
20
24
.47
.45
.59
.51
.42
.38
                                   148

-------
TABLE 39   TOTAL ANNUAL COST TO MEET EACH LEVEL OF EFFLUENT REDUCTION
                            ANNUAL COST      ($ Million)         TOTAL
EFFLUENT
LEVEL
B
C
D
E
F
G
(1977)
(1983)
(1977)
(1983)
(1983)
(1983)
APPLE
JUICE
.02
.08
.07
.02
.08
.11
APPLE CITRUS FROZEN DEHYDRATED
PRODUCTS PRODUCTS POTATOES POTATOES
.12
.91
.33
.09
.29
.43
.33
1.40
1.02
.34
.64
1.01
.32
.74
.60
.23
.36
.54
.32
.78
.50
.22
.39
.58
ANNUAL COST
BY LEVEL
1.11
3.91
2.52
0.90
1.76
2.67

-------
ENEPGY_REQUIREMENTS


Electrical Energy

Electricity is required in  the  treatment  of  food  processing  wastes
primarily  for  pumping  and  aeration.   The  aeration  horsepower is a
function of the waste lead and the horsepower  for  pumping  depends  on
waste water flow rate.

The  fruit  and  vegetable processing industry as a whole is not a large
consumer of electrical energy.  We estimate that the average power  cost
per  ton of raw material processed is on the order of $0.50, and on this
basis the total power bill in 1973 for  apple,  citrus,  and  potato  wa.s
abou+- 16,400,000 tons x $0.50/ton or $8,200,000/yr.

r*7 =  estimate  that  the  contribution of waste treatment is considerably
less than 10 percent of the total at present and is not likely to pxcec-^
10 percent in the future.

Thermal Energy

Thermal  energy  costs  roughly  equal  electrical  energy   costs   for
operations  within  the  industry.   Waste  treatment  systems impose no
significant addition  to  the  thermal  energy  requirement  of  plants.
Wastewater  can  be  reused  in  cooling and condensing service if it is
separated from the process  waters  in  nonharometric  type  condensers.
These  heated  waste waters improve the effectiveness of anaerobic ponds
which are best maintained at 32°C   (90°F)  or  more.   Improved  thermal
efficiencies  are  coincidentally  achieved  within  a  plant  with this
technique,

Wastewater treatment costs and effectiveness can he improved by the  use
of energy and power conservation practices and techniques in each plant.
^hr-  waste  load  increases with increased water use.  Reduced water us°
therefore reduced the waste load, pumping costs, and heating costs,  thp
last  of  which  can be further reduced by water reuse =is suggested prp-
vionslv.
                                    150

-------
The disposal of most of the solid wastes from the  fruit  and  vegetable
processing  industry  is  directed  toward  animal  feed.   Solid  waste
consists of cull fruits and vegetables, discarded pieces,  and  residues
from  various  processing  operations.   For example, the net energy and
total digestible nutrient content of dried potato pulp  is  very  nearly
the  same  as  U.S.  No.  2 corn.  One exception of waste utilization as
animal feed occurs when excessive amounts of pesticides have  been  used
during  the  growing season and the wastes are contaminated.  If this is
the case, the wastes are then used for fertilizer or land fill.

Screening devices of various designs  and  operating  principles  remove
large-scale  solids  such as peel, pulp, cores, and seeds prior to waste
water treatment.   These  solids  are  then  either  processed  for  co-
products, sold for animal feed, or land filled.

The  solid  material, separated during waste water treatment, containing
organic and inorganic materials, including those added to promote solids
separation, is called sludge.  Typically, it contains 95 to  98  percent
water  prior  to  dewatering  or  drying.  Some quantities of sludge are
generated by both primary and secondary treatment systems with the  type
of  system  influencing  the  quantity.  The following table illustrates
this:

                                  Sludge Volume as Percent of
                                  Raw Wastewatgr^Vglume

   Dissolved air flotation        Up to 10%

   Anaerobic lagoon               (Sludge accumulation in these
                                  (lagoons is usually not suffi-
                                  (cient to require removal at
   Aerobic and aerated lagoons    (any time.
   Activated sludge               10  -

   Extended aeration               5  -  10%

   Anaerobic contact process      approximately 2%

The  raw  sludge  can  be  concentrated,  digested,  dewatered,   dried,
incinerated,  land-filled,  or  spread in sludge holding ponds.  In most
cases, as stated previously, the sludge goes to animal feed.

Sludge from air  flotation  with  polyelectrolyte  chemicals  added  has
proven  difficult to dewater, and thereby, presents problems in disposal


                                   151

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by  any  of  the  aforementioned  handling  processes.   Also,   certain
polyelectrolyte  chemicals  rendered  the  sludge  inadequate for animal
consumption.

Sludge  from  secondary  treatment  systems  is  normally  dewatered  or
digested  sufficiently for hauling and sale as animal feed or fertilizer
or for land fill.  The final dried sludge material can be safely used as
an effective soil builder.  Prevention of runoff is a critical factor in
plant-site sludge holding  ponds.   Costs  of  typical  sludge  handling
techniques  for each secondary treatment system generating enough sludg^
to require handling equipment are already incorporated in the costs  for
these systems.

Silt  water  from  cleaning root commodities such as potatoes is usually
handled separately from the food processing  water  which  goes  through
secondary  treatment.   The  silt water being relatively free of oraanic
matter goes to silt settling ponds.  Silt accumulated in the  bottom  of
•'-he  ponds  is  removed  annually  and  disposed of by adding it to pond
dikes.  These ponds are generally abandoned  after  useful  performance,
with n-w ponds being established.

Tn  addition  to  the  solid  wastes  generated  as  a  result  ot  tool
nrocessing, solid waste is also generated in  terms  of  trash  normally
associated  with  activities.   This  material may be disposed of at th<~
plant site or collected by  the  local  municipality  with  disposal  by
incineration or sanitary land fill.  The solid wastes or trash comprises
oackaging  materials,  shipping  crates,  and  similar  dry  combustible
materials.

Sanitary wastes are usually handled by a separate system  in  the  plant
(in  most cases municipal) and consequently are not involved in the food
processing waste water treatment.  The sanitary wastes are of low volume
and quite efficiently  treated  in  standard  sanitary  waste  treatm^n-f-
facilities.

Air_Pollution

Odors  are  the  only significant air pollution problem related to waste
wat-^r treatment in the fruit  and  vegetable  canning  industry.   Fetid
conditions  usually  occur  in  anaerobic  environments  within  aerobic
svstems.  It is generally agreed, however, that anaerobic ponds will not
cre.'-iti- serious odor problems unless the  process  water  has  a  sulfate
eon^e-nt.   Sulfate  waters  are  a localized condition varying even from
w!''ll to well in a specific plant.  The anaerobic pond odor potential  is
somewhat  unpredictable  as  evidenced  by  a  few rlants + hat have odor
problems without sulfate waters.  In these cases a cover  and  collector
of the off-gas from the pond controls odor.  The off-gas is then flared.
The  change  in  weather  in  the  spring  in  northern  climates may be
accompanied by an increase of odor problem.
                                    152

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Other potential odor generators in the waste water treatment  are  tanks
and  process  equipment  for the anaerobic contact process that normally
generate methane.  However, with the process restricted  to  a  specific
piece  of  equipment it is not difficult to confine and control odors by
collecting and flaring the off-gases.  These gases' high  heating  value
makes it economical and standard practice to recover the heat for use in
the waste water treatment process.

Odors  have  been  produced  by  some  air  flotation  systems which are
normally housed in a building, thus  localizing,  but  intensifying  the
problem.  Minimizing the unneccessary delay of disposal of any skimmings
or grease-containing solids has been suggested.

Odors  can best be controlled by elimination of conditions that generate
odors.  Using low sulfate process  water,  careful  screening  of  waste
water  to  remove  organic  solids, shallow holding ponds (approximately
0.45 meters optium (1.5 feet), and alkaline pH conditions  aid  in  odor
reduction.   Also,  certain  types  of  bacteria  have  been found to be
particularly well suited to control odor problems.  Controls  for  odors
once emanated remain largely unproven at this time.

Other  air  pollutants such as fog from cooling towers or the pollutants
associated with  the  combustion  of  fossil  fuel  are  common  to  all
industrial  processes  are  not judged to be significant problems in the
food processing industry.

Noise

The only material increase in noise caused by a  waste  water  treatment
system  is that caused by the installation of an air flotation system or
aerated lagoons with air blowers.  Large pumps and an air compressor are
part of an air flotation system.  Such a system is normally housed in  a
low-cost  building;  thus,  the  substantial  noise  generated by an air
flotation system is confined and perhaps amplified by installation prac-
tices.  All air compressors, air blowers, and  large  pumps  in  use  on
intersively  aerated  treatment  systems, and other treatment systems as
well, may produce noise levels in excess of the Occupational Safety  and
Health Administration standards while the industry should consider these
standards   in  solving  its  waste  pollution  problems  they  are  not
considered to be serious problems in the food processing industry.
                                   153

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                              SECTION IX

               EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE
                APPLICATION OF BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
                     TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE

                              INTRODUCTION

The waste water effluent limitations which must be achieved by  July  1,
1977  specify  the  degree  of effluent reduction attainable through the
application  of  the  Best  Practicable  Control  Technology   Currently
Available.   Best  Practicable Control Technology Currently Available is
based upon the average of the best existing  performance  by  plants  of
various   sizes,   ages,   and  unit  processes  within  the  industrial
subcategory.  This average is not based upon a  broad  range  of  plants
within  the  canned  and  preserved  fruits and vegetables industry, but
based upon performance levels achieved by exemplary plants.

Consideration has also been given to the following:

    The total cost of application of technology in relation
    to the effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from
    such application;

    The size and age of equipment and facilities involved;

    The processes employed;

    The engineering aspects of the application of various types
    of control techniques;

    Process changes;

    Non-water quality environmental impact(including energy
    requirements) .

Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available emphasizes
treatment facilities at the end of  canning,  freezing,  or  dehydrating
process  but includes the control technologies within the process itself
when the  latter  are  considered  to  be  normal  practice  within  the
industry.

