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22
If on the other hand, the municipality is supplying steam which the
customer does not otherwise have the capability of producing, tlu-n the
municipality must guarantee the reliability of the supply. Although
the municipality's costs will go up, the value of the steam will also
go up. The steam would now have a value equivalent to what the customer
would have to spend to produce it himself.
Market Opportunities for Steam
Most metropolitan areas have one or more major outlets for steam.
Yet, despite the fact that proven technology exists for generating steam
from municipal solid waste, constraints to its use has made the marketing
of the steam a very difficult task.
District Heating & Cooling Systems - There are about 450 commercial
and campuci district steam heating systems operating in this country.^
Many of these systems also distribute chilled water for cooling
buildings during warm weather. Table 2 lists some of the cities which
have steam systems serving their central business or industrial areas.
The fuel crisis has also encouraged other cities to consider such
systems in an effort to make more efficient use of limited, and increas-
ingly more costly fuels.
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23
TABLE 2
SELECTED CITIES SERVED BY DOWNTOWN HEATINC/COOLINC LOOPS*
Akron, OH. Hartford, CN.
Allentown, PA. Houston, TX.
Atlanta, GA. Indianapolis, IN.
Baltimore, MD. Los Angeles, CA.
Birmingham, AL. St. Paul, MN.
Boston, MA. Nashville, TN.
Cheyenne, WY. New York, NY.
Cleveland, OH. Oklahoma City, OK-
Dayton, OH. Omaha, NB.
Denver, CO. Philadelphia, PA.
Detroit, MI. Pittsburg, PA.
Eugene, OR. San Diego, CA.
Grand Rapids, MI. Seattle, WA.
Harrisburg, PA. Tulsa, OK.
*International District Heating Association. 1973 Rate
Reference Book. Pittsburgh
Steam is distributed at a low pressure, generally in the neigh-
borhood of 250 pounds per square i/ach, which can be easily provided
by a solid waste disposal facility. Unlike the demand for electricity,
which has certain peak periods, steam demand is fairly constant
throughout the day and from day to day. Seasonal variations can be
significant, but if the utility also distributes chilled water it
can operate its chilling plant with a steam-driven turbine. In any
event, steam demand can be sufficient to accomodate a constant
amount of steam produced in an energy recovery plant during most,
if not all, of the year.
Because steam cannot be transported for more than about two
miles, the solid waste plant rat be located close to the steam
users. This will usually mean Jie central part of the city.
Although land costs may ,>e higher, solid waste hauling costs should
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24
be minimized, because of the proximity of the plant to the waste
generators.
Steam produced in a solid waste disposal facility could he
sold to a district heating utility. The value of the HI cam to tho
utility would be equivalent to the price it would pay for the
amount of fuel needed to produce the steam. However, if by purchasing
this steam, the utility is able to expand its service to customers
whom it previously lacked the capacity to serve, then the steam
would have a higher value equivalent to the utility's own cost for
producing steam. ,
In cities where no steam distribution network exists, the
municipality can consider the installation of a complete solid
waste steam generating incinerator and the steam distribution
network. To minimize the costs, this could possibly be tied to a
major urban renewal project or the construction of a large industrial
park or complex. Although the municipality would then be able to sell
the steam at a much higher price, it would also be responsible for a
much higher capital investment. Because it would be the only source of
supply for its customers, it would also have to assume the responsi-
bility for total reliability. A back-up system would be needed to
provide steam when the incinerator was out of service or if there
was an interruption in the delivery of refuse to the facility.
There are two systems currently being constructed that will
produce steam for uti.14tv distribution. The first system, being
built in Baltimore, Maryland with grant assistance from EPA, will
produce steam for sale to the local utility.21 The utility will
use the steam in its existing steam distribution loop. Revenue
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25
from the sale of steam will amount to at least $3.50 per ton of
refuse.
In the second project, the city of Nashville created an ludepen
dent, non-profit authority, which will sell steam and chilled water
to commercial and government office buildings in downtown Nashville,
using refuse-fired waterwall incinerators as the primary steam
source. Fossil-fuel-fired, back-up boilers will also be avail-
able. Steam revenues will generate $10.00 per ton of refuse. This
price, nearly three times that being paid for Baltimore's steam,
reflects the cost of the complete steam generation and distribution
system. Chilled water, which is solid at a much higher price, will
provide an even greater amount of revenue - about $25.00 per ton of
refuse.
Industrial Plants - Large inustrial facilities such as paper mills,
food processers and major manufacturing plants are also steam customers.
Industrial customers which operate their facilities 24 hours per
day are preferred because a waterwall incinerator is designed for
around-the-clock operation. Some industrial users may place specific
constraints on the quantities of steam to be delivered at certain
given times and will most likely want to specify temperature and
pressure. These factors must be identified and incorporated in the
design of the incinerator.
Although it is impossible to predict the long term effect of
the energy crisis on industrial needs, fuel shortages should improve
the marketability of a reliable steam supply.
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26
Many cities have single industries large enough to utilize all
the steam that would be produced from a large solid waste facility.
In Saugus, Massachusetts a 1,700 ton per day waterwall incinerator is
being built. All of the steam produced in this plant (about 350,000
pounds per hour) will be used in an adjacent General Electric Company
Plant for heating and cooling, electric power generation and a variety
23
of manufacturing and testing operations.
Steam Electric Power Plants - Although steam electric power plants
use tremendous quantities of steam it may be difficult to develop
satisfactory marketing arrangements in this sector.
The costs of accomodating an outside steam source may exceed the
value of the expected fuel savings. Modification of the pressurized
components of the power plant could involve costly construction
operations and could require that the power plant be kept out of
service for a lengthy period of time. Also, a boiler cannot be
be operated at the same efficiency* both with and without the
supplemental steam. For one of the two modes additional fuel will
be needed to obtain the same energy output.
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27
The total amount of electricity (demand) that a utility must
produce varies considerably throughout the day and from day to day.
The utility's most efficient plants are used continuously to supply
the minimum demand (base load) on the system while the less efficient
or otherwise more costly plants are used to supply the peak demands.
Thus each power plant within a utility system, and in fact, each
boiler within each plant will have a different rate of utilization
(load factor) depending on its relative operating efficiency. The
utility would only be able to buy steam when the outfitted boiler is "on-
line" . This would be 75 percent or more of the year for a base
load unit, but could be 25 percent or less for a peak loaded unit.
One way to overcome the problems of retrofitting an existing
unit would be to build a new base load superheater and turbine -
*Efficiency - Each power plant requires a certain number of BTU's
of fuel to generate 1 kilowatt hour (kwhr) of electricity. The
less fuel needed, the more efficient is the plant. One kilowatt
hour equals 3,412 BTU's but the maximum difference between the
safe operating temperature of the power plant and the temperature
at at which heat can be discarded to the environment, limits power
plant efficiency to a maximum of about 40 percent. Therefore
the most efficient steam electric power plants require about 8,500
BTU's per kwhr. Most modern r^er plants use about 10,000 BTU's
per kwhr (33 percent efficiency).
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28
generator set especially to take steam produced in the solid waste
facility. The Florida Power and Light Company, in seeking an
arrangement whereby it could purchase energy from a planned
facility in Dade County proposed such an arrangement.2^ The generating
facility would be built by the company building the solid waste
facility, but it would be "bought" by Florida Power & Light.
Florida Power and Light would then buy the steam and also pay for
the facility on a "units of electricity produced" basis. This
requires capital investment by the municipality and increases
the financial risk because reimbursement is tied to production.
Systems for Producing Steam
Systems available for the generation of steam from solid waste
include waste heat boilers, waterwall incinerators, and refuse-fired
support boilers.
Waste Heat Boilers - In addition to their use in many industrial
processes, waste-heat boilers have been used in the early design of
heat recovery incinerators in this country. The boiler package is
placed in the flue following the secondary combustion chamber of a
conventional refractory lined, mechanical grate incinerator. The
poor operating characteristics of refractory lined incinerators has
made this approach obsolete.25
A waste heat boiler is employed quite effectively, however,
in a new system currency being built in Baltimore, Maryland.
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29
In this plant,which was designed by Monsanto, the boiler follows
a pyrolysis kiln. The main components of the system are shown
schematically in fig. 5. Heat cannot be recovered from the kiln
directly because it is used to accomplish the pyrolysis of the
solid waste. O^ce the pyrolysis gases are formed they are com-
busted in a separate afterburner and the heat that IR released is
then recovered as steam using a package type, waste heat boiler.
Two hundred thousand pounds per hour of steam will be recovered
from the processing of 1,000 tons of solid waste per day. The
steam will be transmitted 3/4 of a mile, by pipeline, to an exist-
ing steam distribution system which is operated by the local utility.
