EPA
-450/3-92-012
EPA-450/3-92-012
April 1992
SEPA
United States Office of Air Quality
Environmental Protection Planning and Standards
Agency Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Emission Standards Division
Alternative Control
Techniques Document --
For PM-10 Emissions from
Ferrous Foundries
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c
EPA-450/3-92-012
ALTERNATIVE CONTROL
TECHNIQUES DOCUMENT-
FOR PM-10 EMISSIONS
FROM FERROUS FOUNDRIES
Emission Standards Division
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
April 1992
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ALTERNATIVE CONTROL TECHNIQUES DOCUMENTS
This Report is issued by the Emission Standards Division,
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, to provide information to State and local air
pollution control agencies. Mention of trade names and commercial
products is not intended to constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use. Copies of this report are available — as
supplies permit — from the Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina 27711 ([919] 541-2777) or, for a nominal fee, from the
National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road,
Springfield, VA 22161 ([800] 533-NTIS).
11
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1-1
2.0 SOURCES AND POLLUTANT EMISSIONS 2-1
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.2 INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION 2-1
2.2.1 Gray Iron Foundries 2-1
2.2.2 Steel Foundries 2-2
2.2.3 Ferrous Products End-uses and
Growth Projections 2-8
2.2.4 Divisions Within the Ferrous
Foundry Industry 2-14
2.3 PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS 2-15
2.3.1 Processes Included 2-15
2.3.2 Process Summary and Overview of
Foundry Operations 2-17
2.3.3 Process Characteristics and
Feedstocks 2-17
2.3.4 Electric Induction Furnace 2-19
2.3.4.1 Induction furnaces in the
ferrous foundry industry 2-19
2.3.4.2 Types of induction furnaces in use 2-21
2.3.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of
the electric induction furnace . . 2-21
2.3.5 Charging, Melting, and Slagging 2-23
2.3.6 Tapping to Holding Furnaces 2-24
2.3.7 Mold Pouring and Cooling 2-25
2.3.8 Mold Shakeout 2-25
2.3.9 Cleaning and Finishing 2-26
2.3.10 Auxiliary Processes 2-26
2.3.10.1 Mold and core making 2-26
2.3.10.2 Sand mulling 2-28
2.3.10.3 Mold and core fabrication . . . 2-28
2.3.10.4 Sand reclamation and recycling 2-28
2.3.10.5 Material storage and handling . 2-29
2.3.10.6 Waste disposal 2-30
2.4 PM-10 SOURCE DESCRIPTIONS 2-30
2.4.1 Introduction 2-30
2.4.2 Charging, Melting, and Tapping 2-33
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
2.4.3 Mold Pouring, Cooling, and Shakeout .... 2-34
2.4.4 Cleaning and Finishing 2-35
2.4.5 Auxiliary Processes 2-35
2.4.5.1 Sand mulling and material handling 2-35
2.4.5.2 Mold and core forming, baking,
and cleaning 2-36
2.4.5.3 Sand screening and cleaning .... 2-36
2.4.6 Additional Sources of PM-10 2-36
2.4.6.1 Storage piles 2-36
2.4.6.2 Roadways 2-37
2.5 MODEL PLANTS AND EMISSIONS 2-38
2.5.1 Introduction 2-38
2.5.2 Model Plant Potential Emissions 2-39
2.5.3 Model Plant Baseline Emissions 2-39
2.6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 2 2-46
3.0 EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNIQUES 3-1
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PM-10 CONTROL TECHNIQUES 3-1
3.2 PM-10 CONTROL TECHNIQUES 3-1
3.2.1 Collection of Furnace Emissions 3-3
3.2.1.1 Ring hoods 3-4
3.2.1.2 Canopy hoods 3-4
3.2.1.3 Close capture hoods 3-7
3.2.1.4 Box enclosures 3-7
3.2.1.5 Movable hood enclosures 3-10
3.2.1.6 Total enclosures 3-10
3.2.1.7 Indirect collection of furnace
emissions 3-14
3.2.2 Collection of Other Process Emissions . . . 3-15
3.2.3 Removal Equipment 3-19
3.2.3.1 Fabric filters 3-19
3.2.3.2 Wet scrubbers 3-24
3.2.3.3 Electrostatic precipitators .... 3-26
3.2.3.4 Removal equipment choices for
specific process streams 3-29
3.2.4 Control of Non-process Fugitive Emissions . 3-30
3.2.4.1 Paved roads 3-31
3.2.4.2 Unpaved roads 3-32
3.2.4.3 Storage piles 3-34
3.3 PROCESS ACT PERFORMANCE LEVEL 3-36
3.4 NEW CONSTRUCTION CONTROLS 3-36
3.5 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 3 3-38
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
4 .0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 4-1
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4-1
4.2 PM-10 EMISSIONS IMPACT 4-1
4.3 WATER POLLUTION IMPACT 4-15
4.4 SOLID WASTE IMPACT 4-17
4.5 ENERGY IMPACT 4-18
4.6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 4 4-23
5.0 CONTROL COST ANALYSIS 5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION 5-1
5.2 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN PARAMETERS 5-1
5.3 BASIS FOR CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES 5-3
5.4 BASIS FOR ANNUAL COST ESTIMATES 5-17
5.5 COST EFFECTIVENESS 5-22
5.6 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 5 5-28
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
2-1 General process flow diagram for ferrous foundries
using induction furnaces for melting and sand
molds for casting 2-18
2-2 Coreless induction furnace 2-22
2-3 Channel induction furnace 2-22
2-4 General process flow diagram for ferrous foundries
using induction furnace and sand molding—with
emission factors 2-32
3-1 General flow diagram for an emission control system . . 3-2
3-2 Diagram of ring hood 3-5
3-3 Diagram of canopy hood 3-6
3-4 Diagram of close-capture hood 3-8
3-5 Diagram of box enclosure 3-9
3-6 Diagram of movable hood 3-11
3-7 Diagram of total enclosure hood 3-12
3-8 Diagram of fabric filter 3-21
3-9 Diagram of wet venturi scrubber 3-25
3-10 Diagram of electrostatic precipitator 3-27
VI
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
2-1 Gray Iron Foundries (SIC 3321) with 1990 Sales
Greater Than $1 Million 2-3
2-2 Steel Investment Foundries (SIC 3324) with 1990
Sales Greater Than $1 Million 2-9
2-3 Steel Foundries N.E.C. (SIC 3325) with 1990 Sales
Greater Than $1 Million 2-10
2-4 Chemical Composition of Gray Iron 2-13
2-5 Typical Chemical Composition of Plain Carbon
Steel 2-14
2-6 Casting Methods and Furnace Types Used in the
Foundry Industry 2-15
2-7 Ferrous Foundry Processes Discussed in
this Document 2-16
2-8 Additional References for Gray Iron Foundries . . . 2-16
2-9 Uncontrolled PM-10 Emission Factors for Gray Iron
Foundries for Selected Processes 2-31
2-10 Uncontrolled PM-10 Emission Factors for Steel
Foundries for Selected Processes 2-31
2-11 Gray Iron Model Plant Operating Parameters .... 2-38
2-12 Steel Model Plant Operating Parameters 2-39
2-13 Uncontrolled PM-10 Emissions from Gray Iron
Foundry Model Plants for Selected Process 2-40
2-14 Uncontrolled PM-10 Emissions from Steel Model
Plants for Selected Processes 2-41
2-15 Baseline Control Systems for Gray Iron Model
Plants for Selected Processes 2-42
2-16 Baseline Control Systems for Steel Model Plants
for Selected Processes 2-43
2-17 Baseline PM-10 Emissions from Gray Iron Foundry
Model Plants for Selected Processes 2-44
Vll
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
2-18 Baseline PM-10 Emissions from Steel Foundry Model
Plants for Selected Processes 2-45
3-1 Collection Device Effectiveness on PM-10 Emissions
During the Melt Cycle Operations 3-15
3-2 Foundry Emissions Collection Technology
Combinations 3-18
3-3 Typical Control Efficiencies of Particulate
Removal Devices Used in Foundries 3-20
3-4 American Foundrymen's Society Tabulation of
Typical Particulate Removal Device Selections for
Foundry Operations 3-28
4-1 Option I Control Systems for Gray Iron Foundry
Model Plants for Selected Processes 4-3
4-2 Option II Control Systems for Gray Iron Foundry
Model Plants for Selected Processes 4-4
4-3 Options III and IV Control Systems for Melting
Furnaces at Gray Iron Foundry Model Plants 4-5
4-4 Option I Control Systems for Steel Foundry Model
Plants for Selected Processes 4-6
4-5 Option II Control Systems for Steel Foundry Model
Plants for Selected Processes 4-7
4-6 Options III and IV Control Systems for Melting
Furnaces at Steel Foundry Model Plants 4-8
4-7 Option I PM-10 Emissions from Gray Iron Foundry
Model Plants 4-9
4-8 Option II PM-10 Emissions from Gray Iron Foundry
Model Plants for Selected Processes 4-10
4-9 Options III and IV PM-10 Emissions from Melting
Furnaces at Gray Iron Foundry Model Plants .... 4-11
4-10 Option I PM-10 Emissions from Steel Foundry Model
Plants for Selected Processes 4-12
4-11 Option II PM-10 Emissions from Steel Foundry Model
Plants for Selected Processes 4-13
viii
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
4-12
4-13
4-14
4-15
4-16
4-17
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11
5-12
5-13
Options III and IV PM-10 Emissions from Melting
Furnaces at Steel Foundry Model Plants
PM-10 Emission Reductions from Baseline and
Control Options for Gray Iron Foundries
PM-10 Emission Reductions from Baseline and
Control Options for Steel Foundries
Waste Materials in the Ferrous Foundry Wet Venturi
Air Stream
Incremental Energy Consumption for Gray Iron Model
Plants Options
Incremental Energy Consumption for Steel Foundry
Model Plants Options
General Assumptions for Fabric Filter
General Assumptions for Wet Venturi Scrubber . . .
Baseline Configurations for Gray Iron Model Plants
Baseline Configurations for Steel Model Plants . .
Fabric Filter Configuration for Gray Iron Model
Plants
Fabric Filter Configuration for Steel Model Plants
Venturi Scrubber Configuration for Gray Iron Model
Plants
Venturi Scrubber Configuration for Steel Model
Plants
Conversion Factors
Removal and Auxiliary Equipment Purchase Costs for
Gray Iron Foundry Model Plants
Removal and Auxiliary Equipment Purchase Costs for
Steel Model Plants
General Costs and Cost Factors
Retrofit Capital Costs for Gray Iron Foundry Model
Plants
4-14
4-15
4-15
4-16
4-19
4-20
5-4
. 5-5
. 5-6
. 5-7
5-8
5-10
5-11
5-12
5-13
5-14
5-16
5-18
5-19
IX
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
5-14 Retrofit Capital Costs for Steel Foundry Model
5-15
5-16
5-17
5-18
Plants
Annual
Annual
Cost E
Plants
Cost
Plants
Costs
Costs
for
for
Gray
Steel
Iron
Foundry
Foundry
If fectiveness for Gray
Effectiveness
for
Model Plants . .
Model Plants ....
Iron
Steel
Foundry
Foundry
Model
Model
5-21
5-23
5-25
5-26
5-27
X
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (November 15, 1990)
authorize the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to designate
areas that violate the national ambient air quality standards
(NAAQS) for particulate matter nominally 10 microns or smaller in
diameter (PM-10) as nonattainment areas. See Section 107(d) of the
Clean Air Act (Act). Section 188(a) of the Act provides that every
designated nonattainment area for PM-10 shall be classified as a
(moderate) nonattainment at the time of designation by operation of
law. A moderate area can subsequently be reclassified as "serious"
if EPA determines that (1) the area cannot practicably attain the
PM-10 NAAQS by the applicable attainment date or (2) the attainment
date has already passed and the area has failed to attain the
standards.
State implementation plans (SIPs) for moderate nonattainment
areas must, among other things, provide for the implementation of
all reasonably available control measures, including reasonably
available control technology (RACT) to achieve emission reductions
from existing stationary sources. See Sections 172(c) and
189(a) (1) (C) . In addition to the requirements for moderate areas,
SIPs for serious areas must include, among other things, provisions
to assure that the best available control measures for the control
of PM-10, including "the application of best available -control
technology (BACT) to existing stationary sources" [H.R. Rep. No.
490, 101st Congress 2df Sess. 267 (1990)], are implemented no later
than 4 years after the areas are reclassified as serious. See
Section 189(b)(1)(B).
In accordance with Section 190 of the Act, EPA determined that
information for use in determining RACT and BACT was needed for the
aluminum foundry industry. Therefore, EPA prepared this guideline
document on alternative control techniques (ACT) to assist States
in identifying RACT and BACT alternatives for significant process
sources of PM-10 in the industry. Although ACT documents review
1-1
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existing information and data concerning the technology and cost of
various control techniques to reduce emissions, they are, of
necessity, general in nature and do not fully account for unique
variations within a stationary source category. Consequently, the
purpose of ACT documents is to provide State and local air
pollution control agencies with an initial information base for
proceeding with their own analysis of RACT and BACT for specific
new and existing stationary sources.
1-2
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CHAPTER 2
SOURCES AND POLLUTANT EMISSIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of the ferrous foundry-
industry, including geographic distributions, production trends,
industry issues, and the major subdivisions within the industry.
The chapter contains detailed process descriptions for gray iron
foundries and steel foundries using induction furnaces for melting
and sand molds for casting. Process descriptions are given for the
major melting, casting, and auxiliary processes. Descriptions of
PM-10 emissions from these sources are also given, including
emission factors. In the last section of this chapter, potential
emissions and baseline emissions are estimated for small, medium,
and large model foundries in the gray iron industry and for small
and large model foundries in the steel industry.
2.2 INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION
A "foundry" is defined for this document as any building,
establishment, or works where metal castings are produced. The
ferrous foundry industry, as defined in this document, consists of
those foundries producing gray iron or steel castings. Gray iron
and steel are similar alloys of iron, carbon, and silicon. "Gray
iron" is defined as an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon, in which
the carbon content is greater than 2 percent. "Steel" is defined
as an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon, in which the carbon
content is less than 2 percent.1
2.2.1 Gray Iron Foundries
The U.S. Government Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
coding system has several categories which include gray iron
foundries. The Gray and Ductile Iron Foundries category (SIC 3321)
2-1
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contains gray iron foundries, as do other categories such as Motor
Vehicles (SICs 3711-3716), Machine Tools (SIC 3541), and other
categories containing industries which engage in large-scale
manufacturing and operate foundries which produce castings for
their own use.2 Any gray iron foundry is considered part of the
gray iron foundry industry for the technical discussion contained
in this document.
According to a census conducted by Foundry Management &
Technology, 1,063 gray iron foundries were operating in the United
States during 1986.2 For 1987, the United States Census of
Manufactures reported a total of 774 gray and ductile iron
foundries within SIC 3321.3 Comparison of this total of 774
foundries to the 1,063 foundries reported by Foundry Management &
Technology for the previous year suggests that approximately one
third of the foundries reported by Foundry Management & Technology
are captive foundries operated by manufacturing facilities in
categories other than SIC 3321.
Gray iron foundries are distributed across forty-six states in
the United States. Eight States were reported to contain more than
50 foundries each in 1986: 112, each, in Pennsylvania and Ohio; 79
in Michigan; 59, each, in Wisconsin, California, and Illinois; 58
in Indiana; and 51 in Texas.2 The largest number of foundries are
located in areas with high concentrations of manufacturing.
Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, Cleveland and St. Paul each have more than
30 gray iron foundries. Ward's Business Directory lists 303 gray
and ductile iron foundries in SIC 3321 with sales greater than $1
million in 1990; these foundries are listed in Table 2-1, although
some of the foundries may exclusively cast ductile iron and should
not be counted as gray iron foundries.4
2.2.2. Steel Foundries
The Steel Investment Foundries category (SIC 3324) and the
Steel Foundries—NEC (not elsewhere classified) category (SIC 3325)
contain steel foundries, as do other categories such as Motor
Vehicles (SICs 3711-3716), Machine Tools (SIC 3541), and other
2-2
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TABLE 2-1
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES (SIC 3321) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION*'*
NAME
ADDRESS
1990 SALES
Amsted Indus Inc*
Ford Motor Co Casting Div
Intermet Corp
US Pipe & Foundry Co
McWane Inc.
