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-------
V. SOURCE DESCRIPTION SUMMARIES
-------
V. SOURCE DESCRIPTION SUMMARIES
This section contains a summary description for each of the
33 sources listed in the OTA report Protecting The Nation's
Groundwater From Contamination. The summaries are intended to
supplement the information contained in the activity list of
Section IV.
Each summary contains the following information;
definition of the source, potential contaminants associated
with the source, extent of the potential problem (i.e., number
of facilities, volume of contaminants), geographical
distribution and major EPA activities to address source
contamination. The first four elements summarize information
in the 1984 OTA report and other reference documents listed in
Exhibit V-l.
The automated data base presented in Section IV serves as
the basis for the summary element "Major Categories of EPA
Activities. "
There has been no major effort to update this information,
however, EPA program offices have supplemented and updated some
of OTA's data for some of the major sources addressed by the
Agency.
74
-------
EXHIBIT V-l
LIST OF REFERENCES
Information presented in the first four
elements of the source summaries was derived
from the OTA report or EPA staff, unless
otherwise noted. EPA staff relied on the
other references listed below.
1. ICF, Inc. and Pope Ried Associated, Inc. Hazardous Waste
Tanks Risk Analysis. Washington, D.C.: June 1986.
2. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. Protecting
the Nation's Groundwater From Contamination (OTA-Q-233).
Washington, D.C.: October 1984
3. U.S. EPA. Phase I Subtitle D Study. Washington, D.C.:
1986.
4. U.S. EPA, Office of Drinking Water. Report to Congress on
Injection of Hazardous Waste (EPA 540/9-85-003).
Washington, D.C.: May 1985.
5. U.S. EPA, Office of Drinking Water. UIC Well Inventory.
Washington, D.C.: March 1986.
75
-------
1. SUBSURFACE PERCOLATION
Definition Buried tank and drainage systems designed to
collect water borne wastes, remove settable
solids from liquid by gravity separation,
and permit percolation into the soil of
clarified effluent.
Potential
Contaminants Hydrocarbons, metals, nitrates, phosphates,
microorganisms, cleaning agents (TCE) .
Extent of
Potential
Problem An estimated 22 million domestic septic
systems were in operation in the United
States in 1980, and approximately one-half
million new ones are installed annually. A
1983 report indicates that these systems
release between 820 and 1,460 billion
gallons of waste annually. It is estimated
that 25,000 industrial septic systems
discharge between 1.2-1.9 billion gallons of
waste annually (OTA, 1984).
Septic systems pose a threat to the ground
water from improper siting (e.g., too high a
density per unit area for a particular
hydrogeologic setting), overloaded systems,
use of cleaning agents, end of design life,
and improper disposal of septage (EPA, 1986).
Geographical
Distribution The highest regional densities of use are in
the eastern third of the country and along
portions of the west coast (OTA, 1984).
76
-------
1. SUBSURFACE PERCOLATION
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Guidance - The 5 OMPC guidance manuals
issued by EPA emphasize use of the proper
siting design, operation and maintenance
technologies to prevent system failure, and
subsequent ground-water contamination. An
OGWP manual targets State and local
officials and provides guidance on
developing and administering programs that
will protect ground water.
Strategy - The Agency is in the early stages
of examining how to use TSCA to more
effectively control septic tank additives.
77
-------
2. INJECTION WELLS
Definition
Subsurface emplacement of fluids.
Activities encompass industrial, municipal
(sewage), agricultural, urban runoff, brine
injection, enhanced oil recovery, solution
mining, artificial recharge, in-site
recovery wells and other drainage wells.
EPA has established 5 classes of injection
wells for regulatory purposes: Class I,
hazardous and nonhazardous waste wells
injected below underground sources of
drinking water; Class II, oil and gas wells;
Class III, solution mining wells; Class IV,
hazardous waste wells injecting into or
above underground sources of drinking water
(banned by EPA); and Class V, all other
types of wells.
Potential
Contaminants
Hydrocarbons, metals, non metals, organics,
organic and inorganic acids, microorganisms,
radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
A FY 86 inventory indicated that there were
280,752 operable injection wells in the
United States (EPA, 1986). These include:
555 Class I wells, 161,397 Class II wells,
22,727 Class III wells, 14 Class IV wells,
and 96,059 Class V wells.
Class I - At the time of the FY 86 EPA
survey there were 252 hazardous Class I
wells. EPA estimates that 11.539 billion
gallons of hazardous waste were injected in
1983.
Class II - OTA has estimated that
approximately 525 billion gallons of brine
are disposed of annually and that 24.5
billion gallons of water are used annually
for enhanced oil recovery.
Class IV - Class IV wells are now illegal.
When discovered, a site evaluation study is
done, and if warranted, they are plugged and
abandoned.
78
-------
INJECTION WELLS
(Continued)
Extent of
Potential
Problem
(Continued)
Class V - There were approximately 116,150
Class V wells as of March 1936. The most
common of these wells are agricultural,
industrial, and storm water runoff.
Ground-water contamination can result from
either active or inactive injection wells.
This contamination commonly occurs because
of faulty well construction, improperly
plugged or abandoned wells near the
injection well, faulty or fractured
confining strata, lateral displacement or
direct injection into underground sources of
drinking water.
Geographical
Distribution
The majority of Class I hazardous waste
injection wells are located in the Gulf
Coast and Great Lakes States. Class II oil
and gas wells are distributed throughout the
United States, with at least 17 states
reporting some type of contamination
incident. Class V agricultural drainage
wells are most common in IA, ID, TX and CA.