Waterwall Incinerator - Current incinerator design practices have
almost entirely replaced the refractory lined combustion chambers
with waterwall furnaces. This type of construction consists of
furnace walls constructed of vertically arranged metal tubes joined
side-to-siue with metal fins. Radiant energy from the burning of
refuse is absorbed by water passing through the tubes. Additional
boilers packages, located in the back passages of the incinerator,
control the conversion of this water to steam of a specified tempera-
ture and pressure. By transferring the heat released "by combustion to
the water, the volume of air needed to keep the operating temperature
of the incinerator at an acceptable level is reduced. This in turn
reduces the size of the uu*.~ and its air pollution control equipment.
In fact, the volume of gas entering the air pollution control equipment
will be only 25 percent that of an air-cooled, refractory unit. So
effective is this means ~f temperature control that this type of con-
struction has become standard even in incinerators not having heat
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30
CLEAN AIR TO
ATMOSl'HfcRE
GAS
STACK
RESIDUE
RECEIVING
MAGNET
WATER _
QUENCHING +
FERROUS
METAL
Figure 5. The Monsanto system recovers steam following the pyrolysis of municipal solid waste.
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31
recovery provisions.
Refuse Fired Support Boilers - In Europe many municipalities combine
waterwall refuse units with separate fossil fired boilers in one
26
facility. Steam from the two separate units is integrated to
drive one turbine/generator system. This arrangement is shown in
fig. 6 where the unit on the left is a refuse fired boiler and the
one on the right is coal fired.
One reason this concept is widely used in Europe, but not presently
used at all in this country is that unlike this country, many
European municipal governments are responsible for solid waste
disposal, power generation, distribution of steam for district
heating and the operation of electrically powered transportation
systems.
Markets for Electricity
Like steam, electricity produced from solid waste would be indis-
tinguishable from electricity produced by any conventional method. The
problem in marketing electricity, though, is that it can only be mar-
keted to the electric utility serving the area, because within that
service area the utility is generally exempt from competition. The only
exception to that would be where the utility is municipally owned, but
27
this amounts to only 10 percent of the nations generating capacity.
The price that a utility will pay for electricity will depend upon
whether it is used to satisfy base load or peak load demands. Although
peak load marketing will command a much higher price, a municipality
would need to sell electricity en ? continuous basis (i.e. os base load)
in order to maintain a continuous solid waste disposal operation.
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32
Solid waste fired
boiler tubes
Solid waste
burning grate
<Common flue
*Coal fired coal burners
Pulverized coal burners
Figure 6. Separate solid waste and coal-fired boilers produce
steam for one turbine.
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33
A municipality considering tnซ; sale of electricity to a utility
should seek to establish a floating price for the electricity whereby
the price would rise as the demand on the utility increased. The price
would then be a function of the incremental direct costs the utility
would incur in producing the additional electricity.
Systems for Producing Electricity
The fuel and steam producing systems discussed earlier can be expanded
to include power generation. An economic analysis would have to be under-
taken to determine if the revenue produced from the sale of the electricity
would be enough to offset the additional capital and operating costs of
the equipment.
The direct generation of electricity is being explored through a
28
research project funded by the Environmental Protection Agency. Start-
ing from a basic concept, the Combustion Power Company has developed a
completely integrated solid waste combustion - power generation system.
Current efforts invlove the shakedown of a 100 tou per day pilot plant.
Incoming municipal refuse is shredded and air classified to
remove noncombustibles. Metal and glass are further separated for recovery.
The combustible fraction is pneumatically transported to an intermediate
storage facility and from there into a pressurized fluid bed combustor.
The hot, high pressure gasec from the combustor pass through several stages
of air cleaning equipment to remove particulates. The cleaned gases are
then expanded through a gas turbine that will generate 1,000 KW of
electricity. Although the pilot plant operates at only 45 PSIG, commercial
plants vould operate at pressure in excess of 100 PSIG. A schematic of
this system is shown in Figure 7.
Performance problems which hav caused accelerated deterioration of
the turbine blades fcave slov^d the development of this process. This
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GENERATOR
EXHAUST
DUCTS
Figure 7. The CPU-400 produces electricity from the combustion
of solid waste in a high pressure fluidized bed.
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35
and other problems must be solved before this is a technically and
economically feasible system for energy recovery.
ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS
The key to sucessful implementation of a solid waste energy recovery
program is selecting a system which is compatible with the energy market
as well as the community's solid waste disposal requirements. Once a
suitable market has been identified, an appropriate system can be designed
which will convert the solid waste energy potential into a marketable
form.
Comparison of Market Opportunities
The most important characteristics of the market lor solid waste
produced fuels and energy are that it be large and that it be favorably
located. The size of the market is very important because the customer
may have to absorb the cost of process changes needed to accommodate
the new energy source. This is particularly true when producing an oil
or dry prepared fuel because special storage and firing facilities are
needed, and these fuels would only be fired as a small percentage of the
total fuel load.
Steam and gas can only be transported very short distances and
although the dry and liquid fuels can be transported farther trans-
portation costs should be minimized wherever possible. Therefore, the
preferred market would be a facilily located near the point of solid
waste generation.
Steam electric power plants -re the most obvious market to be given
initial consideration. The energy value of solid waste, on a per capita
basis, amounts to between 5 and 10 --rcent of the per capita use of fossil
fuels for electric power gene ::ion. The multiplicity of plants comprising
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36
most utility systems increases the probability that an acceptable market car
be found.
Steam distribution systems are also a good prospective market. The
rising cost and scarcity of fuels is even creating a demand for new
or expanded systems. These systems are centrally located in order to
serve the greatest concentration of customers, so haul distance would be
minimized. There is less fluctuation in load than in electric pover plants,
and the lower operating temperature and pressure is compatible with the
constraints of a refuse fired system.
Comparison of Fuel Types
The key to marketing energy from solid waste is producing an energy
form that can be sold and used without consideration to the fact that it
is derived from solid waste. In addition, the type of fuel produced
should be storable and transportable so that the solid waste facility
can be built and operated independently of the fuel market.
Steam and electricity satisfy the first objective, but neither can
be stored and steam can be transported only very short distances.
The solid and liquid fuels can be transported and can even be
stored for brief periods of time (several days to several weeks).
However, both fuels require the user to install special storing and
firing facilities. In addition, the user must follow special handling
procedures to minimize problems of air pollution and corrosion.
Gaseous fuels are less likely to require special handling or need
separate facilities for storage and firing, but those currently being
produced cannot economically be compressed for extended storage and shipment.
The best of the gaseous fuels cannot be shipped more than two miles.
Comparison of Technological Altersr.tiyes
Municipalities require solid waste disposal systems that are operationally
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37
reliable and involve a minimutu of wechnical risk. Futhermore, the
system must do an environmentally acceptable job at an economic cost -
although not necessarily at the least possible cost.
Risk and reliability are usually evaluated through examination of
existing, full size systems in actual operation. A number of energy
recovery systems which are currently being proposed to cities, however,
have not had this long term operating experience. These systems have
generally been developed by private companies which hold patent rights
to the process. Risks of procurement of such systems can be reduced by "turn
key" solicitations subject to detailed performance specifications.
Municipalities can also minimize risk and avoid large capitol
investments by entering long-term contracts for private ownership and
operation of the solid waste disposal/energy recovery system.
Waterwall incinerators are already in widespread use in this
country. While there is little risk of technical failure, the long-term
reliability of these systems has not yet been established. Waterwall
incinerators are usually the most costly of the energy recovery systems,
on both a capitol cost and operating cost basis.
The 1,000 TPD pyrolysis - steam recovery system in Baltimore will be in full
operation in late 1974. It is being built under a turn-key, fixed price
contract with guarantees on the daily throughput, amount of air emissions
and extent of burnout.
The system expected to be the least costly of the energy recovery
options is the use of dry shredded waste as a prepared fuel. One full
size plant has been in operacif-x for over two years and several others
are presently under construction. This system has been particularly
attractive because energy can be recovered with a minimum amount of
processing.
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38
Both oil and gas recovery through pyrolysis^ and direct conversion
to electricity are undergoing demonstrations at less than full size.
Another generation of hardware will be needed before wi tit-spread utl 1 l?,nt Ion
can be expected.
The only energy recovery options available now are waterwall incin-
eration and prepared refuse fuel systems, although neither has been com-
pletely evaluated. Steam recovery through pyrolysis should follow closely
behind there, but the other options will not be ready for full scale use
until the late 1970's. Some acceleration of this can be expected if
the companies producing the systems assume the development risk through
direct ownership of the facility or by offering them initially on
a "no-risk" basis.
Selecting an Alternative
Implementing a solid waste energy recovery program is for more
complex than just selecting a technology. It first, and above all else,
requires securing a reliable and realistic market.
All aspects of the market must be carefully understood by both the
user of the fuel or energy and the municipality supplying it. The con-
straints of the market will then indicate the technical alternatives
available. Table 3 highlights the various major markets for solid waste
energy and the possible energy forms that can satisfy those markets.
Selecting a technology will then be narrowed to just one or a few alterna-
tives. The final selection of a system will depend on the status of
its availability, and thu* 't's relative risk, and the estimated net
operating cost.