A  further  consideration  is  the  degree  of  economic and engineering
reliability  which  must  be  established  for  the  technology  to   be
"currently  available."   As  a  result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence  in
the  engineering  and  economic  practicability of the technology at the
time of commencement of construction of the control facilities.
                                   155

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        EEELUENT_PEDUCTIQN_ATTAINABLE^THROUGH THE_APPLICATION OF
         BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
The waste water effluent limitation guidelines for the appler citrus and
potato segment  of  the  canned  and  preserved  fruits  and  vegetables
industry  are  based en the information contained in Section III through
VIII of this report.  This industry segment consists  of  processors  of
the  following  products:  apple  products  (except  caustic  peeled and
dehydrated products); citrus products (except pectin and  pharmaceutical
products);and   all   frozen   and   dehydrated   potato   products.   A
determination has been made that  the  quality  of  effluent  attainable
through  the  application  of  the  Best  Practicable Control Technology
Currently Available is as listed in  Table  UO.   These  guidelines  are
developed   from   the   average  performances  of  exemplary  secondary
biological treatment systems (listed in Table 41).

Land disposal is widely practiced  in  the  industry  and  is  a  highly
effective  technology for treating wastes from plants processing apples,
citrus and potatoes.  In the development of the recommended  guidelines,
serious  consideration  was given to making land disposal and consequent
zero discharge mandatory in all  instances  where  appropriate  land  is
economically  available to the processor.  The recommended guidelines in
Table 40 do not make zero  discharge  through  land  disposal  mandatory
because   of   the  difficulty  of  defining  "economically  available".
However, land treatment should be selected in cases where suitable  land
is available.
               IDENTIFICATION OF BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
               .____—«,_ _ -~  ».._.._—  ——— —      S   "  ~" *™ --—«-•«••

                     TECHNOLOGY_CURRENTLY_AVAILABLE


Best  Practicable  Control  Technology Currently Available for the apple
(except caustic peeled and dehydrated products)  citrus   (except  pectin
and   pharmaceutical   products)  and  potato   (dehydrated  and  frozen)
processing segments of the canned and preserved  fruits  and  vegetables
industry  includes preliminary screening, primary settling (potato only)
and biological secondary  treatment.   Strict  management  control  over
housekeeping  and  water  use  practices can produce a raw waste load as
cited in Section V for apples, citrus and potatoes   (See  Tables  19,20,
21).  No special in-plant modification is reguired.

The stated guidelines for the two apple subcategories can be achieved by
applying  the  Best  Practicable  Control Technology to the  appropriate
apple subcategory raw waste load developed in  Section V  (See Table  19).
The Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available in the apple


                                   156

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industry  includes  screening  and  secondary biological treatment.  The
recommended effluent limitation guidelines for 1 July 1977 for the apple
products (except juice) subcategory are the  average  of  the  exemplary
biological  treatment  systems.   The  BOD5  effluent  limitation is the
average of the BOD^S discharge  (listed on Table 41)  from  the  secondary
biological  treatment  systems at AP-140, AP-121, AP-108, AP-103, AP-102
and AP-101.  The suspended solids effluent limitation is the average  of
the SS discharges from AP-140, AP-121, AP-108 and AP-103.  The exemplary
biological  treatment systems used by these plants are activated sludge,
anaerobic plus aerobic lagoons, multiple aerated lagoons  and  trickling
filter  plus  aerated  lagoons.   The  recommended  effluent  limitation
guidelines  for  1  July  1977  for  the  apple  juice  subcategory  are
calculated  from  the  apple products effluent limitation with raw waste
effluent data from Table 19.  The apple juice raw waste BOD is only one-
third as large as the apple products BOD and the apple  juice  suspended
solids  is  only  one-half as large as the apple products SS.  Thus, the
calculated apple juice subcategory limitations are almost  one-half  the
apple  products  (except juice) subcategory.  These limitations are being
met by AP-140, AP-121, and AP-103.  AP-102 processes apple juice.
                                TABLE 40

                       MAXIMUM THIRTY DAY AVERAGE

                    RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATION
                       GUIDELINES FOR 1 JULY 1977

PLANT SUECATEGORY (1)         BOD5             SUSPENDED SOLIDS
                                                        Ib/T
APPLES:  Apple Juice       0.20    0.40        0.25      0.50

APPLES:  Apple products
         Except Juice      0.35    0.70        0.45      0.90

CITRUS:  Juice, Oil, Segments
         Peel Products     0.25    0.50        0.55      1.10

POTATOES:  Frozen Products 0.95    1.90        1.75      3.50

POTATOES:  Dehydrate d
           Products        0.80    1.60        1.60      3.20
(1)  For all subcategories pH should be between 6.0 and 9.0
                                   157

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The stated guidelines for the citrus  subcategory  can  be  achieved  by
applying   the   Best  Practicable  Control  Technology  to  the  citrus
subcategory raw waste load developed in Section V (See Table  20).   The
Best  Practicable  Control  Technology Currently Available in the citrus
industry includes cooling towers for the recirculation of  weak  cooling
water  which  is currently segregated from the high BOD wastes which are
treated with preliminary screening and secondary  biological  treatment.
The  recommended  effluent limitation guidelines for 1 July 1977 for the
citrus products  subcategory  are  based  on  the  performances  of  the
exemplary  biological systems treating citrus wastes.  The BOD5> effluent
limitation is the maximum BOD5 discharge (listed on  Table  41)  of  the
secondary  biological  treatment  systems at CI-127, CI-118, CI-105, CI-
106,  CI-108,  CI-123  and  CI-119.   The  suspended   solids   effluent
limitation  is the average of the SS discharges from CT-127, CI-118, CI-
105, CI-106,  CI-108,  CT-123  and  CI-119.   The  exemplary  bioloaical
treatment  systems  used by these plants are activated sludge, anaerobic
plus aerobic lagoons, trickling filter plus  aerated  lagoons,  multiple
aerated lagoons plus activated sludge and aerated lagoons.

The  stated  guidelines for the two potato subcategories can be achieved
by applying the Best Practicable Control Technology to  the  aj. propriat.e
subcategory  raw  waste load developed in Section V  (Se>- Table 21).  ""hfj
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available  in  the  potato
industry  is  screening,  primary treatment  (silt and process water) and
secondary biological treatment.   The  recommended  effluent  limitation
guidelines  for  1  July 1977 for the frozen potato products subcategory
are based on  the  performances  of  the  exemplary  biological  systems
treating  potato  wastes.   The  BOD.5 effluent limitation is th° maximum
BOD5  discharge  (listed  on  Table  41)  of  the  secondary  biological
treatment  systems  at PO-109, PO-110, PO-128 and PO-127.  The suspended
solids limitation is the average of the SS discharge from PO-109,PO-110,
PO-128 and PO-127.  The exemplary biological treatment systems  used  by
these  plants  are  activated  sludge, trickling fillers, anaerobic plus
act-ivated sludge and multiple aerated lagoons.  The recommended effluent
limitation  guidelines  for  1  July  1977   for  the  dehydrated  potato
subcategory  are  based  on  the  raw  waste  data in Table 21 and their
performances of th° exemplary biological systems treating potato wastes.
^he PODj> and suspended solids effluent limitations for dehydrated potato
products are less  than  the  limitations  for  frozen  potato  products
because  of  th<=  substantial difference in  the raw waste load?  from the
two potato siibcategor ies (Table 21).  The EOD5 limitation for dehydrated
potato oroducts is the average of the BOD discharge  (listed on Table U1)
of PO-109, PO-110, PO-128 and PO-127.  The SS limitation is the  maximum
SS   discharge   from  PO-109,  PO-128  and  PO-127.   PO-12R  processes
dehydrated potato products.  Both PO-128 and PO-127 are Canadian  potato
processors.


Thus,  the  effluent  guidelines  are presently being achieved by apple,
citrus and potato plants in each  subcategory  by  secondary  biological


                                   158

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treatment.   Many other plants are also achieving the guidelines through
land  treatment.   Both  spray  irrigation  and  flood  irrigation   are
currently  practiced  successfully.   With  this  technology  and proper
management, there is no discharge of pollutants to navigable waters.

                    RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF

                  BESl PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

                          CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Age And Size Of Equipment And Facilities

The industry has generally modernized its plants as new methods that are
economically attractive have been introduced.  No  relationship  between
age  of  plant and effectiveness of its pollution control was found.(See
section IV.)  Also size was not a significant factor, even  though  some
plants  vary  widely  in  size.   Small plants are not mechanized to the
extent of some larger plants in the industry; still  they  are  able  to
achieve  at least as effective control as larger plants.  This is partly
because the small-scale operation permits more options  for  small  low-
cost  in-plant  equipment  that  are  not available to larger operations
because of the immense volume of materials concerned.
Total Cost Of Application In Relation To Effluent Reduction Benefits

Based on the informatior contained in Section VIII of this  report,  the
combined small and large apple, citrus and potato processors must invest
$5.47  million  (Level  B)   in  construction  of  biological systems and
modifications to existing systems and $11.59 million (Level D)   in  land
and  construction  of  land  treatment  facilities   (See  Table 38).  Tf
activated sludge is the biological system utilized, the cost could be as
high as $14.5 million (level E) plus land treatment  costs.   Thus,  the
total   investment   cost  to  achieve  the  best  practicable  effluent
limitations is approximately $17  million  but  could  be  high  as  $26
million.   This  $17 million investment amounts to a cost of about $3.40
per annual ton of processing capacity  and  about  1.4  percent  of  the
estimated industry investment of $1.2 billion.

The  cost increase to the consumer would be approximately 2.3 percent of
the retail price of the products.

The  total  U.S.  investment  does  not  include  costs  for  processors
discharging   to  municipal  sewers,  but  it  does  include  processors
utilizing land treatment.
                                   159

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Engineering Aspects Of control Technique Applications

The specified level of technology is practicable  because  it  is  being
practiced  by plants in all subcategories with multiple aerated lagoons,
activated sludge, anaerobic plus  aerobic  lagoons,  trickling  filters,
trickling  filters plus aerated lagoons or activated sludge plus aerated
lagoons.   With  screening,  primary  treatment  (potato  only)  and   a
biological  system, 6 apple, 7 citrus, and H potato plants are presently
achieving a BOD5_ discharge of less than 1 kg/kkg (2 Ib/T) and 4 apple, 7
citrus, and 2 potato plants are presently achieving a BOD  discharge  of
less than 0.25 kg/kkg  (0.5 lb/T) (See Table 41).