Intermet Corp Intermet Foundries-
Intermet Corp
American Cast Iron Pipe Co
Grade Foundries Inc
Amsted Indus Inc Griffin Pipe Prdts Co
Victualic Co of America
Waupaca Foundry Inc
Neenah Foundry Co
Textron Inc CWC Castings Div
Citalion Carolina Corp
Tyler Pipe Industry Inc
Butnham Corp
North Amer Royalties Inc
North Amer Royalties Inc Wheland Foundry
Div - North Amer Royalties Inc
Valley Vulcan Mold Co
Brillion Iron Works Inc
Auburn Foundry Inc (Auburn Indiana)
Dayton-Waither Corp Carrollton Div
Fairmount Foundry Inc
Wells Mfg (Skokie Illinois)
Dalton Foundries Inc
Harrison Steel Cast Co
Columbus Foundries Inc
Clow Water Syse Corp
McWane Inc Union Foundry Co
Microdot Inc Microdot Valley Mould Div
Deere & Co John Deere East Moline
McWane Inc Atlantic States Cast Iron Pipe
Groen A Dover Indus Corp
Charlotte Pipe & Foundry
Roberts Foundry Co
US Pipe & Foundry Co Soil Pipe Div
Baker Mfg Co
Moline Corp
Schneider Fuel & Supply Co
Textron Inc Golden Opers
Pryor Foundry Inc
Burnham Corp Foundry
Overmyer Corp
Electron Corp
Cast-Fab Technologies Inc
East Jordan Iron Works Inc
Urick Foundry Co
Teledyne Inc Teledyne Casting Svc
East Penn Foundry Co
Margate Ventures Inc
Berlin Foundry Corp
Marmon Group Inc Midwest Foundry Co
Newman Mfg Inc
Akers AB Matl Roll Co
American Brass & Iron Foundry
Robinson Foundry Inc
Simsco Inc
Grede Foundries Inc Grede Perm Cast Inc
205 N. Michigan St 44th, Chicago IL 60601 890
PO Box 9900, Cleveland OH 44142 550
2859 Paces Ferry Rd. Ste, Atlanta GA 30339 397
PO Box 10406, Birmingham AL 35202 340*
23 Iverness Ctr Pkwy, Birmingham AL 35243 300*
PO Box 6200, Lynchburg VA 24505 300
PO Box 2727, Birmingham AL 35202 250*
PO Box 26499, Milwaukee WI 53226 250*
1400 Opus PI Ste 700, Downers Grov IL 60515 220*
PO Box 31, Easton PA 18042 170*
PO Box 249, Waupaca WI 54981 144
PO Box 729, Neenah WI 54957 130*
1085 W Sherman Blvd, Muskegon MI 49441 120
2 Office Pk Circle, Birmingham AL 35223 110*
PO Box 2027, Tyler TX 75710 106*
PO Box 3205, Lancaster PA 17604 ' 103
200 E 8th St, Chattanooga TN 37402 100*
2800 Broad St, Chattanooga TN 37402 99*
PO Box 70, Latrobe PA 15850 80
200 Pk Ave, Brillion WI 54110 75
PO Box 471, Auburn IN 46706 75
US 42 E Rte 2 Box 429, Carrollton KY 41008 75*
Front & Pine Sts, Hamburg PA 19526 75
7800 N Austin Ave, Skokie IL 60077 65
PO Box 1388, Warsaw IN 46580 65
PO Box 60, Attica IN 47919 60
PO Box 4201, Columbus GA 31995 60
PO Box 479, Coshocton OH 43812 60
PO Box 309, Anniston AL 36202 55*
7158 Masury SE, Hubbard OH 44425 55*
Hwy 84 & 14th Ave, East Moline IL 61244 50
183 Sitgreaves St, Phillipsburg NJ 08865 50
1900 Pratt Blvd, Blk Grove VI IL 60007 50
PO Box 35430, charlotte, NC 28235 49*
711 W Alexander St, Greenwood SC 29648 46*
PO Box 6129, Chattanooga TN 37401 45
133 Enterprise St, Evansville WI 53536 45
PO Box 529, St Charles IL 60174 44*
3438 W. Forest Ave, Milwaukee WI 53215 41*
1616 10th St, Columbus IN 47201 40*
PO Box 549, Pryor Ok 74362 37*
PO Box 2398, Zanesville OH 43701 37
PO Box 489, Winchester IN 49394 36
PO Box 318, Littleton CO 80160 35
3040 Forrer St, Cincinnati OH 45209 35*
PO Box 439, East Jordan MI 49727 35
15th St & Cherry St, Erie PA 16501 35
PO Box 488, LaPorte IN 46350 • 34*
PO Box 35, Macungie PA 18062 33
58391 Main St, New Haven MI 48048 30
242 S Pearl St, Berlin WI 54923 30
77 Hooker St, Coldwater MI 49036 30
PO Box 271, Kendallvile IN 46755 30
Railroad Ave, Avonmore PA 15618 30
7825 San Leandro St, Oakland CA 94621 30
PO Box 1235, Alexander Ci AL 35010 27
130 Indus Pk Rd, Columbiana AL 35051 27*
PO Box 220, Cynthiana KY 41031 27
(continued)
2-3
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TABLE 2-1.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES (SIC 3321) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION4'*, (continued)
NAME
ADDRESS
1390 SUES
3N
Anaheim Foundry Co
McWane Inc Pacific States Cast
Iron Pipe Co Inc
Lebanon Foundry & Machine Co
Richmond Casting Co Inc
Donsco Inc
Osco Indus Inc
Alabama Ductile Casting Co
EMI Co
Great Lakes Castings
Kurdziel Iron Indus Inc
Vulcan Foundry Inc
Grede-Vassar Inc
McKinley Iron Works Inc
Hamilton Foundry & Machine Corp
Gregg Indus Inc
US Foundry & Mfg Corp
Kessler Indus Corp
Walter Indus Inc Jim Walter Window
Simpson Indus Inc Galdwin Opers
McCoy Ellison Inc
Quality Castings Co Inc
Motor Castings Co
Schneider Fuel & Supply Co Richland
Ctr Foundry
Dewey Bros Inc
Prospect Foundry Inc
Sioux City Foundry Co
Blackhawk Foundry & Machine
Campbell Foundry Co
New Haven Foundry Inc
General Casting Co
Variscast
North Amer Foundry Co
Hodge Foundry Inc
Elyria Foundry
Sibley Machine & Foundry
Benton Foundry Inc
SKF USA Inc Foundry Prdts
Standard Alloys & Mfg Co Inc
Durametl Corp
Bremen Castings Inc
Waupaca Foundry Inc Marinette
Hamilton Foundry & Machine Corp
Decatur Casting Div
Castalloy Corp
Unicast CO
Bentonville Casting Co
Harper Foundry & Machine Co
Quaker City Castings Inc
State Line Foundries Inc
Barry Pattern & Foundry
HG Enderlein Co
Modern Foundry & Mfg Co
Spanish Fork Foundry
Sterling Casting Corp
Willman Indus Inc
Dock Foundry Co
Taylor & Fenn Co
Universal Cast Iron Mfg Co
Jensen Intl Inc Jencast Div
800 E Orangethorpe Ave, Anaheim CA 92801 27
PO Box 1219, Provo UT 84603 26*
101 E Lehman St, Lebanon PA 17042 26*
1775 Rich Rd, Richmond IN 47374 26*
Po Box C-40, Wrightsville PA 17368 25
PO Box 1388, Portsmouth OH 45682 25
PO Box 1649, Brewton, AL 36426 25
603 W 12th St, Erie PA 16501 25*
PO Box 520, Ludington MI 49431 25
2625 Winston Rd, Rothbury MI 49452 ' 25
PO Box 905, Denham Spring LA 70727 25*
700 E Huron Ave, Vassar MI 48768 25
PO Box 790, Fort Worth TX 76101 22
200 Indus Dr. Harrison OH 45030 22
10460 Hickson St, El Monte CA 91734 22
8351 NW 93rd St, Miami FL 33166 22
10427 Old Olive Rd, St Louis MO 63141 21*
1009 Algonquin, Sioux Falls SD 57104 21*
650 Indus Dr, Galdwin MI 48624 20
1105 Curtis St, Monroe NC 28110 20
1200 N Main St, Orrville OH 44667 20
1323 S 65th St, Milwaukee WI 53214 20
PO Box 151, Richland Cen WI 53581 20
PO Box 918, Goldsboro NC 27530 19*
1225 Winter St NE, Minneapolis MN 55413 19*
PO Box 3067, Sioux City IA 51102 19*
323 S Clark St, Davenport IA 52803 19
800 Bergen St, Harrison NJ 07029 18
58391 Main St, New Haven MI 48048 17
PO Box 220, Delaware OH 43015 17
PO Box 17216, Portland OR 97217 17
4721 S Zero St, Fort Smith AR 72903 17
PO Box 550, Greenville PA 16125 17
120 Filbert St, Elyria OH 44036 16
PO Box 40, South Bend IN 46624 16
Red Rock Rd, Benton PA 17814 16*
1801 W Main St, Washington MO 63090 15
PO Box 969, Port Arthur TX 77640 15
PO Box 606, Tualatin OR 96062 15
500 N Baltimore St, Bremen IN 46506 15
805 Ogden St, Marinette WI 54143 15
822 Dayton Ave, Decatur IN 46733 ' 15
PO Box 827 Waukesha WI 53187 15
PO Box 248, Boyertown PA 19512 15
PO Box 1109, Bentonville AR 72712 15
PO Box 992, Jackson MS 39205 15
310 Euclid Ave, Salem OH 44460 15
PO Box 530, Roscoe IL 61073 15*
3333 35th Ave N, Birmingham AL 35207 15
Keystone St & Benner St, Philadelphia PA 19135 15
PO Box 99, Mascoutah IL 62258 15
1600 N 200 E, Spanish Fork UT 84660 15
PO Box 396, Bluffton IN 46714 15
338 S Main St, Cedar Grove WI 53013 14
428 4th St, Three Rivers MI 49093 14*
22 Deerfield Rd, Windsor CT 06095 13
5404 Tweedy PI, South Gate CA 90280 13*
PO Box 1509, Coffeyville KS 67337 13*
(continued)
2-4
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TABLE 2-1.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES (SIC 3321) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION4'*, (continued)
NAME
ADDRESS
1990 SALES
M
Arkansas Steel Associates
Hockensmith Group
WDP Inc
Foundry Svc Co
Acme Foundry Inc
Southern Ductile Casting
Dyna Group Intl Inc
Southeastern Specialty
Emporia Foundry Inc
Helmick Corp
Woolley Tool & Mfg Inc
Sturgis Foundry Corp
Amcast Indus Corp Attalla Casting Co
Dayton Foundry Co
Mid-City Foundry CO
Goldens Foundry & Machine Co
John Foundry Corp
Kingsport Foundry & Mfg
Standard Foundry Co Inc
Badger Foundry Co Inc
Glidewell Specialties Foundry Inc
G & C Foundry Co Inc
Gartland Foundry Co Inc
Mid State Drainage Prdts Inc
Motor & Machine Castings
Weatherly Foundry & MFg Co
Moline Corp Natl Div
Eingham & Taylor Corp
LeBaron Foundry Inc
Reliable Tool & Machine Co Inc
Dotson Co Inc
Lodge Mfg Co
Kirsh Foundry Inc
Galva Foundry Co
Kulp Foundry Inc
AMCA Intl Corp Giddings & Lewis Foundry
Osco Indus Inc Osco Industries Inc Div
Acme Castings Inc
Engineered Precisions Casting Co
Eureka Foundry Co
Staver Foundry Co Inc
Deeter Foundry Inc
Aarrow Elc Iron Castings Inc
Russell Pipe & Foundry Co
Walker Machine & Foundry Corp
Paxton-Mitchell Co Inc
Alhambra Foundry Co Ltd
Bell Boundry Co
Big Four Foundries Corp
T&B Foundry Co
Talladega Foundry & Machine Co Inc
Candor Corp
Oil City Ironworks Inc
Elkhart Foundry & Machine
Opelika Foundry Inc
Thunder Bay Mfg Corp
Kendallville Castings Inc
Frank Foundries Corp
Hamburg Mfg Inc
Sherman Foundry
Warren Tool Corp Quincy Castings Inc
PO Box 280, Newport AR 72112
PO Box 397, Perm PA 15675
211 E 43rd St 10005, New York NY 10017
PO Box 748, Biscoe NC 27209
PO Box 908, Coffeyville KS 67337
2217 Carolina Ave. Bessemer AL 35020
1801 W 16th St, Broadview IL 60153
PO Drawer 2048, Anniston AL 36202
620 Reese St, Emporia VA 23847
PO Box 71, Fairmont WV 26555
PO Box 3508, Odessa TX 79760
PO Box 568, Sturgis MI 49091
PO Drawer 788, Attalla MI 35954
11803 Indus Ave, South Gate GA 90280
1521 W. Bruce St, Milwaukee WI 53204
PO Box 96, Columbus GA 31993
115 Stevens St, Springfield MA 01104
PO Box 880, Kingsport TN 37662
25 Southgate St, Worcester MA 01610
PO Box 1306, Winona MN 55987
PO Box 1079, Calera AL 35040
PO Box 789, Sandusky OH 44870
PO Box 1564, Terre Haute IN 47808
55 Valley Hill Rd, Stockbridge GA 30281
7742 W Davison Ave, Detroit MI 48238
Commerce St, Weatherly PA 18255
PO Box 8, Belvidere IL 61008
PO Box 552, Culpeper VA 22701
PO Box 746, Brockton MA 02403
PO Box 757, Kendallville IN 46755
PO Box 1270, Mankato MN 56002
PO Box 380, South Pittsb TN 37380
PO Box 160, Beaver Dam WI 52916
102 SW 6th Ave, Galva IL 61434
PO Box 179, East Strouds PA 18301
PO Box 316, Menominee MI 49858
PO Box 327, Jackson OH 45640
6009 Santa Fe Ave, Huntington P CA 902552
952 Palmer Ave, Middletown NJ 07748
PO Box 6039, Chattanooga TN 37401
100 S 10th St, Virginia MN 55792
5945 N 70th, Lincoln NE 68529
PO Box 0702, Shawano WI 54166
PO Box 519, Alexander CI AL 35010
PO Box 4587, Roanoke VA 24015
2614 Martha St, Omaha NE 68105
PO Box 471, Alhambra CA 91802
PO Box 1070, South Gate CA 90280
PO Box 700360, Tulsa OK 74170
2469 71st St, Cleveland OH 44104
PO Box 579, Talladega AL 35160
PO Box 2066, Corsicana TX 75110
PO Box 1560, Corsicana TX 75110
PO Box 320, Elkhart IN 46515
PO Box 2127, Opelika AL 36802
666 McKinley St, Alpena MI 49707
PO Box 337, Kendallville IN 46755
2020 3rd Ave, Moline IL 61265
1021 S 4th St, Hamburg PA 19526
PO Box 877, Sherman TX 75091
206 Liberty St, Quincy OH 43343
13*
13*
13
12
12
12
12
12
12*
12
12
12
12*
11
11*
10
10
10
10
10
10*
10
10
10
10
10
10*
10
10
10
10
9
9
9*
9
9
9*
9*
9*
9
91
9*
9*
7
7
7
7*
7
7
7
7*
7*
7*
(continued)
2-5
-------
TABLE 2-1.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES (SIC 3321) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION4'*, (continued)
NAME
ADDRESS
1990 SUES
IN
Accurate Castings Inc
Jacobs Mfg Co Inc
Reading Gray Iron Casting Inc
Delray Steel Casting Inc
Advance Foundry Co
Kelly Foundry & Machine
Rochester Metal Prdts
Clay & Bailey Mfg co
Didion & sons Foundry
Plattco Corp
May Foundry & Machine Co
Swayne Robinson & Co Inc
Traverse City Gray Iron
Continental Foundry & Machine
Dub Ross Co
Casper Foundry & Mfg Co
Fountain Foundry Corp
Water Works Supply Co
Rowe Foundry & Machine
Somerset Foundry & Machine
Wirco Castings Inc
Johnson City Foundry & Machine Works Inc
Manitowoc Grey Iron Foundry
Wemco Casting Inc
Western Iron Works
Centre Foundry & Machine Co
United States Lock & Hardware Co
Martin Foundries Co Inc
Lodi Iron Works Inc
Globe Iron Foundry Inc
Inland Foundry Co Inc
Threaded Prdts Co
Xenia Foundry & Machine Co
Hardy & Newsome Inc
Oak Hill Foundry & Machines
Maddox Foundry & Machine Works Inc
Washington Mould Co
Edmund A Gray Co Inc
Plymouth Foundry Inc
Seaboard Foundry Inc
Bloomfield Foundry Inc
Goulds Pumps Inc G&H Castings
Progressive Foundry Inc
Bahr Bros Mfg Inc
Calm Corp
HP Deuscher Co
Gartland-Haswell Foundry Co
Frederick Foundry & Machine
Acme Blackwell Inc
Western Foundry Co
Midwest Metallurgical Laboratory
Ephrata Mfg Co Inc
Badger Iron Works Inc
Elizabeth St Foundry
Brown City Casting Corp
Francis & Nygren Foundry
Interstate Castings Co
Calhoun Foundry Co Inc
Huntsville Casting Facility Inc
Lapeer Foundry & Machine Co
Auburn Foundry Inc
PO Box 639, LaPorte IN 46350 7*
PO Box D, Bridgeport AL 35740 7*
PO Box 616, Reading PA 19603 7*
18900 Rialto, Melvindale MI 48122 7
PO Box 1411, Dayton OH 45401 7
PO Box 1789, Elkins WV 26241 7
PO Box 318, Rochester In 46975 6
PO Box 8026, Kansas City MO 64129 6
PO Box 500, St. Peters MO 63376 6*
18 White St, Plattsburgh NY 12901 6*
454 W 600 N, Salt Lake Ci UT 84103 6*
PO Box 697, Richmond IN 47374 • 6'
2455 Aero Pk, Richmond IN 47374 6*
10060 Hwy 78, Olive Branch MS 38654 6*
PO Box 270066, Oklahoma Cit OK 73127 6*
PO Box 5325, Birmingham AL 35207 6
PO Box 188-W, Veedersburg IN 47987 6
660 State Hwy 23, Pompton Plai NJ 07444 6
147 W Cumberland, Martinsville IL 62442 6
PO Box 352, Somerset PA 15501 5
Rte 1, New Athens IL 62264 5
Rte 1 Box 916, Watauga TO 37694 5
PO Box 548, Manitowoc WI 5
20 Jules Ct #20, Bohemia NY 11716 5
21 E 6th, San Angelo TX 76903 5
PO Box 4068, Wheeling WV 26003 5*
PO Box 60, Columbia PA 17512 5
PO Box 3170, Melvindale MI 48122 5*
PO Box 1150, Lodi CA 95241 5
5649 Randolph St, Los Angeles CA 90040 5*
PO Box 453, Mead VA 99021 5
69951 Lower Plank Rd, Richmond MI 48062 5
PO Box 397, Xenia OH 45385 5
PO Box 158, LaGrange NC 28551 5
333 S Front St, Oak Hill OH 45656 5
PO Box 7, Archer FL 32618 5
PO Box 518, Washington PA 15301 5
2277 E 15th St, Los Angeles CA 90021 5
PO Box 537, Plymouth IN 46563 5
63 John St, Johnston RI 02919 4
PO Box 79, Bloomfield IA 52537 4
PO Box 708, Slaton TX 79364 4
PO Box 338, Perry IA 50220 4
PO Box 411, Marion IN 46952 4
PO Box 1256, National City CA 92058 4*
7th & Hanover, Hamilton OH 45011 4
PO Box 461, Sidney OH 45365 4
PO Box 111, Frederick MD 21701 4
400 E Frisco St, Blackwell OK 74631 4
PO Box 23278, Tigard OR 97223 4*
15290 15 Mile Rd, Marshall MI 49068 4
104 W Pine St, Ephrata PA 17522 4
Rte 2 Pkwy Rd, Menomonie WI 54751 4
5838 S Racine Ave, Chicago II 60636 4*
PO Box 489, Brown City MI 48416 4*
6911 W 59th St, Chicago IL 60638 4*
3823 Massachusetts Ave, Indianapolis IN 46218 4*
PO Box 218 Homer MI 49245 4*
PO Box 4108, Hunstville AL 35815 4*
PO Box 347, Lapeer MI 48446 4*
15 Qadsworth St, Auburn NY 13021 4*
(continued)
2-6
-------
TABLE 2-1.
GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES (SIC 3321) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION*'", (continued)
NAMB
ADDRESS
1990 SAIES
IN &HHXXB
Zurn Indus Inc Zurn Cast MeCals
Leed Foundry Inc
Farrar Corp
Backman Foundry & Machine Inc
Torranee Casting Inc
Ironton Iron Inc
Col-Pump Co Inc
Western Foundry Co
Excelsior Foundry Co Inc
Enterprise Foxindry Inc
Essex Castings Inc
Fairmont Foundry Co Inc
Chicago-Dubuque Foundry
Empire Foundry Co
Gainesville Foundry Inc
Whitman Foundry Inc
Lipsteel Fabricators Inc
Midstate Foundry Co
Pioneer Foundry Co Inc
TL Arzt Foundry Co
KP Iron Foundry Inc
Seneca Foundry Corp
General Iron Works Corp
Pacific Alloy Castings Inc
Municipal Castings Inc
B & W Foundry & Mfg
JB Foote Foundry Co
Roloff Mfg Corp
Covert Iron Works
Cuyahoga Foundry Co
ACSCO Prdts Inc
Moritz Foundry
Hempfield Foundries Co
Alloy Founders Inc
Smith Foundry Co
Meech Foundry Inc
Tonkawa Foundry Co Inc
Bridgewater Foundry Co
Lemico Inc
Giroux Precision Inc
Brom Machine & Foundry
Stubbs Foundry Co Inc
Dussault Foundry Corp
Miles Equip & Supply Co
Russelloy Foundry Inc
Sentinel Mfg Co Inc
Pier Foundry & Pattern Co
Pomona Foundry Co
Buckeye Foundry Co
Charlotte Bros Foundry
Acme Foundry Co
Eton Corp
Pacific Castings
Phoenix Iron Works
Bourbon Foundry Co Inc
Josam Co Richmond Foundry & Mfg
Frazier & Frazier Inc
Opers 1301 Raspberry St, Erie PA 16502
PO Box 98, St Clair PA 17970
114 Main St, Norwich KS 67118
PO Box 779, Provo UT 84603
PO Box 308, Lacrosse WI 54602
2859 Paces Ferry Rd, Atlanta GA 30339
131 E. Railroad St, Columbiana OH 44408
310 E 8th St, Holland MI 49423
1123 B St E, Belleville IL 62222
PO Box 1564, Lewiston ME 04241
PO Box 348, Columbus IN 47201
PO Box 5386, Birmingham AL 35207
210 2nd St, East Dubuque IL 61025
PO Box 3477, Tulsa OK 74101
PO Box 1259, Gainesville TX 76240
40 Raynor Ave, Whitman MA 02382
317 Jefferson St, Newark NJ 07105
PO Box 368, Charleston IL 61920
606 S Water St, Jackson MI 49203
PO Box 48177, Niles IL 60648
PO Box 2926, Fresno CA 93745
23 Jackson St, Geneva NY 14456
407 Atlantic Ave, Camden NJ 08104
5900 E Firestone Blvd, South Gate CA 90280
PO Box 129, Madison MN 56256
520 Upton St, San Angelo TX 76903
283 N Main St, Fredericktow OH 43019
PO Box 7002, Kaukauna WI 54130
7821 S Otis Ave, Huntington P CA 90255
4530 E 71st St, Cleveland OH 44105
PO Box 709, Burbank CA 91503
628 E Washington Ave, Santa Ana CA 92701
PO Box 69, Greensburg PA 15601
PO Box 29-A, Maumee OH 43537
1855 E 28th St, Minneapolis MN 55407
4730 Warner Rd, Cleveland OH 44125
510 S 7th St, tonkawa OK 74653
128 Baystate Rd, Rehoboth MA 02769
100 S Commerce, Galena IL 61036
1200 Holden Ave, Milford MI 48381
3565 W 6th St, Wionna MN 55987
3485 Helena Rd, Helena AL 35080
2 Washburn St, Lockport NY 14094
1928 W 35th St, Chicago IL 60609
1010 4th St, Durant IA 52747
PO Box 2347, Broken Arrow OK 74013
51 State St, St Paul MN 55107
1479 W 2nd St, Pomoca CA 91766
2800 Beekman St, Cincinnati OH 45225
74 Mills River St, Blackstone MA 01504
3161 Hiawatha Ave, Minneapolis MN 55406
405 S Linden St, Marshall MI 40068
505 Minthorne, Lake Elsinor CA 92330
PO Box 24123, Oakland CA 94623
301 S Harris, Bourbon IN 46504
3514 Mayland Ct, Richmond VA 23233
PO Box 279, Coolidge TX 76635
4
4
4
3
3
3*
3
3
3
3
3*
3
3
3
3
3*
3
3
3
3
3*
3*
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2*
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1*
1
1
1
1
1
"Company names and addresses which are shown in Reference 4 were truncated, as necessary, to
fit available column space. They are reproduced here as shown in the directory.
'Estimated
2-7
-------
industries which operate foundries and produce castings for their
own use. According to the Foundry Management & Technology census,
678 steel foundries were operating in the United States during
1986.2
Steel foundries were distributed across 43 states in the
United States in 1986. Four states were reported to hold more than
50 foundries, each, in 1986: 60 in Pennsylvania, 57 in California,
56 in Michigan, and 53 in Ohio.2 The largest number of steel
foundries are located in Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Cleveland,
Milwaukee, and Detroit, each with more than 25 steel foundries.
Ward's Business Directory lists 30 steel investment foundries in
SIC 3324 with sales greater than $1 million in 1990, and 116 steel
foundries-not elsewhere classified in SIC 3325 with sales greater
than $1 million in 1990; these foundries are listed in Tables 2-2
and 2-3."
2.2.3 Ferrous Products End-uses and Growth Projections
Gray iron is one of many ferrous alloys in current production-
-the name "gray iron" refers to the color of broken surfaces of the
alloy. Gray iron is produced by combining pure iron with carbon
and other alloying agents in specific proportions. The range of
chemical compositions of gray iron is given in Table 2-4.
Gray iron castings are manufactured for many different uses
such as automotive engine blocks and heavy machine tool bases
(2,000 to 10,000 Ib) -1 Total production of gray iron in the United
States has decreased steadily over the last 20 years, from a high
around 15 million tons in 1972 to a low of about 4.3 million tons
in 1988. ' The automotive industry emphasis on fuel economy is
predicted to cause automakers to more frequently use aluminum,
which is lighter than gray iron, in engine blocks and engine
parts.6
Surveys by Foundry Management & Technology indicate that gray
iron foundries predicted a small net change in demand from 1989
through 1991, experiencing 0.6 percent less demand in 1990 compared
to 1989, and predicting 1.1 greater production in 1991 relative to
2-8
-------
TABLE 2-2.
STEEL INVESTMENT FOUNDRIES (SIC 3324) WITH 1990
SALES GREATER THAN $1 MILLION4'*
NAME
ADDRESS
1990 SALES
IN $MILLIONS
Howmet Corp-Joseph Mallard!
Precision Castparts Corp-Edward H.
Cooley
Howmet Corp Whitehall Casting Div-Dave
Nesbit
Arwood Corp (Rockleigh New Jersey)-E.
