vvEPA
United State*
Environment*! Protection
Agency
Office of Water
Regulations and Standards
Criteria and Standards Division
Wachington. DC 20460
EPA 440/5-84-030
January 1985
Water
Ambient
Water Quality
Criteria
for
Chlorine -1984
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AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
CHLORINE
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
GULF BREEZE, FLORIDA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
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DISCLAIMER
This reporc has been reviewed by che Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
AVAILABILITY NOTICE
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) , 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
Ko^esavovi V^uvARfc-r2 - '
1 L
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FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of che Clean Wacer Ace of 1977 (P.L. 95-217) requires
che Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to publish criteria
for water quality accurately reflecting the latest scientific knowledge on
the kind and extent of all identifiable effects on health and welfare which
may be expected from the presence of pollutants in any body of water,
including ground water. This document is a revision of proposed criteria
based upon a consideration of comments received from other Federal agencies,
Scate agencies, special interest groups, and individual scientists. The
criteria contained in this document replace any previously published EPA
aquatic life criteria.
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a different
program impact in each section. In section 304, the term represents a
non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects. The criteria
presented in this publication are such scientific assessments. Such water
quality criteria associated with specific stream uses when adopted as State
water quality standards under section 303 become enforceable maximum
acceptable levels of a pollutant in ambient waters. The water quality
criteria adopted in the State water quality standards could have the same
numerical limits as the criteria developed under section 304. However, in
many situations States ;nay want to adjust water quality criteria developed
under section 304 co reflect local environmental conditions and human
exposure patterns before incorporation into water quality standards. It is
not until their adoption as part of the State water quality standards that
the criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines co assist the Scates in the modification of criteria
presented in this document, in the development of water quality standards,
and in other wacer-related programs of this Agency, have been developed by
EPA.
Edwin L. Johnson
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
William A. Brungs
(freshwacer auchor)
Environmencal Research Laboratory
Narragansect, Rhode Island
Douglas P. Middaugh
(salcwacer auchor)
Environmencal Research Laboracory
Gulf Breeze, Florida
Charles E. Scephan
(document coordinacor)
Environmencal Research Laboracory
Duluch, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(salcwacer coordinacor)
Environraencal Research Laboracory
Narragansecc, Rhode Island
Clerical Support: Terry L. Highland
IV
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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword ............................... iii
Acknowledgments ........................... iv
Tables ................................ vi
Introduce ion ............................. 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals .................. 3
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals ................. 7
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants ...................... 11
Bioaccumulat ion ........................... 13
Other Data .............................. 13
Unused Data ............................. 16
Summary ............................... 17
National Criteria .......................... 17
References
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TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicicy of Chlorine co Aquacic Animals 20
2. Chronic Toxicicy of Chlorine co Aquacic Animals 31
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acuce Values wich Species Mean Acuce-Chronic
Ratios 33
4. Ocher Data on Effects of Chlorine on Aquacic Organisms 38
VI
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Introduce ion*
Discharges of chlorine are common because ic is used to disinfect
effluents, to control fouling organisms in cooling water systems, and in
industrial processes, particularity in the food and paper industries. These
discharges may be quite toxic to aquatic organisms, but the complexity of the
reactions of chlorine (Jolley and Carpenter, 1981, 1982) increases the
difficulty of assessing the impact of chlorine. When chlorine is added to
fresh water, the solution will usually contain two forms of free chlorine:
hypochlorous acid (HOC1) and the hypochlorite ion (OC1~). If the water
contains ammonia, the solution will probably also contain two forms of
combined chlorine: monochloramine and dichloramine. Because all four of
these are quite toxic to aquatic organisms, the term "total residual
chlorine" is used to refer to the sum of free chlorine and combined chlorine
in fresh water. However, because salt water contains bromide, addition of
chlorine also produces hypobrornous acid (HOBr), hypobroraous ion (OBr~), and
bromamines (Dove, 1970; Johnson, 1977; Macalady, et al. 1977; Sugam and Helz,
1977). The term "chlorine-produced oxidants" is used to refer to the sum of
these oxidative products in salt water (Burton, 1977). Consequently, che
freshwater and saltwater data herein will be expressed as total residual
chlorine (TRC) and chlorine-produced oxidants (CPO), respectively, although
both terms are intended to refer to the sum of free and combined chlorine and
bromine as measured by the methods for "total residual chlorine" (U.S. EPA,
*An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan, et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, is necessary
in order to understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
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1983a). Chlorinated organic compounds resulting from aqueous chlorinacion
are noc addressed herein.
The complexity of the reactions of chlorine in fresh and sale water
makes ic important that studies of che effects of chlorine on aquatic
organisms be aporopriately designed and that concentrations of TRC or CPO be
adequately measured. Because the half-lives of TRC and CPO are short in most
waters, usually tests must be flow-through and the concentrations must be
measured often enough to demonstrate that substantial reduction in concentra-
tion is not occurring. Also, the measurements must usually be performed
using a method (e.g., amperometric, iodometric, or potentiometric titration,
or DPD) that measures TRC or CPO and noc just one or more components, such as
free, but not combined, chlorine.
Numerous toxicity tests have been conducted using very short (i.e., less
than 3-hour) exposures (e.g., Basch and Truchan, 1976; Brooks and Seegert,
1977a,b; Brooks, et al. 1982; Caouzzo, 1979a,b; Capuzzo, et al. 1976; Fandrei
and Collins, 1979; Goldman and Davidson, 1977; Latimer, et al. 1975; Maccice,
ec al. 1981b; Stober, et al. 1980; Thomas, et al. 1980), intermittent
exposures (Brooks and Seegert, 1977a,b; Thomas, et al. 1980), or triangular
(increasing-decreasing) exposures (Heath, 1977; Trotter, et al. 1978) co
simulate discharges that could result from specially controlled chlorinacion
of cooling water systems. Although such data may be useful for modelling
purposes (Murray, et al. 1984) and for making decisions concerning this
particular application, results of such tests are not used herein for
deriving water quality criteria. These criteria are intended to apply co
situations of continuous exposure, whether the concentrations are fluctuating
or constant, but not to situations of specially controlled intermittent
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exposures when more appropriate daca are available. However, che effeccs of
shore exposures will probably be underestimated if che observation period is
not extended to cake into account delayed effects (Brooks and Seegerc, 1977a;
Latimer, ec al. 1975).
The criteria presented herein supersede previous aquatic life water
quality criteria for chlorine (U.S. EPA, 1976) because these new criteria
were derived using improved procedures and additional information. Whenever
adequately justified, a national criterion may be replaced by a site-specific
criterion (U.S. EPA, 1983b), which may include not only site-specific
criterion concentrations (U.S. EPA, 1983c), but also site-specific durations
of averaging periods and sice-specific frequencies of allowed exceedences
(U.S. EPA, 1985). The latest literature search for information for this
document was conducted in May, 1984; some newer information was also used.