Class V industrial drainage wells are
present mainly in NY and NJ while Class V
storm water drainage wells are most common
in the western States.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulations - EPA has a major regulatory
program for controlling underground
injection practices (SDWA). This program
establishes technical criteria and standards
for the construction, operation, monitoring
and testing of wells. The technical
standards are implemented through a
permitting program administered either by
EPA or approved States. There are two
efforts underway which may result in
additional regulatory action. One is the
land disposal restriction rule under the
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of
1984, Sections 210(f) and (g)/RCRA 3004(f)
and (g). The second is the Class V well
assessment.
79
-------
2. INJECTION WELLS
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
(Continued) Studies - An assessment of hazardous waste
injection required by the 1984 RCRA
amendments to determine whether injection of
wastes is protective of human health (as
defined in this Act) is underway.
Components of the study include: an
analysis of logging and testing
requirements, causes and consequences of
well failures, and an assessment of
geological, geochemical, and hydrologic
characteristics.
Additionally an assessment of the number,
location and potential of contamination
associated with Class V wells is in
process. A report is due to Congress in
September 1987.
80
-------
3. LAND APPLICATION
Definition
Application of treated wastewater, waste-
water byproducts (e.g., sludge), hazardous
waste or nonhazardous waste to the land
which then acts as a medium for treatment
and disposal (e.g., spray irrigation,
overland flow).
Potential
Contaminants
Nitrogen, phosphorous, heavy metals,
hydrocarbons microorganisms and
radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Sludge - at least 2,463 publicly-owned
treatment works (POTW) currently apply
liquid or thickened sludge on land. Over 7
million dry tons of sludge are produced by
POTWs, with over 20 percent of municipal
sludge generated being applied directly to
the land. Industrial sludge data is lacking.
Land Treatment - over 1000 POTWs currently
use or plan to use this method.
Hazardous Waste - EPA estimates there are at
most 250 land treatment units using
primarily petroleum and wood preserving
wastes.
Nonhazardous Waste - A 1986 EPA report
estimates the number of nonhazardous land
application units to be 18,889. Of these
11,937 receive municipal sewage, 5,605 are
industrial, 726 are oil and gas, and 621 are
other types of facilities.
Geographical
Distribution
Unknown.
81
-------
3. LAND APPLICATION
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Regulation - Two major regulatory programs
pertain to land application. One addresses
the application of municipal sludge and land
treatment of wastewater through the Clean
Water Act (CWA). The other applies to
nonhazardous and hazardous solid waste and
is regulated under the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) Subtitles C and D.
Guidance - Substantial guidance has been
developed pertaining to system operations
and ground-water monitoring under Subtitles
C and D of RCRA. Guidance manuals have also
been developed by the Office of Research and
Development and the Office of Municipal
Pollution Control on best practicable waste
treatment techniques for POTW land treatment
facilities and land application of municipal
sludge.
Studies - Because of the land disposal
restriction in the 1984 Amendments to the
RCRA, land treatment may be prohibited in
some cases. Several major studies are
underway to better assess the impact of land
treatment and land application practices on
ground water.
82
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4. LANDFILLS
Definition
Historically, landfills have been the most
common method for disposing of solid
wastes. These wastes are classified as
either hazardous or nonhazardous. RCRA
regulations define hazardous waste and
specifically exclude various waste products
such as domestic sewage wastes, irrigation
return flows, certain radioactive wastes,
and some industrial wastes. Municipal
landfills receive solid waste products that
generally, but not always, are
nonhazardous. Industrial landfills receive
wastes from industries, and these wastes
typically are hazardous.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, inorganics
radionuclides.
microorganisms
Extent of
Potential
Problem
A 1986 EPA survey estimates 16,416 landfills
in the United States. This includes 9284
municipal landfills and 3511 industrial
landfills. Of this total there are
approximately 700 hazardous landfills at 136
facilities.
During 1984, municipal solid waste disposal
facilities handled about 133 million tons of
municipal solid wastes.
Geographical
Distribution
The distribution of landfills appears to
follow the general distribution of the
population. Consequently, landfills are
concentrated around urban population centers
and industrial facilities.
83
-------
4. LANDFILLS
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Policy/Strategy - OSW is developing an
integrated ground-water strategy that
outlines EPA's policy for making
ground-water related RCRA Subtitle C
permitting and variance decisions for
hazardous waste land disposal facilities
including landfills. It will encompass all
regulations and guidance pertaining to
ground water.
Regulation - Two major regulatory programs
address landfills. Subtitle C of RCRA
regulates hazardous waste landfills by
establishing management, design, location
and operating standards as well as
ground-water monitoring and corrective
action regxiirements. Additional regulations
to implement the restrictions on land
disposal enacted by Congress in 1984 are
under development.
Subtitle D of RCRA until recently consisted
predominately of broad performance-based
criteria for nonhazardous waste landfills.
However, more specific criteria are under
development to govern the location and
performance of these facilities.
Subtitle C is designed to be administered
initially by EPA and eventually delegated to
States. Subtitle D is designed to be State
implemented from the start.
Guidance - Eight guidance manuals issued or
under development by OSW and OWPE implement
the provisions of Subtitles C and D of
RCRA. Several specifically address
ground-water monitoring, while others
pertain to facility location, compliance
orders and corrective action.
84
-------
LANDFILLS
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
(Continued) Enforcement - OWPE conducts enforcement
activities that focus specifically on ground
water.
Studies - Most studies are related in some
way to regulatory development under RCRA.
They include small generator issues,
Subtitle D implementation, and compliance
with ground-water protection requirements.
85
-------
5. OPEN DUMPS
Definition A dump is a land disposal site where solid
wastes are deposited without regard for the
design, operation or maintenance of the
site. At such sites, dumping usually is
unauthorized and unsupervised, and the
wastes are left uncovered. A wide variety
of types of wastes have been deposited in
open dumps.