Steigerwald
Dolphin Inc-George Ball
Stainless Foundry & Engg Inc-John K
McBroom, Jr
Cannon-Muskegon Corp-RE Schwer
Aero Metals inc-JW Fleming
G s C Foundries of Utah-H Christian
Post Precision Castings Inc-JR Post
Signicast Corp-W Lutz
Sturm Ruger & Co inc Pine Tree
Castings Div-WB Ruger
Wilson Sporting Goods Co Advance
Casting Inc-Greg Hill
Wyman Gordon Co Investment Casting
Div-Tim Coghill
Consolidated Casting Corp-Larry A
Comunale
Northern Precision Casting Co-ET
Giovannetti
Vermont Amer Corp Auburn Div-Bob Sand
Waltek Inc-EA Walters
GTE Valenite Corp VSX Div-JR Tarnowski
Independent Steel Castings Co Inc-
James R Duffy
Sterling Steel Foundry Inc-R Lussow
Barroncast Inc-Paul E. Barron
Pennsylvania Precision Cast Parts Inc-
Richard Miller
Bimac Corp-Roger Reedy
Shelmet Precision Casting-H Mokwa
National Precision Casting Co inc-
Robert W. Duke
Harcast Co Inc-JA Sears
Delvest Inc-Anthony Micola
Dai-Air Investments Castings-Oren
Northcutt
475 Steamboat Rd, Greenwich CT 06836 900
4600 SE Harney Dr, Portland OR 97206 457
1 Mlsco Dr, Whitehall MI 160
Rockleigh Indus Pk, Rockleigh, NJ 07647 90
PO Box 6514, Phoenix AZ 85005 39
5150 N 35th St, Milwaukee WI 53209 35
PO Box 506, Muskegon MI 49443 35
PO Box 370, La Porte IN 46350 22'
2738 Commerce Way, Ogden UT 84401 20
PO Box A, Strausstown PA 19559 20
9000 N 55th St, Milwaukee WI 53223 20
Guild Rd, Newport NH 03773 17
810 Lawrence Dr, Newbury Park CA 91320 16*
3855 W 150th St, Cleveland OH 44111 16
1501 S 1-45, Hutchins, TX 75141 12
Industrial Pk, Lake Geneva WI 53147 12
155 Alabama St, Auburn AL 36830 12
14310 NW Sunfish, Ramsey MN 55303 10
1750 Stephenson Hwy, Troy MI 48083 8
14231 Grand Ave, New Buffalo MI 49117 7
2300 Falling Spring Rd, Sauget IL 62206 6i
PO Box 138, Oxford MI 48371 6
PO Box 282, Myerstown PA 17067 5
3034 Dryden Rd, Dayton OH 45439 4
PO Box 95, Wild Rose WI 54984 4J
PO Box 396, Paoli PA 19301 3
651 E 9th St, Chester PA 19013 3
908 Old Fern Hill Rd, West Chester PA 2
19380 1<
PO Box 330, Point TX 75472
"Company names and addresses which are shown in Reference 4 were truncated, as necessary, to fit
inside column space. They are reproduced here as shown in the directory.
"Indicates an estimated financial figure.
2-9
-------
TABLE 2-3.
STEEL FOUNDRIES N.E.C. (SIC 3325) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION*'"
NAME
ADDRESS
1990 SALES
IN
(MILLIONS
Esco Corp-Nick P Collins
American Steel Foundries Inc-Norman A
Berg
ABC Rail Corp-Glenn Stinson
Latrobe Steel Co-C Philip Weigel
Haynes Intl Inc-Paul F Troiano
Buckeye steel Castings-Robert W
Armbruster
Slater Steels Corp Fort Wayne Specialty
Alloys Div-Douglass Pinner
Hitchiner Mfg Co-N Babich
Teledyne Inc Teledyne Ohio Steel-Gary L
Stanklus
Maynard Steel Casting Co-RL Wabiszewski
Amalloy Corp-Arthur Borin
American Magotteaux Corp-Tom Stevens
Teledyne Vasco-RC Rubino
Capitol Castings Inc-A L Warnack
Racine Steel Castings-Ralph J Anderson
Johnstown Corp-Charles E. Slater
Sivyer Steel Corp-Claude Robinson
Duraloy-Larry D Wright
Pacific Steel Casting Co-JG Campbell
Empire Steel Co Inc-Edward J Crowley
Columbia Steel Casting Co Inc-Hobart M
Bird
Frog Switch & Mfg Co-Robert J Slecman
Dayton-Walther Corp Muncie-R Meier
Texas Elec Steel Cast-N Onofrio
ME Intl-John N Oertel
Texas Steel Co-JH James
Elliott Machine Corp-Richard E Bowe
CMI Quaker Alloy Casting Co Inc-Donald
Dingus
Keokuk Steel Casting Inc-J Seher
Carondelet Foundry Co-DJ Fesler
Pelton Casteel Inc-Larry S Krueger
American Foundry Group Inc-MP Makhani
Atlas Foundry & Machine Co-Leo H Long Jr
Joy Foundry-RC Monetta
Griswold Indus-DG Griswold
Waukesha Foundry inc-B Kerwin
Missouri Precision Castings Inc-J Feroe
Wall Colmonoy Corp-WP Clark
Sawbrook Steel Castings-John Beversdorfer
American Alloy Castings-MP Makhani
Thomas Foundries Inc-JW Anderson
McConway & Torley Corp-Buddy F Bell
Ellicott Machine Corp
Southern Tool Inc-HM Burt
Cooper Alloy Corp-G Lewis
Dameron Alloy Foundries-Jack W Dameron
Pennsylvania Steel Foundry & Machine Co-
DM Goodyear
Huron Casting Inc-L Wurst
Kasper Foundry Co inc-E Kasper
Gartland Foundries Inc-JD Sullivan
2141 NW 25th Ave, Portland OR 97210 . 290*
130 E Randolph Dr, Chicago IL 60601 150*
200 S Michigan Ave, Chicago IL 60604 140*
2626 S Ligonier St, Latrobe PA 15650 130
PO Box 9013, Kokomo IN 46904 110*
2211 Parsons Ave, Columbus OH 43207 90
PO Box 630, Fort Wayne IN 46801 67*
PO Box 2001, Milford NH 03055 65*
PO Box 280, Lima OH 45802 55
2856 S 27th St, Milwaukee WI 53215 52*
PO Box 836, Mahwah NJ 07430 50
PO Box 518, Pulaski TN 38478 50
PO Box 151, Latrobe PA 15650 49*
PO Box 27328, Tempe AZ 85285 49
1442 N Memorial Dr, Racine WI 53404 45
545 Central Ave, Johnstown PA 15902 43
225 S 33rd St, Bettendorf IA 52722 39*
PO Box 81, Scottdale PA 15683 35
1333 2nd St, Berkeley CA 94710 35
PO Box 139, Reading PA 19630 31
10425 N Bloss, Portland OR 97203 30
PO Box 70, Carlisle PA 17013 30
600 E Highland Ave, Muncie IN 47303 30
PO Box 3012, Houston TX 77253 29*
3901 University Ave-Minneapolis MN 28
55421 27
PO Box 2976, Fort Worth TX 76113 25
1611 Bush St, Baltimore MD 21230 25
722 S Cherry St, Myerstown PA 17067
25
600 Morgan St, Keokuk IA 52632 25*
2101 S King Hwy, St Louis MO 63110 25*
148 W Dewey PI, Milwaukee WI 53207 • 24*
14602 S Grant St, Bixby OK 74008 24
3021 S Wilkeson St, Tacoma WA 98409 22
Grissom Ln, Claremont NH 03743 20
1701 Placentia Ave, Costa Mesa CA 20
92627 20
1300 Lincoln Ave, Waukesha WI 53186 20
PO Box 460, Joplin MO 64801
30261 Stephenson Hwy, Madison Heights 19*
MI 48071 18*
PO Box 15527, Cincinnati OH 45215 18
14602 S Grant St, Bixby OK 74008 17
PO Box 96, Birmingham AL 35201 17
109 48th St, Pittsburgh PA 15201 17
PO Box 2248, Anniston AL 36202 17
Bloy & Ramsey, Hillside NJ 07205 15
PO Box 8000, Compton CA 90224
PO Box 128, Hamburg PA 19526 15*
15*
PO Box 679, Pigeon MI 48755 15
447 Oberlin Rd, Elyria OH 44035
831 Progress Ave, Waukesha WI 53186
(continued)
2-10
-------
TABLE 2-3.
STEEL FOUNDRIES N.E.C. (SIC 3325) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION4'* (continued)
ADDRESS
1990 SALES
IN ^MILLIONS
Wollaston Alloys Inc-Thomas L Stevens
American Magotteaux Corp
Auto Shred Indus-MJ Fish
General Pulp & Mfg Co-Kevin J Flanigan
Talladega Castings-James W Heacock Jr
Eagle Foundry Co Inc-R Pursel
St Louis Steel Casting Inc-Earl J Bewig
McConway & Torley Corp Kutztown Foundry
Div-Buddy Bell
Omaha Steel Castings Co-Ronald L Howlett
KSK Engg Corp-Dieter Klohn
Spokane Indus Inc-Greg Tenold
Quality Elec Steel-JD Sturkie
PRL Indus-Janis Herschhowitz
Astrotech Intl Corp-S Kent Rockwell
KO Steel Castings Inc-Howard Lambert
Alloy Engg & Casting-William M O'Neill
Shane Steel Processing Inc-P Ekberg
Spokane Steel Foundry Co-G Tenold
Brighton Elec Steel Casting Co-Robert
Lewis
Precision Technology Inc-MG Moore III
Shellcast Corp-G Lewis
Bay Cast Inc-Scott L Holman
Gold Foundry & Machine Works-MB Gold
Mountain State Casting Corp-Charles R Yoh
Jersey Shore Steel Inc-JA Schultz
Rockingham Stainless Steel Co-DB
Woodsmall
Rogers-Olympic Corp-Mark Stithem
Columbiana Foundry Co-FJ Boston
Westlectric Castings Inc-John Heine
Gooder-Hendrichsen Co-Al D Vergara
Arneson Foundry Inc-J Arneson
Smith Steel Casting Co-Gerald Smith
Electric Steel Castings Co-George F
Haislup
Atlas Foundry Co Inc-JM Gartland Jr
Southern Alloy corp-BT Bobbitt
Libert Foundry Co-RW Mellow Jr
PEM Corp Cast Masters Div-Charles J Gray
Star Brass Foundry-ES McGrath
Nutmeg Steel Casting Co Inc-Aldrich
Smrstick
Quail-Cst Foundry Inc-Bruce Roberts
Acme Indus Co-Charles De Longhi
National Eastern Corp-W Kart
Texas Metal Works Inc-Mark M Moore
Young Corp Meltec Div-R Lindberg
Penncast Corp-GL Bishop
Aelco Foundries Inc-J Wyatt
Henderson Mfg Co Inc-David P Henderson
Li-Matech Inc-L Eberhardt
Fisher Cast Steel Prdts Inc-Raymond
Fisher III
CR Industries CR Metals-RE Daniels
205 Wood Rd, Braintree MA 02184
PO Box 17009, Pensacola FL 32522
455 N Main St, Grafton OH 44044
228 N Ct St, Talladega AL 35160
PO Box 250, Eagle Creek OR 97022
100 Mott St, St. Louis MO 63111
230 Railroad St, Kutztown PA 19530
PO Box 6222, Omaha NE 68106
95 Mill St, Stoughton MA 02072
Spokane Indus Park, Spokane WA 99216
252 McCarty Dr, Houston TX 77029
PO Box 142, Cornwall PA 17016
2 Chatham Ctr, Pittsburgh PA 15219
3700 Pitluk Rd, San Antonio TX 78211
1700 W Washington St, Champaign IL
61821
17495 Malyn, Fraser MI 48026
PO Box 3305, Spokane WA 99220
PO Box 206, Beaver Falls PA 15010
641 Old Swede Rd, Douglassville PA
19518
PO Box 1187, Sylacauga AL 35150
PO Box 126, Bay City MI 48707
PO Box 1700, Independence MO 64055
PO Box 1505, Parkersburg WV 26102
PO Box 5055, Jersey Shore PA 17740
Rte 3 Box 345, Hamlet NC 28345
PO Box 3876, Seattle WA 98124
PO Box 98, Columbiana OH 44408
2040 Camfield Ave, City of Comm CA
90040
2900 State St, Chicago Heig IL 60411
3303 66th St, Kenosha WI 53142
PO Box 969, Marshall TX 75671
PO Box 24524, Indianapolis IN 46224
PO Box 688, Marion IN 46952
PO Box 1168, Sylacauga AL 35150
7600 S Vulcan St, St. Louis MO 63111
1145 Fairview Ave, Bowling Green OH
43402
976 Pioneer Rd, Salt Lake City UT
84104
PO Box 190, Branford CT 06405
PO Box 976, Chehalls WA 98532
441 Maple Ave, Carpenterville IL
60110
Neal Ct, Plainville CT 06062
PO Box 3607, Beaumont TX 77704
3444 13th SW, Seattle WA 98134
PO Box 303, Marietta PA 17547
1930 S 4th St, Milwaukee WI 53204
PO Box 293, Pittsburg TX 75686
PO Box 1651, Toccoa GA 30577
PO Box 136, West Jeffers OH 43165
735 N Clay St, Peru IN 46970
15
15
15
15
15
14
14*
14
14*
13
13
13
13
10
10*
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
9*
9*
9
9*
(continued)
2-11
-------
TABLE 2-3.
STEEL FOUNDRIES N.E.C. (SIC 3325) WITH 1990 SALES
GREATER THAN $1 MILLION4'' (continued)
HAMS
ADDRESS
1990 SALKS
IN ^MILLIONS
Commercial Iron Works-Mel Hartman
Minnecast Inc-Richard Schlener
Damascus Steel Casting Co Inc-Charles F
Capper
Roemer Elec Steel Foundry-GF Roemer
Alloy Cast Steel Co-Earl Bewig
APV Refinery Prdts Corp-Paul Gladstone
Stripmatic Prdts Inc-Ted M Lanza
Ancast Inc-JF Cooke
Metalloy Steel Foundry Inc-Richard
Macdonald
Franklin Equip Co Franklin Swede Div-C
Hudspeth
Erie Indus Prdts Co-Peter Selleck
Waunakee Alloy Casting Corp-Leo J Adler
Nova Precision Castings-Richard W Boyd
Alloy-Tech Inc-Fred Thum
Wisconsin Foundry & Machine Co-D James
Botham
Classic Die Inc-Dan Parmeter
Thompson Steel Co-Henry Bevers
US Magnet & Alloy Corp-Samuel
Weimersheimer
2424 Porter St, Los Angeles CA 90021
200 S Commerce Circle, Fridley MN
55432
PO Box 257, New Brighton PA 15066
PO Box 156, Longvlew WA 98632
311 Rose Ave, Marion OH 43302
14555 W Commerce Dr, Menomonee Falls
WI 53051
1501 Abbey Ave, Cleveland OH 44113
3194 Townline Rd, Sodus MI 49126
PO Box 28487, Sacramento CA 95828
PO Box 98, Independence OR 97351
1234 Briston Ave, Westchester IL
60154
PO Box 67, Waunakee WI 53597
RD 1 Box 121, Auburn PA 17922
PO Box 67, Bath PA 18014
PO Box 1031, Madison WI 53701
610 Plymouth Rd NE, Grand Rapids MI
49505
Railroad Ave, Beacon Falls CT 06403
85 N Main St, Yardley PA 19067
•Company names and addresses which are shown in Reference 4 were truncated,
inside column space. They are reproduced here as shown in the directory.
"Indicates an estimated financial figure.
as necessary, to fit
2-12
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1989. Gray iron foundries predict 9.4 percent greater demand in
1992 relative to 1989. In 1991, the increase in demand for gray
iron is expected to be less than that for steel, aluminum,
brass/bronze, or ductile iron, but more than for malleable iron.7
TABLE 2-4. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GRAY IRON1
Element Percent
Carbon 2.6-4.2
Silicon 0.9-3.1
Manganese 0.40-0.90
Sulfur 0.05-0.20
Phosphorous 0.12-0.30
Nickel none or 1.0-1.5
Chromium none or 0.50
Iron balance
Other survey findings indicate that despite the no-growth
projection for 1991, gray iron metalcasters are planning an average
11 percent increase in capital expenditures in 1991 as compared to
1990. One new plant is expected to be constructed in 1991, 20
plants are expected to expand, and 74 plants are expected to
purchase new equipment, particularly for melting and air pollution
control.8 Steel is another major type of ferrous metal. In
comparison to gray iron, steel contains less carbon and more
alloying agents. The chemical composition of steel is also more
varied than that of gray iron. The range of chemical compositions
of steel is shown in Table 2-5.
Steel castings are manufactured for many different uses such
as structural elements for buildings and roads, automotive parts,
railcar parts, and heavy equipment. Total production of steel in
the United States fluctuated between 1.5 million tons and 2.1
million tons in the years between 1971 and 1981. With the
recession of 1982, steel production plummeted to 0.7 million tons
2-13
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TABLE 2-5. TYPICAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
PLAIN CARBON STEEL9
Element Percent
Carbon <2.0
Manganese 0.5-1.0
Silicon 0.2-0.8
Sulfur <0.06
Phosphorous < 0.0 5
Iron balance
in 1983. Production has grown slowly since then, rising to 1
million tons in 1988.2-5
Surveys by Foundry Management & Technology indicate that steel
foundries increased casting shipments 7.8 percent from 1989 to
1990. The foundries predicted an 11.7 percent increase from 1990
to 1991, but a small decrease from 1991 to 1992.7
Other survey findings indicate that steel foundries are
planning an average 7 percent increase in capital expenditures in
1991 over 1990. Three new plants are expected to be constructed
during 1991, 15 plants are expected to expand, and 5 plants are
expected to purchase new equipment.8
2.2.4 Divisions Within the Ferrous Foundry Industry
The ferrous foundry industry contains many types of
facilities, but individual foundries can be classified on the basis
of two characteristics: furnace type (the process used for melting
the metal) and casting type (the process used for casting the
finished product). Table 2-6 summarizes the available process
choices employed within the ferrous foundry industry.
2-14
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TABLE 2-6. CASTING METHODS AND FURNACE TYPES USED IN THE
FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
Casting Methods Furnace Types
Sand mold Fossil-fired crucibles
Permanent Mold Fossil-fired reverberatory
Investment Fossil-fired cupola
Centrifugal Fossil-fired open hearth
No-bake Fossil-fired other
Plaster Fossil-fired air
Shell-mold Electric crucible
Electric reverberatory
Electric arc
Electric induction
2.3 PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS
2.3.1 Processes Included
This document focuses on ferrous foundries (both jobbing and
captive) that use electric induction furnaces to melt pig iron and
foundry returns to cast gray iron and steel using sand molds. This
document describes processes, emissions, and emission control
techniques for foundry activities directly related to melting iron
in induction furnaces and for casting in sand molds. In addition,
the document contains process, emissions, and emission control
descriptions for auxiliary activities such as casting cleaning,
mold and core making, and sand recycling. This document also
describes emissions and emissions control techniques for potential
PM-10 emissions from roadways and waste disposal. Some
descriptions for non-furnace operations, such as mold manufacture
and waste disposal, may be applicable to other ferrous foundries
using sand molds, regardless of furnace type. Table 2-7 lists the
processes included in this document. Agencies may consult the U.S.
EPA references listed in Table 2-8 for more information on
processes not included in this document.
2-15
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TABLE 2-7.
FERROUS FOUNDRY PROCESSES DISCUSSED IN THIS
DOCUMENT
Electric Induction Melting Furnace
Holding
Cleaning and Finishing
Auxiliary Processes
Charging
Alloying
Melting
Slagging
Tapping
Pouring to Molds
Mold Cooling
Mold Shakeout
Blasting
Grinding
Sand Mulling
Mold Fabrication
Core Fabrication
Core Finishing
Materials Handling and Transport
Waste Disposal
Roadways
TABLE 2-8. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES FOR GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
Title
Topics Included
Gray Iron Foundry Industry Particulate Emissions:
Source Category Report. EPA-600/7-86-054
Fugitive Emissions from Iron Foundries.
EPA-600/7-79-195
Emission Factors for Iron Foundries: Criteria and
Toxic Pollutants. EPA-600/2-90-044
Control Techniques for PM-10 Emissions from Stationary
Sources — Volume 1 and Volume 2. EPA-450/3-81-005a
and EPA-450/3-81-005b
Control of Open Fugitive Dust Sources.
EPA-450/3-88-008
Cupola Furnace
Electric Arc
Furnace
Cupola Furnace
Electric Arc
Furnace
Cupola Furnace
Electric Arc
Furnace
Cupola Furnace
Electric Arc
Furnace
Storage Piles
2-16
-------
2.3.2 Process Summary and Overview of Foundry Operations
Figure 2-1 is a process flow chart for a ferrous foundry using
induction furnaces for melting. The flow chart shows the steps for
melting and alloying, molding, casting cleaning and finishing, and
sand treatment.
Melting iron and molding the metal into solid castings are the
two major processes conducted at ferrous foundries. Numerous other
subprocesses, such as cleaning and finishing, mold making, and
alloying, are conducted to support the melting and casting
operations.
In the melting process, solid iron pigs and foundry returns
are melted in an induction furnace. In the casting process, molten
metal is poured into hollow, shaped molds inside which the metal
hardens into a casting. After the solid gray iron or steel
castings are removed from the molds, excess metal is removed and
the castings are cleaned and polished as needed to turn the casting
into a finished gray iron product with the desired shape and
surface characteristics.
Molds and cores are made at the foundry from sand, clay,
water, and other materials. The mold- and core-making processes
are supported by several subprocesses such as sand reclamation and
sand reconditioning that are also conducted at the foundry. The
major processes and subprocesses shown in Figure 2-1 are described
in further detail in later sections of this chapter, beginning in
Section 2.3.5.
2.3.3 Process Characteristics and Feedstocks
In an induction furnace, iron is melted by heat generated from
the metal's resistance to the internal current induced by the
induction furnace coils; no chemical processes are involved.
Typical melting points for gray iron alloys range from
approximately 1,150° to 1,260° C (2,100° to 2,300° F).1 Typical
melting points for steel alloys range from approximately 1,500° to
1,600° C (2,700° to 3,000° F).1 Typical tapping temperatures for
2-17
-------
SAND
SCREENING,
CLEANING
CORE
FORMING
{
CORE
BAKING,
WASHING
MOLD
FORMING
Figure 2-1,
General process flow diagram for ferrous foundries
using induction furnaces for melting and sand molds for
casting.
2-18
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steel are near 1,700° C (3,100° F) . Temperatures in the melting
furnaces can be significantly higher, and iron is often poured at
temperatures near 1,600° C (2,900° F) .6
The production of metal castings requires numerous raw
materials and feedstocks, but the primary materials used in ferrous
foundries melting with induction furnaces are iron pigs, foundry
returns, and sand. To prevent explosions, melting with induction
furnaces requires high purity feedstock, such as pigs obtained from
primary or secondary smelters, or foundry returns. Sand is used in
large quantities and is reclaimed and reused at the foundry many
times before disposal. Secondary feedstocks include water for
mold-making and binders such as clays or cereals. Secondary
feedstocks also include carbon and alloying agents such as silicon,
manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, nickel, and chromium.9
Melting in induction furnaces is usually conducted as a batch
process, with separate stages for charging, melting, and tapping.
In some larger facilities with many induction furnaces-, semi-
continuous molding operations can take place if molten metal is
tapped from large holding furnaces which are supplied by many
smaller induction furnaces.