Four  apple  plants  including  one juice processing plant are presently
meeting the 1977 guidelines for BOD and SS  with  biological  treatment.
It  must  be  noted  that  two  biologically  treated  effluents are not
discharged  but  are  disposed  of  through  land   treatment   systems.
Activated  sludge,  anaerobic  plus  aerobic  lagoons,  multiple aerobic
lagoons, and trickling filters plus aerated lagoons  are  the  exemplary
biological treatment systems. ,

Five  citrus  products  plants are presently meeting the 1977 guidelines
for BOD and SS.  Two additional citrus processors are  meeting  the  BOD
limitations  only.  Multiple aerated lagoons, anaerobic/aerobic lagoons,
aerated lagoon with  trickling  filter  and  activated  sludge  ar^  the
exemplary  treatment  system.   Of  these  seven  plants, five would not
require cooling towers cr ponds for barometric cooling waters.

One American and two Canadian  potato  processing  plants  are  able  to
achieve  high levels of effluent reduction for BOD^> and suspended solids
through the utilization  of  exemplary  secondary  biological  treatment
systems.   Another  American  potato processing plant is able  to achiev^
high levels  of  effluent  reduction  for  BOD5.   Each  of  these  four
secondary  biological  treatment  systems  achieve at least the effluent
reduction required through the application of Best  Practicable  Control
Technology  Currently  Available  on  a seasonal average.  The discharcje
from the secondary biological system treating wastes from  plant  PO-128
was  able  to  achieve  the  effluent  reduction  required  through  1-he
application  of  the  Best  Practicable  control  Technology   Currently
Available  at  all  times  during  their 44 week 1972 processing season.
Both frozen  and  dehydrated  products  are  processed.   The  exemplary
treatment  systems  are  activated  sludge, trickling filters, anaerobic
plus aerobic lagoons, and multiple aerated lagoons.

Thus,  biological  treatment  has  been  shown  to  be  practicable  and
currently available technology for achieving the 1977 guidelines for the
apple,  citrus  and  potato industry.  In addition the guidelines can be
achieved by land treatment through spray irrigation or flood   irrigation
or other ultimate disposal technologies as described in Section VII.
                                   160

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                                TABLE  41
                         EFFLUENTS FROM  SECONDARY
                           TREATMENT  SYSTEMS
     PLANT
    AP-140
    AP-121
    AP-108
    AP-103
    AP~102
    AP-101

    CI-127
    CI-118
    CI-105
    CI-106
    CI-109
    CI-108
    CI-123
    CI-119

    PO- 1 28
    PO-128
    PO- 1 1 0
    PO- 1 27
    PO-127
    PO-109
(5)
d)
(2)

(3)
(1)
      CAPACITY
  50
 125
 145
 170
 220
 235

 225
 750
2250
2100
2900
3400
3800
5700

 140
 140
 320
 450
 450
1040
            BOD5 DISCHARGE
0. 10
0.15
0.95
0.22
0.07
0.63

0.05
0.20
0.05
0.25
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.19

0.85
0.08
0.75
0.68
0.23
0.95
0.20
0.29
1.90
0.44
0.13
1.25

0.10
0.39
0. 10
0.49
0.10
0.08
0.10
0.38

1.70
0. 15
1.50
1.35
0.46
1.90
                  SS DISCHARGE
                 13$2/kkg	
0.23
0.09
1.35
0.04

2.40

0.08
1.55
0.05
0.33
0.05
1.15
0.40
0. 16

0.70
0.30
4.38
0.41
0.26
1.60
0.46
0.18
2.70
0.08

4.79

0. 16
3. 10
0.10
0.66
0. 10
2.30
0.80
0.31
1.
0.
8.
0,
0,
40
59
75
81
51
                                               3.20
     (1) After screening, primary, activated  sludge
     (2) After (1) and three aerated  lagoons
     (3) After treatment system before  starch recovery  (In^Plant)
     (4) After treatment system after starch  recovery in  operation
     (5) Common treatment system


Over  50  percent  of  the apple plants and  apple plant  capacity utilize
land treatment to dispose of their wastes.   At  least 10  additional  apple
plants are  presently  achieving  an  effluent   reduction   greater   than
required  by  the application of the Best Practicable  Control  Technology
Currently Available through land treatment.   Over  50  percent  of  the
citrus  and  potato plants and over  50 percent  of their  capacity utilize
land treatment to dispose of their wastes.   Thus, at least  20  additional
citrus  plants  and  twelve  additional  potato plants  are   currently
                                    161

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achieving an effluent reduction greater than required by the application
of the Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available.
Process Changes

No  major  in-plant  changes  will  be needed by most plants to meet the
limits  specified.   Many  plants  will  need  to  improve  their  water
conservation  practices  and,housekeeping, both responsive to good plant
management control.


Non-water Quality Environmental Impact

The major impact when the option of a biological type of process is use3
to achieve the limits will be the problem of  sludge  disposal.   Nearby
land  for  sludge  disposal  may  be  needed  but  in  many cases sludae
conditioning will allow the sludge solids to  be  treated  and  sold  as
animal feed.

Another  problem  is  the  odor  that  emits periodically from anaerobic
laqoons or localized anaerobic environments within aerobic lagoons.  Th=>
oior problem can usually be  avoided  with  well  operated  systems  ani
oroper in-plant waste management.

Tnere  is  also  a  potential  detrimental  impact  on soil systems when
application of waste to soil is not managed adequately.  Manacrement must
assure that land treatment systems are maintained commensurate with crop
nee^ and soil tolerance.


^actors To Be Considered In Applying EPCTCA Limitations

1.  Land treatment by spray irrigation, or equivalent
    methods providing minimal discharge should be encouraaed.

2.   Laminations are based on 30 day averages  (See Table 40).
    Based on performance of biological waste treatment
    systems at plants AP-121, CI-123, and PO-123, the maximum
    iaily limitations should not exceed the 30 day average
    limitations by more than three hundred percent for the
    apple juice and apple products arid citrus products
    subcategories, and ty more than four  hundred percent for
    the frozen and dehydrated potato sufccategories  {See Table  42).

3.  The nature of biological treatment plants is such that on  the
    order of four days may be required to reach the daily maximum
    limitation after initial startup at the beginning of the
    process season.


                                   162

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If a plant produces products in more than one subcategory, for
instance apple juice and apple sauce or frozen and dehydrated
potato products, the effluent limitations should be set
by proration on the basis of the percentage of the total
raw material being processed to each product.
                               163

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                                       164

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                               SECTION X


               EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THF
              APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
                        ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

                              INTRODUCTION


The effluent limitations which must be achieved no later  than  July  1,
1983  are  not  based  on  an  average of the best performance within an
industrial subcategory, but are determined by identifying the very  best
control  and  treatment  technology  employed by a specific point source
within the industrial category or subcategory, or by one industry  wher-^
it  is readily transferable to another.  A specific finding must be made
as to the availability of control measures and  practices  to  eliminate
the  discharge  of  pollutants,  taking  into  account  the coqt of SUCH
elimination.

Consideration must also be given to:

    The age of the equipment and facilities involved;

    The process employed;

    The engineering aspects of the application of various types
    of control techniques;

    Process changes;

    The cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting
    from application of the technology;

    Non-water quality environmental impact (including energy
    requirements) .


Also, Best Available Technology Economically Achievable  emphasizes  in-
process  controls  as well as control or additional treatment techniques
employed at the end of the production process.

This level of technology considers those  plant  processes  and  control
technologies which, at the pilot plant, semi-works, or other level, have
demonstrated both technological performances and economic viability at a
level sufficient to reasonably justify investing in such facilities.  it
is  the  highest  degree of control technology that has been achieved or
has been demonstrated to be capable of being designed-  for  plant  scale


                                   165

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            '  ~'.'    Ui ""  incl iidl >Kj  "AC ill s< :ha i'Cj --•"  ,L         -    .  :O ? r,-  .••;-

             ' '   ""  are   inten''1>"d  to  be  the tot.-      :  .L_.^  c;" c;ii^- ,,
             >•' I  . '- tc;  limitation.-;  imposed by ec-.r, .,_    i    n^iu^ f. 11;..
         iy.   TT'.-VA--?ver,  there  may be some  technical i , ^}  -v.Lth xt-sp*ci L
    'orrnanc^- and with respect *ro certainty   of  costs,   i'ht r'.'fote,  L-C:T,
industrially  sponsored   development  work  may  be  needed prior to  it.
application.
         EFFLUENT REDUCTION  ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION
        OF THE BEST AVAILABLE  TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVARLE

The effluent limitation  guidelines  for  the  apple,  citrus  and  potato
segment  of  the canned  and  preserved fruits and vegetables industry  de-
based on the information contained  in Section III through VIII  of  this
report.   This  industry segment  consists of processors of the following
nroducts;  apple  products   (except  caustic   peeled   and   dehydrate 1
products); citrus products  (except  pection and pharmaceutical products);
and  frozen  and  dehydrated  potato products.  A determination has been
made that the quality  of effluent attainable through the application   of
the  best  available   technology  economically achievable is as listed  in
Table 43.  The technology to achieve these goals is generally available,
although the advanced  treatment techniques may not have yet been applied
to a processing plant  at full  scale.

It was pointed out in  Section   IX  that  land  treatment  was  a  highly
effective  technology  for treating  apple, citrus and potato wastes.   The
considerations of land treatments made in Section IX for 1977 apply here
for 1983 alternatives.  Where  suitable land is available, irrigation   is
an option that not only  is recommended from the discharge viewpoint,  but
also will usually be more economical than the system otherwise required.

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                                TABLE 43
                       MAXIMUM THIRTY DAY AVERAGE
       RECOMMENDED EFFLUENT LIMITATION GUIDELINES FOR I JULY 1983

PLANT_SUECATEGORY(1)                   BOD5_          SUSPENDED SOLIDS
                                 , kg/kkg.	Ib/T     k3/kk2_	112/3!

APPLES:  Apple Juice               0.07   0.14       0.10    0.20

APPLES:  Apple Products
         Except Juice              0.07   0.14       0.10    0.20

CITRUS:  Juice, Oil,  Segments
         and Peel Products         0.05   0.10       0.08    0.16

POTATOES:  Frozen Products         0.16   0.32       0.27    0.54

POTATOES:  Dehydrated Products     0.16   0.32       0.27    0.54

(1)   For all subcategories pH should be between 6.0 and 9.0
                  IDENTIFICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE
                   TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

The  best  available  technology  economically  achievable for the arplfi
(except caustic peeled and dehydrated products), citrus   (except  pectin
and pharmaceutical products)  and frozen and dehydrated potato processing
segment  of  the  canned  and  preserved  fruits and vegetables industry
includes the preliminary  screening,  primary   settling,  and  secondary
biological   treatment   listed   under  the  Best  Practicable  Control
Technology Currently Available.  In  addition,  it  includes  additional
secondary  treatment  such as more aerated lagoons or advanced treatment
such as a sand filter following secondary treatment.