Potential
Contaminants Organics, inorganics, and microorganisms.
Extent of
Potential
Problem Estimates of open dumps range from 1,856
(EPA, 1985) to 2,396 (Waste Age, 1983).
These are probably minimum estimates,
because many open dumps still may be
unidentified.
Geographical
Distribution 55 States and Territories reported open
dumps to EPA's Open Dump Inventory.
Major
Categories
Of EPA
Activities Regulation - Open dumps are subject to the
criteria EPA has developed for
classification of solid waste disposal
facilities and practices (RCRA). These
rules will set performance criteria to
protect the ground water, among other things
Studies - EPA annually updates an inventory
of open dumps. The States have identified
those solid waste facilities that are open
dumps and probably pose risks to health and
the environment.
86
-------
6. RESIDENTIAL (LOCAL) DISPOSAL
Definition
Practices in this category encompass the
indiscriminate, unsupervised disposal of
household wastes into gutters, sewers, storm
drains and backyard burning pits. Supervised
disposal in municipal landfills is not
covered.
Potential
Contaminants
Organic chemicals, metals, nonmetal in-
organics, inorganic acids, microorganisms.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Household wastes encompass a wide range of
product materials: pesticides, paint
products, cleaners, automobile products,
asphalt and roofing tar; and batteries.
Although little guantitative information is
available on the patterns of ultimate
disposal of these household substances,
there is some information on how much of
these substances are consumed. Over 90
percent of households use pesticides, and
these household uses represent 5-10 percent
of all pesticide use in the U.S. Annual
household cleaner usage is estimated to be
0.4-5.6 million tons.
Residential disposal may contaminate ground
water in several ways. Hazardous materials
in the ashes from uncontrolled burning can
leach into the ground water. Spilled oil,
pesticides and fertilizers also can be
washed away and leach. Toxic wastes poured
down household drains can corrode pipes,
cause septic system malfunctions, and
interfere with municipal sewage treatment
facilities, all of which may lead to
ground-water contamination.
87
-------
RESIDENTIAL (LOCAL) DISPOSAL
(Continued)
Geographical
Distribution The pattern of residential disposal reflects
population density and distribution (OTA,
1984).
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported,
88
-------
7. SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS
Definition
Surface impoundments are natural depressions
or manmade holding areas such as
excavations, lagoons, or dikes. Small
impoundments, commonly referred to as
"pits," are used by industries,
municipalities, agricultural operations or
households for special purposes such as
waste storage or sludge disposal.
Wastewater in impoundments is treated in
several ways: chemical coagulation and
precipitation, pit adjustment, biological
oxidation, separation of suspended solids
from liquids, and temperature reductions.
Non discharging impoundments lose liquid
through evaporation and/or seepage. Other
impoundments discharge their liquid
periodically or continuously into streams,
lakes, bays or the ocean.
Potential
Contaminants
Organic chemicals, metals, nonmetal
inorganics, inorganic acids, microorganisms,
radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
EPA's Phase I Subtitle D Study (EPA 1986),
reports that there are 191,822 surface
impoundments in the United States. Types of
impoundments include: 16,232 (8%)
industrial, 2,426 (1.2%) municipal, 17,159
(9%) agricultural, 19,813 (10%) mining,
125,074 (65%) oil and gas and 11,118 other.
In addition, there are 3,184 known hazardous
waste treatment, storage, or disposal
impoundments located at approximately 400
facilities.
Surface impoundments are thought to
constitute one of the biggest threats to
ground water, given the estimated numbers
and volumes of waste. About 70 percent of
the known impoundments are located in
hydrogeologically vulnerable areas, as
defined under the 1986 RCRA guidance. In
addition, 37 percent are located over
aquifers currently serving as sources of
drinking water.
89
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7. SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS
(Continued)
Geographical
Distribution
Surface impoundments are found in numerous
locations throughout the United States.
States with the highest number of
nonhazardous surface impoundments are AR,
KS, LA, NM, OH, OK, PA, TX, WV.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulations - Surface impoundments handle
both hazardous and nonhazardous waste and
thus are subject to regulatory programs
under both Subtitle C and Subtitle D of
RCRA. Subtitle C, which regulates hazardous
waste, includes current and pending
regulations pertaining to restrictions on
land disposal, requirements for small
quantity generators, standards for
owners/operators of treatment, storage and
disposal (TSD) facilities, location
standards for TSD facilities. Requirements
for the hazardous waste program are
implemented through a permit program.
Performance criteria under the Subtitle D
program address nonhazardous waste and are
being revised to be more specific and
stringent as required under the 1984
Amendments to RCRA.
Guidance - Numerous guidance manuals
accompany the RCRA Subtitle C regulatory
program. These manuals establish policies
and procedures and provide technical
information for both the regulatory agencies
and the regulated community.
Studies - A number of studies have been
completed or are underway and generally are
intended to support development of new
regulations required by the 1984 amendments
to RCRA and under Subtitle D of RCRA.
90
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8. and 9. WASTE TAILINGS AND WASTE PILES
Definition
Waste tailings and pilings are solid wastes
typically associated with mining
operations. Piles generally are disturbed
soil and overburden from surface mining or
waste rock from subsurface mining. Tailings
result from on-site operations of cleaning
and extracting ores. Both types of waste
are piled on the land surface or used as
fill.
Potential
Contaminants
Arsenic, sulfuric acid, copper, selenium,
molybdenum, uranium, thorium, radium, lead
manganese and vanadium.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Mining — total annual waste material from
mining operations is approximately 2.3
billion tons, which includes both waste
piles and tailings.
Metal mining — about 250 million tons are
deposited each year in ponds.