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Toxicity of TRC to freshwater aquatic life is dependent on a variety of
factors. Alkalinity did not affect toxicity in the single study conducted
(Larson, ec al. 1978), but almost all ocher factors scudied did influence
coxicity in this or other studies (e.g., Fandrei and Collins, 1979). The
form of TRC (free versus combined) affects toxicity in short exposures of a
few minutes to 4 hours (Beecon, ec al. 1976; Mattice, ec al. 1981b), but
there are few daca comparing che relacive coxicicies of che various
componencs of TRC under concinuous exposure for 48 or more hours. Merkens
(1958) found chac free chlorine was more coxic chan combined chlorine. In
addicion, the 96-hr LCSOs of some salraonid species are quite consistent
between tests conducted in chlorinated sewage, in which chloramines
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predominated, and in clean wacer, in which there was a high proportion of
free chlorine. It is possible that the toxicities of the various chemical
forms of TRC are inherently different, but it is also possible that they only
have different rates of toxicity. Thus, the differences in toxicity between
components of TRC under very short exposure conditions (a few minutes to a
few hours) could be rate dependent.
Temperature has been frequently demonstrated to affect TRC toxicity in
very short tests simulating condenser cleaning operations. However, only a
few 96-hr exposures have been conducted to evaluate the effect of tempera-
ture. Thatcher, et al. (1976) exposed juvenile brook trout to TRC at 10, 15
and 20 C. The 96-hr LC50s at 20 C were about one-third lower than those ac
10 and 15 C. The bluegill and channel catfish were exposed to monochloramine
at 20 and 30 C (Rosebootn and Richey, 1977a,b). The bluegill, but not the
channel catfish, was more sensitive at 30 C. Larson, et al. (1977b) exposed
brook trouc alevins, fry, and juveniles and the range of the five 96-hr LC50s
was only 82 to 106 Jg/L, indicating no large difference in sensitivities of
these life stages. Even though many factors may occasionally affect TRC
toxicity slightly, no pattern is consistent or great enough to justify
criceria being dependent on any such factor.
In general, the rate of lethality due to TRC is rapid. Arthur, ec al.
(1975) published 1-, 4-, and 7-day LC50s for 7 species of freshwater fish in
5 different families. The mean 24-hr LC50 was only 1.4 times the 96-hr LC50;
the mean 7-day LC50 was 0.87 of the 96-hr LC50. Other studies indicate that
nearly half of the mortalities in a 96-hr exposure occur in the first 12
hours. Not only is the lethality rate rapid, the toxicity slope is steep.
Lamperti (1976) observed that the lowest concentration of TRC causing 100
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percent mortality of coho salmon was only about three times the highest
concentration that did not kill any coho salmon. Mattice and Zittel (1976)
derived a numerical relationship between 50 percent mortality and 0 percent
mortality for 14 species. This relationship was y * 0.37x, where x is the
time in minutes to yield 50 percent mortality and y is the maximum time in
minutes which caused no mortality. For 30-rain exposures Brooks and Seegerc
(1977a) observed a ratio of about 0.65 between the concentrations causing 50
percent mortality and concentrations causing no mortality for both yellow
perch and rainbow trout. They recommended 0.5 of the LC50 as an estimate of
non-lethal concentrations for short exposure periods.
There is a wide range in relative sensitivities among freshwater
invertebrate species; a crayfish, stonefly, and amphipod had Species Mean
Acute Values from 266 and 673 jg/L, whereas those for two gastropods, two
copeoods, and Daphnia magna ranged from 27 to 80 uig/L. Ward, et al. (1976)
and Ward and DeGrave (1980) reported acute values of 17 ,Jg/L and 45 Jg/L,
respectively, for Daphnia magna. In addition, Ward, et al. (1976) summarized
the results of a test from which an LC50 could not be calculated; chey
observed 100 percent mortality of 3-day-old Daphnia magna in 10.5 hours ac 70
•jg/L. Arthur, ec al. (1975) presented 7-day survival data from their two
chronic tests with Daphnia magna (Table 4). One 7-day LC50 was 2 ,Jg/L and
the other was between 4 and 14 Jg/L during those tests in which the organisms
were fed. Together, these data consistently indicate that Daphnia magna is
the most -ensitive tested species to TRC.
Freshwater fishes demonstrated about the same range of sensitivities as
the invertebrates. A darter and a stickleback had LCSOs of 390 Mg/L and 710
Mg/L, respectively, whereas acute values for two trouts, two shiners, and the
channel catfish were between 45 Jg/L and 90 jg/L.
5
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Acceptable acuce values are available for freshwacer fish and
invertebrate species in 28 genera (Tables 1 and 3). Acute values are
available for more than one species in each of three genera, and the range of
Species Mean Acute Values within each genus is less chan a factor of 4. The
freshwater Final Acute Value of 38.32 ;jg/L was calculated from the Genus Mean
Acuce Values (Table 3) using the procedure described in the Guidelines. The
acute value of 27.66 ,jg/L for the genus Daphnia is lower than the Final Acute
Value.
It appears chat saltwater species are more sensitive to CPO when
simultaneously subjected to thermal stress. This trend has been observed for
salcwater invertebrate species (Capuzzo, 1979b; Capuzzo, et al. 1976, 1977a;
Gibson, et al. 1976; Goldman, et al. 1978) and fishes (Capuzzo, et al. 1977b;
Goldman, et al. 1973; Stober, et al. 1980). Moreover, salcwater invertebrate
species are more sensitive to CPO resulting from combined chlorine
(chloramine) chan free chlorine (sodium hypochlorite); the opposite is true
for fishes (Capuzzo, 1979a,b; Capuzzo, et al. 1977b; Goldman, et al. 1978).
Acute toxicity values are available for a variety of saltwater
invertebrate species (Table 1). Adult blue crabs were relatively insensicive
co CPO wich LCSOs ranging from 700 to 860 jg/L (Laird and Roberts, 1980;
Vreenegoor, et al. 1977). A mixture of two species of shore crabs was also
insensitive with an LC50 of 1,418 ;jg/L (Thatcher, 1978). Several other
invertebrate species including amphipods, hermit crabs, and shrimp showed
intermediate sensitivities co CPO with LCSOs ranging from 90 to 687 yg/L
(Thatcher, 1978). In contrast, larvae of the eastern oyster and a saltwater
cooepod were very sensitive (Roberts and Gleeson, 1978); che respective
Species Mean Acute Values were 26 and 29 Jg/L.
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The eleven species of salcwacer f,ish had acute values ranging from 37 co
270 |Jg/L. The coho salmon (wich a Species Mean Acuce Value of 47 ;jg/L), che
cidewacer silverside (54 ug/L), and che Atlantic silverside (37 ^ig/L) were
especially sensitive co CPO (Buckley, 1976; Goodman, ec al. 1983; Roberts, et
al. 1975; Thatcher, 1978).
Twenty-one Genus Mean Acute Values are available for salcwacer organisms
(Table 3). Acute values are available for more than one species in each of
two genera and che range of Species Mean Acuce Values wichin each genus is
less chan a factor of 2.2. The raosc sensitive genus, Crassoscrea, is 54
times more sensicive chan che most resiscanc, Hemigrapsus. Nine of che
eleven most resiscanc genera are invercebraces. In concrasc, seven of che
cen most sensicive genera are fishes. The four most sensicive genera include
such economically and ecologically imporcanc species as che coho salmon,
cidewacer silverside, Aclancic silverside, Acarcia consa, and eastern oyster.
These data result in a saltwater Final Acuce Value of 25.24 ;Jg/L (Table 3).