Management controls over housekeeping and water use  practices  will  be
stricter  than  required  for  1977.   However,  no  additional in-plant
controls will be reguired to achieve the specified  levels  of  effluent
reduction.   The following paragraphs describe  several in-plant controls
and modifications  that  provide  alternatives  and  trade-offs  between
controls  and  additional  effluent  treatment.   In many cases they are
economically more attractive than additional treatment facilities.

    1.    Recycle  of  raw  material  wash  water.   Solids  removal  and
         chlorination  are  required.   This  step  is  presently  beinq
                                   167

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         practiced  at a few potato plants  and will soon be practiced  in
         the citrus industry.

    2.   Utilization of low water usage  peel  removal equipment.   Some of
         this equipment is being used, such as the rubber  abrading   and
         brushing system used for the  removal of potato peel.

    ^.   Removal  of  sclids  from   transport   and   slicing    waters.
         Hydroclon^s  or  liquid  cyclones can recover starch  particle-
         from potato cutting  water  and  apple  particles   from  aople-
         slicing  waters.   The  hydroclones   can also be used  to t^i^ov"
         solid  material from total plant waste waters.  Up to 50 p*-rcTir.
         total  POD  removal is possible.  The  system is  presently  hi- i n !
         used   on    a  limited  basis  in the  potato  industry.    in-
         applicability may vary from plant to plant.

    'I.   Improved mechanical cleaning  of  belts  to  replace belt   v-is-.
         water.

    5.   Recirculation of all cooling  water through  cooling toweis  01
         spray  ponds.   Cooling  waters  include barometric water,  can-
         cooling water, bottle chilling  water, etc.

    6.   Practice of extensive dry cleanup to replace washing and,  wher-',
         possible,  use of continuous dry cleanup and materials   recovery
         procedures.   Push-to-open  valves  need  to  be  used whf revr-r
         possible.   spray nozzles can  be   redesigned  for   lower  wate-r
         flow.  Automatic valves that  close when the water is not in u^
         should be  installed.


The stated guidelines for the two apple  subcategories can be achieved by
adding  aerated  lagocns  and/or shallow lagoons and/or a sand  filter to
the best  practicable  control  technology.   The  recommended   effluent
limitation  guidelines  for  1  July   1983 for the apple juice  and aopl-
products  (except  juice) subcategories  are  based on the  performances  of
th<=  best  secondary biological systems  treating apple wastes,   Thc BODf>
Affluent limitation is based on the EOD5_ discharge  from  the   treatment-
sypt^tn  at  plant  AP-102 and the suspended solids effluent limitation if
bas---d on the maximum RS discharge from the treatment  --yrit'-mr,   at  pl.»Mi
VJ--1 cacti oai. ! ••
      >]  t-.e	s>'oiogy  CUT trently  available.   Th^  r-"-'"'t.'>- -ul-'/i    < fiiu- nt
     . ••"ion   '-pi idelit-iCS   for   1  July  19F::   for   ? r-  cif m;:-.   pr_. iucti-
      ^"C!.;ry  are   bas<=d  on  fh'-  pe rl-jr;u-iuct =:  ut  r.i;^  bf.-c;t   i,-">C' r-, 1 "< r 7
     '--V. -:a"i ryf;tenis  trr-^tinq clti'as w •; -:-115>.  The f.H'/ii'', fftlu^'nt  linsi*" 't ion
     ^•' ••-•)  on   th-   avf'ragr  --ops  disci;arge.   (l:\fi- a <••). T."M-' -»11  ft nn
     'i • ,i  £*',-*L- '.t\'.-'  a'1-  j-lant  C ' - 1 ? /' f  r[-10c->,   Cl-li'.'t   Siv!   /!•-'/!'.    rr'h<'
        ."'  .:ol ; dr:   M n.it at ion   is !---, --•< J  on fi'3 maxi.i.a:!1  '!?;

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the treatment systems at plant CI-127 and Cl>105.   The  guidelines  for
the two potato subcategories can be achieved by adding an aerated lagoon
and  a shallow lagoon or an aerated lagoon and/or sand filtration to the
best  practicable  control   technology.    The   recommended   effluent
limitation  guidelines  for  1  July  1983 for the frozen and dehydrated
potato products subcategories are based on the performances of the  best
secondary  biological systems treating potato wastes.  The BOD5_ effluent
limitation is based on the average BOD  discharge  to  receiving  waters
from treatment systems at plant PO-128 and PO-127.  The suspended solids
limitation is based on the average SS discharge to receiving waters from
treatment  systems  at  plant PO-128 and PO-127.  Both PO-128 and PO-127
are Canadian potato processing plants.   The  guidelines  for  all  five
subcategories can also te achieved by land treatment if suitable land is
available  (See  section  IX).   Screening and primary treatment  (potato
only), a shallow mixing lagoon and spray irrigation  achieve  a  minimal
waste water discharge.


RATIONALE  FOR  THE  SELECTION  OF  BEST  AVAILABLE  CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE


Age And Size Of Equipment And Facilities

Neither size nor age was found to affect the effectiveness of  the  best
available  technology  economically achievable.  In-plant control can be
managed quite effectively in older plants even though  the  technologies
required  for  reducing  the  raw  waste loads to low levels may be more
costly to install in older plants.  For example, rerouting of sewers  to
segregate waste streams could be difficult and costly.

The smaller operations have more low cost in-plant waste water reduction
alternatives  than  larger  plants where immense quantities of materials
are involved.  It is anticipated that many small plants will  find  land
disposal   the   best  alternative.   Municipal  treatment  is  also  an
alternative in many cases.


Total Cost Of Application In Relation To Effluent Reduction Benefits

Based on information contained in  Section  VIII  of  this  report,  the
industry  as  a  whole would have to invest about between $5.9 and $11.7
million above that required to meet the 1977 standards.  This investment
is in  new  construction  of  secondary  biological  or  advanced  waste
treatment facilities.  The total investment cost including land and land
treatment  costs  to  achieve  the best practicable effluent limitations
(Section IX)  ranged from $17 to $26 million.  The total investment  cost
including  land  to  achieve  the  best  practicable  and best available
effluent  limitations  is  $29  to  $36  million.   This  $12.7  million
investment to achieve the best available effluent reduction amounts to a
                                   169

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cost  of  approximately  $2.30 per annual ton of processing capacity and
approximately 1.0 percent of the estimated industry investment  of  $1.2
billion.   The  combined  cost  of  the  best  practicable  and the best
available technology amounts to a cost of between $5.70  and  $7.20  per
annual  ton  of  processing  capacity  and  between  2.4 percent and 3.0
percent of the estimated industry investment.


The cost to the consumer would be about 1.6 percent of the retail  price
of  the  products  to achieve best available technology only or the cost
for both best practicable and best available technology would be between
3.8 percent and 4,8 percent of the retail price of the products.

All plants discharging to  streams  can  implement  the  best  available
technology  economically  achievable;  the technology is not affected by
different processes used in the plants.

Engineering Aspects Of Control Technique Application

The specified level of technology is achievable.   Biological  secondary
treatment  is practiced throughout the apple, citrus and potato industry
and sand filtration is practiced in at least one potato plant  (England).
With present biological treatment  systems  without  advanced  treatment
methods  such  as  sand filtration, at least one apple, citrus or potato
plant in each of the five subcategories is presently achieving the  high
levels  of  effluent  reduction  required by the application of the P^st
Available or unproven Control Technology  Economically  Achievable   (See
Table 41) .

No  unique  in-plant  ccntrol  technology  is  required to achieve these
standards.  However, many of the in-plant controls outlined above  under
"Identification   of   the   Best   Available   Technology  Economically
Achievable" have been  utilized  to  achieve  high  levels  of  effluent
reduction.   An  apple sauce, slice, and juice plant has a raw waste BOD
of  1.4 kg/kkg  (2.8 Ib/T) compared to the average of over  5  kg/kkg   (10
Ib/T)  (See Table 19).  A citrus juice, oil and feed processing plant has
a  water  usuage  of only 710 1/kkg  (170 gal/T), BOD of 0.45 kg/kkg  (0.9
Ib/T)  and suspended solids of 0.02 kg/kkg  (0.04  Ib/T).   These  values
compare  with  average flow values of  10,110 1/kkg  (2425 gal/T), average
BOD of 3.2 kg/kkg  (6.4 Ib/T) and average SS of 1.3 kg/kkg  (2.6 Ib/T) see
Table 20).  A frozen potato procesor has a water usage  of  4,090  1/kkg
(980  gal/T)   and  a BOD of 4.45 kg/kkg  (8.9 Ib/T) compared with average
values of 11,320 1/kkg  (2710 gal/T) and 22.9 kg/kkg   (45.86  Ib/T)   (See
Table  21).  Thus, in-plant controls exist as alternatives to additional
secondary biological treatment.

There is an additional 50 percent of   the  industry  that  is  presently
using  land  treatment.   Thus,  over  40 plants are presently achieving
effluent reductions  required  by  1983  guidelines  and  many  have   no
discharge  of  pollutants  to navigable waters.  This technology is used


                                   170

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with  and  without  holding  ponds  in  Idaho,  Washington,  California,
Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  New  York and Florida.  Most other states also
have land treatment of the fruit and vegetable industry.  Application of
technology for greatly reduced water use will facilitate land  disposal.
Experience  has  shown  that  good management practices assure that land
disposal and irrigation systems can be maintained commensurate with crop
need and soil tolerance.

Process Changes

No in-plant changes will be needed by most plants  to  meet  the  limits
specified.    Some   available  techniques  which  may  be  economically
attractive are outlined in the "Identification  of  the  Best  Available
Technology Economically Achievable," paragraph above.

Non-water Quality Environmental Impact

The  non-water  quality  impacts  will essentially be those described in
Section IX.  It is  concluded  that  nc  new  serious  impacts  will  be
introduced.

Factors To Be Considered in Applying Level II Guidelines

1.  Land treatment by spray irrigation, or equivalent methods  providina
    minimal discharge should be encouraged.

2.  Limitations are based on 30 day averages.  Based on  performance  of
    biological waste treatment systems at plants AP-121, CI-123, and PO-
    128,  the  maximum  daily  limitations  should not exceed the 30 day
    average limitations by more than three hundred percent for the appl^
    juice and apple products subcategories,  and citrus products  ,  and
    by  more  than  four  hundred  percent for the frozen and dehydrated
    potato subcategories (See Table UH).