Uranium mining — estimates of known amounts
of tailings are about 215 million tons per
year at both active and inactive sites.
Hazardous waste piles — piles at an
estimated 174 facilities contained about
0.39 billion gallons in 1981; the actual
amount probably is higher, because this
represents the amount of waste only at
facilities regulated under Federal law (OTA,
1984).
Geographical
Distribution
Unknown.
91
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8. and 9. WASTE TAILINGS AND WASTE PILES
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulation - Waste piles are subject to the
programs under Subtitles C and D of RCRA.
Subtitle C pertains to hazardous waste
treatment, storage and disposal facilities;
Subtitle D addresses solid (nonhazardous)
waste disposal facilities. Regulations
under Subtitle C include the future
restrictions on land disposal, revision to
the small quantity generation rule, location
standards and ground-water monitoring and
protection requirements. Similar
regulations for Subtitle D are under
development.
Guidance - Eight guidance manuals issued or
under development by OSW and OWPE implement
Subtitles C and D of RCRA. Several manuals
specifically address ground-water
monitoring, while others pertain to facility
location, compliance orders and corrective
action.
Enforcement/Compliance Monitoring - OWPE
conducts enforcement activities that focus
specifically on ground water.
Studies - Most of the studies are related to
regulatory development under RCRA. They
include small generator issues, Subtitle D
implementation, and compliance with
ground-water protection requirements.
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10. MATERIALS STOCKPILES
Definition Storage piles for substances produced or
used in a production process. Materials in
stockpiles include crushed stone, copper
ore, iron ore, and uranium ore, potash,
titanium, phosphate rock, gypsum, coal, sand
and gravel.
Potential
Contaminants From coal stockpiles: aluminum, iron,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
sulfur, phosphate, and trace levels of
arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, zinc,
uranium, copper and cobalt; from other
stockpiles: metals or nonmetals, depending
upon the substance stockpiled.
Extent of
Potential
Problem Little is known about the amounts of
stockpiled materials. Based on an estimated
annual materials production of 3.4 billion
tons, approximately 700 million tons per
year are stockpiled.
Geographical
Distribution Nationwide.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported.
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11. GRAVEYARDS
Definition Cemetery; burial ground.
Potential
Contaminants Metals, nonmetals and microorganisms.
Extent of
Potential
Problem Cemeteries are distributed throughout the
United States. The potential for contamina-
tion will depend on soil types, depth to
ground water, types of caskets used and
annual rainfall. Contamination appears to
be localized.
Geographical
Distribution Nationwide.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported.
94
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12. ANIMAL BURIAL
Definition This category covers the disposal of animal
carcasses. Mass burials are rare and occur
in areas with large concentrations of
livestock and in local landfills or open
dumps. Individual burials typically take
place in special sections of municipal
landfills or in residential backyards.
Potential
Contaminants Contamination of the ground water is highly
site-specific and depends on disposal prac-
tices, surface and subsurface hydrology,
proximity of the site to water sources, the
type and amount of disposed material and the
cause of death.
Extent of
Potential
Problem The problem is highly site-specific and
depends on disposal practices, surface and
subsurface hydrology, the proximity of the
burial sites to water sources, the amount of
disposed material and the cause of death.
Geographical
Distribution Unknown.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported.
95
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13. ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANKS
Definition
Stationary devices designed to contain an
accumulation of waste or nonwaste materials
(EPA, 1986). These tanks for chemical
storage are used in industrial, commercial
and agricultural operations as well as at
individual residences.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, metal/nonmetal inorganics, in-
organic acids, microorganisms, radionuclides
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Releases from aboveground tanks, commonly
due to spills, overflow, or operator errors
may result in the contamination of ground
water (see "Hazardous Waste Tanks Risk
Analysis", ICF, Inc. and Pope Reid Assoc.,
Inc., June 1986).
Geographical
Distribution
Nationwide.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulation - Aboveground storage tanks
containing hazardous wastes are regulated
under Subtitle C of RCRA. Recently revised
standards for storage or treatment of
hazardous waste in tank systems are designed
to protect ground water (51 FR 25422).
Guidance - The document "Technical Resource
Document for the Storage and Treatment of
Hazardous Waste In Tank Systems" is
available to assist owners and operators in
complying with the hazardous waste tank
standards (NTIS Ref. No. PB-87-134391).
96
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14. UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
Definition
Underground storage tanks consist of buried
tanks and associated piping systems used to
store petroleum products, other chemicals
and wastes. Industries use tanks primarily
for fuel storage, but also for storage of a
wide range of other substances such as
acids, metals, industrial solvents,
technical grade chemicals, and chemical
wastes. Commercial enterprises and
residences utilize the storage tanks almost
exclusively for fuel storage.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, metals, inorganic acids,
microorganisms, radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
About half of the approximately 1.3 million
regulated carbon steel tanks are used for
retail motor fuel sales, primarily at
service stations; and half are used for
motor fuel storage at nonretail businesses.
Tanks regulated by EPA represent only
one-fourth to one-half of all steel tanks.
Therefore, the total number of steel tanks
is somewhere between 2.4 million and 4.8
million. Some estimates are as high as 7
million tanks. Steel tanks are used in
almost every sector of U.S. business
including farming operations, trucking
operations, and government agencies.
About 100,000 fiberglass tanks used for
underground storage of petroleum products;
several thousand are in use for storage of
non-petroleum products.
The estimated cumulative capacity of all
steel and fiberglass tanks is 25 billion
gallons, but the extent to which that
capacity is used is unknown.
97
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Extent of
Potential
Problem
(Continued)
14. UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
(Continued)
About 2,031 hazardous waste storage tanks
(not included in the above figures) and
treatment tanks are regulated under RCRA.