2.3.4 Electric Induction Furnace
2.3.4.1 Induction furnaces in the ferrous foundry industry
The electric induction furnace uses an electromagnetic field
to induce a current in, and melt, the iron. Foundries use the
electric induction furnace to melt metal prior to alloying and
casting. After melting, the molten iron or steel is poured into a
ladle which delivers the metal to hollow molds. After the metal
solidifies and is removed from the mold, the casting is cleaned and
finished into its final form.
It is estimated that 25 to 30 percent of gray iron and 10 to
15 percent of steel (by weight) are made using electric induction
furnaces for melting.6 While total production of gray iron and
steel have decreased over the last two decades, use of the
induction furnace has increased relative to the use of other
2-19
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furnace types, particularly during the last several years. Several
factors have caused this increase, among them: the cost of melting
metal in induction furnaces has decreased relative to other furnace
types due to the lower costs of electricity relative to fossil
fuels; new technologies for high-frequency induction furnaces have
increased the efficiency of induction furnace melting by reducing
melt times and energy consumption; and particulate emissions from
induction furnaces are much lower than those from other furnace
types.
Although induction furnaces have been gaining importance
within the foundry industry, future trends in induction furnace use
are difficult to predict, primarily because relative fuel costs are
hard to anticipate. Changing prices of coal or other fossil fuels
relative to the price of electricity may affect the use of
induction furnaces versus fossil fuel-fired furnaces.6
Currently, electric induction furnaces are used primarily to
melt iron in many small- and medium-sized foundries. Induction
furnaces also are used as holding furnaces for short-term storage
and mixing of liquid iron at very large foundries which typically
melt iron in cupola furnaces. Generally, induction furnaces work
better as batch melters and are not used for melting in the largest
ferrous foundries, such as those used for most of the automotive
metal industry, which require continuous or semi-continuous melting
operations. Continuous casting is best conducted with large
production in cupola furnaces and, therefore, it is unlikely that
induction furnaces will replace the cupola furnace at these
facilities in the near future.10 However, recent developments in
continuous melting and holding processes may eventually allow
induction furnaces to replace some cupola furnaces in high-
production manufacturing operations.11
2-20
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2.3.4.2 Types of induction furnaces in use
Two types of electrical induction furnaces are used in ferrous
foundries: the coreless induction furnace and the channel
induction furnace. In coreless induction furnaces (see Figure 2-
2), iron feedstock is charged directly into a crucible. An
alternating current passing through an induction coil surrounding
the crucible induces an electromagnetic field in the iron within
the crucible; in turn, the electromagnetic field induces a current
within the metal, and the resistance of the metal to the current
generates heat, stirring, and rapid melting.12
Coreless induction furnaces operate in a wide range of
frequencies. "Line-frequency" induction furnaces operate on the 60
Hz current available directly from the public utilities; "medium-
frequency" furnaces operate at frequencies between 120 and 600 Hz;
and "high-frequency" furnaces operate at frequencies of 3,000 Hz,
10,000 Hz, and higher, up to 100,000 Hz.12'13
Channel induction furnaces (see Figure 2-3) operate with the
induction coil placed within the crucible and exposed to the molten
iron. Channel furnaces operate at the lower end of the frequency
range, and, thus, at the lower power levels, used by coreless
furnaces. Because they are less powerful than coreless furnaces,
channel furnaces are less frequently used for melting but are more
frequently used as holding furnaces for temporary storage of iron
melted in coreless furnaces. Channel furnaces are also used as
holding furnaces at foundries using fossil-fuel fired furnaces for
, , . 11
melting.
2.3.4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of the electric induction
furnace
There are several advantages to using an induction furnace for
melting. The induction furnace is very energy efficient because
the electromagnetic energy is applied directly to the metal; by
comparison, fossil fuel-fired furnaces lose much of their heat
energy to the environment. This efficiency also shortens melt
times which increases production and also reduces the formation of
iron oxide, an undesired by-product of exposing molten iron or
2-21
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Molten
Iron
Cooling Air
or Water
Power Coils
Crucible Wail
Refractory Lining
Figure 2-2. Careless induction furnace.
Molten
Iron
Air Cooled
inductor
Melting
Channels
Crucible Wall
Refractory Lining
Figure 2-3. Channel induction furnace,
2-22
-------
steel to the air. The efficient application of energy to the metal
results in lower temperatures inside the foundry because less
"stray heat" is released to the foundry environment. Another
result is that lower and more uniform bath temperatures can be used
to melt the metal, because less excess heat is necessary and
because the electromagnetic field induces a strong and thorough
stirring action in the melt. Lastly, induction furnaces generate
the smallest amount of particulate and toxic emissions of all the
furnaces used to melt gray iron and steel.
There are, however, several disadvantages to induction
melting. Capital costs for induction furnaces are higher compared
to some fossil fuel-fired furnaces.14 Induction furnaces are
usually limited to batch melting of high-purity feedstocks. Given
the advantages and disadvantages of the induction furnace and other
furnace types not discussed here (such as the cupola furnace or the
reverberatory furnace), furnace choices at all foundries will
depend on the desired final product and foundry practices. The
following sections give detailed process descriptions for the
ferrous foundry operations listed in Table 2-7.
2.3.5 Charging, Melting, and Slagging
The first step in the melting process for each batch is the
"charging" of the furnace with ferrous metal (usually in the form
of pigs or foundry returns), carbon, and alloying agents. The
charge is inserted into the furnace from the top of the crucible,
which may contain molten metal left from the previous batch. The
leftover metal, called a "heel," heats the newly charged solid iron
and provides a molten bath which facilitates melting at the
beginning of the batch. The practice of keeping a heel is
typically used for melting in older, lower-frequency, coreless
furnaces which require the extra heat to efficiently start the
melting process; newer medium- and high-frequency induction
furnaces, which are more powerful than low-frequency furnaces, do
not require the use of a heel.
2-23
-------
Once the furnace is charged, power is supplied to the
induction coils, inducing a secondary current in the iron which
causes it to heat and melt. An hour for melting is typical for the
four- to six-ton capacity furnaces in common use which operate at
powers from 550 to 650 kilowatts per ton, assuming typical 'furnace
efficiencies and typical charging and melting practices.11
As the metal melts, iron oxides and other impurities gather at
the top of the molten bath in a thin layer called the "slag." This
layer is removed (slagged) from the melt with a special, sieved
ladle that removes the slag but allows any molten metal to fall
back into the bath. The slag is either removed through a side door
in the crucible or from the top of the crucible. The hot slag is
placed in pans to cool or in an internally water-cooled slag
cooler. Once cooled, the slag is discarded. Less slag forms in
induction furnaces than in other furnace types because of the
purity of feedstock used in induction furnaces.
2.3.6 Tapping and Temporary Storage in Holding Furnaces
After slagging, the molten metal is removed (tapped) from the
melting furnace. Usually, the molten metal is tapped to a ladle,
which carries the metal to a holding furnace for temporary storage,
but in some processes, the ladle carries the metal directly from
the melting furnace to the mold.14
The foundry operation gains several benefits from using the
holding furnace. The higher capacity of the holding furnace
(relative to the melting furnace) allows the molding operations to
operate at a more steady pace. Blending batches of metal in a
holding furnace also allows the foundry to produce a more
consistent product. Finally, the holding furnace can be used to
store metal melted during electrical "off-peak" hours, thus
obtaining electricity cost savings for the foundry.15
2-24
-------
In some foundries, the alloying agents are not charged to the
melting furnace but are added at the empty ladle before the metal
is tapped. In other foundries, alloying may be conducted at the
holding furnace.
2.3.7 Mold Pouring and Cooling
When the metal is ready to be poured into the molds, it is
usually tapped from the holding furnace to a ladle then carried in
the ladle to the molds for pouring; however, some alternate systems
allow the molds to be carried to the ladle or even to the holding
furnace. The molten metal is poured into the molds at a controlled
rate, which minimizes the exposure of the metal to air in order to
prevent the production of ferrous oxides.
After the metal is poured into the molds, it is allowed to
cool and solidify within the molds. The molds may be cooled in the
open air or in an insulated, controlled environment if slow cooling
is necessary to prevent internal stresses in the casting.16
2.3.8 Mold Shakeout
After the casting has solidified and sufficiently cooled, it
is separated from the mold. The sand mold, which is designed for
a single use, is broken apart on a "shakeout" to release the
casting. The shakeout is usually a mechanically vibrated grate
that forcefully bounces and shakes the mold until it crumbles apart
from repeated impact with the grate.17 An off-center drive shaft
which is mounted to the deck and rotated at high speed produces the
vibrations which shake, bounce, and disintegrate the mold.18 As the
mold crumbles, the sand falls through the grate into a trough or
bin where it is captured for later reclamation; when the casting is
free from the mold, it is removed from the shakeout. An
alternative to the vibrating shakeout is the rotary drum shakeout,
a long, cylindrical drum which tumbles the molds inside. The
tumbling action of the rotary shakeout causes the molds to
2-25
-------
disintegrate. When the casting is free from the molds, it is
removed from the shakeout.
2.3.9 Cleaning and Finishing
After the casting is removed from the sand mold, sand and
binders sticking to the casting must be removed as well' as any
excess metal (sprues, flashings, gates, risers, etc.) that remains
after molding. Sand and binders sticking to the casting are often
removed by "blast cleaning." In this process, abrasive grit or
shot is propelled against the casting to clean the surface. The
abrasive blast can be propelled by air, water, or a mechanical
turbine.18 Excess metal is usually removed by mechanical grinding
machines employing band saws, abrasive cutoff wheels, and metal
shears. Large pieces of extraneous metal may be removed via powder
cutting with a burning iron powder.1 Other surface finishing
methods can be used, as necessary. After cleaning and finishing,
the. casting is considered a completed product.
2.3.10 Auxiliary Processes
In addition to the basic processes used to convert gray iron
and steel into finished products, there are many auxiliary
processes conducted at the ferrous foundry. These auxiliary
functions, which center around mold and core making and materials
handling, are described in the following sections.
2.3.10.1 Mold and core making
Approximately 90 percent of all castings currently produced in
the United States are made by the sand molding process.19 Sand
molds are composed of sand, water, binders, and other additives.
Binders are materials added to, or present in, the sand that impart
cohesiveness to the mold. Numerous types of binders are used to
help hold the sand cohesively. Types of binders include: clay
binders; "cereal binders," which are derived from common cereal
grains; resins and gums; pitch; cement; and many others.20
2-26
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Additives are defined as any other materials added to enhance
surface finish or some other aspect of the mold. Examples of
additives include sea coal, wood flour (pulverized or ground soft
wood) , and silica flour (finely ground silica sand) .20
Different combinations of sand, water, binders and additives,
and mold-forming processes are used to make the assorted mold types
used in ferrous foundries. The most common type of mold is the
"green-sand" mold, made from a pressed, moist mixture of sand,
water, binders, and additives and left moist until the metal is
poured. Green-sand molds are popular because they are versatile,
relatively easy to make, and among the least expensive mold types
available.20 For applications in which the green-sand mold is not
suitable, other molds such as "skin-dry" molds, C02-cured molds,
cement-bonded molds, or "dry-sand" molds may be used. Of these
mold types, dry-sand molds are the only types that must be baked
before use.20
Where the shape of the casting required is more complex than
the form given by the mold, cores may be used to help cast the
metal into the desired shape. Cores are used to produce cavities
and recesses which are not practical to produce by normal molding
operations .20
Because the structural and surface requirements are more
stringent for cores than for molds, cores usually need to be
hardened and "set" by hot or cold curing processes. Some common
types of ferrous foundry cores include the oil core, shell core,
and cold set core. The oil core typically uses oil-, cereal- and
pitch- or resin-binders and is baked in an oven at 205° to 315° C
for one or two hours. The shell core typically uses phenolic and
urea formaldehyde binders with a hexamine activator. A- heated
metal pattern cures a thin layer at the surface of the core at 205°
to 315° C for 0.5 to 1.5 minutes. The cold set core typically uses
furan resin or core oil as a binder with a phosphoric acid
activator. It cures for 0.5 to 3 hours without baking.9
2-27
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2.3.10.2 Sand mulling
The first step in the preparation of molds and cores is the
mixing of sand, water, binders, and additives in a device called a
"muller." The sand, water, binders, and additives are combined in
a large container and mechanically blended for several minutes
until the mixture is homogeneous. These molding mixtures are used
to construct molds and cores for casting.
2.3.10.3 Mold and core fabrication
Molds can be constructed in a variety of ways, depending on
the size and complexity of the casting. The most common methods
involve the ramming of molding sand around a "pattern," which is a
piece of metal or wood formed in the shape of (or, if cores are
used, close to the shape of) the desired casting. After the
molding sand is compacted, the pattern is removed, leaving an empty
volume to be filled by the molten metal.20
Cores are usually made in a core box, which is a mold made of
wood, metal, or some other durable material. The core-sand is
rammed into the mold, then the mold is removed. Core sand can be
mixed in any of the varieties used for mold sand, but most are made
from either dry-sand or C02-cured sand, because the cores must be
cleaned and washed before casting. The cores are ground and washed
to ensure a good internal surface finish. This is more important
for cores than for molds, since the internal surfaces formed at the
metal/core interface are more difficult to clean and finish than
the external surfaces formed at the metal/mold interface. After
the core is prepared, the cores and molds are assembled and
transported to the pouring areas, where the mold may be filled with
molten metal.
2.3.10.4 Sand reclamation and recycling
After the sand and castings have been separated at the mold
shakeout, the sand is either disposed or is reclaimed,
reconditioned, and formed into new molds and cores. Nearly all of
the sand can be recycled into new molds; reclamation efficiencies
of 95-97 percent are reported for sand from green-sand molds using
2-28
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clay as a binder, and efficiencies from 80-90 percent are reported
for chemically or organically bonded sands.19
The minimum equipment required for reconditioning the sand is
a screen for removing "oversize" particles (the hard agglomerates
not broken at the shakeout or during handling). Many foundries
discard the oversize particles, while others crush the agglomerates
with a hammer-mill or screen-mill to recover the sand. Additional
equipment may be used for sand cooling, oversize crushing, fines
removal, adherent coating removal, and automated transport.21 A
rotating drum can be used for sand cooling, with a stream of air
drawn through the cascading sand to cool the sand and remove fines.
Coarse particles can be removed by flat-deck or revolving screens.
Because molding sand is continually reused at foundries
recycling sand, the grains can become coated with a hard, adherent
layer of clay and carbonaceous matter from the binders. The sand
can become unusable unless the coating is removed or a certain
percentage of new sand is continuously added. Pneumatic
reclamation is the method most widely used for coating removal. In
pneumatic reclamation, the sand is blown in a high-velocity
airstream from a turbine-type blower and impinged on the inner
surface of a conical target; in each pass, abrasion removes a
portion of the coating material. The fines created on impact are
carried away in the airstream while the clean sand grains settle in
an expansion chamber.17
After being reclaimed by the various processes described
above, the sand is sent back to the muller to make new molds and
cores. Sand not reclaimed is disposed with other solid waste
generated at the foundry.
2.3.10.5 Material storage and handling
Sand is stored, mixed, treated, and reclaimed throughout the
foundry facility and can be transferred pneumatically, on
conveyors, manually, or by truck. The method of sand
transportation generally depends on the size of the facility.
Binders, additives, and other mold materials are also needed for
2-29
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mold and core preparation, but they may be stored and transported
in bags since they are used in smaller quantities than sand.
2.3.10.6 Waste disposal
The primary waste materials from foundries are the slag and
spent sand. In foundries using green-sand molds, about three to
five percent of total foundry sand (approximately 18 to 30 percent,
by weight, of the total amount of castings produced) is discarded
daily. Other materials disposed include metal waste from grinding
and waste from scrap wood and other materials used to make patterns
and molds. Most of these materials are non-hazardous and are
typically transported to a landfill for final disposal.
2.4 PM-10 SOURCE DESCRIPTIONS
2.4.1 Introduct ion
- Many of the processes described earlier in this chapter are
potential sources of PM-10 emissions, but most emissions from
ferrous-foundry induction furnaces (0.45 g PM-10 per Mg iron
charged) are considered to be fugitive emissions. This section
describes the potential PM-10 emissions sources for gray iron
foundries and steel foundries using induction furnaces and sand
molds. Table 2-9 lists emission factors for all available gray
iron processes and Table 2-10 lists emission factors for steel
foundries. The emission factors listed in Tables 2-9 and 2-10 are
shown with their respective processes in Figure 2-4.
The emission factor data quality ratings, where available, are
also given in Tables 2-9 and 2-10. The ratings are taken from the
U.S. EPA's Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42)
which rates emission factors from A to E, with A being the most
reliable.9 The AP-42 indicates that high ratings are given to
emission factors based on multiple observations at many different
plants, while low ratings are given to emission factors based on
single observations of questionable quality or extrapolated from
other emission factors for similar processes. The ratings given in
2-30
-------
TABLE 2-9.
UNCONTROLLED PM-10 EMISSION FACTORS FOR GRAY IRON
FOUNDRIES FOR SELECTED PROCESSES
Process
Induction Furnace: charging/
melting/tapping"
Pouring into molds
Mold cooling"
Mold shakeout0
Casting cleaning/finishing1"
Sand/other material handling
Sand mulling"
Core baking/cleaning
Sand screening/cleaning
Emission Factor
(kg/Mg Fe (Ib/ton Fe Emission
charged) charged) Factor Rating
0.43
1.4
0.7
1.12
0.852
3.0
3.0
0.45
3.0
(0.86)
(2.8)
(1.4)
(2.24)
(1.704)
(6.0)
(6.0)
(0.9)
(6.0)
n/av*
n/av
n/av
E
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
"n/av - not available
'Reference 22
^Reference 9
TABLE 2-10.
UNCONTROLLED PM-10 EMISSION FACTORS FOR STEEL
FOUNDRIES FOR SELECTED PROCESSES
Process
Induction furnace: charging/
melt ing/ tapping"
Mold pouring"' c
Mold cooling >c
Mold shakeoutd
Casting cleaning/finishing"
Sand/other material handling"
Sand mulling"
Core baking/cleaning"
Sand screening/cleaning"
Emission Factor
(kg/Mg Fe (Ib/ton Fe Emission
charged) charged) Factor Rating
0.045
1.4
7.0
1.12
0.852
3.0
3.0
0.045
3.0
(0.09)
(2.8)
(14.0)
(2.24)
(1.704)
(6.0)
(6.0)
(0.9)
(6.0)
n/ava
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
n/av
"n/av - not available
'Reference 22
cemlssion factor for gray Iron foundries
"Reference 9
2-31
-------
FOUNDRY _,
KLIURNS
0 g PMio emitted/Mg Fe c
b emission factor for gray
MELTING
FURNACE:
CHARGING,
MELTING,
TAPPING
(430 g/Mg)°-b
(45 g/Mg)=
TRANSFER
TO HOLDING
FURNACE
1
HOLDING
FURNACE
(n/av— neg)11
MOLD
POURING
(1,400 g/Mg)
MOLD
COOLING
(700 g/Mg)
.
•
MOLD
SHAKEOUT
(1.120 g/Mg)
OTHER
MATERIAL:
TRANSPORT,
STORAGE,
HANDLING
SLAG
REMOVAL
*" HANDLING,
COOLING
SAND
SCREENING, DrrXTAL
CLEANING __"_"_'
(3.000 g/Mg) TRANSPORT
CASTING
. CLEANING,
FINISHING
(852 g/Mg)
CASTING
SHIPPING
barged
iron
S/MD AMD
OTHER SAND
MAltKIAL — MtlLLINC
HANDLING (3,000 g/Mg)
CORE
FORMING
' 1 ' MOLD
} FORMING
(n/cv-neg)
CORE BAKING.
CLEANING
d not available - assumed negligible
Figure 2-4. General process flow diagram for ferrous foundries
using induction furnaces for melting and sand
molds for casting--with available emission
factors.
2-32
-------
AP-42 are considered a general indicator of the accuracy and
precision of a given factor used to estimate emissions from a large
number of sources.
No ratings were available for those emission factors taken
directly from the AIRS Facility Subsystem for Criteria Air
Pollutants: Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor
Listing.22
2.4.2 Charging, Melting, and Tapping
As mentioned in Section 2.3.4, induction furnaces generate the
least PM-10 emissions of all furnaces used to melt gray iron and
steel. Two features of the induction furnace are responsible for
this characteristic. First, induction furnaces require extremely
clean charge materials for safe operation because the rapid
evaporation or combustion of materials such as moisture, paint,
oil, or other contaminants could cause an explosion if they are
present during the induction melting process. After these
materials are removed, few sources of PM-10 remain in the furnace.
Foundries prevent contaminants from entering the induction furnace
either by use of pure iron pigs or foundry returns (excess metal
cut away from finished castings, or out-of-tolerance castings), or
by preheating the scrap to burn off any contaminants. Where
preheating is practiced, PM-10 emissions can be expected at the
preheater. Preheater emissions are not discussed in this document.
The use of electrical induction for heating is the second
reason that induction furnaces produce low PM-10 emissions. Unlike
in fossil fuel-fired furnaces, combustion processes are not used to
melt the gray iron in induction furnaces; therefore, combustion-
product emissions are not generated in the induction furnace.
However, if the electrical power supplied to the induction furnace
is generated by combustion (such as at a coal- or oil-fired power
plant), PM-10 emissions associated with energy conversion will be
generated at the power plant. Electric induction furnaces do not
necessarily represent a total reduction in PM-10 emissions, as the
2-33
-------
displacement of emissions from the furnace to some other source
such as the preheater or power plant may occur.
The small amounts of emissions from the furnace during
charging, melting, and tapping usually consist of metallic oxides.23
Usually, special "ring" hoods or close-capture hoods are used to
capture emissions from the furnace during melting. In many cases,
however, no control equipment is used to remove PM-10 from the
furnace area because general ventilation of the furnace building is
considered sufficient for keeping ambient PM-10 concentrations
below local emission limits based on process weight rates.
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio have particulate emission limits based
on a process weight rate for "industrial processes not regulated
elsewhere." The limits imposed in Indiana and Ohio are 5.44 kg
total particulate per hour for processes with a throughput .of 4.55
Mg per hour. In comparison, the uncontrolled emission rate for
gray iron melting in a 4.55 Mg per hour induction furnace is
estimated to be 1.96 kg total particulate per hour, lower than the
emission rate limit imposed by the States. (This emission rate is
estimated by multiplying the emission factor in Table 2-9 by the
process weight rate of 4.55 Mg per hour and assuming that all of
the particulate generated by the induction furnace is PM-10.)