3.  The nature of biological treatment plants is such that on the  order
    of  four days may be required to reach the daily maximum limitations
    after initial startup at the beginning of the process season.

<4.  If a plant produces products  in  more  than  one  subcategory,  for
    instance apple juice and apple sauce or frozen and dehydrated potato
    products, the effluent limitations should be set by proration on the
    basis of the percentage of the total raw material being processed to
    each product.
                                   171

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                               SECTION XI
                    NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARD
                              INTRODUCTION


The effluent limitations that must be achieved by new sources are termed
performance  standards.   The  New Source Performance Standards apply to
any source for which construction starts after the  publication  of  the
proposed regulations for the standards.  The Standards are determined by
adding  to  the  consideration underlying the identification of the pfjst
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available  a  determination  of
what higher levels of pollution control are available throuah the use of
improved  production  processes  and/or  treatment technigues.  Thus, in
addition to considering the best  in-plant  and  end-of-process  control
technology. New Source Performance Standards are based on an analysis of
how  the  level  of  effluent  may be reduced by changing the production
process itself.   Alternative  processes,  operating  methods  or  oth^r
alternatives are considered.  However, the end result of the analysis is
to   identify   effluent  standards  which  reflect  levels  of  control
achievable through the use of improved production a particular (as  wfll
as  control  technology),  rather  than prescribing a particular type of
process or technology which must be employed.  A  further  determination
made  is  whether  a  standard  permitting  no discharge of pollutant is
practicable.

Consideration must also be given to:

    Operating methods;

    Batch, as opposed to continuous, operations;

    Use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw materials;

    Use of dry rather than  wet  processes   (including  substitution  of
    recoverable solvents for water);

    Recovery of pollutants as by-products.
                                   173

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             EFFLyENT_gEDUCTIQN ATTAINABLE FOR NEW SOURCES


The effluent limitation for new sources is the same as that for the best
available  technology  economically  achievable  (see  Section X).   This
limitation is achievable in newly constructed plants.

The in-plant controls  and  waste  treatment  technology  identified  in
Section X are available now and applicable to new plants.  Land disoosal
remains  the  most  desirable  disposal  method.   The land availability
reguirements for treatment can be considered in site selection for a n<=w
plant.  Thus, land treatment will probably be the  most  attractive  new
source alternative.

The  new  source technology is the same as that identified in Section Y..
The conclusion reached in Section  X  with  respect  to  Total  Cost  of
Application  in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits, the Engineering
Aspects of Control Technigue  Application,  Process  Changes,  Non-Water
Quality  Environmental  Impact, and Factors to be Considered in Applyinq
Level II Guidelines, apply with egual force  to  these  New  Performanc0
Standards.
                       PRETREATMENT REQUIREMENTS


Three  constituents  of  the  waste  water from plants within the apple,
citrus or  potato  processing  industry  have  been  found  which  would
interfere  with,  pass through, or otherwise be incompatible with a well
designed and operated  publicly  owned  activated  sludge  or  trickling
filter  waste  water  treatment plant.  Waste water constituents include
caustic solutions  from  peeling  operations  such  as  lye  dip  potato
peelers, D'limonene from citrus peel processing operations, and oil from
frying  operations.   Adeguate control methods can and should be used to
keep significant quantities of these materials out of the waste water.
                                    174

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                              SECTION XII


                            ACKNOWL EDGMENTS


The  Fnvironmental  Protection  Agency   wishes   to   acknowledge   the
contributions  of  Mr.   Paul  Miller.   His professional excellence and
valuable judgment are appreciated as are the contributions of Mr.  Ching
Yung.

Appreciation is expressed for the interest of several individuals within
the  Environmental  Protection  Agency:   Ken  Dostal and George Keeler,
OR&D; Gene McNeil, Region IV;  George  Webster,  Ernst  Hall  and  All^n
Cywin,  EGD.   Special  thanks  are  due  Richard  Sternberg  and Harold
Thompson and the many secretatries who typed and retyped this  document:
Cynthia  Wright,  Pat Johnson, Bettie Rich, Vannessa Catcher, Jan Beale,
and Karen Thompson.

Acknowledgment is made of the active cooperation of  industry  personnel
who provided information essential to the study.
                                   175

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                              SECTION XIII
                               REFERENCES
BOOKS

1.  Besselievre, Edmund B. , The Treatment_of Industrial
    Wastes, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 196^1

2.  Culp, Russell L. and Gulp, Gordon L., Advanced^Waste-
    water Treatment, Van Nostrand ReinhoId Company,  New
    York, 1971.

3.  Fckenfelder, W. Wesley, Jr., Industrial_Water_Pollution
    Control, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,~1966.

4.  Eckenfelder, W. Wesley, Jr., Water_Quality_Engineering
    f2£_l^§c^cJ.ng_Engineerj, Barnes and Noble,  Inc. ,"rNew
    York, 1970.

5.  ^air, Gordon M., Geyer, John C., and Okun,  Daniel  A.,
    Wat er_and_Wastewater^Engineering_t_yolr_2^ _ Water  Pur if i-
    cation_and_Wastewatgr_Treatment_and_Disposal, John
    Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York 1968.

6.  Lock, Arthur, Practj.cal^Canning, 3rd Edition, Food
    Trade Press, London, 1969.

7.  Mancy, K. H. and Weber, W. J., Jr., Analysis of^Indus-
    trial Wastewater, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1971.

8.  Talburt, William F. and Smith, Ora, Pgtatg_Prgcessing,
    2nd Edition, The AVI Publishing Co., Inc.,  Westport,
    Connecticut, 1967.

9.  Tressler, Donald K. and Joslyn, Maynard A.,  Fruit_and
    Ve_getable_Juice Processing_TechnologY» 2nd  Edition,
    The AVI Publishing Co., Inc., Westport, Connecticut,  1971.

10. Weber, Walter J., Jr., Physicochemical_Processes for
    Water_2uality_Control, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,  New
    York, 1972.

11- ^2£iSiItural_Statistics_1972, United States Department
    of Agriculture  (USDA), U. S. Government Printing Office,
    Washington, D.C., 1972.
                                    177

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12.  The Almanac of -the Canning, Freezing, and Preserving
    jD3ustries_1972r 57th Edition, Edward E. Judge and Sons,
    Inc., Westminster, Maryland.

1 3 .  The Almanac of the Canning, Freezingt^and Preserving
    Industries 1971, 56th Edition, Edward E. Judge and Sons,
    Inc., Westminster, Maryland.
1 4 .  1972_Annual_BQQk_gf _ASTM Standards f     ^_
    Atmos_gheric_AnalYjis, American Society for Testing and
    Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

15.  Canners Directory 1969-70, National Canners Association,
    Washington, D.C.

1 6 .  The__Directory_of _the_Canningx_Freezing_t_and_ Preserving
    Industries_1972^73, Uth Biennial Edition, Edward  E.
    Judge and Sons, Inc., Westminster, Maryland, 1972.

17.  Frozen_Food_Pack_ Statist .ics_ 1972,  American Frozen Food
    Institute, Washington, D.C.

18.  S^nd^rd_Indu^^ial_Cj.assj.fJ:c^tion_Manual_]^972_, Execu-
    tive Office of the President, Office of Management and
    Budget, Statistical Policy Division, Washington,  D.C.

1 9 .  Standard Methods_for_the Examination_of^Water_and
    Wastewater, 13th Edition, American Public Health  Asso-
    ciation, American Water Works Association, and  Water
    Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C.  1971.

20.  Water_2ualitY_and_Treatrnent, The Arrerican Water Works
    Association, Inc., 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book  Co.,
    New York.
PUBLICATIONS

1.  Allen, Thomas S. and Kingsbury,  Robert P.,  The^Physio-
    logical Design of  Biological Towers,  28th Annual Purdue
    Industrial Waste Conference, May 2,  1973.

2.  Cochrann, M. W., Burn, R. J., and Dostal, K.  A.,
    Cannery Wagtewater Treatment: with Rotating  Biological
    Contactor_and_Extended_Aeration,  Pro.  Element 1 B2037,
    EPAORM7 USGPO, Washington,  D.C.,  April 1973.

?.  Dostal, K.A., Aerated Lagoon^Treatment of Fopd Prg-


                                    178

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    cessing_Wastes, EPAWQO, Project No. 12060, USGPO,
    Washington, B.C., March 1968.

4.   Dostal, K. A., SecondarY_Treatment_of_Potato_Processin2
    Wastes, EPAWQO, Project No. 12060, USGPoT Washington,
    D. c77 July 1969.

5.   Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., Woodward, Charles, Lawler, John, and
    Spinna, Robert, Study of Fruit and Vegetable Processing Wastg
    2i§2O§§i_Methods_in_the_Ea.stern_Re2i2Ii» US^A,""contract No.~
    12-14-100-482  (13) , September 1958.


6.   Eilero, R. G. and Smith, R., Wastewater^Treatment^Piant
    £2st_E^timating_Program, EPAWQO, Cincinnati,~Ohio7
    April 19717

7.   Esvelt, L. A., Aerobic Treatment of Fruit Processing
    Wastes, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
    USDT, Grant No. 12060, October 1969.

8.   French, R. T., Company, Aerobic_Secondary Treatment of Potato
    Processing^Wastes, EPAWQO, Project No. 12060, EHV, WPRD 15-01-6P,
    Washington, D. C., Eecember 1970.


9.   Guttormsen, K. and Carlson, D. A., Current Practice_in
    Potato_Processing_Waste_Treatment, FWPCA, USDI, Grant
    No. WP-01486-01, October 1969.

10. Law, J. P., et al. Nutrient_Removal_From_CannerY_Wastes
    bY_SpraY_Irrigation_of_Grassland, FWPCA, USDI, Water Pollution
    Control Research Service 16080, Washington, D.C.,
    November 1969.

11. Mercer, W. A. and Somers, I. I., Chlorine in Food Plant
    Sanitation, Western Research Lab., National Canners
    Association  (NCA), Berkeley, California.

12. Stevens, Michael R., Elazar, Daniel J., and Schlesinger,  Jeanne,  Green_
    L^25z2i£SH_Strearns, Center for the Study of Federalism, Temple      ^
    University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1972.