This figure does not include tanks operating
under NPDES permits, which account for an
estimated 13.8 billion gallons of waste.
Geographical
Distribution
Tanks are widespread throughout the country;
gasoline storage tanks are distributed in
proportion to population density.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulation - Hazardous wastes are regulated
under Subtitle C of RCRA. Petroleum and
hazardous substance tanks are subject to a
notification requirement and to an "interim
provision" under Subtitle I of RCRA. The
notification rule requires owners to notify
State authorities of the location of their
tanks. Final tank rules are under
development.
Guidance - The principal guidance pertains
to the interim prohibition on the
installation of new tanks which are
corrodable.
Studies - Numerous studies are underway to
support regulatory development including
areawide studies of the extent of
contamination from leaking tanks and
analyses of leaking tank incidents, tank
technologies, economic impacts of regulatory
options, retrofitting technologies, leak
detection techniques, and costs and
effectiveness of corrective action
technologies (petroleum).
Research and Development - An assessment of
leak detection and tank testing methods and
analysis of various response criteria and
cleanup technologies for remediation of
releases are underway.
98
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15. CONTAINERS
Definition Containers include storage barrels and drums
that hold both wastes and nonwaste pro-
ducts. They can be moved relatively easily,
although some may be buried.
Potential
Contaminants Organic chemicals, metals, nonmetals, in-
organic acids, microorganisms and
radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem Little information is available on
containers. Information on containers
regulated under RCRA shows that in 1981
about 3,577 facilities used containers to
store 0.16 billion gallons of hazardous
waste.
Geographical
Distribution Unknown.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Containers are addressed under Subtitle C of
RCRA. RCRA regulates treatment and storage
of hazardous waste in containers, and also
regulates the disposal of containerized
wastes in landfills.
99
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16. OPEN BURNING AND DETONATION SITES
Definition This category includes burning grounds and
ammunition detonation sites such as those
operated by the Department of Defense. It
also includes sites on the National
Priorities List under Superfund that have
had fires or were operated as burning
sites. Not included are cases of burning in
backyards and at landfills which fall under
the categories of open dumps, residential
disposal, or landfills.
Potential
Contaminants Inorganics, including heavy metals;
organics, including TNT.
Extent of
Potential
Problem There are between 50 and 100 open burning
and detonation facilities.
Geographical
Distributi on Unknown.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Regulation - Open burning and detonation of
hazardous waste cannot currently receive a
RCRA permit under Subtitle C. In 1987 OSW
expects to issue final regulations under
which these practices may be permitted under
RCRA. The requirements will include
provisions to protect ground water.
100
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17. RADIOACTIVE DISPOSAL SITES
Definition
This category covers disposal of five basic
types of wastes at the generation site as well
as off-site. Spent fuel is the discharged
irradiated fuel from nuclear power plant
operations. High level wastes are from the
initial processing of irradiated reactor
fuels. Transuranic wastes result primarily
from fuel reprocessing and from the
manufacture of plutonium-containing products.
Low-level wastes are in liquid, gaseous, and
solid forms and typically are generated by
nuclear reactors used for power and weapons
production, research and commercial
activities. Finally, uranium mill tailings
are the earthen residues left from uranium
extraction. The waste rock from these mining
operations is covered under waste tailings and
waste piles.
Potential
Contaminants
Radioactive cesium, plutonium, strontium,
cobalt, radium, thorium, uranium.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Six low-level sites were operating prior to
the mid-1970s; three closed, two are accepting
reduced volumes, leaving one major site in
Washington. The Departments of Defense and
Energy also maintain 22 sites.
For high-level wastes, there are three
government sites as well as a commercial site
where DOE has responsibility.
Seven transuranic sites are used.
Commercial spent fuel — there are two
commercial sites as well as on-site storage at
about 100 power reactor facilities.
In 1985 DOE estimated that the total amount of
radioactive wastes at various storage sites
was: 0.37 million cubic yards of transuranic
wastes, 4.32 million cubic yards of low-level
wastes, and about 14,000 tons of spent fuel
and 0.46 million cubic yards of high-level
waste (DOE 1986) .
101
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17. RADIOACTIVE DISPOSAL SITES
(Continued)
Extent of
Potential
Problem
(Continued)
Radioactivity poses a significant threat to
ground water because of the longevity of
isotopes, their ability to migrate
undetected and their serious health
effects. Numerous radionuclides emitting
alpha, beta, and gamma radiation have been
detected in ground water.
Geographical
Distribution
Low-level - Commercial: IL, KY, NV, NY, SC,
WA.
Low-level - Major government: ID, NV, NM,
OH, SC, TN, WA.
High-level - WA (Hanford), ID (Idaho Falls),
SC (Aiken), NY (West Valley).
Transuranic - generally at same locations as
low-level and high-level.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulation - EPA promulgated environmental
standards for the management and disposal of
spent nuclear fuel, high-level and
transuranic radioactive wastes. These rules
set exposure limits from contaminated ground
water. Additional regulations are under
development that will set standards for the
disposal of low-level radioactive wastes and
establish standards for protecting the
public from radioactive residues in drinking
or irrigation water near contaminated
disposal sites.
Guidance - An EPA guidance document on
transuranium elements establishes dose rate
limits for human exposure to transuranium
elements in the general environment.
102
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18. PIPELINES
Definition
Pipelines transport, collect and distribute
wastes as well as nonwaste products.
Principal wastes are municipal sewage, while
nonwastes include petroleum products,
natural gas, ammonia, coal and sulfur.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, metals, inorganic acids, and
microorganisms.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Approximately 175,000 miles of pipeline
carrying 9.63 billion bbls of petroleum
products per year were in operation in the
United States in 1976.