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39
T*-3LE 3
MARKETS FOR SOLID WASTE ENERGY
Fuel Uses
Solid Waste Energy Form
Conventional
Energy Source
Steam
Electricity
User
Coal
Gas
Oil
-Industrial Boilers and
Furnaces
-Power Plants*
-Residential and Com-
merical Heating
-Industrial Boilers and
Furnaces
-Power Plants*
-Residential and Com-
merical Heating
-Industrial Boilers and
Furnaces
-Transportation
-Power Plants*
Electricity
-Utility Distribution
-Industrial Plants
-Municipal Lighting
-Mass Transit Systems
Steam
-Utility Distribution
*Electric or steam utility plants.
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40
APPENDIX A - ENERGY DEMAND
In examining the prospects for marketing solid waste fuels, it is
helpful to review the forms and usts of conventional fuels. Total
oo
energy demand in the U. S. in 1970 was 67.8 quadrillion BTU's.
This is equivalent to 32.5 million barrels of oil per day.* This
energy is supplied by three major fossil fuel sources-oil, coal, and
gas; and by hydroelectric, geothermal, and nuclear power. Transportation,
industrial operations and residential-commercial users account for the
major uses of energy. The matrix in figure 8 shows the relationship
between energy sources and uses.
Coal
Coal has been the staple of American energy supply. In addition to
its abundance, coal is the cheapest source of energy currently available.
Unfortunately, when coal is burned its high sulfur and ash contents
contribute to air pollution control problems. Other environmental
problems associated with a major percentage of our coal result from
strip mining and the subsequent release of acid-mine drainage. Coal's
predominant use in this country is in large industrial and utility
furnaces or boilers where the cost of adequate air pollution control
equipment can be economically absorbed. The BTU content of American
coals range from 11,000 to 14,000 BTU/lb.
*Calculated by converting the energy produced from the other fuel forms
to the equivalent amount of oil needed to obtain the same amount of
energy.
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41
pu
In .hJ/0 the U. S. consumed 13.9 million bucrcts ol. oil piปv i\ปy.
01 thJs, 3.:> ma llion Imiii-i;- wi.-re imports. A,tl lurtltrr iiu-i I-.JSCM Ja
oil consumption are a] so projecLec! to come from imports, uu/stly from
30
the Middle East. With this supply having become politically vulnerable,
new sources oi oil will be needed to satisfy our increasing demand.
Crude oil is processed, by various refining operations, into more
than 100 different products. The lighter (lower density) fuels are
gasoline, diesel fuel and jet fuels. These fuels are characterized
by good vaporization and burning properties, low quantities of impur-
ities and good storage stability. They account for better than 50
percent of the liquid fuel market and are utilized primarily for
transportation.
Fuel oils are heavier than the fuels used for transportation and
are required to meet less stringent performance and quality characteris-
tics. These fuels are graded from No. 1 to No. 6 with the higher num-
bered grades having higher viscosities and lower purity requirements.
Grade Nos. 5 and 6 which require pre-heating facilities for pumping
and storing the fuel, are used in large Industrial boilers and fur-
naces where additional costs for handling and firing facilities can
be accomodated. The heating value of liquid fuels varies from 110,000
to 150,000 BTU/gal, with the heavier fuels having the higher BTU con-
tents.
Gas
The demand for gaseous fuels currently exceeds the available supply.
Gas is a particularly popular fuel T>ocause price regulations make it
cheaper than most other fuels It is.easily stored, shipped, and fired,
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42
01
o
0
O
C
O
u
P,
S
CD
0)
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43
and it burns essentially poll-tie free.
The major gaseous fuel is natural gas, which ir an odorless,
colorless gas that accumulates in the upper part of oil or gas wells.
It consists chiefly of methane, and has a heating value between 1,000
and 1,100 BTU/cu. ft.
Propane, and butane are produced in the process of refining petro-
leum. Their heating values are considerably higher than natural gas.
Because they are easily liquidfied under pressure they are usually
"bottled" in steel cylinders or shipped in large bulk-type pressurized
tanks. They are used either as standby supplies for users of natural
gas or as fuel for stoves, trucks, buses, etc.
There are also many types of manufactured gas which are produced by
heating various solid fuels under specifically controlled conditions.
These gasses are referred to as coal gas, coke-oven gas (or coke),
producer gas, blast-furnace gas, water gas, etc. The heating valve of
these gases ranges from 100 to 750 BTU/cu. ft. In many instances they
are used by the industry producing them, because their heating valve is
low, and it is not generally economical to compress them for shipment or
storage.
Electrical Generation
The electric utility industry is both a supplier of energy to
consumers and at the same time, is itself a major consumer of fuels.
In fact, in 1970, 25 percent of the energy used in the U. S. was con-
sumed by the electric generating industry. More than half of this fuel
input came from coal, with gas making up 24 percent and oil 15 percent.
Nuclear energy supplied only 2 percent of the industry's needs in 1970.
Although nuclear generating plants are expected to supply 53 percent of
the total utility load by 1>9'J, the use of coal and oil is also projected
to increase during that time period, but at a less rapid rate.
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44
REFERENCES
1. Energy Resources Report, 2(10): 93, March 8, 1974.
2. Understanding the "national energy dilemma." Washington, The
Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1973.
tables C and E.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Second report to Congress,
resource recovery and source reduction. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1974. p.3.
4. Lowe, Robert A. Energy conservation through improved solid waste
management. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
April, 1974. p. 11. (In press.)
5. Calculation from data in "Problems and opportunities in management1
of combustible solid waste." Washington, International Research
and Technology Corporation, October, 1972. 508p.
6. Fryliftg, G.R., ed. Combustion engineering, rev.ed. New York,
Combustion Engineering, Inc., 1966. p. 27-1.
7. Berry, E.E. Municipal solid waste as a fuel in cement manufacture -
a preliminary evaluation. Ontario, Canada, Ontario Research
Foundation, April, 1972. 47p.
8. Lowe, R.A. Energy recovery from waste. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1973. 24p.
9. Summary report, city of Ames, Iowa, solid waste recovery system.
Omaha, Gibbs, Hill, Durham & Richardson, Inc., February 6, 1974.
20p.
10. Press release. Chicago, office of the Mayor, August 9, 1973.
11. Liabilities into assets. Environmental Science and Technology, 8(3):
March, 1974.
12. Press release. St. Louis, Union Electric Company, February 28, 1974.
13. Levy, S.J. Pyrolysl- if municipal solid waste. Washington, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Unpublished paper.
14. Finney, C.S., and D. Gar&ett. The flash pyrolysis of solid waste.
Presented at Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical
Enginerrs, Philadplphta, November 11, 1973. 20p.
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45
15. Solid waste disposal, resource recovery. New York, Environmental
Systems Department, Union Carbide Corporation, undated. 8p.
4
16. Methane recovery demonstration project. Los Angeles, Los Angeles
Department of Waste and Power, 1974. 4p.
17. Proposed research project, methane recovery from landfills.
Newport Beach, California, NRG Technology, Inc., undated
fact sheet. 3p.
18. Wise, D.L., et al. Fuel gas production from solid waste; semi-
annual progress report. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Dynatech
Corp., January 31, 1974. 147p.
19. Steam electric power plants. Paramus, N.J., Burns and Roe, Inc.,
June, 1973. p. IV-19. (Draft report.)
20. Thermal. Nashville, Nashville Thermal Transfer Corp., undated.
21. Beilski, E.T. and A. Ellenberger. Landgard for solid wastes.
In Proceedings; 1974 National Incinerator Conference, Miami,
May 12-15, 1974. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
p. 331-336.
22. Thermal
23. Garbage power pays off. Business Week, No. 2288: 62F-63F, July 14, 1973.
24. Methods for participation by the Florida Power and Light Company
with prospective bidders for the Dade County solid waste disposal
facilities. Miami, Florida Power and Light Company, April 4, 1974.
Draft statement.
25. Decision makers guide in solid waste management. Washington, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, undated, p. 116. (In press*)
26. Sommerlad, Robert E. European experience, solid waste fueled
central energy conversion plants. In Proceedings; Solid waste -
a source of energy, Nashville, October 11-12, 1973. University
of Tennessee.
27. Burns and Roe. Steam electric power plants, p. III-4.
28. Chapman, R.A., and F.R. Wocasek. CPU-400 solid-waste-fired gas
turbine development. In Proceedings; 1974 National Incinerator
Conference, Miami, May 12-15, 1974. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p. 347-357.
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46
29. U.S. energy outlook. Washington, Ntitiontil Petroleum Council,
December, 1972. p. 16.
f
30. U.S. energy outlook, p. 273.
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SOLID-WASTE-AS-FUEL SYSTEMS
Prepared solid waste can be used as a low sulfur supplementary \
fuel for existing stean or steam-electric coal or oil-fired boilers.
