Air Pollution Control Orientation Course Unit 2 Effects Of Air Pollution


EPA/450/2-81/017b
       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency




          Air Pollution Training Institute
            COURSE 81:422
               3rd Edition
   AIR POLLUTION  CONTROL
     ORIENTATION COURSE
       ****************************************************************
                  Unit 2
            Effects of Air Pollution
°p

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 United States           Air Pollution Training Institute       EPA 450/2-81-017b
 Environmental Protection     MD 20                 •  June 1981
 Agency              Environmental Research Center
 	Research Triangle Park NC 27711	
 Air	


 APTI

 Course S 1:422    3rd Edition

 Air Pollution Control

 Orientation Course


 Unit 2

 Effects of Air Pollution

 Prepared By:                  Under Contract No.
 Northrop Services, Inc.            68-02-2374
 P. 0. Box 12313                EPA Project Officer
 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709       R. E. Townsend

                United States Environmental Protection Agency
                Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
                Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
                Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
This is one of nine self-instructional units in  the

Air Pollution Control Orientation Course SI:422.


This unit consists of a cassette tape and this flip-

book,  which you will use simultaneously.


Turn  the page and read' the tips on effective use

of this material.

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                      Tips for Effective Use of This Material

     1. Listen to the recorded script while you go through this flipbook. The recorded
       portion is coordinated with the flipbook. Wait for the tape to finish the details
       of one point before studying the next point  on the page.
     2. When you hear a "beep" on the tape, direct your attention to the next page in
       the flipbook.
     3. Pay attention  to both words and pictures —they both convey important informa-
       tion. The flipbook will usually summarize main points or give examples.
     4. Stop the tape  at any point if you wish to spend more time reading a  page in the
       flipbook. Rewind the tape if you wish to review a portion of the script.
     5. Review the lesson objectives before answering the questions at the end of each
       lesson. Ask yourself whether you have mastered the information indicated in the
       objectives.
     6. Answer the questions. They will help you assess your progress in mastering the
       course materials.
     7. Check your answers. The correct responses  can be found on the page(s) fol-
       lowing the question page.
     8. If you answer a question incorrectly, review the flipbook material covering the
       subject matter. Now turn on the tape recorder and begin lesson I.
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                  Lesson I: Why Study Effects
                                 Objectives

     1. Define the term "effect" as it pertains to air pollution.
     2. List four reasons why we should be concerned about and study about air pollu-
       tion effects.
     3. Describe what is meant by the term "ambient air."
     4. Identify the type of pollutants that are discussed in this module.
     5. Identify what is meant by the terms "primary standards" and "secondary stan-
       dards" as they pertain to air pollution control.
     6. Identify the seven criteria air pollutants.

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         What We  Hear About
                                               "The cost of air
                                               pollution regulation
                                               is soaring..."

            Effect
A measureable or perceivable
detrimental change resulting from
an air pollutant.  The pollutant
nay affect humans, plants,
animals, microbes, or other living
natter—or may affect non-living
naterials such as paints, metals,
7abrics, etc., or may cause a
decrease in visibility. The things
•eceiving  pollution are called
'receptors."
                             3

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Why worry about air pollution?
It affects us all.
It can cause
sickness, in-
jury, and
death.
11 is destruc-
tive to crops
and detrimental
\
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The Seven
Criteria
Air
Pollutants
••*""•• hydrocarbons i:?:.

For Criteria Pollutants
Primary Standards
Set to protect human
health
Secondary Standards
Set to protect public
welfare
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The evidence upon which air pollution
standards are based is gathered from:
case studies
laboratory research
general field studies
other sources
8
Lesson I
Questions
1. State in your own words what is meant by the term "effect" as it pertains to air
pollution.
2. List four reasons why we should be concerned about and study about air pollu-
tion effects?
3. Choose the phrase that best completes the sentence. Ambient air is
a. the air in the top part of a belching smoke stack.
b. the air inside a factory.
c. the air all around us.
d. the air contained in buildings.
4. This unit, entitled "The Effects of Air Pollution," is concerned with which of
the following type(s) of pollutants?
a. all air pollutants
b. uncontrolled pollutants
c. criteria pollutants
d. none of the above
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5. Choose the term that best completes the sentence. Primary standards are set to
protect
a. human health.
b. property.
c. cattle and other livestock.
d. buildings.
6. Which of the following is not a criteria pollutant?
a. ozone
b. arsenic
c. carbon monoxide
d. sulfur dioxide
e. lead
f. nitrogen dioxide
g. hydrocarbons
h. total suspended paniculate matter

Answers are on the next page.

10
Lesson I
Answers

1. An effect is a measureable or perceivable detrimental change resulting
from an air pollutant. The pollutant may affect humans, plants, animals,
microbes, and other living or non-living matter.
2. Any four of the following:
It affects us all.
It is destructive to crops and detrimental to farm animals.
It can soil and corrode materials.
It decreases visibility.
It causes acid rain.
It causes odors and other nuisances.
3. c. the air all around us
4. c. criteria pollutants
5. a. human health
6. b. arsenic

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.

11
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Lesson II: How Effects Are Studied
Objectives
1. Identify the kind of relationships that scientists are investigating when
they study air pollution.
2. Name three major types of air pollution studies.
3. Describe what is meant by the term "synergistic effect" as it pertains to air
pollution.
12
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Scientists are looking for causal
relationships, that is, evidence
which proves that exposure to a
specific pollutant causes an iden-
tifiable adverse effect. However,
such precise evidence about the
complex polluted atmosphere is
virtually impossible to obtain.