About 700,000 miles of sewer pipeline in
1976 carried an estimated amount of 5.6
trillion gallons of sewage in 1978.
Geographical
Distribution
Pipelines are found throughout the United
States. Sewage pipelines most often are
located in densely populated areas.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Studies - Two studies are underway: the
domestic sewage study which promotes
pretreatment of aqueous hazardous waste
discharged to sewers and the exfiltration
study which evaluates how leaks from sewage
pipelines affect ground water.
103
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19. MATERIAL TRANSPORT AND TRANSFER OPERATIONS
Definition
Material transport and transfer operations
refer to the movement of substances by
vehicles such as truck and railroad along
transportation corridors. The category
also includes handling facilities such as
airport and loading docks.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, metals, inorganic acids,
microorganisms, and radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
The principal concern from these operations
is spills of substances that could
contaminate the ground water. Estimates of
spills vary from just under 10,000 up to
approximately 16,000 per year, including
spills from pipelines. These spills
account for approximately 14 million tons
of hazardous materials or about 0.35
percent of the 4 billion tons shipped an-
nually (OTA, 1984).
Geographical
Distribution
Nationwide.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulation - The major regulatory effort is
under RCRA. Standards for transporters of
hazardous waste cover such items as
packaging and labeling and incorporate
requirements of the Department of
Transportation. A second regulation
designed to protect the ground water from
the storage and disposal of used oil is
under development.
104
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20. IRRIGATION PRACTICES
Definition
The artificial application of water to land
to assist in the production of crops.
Potential
Contaminants
Fertilizers, pesticides, naturally occurring
contaminants (e.g., selenium) and sediment.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
About 60% of the ground-water use in 1980
was for irrigation. About 14% of all crop-
land in the United States is irrigated.
Irrigation is a potential threat to ground
water because the irrigation return flows
tend to concentrate salts, fertilizers, and
pesticides. Salinity can increase because
of evaporation, transpiration and leaching
of saline soils (OTA, 1984).
Geographical
Distribution
Irrigation is most common in the West,
Central and Southern Plains as well as in
Arkansas and Florida.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
None reported.
105
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Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
21. PESTICIDE APPLICATIONS
(Continued)
Regulation - Under the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act, EPA has broad
authority to require data needed to evaluate
the environmental and human health effects
of pesticides to determine whether a
pesticide should be allowed on the market
and with what use restrictions.
Additionally, EPA has the power to regulate
the use of pesticides via the pesticide
label. Each of these authorities has been
and is being used to address pesticides
which may pose a threat to ground water.
EPA is also developing a rule to restrict to
certified applicators, the use of pesticides
meeting certain environmental fate, toxicity
and use pattern criteria and establishing
special label requirements for use of
pesticides in irrigation systems.
Guidance - EPA is developing ground-water
monitoring guidelines to improve the quality
and validity of registrant and State ground-
water monitoring studies.
Enforcement - EPA oversees cooperative
agreements under which States identify
pesticide enforcement priorities. About 14
States have identified pesticides in ground
water as a concern and are conducting moni-
toring.
Studies - A major effort is the national
survey of pesticides in drinking water which
will sample about five dozen pesticides in
about 1500 wells to estimate the national
incidence of contamination and assess rela-
tionships among agricultural use patterns
and practices and hydrogeological character-
istics; smaller projects include studies in
Cape Cod (impact of turf use pesticides),
Dougherty Plain (leaching of aldicarb and
metolachlor in peanut fields), Collier
County (contamination in shallow aquifers),
North Iowa and other locations; addition-
ally, EPA is overseeing four registrant
monitoring studies.
106
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21. PESTICIDE APPLICATIONS
Definition
Pesticides are chemicals used to control
insects, weeds, and other undesirable
organisms. Most pesticide use is in
agricultural operations (69-72%).
Government agencies and industrial/com-
mercial organizations account for another
21% and the remainder consists of home and
garden uses.
Potential
Contaminants
1200-1400 active ingredients. Contaminants
already detected include alachlor, aldicarb,
atrazine, bromacil, carbofuran, cyanazine,
DBCP, DCPA, 1, 2 dichloropropane, dyfonate,
EDB, metolachlor, metribyzen, oxamyl,
simazine, and 1,2,3 trichloropropane. The
extent of ground-water contamination cannot
be determined with current data.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
About 552 million pounds of active
ingredients were applied to major field
crops in 1982. Approximately 280 million
acre-treatments are conducted annually.
Contamination of the ground water can occur
from applications to crops and subsequent
leaching as well as from spills, accidents,
disposal of excess pesticides and disposal
of wastewater from airplanes. In any given
location, though, contamination is dependent
upon the chemical-physical properties of the
pesticide, hydrogeologic setting and
agricultural practices (OTA, 1984).
Geographical
Distribution
Contamination from 17 different pesticides
has been detected in 23 different States
including Arizona, Arkansas, California,
Florida, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Maryland,
Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Jersey, New
York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas,
Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin (OTA, 1984).
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22. FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS
Definition
Fertilizers are chemicals used in
agricultural and other operations to improve
the growth of crops and other plants.
Potential
Contaminants
Nitrates, phosphates.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Use of commercial fertilizer has steadily
declined in the 1980s, from 54 million tons
in 1980-1981 to 42.3 million tons in 1982-
1983. Fertilizers used in 1981-1982
contained 11.1 million tons of nitrogen, 4.8
million tons of phosphates and 5.6 million
of potash (OTA, 1984).
Geographical
Distribution
The five States with the highest fertilizer
use in 1981-1982 were California, Illinois,
Indiana, Iowa and Texas (OTA, 1984).