13. Winter Garden Citrus Products Cooperative, Complete Mix^Actiyated
    §la<3gg Treatment of citrus Process^Wastes, EPAORM, Grant  No.  12060, EZY,
    Washington, D.C., August 1971.

14. Gallup, James D., Investigation of Filamentgus_Bulking_in_the_Activated
    Sludge Process, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, August,  1971.
                                    179

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                              SECTION XIV

                                GLOSSARY
The  definitions  given herein are not intended to be complete and exact
scientific or engineering definitions, but are correct as generally used
or understood in the Food Processing Industry.


Acid:  Mostly citric acid in  citrus  fruit;  expressed  as  percent  by
weight or milligrams per 100 ml.
                   Sludge floe produced in raw or settled waste water hy
the  growth of bacteria and other organisms in the presence of dissolved
oxygen and accummulated in sufficient concentration  by  returning  tloc
previously formed.

Activated_Sludg_e_Process:  A biological waste water treatment process in
which  a  mixture  of  waste  water and activated sludge is agitated an /-
aerated.  The  activated  sludge  is  subsequently  separated  from  thc>
treated  waste  water   (mixed  liquor)  by  sedimentation  and wasted or
returned to the process as needed.

Aeration:  The bringing about of intimate contact between air and  wast-
water  by  bubbling  air  through the liquid, mechanically agitating thf
liquid to promote surface absorption of air, or spraying the wast^ wat^r
in the air.

Aerator:  A device used to  promote  aeration.   Typically  of  a  motor
driven propeller design; however, many types are available.

Aerobic:  Living or active only in the presence of free oxygen.
Air __ P2iiUii22:   Tne  Fresence  i-n  the  atmosphere  of one or more air
contaminants in quantities,  of  characteristics,  and  of  a  duration,
injurious   to   human,  plant,  animal  life,  or  property,  or  which
unreasonably interfered with the comfortable enjoyment thereof.

Al2§_§.:  Major group of lower plants, single  and  multi-celled,  usually
aguatic and capable of synthesizing their foodstuff by photosynthesis.

Alkalinity:   The  capacity  of  water  to  neutralize acids, a property
imparted by the water's content of carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides,
and occasionally borates, silicates, and phosphates.  It is expressed in
milligrams per liter of eguivalent calcium carbonate.

            Living or active in the absence of free oxygen.
                                   181

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                       A type of condenser which  allows  vapors  to  be
condensed  at  a pressure of less than one atmosphere.  Because it has a
long vertical bottom pipe, the pipe is often called a barometric leg,
                    A bed °f gravel, broken stone, special  plastic,  or
other  medium  through  which  waste  water  flows  or  trickles  and is
stabilized by the biological action of bacteriological growths living on
the filter media.  Also called a trickling filter.

Biological Oxidation :  The process  whereby,  through  the  activity  of
living  organisms in an aerobic environment, organic matter is converted
to more biologically stable matter.
          _ Stabilization:  Reduction in the net energy level or  organic
matter  as  a  result  of  the  metabolic activity of organisms, so that
further biodegradation is very slow.

Biological Treatment :  Organic waste treatment in which bacteria  and/or
biochemical action are intensified under controlled conditions.

Slowdown:   A  discharge from a system, designed to prevent & buildup of
some material, as in a boiler to control dissolved solids.
3OD:  Biochemical Oxygen Demand  (BOD 5-day) .   The  quantity  of
used in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter in a specified time,
(usually  5  days) ,  at  a  specified  temperature,  and under specified
conditions.

Brix:  A scale for indicating  percent sugar by weight  in  a  juice  or
solution.  10° Brix = 10 percent sugar by weight.

Carbon ___ Adsorption:   The  separation  of  small  waste  particles  and
molecular species, including color and odor contaminants, by  attachment
to  the  surface  and  open pore structure of carbon granules or powder.
The carbon is usually "activated", or made more  reactive  by  treatment
and processing.

Category __ and __ Subcategory:   Divisions  of  a particular industry which
possess different traits that affect raw waste water guality.

Caustic:  Capable of destroying  or  eating  away  by  chemical  action.
Applied to strong bases such as NaOH.
              A  mechanical device in which centrifugal force  is us°d to
separate solids  from   liquids  and/or  separate  liquids  of   different
densities.

Chemical __ Pr?.cipJ_tatjLcn :   A  waste  treatment process whereby  substances
dissolved in the waste water stream  are rendered  insoluble   and form   a
solid phase that settles out or can  be removed by flotation  techniques.


                                   182

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                Tne  addition  of minute amounts of  chlorine  to  water  or
treated waste water tc kill bacteria contained therein.

Citrus_Pule __ [Dried^ C itrus_Peel__(Dr ied]_ :  Chopped peel,  seeds and   other
non- juice  parts  of the fruit that have been limed  and  dried for  cattle
feed.

Clarification:  The process of removing  undissolved materials  from   a
liquid.    Specifically,   removal  of  solids  either   by  settling   or
filtration.

Clarifier:  A settling basin for separating  settlable solids  from   wast^
water.

Cm:  Centimeter.

Coagulant:   A  material,  which,  when added to liquid  wastes or  wat<^rr
creates a reaction which forms insoluble floe particles  that  adsorb and
precipitate  colloidal  and suspended solids.  The floe  particles  can  b^
removed by sedimentation.  Among the  most   common   chemical   coagulants
used in sewage treatment are ferric sulfate  and alum.

Q2a,2!ii§ti.on :   The  destabilization and initial aggregation of colloidal
and finely divided suspended matter by the addition  of   a  f loc-formina
chemical or by biological process.

COD:   Chemical  oxygen demand.  Its determination provides a measure  of
the oxygen demand equivalent of that portion of matter in a sample which
is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.   Obtained   by
reacting the organic matter in the sample with oxidizing chemicals under
specified conditions.

Colc[ __ PE§_ssed __ OJ.3.:  Essential oil from citrus peel  obtained  without the
use of heat.

Col i f orm_bater ia :  Bacteria perdominantly inhabiting the intestines   of
man or animal, but occasionally found elsewhere. Their presence  in water
is evidence of contamination by fecal material.
            Mixed __ Activated __ Sludcje:    Treatment   system   in   which the
untreated waste water is instantly mixed throughout  the  entire   aeration
basin.

CooJ.ing __ Tower:   A  device  for cooling water by  spraying  in the  air or
trickling over slats.

QP.!lQ.tercurr ent :  Flow of wash or process water in  opposition to flow  of
product so that the product encounters increasingly  cleaner water.

Culj.:  Product rejected because of interior  quality.


                                   183

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             Removal of oxygen from products (juices or apple slices)  to
prevent adverse effects en properties of the products.

Decant __ Water:   Water  from  which a top layer of D-limonene is skimmed
off,  obtained  usually  from  molasses  evaporator  condensate  (citrus
process) .

Deni tri f ica tion :   The  process  involving the facultative conversion by
anaerobic bacteria of nitrates into nitrogen and nitrogen oxides.

            Removal of oil from produce juices.

            A centrifuge designed to remove the coarse particles from  a
peel oil emulsion.

Detention __ Time;  Period of time required for a liquid to flow through a
tank or unit.
            Tne biological decomposition of organic  matter  in  sludge,
resulting in partial gasification, liquefaction, and mineralization.

Disintegrate:   To  break  or  reduce into component parts or particles,
e.g., the rupture of potato cells for starch processing.

Hi ss olved_Air_Flot at ion :  A process involving the compression of air and
liquid, mixing  to  super- saturation,  and  releasing  the  pressure  to
generate  large  numbers  of minute air bubbles.  As the bubbles rise to
the surface of the water, they carry with them small particles that they
contact.  The process is particularly effective for grease removal.

D-limonene:  Major constituent of peel oil.  Sometimes used synonymously
with stripper oil.
             Pipes of various materials with perforations or open joints
laid in  underground  trenches  and  fills  to  collect  and  carry  off
subsurface water.

Effluent:   Wastewater  or other liquid, partially or completely treated
or untreated, flowing out of  a  process  operation,  processing  plant,
reservoir, basin, or treatment plant.
                  A physical separation process which uses membranes and
applied voltages to separate ionic species from water.

Enzyme:   A  catalyst produced by living cells that accelerates  specific
transformation of material, as in the digestion of food.

          OiJ.:  The oil  in citrus peel, peel oil.
                                    184

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Eutrophication ;  Applies to lake or pond - becoming  rich  in  dissolved
nutrients, with seasonal oxygen deficiencies.
             Condensers:   Equipment used to condense hot vapors wherein
water is circulated over coils containing the vapors.  Part of the water
evaporates in the air, enhancing the cooling effect.

Evaporator:  Equipment used to remove water from juice or press  liquor,
usually by boiling in a vacuum, and condensing the vapors.
                   :   Water  withdrawn from the soil by evaporation and
plant transpiration.

Exhaust:  Heating of food in cans prior to closing the cans to force air
out of the containers.
IjXi§!2ded_ Aeration:  A fcrm of the activated sludge process  except  that
the retention time of waste waters is one to three days.

Facultative __ Bacteraa:   Bacteria  which  can  exist and reproduce unler
either aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

             D§£°IQE2§itioi}:   Decomposition   of   organic   matter   by
facultative microorganisms.
                     ^  combination  aerobic-anaerobic  pond  divided by
loading and thermal stratification into aerobic surface,  and  anaerobic
bottom, strata.

Feed:  A material which flows into a containing space or process unit.

Fermentation :  Changes in organic matter brought about by microorganisms
growing in the absence of air.

Filtrate:  Liquid after passing through a filter.

Filtration:   Removal  of  solid particles from liquid or particles from
air or gas stream  by  passing  the  liquid  or  gas  stream  through  a
permeable membrane.

Floe:   A  mass  formed by the aggregation of a number of fine suspended
particles.

Flpcqulation:  The process of forming larger masses from a large  number
of finer suspended particles.

Floe _ Skimmincjs:  The flocculent mass formed on a quieted liquid surface
and removed for use, treatment, or disposal.
                                   185

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Pluming:  In-plant transportation of product or waste  material  through
water conveyance.
Industrial __ HH§£;ew^i§£:   Flow  of  waste  liquids from industries using
large volumes of water from processing industrial products, such as food
processing plants.

Inf_luent:  A liquid which flows into a containing space or process unit.

Ton Exchange:  A reversible chemical reaction  between  a  solid  and  a
liquid  by  means of which ions may be interchanged between the two.  Tt
is in common use in water softening and water deionizing.