The best that can be done is to use
scientific methods and statistical
tests to reduce the uncertainty
about the observed relationship
between a specific pollution situa-
tion and an identifiable effect.
13
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Our tests show that 5 out of 100
firecrackers won't explode when
lighted.
14
Does an
hypothesis
have to be
demonstrated
without exception
to be believable?
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Case Studies

Characteristics
• usually conducted after occupational or accidental exposure resulting in
adverse effects
• result in a tracing backward from observed effects to probable causes
• are "after-the-fact" studies
Advantages
are "real life" situations
effects of human exposure to high concentrations can be studied after the fact
long-term effects can be monitored
Di advantages
generally small groups are involved
some variables unaccounted for
studies must be interpreted in terms of other studies
no control over timing
15
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Laboratory Research

Characteristics
• designed to measure the effect of exposure to a specific concentration of a
pollutant
Advantages
• can more accurately investigate causal relationships because variables are more
controlled and some variables can be eliminated
• can repeat the experiment
• have control over timing
• can select subjects, concentrations, exposure times, etc.
Disadvantages
• in health effects area, are severe limitations on experiments with humans to
determine cause-and-effect relationships
• when working with plants and animals, can only test one cause-and-effect rela-
tionship at a time
• using data to predict effects in "real life" can't be done precisely
• usually work with only small groups — cannot guarantee that they are represen-
tative and that extrapolated results are totally accurate

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General Field Studies

Characteristics
• use statistical methods to determine impact on general population
• trace possible causes of known effects
Advantages
• are looking at real-life, actually occurring situations
• can measure effects and concentrations rather accurately while they are
occurring
• subjects constitute a more representative sample of the population as a whole
• can select specific subjects from the population, if desired
Disadvantages
• not repeatable
• don't necessarily know prior exposure history of subjects
• often have no control over timing and other variables
• estimates of effects on total population must be made only on a statistical
basis

17
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Research Methods Used in Studying the Effects of Air Pollution
Tvpe
Receptors
Exposure
Conditions
Advantages/Disadvantages
Case
Studies
Humans
vegetation
! & materials
Occupational
and or
accidental
Real-life situation
Effects of human exposure to high concentrations can be studied after the fact
Long-term effects can be monitored
L'sually involves small groups
Some variables unaccounted for
Stud\ interpreted in terms of other studies
No control over timing
Laborator)
Research
Humans
animals
plants &
materials
CarefulK
controlled
exposure
subjects
& other
important
variables
Can more accurateh investigate causal relationships since variables more controlled
and some ran be eliminated
Can repeat experiment
Control over timing
Can select subjects concentrations, exposure times, etc
Severe limitations on experiments with humans to determine cause and eflrct relationships
With plants and animals can unK test onr cause and effect relationship at a lime
I sing data to predict effects in ' real life can i be done preciselv
I'suallv work with onU small groups cannot assume representativeness or accuracv of
extrapolated results
General
Field
Studies
Humans
animals
plants &
materials
Ambient
conditions
Real life actuallv uuurrmg situations
Can measure effects and concentrations accurately while thev are occurring
Subjects more representative of population as a whole
Can select specific subjects from population
Not repeatable
Don t necessanlv know prior exposure historv of subjects
No control over timing and other variables
Estimates ot effects on total population must be made oiilv mi j stdtistiial I
18
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Different species may have
different sensitivities to a
specific pollutant.
Sensitivity to ozone. .
Loderately
Sensitive Tolerant
The impact of a pollutant
upon a population in general
can be predicted, but the
reaction of any individual
within the population cannot
be predicted with certainty.
19
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Individual differences in humans are
significant in terms of reaction to a
pollutant.
Factors affecting reaction include
• genetic make-up
• health
• history of exposure
• preconditioning
• function-pollutant reaction systems
20
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There are individual and species
differences in the rate of recovery from a
pollutant exposure.
21
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Types of Effects
synergistic- combined effect of pollutants is worse than the
simple sum of effects of individual pollutants
additive-
combined effect of pollutants is the same as sum
of effects of individual pollutants
potentiator-
toxic substance made worse by presence of non-
toxic substance
antagonistic- effect of toxic substance lessened by presence of
non-toxic substance
22

Each bit of data must be viewed in perspective
with all of the other data.
23
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Lesson II
Questions

1. Choose the term that best completes the sentence. A scientist studying the
effects of air pollution is most probably trying to investigate
a(n) relationship.
a. inverse
b. inaccurate
c. angular
d. causal
2. List the three major types of air pollution studies.
3. In the field of air pollution, what is meant by a "synergistic effect"?

Answers are on the next page.
24
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Lesson II
Answers

1. d. causal
2. case studies
laboratory research
general field studies
3. When the combined effect of pollutants is worse than the simple sum of the
effects of the individual pollutants.

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.
25
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Lesson III: Suspended Paniculate Matter
Objectives

1. Name three physical characteristics of suspended paniculate matter.
2. State the two major factors that may modify the toxicity of suspended par-
ticulate matter.
3. Identify the three regions of the human respiratory system and their particle
removal systems.
4. Define the terms "alveolus" and "cilia."
5. Describe the three ways that suspended paniculate matter can affect visible
light and identify a major economic effect of suspended particulate matter.
26
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Suspended Particulate Matter

very small particles
solid or liquid
float in air/settle very slowly
27
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Sources of Particulate Matter