2.4.3 Mold Pouring, Cooling, and Shakeout
When hot metal is poured into green-sand molds, water and
volatilizing additives such as formaldehyde may rapidly evaporate
from the surface of the molds and entrain small amounts of iron
oxide from the molten metal and small amounts of molding sand
surface additives. As the casting cools, heat from the metal may
cause some combustion of the organic material in the molds,
releasing small amounts of PM-10. These emissions are often
captured by local hoods and transported to a wet venturi scrubber
for removal.23
The high-frequency vibrations and impacts at the mold shakeout
can generate significant emissions of sand, binders, and additives
from the rapidly disintegrating mold. Emissions at the vibrating
2-34
-------
shakeout are usually captured by side draft hoods. Emission from
rotary drum shakeouts may be less significant than from the
vibrating shakeout, because less kinetic energy is imparted to the
sand from tumbling than from vibrating. An air stream through the
rotary shakeout can be used to both cool the sand and castings as
well as remove sand, binder, and additive dusts. The air stream
through a rotary shakeout can be ducted to a primary or secondary
removal device.
2.4.4 Cleaning and Finishing
Most cleaning and finishing operations may be sources of PM-10
emissions. Sand fines and abrasives may be emitted during
blasting, and grinding will result in PM-10 emissions of metal dust
and dust from the grinding materials.24 Abrasive blasting is a
rapid method for cleaning the product and may produce large
quantities of dust. The amount of dust depends on the amount of
finishing necessary, and the amount and type of abrasive used.
Additional dust may be generated during transport of new abrasive
material and disposal of used abrasive, or from reclamation, where
practiced. Emissions from blasting processes can be controlled in
several ways. The entire operation can be performed in a sealed
and ventilated room, tunnel, or cabinet using multiple doors or
flexible curtains for seals. If an enclosure is not used, dust
from abrasive blasting can be controlled by draft hoods. Grinding
may also produce a high atmospheric concentration of dust and is,
therefore, usually conducted in a ventilated booth or in a hooded
area. Emissions from blasting and grinding are usually ducted to
a secondary capture device such as a baghouse.25
2.4.5 Auxiliary Processes
2.4.5.1 Sand mulling' and material handling
Sand, binder, and additive fines may be emitted during sand
muller loading. Binders and additives are often shipped in paper
bags, from which they are emptied into the sand mixer. If the bags
2-35
-------
are punctured at the bottom to allow smooth emptying without a
vacuum, escaping dust is kept to a minimum, but some emissions may
still be expected. Emissions at the sand muller are usually
suppressed after water is added to the mixture.25 Depending on the
method used, both the storage and transportation of molding
materials may be a source of fugitive emissions.21
Most fugitive emissions from the sand handling system are
larger than 50 microns in diameter, but some PM-10 emissions may be
released at dump and transfer points.21
2.4.5.2 Mold and core forming, baking, and cleaning
Because molds and cores are formed from moist sand, PM-10
emissions during these processes are expected to be negligible.
Emissions are expected, however, from curing and cleaning of dry
molds and cores. Any dry-mold or dry-core curing operation can be
a source of PM-10 emissions. During core-grinding operations, sand
and binders may be released from the core, and abrasives and
abrasive binders may be released from the grinding wheel. Dry-mold
and dry-core operations are often conducted in booths or cabinets
which are vented to a secondary or primary collection device.
Alternately, the grinding wheel may be partially enclosed by a
ventilating hood.21
2.4.5.3 Sand screening and cleaning
Sand reclamation processes are also sources of PM-10
emissions. Screening, grinding, and pneumatic reclamation are all
PM-10 sources. These sources are usually controlled by a
combination of draft hoods and fabric filters or wet venturi
scrubbers.
2.4.6 Additional Sources of PM-10
2.4.6.1 Storage piles
Storage of sand, dross, and alloying agents may be fugitive
emission problems if left uncovered. Wind, dumping, and loading
can all generate emissions from storage piles. Wet suppression is
2-36
-------
typically used for control of storage piles at small- and medium-
sized foundries. At large foundries, indoor storage areas which
reduce emissions from wind-erosion piles may be used.21 Due to the
diverse nature of materials storage practices, PM-10 emissions from
storage piles are not included in the model plant emission
estimates.
2.4.6.2 Roadways
The roadways and parking areas located on plant property can
be significant sources of PM-10 emissions. The potential of a
given road or parking area surface for generating fugitive dust
depends on traffic volume and the nature of its surface, which can
be categorized as either paved (concrete or asphalt) or unpaved
(gravel or dirt).
Dust generated from paved surfaces results from vehicular
activity that agitates the surface material loading causing that
loading to become airborne. Sources of the surface loading are
pavement wear, deposition of material from vehicles, deposition
from other nearby sources, carryout from surrounding unpaved areas,
exhaust emissions and atmospheric fallout, wear from tires and
brake linings, biological debris, and litter. Because of the
importance of the surface loading, available control techniques
either attempt to prevent material from being deposited on the
surface or to remove any material that has been deposited.
PM-10 emissions also occur whenever a vehicle travels over an
unpaved surface. The source of dust generation from unpaved and
untreated surfaces is largely from actual road bed material rather
than any "surface loading." Unpaved travel surfaces have
historically accounted for the greatest share of PM-10 emissions in
industrial settings. During the 1980s, manufacturers paved many
previously unpaved roads as part of emissions control programs, but
some roads remained unpaved due to economic or practical
constraints. Emissions from these roads are usually controlled by
regular applications of water or chemical dust suppressants.
2-37
-------
2.5 MODEL PLANTS AND EMISSIONS
2.5.1 Introduction
This section describes operating parameters and PM-10
emissions estimates for model plants representing typical ferrous
foundries that use induction furnaces for melting and sand molds
for castings. The model plant operating parameters are based on
data collected from industry contacts and published literature, or
are based on engineering estimates.
The model plants presented in Tables 2-11 and 2-12 represent
the best available descriptions of typical small, medium, and large
gray iron foundries and small and large steel foundries. The
operating parameters in Tables 2-11 and 2-12 were obtained from
several sources: metal throughput data were estimated from
information provided by foundry industry contacts; sand-to-metal
ratios and casting-to-charging ratios were obtained from a foundry
design consultant.6'26 Data on number and size distribution of
furnaces within each model plant category were not available.
TABLE 2-11. GRAY IRON MODEL PLANT OPERATING PARAMETERS
Iron charged Mg/h (tons/h)
Shifts per day3
Days per year*
Iron charged : Sand
processed13
Iron charged : Gray iron
castings produced13
Small
Foundry
1.42
(1.57)
3
365
1:6
10:6
Medium
Foundry
5.11
(5.63)
3
365
1:6
10:6
Large
Foundry
9.38
(10.3)
3
365
1:6
10:6
'The model plants assume three shifts/day and 365 days/year in order to estimate "worst case' emissions.
In actual practice, ferrous foundries typically run two shifts/day, 250 days/year.
"By weight.
2-38
-------
TABLE 2-12. STEEL MODEL PLANT OPERATING PARAMETERS
Small Foundry Large Foundry
Iron charged Mg/h (tons/h) 1.14 2.07
(1.26) (2.28)
Shifts per day3 3 3
Days per year3 365 365
Iron charged : Sand processed5 1:6 1:6
Iron charged : Steel castings produced13 10:6 10:6
"The model plants assume three shifts/day and 365 days/year in order to estimate 'worst case" emissions.
In actual practice, ferrous foundries typically run two shifts/day, 250 days/year.
"•By weight
2.5.2 Model Plant Potential Emissions
Tables 2-13 and 2-14 list emissions estimates for model plants
using no emissions controls. These calculated emissions are often
referred to as "potential emissions" and indicate the maximum
estimated emissions that can be generated by the foundry processes.
The potential emissions for each process and model plant are
calculated using the model plant parameters given in Tables 2-11
and 2-12 and the emission factors given in Tables 2-9 and 2-10. No
emissions estimate is given for processes without available
emission factors.
2.5.3 Model Plant Baseline Emissions
Tables 2-15 and 2-16 lists the typical pollution control
methods in current use at gray iron foundries and steel foundries.
The table lists the capture and removal devices most often used for
each process which is typically controlled and gives a "baseline"
emission factor derived by reducing the uncontrolled emission
factor by the amount effected by the capture and removal devices.
Baseline emission factors represent the emissions expected from
plants using control systems currently deemed appropriate in
industry practice. Typical control practices (e.g., hoods combined
with fabric filters or venturi scrubbers, or no control) and
2-39
-------
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2-40
-------
TABLE 2-14.
UNCONTROLLED PM-10 EMISSIONS FROM STEEL MODEL
PLANTS FOR SELECTED PROCESSES
Process
Induction furnace:
charging/ tapping /me It ing
Mold pouring
Mold cooling
Mold shakeout
Casting cleaning/finishing
Sand/other material
handling
Sand mulling
Core baking/cleaning
Sand screening/cleaning
Total3
Small
(Mg/yr)
0.6
17.4
8.7
13.9
10.6
37.3
37.3
5.6
37.3
170
Foundry
(tons/yr)
(0.6)
(19.2)
(9.6)
(15.4)
(11.7)
(41.2)
(41.2)
(6.2)
(41.2)
(190)
Large
(Mg/yr)
3.7
115.0
57.5
92.0
70.0
246.5
246.5
37.0
246.5
1,100
Foundry
(tons/yr)
(4.1)
(126.8)
(63.4)
(101.4)
(77.1)
(271.6)
(271.6)
(40.7)
(271.6)
(1,200)
"Total is rounded to two significant digit
control efficiencies for each process were identified in published
literature.9'27 The baseline emissions for each process and model
plant are calculated using these control measures and efficiencies,
the model plant parameters given in Tables 2-11 and 2-12 and the
emission factors given in Tables 2-9 and 2-10.
Removal systems may vary depending on the size of the foundry.
In general, small and medium foundries use only fabric filters, and
a combination of fabric filters and wet venturi scrubbers are used
at large foundries.28'29'30 Air stream characteristics and
engineering judgment dictate the choices made for the foundries.
Fabric filters have a higher removal efficiency, and wet venturi
scrubbers are not as effective when used to control PM-10. Wet
venturi wastewater must also be treated on-site or transported to
an off-site treatment center, incurring a cost not applicable to
the fabric filter. Despite these drawbacks, industry contacts have
generally indicated that the large foundries find it more
advantageous to use wet scrubbers.
Tables 2-13, 2-14, 2-17, and 2-18 only contain emissions
estimates for those processes that have available emission factors
and throughput data; emissions from processes for which data were
not available, such as alloying, are left blank. Although the
2-41
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published literature suggests that emissions are minimal from
several processes for which emission factors are unavailable, the
emissions sums given in Tables 2-13, 2-14, 2-17, and 2-18 should
not be considered complete.
The emissions estimates given in these tables are considered
representative of typical plants; however, process parameters and
pollution control practices will be different for each foundry.
Caution should be exercised in interpreting the emissions estimates
in Tables 2-13, 2-14, 2-17, and 2-18 because they are calculated
from very general operating parameters given for the model plants
(see Tables 2-11 and 2-12) and emission factors with low or unknown
quality ratings (see Tables 2-9 and 2-10) . Any assessment of
emissions should be made on an individual basis for each operating
foundry examined.
TABLE 2-18. BASELINE PM-10 EMISSIONS FROM STEEL FOUNDRY MODEL
PLANTS FOR SELECTED PROCESSES
Process
Induction furnace: charging/
tapping/melting
Mold pouring
Mold cooling
Mold shakeout
Casting cleaning/finishing
Sand/other material handling
Sand mulling
Core baking/cleaning
Sand screening/cleaning
Total3
Small
(Mg/yr)
0.6
2.8
0.9
2.2
1.7
5.9
5.9
0.6
5.9
27
Foundry
(tons/yr)
(0.6)
(3.0)
(1.0)
(2.4)
(1.9)
(6.5)
(6.5)
(0.7)
(29)
Large
(Mg/yr)
3.7
20.2
7.3
16.2
11.1
39.1
43.3
4.0
43.3
190
Foundry
(tons/yr)
(4.1)
(22.2)
(8.1)
(17.8)
(12.2)
(43.1)
(47.7)
(4.4)
(47.7)
(210)
'Total is rounded to two significant digits.
2-45
-------
2.6 REFERENCES
1. Sylvia, J.G. Cast Metals Technology. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
MA. 1972.
2. Foundry Management & Technology. Metal Casting Industry
Census Guide--1987 Edition. Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH.
April 1987.
3. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1978
Census of Manufactures. MC87-I-33B. Washington, DC. May
1990.
4. Ward's Business Directory of U.S. Private and Public
Companies-1991. Volume 4. Gale Research, Inc., Detroit, MI.
1991.
5. "Foundry Statistics", in Foundry Management and Technology.
Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH. December 1989.
6. Teleconference. M. Lopes, Alliance Technologies Corp., with
T. Jennings, American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL,
May 22, 1991. Gray iron foundry practices.
7. "Cautious Optimism Prevails Among U.S. Metalcasters", in
Foundry Management & Technology. Penton Publishing,
Cleveland, OH. January 1991.
8. "Metalcasters will increase 1991 capital spending by 10%", in
Foundry Management & Technology. Penton Publishing,
Cleveland, OH. February 1991.
9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors. AP-42, Fourth Edition with
supplements. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, NC. September 1985.
10. Teleconference. P. Marsosudiro, Alliance Technologies Corp.,
with A. East, Bingham & Taylor, Inc. May 22, 1991. Gray iron
foundry industry.
11. Hine, A.E. "Medium-frequency Induction Melting for the 90's",
in Foundry Trade Journal International. September, 1990.
12. Teleconference. J. Dewey, Alliance Technologies Corp., with
J. Tilke, Pillar, Inc. May 20, 1991. Induction furnaces.
13. "Melting/Refractories", in Foundry Management & Technology.
Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH. December 1989.
2-46
-------
14. Brookman, E.T. Screening Study on Feasibility of Standards of
Performance for Secondary Aluminum Manufacturing. EPA-450/3-
79-037a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, NC. September 1978.
15. Teleconference. J. Dewey, Alliance Technologies Corporation,
with G. Duncan, Inductotherm, Inc. May 20, 1991. Induction
furnaces.
16. The Organisation for European Economic Co-operation.. Ideal
Foundry In Pictures. Paris, France. 1954.
17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Pollution
Engineering Manual. AP-40, Second Edition. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
May 1973.
18. "Shakeout/Cleaning/Finishing", in Foundry Management &
Technology. Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH. December 1990.
19. Heine, H.J. "Key Fundamentals for Sand Preparation and
Reclamation", in Foundry Management & Technology. Penton
Publishing, Cleveland, OH. April 1989.
20. Ekey, D.C., and W.P. Winter. Introduction to Foundry
Technology. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1958.
21. Wallace, D., et al. Fugitive Emissions from Iron Foundries.
EPA-600/7-79-195. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research
Triangle Park, NC. August 1979.
22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. AIRS Facility Subsystem
for Criteria Air Pollutants: Source Classification Codes and
Emission Factor Listing. EPA-450/4-90-003. Air and Energy
Engineering Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC.
September 1989.
23. Jeffrey, J., et al. Gray Iron Foundry Particulate Emissions:
Source Category Report. EPA-600/7-86-054. Office of Research
and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC. December 1986.
24. Foundry Air Pollution Control Manual. Second edition.
American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL. 1967.
25. Engineering Manual for Control of In-Plant Environment In
Foundries. American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL.
1956.
26. Teleconference. M. Lopes, Alliance Technologies Corp., with
D. Rice, Lester B. Knight, Inc., Chicago, IL. June 5, 1991.
Aluminum foundry practices.
2-47
-------
27. Foundry Ventilation and Environmental Control. American
Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL. 1972.
28. Teleconference. P. Marsosudiro, Alliance Technologies Corp.,
with V. Smith, Penton Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, OH. July
9, 1991. Wet scrubber use at foundries.
29. Teleconference. P. Marsosudiro, Alliance Technologies Corp.,
with N. Den Bleyker, Griffin Environmental Co., Inc.,
Syracuse, NY. July 16, 1991.
30. Teleconference. P. Marsosudiro, Alliance Technologies Corp.,
with E. Ravert, Jet Airtechnologies, Adrian, MI. July 17,
1991. Wet scrubber and fabric filter use at foundries.
2-48
-------
CHAPTER 3
EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNIQUES
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO PM-10 CONTROL TECHNIQUES
This chapter contains descriptions and data for various PM-10
emissions control techniques for the ferrous foundry industry.
Included are control methods for emissions from processes described
in Chapter 2 and other fugitive area sources, such as roadways,
storage piles, and materials handling. Also included is a
discussion of the typical emissions reductions associated with each
control technique.
The emissions control methods provided are considered to be
alternative control techniques (ACT) for PM-10 sources. These
techniques include both emissions collection (capture) and removal
devices and are presented separately. This chapter focuses on
retrofit ACT, where a retrofit is considered to be the replacement
of, or addition to, pre-existing equipment. The chapter also
provides information on ACT for newly constructed facilities. The
discussion of each control technique addresses design parameters,
operating parameters, and variables affecting operation.
3.2 PM-10 CONTROL TECHNIQUES
This section discusses various control techniques for foundry
process and non-process PM-10 emissions. Process PM-10 emissions
include those from furnace and non-furnace foundry operations.
They can be controlled by a pollution control system consisting of
two basic components: a collection device and a removal device.
Non-process fugitive emissions refer to air pollutants that enter
the atmosphere without first passing through a stack or duct
designed to direct or control their flow. These are handled by
various control methods dependent on the source to be controlled.
A typical emissions control scheme for any given type of
process is shown in Figure 3-1. PM-10 is captured in the local air
stream by a hood or other collection equipment and sent to a
3-1
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removal device. The removal device separates PM from the air
stream and sends the cleaned air into the stack. The remaining PM
is then removed and recycled, landfilled, reused, etc. Collection
equipment consists of single and double side draft hoods, ring
hoods, canopy hoods, close-capture hoods, box enclosures, movable
hood enclosures, and total enclosures. A hood is a device that
collects particulate emissions from foundry processes by drawing
air through its opening(s). Building evacuation may also be used.
Removal devices discussed here are the most frequently employed in
the foundry industry and include fabric filters, scrubbers, and
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs).
Non-process PM-10 sources are not the focal point of this
report but have been included here for completeness. These
fugitive sources include vehicular travel on paved or unpaved
roads, wind erosion from storage piles, and materials transfer to
or from vehicles or storage piles. Each source has several control
options available to aid in reducing or preventing fugitive PM-10
emissions. These fugitive control methods are discussed in section
3.2.4.
3.2.1 Collection of Furnace Emissions
Collection equipment suitable for retrofit purposes at ferrous
foundry furnaces consists of several different hood designs,
including ring, close capture, and canopy hoods. The amount of
airflow required through the hood depends on the location of the
hood openings relative to the process emissions and the maximum
expected particulate load at that location. Enclosures are another
type of collection equipment. They are designed to partially or
totally cover the furnace and some of its operations in order to
capture particulate emissions. Both types of collection devices
are discussed in the following sections. Indirect methods used to
collect furnace emissions are also presented.
3-3
-------
3.2.1.1 Ring hoods
Ring hoods are usually included as part of the basic induction
furnace installation package; however, they have been successfully
retrofitted. Figure 3-2 shows a ring hood, which differs from the
other types of hoods employed to capture induction furnace
emissions because the extraction airflow is horizontal instead of
vertical.1 The ring hood design simplifies hood operation during
furnace processes by surrounding the furnace but not hindering its
operation. However, a ring hood that could effectively control
emissions during charges or other open-roof operations would
require large airflows at a high velocity to capture PM-10.
Process conditions that produce a buoyant plume inhibit the capture
efficiency of a ring hood because plumes tend to increase air
velocity perpendicular to the ring hood and decrease available
capture time. To overcome these difficulties, a larger ring hood
(and increased airflow) is necessary; however, the size of- a ring
hood is limited by the physical difficulties of surrounding the
furnace with a large hood without impairing furnace operation.
Another disadvantage of ring hoods is that in some facilities hot
slag particles have clogged the hood openings. Despite these
limitations, ring hoods can effectively capture emissions during
the melt cycle when the furnace lid is in place (i.e., melting,
superheating, holding, etc.).1
3.2.1.2 Canopy hoods
Some facilities use ring hoods in conjunction with canopy
hoods to achieve better control during the charge. Figure 3-3
shows a canopy hood, which is usually placed four to five feet
above the induction furnace door to allow room for charging.1
Umbrella-shaped hoods having a diameter larger than the furnace are
one design option, while other designs incorporate the foundry roof
and side walls. Due to the positioning of the hood, large volumes
of air are required for effective PM-10 capture during any furnace
operation. Problems associated with cross-winds and impingement on
overhead cranes and charge buckets cause ineffective capture of
induction furnace emissions. For these reasons, canopy hoods are
3-4
-------
Ring
Hood
Uncaptured
PM-10
Removal
Device
Figure 3-2. Diagram of ring hood.