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Policy/Strategy - Fertilizers have emerged
as a critical ground-water issue. They are
being addressed under the Agricultural
Chemicals in Ground-Water Strategy which
will identify EPA's policy objectives and
implementation actions for the next 5-10
years. Under the TSCA ground-water strategy
EPA also is examining how to use TSCA
authority to develop and assess data on the
problem.
Studies - Two studies examined the potential
for contamination with conservation tillage
and in certain hydrogeologic settings.
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23. ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS
Definition
Animal feeding operations are located on
farms and at special feedlots. Feedlots are
commercial operations at which cattle are
fattened until they are ready for market.
Potential
Contaminants
Nitrogen, bacteria, viruses, phosphates.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
The number of feedlots with more than 1,000
animals has increased markedly in the past
20 years. In 1982, there were approximately
1,935 cattle feedlots marketing about 16.8
million cattle. The combined inventory of
animals on farms and at feedlots during 1978
included 106 million cattle and calves, 59
million hogs and pigs, 12 million sheep and
lambs, 2.2 million ponies and horses, over
359 million chickens and more than 140
million turkeys. Manure and other wastes
pose the most significant threats to ground
water through leachate that enters the
subsurface.
Density of the animal population, not the
size of the feedlot, and depth to ground
water are the factors that determine the
potential for ground-water contamination
from any particular feedlot or farm.
Ground-water contamination occurs when large
numbers of animals in a limited area
overburden the assimilative capacity of the
soil. Experts estimate that 25 percent of
the 718,00 farms with fewer than 300 animals
have the potential to degrade the ground
water; data are insufficient to estimate
runoff and leachate from large feedlots
(OTA, 1984).
109
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23. ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS
(Continued)
Geographical
Distribution Feedlots are located primarily in the Corn
Belt and High Plains. The principal rearing
regions are the South for poultry, the West
for sheep and the Midwest for hogs
(OTA, 1984).
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported.
110
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24. DE-ICING SALTS APPLICATIONS
Definition
This category includes year-round stockpiles
of salts as well as applications of salts to
improve driving conditions on snow and
ice-covered roads.
Potential
Contaminants
Chromate, phosphate, ferric ferrocyanide,
sodium ferrocyanide, chloride.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
During the winter of 1982-1983, a minimum of
9.35 million tons of dry salts and abrasives
as well as 1.78 million gallons of liquid
salts were applied to the nation's
highways. This is an average of 15.5 tons
of dry salts and abrasives and 2.9 gallons
of liquid salts applied per lane mile.
Salting rates generally range from 355-1,065
pounds per mile per application.
Many cases of ground-water contamination
from stockpile leachates and runoff from
salt-treated roads have been documented. No
estimates of the total amount of salts
likely to reach the ground water is
available. Technology to minimize leachate
from stockpiles is available, so research
now is focusing on methods to reduce
contamination from treated roads. Methods
under consideration include redesigning
roads, installing runoff collection systems
and developing alternatives to existing
de-icing salts (OTA, 1984).
Geographical
Distribution
Use of de-icing salts occurs primarily in
the snow belt which consists of populous
areas in the Northeast and the Mideast.
Ill
-------
24. DE-ICING SALTS APPLICATIONS
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Studies - EPA is analyzing processes used to
clean transportation equipment and will
determine whether there is a need to require
runoff controls to prevent surface and
ground-water contamination.
112
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25. URBAN RUNOFF
Definition:
Urban runoff is the portion of total
rainfall that flows over the land sur-
face. The runoff is often channeled by
drainage networks and contains a broad array
of contaminants associated with urban
activities. Major contaminants are
automobile emissions.
Potential
Contaminants
Suspended solids and toxic substances, espe-
cially heavy metals and hydrocarbons, bacte-
ria, nutrients, and petroleum residues.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Geographical
Distribution
EPA estimates that over 21.2 million urban
acres contributed storm water runoff in
1970; this figure is expected to increase to
32.6 million acres by the year 2000. There
is no data on the extent to which this
runoff and storm water infiltration are
contributing to ground-water contamination.
The point of discharge, proximity of the
discharge to aguifers, and a variety of
hydrogeologic factors determine the
potential for ground-water contamination.
Contamination usually occurs when recharge
basins or other storm water detention basins
and storage systems are used to contain
large volumes of runoff.
Urban and suburban areas throughout the
country.
113
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25. URBAN RUNOFF
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Studies - The National Urban Runoff Program
examined the effects of urban runoff on
water quality at 30 sites nationwide. Two
of the studies (Fresno, California and Long
Island, New York) analyzed ground-water
impacts where runoff infiltrated the soil
from storm water detention basins and
recharge basins.
Two current studies in Region VIII are
assessing the fate and transport of urban
runoff pollutants in ground water. The
studies emphasize water supply impacts and
the role of storm water drains (Class V
wells) in causing ground-water contamination,
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26. PERCOLATION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS
Definition
This category includes the dry deposition of
pollutants between storms or transport in
snow and water during storms. These
pollutants result from a variety of sources
including automobile emissions and various
industrial processes. Acid rain is one type
of atmospheric pollutant transported via
percolation.
Potential
Contaminants
Sulfur and nitrogen compounds
heavy metals.
asbestos,
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Unknown.
Geographical
Distribution
Acid rain, though widely distributed, is
found primarily around the Great Lakes, the
Northeast and south central Canada;
percolation and distribution of other
pollutants is a function of where they are
released and the prevailing weather patterns
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
None reported.
115
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27. MINING AND MINE DRAINAGE
Definition
This category encompasses extraction of ores
and minerals. The mining methods used are a
function of topography, geology,
environmental constraints, and the ore
itself. Surface mining operations include
quarrying, open-pit, opencut, opencast,
stripping, placing, and dredging.