Kg:  Kilogram or 1,000 grams, metric unit of weight.

Kje ldahl_Ni trogen :  A measure of the total amount  of  nitrogen  in  the
ammonia and organic forrrs in waste water.

KWH:  Kilowatt-hours, a measure of total electrical energy consumption.

Lagoon:   A  large  pond  used  to hold waste water for stabilization by
natural processes.

Leach:  To subject to the action of percolating water or other liquid in
order to separate soluble components.  To cause water or other liquid to
percolate through.

LeacMng:  The removal of  soluble  constituents  from  soils  or  other
materials by percolating water.

Lime:   Calcium  oxide,  a  caustic white solid, which forms slaked lime
 (calcium hydroxide) when combined with water.  It is used for pH control
and other waste treatment pruposes.

Lye:  A strong alkaline solution.  Caustic soda   (podium  hydroxide)  is
the most common lye.

Lye __ Dump:  The spent water from the lye bath that  is used to remove the
inner membrane  of  sectionizing  fruit.   The  spent  lye  solution  is
discharged periodically.

Lye __ BilL§e:  Tne rinse water used to remove  from  the fruit, lye solution
carried out of the lye bath in sectionizing  operations.

M:  Meter, metric unit of length.

Make- u£_ Water:  Fresh water added to process  water  to  replace   system
losses.

Mean:  The average value of a number of  observed  data.


                                    186

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MGD:  Million gallons per day.

Mg/1:  Milliongrams per liter; approximately equals parts per million; a
term used to indicate concentration of materials in water.

Mi£ r^^r aj.n^r^mj. cr osc re en :    A   mechanical   filter  consisting  of  a
cylindrical surface of  metal  filter  fabric  with  openings  of  20-60
micrometers in size.

Mixed __ Liguor __ [ML)_:  A mixture of sludge and waste water in a biological
reaction tank undergoing biological degradation in an  activated  sludge
system.

Molasses:   A  dark-colored  syrup  containing  non-sugars  produced  by
evaporating press liquor and other strong wastewater to about 70 pprcent
dissolved solids.  Molasses is used as commercial cattle feed or in  the
manufacture  of  monosodium  glutamate, a food flavoring agent, alcohol,
yeast, citric acid and ether products,

mm:  Millimeter = 0.001 meter.

Municip_al_Treatment:  A city or community- owned  waste  treatment  plant
for municipal and, possibly, industrial waste treatment.

Neutralize:   To  adjust  the  pH  of a solution to 7.0  (neutral) by the
addition of an acid or a base.

Nitrate JL_Ni trite :  Chemical compounds that include the  NO  -   (nitrate)
and  NO -  (nitrite) ions.  They are composed of nitrogen and oxygen, are
nutrients for growth of algae and other plant life,  and  contribute  to
eutrophication.
          l2S:   Tne  process  of  oxidizing  ammonia  by  bacteria into
nitrites and nitrates.

No_Di scharge :   No discharge of effluents to a water course.  A  system of
land disposal with no runoff or total recycle of the waste water may  be
used to achieve it.

Non-Water __ Quality:   Thermal,  air,  noise  and all other environmental
parameters except water.

Nutri.en;ts:  Compounds that promote biological growth,  e.g.,  phosphorus
and  nitrogen.   Usually  undesirable in treated effluent; however, they
are required in  proper  proportions  for  successful  biological  waste
treatment.

Organic __ Content:   Synonymous  with  volatile  solids  except  for small
traces of some inorganic materials such as calcium carbonate which  will
lose weight at temperatures used in determining volatile solids.


                                   187

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Oxida t ign_Lagoon :  Synonymous with aerobic or aerated lagoon.

Oxidati on_Pond :  Synonymous with aerobic lagoon.

Oxygen __ Up. t ake_Rat e :  Oxygen utilization rate or rate at which oxygen is
used by bacteria^in the decomposition of organic matter.

Peak_Flow:  The highest average daily flow occurring throughout a period
of time.

              Tne movement of water through the soil profile.
p_H:  A measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity  of  water.   A  pH
value  of  7.0  indicates  a  neutral condition; less than 7  indicates  a
predominance of acids, and greater than 7, a  predominance  of   alkalis.
There  is a 10-fold increase  (or decrease) from one pH unit level to the
next, e.g., 10-fold increase  in alkalinity from pH  8 to pH 9.

PoLisher:  A centrifuge designed to separate peel oil from its  emulsion.
P.2l!li£lilli:  A substance which taints,  fouls, or  otherwise  renders
or unclean the recipient system.

Pollution:  The presence of pollutants in a  system  sufficient  to degrade
the quality of the system.
              § __ Ch£nj±2li§:   High  molecular  weight   substances   which
dissociate  into   ions  when in solution;  the  ions  either  being  bound  to
the molecular structure or  free  to  diffuse  throughout   the   solvent,
depending  on  the sign of the ionic  charge and  the type of electrolyte.
They are often used  as flocculation agents in  waste   water  treatment,
particularly along with dissolved air flotation.


Pomace:   Pulpy  substance  of  fruit  and vegetables  after grinding and
juicing.

Ponding:  A waste  treatment technique involving  the actual holdup  of all
waste waters in a  confined space with evaporation   and percolation the
primary mechanisms operating to dispose of the water.

Ppm:  Parts per million,  a measure of concentration, expressed currently
as mg/1.
                 Tne   phenomenon   that   occurs   when a substance held in
 solution in a  liquid  passes  out of  solution  into solid form.

 p.r.§§s._Li3iJ2E:  The  liquid  obtained  when citrus  peel is chopped,   treated
 with  lime, and pressed or  squeezed.
                                    188

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Elf!ireatment :   Wastewater  treatment  located  on  the  plant  site an 1
upstream from the discharge to a municipal treatment system.
              Tr ea tment :  In-plant by-product recovery and  waste  water
treatment  involving  physical  separation  and recovery devices such as
catch basins, screens, and dissolved air flotation.

Process:  A series of actions or operations conducted to an end.

Process_Ef f luent_or_Discharge:  The volume  of  water  emerging  fron  a
particular use in the plant.

Process ^ Water:   Water which is used in the internal juice streams from
which sugar is ultimately crystallized.
          :   An enzyme which hydrolyzes proteins.

Raw_Ton:  One ton of unprocessed commodity.

Faw_Waste:  The waste water effluent from  the  in-plant  primary
treatment system.

Recycle:   The  return of a quantity of effluent from a specific unit or
process to the feed stream of that same unit.  This would also apply  to
return of treated plant waste water for several plant uses.
                      :  A sample of the same composition as the thing it
represents.

Retort:   The  heating  of  canned  foods after closing to sterilize the
product.

B§Y.erse_Osmc)si s :  The physical separation of  substances  from  a  water
stream  by  reversal of the normal osmotic process; i.e., high pressure,
forcing water through a semi-permeable membrane to the pure  water  side
leaving behind more concentrated waste streams.

Sand __ Filter:   A  filter  device  incorporating  a  bed  of  sand that,
depending on  design,  can  be  used  in  secondary  or  tertiary  waste
treatment.

Scalder __ Discharge:   Hot  water used to soften the peel of fruit before
sectionizing.

Scalding:  Treatment with steam at high temperatures.
     QiS2:  Tne removal of  relatively  coarse  floating  and  suspended
solids from waste water by straining through racks and screens.
                                   189

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Secondary	Treatment:   The  waste  treatment following primary in-plant
treatment, typically involving biological waste reduction systems.

Sedimentation:  Tne falling or settling cf solid particles in a  liquid,
as a sediment.

Semipermeable	Membrane:   A thin sheet-like structure which permits the
passage of solvent but is impermeable to dissolved substances.

§§ttleable_Solids:  Suspended solids which will settle in  sedimentation
basins (clarifiers) in normal detention times.

         Tank:  Synonymous with "Sedimentation Tank".

          Water  after  it  has  been  fouled by various uses.  From the
standpoint of source it may be a combination of  the  liquid  or  water-
carried  wastes  from  residences, business buildings, and institutions,
together with those from industrial and agricultural establishments, and
with such groundwater, surface water, and storm water as may be present.

s.h.2C_k_Ilo§(3:  A quantity of waste water or pollutant that greatly exceeds
the normal discharged into a treatment system, usually occurring over   a
limited period of time.

Sizing:  The process of cutting and trimming the product.

Sludge:    (1)  The  accumulated  solids  separated from liquids, such as
water or waste water, during  processing,  or  deposits  on  bottoms  of
streams  or  other bodies of waters.   (2) The precipitate resulting from
chemical treatment, coagulation, or  sedimentation  of  water  or  waste
water.

Slurry:  A mixture of water with finely divided suspended solids.

Solute:  A dissolved substance.

Sour:   Term  used  tc signify waste water treatment systems that have  a
low pH value.  The acid condition is favorable to  growth  of  organisms
which produce foul smelling by-products, hence is undesirable.

Standard	Deviation:   A  measure of the variation of data values around
the mean.

Stpichigmetric^Amount:  The amount of a substance involved in a  specific
chemical reaction, either as a reactant or as a reaction product.

Strength:  The relative total concentration in effluent of BOD,  COD, TSS
 (albuminoids, amino acids, pectins and sugars), alkalinity and acidity.
                                    190

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SS:  Suspended Solids.   (1) Solids that either float on the surface  of,
or  are in suspension in water, waste water, or other liquids, and which
are largely removable by laboratory  filtering.    (2)  The  quantity  of
material removed from waste water in a laboratory test, as prescribed in
"Standard  Methods  fcr  the  Fxamination  of  Water and Wastewater" and
referred to as nonf ilterable residue.

St r i]2p.er_C)i 1 :   Mostly  d-limonene  obtained  from  molasses  evaporator
condensate by decantaticn.
             Raw  waste feed on which a microorganism grows or is placed
to grow by decomposing the waste material.

Substrate_Removal:  The total BOD in plant effluent, minus  the  soluble
BOD in plant effluent, divided by the total influent BOD.

Sulf itincj:   Exposing  sized  fruit  to   sulfur  dioxide  atmosphere  or
solution for stabilizing color, flavor, and texture.

              The layer floating above the surface of a layer of solids.


            An additional service charge  imposed  upon  industry  by  a
municipality  for discharge of waste water to the municipal sewer system
in excess of some previously specified volume and/or character.
                  The  waters  of  the  United  States   including   the
territoral seas.