Chronic Toxicicy co Aquacic Animals
Life-cycle cescs have been conducced wich cwo freshwacer invertebrate
species and one freshwacer fish species. Archur, ec al. (1975) conducced cwo
2-week cescs beginning wich 16- co 24-hr-old Daphnia magna. Flow-chrough
cescs were conducced wich nominal sewage concencracions of 1.2 to 20 percent;
untreated Lake Superior water was the dilution wacer. The secondary sewage
was chlorinaced jusc before encering c'e dilutee systems, and the probable
predominant form of TRC was monochloramine. The TRC concencracions ranged
from concrol co 114 jg/L in one cesc and concrol co 136 jg/L in che second.
Daphnids did not survive che 2-week exposure co che chree highesc chlorinaced
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effluent concencracions (14 co 114 ,jg/L in che first cesc and 7 co 136 yg/L
in che second). Daphnids chac survived co adulthood reproduced successfully-
In che firsc cesc, cherefore, che lowesc unaccepcable concencracion was 14
pg/L and che highest accepcable concencracion was 4 ug/L, resulcing in a
chronic value of 7.483 ,jg/L for chac cesc (Table 2).
The results of che second cesc are more difficult co incerprec. Ac che
cesc concencracion of 7 yg/L, all daphnids died in seven days in both cesc
chambers. Ac che nexc lower concencracion of 2 ;Jg/L, all daphnids died in
one cesc chamber in seven days, but 50 percent of che daphnids in che
duplicate chamber survived and reproduced successfully. Two of che four
concrols from both cescs had survival as low as 70 percent. Based on che
probable coraparabilicy of cesc procedures, che cocal tnorcalicy in one test
chamber ac 2 jg/L will be considered an anomaly, and chac concencracion will
be considered co be che highest accepcable concencracion in che second cesc.
This results in a chronic value of 3.742 ;Jg/L for chac cesc (Table 2).
Arthur, ec al. (1975) also conducted a life-cycle cesc wich che
amphipod, Garamarus pseudolimnaeus, in chlorinated secondary sewage effluent.
No test animals survived in either test chamber at a TRC concentracion of 123
jg/L. Survival after 16 weeks of the test was reduced ac 54 Jg/L. The
number of spawns per female was significantly reduced at a TRC concencracion
of 19 yg/L, che lowesc unaccepcable concentration. The highest accepcable
concencracion was 12 ug/L, resulcing in a chronic value of 15.10 yg/L (Table
2). Earlier, Archur and Eacon (1971) conducced a life-cycle cesc on TRC with
Gammarus pseudolimnaeus. Amphipods were exposed for 15 weeks co Lake
Superior wacer co which boch ammonia and free chlorine had been added co
provide TRC concencracions from concrol co 163 yg/L. Adulc survival was
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markedly less at concencracions of 35 iJg/L and higher, and no young were
produced by che survivors. The number of young per female ac TRC
concencracions of 3.4 and 16 |jg/L was only abouc one-cench of che duplicate
concrol values of 27.8 and 21.0 young per female. In che absence of an
accepcable TRC concencracion, che chronic value muse be less chan che lowesc
cesc concencracion of 3.4 jg/L. No explanacion can be given for che
difference in resales becween che cwo life-cycle cescs. Boch were conducced
in che same laboracory wich che same dilucion wacer by basically che same
group of researchers, and chloraraines were che dominanc componencs of TRC in
boch cescs.
Fachead minnow life-cycle cescs were conducced by boch Archur and Eacon
(1971) and Archur, ec al. (1975), and che cwo cescs produced comparable
resulcs (Table 2). Archur and Eacon (1971) began cheir cesc wich 3-monch-old
juveniles under condicions of conscanc cemperacure (23 _+ 1 C) and phocoperiod
(16 hr of lighc per day). Tesc fish were exposed for 21 weeks co chloraraine
concencracions in cap wacer from concrol co 154 ,jg/L for che adulc fish and
concrol co 212 .Jg/L for cheir progeny. Only one spawning occurred in che
duplicace chambers ac 85 ^ig/L. The number of spawnings per female was
significancly reduced ac 43 jg/L and fewer eggs were produced per female ac
chis concencracion. No coxicanc relaced effeccs were observed on embryo
incubacion or hacching, and no reduccions in growch or survival of che
progeny were observed during che 30-day exposure. Consequencly, che chronic
value for chis cesc is che geomecric mean (26.22 ,Jg/L) of che upper (43 Jg/L)
and che lower (16 ^g/L) chronic limics (Table 2).
No spawning occurred ac 100 jg/L in che fachead minnow life-cycle cesc
conducced by Archur, ec al. (1975). As wich che araphipod and Daphnia magna,
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this cesc was conducced wich secondary sewage effluenc chac was chlorinated
jusc before entering che cesc syscetn. The exposure began wich 1- co 20-day-
old larvae. No spawning differences were observed ac TRC concencracions up
co and including 42 ug/L. Morcalicy of adulcs during che 43-week exposure at
24 C was significancly increased ac 42 and 110 uig/L. No adverse effecc on
che adulcs was observed ac a concencracion of 14 ug/L. In a different cesc
syscetn several exposures of progeny ac each concencracion demonscraced
reduced survival ac a mean concencracion of 21 ug/L. No growch or survival
effaces on che progeny were observed ac a TRC concencracion of 6 ^Jg/L.
Unlike che life-cycle cesc conducced by Archur and Eacon (1971), che progeny
were more sensitive. Progeny survival was reduced ac 21 ;Jg/L. No adverse
effeccs on adulcs were observed ac 14 ug/L, buc since no progeny were exposed
ac chac TRC concencracion, ic cannoc be assumed chac chere would noc have
been an effecc on che progeny. Consequently, che lower chronic liraic for che
cocal test would be 6 >Jg/L, where no progeny effects were observed. The
chronic value for this cesc is, therefore, 11.22 ;jg/L (Table 2).
Embryos and young of che tidewater silverside, Menidia peninsulae, were
exposed continuously to CPO in a 28-day early life-stage test (Goodman, et
al. 1983) ac a salinicy of 15 co 22 g/kg and a temperature of 25 _+ 2 C. CPO
concentrations were measured using amperometric ticracion. Although 200 jg/L
had no effecc on hacching success of che embryos, all fry died ac chis
concencracion. Ac che nexc lower concencracion of 40 Pg/L, che exposed fish
weighed 10 percenc less Chan che concrol fish, buc che difference was noc
staciscically significanc. In a relaced acuce coxicicy cesc, che 96-hr LC50
was 54 'jg/L (Goodman, ec al. 1983), which will be used as che upper licit on
the chronic value. The chronic value for chis species is 46.48 gg/L and the
acute-chronic ratio is 1.162 (Table 2).
10
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The species mean acute-chronic racios of two of the more sensicive
freshwater species and the one sensitive saltwater species are all between
1.0 and 6.2 (Table 3). The ratio for the more resistant scud is greater than
37. Thus it seems reasonable to calculate the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio as
the geometric mean of the three lower ratios, resulting in a value of 3.345.
The resulting freshwater and saltwater Final Chronic Values are 11.46 ug/L
and 7.546 ug/L, respectively (Table 3). All three freshwater species with
which chronic tests have been conducted have at least one chronic value below
the freshwater Final Chronic Value.
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Numerous studies (e.g., Betzer and Kott, 1969; Brook and Baker, 1972;
Murray, 1980; Schmager, 1979; Toetz, et al. 1977) have been conducted on the
effects of TRC on morphology, growth, biomass (in terms of chlorophyll a_
and/or ohaeophyton a), photosynthesis, trophic state, respiration, ammonia or
nitrate uptake, and community structure of algae. In most of these studies
the exposures were of short duration and in most the concentration of TRC was
not adequately measured. Such studies do indicate, however, that exposure in
fresh water to mean TRC concentrations of 1,000 jg/L or less for periods of
ona hour or less can reduce survival and inhibit physiological processes.