3-5
-------
Removal
Device
*
oo
Charging
Monorail
Uncaptured
PM-10 >•
Canopy
Hood
\
\
\ Captured
\ PM-10
\
\
\
i
' /
/
Uncaptured
PM-10
I Furnace ,
Figure 3-3. Diagram of canopy hood,
3-6
-------
not frequently used to control furnace emissions. Canopy hoods are
designed to be fixed or movable depending on their proximity to the
furnace door. More remote placement of the hood allows a fixed
design, but increased airflows and hood size are necessary to be as
effective as the close capture hood design.2
3.2.1.3 Close-capture hoods
Close-capture hoods can be used to effectively capture
particulate emissions during most induction furnace operations. A
typical close-capture hood design, shown in Figure 3-4, is composed
of several hood designs incorporated into one system.3 Melting
emissions are evacuated by a furnace enclosure which rotates and
partially enshrouds the furnace to allow efficient collection of
emissions with minimum exhaust volumes. Capture of charging
emissions is accomplished by employing a ring hood that rotates to
cover the furnace during charging. Tapping emissions are collected
by enclosing the tap spout with a small hood that is exhausted to
the main duct. (This tapping hood may be used in conjunction with
any other type of hood but is included here because it is a basic
design element of a close-capture hood.) Compared to a plain ring
hood, close-capture hoods require less airflow to be equally
effective and are usually not adversely impacted by buoyant plume
conditions. The main disadvantage of using the close-capture hood
is that it does not capture charging emissions because the ring
hood portion of the close-capture hood does not completely enclose
the emission source. Because charging accounts for the major
portion of induction furnace emissions, close capture hoods can be
a less effective ACT.3
3.2.1.4 Box enclosures
A box enclosure, shown in Figure 3-5, is sometimes called a
doghouse enclosure, and can also be used for efficient PM-10
emissions capture.1 The box completely surrounds the furnace
except for an open front-end to allow tapping. Such enclosures are
large enough to allow worker access as necessary for slagging
(dressing) or other operations. The major disadvantage of the box
3-7
-------
IB
Q
o
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Box _
Enclosure
Removal Device
o
Captured
PM-10
Captured [~
PM-10 Captured
•*--- PM-10
I \
FRONT VIEW
Uncaptured
'—- PM-10
Figure 3-5. Diagram of box enclosure,
3-9
-------
enclosure is that the minimum face velocity must be large at all
openings to assure reasonable capture efficiency, which results in
larger airflow requirements. Because of its design, the box
enclosure is highly effective in capturing charging, melting, and
slagging emissions, but is not effective in capturing tapping
emissions. Typically, the furnace door is open to allow the charge
bucket to be positioned and closed during the actual charge to
assure efficient capture. Tapping emissions are not effectively
captured because of the open front-end and the large airflows
required to capture them.1
3.2.1.5 Movable hood enclosures
Movable hood enclosures, shown in Figure 3-6, can have
distinct advantages over stationary hoods.1 One movable hood can
be used to control emissions from two furnaces if the furnaces are
not operating simultaneously. These hoods are most effective if
charging takes place through the hood top or through a cutout area
(e.g., manual charging or vibratory feeder charging). This design
is not effective for bucket charge operations, since the hood must
be swung aside for the actual charging, which is when most
emissions are generated. These hoods perform best during melting,
superheating, and other similar operations when the hood is left in
place. During tapping, the hood may be arranged to swing over the
ladle for effective emissions control. Hood airflow rates are
determined by the spacing between the hood and the furnace door and
the size of any holes in the hood for charging, dressing, or making
additions. Normally, the required hood airflow rates are quite
moderate.1
3.2.1.6" Total enclosures
Total enclosures are the most effective design for capturing
furnace emissions. Figure 3-7 shows a total enclosure hood, which
typically encloses the entire furnace top and provides a high
degree of capture for charging, melting, superheating, and all
other furnace operations except tapping.1 These hoods are more
commonly used with larger induction furnaces. A variety Of these
3-10
-------
Removal
Device
Uncaptured
PM-10
Revolving
Joint
Figure 3-6. Diagram of movable hood.
3-11
-------
Removal
Device
Charge Bucket
I 1
Swing Lid"
Captured \ i
PM-10 ij
\
jFurnacej
Total
Enclosure
Hinged Door
(Furnace Lid)
Figure 3-7. Diagram of total enclosure hood,
3-12
-------
total enclosures have been installed nationwide, all of which
include most of the following features:
the box encloses the furnace
the furnace lid is linked with the enclosure lid to
assure that they operate synchronously
the enclosure has a hinged opening to allow access
for sampling, manual charging, or slagging
the enclosure is large enough to control tapping
and ladle fumes
the telescopic ductwork is configured to assure
effective capture during all phases of the furnace
cycle
a pneumatically operated damper adjusts the hood
capture airflow during the furnace cycle
Variable air volume is critical to minimizing the cost of control,
since the airflows required to capture charging emissions
efficiently are much greater than those required to capture furnace
emissions during closed-door operation.2
Sliding doors that create access for the crane and scrap
charging bucket are an essential feature of the total enclosure.
Another necessary feature is an air curtain to block fumes that may
escape from the roof when the roof doors are parted for crane cable
access during charging. Total furnace enclosures have the
following advantages:2
effective fume capture
lower volumes of air handled because emissions are
collected at the source
capture of both furnace and other process emissions
access for furnace maintenance
lower noise levels outside the enclosure
lower capital and operating costs
better working environment and lower roof
temperature in the furnace shop
3-13
-------
minimal effect of cross-winds because the entire
operation is enclosed
Table 3-1 summarizes the effects of several collection devices
on PM-10 emissions from furnace operations. The table shows that
enclosures are the capture devices best suited for PM-10 emissions
control for all furnace related processes (charging, melting,
slagging, tapping, alloying, and holding). Each type of enclosure
has some degree of control effectiveness on all furnace operations
and, in most cases, the effectiveness is considered good.
3.2.1.7 Indirect furnace emissions
For induction furnace operations, an indirect collection
method is often required during charging and tapping, especially if
ring hoods or canopy hoods are employed for emissions capture. Any
PM-10 escaping the furnace collection hood must be captured by a
separate hood located near (but not directly on) the furnace. This
type of indirect collection is often part of the capture system's
design. For instance, canopy hoods are not designed to
instantaneously capture the mushroom cloud associated with the
furnace charging operation. Therefore, some type of other
collection equipment is required to prevent escape of this mushroom
cloud and allow time for the canopy hood to collect it. To
determine an appropriate canopy hood airflow rate, the emissions
from an open furnace and during charging must be known. The canopy
hood may be designed to be deep and wide enough to temporarily
store the charging plume surge or be designed to spill the mushroom
cloud into another hood that surrounds the furnace hood. The
spilled fume can then be drawn from the second hood to the canopy
hood by scavenging ducts.4
As emissions regulations have become more stringent, building
evacuation has become more frequently employed for indirect
emissions capture. Building evacuation involves exhausting all
emissions (furnace and other processes) which accumulate under the
shop roof. It is normally employed when there is no room for a
canopy hood and/or when circumstances require emissions capture
3-14
-------
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from every type of foundry process. Building evacuation has been
accomplished in existing facilities by closing roof openings and
installing a large induced draft evacuation system with a fabric
filter. In these facilities, the only means of heat removal from
high-temperature processes involved in foundry operations is the
air pollution control system. Heat removal is required for
workers' safety and comfort. This requires the air pollution
control system to be considerably larger than would otherwise be
needed to control the large volumes of warm air. If the air
pollution control system did not collect this warm air, .furnace
fumes could form a stagnant cloud near the roof of the plant. If
the cloud were not removed in sufficient time, it could expand to
the worker's level and possibly impair the worker's in-plant
visibility. In conjunction with this, the building evacuation
system would have to assure that lower-level fumes do not escape to
the environment.5
3.2.2 Collection of Other Process Emissions
In addition to emissions from furnace operations, emissions
from other foundry processes can be controlled. Such processes
include molten metal pouring, mold cooling, mold shakeout, casting
cleaning, sand handling, sand mulling, mold/core forming, core
baking/cleaning and sand screening. Several collection devices,
when properly designed and located, can be used to achieve good
capture efficiency on these processes. In some instances, the same
type of hood can capture emissions from different processes. The
following paragraphs describe some of these hoods and typically
applicable processes.
Building evacuation is one standard way to collect emissions
from all processes (including furnace operations) in a foundry. In
foundries which have some type of natural ventilation in use,
retrofit to building evacuation should be relatively simple.
However, the extremely large airflows required for evacuation may
reduce its feasibility when compared to local exhaust systems.
3-16
-------
Mold pouring and mold cooling operations are usually
controlled by one of two ways. One way is to place a side draft
hood at the pouring station and have an enclosed mold .cooling
conveyor to transport the molds to shakeout.5 Another way to
control pouring and cooling emissions is to install a stationary
hooded pouring station and covered conveyor for mold cooling.6
Although both options include covered conveyors for mold cooling,
the actual design of each system is different and depends on site-
specific parameters such as ladle size, space limitations, etc.
Shakeout emissions are most often handled by side draft or
double side draft hoods, depending on the grate size.5 These hoods
require larger airflows than the more preferable total or partial
enclosures, but space limitations may not allow the enclosures to
be installed. A properly located and designed double side draft
hood can perform nearly as well as an enclosure hood.3 Sand
emissions downstream from the shakeout hopper are also important.
Since the sand is dry and has a high potential for dust emissions,
those handling and transfer operations should be hooded as well.7
Emissions from casting cleaning and finishing operations can
be collected using either total or partial enclosures, exhaust
booths, or side draft hoods. Blasting and grinding processes
normally employ partial enclosures which, in addition to reducing
PM-10 emissions to the environment, also protect workers from
breathing harmful pollutants.8 Side draft hoods are used when
these processes cannot be enclosed.
Other processes which require collection equipment include
sand screening and cleaning, sand mulling, and core
baking/cleaning. Sand screening/cleaning and sand mulling
emissions emanate from many of the same pre-mold preparation
processes. Either enclosed hoods, side draft or double side draft
hoods offer adequate PM-10 emissions control from these
processes.3'6 Core-baking and cleaning emissions are typically
either fully or partially enclosed, depending on location and
available space. Mold- and core-forming emissions are generally
negligible for ferrous foundries and are therefore normally
uncontrolled.
3-17
-------
The capture efficiencies of hood designs used for emissions
collection vary widely. A single system efficiency value cannot be
assigned to these designs because capture is dependent on
installation and site-specific parameters such as the hood
placement, design face velocity, and other parameters. This
variability makes site-specific capture efficiency estimation
virtually mandatory to determine the ACT performance level. A
range of capture efficiencies has been determined for a few of the
previously mentioned collection devices. Table 3-2 shows the
estimated capture performance of some capture systems for total
suspended particulate. These tabulated data indicate that 90
percent collection is a realistic performance level and that
collection rates of 95 percent or greater are achievable.9 Side
and double side draft hood efficiencies were not included in this
table, but reference exists that show their collection efficiency
ranges from 80 to 99 percent.3
TABLE 3-2.
FOUNDRY EMISSIONS COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY
COMBINATIONS10'*
Foundry
emission
collection
system
combination
1
2
Collection Equipment
Single canopy hood, open roof monitor.
Segmented canopy hood, closed roof (over
Estimated
foundry
collection
efficiency
(percent)
75-85
85-95
furnace)/open roof monitor elsewhere.
3 Segmented canopy hood, scavenger duct, 90-95
cross-draft partitions, closed roof (over
furnace)/open roof monitor elsewhere.
4 Single canopy hood, total furnace enclosure, 90-95
closed roof (over furnace)/open roof monitor
elsewhere.
5 Segmented canopy hood, scavenger duct, 95-100
cross-draft partitions, closed roof.
"Data are for total suspended particulate.
3-18
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3.2.3 Removal Equipment
The collection devices that capture PM-10 emissions from
foundry processes and entrain them in a controlled air stream
comprise the first half of an effective retrofit control .system.
The second half of a retrofit pollution control system is the
removal equipment. The removal equipment cleans (or removes)
particulate matter from the air streams before exhausting to the
stack. This section discusses the major types of removal equipment
used in the foundry industry, including fabric filters, scrubbers,
and ESPs.
The most common removal device for the control of furnace
particulate emissions and non-furnace particulate emissions is the
fabric filter. However, several foundries employ high-efficiency
wet scrubbing for limited specific control applications such as
shakeout, sand handling, and grinding/cleaning. Table 3-3 shows
the control efficiencies of various removal devices. As shown, the
highest PM-10 control efficiencies achieved by fabric filters. The
following sections discuss this and other reasons for the
predominance of fabric filtration in foundries for PM-10 emissions
control requirements.
3.2.3.1 Fabric filters
The fabric filter is a versatile type of equipment used for
the removal of solid PM from an air stream. For PM-10 emissions,
a control efficiency of virtually 100 percent can be expected.11
As the filter medium becomes caked with particulate, the control
efficiency increases and the proportion of smaller particles
collected increases.5 This section discusses how control
efficiency can increase and the basic principles of operating a
fabric filter.
A fabric filter system (baghouse) consists of several
filtering elements (bags) and a bag cleaning system, all contained
in the main shell structure with dust hoppers (See Figure 3-8).12
Particulate-laden gases are passed through the bags so that
particles are retained on the fabric. This creates a filtering
3-19
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TABLE 3-3.
TYPICAL CONTROL EFFICIENCIES OF PARTICULATE REMOVAL
DEVICES USED IN FOUNDRIES11'3
Efficiency (percent)
by Particle Size
(micrometers)
Type of Removal Device
Wet scrubber - high efficiency
- medium efficiency
- low efficiency
Gravity collector - high efficiency
- medium efficiency
- low efficiency
Centrifugal collector - high efficiency
- medium efficiency
- low efficiency
Electrostatic precipitator - high efficiency
- medium efficiency
- low efficiency
Fabric filter - high temperature
- medium temperature
- low temperature
Wet venturi scrubber
Single cyclone
0 - 2.5
90
25
20
3.6
2.9
1.5
80
50
10
95
80
70
99
99
99
90
10
2.5 - 6
95
85
80
5
4
3.2
95
75
35
99
90
80
99.5
99.5
99.5
95
35
6-10
99
95
90
6
4.8
3.7
95
85
50
99.5
97
90
99.5
99.5
99.5
99
50
'Data represent an average of actual efficiencies. Efficiencies are representative of well-designed
and well-operated control equipment. Site-specific factors (e.g., type of particulate being
collected, varying pressure drops across scrubbers, maintenance of equipment, etc.) will affect
collection efficiencies. Efficiencies shown are intended to provide guidance for estimating control
equipment performance when source-specific data are not available.
dust layer that enhances the fabric filter's performance. The
major fabrics used for bags are woven and felted fiberglass and
Teflon fluorocarbon materials, depending on the application.13
Typically, a baghouse is divided into compartments or sections,
each containing several bags. In larger installations, an extra
section is often provided to allow one compartment to be out of
service for cleaning at any given time without affecting the
overall efficiency of the fabric filter.14
The basic mechanisms used for cleaning particulate-laden gases
in a fabric filter are inertial impaction, diffusion, direct
interception, and sieving. The first three mechanisms prevail only
briefly during the first few minutes of operation with new or
recently cleaned bags. However, the sieving action of the dust
layer accumulating on the fabric surface soon predominates. This
3-20
-------
SHAKER
MECHANISM?
OUTLET'
'PIPE
'INLET; .
'PIPE
BAFFLE
PLATE
DUSTY AIR
SIDE
Figure 3-8. Diagram of a fabric filter.
12
3-21
-------
sieving mechanism leads to high-efficiency control of particulates,
unless defects such as pinhole leaks in the bags or cracks in the
filter cake appear.2
In fabric filtration, both the control efficiency and the
pressure drop across the bag surface increase as the dust layer on
the bag builds up. Since the system cannot continue to operate
efficiently with an increasing pressure drop, the bags are cleaned
periodically by reverse airflow, pulse-jet, or a shaker mechanism.
The dust is collected below the filters in hoppers and is either
recycled or sent to a landfill.
The fabric filter capacity rate can be varied widely with
little effect on efficiency. This inherent flexibility permits an
increase in capacity within reasonable limits by increasing system
fan horsepower. An oversized unit is more desirable than an
undersized unit, since the dust loading and gas volume surge during
many foundry operations. This sudden increase in dust loading and
possible volume increase will increase the outlet dust loading on
other types of collectors, but does not affect the performance of
a fabric collector. This sporadic overloading can be readily
accommodated by the collector, but a fabric filter should not be
operated at wide variations from the equipment manufacturer's
recommendations.u
As the data in Table 3-3 indicate, the control efficiency of
a fabric filter exceeds that of any other applicable control
device. Fabric filters also have many other advantages that make
them suitable for control of foundry particulate emissions. Fabric
filters use less energy than either scrubbers or ESPs for
equivalent outlet particulate concentrations. They are efficient
collectors of very fine emissions and are tolerant of fluctuations
in the inlet particle size distribution (which affects ESPs).
Finally, fabric filters collect particulate emissions as a dry
dust, which is easier to handle or recycle than the wastewater and
sludge collected from scrubbers. However, if desired, the dust
from a fabric filter can be wetted in a pug mill or pelletized
before it is recycled or landfilled. This decreases handling
problems associated with the fine dust.
3-22
-------
Two types of fabric filter systems used in the industry are
the positive-pressure type and the negative-pressure type. They
are distinguished by how the exhaust air stream is pulled through
the baghouse. Positive-pressure fabric filter systems are those in
which the effluent gases are forced through the fabric filter by a
fan placed between the emissions removal system and the fabric
filter. The compartments in the positive-pressure fabric filter do
not need to be airtight since only the unfiltered air side of the
collector needs to be sealed. Bag inspections and maintenance are
easier to perform than on negative-pressure fabric filters. The
compartments can be entered while the positive-pressure fabric
filter is in operation if the temperature is low enough for worker
safety. Uncleaned air entering the fabric filter is filtered
through the cloth and then vented to the atmosphere through
louvers, stub stacks, or a ridge vent (monitor) on the top of the
positive-pressure fabric filter.14
The alternative to the positive-pressure system is a negative-
pressure or suction-type fabric filter. In this system, the fan is
placed on the clean air side of the fabric filter and effluent gas
is drawn through the fabric. This requires the bags to be kept
airtight and thus, each compartment must be taken off-line for bag
maintenance and replacement. These negative-pressure filters
usually require less fan maintenance and less operating horsepower
than the positive-pressure type. However, there are disadvantages;
they require more ductwork due to the need for a stack, they must
be able to withstand the suction created by the fans, and good
sealing is necessary to prevent the introduction of dilution air.2
Despite these disadvantages, negative-pressure systems are dominant
in the foundry industry because of the large-size particulates
sometimes present in foundry emissions.13 Large-size particulates
can quickly destroy fan blades if not filtered before entering the
fan.4
Fabric filtration can be employed for control of particulate
emissions from induction furnace process operations, including
charging, melting, slagging (dressing), and tapping. The dry
particulate that results from induction furnace operations does not
3-23
-------
hinder the control efficiency of a fabric filter. For these
reasons fabric filtration remains the dominant pollution control
device in the foundry industry.
3.2.3.2 Wet scrubbers
Another type of particulate control device that can be used in
foundries is the wet scrubber. Wet scrubbers are broadly employed
in the industry for particulate control, but their usefulness in
induction furnace foundry applications is limited. Generally,
mechanically generated dust can be handled with medium or low
energy wet scrubbers, but fine particulate (i.e., PM-10) can only
be removed effectively with higher energy wet scrubbers. However,
high energy wet scrubbers consume a large amount of energy and
therefore have high operating costs.
Many wet scrubber designs exist, but the control efficiency
data shown in Table 3-3 clearly establish that only a few are
highly effective. High energy wet venturi scrubbers remove 90
percent or more of the material in the zero to ten micrometer range
encompassed by PM-10. Low- and medium-energy scrubber designs fail
to meet this standard and therefore do not perform as well as high-
energy wet scrubbers for particulate control. In the wet venturi
scrubber shown in Figure 3-9, the gases are passed through a
venturi tube to which low-pressure water is added at the throat.12
In spite of the relatively short residence time, the extreme
turbulence in the venturi promotes very intimate contact with the
water. The wetted particles and droplets are collected in a
cyclone spray separator.12 This venturi scrubber design has shown
the best performance of wet removal devices.2
Properly designed, plant-size, high-energy venturi scrubbers
are capable of a maximum efficiency of 97 percent for one-
micrometer particles, 99.6 percent for five-micrometer particles,
and over 99.7 percent for ten-micrometer particles. These results
were determined in a controlled test with standard silica dust and
a pressure drop in excess of 50 inches of water.15 These tests are
applicable to foundries because sand particles are silica and high
pressure drops result in high efficiency- Similar efficiencies can
3-24
-------
a
8
o
to
(D
de
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-------
be achieved in the foundry with a properly installed and properly
maintained high-energy scrubber, as long as the particulate in the
effluent being treated does not contain a higher proportion of very
fine particles than did the standard silica dust (12 percent less
than 2.5-micrometers).
Finally, many scrubbers require settling ponds of appreciable
size in which the solids can separate from the water, and a
recirculating system to reuse the water because raw overflow from
the scrubber system cannot be discharged into streams or sewers.
Scrubber wastes include foundry PM-10 emissions that are considered
hazardous to the environment and must be treated. Improved wet
scrubbing technologies are addressing the wet waste problem.
Recovering some reusable material from the waste stream can reduce
material and energy costs.
3.2.3.3 Electrostatic precipitators
The third type of particulate control device is the ESP.
Figure 3-10 shows an ESP, which is basically a large box with rows
of electrically grounded plates set at specified intervals.12
Particulate-laden air streams flow through the box, where high-
voltage current is applied by electrodes which ionize the gas
molecules. The charged ions collide with particles suspended in
the gas and attach themselves to those particles. The charged
particles are then drawn to oppositely charged plates, where they
collect in a layer that must be removed periodically. This is done
by diverting the flow of uncleaned air from a section of the
collector plates, grounding the plates to remove the charge, and
cleaning the plates. The plates can be cleaned either by vibrating
them or washing them with a water spray. If water is used, it must
be cleaned before it can be recirculated or discharged.14
Table 3-4 lists the typical removal devices employed for
various foundry and other industry processes.14 As indicated in
Table 3-4, ESPs have rarely been used by U.S. foundries; wet
scrubbers and fabric filters are the dominant particulate control
devices in the industry. This is partly because ESPs are much more
expensive to install and maintain than high-energy wet venturi
3-26
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-------
TABLE 3-4. (Continued)
Remarks for Table 3-4:
1) Loadings increase with metal/sand ratio and with lower moisture content of
sand at time of shakeout. Smoke from burning seacoal and core binders is
often involved, as well as steam.
2} Dust concentration is a function of moisture remaining in the sand
following the shakeout operation. Traps or dry centrifugal collectors are
sometimes used to return coarser particles to the sand system. Water from
wet collectors is sometimes used at the mixer to permit salvage of seacoal
and bond, as well as retard slurry formations in recirculated water.
3) Collection equipment for mold sand handling systems can often be used for
dust collection during the shorter period of new sand handling.
4) Dust problems are very similar to those for molding sand systems.
5) The foundry industry has long applied high efficiency collectors to control
dust problems from abrasive cleaning operations. Airless blasting produces
the heaviest loads due to abrading speed. Blast rooms where shot or grit
is employed exhaust much larger air volumes for the amount of dust
released.
6) The tumbling action employed tends to grind or pulverize sand and scale
particles, producing a substantial fraction of dust loading in low micron
sizes.
7) Collectors are indicated wherever production core grinders are used.
8) Wet primary collectors are used on cupolas in smaller foundries where
pollution codes are less strict or as precleaner/precoolers for venturi
scrubbers.
9) Fabric collectors are normally used, but occasionally venturi scrubbers are
used.