*,.•'.••" v-'Sii
28
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Types of Suspended Particles

nontoxic
intrinsically toxic
nontoxic, but inhibit removal of toxic
particles
nontoxic, but carriers of toxic gases
29
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Effect of toxicity is modified by
number of
particles
size of particles
30
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10,000 micrometers
It would take 10,000
particles, each 1 micro
meter in diameter,
laid end-to-end to
stretch across the
width of a small
paper clip.
31
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Human Respiratory System
trachea alveoli
bronchial
tubes
32
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Particles > 10 micrometers

collect in upper part
of respiratory system
33
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\
nasal hair
Nasal hair and
warm, humid con-
ditions of nasal
passages act
together to remove
particles.
34
Particles collect moisture
as they move through
moist air of upper
respiratory region, mak-
ing them heavier and
causing them to strike
walls of throat, nose, etc.
They are eliminated by
sneezing, coughing,
noseblowing, and spitting,
or by the digestive
system.
35
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Particles
1 to 10 micrometers

collect in middle
part of respiratory
system — the
tracheobronchial
region
36
37
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normal
bronchiole
smooth muscle
contracted
bronchiole
38
Particles < 1 micrometer

collect in most remote
portions of lungs — the air
sacs (or alveoli)
smooth muscle
bronchiole
alveolar ducts

alveoli (air sacs)
alveolar walls
39
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•
air sac (alveolus)
Particles with diameters of V£ micrometer or less
float in the air sac and are expelled with the
next breath or two.
40
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Particle surrounded
by phagocyte
to bronchiole
to circulatory
system
Particles with diameters from l/2 to 1 micrometer
are captured by phagocytes and eliminated.
41
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Filtration and
Preconditioning
System
Impaction and
Mucus-transport
System
42
Pulmonary
Clearing
Mechanism
Health Effects—Nontoxic Particles
Concentration of Particles in /xg/ms
2000 ng m3 with 0.4 ppm SO2
(24-hr avg.) episodes of several
days duration
1000 ng m3 with 0.25 ppm SO2
(24-hr avg.) during episodes
300 fig. m3 with 0.21 ppm SOz'P*
(24-hr avg.)
130 /xg m3 with SO2 (annual avg.)
100-200 Mg/m3 with 0.05 to 0.08
ppm SO2 (average seasonal levels)
Effect
Increase in deaths due to bronchitis
Increases in mortality from all causes
including respiratory and cardiac
disease
Significant increase in bronchitis
symptoms
Increase in frequency and severity of
lower respiratory illness
Increases in incidences of bronchitis
reported above this level
43
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Particles such as
sulfates and
nitrates interact
with moisture on
leaves. The result
is a buildup of acid
which burns holes
in leaves.
44
Animal feed, either raw vegetation or processed
feed, can convey or absorb paniculate pollutants,
thus rendering the feed unusable or unsafe.
45
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Paniculate matter may be either harmful,
harmless, or beneficial to plants.
•«.
Encrusted Leaves
Enriched Soil
46
Paniculate matter may
• absorb light
• scatter light
• reflect light

Reduction in light
available for photosyn-
thesis and heating

Decreased visibility
47
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Particulate matter can affect
precipitation patterns.
48
Millions of dollars
are spent edth year
to clean items soiled
by suspended par-
ticulate matter.
49
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Lesson III
Questions
1. List the three major physical characteristics of suspended paniculate matter.
2. What are the two major factors that may modify the toxicity of suspended par-
ticulate matter?
3. Match each of the three respiratory regions listed with its particle removal
system.
a. filtration and preconditioning
b. bronchioclarification
c. mucus filtration and elimination
d. pulmonary clearing mechanism
e. impaction and mucus-transport
i. upper respiratory region
ii. tracheobronchial region
iii. lower respiratory region
50
Choose the term that best completes the sentence: "Cilia are. . .."
a- air sacs. d. small hair-like cells.
b. small bronchial tubes. e. small pollutants.
c. blood cells. f. bacteria-like microbes.
Which of the following are ways that suspended particulate matter affects visible
light?
a. reflects it d. changes its physical characteristics
b. scatters it e. absorbs it
c. bends it f. changes its color
The toxic effect of particulate matter is related to:
a. the toxicity of the particulate matter.
b. the toxicity or damaging potential of adsorbed substances,
c. inhibition of the removal of other toxic substances.
d. all of the above.
51
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7. Incidences of respiratory and cardiac disease tend to _ with
increasing ambient concentrations of paniculate matter.(mcrease ecrcase)
8. Economic benefits from cleaning up paniculate air pollution include:
a. soiling cost reductions c. lower health costs
b. improved visibility d. all of the above.
Answers are on the next page.
52
Lesson III
Answers

1. very small particles
solid or liquid
float in air/settle very slowly
2. size of particles; number of particles
3. i. a. filtration and preconditioning
ii. e. impaction and mucus-transport
iii. d. pulmonary clearing mechanism
4. d. small hair-like cells
5. a., b., e. reflects it, scatters it, absorbs it
6. d. all of the above.
7. increase
8. a and c, soiling cost reductions, lower health costs

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.

53
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Lesson IV: Sulfur Dioxide
Objectives

1. Describe the relative toxicity of SO2, SO2 combined with paniculate matter, and
SO2 combined with moisture.
2. Name the substances that are produced when sulfur dioxide combines with
moisture.
3. Identify the types of respiratory problems humans may have when they are
chronically exposed to SO2.
4. Explain what is meant by "dose" as it pertains to air pollution.
54
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Sources of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Coal and oil
combustion in
boilers and
furnaces
Industrial
processes (such
as copper
smelting)
55
Combustion in
motor vehicle
engines
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Sulfur
Dioxide

the
"pass through"
pollutant
Energy
56
. . *-,
/•• • --J
I.
Sulfur Dioxide
1-1 Ibs
7 Ibs sulfur plus
7 Ibs oxygen
)'i Ibs hydrocarbons
and others plus
7 Ibs sulfur
Industrial processes
Stationary source
combustion
3.1%
Tra nsporta tion
Sulfur
Dioxide
Emissions
in the U.S
57
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Synergistic Effect of SOg and
Small Particles
Effect of
Effect of SO2 + small particles
Worse effect
than the
simple sum
of the
individual
effects
58
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Generalized Level of Toxicity
• SC>2 + particles. ;
- . « ?
^, SO2 + moisture^" /
59
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Effects on Respiratory System