Although there are substantial interspecies differences, diatoms tend to be
more sensitive than green algae, which are generally more sensitive than
blue-green algae. After an initial effect of a short exposure to TRC, algal
growth and photosynthesis often recover to control levels.
In the study of Brooks and Seegert (1977b) phytoplankton were exposed
for 30 minutes under static conditions. TRC analyses at the beginnings and
11
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endings of che exposures indicated chac che exposures were predominantly co
free chlorine and chac che concencracions did noc decline significantly.
Scudies were conducted in each of che four seasons by exposing natural
phycoplankcon communities from Lake Michigan and comparing cheir chlorophyll
_a and phaeophycon _a concents and **C upcake races wich chose for che
concrols for each of che four seasons (Table 4). The ECSOs based on ^C
upcake ranged from 160 co 760 jg/L.
Continuous exposure of Eurasian wacermilfoil, Myriophyllum spicacum, co
a concentration of 50 uig TRC/L resulced in significanc reduccions in weight
gain of shoots and of the total plane, buc noc in dry weight of che root or
che chlorphyll a_ index (Table 4). Wackins and Hammerschlag (1984) concluded
chat the impact of TRC on vascular aquatic planes appears co be subtle and
would likely occur only in conjunction wich ocher environtnencal stresses.
Several studies have been conducted to determine che effecc of brief
exposure co CPO on natural assemblages or single species of salcwater
phytoplankcon. As was crue in fresh water, most of these studies were
designed to simulate che effeccs of power plane encrainraent and most included
simultaneous exposure co cemperacure change as a part of che experimental
design. Effeccs were determined by measurement of parameters such as ?rowch
race, generation time, ATP activity, * C uptake, and bioroass. In
general, brief exposure to CPO did not cause substantial long-term damage co
phycoplankcon. Goldman and Quinby (1979) measured delays in accainmenc o£
peak ATP afcer 2- co 3-hr exposures of nacural phycoplankcon assemblages co
20 to 80 ug CPO/L in combination wich an increase in cemperacure of 10 co
17.5 C; several of cheir individual observacions are summarized in Table 4.
No change was found in species composition becween samples caken before and
12
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afcer chlorination. They concluded that encrained phycoplankcon subjecced co
temperature stress and CPO recovered and that there was no prolonged effect
on growth races of natural populations. However, Sanders and Ryther (1980)
observed that continuous chlorination at measured concentrations of 50 to 150
jg/L resulted in shifts in species composition of phytoplankton communities
(Table 4), suggesting that chlorination could have detrimental effects,
especially in areas with restricted flow.
BioaccuTiulat ion
No freshwater or saltwater data on the bioconcentration of TRC or CPO
were found, or expected.
Other Daca
Mosc of the freshwater data in Table 4 have been discussed previously.
The most important generalities that can be drawn from these additional data
are that a variety of lethal and sublethal effects can occur at concentra-
tions that are not too much higher than the calculated criteria. For
example, the 24-hr LC50 for a rotifer is 13 pg/L (Grossnickle, 1974). In
addition, Larson, et al. (1977a) observed a decrease in growth rate of
juvenile coho salmon at a TRC concentration of 11 iJg/L for 21 days, and the
21-week LC10 for the fathead minnow is 43 >Jg/L (Arthur and Eaton, 1971).
The 96-hr LCSOs for the crayfish, Orconectes nais, ranged from 470 to
960 jg/L (Table 1), but Larson, et al. (1978) reported a 365-day LC50 of 31
'jg/L (Table 4) for a different crayfish, Pacifastacus trowbridgii. Larson,
et al. (1978) observed that chronic mortality was related to the periods of
molting, which, apparently, are quite sensitive to TRC. Typically, a 96-hr
exposure would not incorporate the molting cycle for crayfish.
13
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Two scudies have characcerized fish populacions below chlorinated sewage
outfalls. Seegerc (1979) studied screams in the Upper Passaic River Basin in
New Jersey above and below 11 wastewater treatment plants. He observed fish
only where TRC concentrations were equal to or less than 100 jg/L. Tsai
(1973) conducted comparative studies of water quality on fish species
diversity in streams above and below 149 chlorinated secondary sewage
treatment plants. None of 45 fish species was observed at TRC concentrations
above approximately 400 yg/L. Ten species, mostly salmonids and cyprinids,
were not found at concentrations above 40 ug/L (Table 4).
The sensitivity ranking of genera in Tsai's (1973) study was compared
with Genus Mean Acute Values (Table 3). Estimates were made from Figure 8
(Tsai, 1973) of the concentrations above which each of 45 species of fish
avoided TRC. The soecies data were then combined as to genus and mean
avoidance concentrations were calculated for the 10 genera for which daca
were available. Twenty-three of the 45 species in the avoidance list were
represented in the 10 genera. A correlation coefficient of 0.40 was obtained
for all the data. One potential outlier was the genus Etheostoma. If the
data for this oenus are not used, the correlation coefficient for the other
niae -jenera is 0.74. Considering the very different sources of the data, che
coefficient is quite good, implying that the genus sensitivity ranking is
similar for field-observed avoidance and laboratory-derived LC50s.
Other saltwater data summarized in Table 4 provide an overview of
various effects of CPO on invertebrates and fishes. Several 30-min exposures
to CPO, resulting from free chlorine (sodium hypochlorite) or combined
chlorine (chloramines), have been conducted with rotifers and the eastern
oyster. These tests indicated that rotifers were more sensitive to combined
14
-------
chlorine (LC50 of 20 ;jg/L) Chan free chlorine (LC50 of 180 ug/L) . When a 5 C
increase in temperature was added, respective LC50s for combined and free
chlorine decreased to 10 yg/L and 90 ug/L (Capuzzo, 1979b). A similar trend
was noted in tests conducted by Capuzzo (1979a) with larval eastern oysters.
Larvae were very sensitive to CPO applied as combined chlorine; the 30-min
LC50 was 10 Mg/L- When a 5 C increase in temperature was added, the LC50 was
less than 10 jg/L. Larvae were considerably more resistant to free chlorine,
with 30-min LCSOs of 120 ug/L (delta t of 0 C) and 80 pg/L (delta t of 5 C).
Roberts, et al. (1975) and Roberts and Gleeson (1978) demonstrated that
copepods were sensitive to CPO in flow-through tests. The 24- and 48-hr
LC50s ranged from 50 jg/L to 29 Jg/L (Table 4). Capuzzo (1979a) found that
copepods were not very sensitive to CPO in short-term toxicity tests.
However, the crend of greater sensitivity to combined chlorine (chloramines)
was apparent. The same trend was noced by Goldman, et al. (1978) in tests
with American lobster larvae. The 60-min LC50 for free chlorine was 3,950
jg/L; in contrast, combined chlorine resulted in a LC50 of 1,300 jg/L.
Sand dollar sperm proved to be very sensitive to CPO (Table 4).
Exposure of sperm to a concentration of 2 Jg/L for 5 minutes resulted in a 50
percent reduction in egg fertilization (Dinnel, et al. 1981).