10) Fumes loading depends on furnace type and amount of zinc.
scrubbers or baghouses of similar capacity.2 However, recent
enhancements to precipitators have increased their efficiency while
reducing capital and operating costs. Pulse energization and
intermittent energization apply high-voltage currents to the base
voltage allowing the base voltage to be reduced. The high voltage
bursts result in better control efficiency while the base voltage
reductions provide energy cost savings. Also, wider plate spacing
and the reduction in the number or discharge electrodes has
resulted in capital cost savings of ten to 20 percent. These
improvements may eventually make ESPs a more viable option for use
in the foundry industry.13
3.2.3.4 .Removal equipment choices for specific process streams
The choices for removal equipment from the different process
streams in an induction furnace foundry depend on the type of
pollutants produced. The emissions from different foundry
3-29
-------
processes have different compositions and other characteristics,
and some removal systems are better applied to specific processes
than others. Some processes are presented below with .general
suggestions for the type of removal device to employ. Note that
the fabric filter baghouse is the preferred removal device for all
process streams, but it is not the only equipment choice available.
Furnace emissions are best controlled by a fabric filter, due
to the dry dust particles that emanate from the furnaces during all
phases of operation. Pouring and mold-cooling emissions can be
controlled by either a fabric filter or wet venturi scrubber,
depending on the temperature and the moisture content of the gas
stream. Also, particulate in sand mold fumes can be cleaned with
a wet scrubber or a fabric filter depending on the gas
characteristics. Collected dust and fume from castings shakeout
are best cleaned along with similar gases from the mold-cooling
tunnel. Here, too, a high-efficiency wet venturi scrubber or
fabric filter should be used to control particulate, depending on
the gas characteristics. Dusts from casting cleaning and grinding
result from dry-blast, grit- or shot-blasting, grinding, and
chipping operations. These dusts are normally collected with
fabric-filter systems with most grit-blasting units connected to
individual filtering systems. Finally, dust from sand mixing and
handling is best collected in fabric filters.
3.2.4 Control of Non-process Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive dust sources refer to those air pollutants that enter
the atmosphere without first passing through a stack or duct
designed to direct or control their flow. Several non-furnace
foundry processes generate these fugitive emissions, including
vehicular travel on paved and unpaved roads, wind erosion from
storage piles, and materials transfer to or from vehicles or
storage piles. This section discusses control methods designed to
reduce PM-10 emissions from these sources.
3-30
-------
3.2.4.1 Paved roads
Particulate emissions occur whenever a vehicle travels over a
paved surface, such as public and industrial roads and parking
lots. These emissions can originate from material previously
deposited on the travel surface or a re-suspension of material from
tires and undercarriages. In general, emissions are from the
surface material loading which is composed of such things as
pavement wear, deposition of material from vehicles, and deposition
from other nearby sources, etc. Because of the importance of
surface loading, available control techniques either attempt to
prevent material from being deposited on the surface or to remove
any material that has been deposited.16 Two types of measures are
used to control PM-10 emissions from paved roads, preventive and
mitigative. Preventative measures are techniques for controlling
fugitive particulate emissions which prevent the creation and/or
release of PM-10.17 Mitigative measures involve the periodic
removal of dust-producing material.16 Preventative measures are
preferred by EPA, although mitigative measures may be more
practical for industrial plant roads because these roads are more
subject to spillage, carryout from unpaved areas, etc. Both types
of control methods for paved roads are discussed in the following
sections.
3.2.4.1.1 Preventative measures for paved roads. One
preventative measure involves replacing usual snow/ice control
materials with other harder and/or coarser materials. The use of
anti-skid materials with either a lower initial silt content or
greater resistance to forming silt-size particles will result in
lower road surface silt loadings. A second preventative .measure
involves eliminating mud and dirt carryout from unpaved areas such
as parking lots, construction sites, etc. The elimination of this
carryout can significantly reduce paved road emissions. Other
preventative measures for paved roads include covering trucks, wet
suppression of material being hauled, and paving/stabilizing
portions of unpaved areas nearest to paved road.16
3-31
-------
3.2.4.1.2 Mitigative measures for paved roads. The best
mitigative method for controlling particulate is street flushing.
Street flushers remove surface materials from roads and parking
lots using high pressure water sprays. Some systems supplement the
cleaning with broom sweeping after flushing. Although flushing
presents some obvious drawbacks in terms of water usage, potential
water pollution, and the frequent need to return to the water
source, it is generally the most effective in controlling
particulate emissions.16 The next best mitigative method is the
vacuum sweeping of roads. Vacuum sweepers remove material from
paved surfaces by entraining particles in a moving air stream. In
addition to the vacuum pickup heads, a sweeper may also be equipped
with gutter and other brooms to enhance collection. A hopper
collects filtered material and air exhausts through the- filter
system in an open loop. The least effective mitigative measure
employs street cleaners to mechanically broom sweep paved roads.
Street cleaners use rotary brooms to remove surface materials from
roads and parking lots. Much of the effect is cosmetic, however,
because a substantial fraction of the original loading is emitted
during the sweeping. Thus, this measure can be as much a source as
a control of particulate emissions.
3.2.4.2 Unpaved roads
Particulate emissions occur whenever a vehicle travels over an
unpaved surface. Unlike paved roads, however, the unpaved road
itself is the source of the emissions rather than any surface
loading. Within the various categories of open dust sources in
industrial settings, unpaved travel surfaces have historically
accounted for the greatest share of particulate emissions in
industrial settings. Control methods for unpaved roads are usually
subdivided into three categories, source extent reductions, surface
treatments, and surface improvements. Each of these is discussed
in the following sections.
3.2.4.2.1 Source extent reductions for unpaved roads. Source
extent reductions either limit the amount of traffic on a road or
3-32
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lower speed limits to reduce the emissions rate. The reduction may
be obtained by restricting roads to certain vehicle types or by
strict enforcement of reduced speed limits. This method is
attractive in that the initial and operating costs may be very low;
however, speed reduction measures could require additional trucks
and drivers to maintain production levels. The effective control
efficiencies for speed reduction increase as the speed is reduced.16
3.2.4.2.2 Surface treatment techniques for unpaved roads.
Surface treatment refers to those control techniques, such as
watering or chemical stabilization, which require periodic re-
applications. Necessary reapplication frequencies range from
several minutes for plain water under hot, summertime conditions to
several months for some chemicals. A variety of chemical
stabilizers are used to suppress dust from unpaved surfaces. The
chemicals bind the loose roadway material into a fairly impervious
surface or form a surface which attracts and retains moisture. The
degree of control achieved is a direct function of the application
intensity (volume of solution per area), dilution ratio, and
application frequency (number of applications per unit time).
Another surface treatment method is watering. This method,
although considered less expensive than chemical treatment, has
many drawbacks including the need for continuous application,
decreased efficiency during dry weather, increased potential to add
mud carry-on to nearby paved surfaces, and limited applicability
during cold winter periods.16
3.2.4.2.3 Surface improvements for unpaved roads. Surface
improvements alter the road surface by covering it with a low silt
aggregate material (aggregation) or by the most obvious surface
improvement paving. This option is expensive and is probably most
applicable to roads that are not subject to very heavy vehicles or
spillage of material in transport. Initial costs are high;
however, maintenance costs are lower than for aggregation.16
Covering an unpaved road with an aggregate that has a lower silt
content than the dirt roadbed reduces the amount of fines available
3-33
-------
for entrainment. This type of improvement is initially much less
expensive than paving; however, continuous road maintenance is
required.
3.2.4.3 Storage piles
Maintenance of outdoor storage piles is inherently necessary
in operations such as foundries that use minerals in aggregate
form. Storage piles are usually left uncovered, partially because
of the need for frequent material transfer. Dust emissions occur
at several points in the storage cycle: during material loading
onto the pile, during disturbances by strong wind currents, and
during loadout from the pile. The movement of trucks and loading
equipment in the storage pile area is also a substantial source of
dust. Preventative methods for control of windblown emissions from
raw material storage piles include enclosures, wetting, and
chemical stabilization. These methods are discussed 'in the
following sections.16
3.2.4.3.1 Enclosures for storage piles. Enclosures are an
effective way to control fugitive particulate emissions from open
dust sources. Enclosures can either fully or partially enclose the
storage pile and transfer mechanisms to and from the plant or
trucks. Types of passive enclosures traditionally used for open
dust control include three-sided bunkers for the storage of bulk
materials, storage silos for various types of aggregate material
(in lieu of open piles), and open-ended buildings. Partial
enclosures used for reducing windblown dust from large exposed
areas and storage piles include porous wind screens and similar
types of barriers (e.g., trees). The principle of the wind
fence/barrier is to provide an area of reduced wind velocity which
allows settling of the large particles (which cause saltation) and
reduces the particle flux from the exposed surface on the leeward
side of the fence/barrier.16
3.2.4.3.2 Wet suppression systems for storage piles.
Fugitive emissions from aggregate materials handling systems are
3-34
-------
frequently controlled by wet suppression systems. These systems
use liquid sprays or foam to suppress the formation of airborne
dust. The primary control mechanisms are those that prevent
emissions through agglomerate formation by combining small dust
particles with larger aggregate or with liquid droplets. Key
factors affecting the degree of agglomeration and the performance
of the system are the degree of material coverage by the liquid and
the ability of the liquid to "wet" small particles. Two types of
wet suppression systems are suitable for foundry operation: liquid
sprays, which use water or water/surfactant mixtures as the'wetting
agent; and systems which supply foams as the wetting agent.16
Liquid spray wet suppression systems can be used to control
dust emissions from materials handling at conveyor transfer points.
The wetting agent can be water or a combination of water and a
chemical surfactant. This surfactant (surface active agent)
reduces the surface tension of the water. As a result, the
quantity of liquid needed to achieve good control is reduced. For
systems using water only, adding surfactant can reduce the quantity
of water necessary to achieve good control.16
Micron-sized foam application is an alternative to water spray
systems. The primary advantage of foam systems is that they
provide equivalent control at lower moisture-addition rates than
spray systems. However, the foam system is more costly and
requires using extra materials and equipment. The foam system also
achieves good control primarily through wetting and agglomerating
fine particles.16
3.2.4.3.3 Chemical stabilization for storage piles. Chemical
stabilization involves using chemical dust suppressants to control
fugitive particulate emissions from material storage piles.
Control efficiencies have been determined in portable wind tunnel
tests on various types of materials and show that chemical
stabilization is a viable option to control fugitive dust emissions
from storage piles.16
3-35
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3.3 PROCESS ACT PERFORMANCE LEVEL
The process ACT performance level is the control efficiency of
the combined collection and removal equipment into one system.
While individual efficiencies of the collection and removal
equipment may vary widely, it is the combined efficiency that is
important. When properly designed and located, any number of
different collection devices can achieve high PM-10 capture.
Effective removal equipment may consist of baghouses, high-energy
wet venturi scrubbers, ESPs, or any combination of these. With any
combination of the above equipment, the overall net PM-10 control
for an induction furnace foundry process could be determined by the
following equation:
Net Control Percentage = (^centltoction x percent^moval^ x 1QO
The net control percentage is based on a comparison of mass
balances for PM-10 (the amount collected and removed versus the
amount being produced).
3.4 NEW CONSTRUCTION CONTROLS
There is no substantial difference between ACT collection and
removal technology for new construction and ACT retrofit technology
for most induction furnace foundries. However, installing a
complete system of ACT collection and removal equipment is
typically less expensive in new construction than for retrofit of
the same package into an existing foundry. Typical industry
estimates imply a 25 percent lower cost for new construction versus
retrofit. The lower cost is due to the ability to design and
integrate a control system that can be installed without having to
retrofit existing plant ductwork or facilities. Another advantage
to new construction is the buyer's ability to specify furnace
capture system innovations with a minimum cost. For instance, the
3-36
-------
induction furnace specifications could be written to require
inclusion of a total enclosure hood instead of the ring hood
typically supplied with such a furnace.
3-37
-------
3.5 REFERENCES
1. Shaw, F. M. Induction Furnace Emissions, in AFS International
Cast Metals Journal, pp 10-28, June 1982.
2. Fennelly, P. F. and P. D. Spawn. Air Pollution Control
Techniques for Electric Arc Furnaces in the Iron and Steel
Foundry Industry. EPA-450/2-78-024. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. June 1978.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Electric Arc Furnaces
in Ferrous Foundries - Background Information for Proposed
Standards. EPA-450/3-80-020a. Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1980.
4. Personal communication between J. Dewey, Alliance Technologies
Corporation, and S. Snow, Alliance Technologies Corporation.
Discussed ring hoods, close capture hoods, and negative-
pressure fabric filters. June 13, 1991.
5. Foundry Ventilation and Environmental Control. American
Foundrymen's Society Incorporated, Des Plaines, IL. .1972.
6. Cowherd Jr., C. and D. Wallace. Fugitive Emissions from Iron
- Foundries. EPA-600/7-79-195. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC. August 1979.
7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Summary of Factors
Affecting Compliance by Ferrous Foundries, Volume I-Text.
EPA-340/1-80-020. Office of General Enforcement, Washington,
DC. January 1981.
8. Foundry Environmental Control. American Foundrymen's Society
Incorporated, Des Plaines, IL. 1972. Chapter 8.
9. Personal communication between E. Wojciechowski, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency - Region V, and J. Dewey,
Alliance Technologies Corporation. Verified 95 percent hood
capture was being achieved in practice. June 3, 1991.
10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Electric Arc Furnaces
and Argon-Oxygen Decarburization Vessels in Steel Industry -
Background Information for Proposed Revisions to Standards.
EPA-450/3-22-020a. Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. July 1983.
3-38
-------
11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors. AP-42, Fourth Edition with
Supplements. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, NC. September 1985.
12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Pollution
Engineering Manual. AP-40, Second Edition. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
May 1973.
13. Scholtens, Michael J. Air Pollution Control: A Comprehensive
Look, in Pollution Engineering. Vol. 23, No. 5 pp 52-58.
May 1991.
14. Foundry Air Pollution Control Manual. Second Edition.
American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines, IL. 1967.
15. Stairmand, C. J. "The Design and Performance of Modern Gas-
Cleaning Equipment", in Journal of the Institute of Fuel.
February 1956.
16. Cowherd Jr., C., G. E. Muleski, and J. S. Kinsey. Control of
Open Fugitive Dust Sources. EPA-450/3-88-008. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. September
1988.
17. Cowherd Jr., C. and J. S. Kinsey. Identification, Assessment,
and Control of Fugitive Particulate Emissions. EPA-600/8-86-
023. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
August 1986.
3-39
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CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary purposes of this chapter are to identify
alternative control options for ferrous foundries and to estimate
PM-10 emissions from model plants employing each option. The
chapter presents four new control options for the ferrous foundry
model plants introduced in Chapter 2. Implementation of these PM-
10 options may exhibit secondary environmental impacts which
include water pollution, solid waste disposal, and energy
consumption; therefore, these topics are discussed briefly.
4.2 PM-10 EMISSIONS IMPACT
As discussed in Chapter 3, there are several collection
systems that are capable of. attaining 95 percent or greater
efficiencies in capturing furnace PM-10 emissions (based on two
studies of electric arc furnaces in the iron and steel industry) .1<2
Well-designed, single- and double-side draft hoods can also achieve
95 percent capture for non-furnace foundry processes. Process
total enclosures can achieve greater than 98 percent capture, and
building enclosures can generally achieve greater than 95 percent
capture.1 These capture efficiencies can be attained if the system
is installed with proper construction and placement of each capture
device, as well as sufficient airflow through the device.
Two removal systems, fabric filters and wet venturi scrubbers,
are appropriate for the foundry industry and are capable of
attaining 97 percent or greater removal efficiencies. Fabric
filters can achieve greater than 99 percent removal, and wet
venturi scrubbers with sufficient pressure drops [greater than
approximately 11.5 kPa (80 inches H20) ] can achieve more than 97
percent removal.
Good control of PM-10 emissions can be achieved by any
combination of the capture and removal systems mentioned above.
The four control options identified in this chapter present
4-1
-------
different approaches to increasing PM-10 control efficiencies at
the foundry.
Under Options I and II, the control systems for the processes
shown in Tables 4-1, 4-2, 4-4, and 4-5 are improved from the
baseline case resulting in lower PM-10 emissions from the
foundries. In contrast to the more comprehensive Options I and II,
Options III and IV, shown in Tables 4-3 and 4-6, improve only
pollution control systems for the melting furnaces, leaving the
baseline configurations in place for the other processes.
The changes made to the control systems under each option are
briefly described as follows: under Option I, capture- system
equipment is added and airflows are increased from the baseline
levels to achieve higher capture efficiencies at each process.
Under Option II, the baseline equipment and airflows remain the
same, but building evacuation is added to increase the total PM-10
control efficiency.
Under Option III, additional airflows are added to the
baseline ring hoods on the melting furnace and this airflow is
ducted to a fabric filter. Under Option IV, the furnace is
controlled as under Option I: a close-capture hood is retrofitted
to the furnace and ducted to a fabric filter.
The types of capture devices used (e.g., side draft hoods or
enclosures) were selected based on information published by the
American Foundrymen's Society and in other texts.1'3'4 The options
use the same types of removal systems assumed for baseline model
plants.
Control options specified for the ferrous foundries are
presented in Tables 4-1 through 4-6. Tables 4-7 through 4-12 list
the estimated PM-10 emissions from each foundry process and model
plant under the four control options. Tables 4-13 and 4-14
summarize the percent PM-10 reductions of PM-10 emissions from the
baseline case that would be achieved for each of the four options
given for gray iron foundries and for steel foundries.
4-2
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CONTROL OPTIONS FOR GRAY IRON FOUNDRIES
Percent Reduction from Baseline Emissions
Small Foundry Medium Foundry Large Foundry
Option I 74 74 69
Option II 90 90 85
Option III1 84 84 84
Option IV" 94 94 94_
*The furnace is the only source considered in Options III and IV.
TABLE 4-14. PM-10 EMISSION REDUCTIONS FROM BASELINE AND
CONTROL OPTIONS FOR STEEL FOUNDRIES
Option
Option
Option
Option
I
II
III3
IV'
Percent Reduction
Small Foundry
70
89
84
94
from Baseline Emissions
Large Foundry
65
83
84
94
"The furnace is the only source considered in Options III and IV.
4.3 WATER POLLUTION IMPACT
The composition of wastewater emitted from a foundry under the
four new control options is not expected to differ significantly
from the baseline wastewater composition. Any foundry using a wet
venturi scrubber is required, at a minimum, to maintain total
suspended particulate (TSP) and heavy metal concentrations below
local, State, and federal standards. Foundries also adjust
wastewater Ph, when necessary, to comply with applicable
regulations. Foundry wastewater is not expected to exhibit
significant biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). While wastewater
4-15
-------
composition is not expected to vary significantly between foundries
employing baseline or control options, wastewater volumes may be
higher from foundries employing options.
Table 4-15 lists materials which may be captured by the wet
venturi scrubber. Some of the organic materials (e.g., cereal
flours and vegetable oils) listed in Table 4-15 are either water
soluble or lighter than water and will be carried into the public
wastewater stream instead of settling in the clarifying pond.
These materials, however, are not expected to be present in
sufficient quantities to require BOD reduction treatment.
TABLE 4-15.
WASTE MATERIALS IN THE FERROUS FOUNDRY WET VENTURI AIR
STREAM5'*
Metallic Wastes
Nonmetallic Wastes
Iron (Fe)
Carbon (C)
Manganese (Mn)
Phosphorus (P)
Sulfur (S)
Nickel (Ni)
Chromium (Cr)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Vanadium (V)
Boron (B)
Tungsten (W)
Silicon (Si)
Copper (Cu)
Aluminum (Al)
Titanium (Ti)
Sand (SiO-)
Clay binders
Cereal binders:
Gelatinous corn flour
Treated corn starch
Rye flour
Wheat flour
Oil Binders:
Linseed oil
Cottonseed oil
Soybean oil
Other vegetable oils
Synthetic oils
Other binders:
Natural resins
Synthetic resins
Casein
Urea-formaldehyde
Pitch
Cement
Sodium silicate
Additives:
Sea coal
Wood flour
Silica flour
4-16
-------
Removal of TSP is the primary wastewater concern for foundries
using wet venturi scrubbers. Sedimentation is the primary method
used to remove TSP from wastewater. In the sedimentation process,
wastewater is allowed to slowly flow through a large basin or pond.
Gravity settles out the suspended particles, which fall to the
bottom of the basin where they form into a "sludge." If necessary,
flocculants may be added to the wastewater to help agglomerate the
particulate, allowing the particulate to settle more quickly.
After the sludge is removed from the clarifying pond, other
filtering, settling, or coagulating processes are used to remove
much of the remaining water from the sludge. The water removed
from the sludge is returned to the sedimentation pond, and the
remaining solids are disposed of as solid waste.
At foundries using cupola furnaces or electric arc furnaces,
impurities present in the scrap (e.g., undesired metals or paints)
may contain toxic heavy metals such as chromium or copper.
However, foundries using induction furnaces are less likely to
release large quantities of toxic metals, because induction
furnaces require high-purity feedstocks.8 If necessary, however,
toxic metals dissolved in the wastewater can be removed by methods
such as high-Ph lime coagulation or selective ion-exchange. The
need for these methods is usually greater at high-production
foundries (e.g., automotive industry foundries) which accumulate
large quantities of solid waste.
4.4 SOLID WASTE IMPACT
The amount of solid waste generated from the pollution control
systems is assumed to be approximately equal to the amount of
particulate emissions captured by the systems, because very little
of the particulate is lost to the wastewater stream. Nearly all of
the material captured (in both dry and wet forms) by the removal
system is eventually discarded at landfills. Material collected by
fabric filters is dry and is disposed of in dry form or is slightly
moistened to reduce dust emissions during transport and handling.
Most of the material collected by wet venturi scrubbers is disposed
4-17
-------
of as a wet sludge; however, a fraction of the material collected
by the wet venturi scrubber dissolves in the water and is discarded
in the wastewater stream.
Solid waste from foundries using induction furnaces is usually
classified as nonhazardous and is disposed of at nonhazardous waste
landfills. Any hazardous waste is disposed of at appropriate
hazardous waste landfills.
4.5 ENERGY IMPACT
While the four enhanced control options and the baseline
control option all use the same types of removal devices, the
fabric filter and the venturi scrubber, the four enhanced options
will each require more energy than the baseline control option.
These net energy increases are due to higher airflow rates required
by the options. The fabric filter uses additional energy for the
induced draft fans, and the wet venturi scrubber uses additional
energy for the induced draft fans and the water pumps.