Syrup:  Water solution of sugar, usually sucrose.

Tertiary _ Waste _ Treatment:   Waste  treatment  systems  used  to  treat
secondary  treatment  effluent  and  typically  using  physical-chemical
technologies to effect waste reduction.  Synonymous with "Advanced Waste
Treatment".

Total __ Dissolved _ Solids _ (TDS]_:  The total amount of dissolved material,
organic  and  inorganic,  contained  in  water  or  wastes.    Excessive
dissolved  solids  can  make  water  unsuitable  for industrial uses and
unpalatable for drinking.

TOC:  Total organic carbon.  A test expressing waste  water  contaminant
concentration in terms of the carbon content.

Total Suspended Solids JTSSJ :  See Suspended Solids.

Tr ickling_Fi^t er :  See Biological Filter.

Vector:  A carrier of pathogenic organisms.


                                   191

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Volatiles_in_Citrus_Wajtes:  Those constituents that can distill over in
an   evaporator  and  collect  in  the  condensate.   Chiefly  peel  oil
constituents and essence from juice.
                            CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY   (ENGLISH UNITS)  by conversion factor to
                        obtain METRIC UNITS
     ENGLISH UNIT
ABBREVIATION   CONVERSION  ABBREVIATION
acre                     ac
acre - feet              ac ft
British Thermal Unit     BTU
British Thermal
   Unit/pound            BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute        cfm
cubic feet/second        cfs
cubic feet               cu ft
cubic feet               cu ft
cubic inches             cu in
degree Fahrenheit        F°
feet                     ft
gallon                   gal
gallon/minute            gpm
horsepower               hp
inches                   in
inches of mercury        in Hg
pounds                   Ib
million gallons/day      mgd
mile                     mi
pound/square
   inch  (gauge)          psig
sguare feet              sg ft
sguare inches            sg in
tons   (short)            t
yard                     y
                  O.U05
               1233.5
                  0.252
ha
cu m
kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32) *
0.30U8
3.785
0.0631
0.7H57
2.5U
0.033U2
0.<*5U
3,785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
liters
cu cm
°C
m
liters
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
           (0.06805 psi +1)* atm
                  0.0929     sg m
                  0.452      sg cm
                  0.907      kkg
                  0.91U4     m
    *   Actual  conversion,  not  a  multiplier
                                    192

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ES - INFORMATION FROM PROCESSING PLANTS
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-------
           APPLES - PRODUCT  CLASSIFICATION BY SIC CODE
SIC PRODUCT CODE
PRODUCT
2033
    0 00
    0 02
    1
    1 12
    I 13

    I 14

    I 61

    4
    4 11
    4 85

    4 89

    4 91
2034
    0 00
    0 02
    1

    1 21
2037
    0 00
    0 02

    1
    1 55
    1 95
Canned Fruits and Vegetables
  For companies with  10  or  more  employees
  For companies with  less  than  10
    employees

Canned Fruits (except baby  foods)
  Apples, excluding pie  mix
  Applesauce - 372 gm. to  511  gm.
              (13.1 oz.  to  18  oz.)
  Applesauce - other  sizes

Canned fruit pie mix  - apple

Canned fruit juices & concentrates
  Apple juice
  Fruit juices, concentrated,  hot  pack
    - 116 gm. to 119  gm.(4.1oz.  to  7oz.)
  Fruit juices, concentrated,  hot  pack
    - Other sizes and bulk
  Fruit juices, fresh, to  be kept  under
    refrigeration

Dehydrated Fruits and Vegetables and
    Soup Mixes
  For companies with  10  or  more  employees
  For companies with  less  than  10
    employees

Dried fruits and vegetables, except  soup
    mixes
  Apples

Frozen Fruits and Vegetables
  For companies with  10  or  more  employees
  For companies with  less  than  10
    employees
Frozen fruits, juice  and ades
  Apples and applesauce
  Apple frozen fruit  juice  concentrate
Source:  Standard Industrial  Classification Manual (1972,
         Office of Management  and  Budget,  Government
         Printing Office)
                             201

-------
           CITRUS - PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION BY SIC CODE
SIC PRODUCT CODE
2033
    0 00
    0 02

    1
    1 31
    1 34

    4
    4 31
    4 42

    4 43

    4 51
    4 53
    4 85

    4 89

    4 91
2037
    0 00
    0 02

    1
    1 81

    1 82

    1 83
    1 85
    1 86

    1 87
Canned Fruits and Vegetables
  For companies with 10 or more employees
  For companies with less than 10 employees

Canned Fruits (except baby foods)
  Grapefruit Segements
  Fruit for Salad - Citrus

Canned Fruit Juices ft Concentrates
  Grapefruit Juice
  Orange Juice Single Strength
    1.14 kg to 1.7 kg (40.1 oz. to 60 oz.)
  Orange Juice Single Strength
    Other Sizes
  Grapefruit-Orange Juice Blend
  Grapefruit-Pineapple Juice Blend
  Fruit Juices, Concentrated, Hot Pack
    (116 gm to 119 gm (4.1 oz. to 7 oz.)
  Fruit Juices, Concentrated, Hot Pack
    Other Sizes and bulk
  Fruit Juices, Fresh, to be kept under
    refrigeration

Frozen Fruits and Vegetables
  For companies with 10 or more employees
  For companies with less than 10 employees

Frozen Fruits, Juices and Ades
  Orange Juice-116 gm to 199 gm
               (4.1 oz. to 7 oz.)
  Orange Juice-287 gm to 369 gm.
               (10.1 oz. to 13 oz.)
  Orange Juice - Other Sizes
  Lemonade-116 gm to 199 gm  (4.1 oz .  to  7  oz.)
  Lemonade-287 gm to 369 gm
            (10 .1 oz. to 13 oz.)
  Lemonade - Other Sizes
Source:  Standard Industrial Classification Manual  (1972)
         Office of Management and Budget, Government
         Printing Office
                               202

-------
          POTATOES - PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION BY SIC CODE
SIC PRODUCT CODE
2033
2034
 0  00
 0  02

 2

 2  74

>

 0  00
 0  02

 1

 1  31

 1  35
2037
    0 00
    0 02

    2
    2 47
2046

2099
PRODUCT

Canned Fruits and Vegetables
  For companies with 10 or more employees
  For companies with less than 10 employees

Canned Vegetables (except hominy and
    mushrooms)
  White potatoes

Dehydrated Fruits and Vegetables and
    Soup Mixes
  For companies with 10 or more employees
  For companies with less than 10 employees

Dried Fruits and Vegetables, Except Soup
    Mixes
  Potatoes - consumer size - 454 gm.  (1 Ib)
    and under.
  Potatoes - commercial size - over 454 gm.
    (1 Ib)

Frozen Fruits and Vegetables
  For companies with 10 or more employees
  For companies with less than 10 employees

Frozen Vegetables
  Potatoes & Potato Products (french  fried
    patties, puffs, etc.)

Wet corn milling - Potato Starch

Food Preparations, Not Elsewhere Classified
  Potato Chips
Source:   Standard Industrial Classification Manual    (1972)
         Office of Management and Budget, Government  Printing
         Office
                            203

-------
                              DATA SUMMARY
                            APPLE  PROCESSING
1.  Average Daily Plant Processing Capacity
        Tons of Fruit/Hr.        	
2.  Plant categorization
        Canned
          a.  Sliced                 	%
          b.  Sauce                  	%
        Frozen
          a.  Sliced                 	%
          b.  Diced                  	%
          c.  Sauce                  	%
        Dehydrated
          a.  Sliced                 	%
          b.  Diced                  	%
        Juice
          a.  Cider or Juice         	%
          b.  Vinegar Stock          	%
 3.  Process
        Type of Peeling
          Manufacturer
        Type of Slicing
          Manufacturer
                                                 Total
            100%
Type of Coring
  Manufacturer
Type of Finishing
  Manufacturer
                                  204

-------
                                DATA SUMMARY

                             CITRUS PROCESSING


1.  AverageDaily Plant Processing Capacity

          Tons of Fruit/Day 	

2.  Plant Categorization

          a.  Single Strength Juice  	,

          b.  Chilled Juice          	

          c.  Chilled Segments       	

          d.  Concentrated Juice
          e.  Oranges

          f.  Grapefruit

          g.  Lemons and Limes
                                                               Total  100%
                                                               Total  100%
                             WASTE EFFLUENT DATA

3.  In-Plant & Post Treatment (End-of-Pipe)  Waste Effluents
Line
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
] '
12
Gal/Min











,,-. .•.„ .—-..,. .,. ^.^. — .«_
Percent
Recycled





i • •






BOD












COD












Temp .
op











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pH












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Solids












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Solids '

i
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5ee page Mo. Three for additional Line Nos.
                                       205

-------
                               DATA SUMMARY
                            POTATO PROCESSING
1.  Average Daily Plant Processing Capacity
        Location of Plant
        Tons of Potatoes/Day 	
2.  Plant Categorization
        a.  Frozen
              French Fries
              Hash Browns
              Preformed Shapes
        b.  Dehydrated
              Granules
              Flakes
              Chips
              Cubes
        c.  Canned
              Whole
              Sliced
        d.  Other
                                                       Total    100%
                                   206

-------
DATA SUMMARY - APPLE  PROCESSING
Page Two
                             WASTE EFFLUENT DATA
4e   In-Plant &  Post Treatment (End-of-Pipe)  Waste Effluents
Line
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Gal/Min











































Percent
Recycled











































BOD















>



























COD













•











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207
Temp.
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-------
 DATA SUMMARY - APPLE  PROCESSING
                                                              Page Three
 5.
 6.
 7.
 8.
 9.
10.
12.
       Settling Ponds
              Number
       Screening  Equipment
              Type	
       Clarifier
              Number
       Rotary Vacuum Filters
             Number 	
       Aeration  Ponds
             Number 	
       Land Disposal
             Type	
                                    tfotal  Area
                                   Mesh Opening
                                    Type
                                    Type
                                    Total Area
                                    Total  Area
11.    Discharge to Municipal  Sever
              Daily,  Monthly or Yearly Assessment
Total Volume
Screen Area
Size
Size
Size
                and Basis of  Calculating  the Assessment
       River and/or Stream
              Name

                                  ECONOMIC  DATA
13.    Construction Cost of Waste  Treatment Facility (include laboratory)
14.    Operating Cost of Waste Treatment Facility (include laboratory)
                                      208

-------