Several studies with commercially important saltwater fishes have
demonstrated toxicological and behavioral effects at low CPO concentrations.
For example, striped bass larvae had 48-hr LC50s ranging from 40 to 70 ,jg
CPO/L (Middaugh, et al. 19773)• Juvenile spot showed a temperature dependent
avoidance of CPO; at 10 C a concentration of 180 ug/L resulted in consistent
avoidance whereas 50 yg/L was avoided at 15 C (Middaugh, et al. 1977b).
Absence or presence of food also has been shown to influence the avoidance of
15
-------
CPO by fish. Blacksmich avoided 162 pg/L in che absence of food. However, a
concentration of 203 iJg/L was required co elicic avoidance when food was
present. Moreover, a concentration of 327 ,jg CPO/L was needed to cause total
avoidance by blacksmith which had been starved for Ik hours prior to tests in
which food was present. Fish fed to satiation prior to exposure to CPO
avoided 175 ug/L (Hose and Stoffel, 1980).
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of chlorine on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in
North America. In addition, much of the available information on the effects
of chlorine on aquatic animals and plants is concerned with the control of
nuisance species in ponds, reservoirs, and cooling towers (e.g., Courchene
and Chapman, 1975; Mangum and Mcllhenny, 1975; Mattice, et al. 1981a), and is
not useful for deriving water quality criteria. Brungs (1973, 1976) and
Hall, et al. (1981) only present data that have been published elsewhere.
Because of the short half-life of TRC and CPO in most waters, results
were not used if the test concentrations were not measured (e.g., Bringrnann
and Kuhn, 1959; Brook and Baker, 1972; Cole, 1978; Kaniewska-Prus, 1982;
Marking, et al. 1984; Osborne, 1982) or were not measured often enough or did
not demonstrate that the concentrations were nearly uniform during the
exposure (e.g., Cairns, et al. 1978; Heath, 1977; Servizi and Martens, 1974;
Videau, et al. 1979).
Also, results were not used if the analytical method measured only free
chlorine rather than TRC or CPO (e.g., Betzer and Kott, 1969; Carpenter, et
al. 1972; Learner and Edwards, 1963; Stober and Hanson, 1974) or if che
16
-------
analytical method used was noc identified (e.g., Arora, et al. 1970; Bills,
et al. 1977; Davies and Jensen, 1975; James, 1967). Too few test organisms
were used in some tests (Scheuring and Stetter, 1951), and some tests did not
provide clearly defined endpoints (Mitchell and Cech, 1983).
Summary
Thirty-three freshwater species in 28 genera have been exposed to TRC
and the acute values range from 28 jjg/L for Daphnia magna to 710 ^g/L for the
threespine stickleback. Fish and invertebrate species had similar ranges of
sensitivity. Freshwater chronic tests have been conducted with two inverte-
brate and one fish species, and the chronic values for these 3 species ranged
from less than 3.4 to 26 ,Jg/L, with acute-chronic ratios from 3.7 co greater
chan 78.
The acute sensitivities of 24 species of saltwater animals in 21 genera
have been determined for CPO, and the LC50s range from 26 jg/L for the
eastern oyscer to 1,418 ;Jg/L for a mixture of two shore crab species. This
range is very similar to that observed with freshwater species, and fish and
invercebrace species had similar sensitivities. Only one chronic cesc has
been conducted with a saltwater species, Menidia peninsulae, and in this cesc
the acute-chronic ratio was 1.162.
The available data indicate that aquatic plants are more resistant to
chlorine than fish and invertebrate species.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
17
-------
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of total residual
chlorine does not exceed 11 \tgfL more than once every three years on the
average and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 19 jg/L
more than once every three years on the average.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of
chlorine-produced oxidants does noc exceed 7.5 ^g/L. more than once every
three years on the average and if the one-hour average concentration does not
exceed 13 ug/L more than once every three years on the average.
The recommended exceedence frequency of three years is the Agency's besc
scientific judgment of the average amount of time it will take an unstressed
system to recover from a pollution event in which exposure to chlorine
exceeds the criterion. Stressed systems, for example, one in which several
outfalls occur in a limited area, would be expected to require more time for
recovery. The resilience of ecosystems and their ability to recover differ
greatly, however, and site-specific criteria may be established if adequate
justification is provided.
The use of criteria in designing waste treatment facilities requires the
selection of an appropriate wasteload allocation model. Dynamic models are
preferred for the aoplication of these criteria. Limited data or other
factors may make their use impractical, in which case one should rely on a
steady-state model. The Agency recommends the interim use of 1Q5 or 1Q10 for
18
-------
Cricerion Maximum Concentration (CMC) design flow and 7Q5 or 7Q10 for the
Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC) design flow in steady-state models
for unstressed and stressed systems respectively. These matters are
discussed in more detail in the Technical Support Document for Water
Quality-Based Toxics Control (U.S. EPA, 1985).
19
-------
Table 1. Acute Toxic I ty of Chlorine to Aquatic AnlMils
Species Method*
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(Mg/U"" (MoA)""
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Snail (adult), FT, M
Gonlobasls virgin lea
Snail (adult), FT, M
Gonlobasls vlrqlnlca
Snail (adult) , FT, M
Nltocrls carlnata
Snail (adult) , FT. M
Nltocrls carlnata
Snail (adult), FT, M
Nltocrls carlnata
Snail (adult). FT, M
Physa heterostropha
Snail (adult) . FT, M
Physa heterostropha
Cladoceran (1-day-old), FT, M
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran < l-day-old) , FT, M
Daphnla maqna
Copepod, FT, M
Eplschura lacustrls
Copepod, FT, M
Cyclops blcuspldatus
Copepod, FT, M
Cyclops blcuspldatus
Isopod. FT, M
Caecldotea bicrenata
Isopod, FT, M
tio
44 69. 57
141
B6
42 79.86
258
221 238.8
17
45 27.66
65 63
84
69 76.13
147. S"" 147.5
I50»»» 150
Gregq,
Greqq,
Greqq,
Greqq,
Greqq,
Greqq,
Greqq,
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
1975
Ward, et at . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
Ward &
Ward &
Beaton
Bee ton
Bosnak
Bosnak
DeGraeve, 1980
DeGraeve, 1980
, et al. 1976
, et al. 1976
& Morgan, 1981
& Morgan, 1981
Llrceus alabamae
20
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species Method8
Amph I pod, FT, M
Gammarus pseudolI nrnaeus
Amph I pod, FT, M
Gammarus pseudolImnaeus
Crayfish (adult), FT, M
Orconectes rials
Crayfish (adult). FT, M
Orconectes nals
Mayfly (nymph), FT, M
Stenonema Ithaca
Stonefly (nymph), FT, M
Pteronarcys sp.
Coho salmon, FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (fry), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
LC50
or EC50
(ug/U)«
330
215
9t>0
472
102
400
102
69
57
62
72
64
72
74
Species Mean
Acute Value
(tig/L)"
-
266.4
-
673.1
102
400
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Reference
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Ludwlq, 1979
Hazel, et al . 1979
Gregg, 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Lamport I, 1976
Lamport 1, 1976
Lamport I, 1976
Lampertl, 1976
Lampertl, 1976
Lampertl, 1976
Lampertl, 1976
21
-------
Table I. (Continued)
Species Method*
Coho salmon (Juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (Juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile), FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon, FT, M
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Cutthroat trout FT, M
( juvenl le).