increased resistance to air movement in and
out
decreased ability of lungs to get rid of foreign
matter
adverse changes in the respiratory tissues
increased susceptability of lungs to disease
60
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Human Respiratory System
trachea
bronchial
tube
alveoli
bronchial
* tubes
61
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smooth muscle
smooth muscle
alveolus
alveolar wall
f
bronchiole
muscle in spasm
obstructed
bronchiole
mucus
normal
bronchiole
muscle
swollen
mucus
membrane
thick
secretions
Alveoli
Bronchiole
Normal Obstructed
Bronchiole Bronchiole
in in
Cross Section Cross Section
62
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Accumulated
mucus and
particles
nonfunctioning cilia
63
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Permanently
Damaged Bronchial Wall
cilia
mucus and pus
•:' f" ."-"^c-
""' ' -'
supporting lv»*^;.*^S?»^
-^ A • O »*«--':£ii.' -»i :>'iV"".w -. Jv«:» :_^"
f 1 <%
-------
Humans chronically exposed to 862
have a higher incidence of

• coughs
• shortness of breath
• bronchitis
• fatigue
• "colds" of long duration
66
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Health Effects
Concentration of SOS
(in parts per million)
Effect
0.52 with particulates (24-hr avg.
concentration)
0.25 with smoke (3 to 4 days;
24-hr avg.)
0.25 with particulates (3 to 4 days;
24-hr avg.)
0.19 with low paniculate level
(24-hr mean concentration)
0.11 to 0.19 with low paniculate level
(episodes of several days duration)
.037 to 0.092 with smoke (chronic
exposure)
increased deaths

increased deaths

increased illness for elderly

increased deaths

increased hospitalization

increased respiratory symptoms and
lung diseases
67
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Factors Affecting a Plant's Response
to Pollution
• climate
• light
• temperature
• humidity
• nutrition
In general, conditions which favor
plant growth tend to increase the
plant's sensitivity to air pollution.
68
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Dose...

the concentration of the pollutant and
the length of time that the subject is
exposed to that pollutant
69
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Cross-Section of a Leaf
upper epidermis
-*-lower epidermis
stomata
70
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Relative Sensitivity of Plants to SO2
Sensitive Tolerant
Crops Alfalfa
Buckwheat
Barley

Flowers Sweet Pea
Four O'Clock
Cosmos

Trees Trembling Aspen
Jack Pine
White Pine

Garden Peas
plants Rhubarb
Spinach
Celery
Corn
Onion

Lilac
Cedar
Citrus
Maple

Musk melon
Potato
Broccoli
Please turn tape recorder on again.
71
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Acid Rain
acidification of
lakes with destruc-
tion of aquatic life
makes soil more
acid —usually
detrimental — but
can be beneficial
72
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SO2 can cause damage to
• building materials
• cloth
• metals
and can also result in decreased
visibility when sulfate particles form
in the air.
73
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Lesson IV
Questions

Arrange the following in order of toxicity — from most toxic to least toxic.
a. SO2 in combination with particulate matter
b. SO2 alone
c. SO2 in combination with moisture
Name the two substances that are produced when sulfur dioxide combines with
moisture.
Which of the following problems may humans have after chronic exposure to
sulfur dioxide?
a. coughs
b. fatigue
c. bronchitis
d. colds of longer duration
e. shortness of breath
f. all of the above
74
niim
4. In the study of air pollution, "dose" refers to which of the following?
a. the concentration of the pollutant
b. the length of exposure to the pollutant
c. the toxicity of the pollutant
d. a and c, above
e. a and b, above

Answers are on the next page.
75
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Lesson IV
Answers
1. c. SO2 combined with moisture
a. SO2 combined with paniculate matter
b. SO2 alone
2. sulfurous acid (H2SOS); sulfuric acid (H2SO«)
3. f. all of the above
4. e. (a and b, above); the concentration of the pollutant, the length of exposure
to the pollutant

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.
76
mmnmn
Lesson V: Carbon Monoxide
Objectives

1. Describe the type of area where one finds the highest concentration of
carbon monoxide in the air.
2. Describe how carbon monoxide affects gas exchange in our blood.
3. Name the two types of diseases most likely to be aggravated by exposure to
carbon monoxide.
4. List the four segments of our population most likely to be adversely affected by
exposure to carbon monoxide.
77
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Sources of Carbon Monoxide
78
Transportation accounts for about 80% of man
made CO emissions in the U.S.
79
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The most severe
CO problems are
found in cities —
where vehicle
emissions are
concentrated
between rows of
tall buildings.
D DD D
D D D 0
D 0 D 0
DO 0 Q 0
ao on D
80
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The ambient concentration of carbon monoxide on a particular
day depends upon the number of vehicles and the weather.
81
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The effects of carbon monoxide are dependent
upon both
• concentration
uumn
82
duration
Oxygen transport cells
usually replace carbon
dioxide with oxygen.
However, in the
presence of carbon
monoxide, they will
replace the oxygen and
carbon dioxide with
carbon monoxide.
This reduces the supply
of oxygen to the body.
83
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The effect of CO intoxication is similar to that
of anemia or hypoxia. It reduces the supply of
oxygen to the body tissues.
84
Under ambient condi-
tions, carbon monox-
ide intoxication is
likely to aggravate
existing physical condi-
tions. Under acute
conditions, it may
result in death.
85
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Carbon monoxide in amounts found in some
major metropolitan areas can lead to increased
hospitalization for heart and circulatory system
related disease.
HOSPITAL
86
The newborn and
unborn are also affected
by carbon monoxide.
The ambient levels in
highly polluted urban
areas are associated with
lower birthweight and
increased deaths of
newborns.
87
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Smokers inhale
a significant
amount of CO
88
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Behavior is not
significantly
impaired by concen-
trations of carbon
monoxide which are
below the NAAQS.
VIGILANCE
23 REACTION TIME
DRIVING
BEHAVIOR
DISCRIMINATION