Potential
Contaminants
Coal — acids, toxic inorganics (heavy
metals), and nutrients.
Phosphate — radium, uranium, and fluorides.
Metallic Ores — sulfuric acid, lead,
cadmium, arsenic sulfate, and cyanide from
gold/silver leaching operations.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
In 1976, there were over 15,000 active coal
mines in the United States and 67,000
inactive mines. The total affected land
area is estimated at 4 million acres.
Approximately 480 million tons of coal are
extracted from surface mines annually, while
300 million tons are extracted from deep
mines. These mining operations are
responsible for generating 3.6 million tons
of acid annually from disposal of coal
mining wastes. Total acid generated could
be as high as 10 million tons annually
including both active and abandoned sites.
Ground water is threatened from excavations
and operations which can intercept and/or
disrupt ground-water flow as well as from
the formation of acid mine drainage. An
estimated 360,000-1.0 million tons of acid
enter the ground water each year.
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27. MINING AND MINE DRAINAGE
(Continued)
Geographical
Distribution
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
The most productive coal mining areas
coincide with EPA's Regions III and VIII,
producing 213 and 190 million tons of coal
respectively annually. EPA's Regions IV and
V are the next most productive producing 170
and 110 million tons of coal respectively
annually in the Midwest. Deep underground
mines are located primarily in Appalachia
and surface mines in the West and Midwest
(OTA, 1984).
Phosphate mines are concentrated in Florida,
with North Carolina being the only other
state with phosphate rock mining of any size.
Concentration of metallic ores varies
depending on the type of metal being mined.
Copper mines are located in 14 States, with
Arizona leading in production with 68% of
the production. Lead mining is concentrated
in Missouri, zinc mining is common in
Tennessee and New York, placer gold mining
is concentrated in Alaska, vein gold mining
predominates in Nevada, and 92% of iron
comes from mines in the Lake Superior region,
Regulation - EPA regulates effluent from
surface and underground coal mines;
regulation of such discharge can encompass
ground-water issues. EPA is developing
risk-based regulations for wastes from the
mining, milling, and leaching of ores and
minerals. These will be proposed in 1988
under RCRA Subtitle D.
Studies - The current regulation of mining
operations and waste disposal is being
assessed by the Agency. In the area of
non-fuel ores and minerals, EPA is
conducting assessments to identify,
evaluate, and rank risks associated with
mine wastes. Methods for the prediction of
acid formation and prevention, control of
acid formation, and the mitigation of
leaching from mining sites are being
evaluated.
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27. MINING AND MINE DRAINAGE
(Continued)
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities Other studies have included an assessment
(Continued) of ground-water impacts from uranium mining
and milling in New Mexico and the quality of
ground water in parts of Florida exposed to
phosphate mining.
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28. PRODUCTION WELLS
Definition
Production wells include oil, geothermal and
heat recovery and water supply wells.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, metals, other inorganics,
microorganisms, and radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Oil wells — about 548,000 produced approxi-
mately 3.1 billion bbls of crude oil in
1980; there may be as many as 1.2 million
abandoned production wells.
Irrigation wells — more than 376,000 supply
water to about 126,000 farms.
All production wells have a similar poten-
tial to contaminate the ground water.
Installation, operation, and plugging tech-
niques are some of the key factors.
Geographical
Distribution
Oil wells are found nationwide. Geothermal
wells occur primarily in California, Nevada
and Idaho. Water supply wells are estimated
to be most numerous in the Southwest, the
Central Plains, Idaho and Florida.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Regulations - Onshore oil and gas
regulations are under revision.
OSW is studying whether wastes associated
with the exploration, development, and
production of oil, gas and geothermal energy
should be regulated as hazardous wastes
under RCRA.
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29. OTHER WELLS
Definition
These are wells used for a variety of moni-
toring and exploration activities.
Potential
Contaminants
Organics, inorganics, microorganisms, and
radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Unknown.
Geographical
Distribution
Unknown.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
None reported.
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30. CONSTRUCTION EXCAVATION
Definition Excavation includes clearing, pest control,
rough grading, facility construction, and
post-construction restoration.
Potential
Contaminants Pesticides, diesel fuel, oil, calcium
chloride, and a variety of other contami-
nants .
Extent of
Potential
Problem Excavation at construction sites can contam-
inate the ground water in several ways.
These include pesticide use, spills of
petroleum products, contaminants from dust
control and from concrete.
Geographical
Distribution Throughout the United States, particularly
in areas experiencing heavy growth; tempo-
rary in nature.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported.
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31. GROUND-WATER/SURFACE WATER INTERACTIONS
Definition In certain settings the elevation of surface
waters are above the local ground-water
table, a situation which favors downward
leakage of these surface waters.
Contaminants can be transported to and
recharge or contaminate underlying ground
water by this mechanism.
Potential
Contaminants Organics, inorganics, microorganisms,
radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem Unknown,
Geographical
Distribution Unknown,
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities None reported.
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32. NATURAL LEACHING
Definition
Natural leaching refers to the dissolution
of geologic materials which then filtrate
into the ground water.
Potential
Contaminants
Inorganics and radionuclides.
Extent of
Potential
Problem
Unknown.
Geographical
Distribution
Unknown, very localized.
Major
Categories
of EPA
Activities
Studies - EPA has undertaken a few
specialized projects in this area. One such
project examined methods to detect
geological areas which should not be
considered for water supply because of
naturally occurring contaminants such as
chromium, selenium, uranium and arsenic. In
a second project the nationwide occurrence
of radon and other natural radioactivity in
public water supplies was surveyed.
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