Sal mo clarkl
Cutthroat trout FT, M
( juvenl le).
Sal mo clarkl
Cutthroat trout FT, M
(Juvenile),
Sal mo clarkl
Cutthroat trout FT, M
(j uven lie),
Salmo clarkt
Cutthroat trout FT, M
(juvenl le),
Salmo clarkl
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(iiq/L)"11 dig/D""
82
82
81
7)
59
125 74.79
75
82
83
95
94 85.46
Refer MIC*
Lampertl. 1976
Lamport! , 1976
Lampertl , 1976
Lampertl, 1976
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
Rosenberqer, 1972
Larson, et al . 1978
Larson, et al . 1978
Larson, et al . 1978
Larson, et al . 1978
Larson, et al . 1978
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerI
FT. M
Merkens, 1958
22
-------
Table t. (Continued)
LC50
or EC50
Species Method* (Mq/l)««
Rainbow trout (sac fry), FT, M 52
Sal mo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout (fry), FT, M 47
Sal mo qalrdnerl
Rali.DOW trout (fry), FT, M 40
Salmo Qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout (fry). FT, M B4
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout (fry), FT, M 56
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile), FT, M 69
Sal mo galrdnerl
Brook trout (sac fry), FT, M 65
SalveIInus fontlnalIs
Brook trout (sac fry), FT, M 90
Salvellnus font I nails
Brook trout (sac fry), FT, M 85
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (fry), FT, M 60
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (Juvenile), FT, M 133
Salve ILinus fontlnal Is
Brook trout (juvenile), FT, M 135
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile), FT, M 175
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile), FT, M 130
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Species Mean
Acute Value
61.92
Reference
Wolf, et al . 1975
Wolf, et al . 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Wolf, et al. 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Wolf, et al . 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Wolf, et al . 1975
Wolf, et al. 1975
Thatcher, et al . 1976
23
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalis
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Sdlvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (alevln),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (alevln),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout ( fry) ,
Method*
FT. M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(Mg/L)«« (iig/U"
146
179
146
16J
160
150
146
150
131
107
115
106
91
82
Reference
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Thatcher, et
Larson, et al
Larson, et al
Larson, et al
al. 1976
al. 1976
al . 1976
al . 1976
al. 1976
al. 1976
al. 1976
al. 1976
al. 1976
al. 1976
al. 1976
. I977b
. I977b
. 1977b
Salvellnus fontlnalls
24
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Brook trout (juvenile).
Salve) Inus tontlnalls
Brook trout (Juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Lake trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus namaycush
Goldfish (adult),
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish (adult) ,
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish,
C^ asslus auratus
Golden shiner (adult),
Notemlgonus crysoleucas
Golden shiner,
Notemlqonus crysoleucas
Golden shiner,
Notemlqonus crysoleucas
Golden shiner,
Notemlqonus crysoleucas
Puqnose shiner (adult),
Notr_o_p_l_s_ anoqenus
Method*
FT,
FT.
FT,
FT.
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT.
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
H
M
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(iig/L)" (Mg/U)«»
91
102
88
135
135 117. 4
60 60
153
210
350 224.0
40
180
190
190 127.0
45 45
Reference
Larson, et al . I977b
Thatcher, et al . 1976
Larson, et al . 19776
Nolan & Johnson, 1977
Arthur, et al . 1975
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Tsal & HcKee, 1980
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Flnlayson & Hansen, 1979
Esvelt, et al . 1971
Stone, et al . 1973
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
25
-------
Table I. (Continued)
Species
Common shiner (adult),
Notropls cornutus
Red shiner,
Notropls lutrensls
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
P 1 mepha 1 es prome 1 as
Fathead minnow (adult),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
Plmephales promelas
White sucker,
Catostomus commersonl
Channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus
Threesplne stickleback,
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Blueqll 1,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueql II ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Method*
FT,
FT,
FT.
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT.
FT,
FT.
FT,
FT,
FT,
M
H
M
H
H
M
M
M
M
H
M
M
M
M
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(pgA.)*" (Ng/L)**
51 51
169 169
130
86
130
95
82
120 105.2
138 138
90
90 90
710 710
330
250
Reference
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Hazel , et al. 1979
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur, et al. 1975
Flnlayson & Hansen, 1979
Ward, et al. 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve, 1978
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & OeGraeve,1978
Ward & OeGraeve, I960
Arthur, et al . 1975
Roseboom & Rlchey,
1977a,b
Roseboom & Rlchey,
1977a,b
Esvelt, et al. 1971
Roseboom & Rlchey,
1977a,b
Roseboom & Rlchey,
I977a,b
26
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
S peel «s
B 1 ueq 1 1 1 ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Suntlsh,
Lepornls sp.
Sunf Ish,
Lepomls sp.
Larqemouth bass,
Mlcropterus sal mo Ides
Larqemouth bass
( juvenl le),
Mlcropterus sat mo Ides
Crapple,
Pomoxls sp.
Oranqethroat darter,
Etheostoma spectablle
Yel low perch,
Perca flavescens
Wai (eye,
Stlzostedlon vltreum
v 1 treum
Wai leye,
Stlzostedlon vltreum
vltreum
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea virgin lea
Copepod ,
Acartla tonsa
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
Method* (ug/L)" (Mg/L)»«
R, M 180 245.8
FT, M 778
Ff, M 195 232. Ht
FT, M 29b
FT, M 241 266.6
FT, M 127 I27t
FT, M 590 590
FT, M 205 205
FT, M 150
FT, M 108 127.5
SALTWATER SPECIES
FT. M 26 26
FT, M 29 29
Reference
Koseboon 4 Rlchey,
1977a,b
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward 4 DeGraeve, 1978
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
Arthur, et al . 1975
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
Ludwlq, 1979
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Ward, et al . 1976;
Ward & DeGraeve, 1978
Roberts & Gleeson, 19
Roberts & Gleeson, 19*!
27
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Mysld,
Neomysls sp.
Amph 1 pod ,
Pontogenela sp.
Amph 1 pod ,
Anony* sp.
Grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes puglo
Coon stripe shrimp,
Panda 1 us danae
Coon stripe shrimp,
Panda 1 us danae
Coon stripe shrimp.
Panda 1 us danae
Coon stripe shrimp,
Panda 1 us danae
Coon stripe shrimp.
Panda 1 us danae
Shrimp,
Panda 1 us qonlurus
Shrimp,
Crangon nlgrlcauda
Hermit crab (larva),
Pagurus longlcarpus
Hermit crab (larva),
Pagurus longlcarpus
Method*
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT.
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
FT,
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
162 162
687 687
145 145
220 220
210
295
178
133
178 192.0
90 90
134 134
102
211 146.7
Reference
Thatcher
Thatcher
Thatcher
Roberts,
Gibson,
Gibson,
Gibson,
Gl bson,
Thatcher
Thatcher
Thatcher
Roberts,
Roberts,
, 1978
, 1978
, 1978
et al
et al.
et al.
et al.
et al.
, 1978
, 1978
, 1978
1978
1978
. 1975
1976
1976
1976
1976
Blue crab,
Calllnectes sapldus
FT, M
700
Vreenegoor, et al. 1977
28
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Blue crab (adult male),
Caltlnectes sapldus
Blue crab (adult female),
Calllnectes sapldus
Shore crab,
Hemlqrapsus nudus and
H_. oregonensls
Pacific herring
(juvenile),
Clupea harengus pa II as I
Coho salmon,
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile),
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Atlantic sllverslde.