The concept is currently being demonstrated by the City of St. Louis,
Union Electric Company and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
As a result of the St. Louis demonstration, many cities and
electric utilities have expressed significant interest in investigating
the local feasibility,of the concept. Several systems are now in the
engineering design phase and others are in the late planning stage.
Several companies-are presently marketing turn-key, fixed-price
design and construction contracts for solid-waste-as-fuel systems.
Some-of these companies are offering to finance, own, and operate
the facilities, and then charge the users of the system a fixed fee
per ton of waste. .",,'.,
Although the system being demonstrated at St. Louis and the various
other systems being marketed throughout the country are not identical,
they do have several steps in common: . :, . - v ;
Size Reduction "-..
The particle size of the waste is reduced to less than one inch,
Non-Combustible Separation ; _.. ... ;. '.
The glass, metals, and other dense materials are removed to
upgrade the haat value of the fuel, to reduce materials handling
problens, and to recover materials for reuse where economically
and technically feasible. Although termed "non-combustible," any
material that will not burn completely in the boiler designated
to receive the waste is usually removed by most systems. In
suspension-fired boilers, for example, where dense materials
quickly fall unburned to the bottom of the boiler, dense pieces
of wcod, plastic, rubber and leather are removed from the fuel
in rcost systems although they -re technically combustible.
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2-
Resi due Disposal.
The non-combustible materials that are separated from the fuel
fraction and not recovered for reuse must be landfilled.
Waste Fuel Transportation
-v,.
The waste fuel can be transported pneumatically or by truck,
barge, or rail.
Firing
Tfye waste fuel is usually pneumatically fired into the boiler.
The boiler can be tangentially-fired, front-fired, opposed-ffred,
cyclone-fired, or stoker fired. Oil-fired boilers can readily
accept waste fuel if they have adequate bottom ash and fly ash
handling facilities.
Air Pollution Control
Tests must be run to assure acceptable air emissions. If
emissions are initially unacceptable, the air pollution control
equipment must be upgraded, or the fuel preparation procedures
must be modified to produce a higher quality fuel, or both.
A list of companies currently offering turn-key, fixed-price design
and construction contracts follows. The list may not be all inclusive
and does not imply EPA endorsement. Any modifications, additions, or
subtractions to the list should be addressed to:
Energy Recovery Program (AW-563) J *:f
Resource Recovery Division
. Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, O.C. 20460 "--. .
A jurisdiction could also contract with a consulting engineering
firm and general contractor to design and build such systems. The
presentation of a list of firms offering turn-key contracts is not
rreant to ircply EPA endorsement of the turn-key approach over the
consulting engineer, general construction contractor approach to design
and construction. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages;
the specific objectives and limitations of each project will dictate
the proper approach.
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C'-!3-vl!ES GFFEPiriG TURN-KEY
SOLI:: .-r-.STE AS FUEL SYSTEMS
A-ericar Can Corroa.^y
Arericclogy Division
Mr. L. C. Bielic-'.i
American Laoe
Greenwich, Connecticut C6330
(203) 552-2111
Browning-Ferris Industries, Inc.
Mr. Dennis Terry
Market Pi rector
5207 Hoi den Street
Fairfax, Virginia 22030
(703) 273-7676
Combustion Equipr.ent Associates
Mr. A. H. Bellac
555 Madison Avenue
N!ew York, NY 10C22 .
(212) 930-3700
Garrett Research ar.d Cevelocrr.ent, Inc.
Mr. Theodore Jonas
2009 North 14th Street
Arlir.atcn, Virginia 222"1
(703)~527-8555"
Peabody Gallon Corporation
Dr. John Hayden
Director, Market Developrent
Environmental Systems
835 Hope-Street
' Stanford, Connecticut C6907
(203) 327-7000
Raytheon Corporation
"r. Robert Schrceder
Missile Systsrs Divisic-;
Bedford, Massachusetts
(517-5 272-9309 X472
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SOLID MASTE PYROLYSIS SYSTEMS
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic materials in
an oxygen deficient environment. It is distinguished from combustion
or incineration in that (1) the pyrolysis reaction is endothermic
(requires heat to drive the reaction) and (2) the oxygen deficient
atmosphere in the pyrolysis reactor inhibits the combustion of the
organic feed*material, thus producing combustible gases or oil that
can be used as a fuel.
The high temperatures (1000 to 3000ฐF) and lack of oxygen in a
pyrolysis reactor result in a chemical breakdown of the waste organic
materials into three components: (1) a gas consisting primarily of
hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, (2) a "tar"
or "oil" that is liquid at room temperature and includes organic
chemicals such as acetic acid, acetone, methanol, and (3) a "char"
consisting of almost pure carbon plus any inerts (glass, metals,
rock) that enter the process unit. Residence time, temperature, and
pressure can be controlled in the pyrolysis reactor to produce various
product combinations.
A list of companies currently marketing or demonstrating pyrolysis
systems follows. Brief cements about each system are also included.
The list may not be all-inclusive and doss not imply EPA'endorsement.
Any modifications, additions, or subtractions to tha list should ba
addressed to:
Energy Recovery Program (HM-563)
Resource Recovery Division
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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PY?.QLY:-IS SYSTEMS
011 Pyrolysis
Garrett Research and Developrent, Inc.
Dr. George Mall en
P.O. Box 310
UYerne, California 90017
(714) 293-5000
Development Status
Pilot Plant. A 4 ton per day experimental plant is operating in
LaVerne, Cali forni a.
Demonstration Plant. San Diego County will be demonstrating a
200 ton per day plant with support from the U.S.- Environmental
Protection Agency; the plant is scheduled to be operating in
late 1975.
Process Characteristics
Pre-processing. Substantial pre-processing is required; nost
non-combustibles must be removed and the waste must be shredded
to a 14 mesh particle size (similar to vacuum cleaner dust).
Reactor. Flash pyrolysis reactor; the prepared waste is pyrolyzed
in suspension in the reactor during the 1/2 second retention time.
Gas Con den s ati o n. The pyrolysis gases produced during the. reaction
are condensed to an oil-like liquid.
Auxiliary Fuel. No auxiliary fuel is required to drive the
py rolys i s reaction; the carbon char residue is .combusted to
provide the required heat.
Energy Products
Oil. About 1 barrel of cil will be produced from 1 ton of waste;
the oil is sinvilar to No. 6 fuel oil, with about 3/4 the heat
value of No. 6 oil; the oil can be usad as supplementary fuel
for steam or steam-electric boilers.
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-2-
Gas Pyrolysis
Environmental Systems , Inc.
Tor-rax Division
John Z. Stoia
641 Erie Avenue
North Tonawanda, N.Y. 74102
(716) 694-4400
Develoorcent Status
Detron s t ra t i on Plant. A 75 ton per day demonstration plant has. been
operating intermittently since 1972 in North Tonawanda, New York,
with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency support; a final report
on the project should be available from EPA by Fall, 1974.
Process Characteristics
Pre-processing. Mo shredding is required
Reactor. The reactor is a packed bed, vertical shaft furnace;
wasie is fed into the top of the reactor where it is first dried,
and then pyrolyzed as it slowly descends to the bottom of the
reactor.
Auxiliary Fuel. Oil or gas is required to pre-heat process air
to about T5CC-2GGO F; the air is injected at the bottom of tha
reactor which allows the char to combust and provide the heat to
drive the pyrolysis reaction.
Slagged Residue. The heat generated also melts the iretals and
glass ->n the residue forming a slag; the slag is tapped into a
water quench tank and forms a fine-grained sterile residue.
Energy Products
Fuel Gas. A combustible gas is produced with a lower heating
value of about 90 STU/ft3, about one tenth the heat value of
natural gas; although the gas cannot be economically stored
or transported because of its low heat value, it can be used
as supplementary fuel gas in adjacent steam or steam-electric
boilers.
Stsam. Tha pyrolysis gases can be corpbusted on-sita and the hot
exiaust cases can be passed through a boiler to produce steam.
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-3-
DEVCO Management Con-pany, Inc..
Carl ton Thomas
Director
410 Park Avenue
New York, New York 1002Z
(212) 371-9105
Development Status *
Pilot.. PI ant. A 170 ton per day pilot plant is operating 1n Mew
York City.
Process Charactaristies
Pre~proc.essing. No shredding is required
Reactor. The reactor is a horizontal rotory kiln, similar to the
kilns used in the cement industry.
Auxiliary Fuel. No auxiliary fuel is required; combustion of a
portion of the char provides the heat, to drive the pyrolysis reac-
tion.
Energy Products
Fuel Gas. The low heat value corbustible gas produced carrot be
economically stored or transported; it can be used as supplementary
fuel in adjacent steam or stean-electric boilers.
Steam. The pyrolysis gases can be combusted on-site and the hot
exhaust gases can be passed through a boiler to produce steam.
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-4-
Mansanto Enyiro-Chef.i Systems,, Inc.