COORDINATION

COMPLEX
BEHAVIOR
89
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Health Effect
Concentration of CO
(in ppm)
Effect
High concentration
Greater than 100 ppm for
10 minutes
100 ppm — intermittently
Physiological stress on patients
with heart disease
50 ppm— for 90 minutes
30 ppm —for up to 12
hours
Impaired performance in
psychomotor tests
Impaired time-interval
discrimination for
nonsmokers
Elevated carbon in
hemoglobin levels —reduced
oxygen transport
Please turn tape recorder on again.
90

iroronmmHiHHmmmimuu

The principal reason for controlling
carbon monoxide emissions
is to protect the health of
the unborn, newborn,
aged, and infirm.
91
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Lesson V
Questions

1. In which type of area would one be most likely to find the highest concentration
of carbon monoxide?
a. desert d. suburban
b. rural e. urban
c. forest f. wilderness
2. Describe how carbon monoxide affects gas exchange in our blood.
3. Name two types of diseases most likely to be aggravated by carbon monoxide.
4. Which of the following is a segment of our population least likely to be severely
affected by exposure to ambient carbon monoxide?
a. newborn d. unborn
b. young adults e. infirm
c. very old
Answers are on the next page.
92
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Lesson V
Answers

1. e. urban
2. Carbon monoxide displaces oxygen in the red blood cells, thus depriving the
body tissues of oxygen.
3. circulatory disease
heart diseases
4. b. young adults

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.
93
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Lesson VI: Nitrogen Dioxide
Objectives

1. Identify which is most toxic to humans, nitric oxide or nitrogen dioxide.
2. Identify three effects of oxides of nitrogen on materials.
3. Identify a disease associated with increased ambient levels of NO2.
4. List two effects of NO2 on materials.
94
Oxides of Nitrogen

NO —nitric oxide
NOg — nitrogen dioxide
NOx — combination of all nitrogen
oxides
95
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Natural Sources of Nitrogen Oxides
Reduction of
Organic Nitrates
Forest and Grass
Fires
Volcanoes
44%
Transportation
3%
Industrial
Processes
51%
Stationary
Fossil
Fuel
Combustion
1.5%
Miscellaneous
.5%
Solid-Waste Burning
Manmade
Sources of
Nitrogen
Oxides
97
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Nitric Oxide
(NO)

not very toxic at ambient levels
is rapidly converted to nitrogen dioxide which
is toxic
at concentrations far above those observed in
cities, it can cause disturbance in the
• central nervous system
• circulatory system
• enzyme system
98
innmmmiiimnmiHmumm
Nitrogen Dioxide

Because of its low
solubility in water,
nitrogen dioxide
penetrates to the
most remote por-
tions of the
respiratory tract,
the alveoli.
99
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NO* Health Effects
Concentration of NOX
(in parts per million)
Effect
150 ppm (5 to 8 minutes)
50 to 100 ppm (<1 hr)

10 to 40 ppm (intermittent exposure)

.05 to 0.10 ppm (chronic exposure)

< .05 ppm (long-term average)
Potentially fatal
May produce bronchopneumonia —
but recovery probable
May produce chronic fibrosis and
emphysema
Evidence of increases in chronic
bronchitis
Evidence of increases in heart and
lung disease in general population
with increasing ambient NO2 con-
centrations
100
Effects of
on Plants
Reduction in plant size
(Primary Effect)
101
Much higher
concentrations
cause leaf
spotting
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Effects of NO2
n
Dyes change
colors
Fabrics lose
strength
Some metals
corrode
102
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Lesson VI
Questions

1. Which is most toxic to humans, nitric oxide or nitrogen dioxide?
2. Which of the following are effects of exposure to oxides of nitrogen?
a. metal can be damaged d. only a and b, above
b. fabrics loose strength e. a, b, and c, above
c. dyes change colors
3. Which of the following is associated with increased ambient levels of NO2?
a. apoxia c. bronchitis
b. neurosis d. all of the above.
4. Describe two effects that NO2 may have on materials.
Answers are on the next page.
103
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Lesson VI
Answers

1. Nitrogen dioxide
2. e. (a, b, and c) metal can be damaged, fabrics loose strength, and dyes change
colors
3. c. bronchitis.
4. Any two from the following list:
fades dyes
fades paints
deteriorates synthetic fabrics
discolors fabrics
corrodes metals

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.
104
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Lesson VII:
Hydrocarbons—Volatile Organic Compounds
Objectives
1. List the three major sources of volatile organic compounds emitted into the
ambient air.
2. State three reasons why volatile organic compounds are controlled.
3. Identify three effects on human health of the more toxic hydrocarbons and
volatile organic compounds.
4. Identify the volatile organic compound which adversely affects ornamental
plants.
105
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Hydrocarbons and Volatile
Organic Compounds

are subject to control because of
their role in the formation of ozone
and other photochemical air pollutants
many are very toxic (e.g., diethyl
sulfate, tetramethyl lead)
some are known carcinogens (e.g.,
benzene, vinyl chloride)
106
uwwmunuwuuumwwuu
Hydrocarbons
• compounds containing only carbon and
hydrogen
• many are in gaseous form at normal
atmospheric conditions

Volatile Organic Compounds
• compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
and other elements
• are in gaseous form at normal atmospheric
conditions
107
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Effects of Hydrocarbons and VOCs
Humans —

Plants —
Materials —
Effects have been noted in cases of occupational
exposure to tetramethyl lead, benzene, etc.