Men! d la men Id la
Tidewater sllverslde
( juvenl le),
Menldla peninsulae
Threesplne stickleback,
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Northern pipefish,
Syngnathus fuscus
Spot.
Lelostomus xanthurus
Shiner perch
Method*
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT, M
Ff, M
FT, M
FT, M
FT. M
FT, M
FT. M
LC50
or EC50
(ug/U««
840
860
1,418
to
70
32
37
54
167
270
90
71
Species Mean
Acute Value
(wg/U*«
796.7
I,4l8t
65
47.55
37
54
167
270
90
71
Reference
Laird & Roberts. 1980
Laird i Roberts. 1980
Thatcher, 1978
Thatcher, 1978
Buckley, 1976
Thatcher, 1978
Roberts, et al . 1975
Goodman, et al . 1963
Thatcher, 1978
Roberts, et al . 1975
Bel lanca & Bailey, 19:
Thatcher, 1978
(juvenile and adult),
Cymatogaster aggregate
29
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
Species Method" (M9/l)** (ug/L)** Reference
Pacific sand lance FT. M 82 82 Thatcher, 1978
(juvenile and adult),
Ammodytes hexapterus
80 80 Roberts, et al . 1975
75 75 Thatcher, 1978
Naked qoby (juvenile),
Goblosoma boscl
English sole (juvenile),
Parophrys vetulus
FT, M
FT, M
* FT = flow-through, M = measured.
** Results are expressed as total residual chlorine tor freshwater species and chlorine-
produced oxldants for saltwater species.
*** Average of values calculated usinq two different methods.
••••96-hr LC50 was obtained by Interpolation from Figure 4 In Merkens (1958).
t A mixture of two species was used In the test.
30
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxlclty of Chlorine to Aquatic Animals
St acles
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Amphlpod,
Gammarus pseudol Imnaeus
Amphlpod,
Gammarus pseudol Imnaeus
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Tidewater stlverside,
Menldla peninsulas
Test*
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
LC
ELS
Limits Chronic Value
(Mg/L)" "
FRESHWATER SPECIES
4-14
2-7
12-19
<3.4"«»
16-43
6-21
SALTWATER SPECIES
40-54
7.483
5.742
15.10
<3.4
26.23
11.22
46.48
Reference
Arthur, et al. 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur & Eaton, 1971
Arthur & Eaton, 1971
Arthur, et al . 1975
Goodman, et al . 1983
* LC = life cycle or partial life cycle, ELS = early life staqe.
** Results are expressed as total residual chlorine for freshwater species and chlorine-
produced oxldants for saltwater species.
"""Adverse effects occurred at all concentrations tested.
31
-------
Table 2. (Continued)
Acute-Chronic Ratio
•Acute Value
Species (ng/L)
Cladoceran, ?7.b6"
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran. 27.66*
Daphn 1 a maqna
Amphipod, 2b6.4»»
Gammarus pseudol imnaeus
Amphipod, 26<>.4""
Gammarus pseudol imnaeus
Fathead minnow, 105. 7»»
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow, 105.7«»
Plmephales promelas
Tidewater sllverside, 54
Men Id la penlnsulae
Chronic Value
(uq/1) Ratio
7.485 5.696
5.742 7.592
15.10 17.64
<5.4 >78.55
26.25 4.050
11.22 9.421
46.48 1.162
* The Species Mean Acute Value was used here because the only acute values reported by
Arthur, et al. (1975) were for 7-day exposures. This value of 27.66 pq/L Is not
Inconsistent with the 7-day values (see Table 4) and the resulting acute-chronic ratios
are comparable to those for the fathead minnow and tidewater sllverside.
"•Geometric mean of two values from Arthur, et al. (1975) In Table I.
32
-------
Table 3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios
tank*
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
Genus Mean
Acute Value
37.18««
245.8
232.8
238.8
224 .0
205
150
147.5
138
Catostomus commersonl
33
-------
TabI* 3. (Continued)
Rank*
15
14
13
12
1 1
10
9
B
7
6
5
Genus Mean Species Mean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute Value Acute-Chronic
(wq/L) Species (ug/L) Ratio
127.3 Walleye.,
Stlzostedlon vltreum
v 1 treum
127 Grapple,
Pomoxls sp.
127.0 Golden shiner,
Notemlqonus crysoleucas
105.2 Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
102 Mayfly,
Stenonema Ithaca
90 Channel cattish,
Ictalurus punctatus
85.93 Brook trout,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Lake trout,
Salvellnus namaycush
79.86 Snail,
N Itocrls carlnata
76.13 Copepod,
Cyclops bicuspldatus
74.79 Coho salmon,
Oncorhynchus klsutch
72.95 Puqnose shiner,
Notropls anoqenus
Common shiner,
Notropls cornutus
Red shiner.
127.3
127
127.0
105.2 6.162**
102
90
117.4
60
79.86
76.13
74.79
45
51
169
Notropls lutrensls
34
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Rank"
4
3
2
1
21
20
19
16
17
16
Genus Mean
Acute Value
( ug/L )
72.74
69.57
6i
27.66
1,418
796.7
667
270
220
167
Spec 1 es
Cutthroat trout,
Sal mo clarkl
Rainbow trout,
S a 1 mo qalrdner 1
Snail ,
Gonlobasls virgin lea
Cope pod,
Epischura lacustrls
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
SALTWATFR SPECIES
Shore crab,
Hemlgrapsus nudus and
H. oreqonensls
Blue crab,
Calllnectes sapldus
Amph 1 pod ,
Pontoqenla sp.
Northern pipefish,
Synqnathus fuscus
Grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes puqlo
Threesplne stickleback,
Species Mean
Acute Value
(i»g/u
85.46
61.92
69.57
63
27.66
1,418
796.7
687
270
220
167
Species Mean
Acute-Chronic
Ratio
5.227»»
Gasterosteus aculeatus
35
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Genus Mean Species Mean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute Value Acute-Chronic
lank* (nq/L) Species (nq/L) Ratio
15
14
13
12
1 1
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
162 Mysld.
Neomysls sp.
146.7 Hermit crab,
Paqurus lonqlcarpus
145 Amp hi pod,
Anonyx sp.
134 Shrimp,
Crangon nigr Icauda
131.5 Coon stripe shrimp,
Pandalus danae
Shr imp,
Pandalus gonlurus
90 Spot,
1 elostomus xanthurus
82 Pacific sand lance,
Ammodytes hexapterus
80 Naked goby,
Goblosoma bosci
73 Enql Ish sole,
Parophrys vetulus
71 Shiner perch,
Cymatoqaster aqqregata
65 Pacl t Ic herr Inq,
Clupea harengus pallasl
47.33 Coho salmon,
Oncorhynchus klsutch
44.70 Atlantic sllverslde.
Men Id la men Id la
Tidewater sllverslde,
162
146.7
145
134
192.0
90
90
82
80
73
71
65
47.33
37
54 1.162
Men Id la penlnsulae
36
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Genus Mean Species Mean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute Value Acute-Chronic
Rank* (ng/L) Species (pq/L) Ratio
2 29 Copepod, 29
Acartia tonsa
1 26 Frtstern oyster, 26
Craisostrea virqinica
* Ranked from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value.