Theodor F. Buss
Sales Manager
IANDGARD Systems
800 North Lindbergh Blvd.
St. Louis, Missouri 63166
(3H) 694-2384
Devel oprrent.Status
Pilot Plant. A 35 ton per day pilot plant was tested in St. Louis
and dismantled in late 1971.
Demonstration Plant. A 1000 ton per day demonstration plant is
under construction in Baltimore, Md., with U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency support; the plant should be operational by
early 1975.
Process Characteristics
Pre-processing. Shredding is required to produce a 3-4" particle
size. '
Reactor. The reactor is a horizontal rotory kiln, similar to the.
kilns used in the cerrent industry.
Auxiliary . Fuel. No. 2 fuel oil is fired directly into the kiln
to provide the neat to drive the pyrolysis reaction; combustion
of a portion of the char provides additional heat to the reactor.
Energy Products
Fuel Gas. A combustible gas is produced with a lower heating value
of about 90 BTU/ft , about one tenth the heat value of natural gas;
although the gas cannot be economically stored or transported
because of its low heat value, it can be used as supplementary fuel
gas in adjacent steam or steam-electric boilers.
Steam. The pyrolysis gases can be combusted on-site and the hot
exhaust gases can be passed through a boiler to produce steam.
Electricity. Tha steam produced can be used to generate electricity
with a steam turbine.
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-5-
Pyrotek, Inc.
George Moore
Vice President
1917 St. Andrews Place
Santa Ana, California 92705
(714) 835-3880
Development Status
Pilot Plant. A.2 ton per day pilot plant is operating in Santa Ana,
California'.
Process Characteristics
Pre-processing. Shredding is required to produce a 2-4" particle
size.
Reactor. The shredded waste passes continuously through the reactor
on a r.oving grate; heat to drive tha pyrolysis reaction is supplied
indirectly through the walls of the reactor
Auxiliary Fuel. No auxiliary fuel is required.
Energy Products
Fuel Gas. A combustible gas is produced with a heating value of
about 375 BTU/ft3, about one third the heat value of natural gas;
although the gas cannot be economically stored or transported
because of its low heat value, it can be used as supplementary
fuel gas in adjacent steam or steam-electric boilers.
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-6-
Unlon Carbide Corporation
Linde Division
Dick Paul
270 Park Avenue
Mew York, New York 1C017
(212) 551-2077
Development Status .
Pilot J>lant. A 5 ton per day pilot plant 1s operating in Tarreytown,
New York.
Perronstrati on Plant. A 200 ton per day demonstration plant in South
Charleston, West Virginia began operation in April, 1974; the project
1s a test facility, rather than a commercially operated facility.
Process Characteristi cs
Pre-processing. No shredding is required.
;
Reactor. The reactor is a packed bed, vertical shaft furnace; waste
is fed "into the top of the reactor where it is first dried, and then
pyrolyzed as it slowly descends to the bottom of the reactor; pure
oxygen is injected into the bottom of the reactor to allow the char
residue to ccrbust; the haat generated drives the pyrolysis reaction.
' Slagged Residue. The heat generated also melts the netals and class
in the residue forcing a slag; the slag is tapped into a water quench
tank and fonts a fine-grained sterile residue.
Energy Products
Fuel Gas. A combustible gas is produced with a lower heating value
.of about 255 BTU/ft^, about one third the heat value of natural gas;
although the gas cannot be economically stored or transported
because of its low heat value, it can be used as supplementary fuel
in adjacent steam or steam-electric boilers.
Electricity. The pyrolysis gases can be corrbusted on-site and the
hot expanding gases can be passed through a gas turbine to generate
electricity.
Steam. The pyrolysis Gases can be combusted on-site and the hot
exhaus.t gases can be passed through a boiler to produce steam.
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PVROLYSIS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Steven J. ! evy
Introduction
Pyrolysis is the physical and chemical decomposition of organic matter
brought about by the action of heat, in the absence of oxygen. In the
last several years, a great deal of interest has been generated in
applying this process to municipal solid waste. Many systems have been
developed, and while most utilize pyrolysis as only one reaction 1n a
multi-step process, they are commonly referred to as "pyrolysis processes."
The primary objective in developing pyrolysis systems for municipal solid
waste has been to reduce the volume of wastes requiring disposal in a
manner less environmentally damaging than "conventional" incineration.
A second benefit, common to most systems, has been the conversion of the
organic portion of the solid waste into a useable energy form. This
energy will vary according to the operating characteristics of the parti-
cular system. Organic materials can be broken down into compounds which
are either gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature. In some systems,
the recovered fuels are of sufficient quality that they can be substituted
for fossil fuels in existing off-site facilities. In other systems, the
fuel is of lower quality, and the cost of transporting it cannot be
justified. In such cases, th? fuel can be used directly to produce
electricity or steam.
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2
There are about 10 to 12 different pyrolysls systems under development
at this time. In this paper detailed discussions will be presented on
three systems, each of which 1s currently undergoing, evaluation of a
commercial size unit. Those three systems are the "Landgard" developed
by Monsanto, the "Purox" developed by Union Carbide and the Garrett
Research and Development Company's "Flash Pyrolysls" system.
Why Pyrolysls?
Normal combustion, as 1n conventional incineration, requires the presence
of a quantity of oxygen sufficient to allow for the complete oxidation
of the organic matter. This is provided by pumping air into the furnace.
Using cellulose (C^H^QOg) to represent the organic material, combustion
occurs as the oxygen (02) reacts with the cellulose forming carbon
dioxide (C02) and water (HgO), and releasing heat. The chemical equation
for this reaction is as follows:
(1) C6H1Q05 + 60^>6C02 4- 5H20 + heat
In order to remove the heat from the combustion chamber without damaging
the incinerator, more air 1s pumped through the incinerator than is
theoretically needed to complete the reaction. This excess air, which
can be 400 percent or more of the exact or stoiciometric requirement,
increases the velocity of the gas stream through the solid waste. A1r
pollution control equipment is heavily taxed because: 1) it must handle
a much larger volume of gases; and 2) the gases carry higher particulate
loadings because they are blown through the solid waste at a much higher,
more turbulent velocity. J'rreasingly stringent air pollution standards
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3
have tjreally Increased I he tost of air pollution control systems. As a
result, incineration of solid waste has generally become economically
prohibitive.2
Pyrolysis, unlike incineration, is an endothermic reaction. Heat must
be applied to the solid waste in order to distill off volatile compounds.
During pyrolysis, heat causes carbon (C) to react with water (HgO) and
carbon dioxide (C02) to produce carbon monoxide (CO):
(2) C + H20 + heat-+H2 + CO
(3) C + C02 + heat*2CO
This typifies what happens 1n the pyrolysis reaction. In actuality,
cellulose breaks down into new organic compounds which have simpler
molecular structures than the cellulose. Although it is not possible
to write a typical equation for this reaction, the predominant products
are hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, carbon dioxide, and various
hydrocarbons. Factors such as time, temperature, pressure and the
presence of catalysts determine what products are formed.
Because heat is needed to complete the pyrolysis reaction there is some
logic in combining pyrolysis zones and combustion zones within the same
system. In this way, heat liberated by combustion of a portion of the
organic material can be used to drive the pyrolysis reaction, thereby
eliminating the need to supply an external energy source.. Carbon dioxide
formed in the combustion zone is partially converted back to carbon
monoxide in the pyrolysis zone (see equation 3). Many systems currently
under development follow this approach.
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Monsanto "Landgard" System
Of the systems currently under development, the "Landgard" system developed
by Monsanto is the furthest advanced. This is not suprising, however,
because it is the simplest of the systems, making no effort to separate the
pyrolysis and combustion reactions. Refuse is burned in a rotary kiln
o
with 40 percent of the stoichiometric air requirement. Additional heat
is provided by an oil burner to complete the pyrolysis reaction. It
could be said that this 3s a starved air incinerator, rather than a
pyrolysis system; nonetheless, a combustible gas resulting from the distil-
lation of the organci material is produced.
The development of this system was begun by Monsanto in 1969 with the
testing of 0.3 ton per day pilot plant in Dayton, Ohio. Shortly there-
after, a 35 ton per day prototype plant was put into operation in
St. Louis County, Missouri. Data from this unit was used by Monsanto to
design the 1,000 ton per day (TPD) facility which is currently under
construction in Baltimore, Maryland.
Construction on the Baltimore plant, which is being supported by a $6
million grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, began in
June, 1973 and is scheduled for completion in August, 1974.