Ethylene is the only hydrocarbon known to cause
plant damage at concentrations found in urban
areas

No known effects at concentrations found in
urban areas
108

iiumnnmmmmiwwwuwtt

Lesson VII
Questions

1. Which two of the following are reasons that volatile organic compounds and
hydrocarbons are controlled?
a. They may contribute to the formation of photochemical pollutants.
b. The odor of all hydrocarbons is very unpleasant.
c. Some are harmful, in and of themselves, to human health and welfare.
d. They contribute to the formation of NOX
e. They rapidly corrode metal.
2. Hydrocarbons and VOCs such as benzene and polyvinyl chloride have which
of the following health effects. They are
a. toxic c. asthma-producing
b. carcinogenic d. all of the above.
3. Damage directly to plants and materials by VOCs and hydrocarbons:
a. is maximum in the winter.
b. is a problem only for synthetic materials.
c. is not considered a problem.
d. results in 510 million in losses each year.
Answers are on the next page.
^ 6 109
-------
Lesson VII
Answers

1. a, c. They may contribute to the formation of photochemical pollutants and
some are harmful, in and of themselves, to human health and welfare.
2. a and b. toxic and carcinogenic
3. c. is not considered to be a problem except for certain ornamental plants and
some crops at high concentrations.
110
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Lesson VIII: Ozone

Objectives

1. Identify the most beneficial effect of ozone found in the stratosphere.
2. Name the four segments of our population most likely to be adversely affected
by exposure to ozone.
3. Identify the three types of activity found in the lungs that are adversely affected
by exposure to ozone.
4. Identify the effect of ozone on plants relative to the effect on plants of other air
pollutants.
5. Describe the effect of ozone on exterior coatings and finishes.
Ill
-------
Ozone
STRATOSPHERE
TOZONE
TROPOSPHERE
Causes injury to plants,
man, and materials.
Screens out harmful
ultraviolet rays.
112
iuuununnmnuuuiUHUUHU
Both natural and manmade volatile
organic compounds can produce
ozone, but naturally occurring volatile
organics seldom produce enough ozone
to cause substantial adverse effects.
113
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HC and NOX Emissions in U.S.
3%
Industrial Processes
1.5%
Miscellaneous
T A ' 1 / 2°%
Industrial / Miscellaneous
.Processes / ' ' 3%

5% Solid-
Fuel Waste
Combustion Burning
HC
NO
\5%
Solid-
Waste
Burning
114
nmmiwmmmu
Ozone and other oxidants cause,
at least temporarily, physiological
changes in humans.
115
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Population
segments of most
concern are the
aged, the young,
the sick, and the
unborn.
116
wmmnmmumu
The lung allows certain
gases to pass from the
atmosphere into the
blood and vice versa.

Any action which
decreases the lung's
ability to cause this
transfer to occur rapidly
and efficiently could
impair health.
117
-------
Healthy individuals exposed to ozone
respond by decreasing the volume of
air brought into the lungs. This occurs
at concentrations in the 0.10 — 0.15
ppm or more range.
118
uummnmmimumtHHHHW
Biological effects on
humans are usually
predicted from an
analysis of all available
research. Toxicological
studies of exposure of
animals play an impor-
tant role.

The effects on humans
are projected from the
animal studies.
119
-------
The biochemical
balance in the lung
tissue is very impor-
tant.
Ozone causes shifts in
• enzyme activity
• chemical activity
• cellular activity
120
nwuwwiwnumwwHHHW
Increased Ambient Ozone Levels
Increased Hospital Admissions
HOSPITAL
121
-------
Ozone inhalation
may reduce performance
122
immmumi*
Other
photochemical
oxidants which
form along with
ozone are eye
irritants.
123
-------
Ozone probably
causes more plant
damage in the
United States than
any other air
pollutant.
124
immmmninnuttHHHHHi
Threshold Doses of Ozone Needed to Cause
Injury to Plants Grown Under
Sensitive Conditions
Time
(hrs)
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0
Ozone concentration needed to cause injury
Sensitive
.15-. 30 ppm*
.10-. 25
.07-. 20
.05-. 15
.03-. 10
Intermediate
.25-. 60 ppm
.20-.40
.15-. 30
.10-. 25
.08-. 20
Tolerant
< .50 ppm
<.35
<.25
<.20
<.15
*1 ppm = 1,980 Aig/m3 at 25°C.
Source: Heggestad, H. E. & Heck, W. W. Nature, Extent, and Variations of Plant Response to
Air Pollutants, Advances in Agronomy, 23:111-145, 1971.

Please turn tape recorder on again.
125
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Relative Sensitivity of Various Plants to
Ozone
Sensitive

Alfalfa
Barley
Bean
Buckwheat
Citrus
Clover, Red
Corn, Sweet
Grape
Grass, Bent
Grass, Brome
Grass, Crab
Crops and Weeds

Intermediate Tolerant
Cabbage
Carrot
Corn, Field
Cowpea
Cucumber
Endive
Hypericum
Parsley
Parsnip
Pea
Peanut
Beet
Cotton
Descurainia
Jerusalem cherry
Lamb's-quarters
Lettuce
Mint
Piggy-back plant
Rice
Strawberry
Sweet Potato
126
wwmnmn
epidermal cells
stoma
guard cells
Stoma of Leaf
(underside)
127
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Effects of Ozone on Plants
Action
• acts as oxidizing agent
and attacks cells
• modifies amino acids,
proteins, unsaturated
fatty acids, sulfhydryl
residues
• produces ethylene

• reduces carbon dioxide
fixation
iiummmim
Results
• cell breakdown and collapse

• leakage of water and ions
from cells
• damage in plants sensitive
to ethylene
• reduced plant vigor and
reduced amount of new cell
material produced
128
Ozone damage to plants can

• damage forests and crops
• be aesthetically unpleasing
• cause economic loss
129
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Ozone Damage to Elastomers
(Rubber and rubberlike materials)