"•Geometric mean of two values In Table 2.
Fresh water
Final Acute Value = 38.32 ug/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (38.32 uq/L) /2 = 19.16 uq/L
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio = 3.345 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (38.32 uq/L) X3.345 = 11.46 yq/L
Salt water
Final Acute Value = 25.24 uq/L
Criterion Maximum Concentration = (25.24 ug/L) / 2 = 12.62 Mq/L
Flnal Acute-Chronic Ratio = 3.345 (see text)
Final Chronic Value = (25.24 Mg/L) / 3.345 = 7.546 uq/L
37
-------
Table 4,
Specie*
Other Data on Effects of Chlorine on Aquatic Organ!
Result
Duration
Effect
Lake Michigan
phytoplankton
Lake Michigan
phytoplankton
Lake Michigan
phytoplankton
Lake Michigan
phytoplankton
Eurasian waterml 1 fol 1 ,
Myrlophyllum splcatum
Rotl fer,
Keratella cochlearls
Cladoceran,
Oaphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Crayfish (adult) ,
Pacifastacus trowbrldqll
Coho salmon (alevln),
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (juvenile),
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Fathead minnow (fry),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
P 1 mepha 1 as prome 1 as
Fathead minnow (adult).
30 mln
50 mln
30 mln
30 mln
96 hrs
24 hrs
7 days
7 days
365 days
21 days
21 days
30 days
21 wks
21 wks
FRESHWATER SPECIES
( C uptake)
< C uptake)
( C uptake)
EC50
((aC uptake)
Reduced growth
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50»»»
Decrease In growth
Decrease In growth
LC50
LC45
LC10
275"
160"
620"
760"
50
13
4-14
2
31
23
11
45
85
43
Plmephales promelas
Reference
Brooks & Seeqert, 1977b;
Brooks & Llptak, 1979
Brooks & Seeqert, )977b;
Brooks & Llptak, 1979
Brooks & Seegert, 19776;
Brooks & Llptak, 1979
Brooks & Seegert, 1977b;
Brooks 4 Llptak, 1979
Watktns & HanmerscMaq,
1984
Grossnlckle, 1974
Arthur, et al . 1975
Arthur, et al . 1975
Larson, et al . 1978
Larson, et al . 1977a
Larson, et al. 1977a
Ward, et al. 1976
Arthur & Eaton, 1971
Arthur & Eaton, 1971
38
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Species
Ten fIsh spec Ies
Fish
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton
Rotifer,
Brachlonus pllcatllls
Rotifer.
Brachlonus pllcatllls
Rotifer,
Brachlonus pllcatllls
Rotifer,
Brachlonus pllcatllls
Eastern oyster (larvae),
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster ( larvae) ,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Duration
-
"
2-5 hrs
(10 C del ta
2-5 hrs
(I1C delta
2-5 hrs
(17.5 C del
50-60 days
50 mln
(0 C delta
50 mln
(0 C delta
50 mln
(5 C delta
50 mln
(5 C delta
30 min
(0 C delta
30 mln
(0 C del ta
Result
Effect (ufl/D*
Avoidance of 50
chlorinated sewage
effluent In field
Avoidance of 100
chlorinated sewaqe
effluent in field
SALTWATER SPECIES
2-3 day delay In 20
t) peak ATP
2-3 day delay in 60
t) peak ATP
5 day delay In 80
ta t) peak ATP
Shifts In 50-100
compos 1 tion of
Phytoplankton
commun 1 ty
LC50 ISO""**
t)
LC50 20*****
t)
L050 90*****
t)
LC^O < j Q* *#**
t)
LC50 120****
t)
LC50 10*"**
t)
Reference
Tsal, 1973
Seegert, 1979
Goldman 4 Qulnby,
Goldman 4 Qulnby,
Goldman & Qulnby,
Sanders 4 Ryther,
Capuzzo, 1979b
Capuzzo, I979b
Capuzzo, 19796
Capuzzo, 19796
Capuzzo, I979a
Capuzzo, 1979a
1979
1979
1979
1980
39
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Result
Species
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea vIrgInIca
Copapod.
Acartla tonsa
Copepod,
Acartla tonsa
Copepod,
Acartla tonsa
Copepod,
Acartla tonsa
Copepod,
Acartla tonsa
Copepod,
Acartla tonsa
Copepod,
Acartla tonsa
American lobster (larva),
Homarus amerlcanus
American lobster (larva),
Homarus amerlcanus
American lobster (larva),
Homarus amerlcanus
American lobster (larva),
Homarus amerlcanus
Sand dollar (sperm),
Dendraster excentrlcus
Sand dollar (sperm),
Dendraster excentrlcus
Duration
30 mln
(5 C delta t)
50 mln
(5 C delta t)
24 nrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
30 mln
(0 C delta t)
30 min
(0 C delta t)
30 mln
(5 C delta t)
30 mln
(5 C delta t)
60 ml n
60 mln
60 mln
60 mln
5 mln
5 mi n
Effect
Reference
LC50
LC^O
LC-iO
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
EC50 (eqg
fertl llzatlon)
EC50 (egq
fertlllzatlon)
80""*» Capuzzo, 1979a
<10«»M» Capuzzo, I979a
<50 Roberts, et al. 1975
<50 Roberts, et al. 1975
29 Roberts & Gleeson, 1978
820* *»» Capuzzo, 1979a
32o«»«»» Capuzzo, 1979a
860"** Capuzzo, 1979a
32o»«»» Capuzzo, 1979a
2,900**** Goldman, et al . 1978
300»"*» Goldman, et al. 1978
3,950**"* Goldman, et al. 1978
l,300«»»»« Goldman, et al. 1978
2 Dlnnel, et al. 1981
13 Dlnnel, et al. 1981
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Species
Striped bass ( larva) ,
Morone saxatl11s
Striped bass (larva),
Morone saxatlI Is
Spot (juvenl le),
Lelostomus xanthurus
Spot (juvenl le),
Lelos+omus xanthurus
Blacksmith (juvenile),
Chromls punctlplnnls
Blacksmith (juvenl le).
Chromls punctlplnnls
Blacksmith (juvenile),
Chromls punctlplnnls
Blacksmith (juvenile),
Chromls punctlplnnls
Duration
48 hrs
48 hrs
30 min
(10 C)
30 mln
Short term
Short term
Effect
Incipient LC50
Inci pient LC50
Avoidance
Avoidance
Total avoidance
( food absent)
Total avoidance
Result
dig/D*
40
70
180
50
162
203
Reference
Mlddaugh. et al .
Mlddaugh, et al.
Mlddaugh, et al.
Mlddaugh, et al.
Hose & Stoffel ,
Hose & Stoffel,
1977a
I977a
1977b
1977b
1980
1980
Short term
(satiated
prior to test)
Short term
(starved for
24 hr prior
to test)
(food present)
Total avoidance
(food present)
Total avoidance
(food present)
327
Hose & Stoffel, 1980
Hose & Stotfel, 1980
* Results are expressed as total residual chlorine for freshwater species and chlorine-produced oxldants
for saltwater species.
** Exposure was to predominantly free residual chlorine; results are for spring, summer, fall, and winter,
respectively.
""" LC50 was not reported by authors, but was calculated from their data.
»»»« Applied as free chlorine, measured as CPO.
* """Applied as chloramlne, measured as CPO.
41
-------
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