One reason why this facility will be constructed so quickly is that it is
being purchased by Baltimore under a "turn-key" contract. Monsanto is
responsible for the complete design, construction and shakedown of the
plant. The contract calls for Monsanto to turn over to Baltimore a
complete, operational facility. Additionally, the contract provides for
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5
up to 4 million dollars 1n performance penalties if the plant falls to
meet any of the following standards:
'all existing federal, state and local air pollution regulations
'plant capacity will average a minimum of 85 percent of design
capacity for an identified 60 day period
'putrescible ccntent of residue will be less than 0.2 percent
The plant is being built on a five acre industrial site about one mile
south of the central business district. A schematic diagram of the
plant is shown in figure 1. Incoming mixed municipal solid waste will be
shredded to a four inch particle size in one of two 50 ton per hour
shredders. Shredded waste will be stored in a live bottom bin having a
capacity of 2,000 tons. This will allow the receiving and shredding
operation to be fairly independent of minor downstream process inter-
ruptions, and will allow the pyrolysis kiln to operate 24 hours a day,
7 days a week. Twin rams will feed the single pyrolysis vessel - a
refractory lined horizontal rotary kiln with a nominal capacity of 46
tons per hour. The kiln, 18 feet in diameter and 100 feet long, rotates
at 2 revolutions per minute.
Heat required to accomplish the pyrolysis is provided by burning a portion
of the solid waste using 40 percent of the theoretically required air.
Number 2 heating oil, at the rate of 7.9 gal/ton of solid waste, is also
burned in the kiln. Off-gases flow in the kiln counter-current to the
flow of solid waste, and exit the kiln at about 1,200ฐ F.
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7
When the combustion/pyrolysis gases reach the system's afterburner (gas
purifier), additional air is introduced allowing these gases, which have
a heat content of 75-100 British thermal units per standard cubic foot
(BTU/scf), to burn to completion. Modular waste heat boilers (heat
exchangers) are used to recover 200,000 pounds of steam per hour (Ibs/hr).
Wet scrubbers, a mist eliminator and a reheater treat the exhaust gas.
Recovered steam will be sold under a 5 year contract to the Baltimore
Gas and Electric Company for utility distribution. The contract price
is a function of the price of No. 6 heating oil. At the time the con-
tract was signed heating oil cost the utility $3.70 per barrel, and the
steam price was set at $0.81 per 1,000 pounds. Current oil prices will
cause the price of the steam to rise substantially. The full 200,000
pounds will be accepted by the utility 10 months of the year but only
100,000 Ibs/hr will be accepted during July and August.
In addition to steam recovery, ferrous metals (70 TPD) and glassy aggre-
gate (170 TPD) will be recovered from the residue. The city anticipates
using the aggregate in bituminous paving mixes. The total cost of the
Baltimore plant will be $15,852,000. This includes the $14,742,000
turn-key contract price plus land, offsite development and project admin-
istration during construction. Total annual operating and maintenance
costs based on the 1972 contract price and estimates made at that time were
as follows:
Amortization (15 years 8 5%) $1,525,000
Fuel 276,000
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8
Electricity 329,000
Water 95,000
Manpower 315,000
Maintenance 570,000
Char Disposal 57.000
Total 0 & M Costs $3,167,000
Plant revenues were estimated to be:
Steam (1.365 billion Ibs at $0.81
per 1,000 Ibs) $1,105,000
Ferrous Metal (21,700 tons at
$6.31 per ton) 137,000
Glassy Aggregate (52,700 tons at
$2.00 per ton) 105.000
Total Revenues $1,347,000
Net Operating Costs would thus be:
Total 0 & M $3,167,000
Revenues -1.347.000
Net Operating Costs $1,820,000
Plant throughput, based on 85 percent availability, will be 310,000 tons
per year. This resulted in an estimated net cost of $5.87 per ton of
throughput.
Project Engineers are now estimating substantially higher revenues for
both the steam and ferrous metals. Although operating costs are also
expected to rise, the net operating cost per ton is expected to drop
substantially.
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Gas Production
The Linde Division of the Union Carbide Corporation has developed a high
temperature pyrolysis reactor which produces a fuel gas that can be
recovered for off-site use. Original pilot plant work was done in
Tarrytown, New York, on a 10-foot-tall packed-column retort having a
capacity of 5 tons per day. Union Carbide is currently building a 200
ton per day test facility at South Charleston, West Virginia. This facil-
ity is scheduled to go into operation 1n 1974 for the purpose of con-
firming engineering scale-up criteria, obtaining operating data and
experience on mixed municipal solid waste, and confirming projected
economics.
Figure 2 depicts the flow diagram of the Union Carbide process. The key
element to the process, called the "Purox" system, is a vertical shaft
furnace. Solid waste is fed into the top of the furnace through an inter-
locking feeder. Oxygen, at the rate of 0.2 ton per ton of solid waste is
blown into the base of the solid waste column, where it reacts with char,
the solid residue remaining after the pyrolysis of the solid waste. The
resultant combustion is at a high enough temperature to melt or slag any
noncombustible materials in the residue. This molten metal and glass
drains continuously into a water quench tank where it forms a hard,
granular material.
The hot gases formed by reaction of the oxygen and char rise up through
the descending solid waste providing the heat needed to pyrolyze the
solid waste. No external fuel supply is needed to drive the pyrolysis
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10
REFUSE
FEED HOPPER
SEAL
FEEDLOCK
SEAL
SHAFT
FURNACE
OXYGEN
COMBUSTION
ZONE
MOLTEN
MATERIAL
WATER QUENCH
FUEL GAS
PRODUCT
GAS CLEANING
TRAIN
RECYCLE
WASTE WATER
GRANULAR
RESIDUE
Figure 2. The key element of the Union Carbide process is a vertical shaft furnace.
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11
reaction. In the upper portion of the furnace the gas is cooled further
as it dries the incoming solid waste. This lowers the temperature of the
gas exhausting from the furnace to about 200ฐ F. The exhaust gas contains
considerable water vapor, some oil mist and minor amounts of undesirable
constituents. These components are removed in a gas cleaning train con-
sisting of an electrostatic precipitator, an acid absortion column and
a condenser.
The gas resulting from the pyrolysis reaction is a clean burning fuel
comparable to natural gas in combustion characteristics, but with a
heating value of about 300 BTU/cubic foot. It is essentially free of
sulfur compounds and nitrogen oxides. This fuel burns at approximately
the same temperature as natural gas. The volume of combustion air
needed per million BTU's is about 80 percent of that needed for natural
gas. The volume of combustion products is about 90 percent of natural
gas. Because these characteristics are so close to natural gas, it should
be possible to substitute this gas for natural gas in an existing facility.
The only plant modification would entail enlarging the burner nozzle
because a larger volume of gas must be introduced into the furnace 1n
order to obtain the same heat input.
The limitation on use of this gas is the extra cost of compressing 1t
for storage and shipment. Energy consumption per million BTU's to com-
press it will be 3.1 times greater than for natural gas. As a result,
Union Carbide engineers feel that markets for this gas should be no more
than 1 or 2 miles from the producing facility and that only short term
storage should be contemplated.
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12
The reason that the "Purox" gas can be recovered for off-site use is that.
by using oxygen instead of air, the combustible gas product is not diluted
by the 79 percent inert nitrogen present 1n air. To do this requires
the use of an oxygen supply which can be relatively costly for small
scale plants.
Economics for a full scale Purox system are speculative at this stage of
development. However, based on currently available information, Union
Carbide has projected the net cost of disposal for this process to be
about $4.50 per ton for a 1,000 ton per day plant. The basis for this is
a capital cost of $14 million, exclusive of land or site specific design
costs. The plant would have three 350 ton per day modules served by one
oxygen plant. Amortization and operating costs would amount to about
$3 million per year. Revenues from the sale of gas at 75 cents per
million BTU's (and a gas yield of 7 million BTU's per ton of solid waste)
would be about $1.6 million. Plant throughput on the basis of 85 percent
availability would be 310,000 tons per year.
Oil Pyrolysis
The Garrett Research and Development Company has the only "true" solid
waste pyrolysis system to reach full scale development. This system,
referred to as "flash pyrolysis," produces an oil-like-liquid which
can be used as a substitute for No. 6 fuel oil. The concept was origi-
nally tested in a small laboratory unit. Subsequently, a four ton per
day pilot plant was built on Garrett's property in LaVerne, California.
Successful pilot plant performance has led San Diego County, California
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13
to build a 200 ton per day demonstration plant with financial support
from the Environmental Protection Agency. Construction is scheduled to
begin in December, 1974.
In order for this flash pyrolysis process to work efficiently, most non-
organic material must be removed and the organic material must be reduced
to small, dry particles. The process is schematically depicted in Figure
3. Incoming municipal solid waste will first be shredded to a particle
size of 2 inches or less. An air classifier will then separate the light,
organic fraction from the heavy, inorganic fraction. The "lights" will
then be dried to a moisture content of 3 percent. A screen will be used
to remove additional inorganics and the remaining material will be shredded
again to a particle size of -14 mesh. Ferrous metals are magnetically
reclaimed from the classifier rejects and a sand-sized, mixed-color,
glass cullet of +99.7 percent purity is recovered from the remaining
inorganics by selective crushing and screening, followed by froth flotation.