Cracking will occur in sensitive elastomers
Factors influencing ozone damage include
• nature of the elastomeric compound
• degree of stress
• ozone concentration
• exposure duration
• rate of ozone contact with material
• temperature
Anti-cracking compounds are added to elastic
products to control cracking.
130
iwwnmmn
Ozone Damage to Fabric

Ozone can produce marked fading
in most blue disperse dyes and in
some red and yellow dyes.
Fading can occur in clothes along
folds and edges.
131
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Exterior coatings such as oil and acrylic latex,
oil coatings, automotive finishes, and industrial
coatings deteriorate under even low ozone
concentrations.
mwmm
132
Lesson VIII
Questions

1. Which of the following describes the most beneficial effect of ozone
found in the stratosphere?
a. It scatters visible light.
b. It creates great amounts of heat.
c. It screens out harmful ultra-violet rays.
2. List the four segments of our population most likely to be adversely affected by
exposure to ozone.
3. Which types of activity found in the lungs are adversely affected by exposure to
ozone?
a. enzyme d. only a and b
b. chemical e. only b and c
c. cellular f. a, b, and c
133
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4. Choose the word that best completes the sentence.
Ozone probably causes plant damage in the United States
(less more)
than any other air pollutant.
5. Describe the effect of ozone on exterior coatings and finishes.

Answers are on the next page.
134
Lesson VIII
Answers

1. c. It screens out harmful ultraviolet rays.
2. aged
young
sick
unborn
3. f. (a, b, and c) enzyme, chemical, and cellular
4. more
5. They deteriorate when exposed to ozone.

After checking your responses, please turn on the tape recorder.
135
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Lesson IX: Lead
Objectives

1. Identify the two major concerns that air pollution control personnel have about
lead.
2. Describe the dispersion of lead emissions from urban sources.
3. Identify, in general terms, the rate at which lead is removed from the body.
4. Identify the principal mechanisms for the entry of lead into the body.
5. Describe the principal adverse effects of lead on people.
6. Describe the effect of lead on materials, vegetation, and farm animals.
136
iwmwwnmuuHi»muwmu
Lead
Characteristics:
• Gray metal
• Fairly abundant
• Withstands chemical
corrosion
Uses:
• Easily formed, molded, worked
• Withstands weathering
cookware with
soldered seams
old-time
water conduits
137
solder in seams of
food containers
-------
Of principal interest to air pollution
control personnel. . .

• lead emissions from autos using
fuel that contains lead
• lead's toxic effects on people
138
imnmnminnuninmnnmm
Lead
contained in
gasoline
accounts for
more than
of all lead
emissions in
the U.S.
139
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Largest Concentration of Lead Emissions

large metropolitan parking garages
areas
140
shopping areas
nimmnnmimnmimmuum
Locations of major lead operations in the United States, 1976
Lead smelting and refining plants
primary production for 1976=652.877 MT
Storage battery manufacturers
Tetrameih\l and tetraethvl lead plants
Lead mines production =
of domestic output
141
-------
Lead emissions may be carried for
miles downwind from the source.
142
The total body burden is the sum of
all lead in the system. Lead is not
removed quickly from the body.
143
-------
Eating and
drinking are
the principal
mechanisms for
lead entry into the
body—but we also
inhale lead
particles.
144
Possible Sources of Ingested Lead
*" "ill
Meat
145
-------
Children will
ingest substan-
tial quantities of
lead by putting
their hands in
their mouths
after handling
dirty objects.
146
Children have a greater sensitivity to
lead than do adults because they have

• greater lead intake on a per-unit-body-
weight basis
• greater net respiratory intake and greater
absorption and retention in digestive system
• rapid growth — reducing margin of safety
against stress
• certain incompletely developed defense
mechanisms
• different partitioning of lead in bones
147
-------
Expectant mothers
and their unborn
and newborn
children are an
unusually sensitive
population to lead
pollution
miscarriages
stillbirths
deaths of the
newborn
uummimmmwuttHumii
Formation of red blood cells is impaired
by intake of environmental lead
which may lead to:

• anemia
• irreversible brain damage
• death
149
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Types of Effects of Lead Noted in
Studies of Laboratory Animals
• gametotoxic — effect on cell division
• embryotoxic — effect on embryo
• carcinogenic — effect on cell
growth & character
• teratogenic — effect on embryo —
producing abnormal species
150
unummmuiuuummunttw
Blood levels of 80 to 100 micrograms
lead per deciliter* may result in
• central nervous system defects
• behavioral defects
* deciliter = 1/10 liter (approx. 1/10 quart)
151
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Increase of
n ar
f ' Vk /\* X^ ' *»
Increase of
2 /ig Pb/dL
in blood
microgram= 1/1,000,000 gram
m^ cubic meter
dL deciliter = 1/10 liter
Pb lead
152
Animals which feed on plants near
highways with heavy traffic show lead
poisoning symptoms.
153
-------
There seems to be no
detrimental effect of lead
on materials.
154
"Lead is not conclusively known to
have any biological effect on man that
can be considered beneficial" —EPA
Lead Criteria Document
155
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Lesson IX
Questions

1. Which of the following are the two major concerns that air pollution control
personnel have about lead?
a. lead emissions from autos using fuel that contains lead
b. the effect of lead on exterior coatings
c. the toxicity of lead
d. the effect of lead on metal structures
2. Which of the following describes how lead emissions may be carried from
urban sources to rural areas?
a. by streams d. by animals
b. by wind currents e. all of the above
c. by passing motorists
156
miwuwmmmumuuumwt
3. Which of the following best describes the rate at which lead is removed from
the body?
a. very slowly c. not at all
b. very quickly d. all at once
4. How does most lead enter our bodies?
a. through breathing d. all of the above
b. through eating and drinking d. none of the above
c. through the skin
5. Which of the following is most adversely affected by lead?
a. our blood d. all of the above
b. our skin e. none of the above
c. our lungs
6. Describe the effect of lead upon materials.