The energy impacts associated with implementing the control
options presented in this document are approximately equal to the
increase in energy required over the baseline for the fans and
pumps associated with the control systems. This section describes
only the incremental energy requirements of the four options.
The control system energy requirements for each emissions
control option are summarized in Table 4-16 for gray iron foundry
model plants, and in Table 4-17 for steel foundry model plants.
The tables list the total yearly incremental (or increased) energy
requirements for the control system fan motors and pump motors for
each control option and model plant. Energy requirements are
assumed to be the same for either retrofit or new construction.
Smaller energy requirements for the removal systems (such as
dampers or control panels) were considered negligible and were not
included in these estimates. The data in Tables 4-16 and 4-17
represent only the energy requirements associated with the emission
control options, not the total energy requirements of the foundry.
Note that these tables contain the incremental energy consumption
4-18
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over the consumption associated with the baseline case.
Under Options I and II, furnace control system energy
consumption figures are shown separately from the total control
option energy consumption figures. The furnace figures are
provided separately so they may be compared to the energy
consumption figures in Options III and IV.
The amount of additional energy required (over baseline)
varies for each option. Option I was designed to increase removal
efficiencies over the baseline by adding or modifying capture
equipment and increasing airflow in the control system. The
resulting energy requirements are approximately 95 percent greater
than the baseline energy requirement for each model plant. Option
II was designed to increase removal efficiencies by adding building
evacuation to the baseline system. The energy requirement increase
over the baseline varies significantly, depending on the size of
the model plant. For the small, medium, and large model plant
sizes assumed for this document, the respective energy increases
were estimated to be 1,800, 410, and 140 percent. Comparison of
the Option II energy increases relative to the Option II control
efficiency increases indicates that Option III would not be energy-
effective for small plants, but may be energy-effective for medium
and large plants.
Option III was designed to increase the furnace control
efficiency over the baseline by increasing airflow through the
capture and removal systems. Because the Option III furnace
airflow was designed to be 25 percent greater than the baseline
airflow, Option III requires approximately 25 percent greater
energy than the baseline energy requirement of the furnace. Option
IV was designed to increase furnace control efficiency by adding a
close capture hood to the furnace. The resulting energy
requirement is approximately 95 percent greater than the baseline.
To estimate the energy requirements for four control options,
it was necessary to assume or estimate several airflow requirements
and equipment sizes or types. The most significant estimates were
related to the airflow requirements. Airflow requirements (in
actual cubic feet per minute) for melting furnace operations were
4-21
-------
obtained from EPA documents. ' Airflow requirements for other
processes were derived from airflows specified in foundry operating
permits obtained from the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency.11'12
For Option II, it was assumed that the model foundries would be
suitable for retrofit to building evacuation (e.g., no large
openings in the upper foundry walls, sufficient open space in the
lower foundry walls for make-up air, etc.). For Option III, it was
assumed that the furnace equipment present under baseline
conditions could contain or be retrofitted to contain the increased
airflows given for Option I. It was also assumed that induction
furnaces would be installed with ring hoods already in place.
4-22
-------
4.6 REFERENCES
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Electric Arc Furnaces
in Ferrous Foundries - Background Information for Proposed
Standards. EPA-450/3-80-020a. Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. May 1980.
2. Reasonably Available Control Measures for Fugitive Dust
Sources. Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Columbus,
Ohio. September 1980.
3. Foundry Ventilation Manual. American Foundrymen's Society,
Des Plaines, IL. 1985.
4. "Induction Furnace Emissions", in AFS International Cast
Metals Journal. American Foundrymen's Society, Des Plaines,
IL. June 1982.
5. Ekey, D.C., and W.P. Winter. Introduction to Foundry
Technology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY.
1958.
6. Casting Kaiser Aluminum. Second Edition. Kaiser Aluminum &
Chemical Sales, Inc., Chicago, IL. 1965.
7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Control Techniques for
PM-10 Emissions from Stationary Sources—Volume 1. EPA-450-3-
81-005a. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, NC. September 1982.
8. Oman, D.E. "Waste Minimization in the Foundry Industry", in
JAPCA, Volume 38 (7) :932-940. Air Pollution Control
Association, Pittsburgh, PA. July 1988.
9. "Solid Waste—no place to go", in Foundry Management &
Technology. Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH. March, 1991.
10. Fennelly, R.F. and P.D. Spawn. Air Pollution Control
Techniques for Electric Arc Furnaces in the Iron and Steel
Foundry Industries. EPA-450/2-78-024. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. June 1978.
11. TSP/PM-10 Emissions Inventory. Operating Permit for Cleveland
Casting Plant of Ford Motor Company, Brookpark, OH. March 22,
1988.
12. Foundry Operations. Permit for Arrow Pattern and Foundry
Company, Bridgeview, IL. December 5, 1973.
4-23
-------
CHAPTER 5. CONTROL COST ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents cost analyses of the four PM-10 control
options presented in Chapter 4. Capital costs, annual costs, and
cost effectiveness are calculated for each control option and model
plant. Section 5.2 summarizes the design parameters assumed for
the control systems used in the baseline and new control options.
Section 5.3 describes and summarizes the capital costs for the new
control options, including the design parameters used in the
calculations. Section 5.4 describes and summarizes the annual cost
analysis, and Section 5.5 summarizes the cost-effectiveness
estimates for the new control options and model plants.
The capital cost and annual cost estimates presented here
apply only to the emission sources included in Chapter 4 and do not
include other processes mentioned in Chapter 2. Although emission
rates were not available for the fluxing, alloying, and slag
handling processes, airflow rates could be estimated for
controlling emissions from these processes. The control system
capital and annualized costs include estimates for controlling
emissions from fluxing, alloying, and slag handling, but the cost-
effectiveness calculations are presented without these costs or
associated emissions.
5.2 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN PARAMETERS
The four control options presented in Chapter 4 achieve higher
PM-10 control efficiencies by adding new control equipment and
increasing airflows; in turn, these changes increase the capital
and annual costs for each plant. The following paragraphs describe
the equipment modifications and airflow changes incorporated in
each control option.
Option I achieves higher PM-10 control efficiencies with
increased airflows and the addition of several new collection
5-1
-------
devices. A close-capture hood is retrofitted to the melting
furnace, and a canopy hood is added to the holding furnace to
collect degassing, alloying, fluxing, and holding emissions.
Single side draft hoods are replaced by double side draft hoods at
the shakeout, sand muller, and sand screener/cleaner operations.
The new hoods installed for these processes require installation of
additional ductwork and fans. For all other processes, the
baseline capture equipment remains in place but is used with
increased airflows.
With the new collection equipment in place, Option I uses
approximately 125 percent more airflow than the baseline case; this
requires adding a new fabric filter and wet venturi scrubber, which
are used in conjunction with the baseline fabric filter and wet
venturi scrubber. The increased airflow requirements over the
baseline are too large to be handled by adding additional fabric
filter modules to the baseline baghouse or by minor modifications
to the baseline scrubber.
Option II achieves higher control efficiencies through one
major modification 'and one minor modification of the baseline
system. The major modification is retrofitting a building
evacuation system to the foundry. This change entails modifying
the plant roof, adding new ductwork, new fans and motors, and an
additional fabric filter unit (leaving the original fabric filter
unit in operation to control processes which have hoods). The
minor modification is ducting the melting furnace ring-hood to the
original fabric filter (in the baseline case, the ring hood was
ducted directly to the atmosphere).
Option III achieves higher PM-10 control efficiencies on the
furnace by increasing the airflow of the ring hood used in the
baseline case. In addition, new ductwork and fabric filter bags
were supplied to handle the larger airflow. This addition is
required because the furnace emissions are assumed to be
uncontrolled in the baseline case.
Finally, Option IV achieves higher control efficiencies on the
furnace by the same method as Option I. A new close-capture hood
combined with increased airflow is installed on the furnace at
5-2
-------
large foundries, and additional fans and removal equipment are
added. The only difference between Option IV and Option I is that
Option IV adds controls only to the furnace and not the rest of the
foundry.
To develop capital and annual costs for the four control
options, detailed assumptions were made about the types of
equipment chosen, the sizes of equipment used, and operation of the
equipment. Tables 5-1 and 5-2 list equipment types and equipment
operation parameters assumed for all model plants. Other equipment
sizing parameters, such as duct length and airflow rates, are given
in Tables 5-3 and 5-4 for the baseline case. Tables 5-5 through 5-
8 specify the equipment design parameters assumed for the modified
plants. For several items (such as duct length and fabric filter
area) , Tables 5-3 through 5-8 do not list the total dimensions
used, but list the incremental amount of equipment required beyond
the amount shown in Tables 5-3 and 5-4 for the baseline case.
The equipment assumptions specified in Tables 5-3 through 5-8
were based on information found in EPA documents or on engineering
estimate.1'2 Table 5-9 lists conversion factors which may be used
to convert the design parameters given in metric units into .English
(inch-pound) units.
5.3 BASIS FOR CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES
Capital costs represent the costs associated with purchasing
and installing new equipment. These costs are usually divided into
three categories: the base costs of purchasing the control
equipment and any auxiliary equipment; the costs of installing the
equipment; and the indirect labor costs of adding and testing the
new equipment. Costs are estimated by obtaining base equipment
costs from EPA cost manuals or industrial sources, then adding
installation and indirect labor costs, which are derived from the
base costs using algorithms provided in EPA cost manuals.1'2
Tables 5-10 and 5-11 lists the base equipment purchase costs
estimated for removal and auxiliary equipment. Purchase costs for
5-3
-------
TABLE 5-1. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS FOR FABRIC FILTER
Equipment
Assumption
Ductwork:
Material of construction
Duct thickness (cm)
Elbows
Radius of curvature/duct diameter
Angle (degrees)
Material of construction
Pressure drop across ductwork (kPa)
Pan/Motor:
System pressure drop (kPa)
Material of construction
Gas temperature (degrees Celsius)
Fan/Motor efficiency (%)
Motor cover
Starter
Fan type
Location of fan
Altitude of plant (m)
Fan sizing factor (correction for
temperature and altitude)
Inlet/Outlet dampers
Baghouse:
Baghouse life/Individual bag life (yrs)
Operator time (hours/shift)
Maintenance time (hours/shift)
Pressure drop across baghouse (kPa)
Bag material
PM-10 removal efficiency (%)
Gas temperature inlet (degrees Celsius)
Baghouse maintenance (man-minutes/bag)
Pulse-jet
Reverse air
Carbon steel
0.476
1.5
90
Carbon steel
1.25
3.75
Carbon steel
66
65
Drip proof
Magnetic
Backward curved
After the fabric filter
305
0.838
1 each
20/2
2-4
1-2
2.5
Polyester
99 or greater
66
10
15
5-4
-------
TABLE 5-2. GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS FOR WET VENTURI SCRUBBER
Equipment
Assumption
Ductwork:
Material of construction
Duct thickness (cm)
Elbows
Radius of curvature/duct diameter
Angle (degrees)
Material of construction
Pressure drop across ductwork (kPa)
Carbon steel
0.476
1.5
90
Carbon steel
1.25
Fan/Motor:
System pressure drop (kPa)
Material of construction
Gas temperature (degrees Celsius)
Fan/Motor efficiency (%)
Motor cover
Starter
Fan type
Location of fan
Altitude of plant (m)
Fan sizing factor (correction for
temperature and altitude)
21.25
Carbon steel
38
65
Drip proof
Magnetic
Radial tip
After the scrubber
305
0.912
Scrubber:
Life (yrs)
Operator time (hours/shift)
Maintenance time (hours/shift)
Pressure drop across scrubber (kPa)
Material of construction
PM-10 removal efficiency (%)
Gas temperature inlet (degrees Celsius)
Water flow rate (liters/1,000 actual m3/h)
10
2-8
1-2
11.2
Carbon steel
97 or greater
66
22.3
5-5
-------
TABLE 5-3. BASELINE CONFIGURATIONS FOR GRAY IRON MODEL PLANTS
Plant Siza
Fabric Filter Equipment
Ductwork:
Length (m)
Diameter (m)
Velocity (m/sec)
# of Elbows
# of Automatic control dampers
Flow rate (actual m3/h)
Baghousa :
Grain loading (g/actual m3)
Air-to-cloth ratio
Gross cloth area (m2)
# of Bags
Bag diameter, length (m,m)
Single bag area (m2)
Venturi Scrubber Equipment
Ductwork:
Length (m)
Diameter (m)
Velocity (m/sec)
# of Elbows
# of Automatic control dampers
Flow rate (actual m3/h)
Scrubber:
Grain loading (g/actual m3)
Metal thickness required (cm)
Pressure drop (kPa)
Small
30.5
1.4
20.3
3
1
108,250
0.1668
5.0
1,481
763
0.203, 3.05
1.94
Small
n/appa
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
Medium
45.7
2.6
20.3
3
1
389,715
0.1510
5.0
4,798
2,471
0.203, 3.05
1.94
Medium
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
Large
61.0
2.5
20.3
3
1
356,414
0.1400
5.0
4,388
2,260
0.230, 3.05
1.94
Large
61.0
2.24
20.3
3
1
282,430
0.2757
0.952
20
n/app - not applicable
5-6
-------
TABLE 5-4. BASELINE CONFIGURATIONS FOR STEEL MODEL PLANTS
Fabric Filter Equipment
Ductwork:
Length (m)
Diameter (m)
Velocity (m/sec)
# of Elbows
# of Automatic control dampers
Flow rate (actual m3/n)
Baghouse :
Grain loading (g/actual m3)
Air-to-cloth ratio
Gross cloth area (m2)
# of Bags
Bag diameter, length (m,m)
Single bag area (m2)
Venturi Scrubber Equipment
Ductwork:
Length (m)
Diameter (m)
Velocity (m/sec)
# of Elbows
# of Automatic control dampers
Flow rate (actual m3/h)
Scrubber :
Grain loading (g/actual m3)
Metal thickness required (cm)
Pressure drop (Kpa)
Small
30.5
1.24
20.3
3
1
86,603
5.0
1,422
732
0.203, 3.05
1.94
Small
n/appa
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
n/app
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Medium Large
45.7
1.17
20.3
3
1
78,625
5.0
1,291
665
0.230, 3.05
1.94
Medium Large
61.0
1.04
20.3
3
1
62,306
0.2741
0.476
20
* n/app - not applicable
5-7
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TABLE 5-7.
VENTURI SCRUBBER CONFIGURATION FOR GRAY IRON MODEL
PLANTS*
Equipment
Ductwork :
Incremental length (m)b
Diameter (m)
Velocity (m/sec)
Incremental # of elbows
Incremental # of auto dampers
Incremental flow rate (actual m3/h)
Scrubber:
Grain loading (g/actual m3)
Metal thickness required (cm)
Option I
Large Plant
30.5
2.03
20.3
1
I
237,694
0.0697
0.793
Option II
Large Plant
0
BLC
BL
0
0
0
BL
BL
Hoods:
Double side draft
*d
n/appe
venturi scrubber not used in Options III and IV
incremental - measurements over and above baseline
BL - same as baseline model plant
* - costs and parameters based on engineering assessment - see discussion in text
n/app - not applicable
5-11
-------
TABLE 5-8.
VENTURI SCRUBBER CONFIGURATION FOR STEEL MODEL
PLANTS'
Equipment
Ductwork :
Incremental length (m)b
Diameter (m)
Velocity (m/sec)
Incremental # of elbows
Incremental # of auto dampers
Incremental flow rate (actual m3/h)
Scrubber :
Grain loading (g/actual m3)
Metal thickness required (cm)
Option I
Large Plant
30.5
0.97
20.3
1
1
52,438
0.0696
0.476
Option II
Large Plant
0
BLC
BL
0
0
0
BL
BL
Hoods:
Double side draft
n/appe
venturi scrubber not used in Options III and IV
incremental - measurements over and above baseline
BL - same as baseline model plant
* - costs and parameters based on engineering assessment - see discussion in text
n/app - not applicable
5-12
-------
TABLE 5-9. CONVERSION FACTORS
Original Unit
Multiplied by
Yields
meters
meters
centimeters
square meters
meters per second
cubic meters per hour
liters
Megagrams
kilopascals
grams per cubic meter
kilowatts
3.281
39.372
0.394
10.765
196.8
0.589
0.264
1.102
4.015
0.437
1.341
feet
inches
inches
square feet
feet per minute
cubic feet per
minute
gallons
short ton
inches of water
grains per cubic
foot
brake horsepower
5-13
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fabric filters, wet venturi scrubbers, ductwork, fans, motors,
pumps, and canopy hoods were obtained from EPA documents.1-2 Costs
for single and double side draft hoods, ring hoods, close-capture
hoods, and building evacuation systems were not readily available
from vendors, but were estimated using engineering judgment and the
cost information given for canopy hoods. Where necessary, costs
given in pre-1991 dollars were adjusted to second quarter (April)
1991 dollars using cost indices given in Chemical Engineering.^
The costs and cost factors used to extrapolate capital costs
and annual costs from the purchase costs are given in Table 5-12.
The estimated capital costs are summarized in Tables 5-13 and 5-14.
The capital cost factors given in Table 5-12 are individually
multiplied by the total purchased equipment cost (shown in Tables
5-10 and 5-11) to develop the capital costs given in Tables 5-13
and 5-14. Note that the costs given in Tables 5-10 and 5-11 and
also in Tables 5-13 and 5-14 are the incremental costs of adding
new control system equipment and increasing airflows. Capital
costs incurred in purchasing the baseline equipment are not
included in the costs shown in Tables 5-10, 5-11 and 5-13, 5-14.
Removing baseline equipment and retrofitting new equipment in
an operating plant is more expensive than installing new equipment
in a new plant. The costs of retrofits specified in this document
are assumed to be equal to the purchase cost of a new installation
plus a "retrofitting effort" cost of 25 percent of the new
installation purchase cost.4
5.4 BASIS FOR ANNUAL COST ESTIMATES
In contrast to capital costs, which represent the costs
associated with purchasing and installing new equipment, annual
costs represent the yearly costs of operating and maintaining the
control systems and the annualized costs of capital recovery.
Annual costs are usually divided into two groups, direct annual
costs and indirect annual costs. Direct annual costs include
utilities, operating labor, maintenance labor, maintenance
5-17
-------
TABLE 5-12. GENERAL COSTS AND COST FACTORS
Factor or Cost
Capital Costs:
Instrumentation and controls
Freight and sales tax
Foundation and supports
Handling and erection
Electrical
Piping
Insulation for ductwork
Painting
Engineering and supervision
Construction and field expenses
Contractors fee
Start-up
Performance test
Contingencies
Annual Costs:
Electricity ($/Kwh)
Water ($/l,000 liter)
Compressed air cost ($/m3/hour)
Operator labor rate ($/hour)
Supervisor rate (fraction of operator
labor)
Maintenance labor rate ($/hour)
Material
Waste disposal ($/Mg)
Annual interest rate (%)
Capital recovery factor
Overhead (fraction of operator, supervisor,
maintenance, and material costs)
Property tax
Insurance
Administration
Fabric
Filter
0.10
0.08
0.04
0.50
0.08
0.01
0.07
0.02
0.10
0.20
0.10
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.075
n/appa
0.094
12.19
0.15
13.41
1.00
23.14
10
0.1175
0.60
0.01
0.01
0.02
Wet Venturi
Scrubber
0.10
O'.OS
0.06
0.40
0.01
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.075
2.57
n/app
12.19
0-.15
13.41
1.00
23.14
10
0.1627
0.60
0.01
0.01
0.02
•n/app = not applicable
5-18
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material, dust disposal, and sludge disposal. Indirect annual
costs include overhead, property tax, insurance, general
administration, and annualized capital recovery charges. Annual
costs are derived from capital costs by means of algorithms given
in EPA cost documents. The costs and cost factors used to
determine annual costs are given in Table 5-12. The annual costs
for the model plants using the modified control systems are given
in Tables 5-15 and 5-16.
As with the capital costs shown in Tables 5-13 and 5-14, the
annual costs given in Tables 5-15 and 5-16 contain only those
incremental costs associated with the additional controls installed
beyond the baseline. Annual costs already incurred under baseline
conditions are not included in the amounts given in Tables 5-15 and
5-16.
5.5 COST EFFECTIVENESS
Cost effectiveness is defined as the total annualized costs
per annual Mg of PM-10 emissions controlled. The cost
effectiveness is calculated by dividing the incremental cost of
implementing a new control option (the annualized cost of control
system modifications) divided by the amount of PM-10 removed by the
new control option that exceeds the baseline removal amount. The
cost effectiveness for each control option and model plant is
listed in Tables 5-17 and 5-18. Note that the cost effectiveness
for Options I and II contains both a furnace and a total foundry
number. This was done to examine the possible cost effectiveness
of the furnace compared to the total foundry.
5-22
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5.6 REFERENCES
1. Neveril, R.B. Capital and Operating Costs of Selected Air
Pollution Control Systems. EPA-450/5-80-002. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. December 1978.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. OAQPS Control Cost
Manual. EPA-450/3-90-006, Fourth Edition. Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.
January 1990.
3. "Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index and Marshall & Swift
Equipment Cost Index", in Chemical Engineering-, Vol. 98(4).
McGraw Hill, New York, NY. April 1990.
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Control Technologies
for Hazardous Air Pollutants. EPA-625/6-86-014. Air and
Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC. 1986.
5-28
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-450/3-92-Q12
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Alternative Control Techniques Document - For
PM-10 Emissions From Ferrous Foundries
5. REPORT DATE
April 1992
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
EPA/OAR/OAQPS/ESD
. AUTHOR(S)
Philindo J. Marsosudiro and W. Scott Snow
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Alliance Technologies Corporation
100 Europa Drive, Suite 150
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-D9-0173 WA 2/212
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Emissions Standards Division (MD-13)
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
EPA Work Assignment Manager: David F. Painter (919) 541-5515
16. ABSTRACT
This Alternative Control Techniques (ACT) document describes available control
techniques for reducing PM-10 emission levels from ferrous (gray iron and steel)
foundries. This document contains information on the formation of PM-10 and
uncontrolled PM-10 emissions from foundries using electric induction furnaces
for melting and sand molds for casting. The following PM-10 control techniques
for ferrous foundries are discussed: fabric filters and wet venturi scrubbers.
For each control technique, achievable controlled PM-10 emission levels, capital
and annual costs, cost effectiveness, and environmental and energy impacts are
presented.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
Ferrous Foundries
PM-10 Emissions
Sand molds
Fabric Filters
Wet Venturi Scrubbers
Costs of PM-10 Control
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Not classified
>1. NO. OF PAGES
150
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Not classified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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