The pyrolysis reaction takes place in a transport reactor 30 feet tall,
and 8 Inches in diameter. The fine shredded material is carried into the
base of the reactor where it is mixed with burning char. Both materials
are carried Into the system by spent combustion gases from an auxiliary
char burner. In the reactor, the hot, glowing char and solid waste are
rapidly mixed as the suspension passes upward under turbulent flow
conditions. Reactor temperature is maintained, without any auxiliary
* The material mu-st pass through a screen having 14 openings per inch.
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14
AS-RECEIVED
REFUSE I
\
PRWARY
SHREDDER
UNRECOVERED
SOLIDS
TO DISPOSAL
-8 WT.%
> t
ง2
ฃ"=
I
V
INORGANIC
PROCESSING
SUBSYSTEM
I T
CLEAN MAGNETIC
GLASS METALS
GAS TO
PURIFICATION
AND RECYCLE
WATER TO
PURIFICATION
AND DISPOSAL
CHAR
9000 BTU/LB.
OIL
4.8 MM BTU/BBI
Figure 3. The "Garrett" process produces an oil-like liquid fuel from
solid waste,
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15
fuel, at about 900ฐ F. Because the pyrolysls reaction is so rapid, the
gaseous products formed are not exposed to the high temperatures long
enough for them to thermally degrade. The result is, that when the
gases are cooled down to ambient temperatures the compounds formed are
organic liquids rather than gases.
After removal of char by cyclones, the hot gases pass to a standard oil
recovery collection train. Hot char is either recirculated to the
pyrolysis reactor after being reheated in the char heater, or is quenched
for disposal.
The hot, char-free gaseous products leaving the reactor cyclone will be
rapidly cooled from about 900ฐ F by a venturi quench system using recir-
culated product oil. In this way, the valuable liquid products, at the
rate of about 1 barrel (42 gallons) per ton of solid waste, are recovered
before thermal cracking can occur. The outlet gas is further cooled to
about 110ฐ F in a packed bed scrubber before being returned to the process.
Condensed water frorr the decomposition of cellulosic compounds amounts
to about 13 percent of the pyrolysis feed. This water is cooled in a
separate heat exchanger, and a portion 1s then returned to the scrubber
for cooling purposes.
The liquid fuel obtained from the pyrolysis of municipal refuse differs
in many important aspects from fuel oil derived from petroleum. It is
a complex, highly oxygenated organic fluid, the properties of which are
compared with those of a typical No. 6 fuel oil in Table 1. At 0.1 to
0.3 percent by weight, the sulfur content is a good deal lower than even
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16
1AIU.E 1
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF NO. 6 FUEL
AND PYROLYTIC OIL*
Carbon (percent by weight)
Hydrogen (percent by weight)
Sulfur (percent by weight)
Chlorine (percent by weight)
Ash (percent by weight)
Oxygen6" (Percent b* wel'9ht)
Heating Value (BTU/pound)
Specific Gravity
Density (Ib/gallon)
Volumetric Heating Value
(BTU/gallon)
Pour Point (ฐF)
Flash Point (ฐF)
Pumping Temperature (ฐF)
Atomization Temperature (ฐF)
Viscosity (SSU@190ฐF)
No. 6
85.7
10.5
0.5 - 3.5
-
0.5
J 2.0
18,200
0.98
8.18
148,840
65 - 85
150
115
220
90 - 250
OIL
Pyrolytic Oil
57.5
7.6
0.1 - 0.3
0.3
0.2 - 0.4
0.9
33.4
10,500
1.30
10.85
113,910
90
133
160
240
1,000
*Source: Finney, .C.S., and D. Garrett. The flash pyrolysis of solid
waste. Presented at Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical
Engineering, Philadelphia, November 11, 1973, p. 186.
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17
the best residual oils. However, nearly twice the weUjht ot this oil Is
needed to obtain an equivalent amount of energy as number 6 fuel oil.
Because it is lower in both carbon and hydrogen, and contains much more
oxygen, the average heating value is about 10,500 BTU per pound compared
with 18,200 BTU per pound for a typical No. 6. However, fuel oils are
generally sold on a volume basis, and since the specific gravities of
pyrolytlc oil and No. 6 are 1.30 and 0.98 respectively, a comparison of
heating values is much more favorable to the former when expressed on a
volumetric basis. As Table 1 shows, a gallon (or barrel) of oil derived
from the pyrolysls of municipal waste contains about 76 percent of the
heat energy available from No. 6.
Pyrolytic oil is more viscous than a typical residual. However, its
viscosity falls off more rapidly with temperature than does that of No. 6
fuel oil. Hence, although it must be stored and pumped at higher tempera-
tures than are needed to handle heavy fuel oil, it can be atomized and
burned quite well at 240ฐ F. This is only about 20ฐ F higher than the
atomization temperature for electric utility fuel oils.
It was found that pyrolytic oil from municipal waste could be blended
o
with several different No. 6 oils. There was very little mutual solubility
of the two components, and over a period of hours the heavier pyrolytic
oil would settle out from the mixture. Successful combustion trials were
carried out, however, at the Kreisinger Development Laboratory of Com-
bustion Engineering, Inc., in Windsor, Connecticut, with blends containing
50 percent and 25 percent by volume of pyrolytic oil with a No. 6 from
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18
an Alaskan crude. Combustion tmjineer ing's formal report, on the work
>tdtos that: "Pilot-scale laboratory tests Indicate thai pyrolyllc oil
or blends of pyrolytic oil with No. 6 fuel oil can be successfully
burned in a utility boiler with a properly designed fuels handling and
atomization system. Ignition stability with the pyrolytic oil and with
the blends was equal to that obtained with No. 6 alone; and stack emissions
when burning pyrolytic oil or blends indicated negligible amounts of
Q
unburned carbon at excess oxygen levels over two percent.'
Two precautions must be taken in the utilization of this new fuel. It
tends to be thermally sensitive about 200ฐF, and if held at such tempera-
tures for extended periods, will undergo changes which adversely affect
viscosity. It is also somewhat corrosive to mild steel at 200ฐ F, although
no attack upon 304 or 316 stainless coupons could be observed. Blending
with No. 6 counteracts both its mildly acidic properties and its tendency
to suffer with excessive heating.
As a result of these findings San Diego Gas and Electric Company has
contracted to purchase the oil from the county. Based on the utility's
current cost of $7.00 per barrel for No. 6 oil, the pyrolysis fuel is
anticipated to have a value of $4.33 per barrel, delivered. This lower
price accounts for the lower heat value per barrel, the additional
handling costs, and transportation. Total annual operating and main-
tenance costs estimated on the basis of 1974 dollars are as follows:
Amortization (15 years @ 5% of $6,343,200) 611,103
Utilities 50,925
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19
Manpower 228,618
Maintenance 147,000
Misc. Costs 26,775
Total 0 & M Costs $1,064,421
Plant revenues are estimated to be:
Oil (62,000 bbl at $4.33) 268,460
Ferrous Metal (4,340 tons at $18.20/ton) 78,488
Glass (3,317 tons at $6.40) 21.228
Total Revenues $ 368,176
Net Operating Costs will thus be:
Total Costs 1,064,421
Revenues 368,176
Net Operating Cost $ 696,245
Plant throughput, based on 85 percent availability will be 62,000
tons per year. This results in a net cost of $11.23 per ton.
Other Systems
A number of other systems are currently being evaluated at the pilot
plant scale. Several are being marketed as full size plants, but at this
time no commercial units are known to have been sold. The other systems
are as follows:
Battelle Northwest - has developed a vertical cylindrical reactor
in which a packed column of solid waste is progressively dried,
pyrolyzed and finally oxidized by an air/steam mixture. The
physical arrangement is quite similar to the Union Carbide reactor
but operating temperatures are much lower (1600ฐ F). As a result,
reaction times are considerably longer. A pilot plant in Richland,
Wash., has been operated at 3 to 5 tons per day.
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20
'DEVCO Management, Inc. - has developed a rotary kiln pyrolysis
system which 1s quite similar to the Monsanto process. A 7 ton
per hour pilot plant is currently being tested in Queens, New York.
'Kemp Converter - This is an indirectly heated horizontal pyrolysis
chamber. Natural gas Is burned 1n a combustion chamber and its
radiant energy 1s passed through the reactor's walls to Indirectly
heat the organic matter.
'Lantz Converter - This is a batch-fed, sealed cylindrical unit
which is indirectly fired by a gas-fired furnace. Temperatures
Inside the reactor reach 900ฐ to 1,200ฐ F. In this system, as
well as the Kemp converter special precautions must be taken to
insure that no air leaks into the pyrolysis reactor.
Pyrotek, Inc. - has also developed an Indirectly fired reactor. In
this unit refuse 1s continuously fed through the reactor on a moving
grate. Heat from a separate combustion chamber adjacent to the
reactor drives the process. Although the present pilot plant 1n
Santa Ana, California is electrically heated, the developers of this system
expect to use gas produced by the process as the fuel source.