Answers are on the next page.
157
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Lesson IX
Answers
1. a, c. lead emissions from autos using fuel that contains lead, and the toxicity of
lead
2. b. by wind currents
3. a. very slowly
4. b. through eating and drinking
5. a. our blood
6. Lead has no detrimental effect upon materials.

After checking your responses, review any material that you are not sure of, and
then take the Unit Test that begins on page
158
The Effects of Air Pollution
Unit Test
A(n).
.is a measurable or perceivable detrimental change in a recep-
tor, presumed to result from the interaction of the receptor with an air pollu-
tant. The receptor may be a human, plant, animal, microbe, or other matter.
2. Choose the phrase that best completes the sentence. Ambient air is:
a. the air in the top part of a stack. c. the air all around us.
b. the air inside a smelter. d. the air contained in water.
3. True or False: As pertains to air pollution control, primary standards are set to
protect public health, and secondary standards are set to protect public
welfare.
Which of the following are criteria pollutants?
a. ozone f.
b. iron g
c. carbon monoxide h
d. sulfur dioxide
e. magnesium

159
lead
plutonium
nitrogen dioxide
i. hydrocarbons
j. suspended paniculate matter
-------
5. True or False: A scientist studying effects of air pollution is often trying
to prove a causal relationship.
6. Which three of the following are major types of studies of the effects of air
pollution?
a. case studies d. laboratory studies
b. pollutinogenic studies e. air correlation studies
c. inverse relational studies f. general field studies
7. In the field of air pollution, what is meant by a "synergistic effect"?
8. Name the type of substances that are produced when sulfur dioxide combines
with moisture.
9. Arrange the following in order of toxicity — from most toxic to least toxic.
SO2 combined with paniculate matter
SO2 alone
SO2 combined with moisture
10. Describe what is meant by "dose" as it pertains to air pollution.
160

iwwHiwwmnnmmiwumt
11. Which are the two major factors that may influence the effect of suspended
particulate matter?
a. color of particles c. size of particles
b. opacity of particles d. number of particles
12. Match each of the three respiratory regions listed with its particle removal
system.
i. upper respiratory system a. filtration and preconditioning system
ii. tracheobronchial region b. bronchioclarification system
iii. lower respiratory region c. mucus filtration and elimination system
d. pulmonary clearing mechanism
e. impaction and mucus-transport system
13. Choose the term that best completes the sentence. Cilia are:
a. air sacs. d. small hair-like cells.
b. small bronchial tubes. e. small pollutants.
c. blood cells. f. bacteria-like microbes.
14. Which of the following are ways that suspended particulate matter affects
visible light?
a. reflects it d. changes its shape
. b. scatters it e. absorbs it
c. bends it f. changes its color

161
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15. Describe how carbon monoxide affects gas exchange in our blood.
16. Which of the following diseases are most likely to be aggravated by carbon
monoxide?
a. circulatory diseases d. heart diseases
b. mononucleosis e. peridontal diseases
c. eczema f. gastrointestinal infections
17. Which is most toxic to humans, nitric oxide or nitrogen dioxide?
18. Which of the following are effects of exposure to oxides of nitrogen?
a. metal can be damaged d. only a and b
b. fabrics loose strength e. a, b, and c
c. dyes change colors
19. Damage directly to plants and materials by VOCs and hydrocarbons:
a. is maximum in the winter.
b. is a problem only for synthetic materials.
c. is not considered a problem.
d. results in $10 million in losses each year.
162
jnuwwimmmuwumiMim
20. Which type of hydrocarbons are most biologically and biochemically active?
21. Describe how hydrocarbons can get from urban sources to rural areas.
22. What is the most beneficial effect of the ozone that is found in the
stratosphere?
23. Which types of activity found in the lungs are adversely affected by exposure to
ozone?
a. enzyme c. cellular
b. chemical d. all of the above
24. Choose the word that best completes the sentence.
Ozone probably causes plant damage in the United States than
any other air pollutant. (m
-------
27. Is lead removed from the body very slowly or very quickly?
28. How does most lead enter our bodies?
a. through breathing
b. through eating and drinking
c. through the skin
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
29. Which of the following is most adversely affected by lead?
a. our blood d. our teeth
b. our skin e. our hair
c. our lungs f. our eyes
30. True or False: Lead seems to have no detrimental effect upon materials.

Answers to Unit Test questions begin on next page.
164
immummmmmmmmmm
Unit Test
Answers
1. effect
2. c. the air all around us
3. True
4. a. ozone
c. carbon monoxide
d. sulfur dioxide
f. lead
h. nitrogen dioxide
i. hydrocarbons
j. suspended paniculate matter
5. True
6. a. case studies
d. laboratory studies
f. general field studies
165
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7. The combined effect of pollutants is worse than the sum of the effects of the
individual pollutants.
8. Acids
9. SO2 combined with moisture
SO2 combined with paniculate matter
SO2 alone
10. The concentration of the pollutant and the length of exposure to the pollutant.
11. c. size of particles
d. number of particles
12. i. a. filtration and preconditioning system
ii. e. impaction and mucus-transport system
iii. d. pulmonary clearing mechanism
13. d. small hair-like cells
14. a. reflects it
b. scatters it
e. absorbs it
166

wwwwminmiHHWiwww

15. Carbon monoxide displaces oxygen in the red blood cells, thus depriving the
body of oxygen.
16. a. circulatory diseases
d. heart diseases
17. Nitrogen dioxide
18. e. a, b, and c
19. c. is not considered a problem.
20. Aromatic hydrocarbons
21. They are carried by wind currents.
22. It screens out harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun.
23. d. all of the above
24. more
25. True
26. They can be carried by wind currents.
27. Very slowly
28. b. through eating and drinking
29. a. our blood
30. True

167
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