Torrax - The Torrax system, 1s very similar to the Union Carbide
process. The major difference is the use of air preheated to 2000ฐ F,
instead of oxygen to achieve the higher combustion temperatures in
the slagging zone. This preheated air is provided by burning
natural gas 1n a silica-carbide-tube a1r-to-a1r heat exchanger.
A 75 ton per day pilot plant has been evaluated 1n Erie County,
New York.
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21
'University of West Virginia - Dr. Richard Bailie has done extensive
research work on the development of fluidized bed incinerators. As
an outgrowth of this he has developed a concept for a two bed
pyrolysis system. In one bed normal combustion takes place. Hot
sand from this bed is then transferred to the second bed where it's
heat is used to pyrolyze incoming refuse. After the sand has given
up its heat it is returned to the first bed to be heated again.
'Urban Research and Development Corp. - has experimented with
several pilot plants of the vertical shaft slagging furnace type.
Like the Torrax system, this system uses air preheated to 2,200ฐ F
to reach slagging temperatures. Pilot plant testing has been
going on intermittently in East Grandby, Conn, since 1968.
Conclusion
The need for better solid waste disposal systems and the need for new
sources of energy has stimulated a great deal of interest in the appli-
cation of pyrolysis to solid waste. Several systems show a great deal
of promise. Hopefully, by 1980 municipalities will be implementing
similar systems on a wide scale.
The ultimate objective in developing pyrolysis should be to produce a
storable, transportable fuel that can be utilized as a fossil fuel sub-
stitute without special handling facilities. Then municipalities will
be able to readily market the end products of their system and will not
have to adapt the location or design of their system to a specific
market.
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22
The Union Carbide system and the Garrett system, which were described in
this paper, offer the most promise of reaching this objective. The gas
produced in the Union Carbide system can be used in conventional furnaces
with only the slightest modification. Additionally, short term storage
and limited transportation 1s feasible. The Garrett system's liquid fuel
can be easily transported but can only be stored for limited periods of
time (about 2 weeks). Special facilities and procedures are necessary
when using this fuel, primarily because of It's correslve properties.
Although the Monsanto system does not produce a fuel, It's energy
recovery potential is significant, if it can be located near a customer
for the steam. Also, the fact that a full size 1,000 ton per day plant
will soon be in operation makes it the furthest developed of the pyrolysis
alternatives.
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23
REFERENCES
1. Achlnger, W.C. and I.E. Daniels. An evaluation of seven Incin-
erators. In proceedings; 1970 National Incinerator Conference,
Cincinnati, May lf-20, 1970. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p. 48.
2. Decision-makers guide in solid waste management. Washington,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, updated. P. 116. (In
press.)
3. Personal communication. F.A. Shaffstall, Monsanto, Enviro-Chem
Systems, Inc., to J.R. Holloway, Solid Waste Management Office,
January 3, 1973.
4. Development of Landgard system for disposal of municipal solid
waste, 1973. Unpublished paper.
5. Contract for a pyrolysis resource recovery solid waste management
system between the City of Baltimore, Maryland and Monsanto
Enviro-Chem Systems, Inc., October 1972, 23p.
6. Solid waste disposal, resource recovery. New York, Environmental
Systems Department, Union Carbide Corp., undated, 8p.
7. Bauer, H.F., etal. Technical report on the Garrett pyrolysis
process for recycling municipal solid waste. LaVerne, California,
Garrett Research and Development Company, Inc., December 29, 1972,
65p. (Unpublished report.)
8. Borio, R.W., Combustion and handling properties of Garrett's
pyrolytic oil. Windsor, Connecticut, Kreisinger Developement
Laboratory (Dept. 683), December 4, 1972, 19p.
9. Borio, Combustion properties of Garrett's oil, p. 1.
10. Hammond, V.L., Pyrolysis-lncinerator process for solid waste disposal.
Richland, Washington, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories,
December 1972, l<|p.
11. Bailie, R.C., High%nergy gas from refuse using fluidized beds.
Morgantown, W. Vtrginia, August 1, 1972.
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XI
PRE3S:iT CGITDI'L'ION
Of SOLID ./A3TS3 IIAITACSl
TSUTOL'IU PUZUDA
TADAYUKI 1,'IORISHITA
AUGUST, 1974
DEPART:IS:TT OF WATER SUPPLY AND E^TVIROI-TI-IBITTAL SANITATION,
E;Tvmoฃ:.:SiiTAi HEALTH BURJAU,
MINISTRY OP HEALTH A2HD V/ELFAHE of
JAPA1J
<"; - -v^'i-'J, j. Oirrore.aeo .n Solid .'i.c"te
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PRESENT CO:DTTION OF SOLID WASTES LIAHAGELIBJIT
1. Introduction
Hitherto in Japan, flourishing production activity
and large-scale consumption have occurred within a small
national territory; and as a consequence, there have
been growing and diversified waste discharges from
places of production, circulation of money, and consump-
tion. Hence, in large cities, and in particular, begin-
ning with Tokyo, waste management reached a serious
state of affairs, which was called "the refuse war."
In order to cope with this new kind of situation
in society, on the one hand, the old "Public Cleansing
Law" was completely revised in 1970, and the new "Waste
Disposal and Public Cleansing Law" has been enforced
since September, 1370.
2., The Disposal of Refuse
In the area of refuse disposal, the total volume
of refuse discharged has increased annually, so that by
the end o.~ 1972. ::i= TotLil clisclii'-r^c TO lira o hc.d reached
about 92,OX> to-ir, ::iily; i;h-.it iyr each Japanese dis-
-.-r?,.:s daily.
-------
Since it was planned to dispose of this refuse
"by incineration, and also to detoxify r stabilize, and
reduce its quantity, there were existing plans for com-
pleting facilities with the "basic aim of incineration
and landfill with the remaining ashes. However, in.
1972 the rate of disposal by incineration was about 56$,
that of landfill, 41$, and that of composting and other-
methods, 3$,
For the purposes of waste management , it is
planned to complete facilities to incinerate 90$ of all
conbustibles (which make up 83$ of all refuse dis-
charged) in the average 1200 grams per person volume to
be collected daily by the end of 1975. Besides these
incineration facilities, facilities for large refuse,
(pulverizers and compressing machines) are planned ป
3. Problems to be Confronted in the Disposal of Refuse
(1). Increasing Volume of Refuse
ซr
3>ae to the rise in standard of living since
I960, and the accompanying changes in life
styles, etc., the volume of refuse collected
by municipalities -i~3 grovoi annually at an
o-vcrc-jj'e race of ..bout; II1,;'. I.:"orcover, i
t is
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-3-
thought that the decline of resources reclama-
tion collection systems clue to the decline of
private waste collection services, etc., also
contributes to the increasing volune of refuse.
;
(2). Change in the Nature of Refuse
The level of plastic nixed in with our na-
tion1 s refuse is abnormally high, and there are
cities where it reaches 10$ (wetbase, water
content about 50^; 1972). It is thought that
a cause of the high level of plastic mixed in
the refuse in Japan is due to such phenomena
as its optimal use in self-service sales pack-
aging products.
Consequently, this, combined with a rise in
the level of combustible materials such as pa-
per, also bring about such problems as the in-
creasing volume of heat generated by refuse, a
lov/ering of incineration capacity in incinera-
tors,- damage to furnaces by hydrogen chloride
gas, v/orcening in gas discharge end drainage,
end problems in "base otabili-jy in landfill dis-
posal.
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-4-
As countemeasures, in some cities measures
are planned to make refuse incineration facili-
ties highly efficient and to decrease the amount
of plastic mixed in refuse by collecting it sep-
arately, and so forth. In this case,"it remains
a question as to how the separately collected
plastic should be disposed of. But, through the
efforts of the present government and private
industry, the development of technology for in-
cineration of plastic and plastic reclamation
(plastic} plastic, heat, oil, etc.) is pro-
gressing. Moreover, the developaent of techno-
logy for apparatus for the automatic separation
of paper, plastic, and metal wastes, technology
for the installation of such apparatus, and for
systems for the dry distillation, pyroxis, and
reuse as gas or oil for refuse is progressing
within a* national project, and a pilot plant is
being built.
A matter v.-hiclvhas become a problem associated
v/ith the diversif icc.tioii of refuse materials io
that o; Irr^o ro:c
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5-
of household electrical a'aplicncea. Since -these
&re large end moreovor irLco.iouutible, they have
come to "be dealt with "by the completion of facili-
"ties for pulverisation and compression; "but the
necessity of more landfill due to the pressure
of increased volume, and the necessity of pre-
disposal of v/astes containing materials which
could contaminate the environment, such as PGBs,
have "become a "burden to disposal systems in
municipalities.
(3). Collection and Transportation of Refuse
In Japanjyi collection and transportation take
place simultaneously; since transportation takes
place without processing, and in small vehicles
suited to collection operations, the efficiency
of transport lowers along with the worsening of
the traffic situation. IJoreoTer, o-ue to the in-
^
crease in number of vehicles v;hich accompanies
increasing refuse volume, the convergence of
large urc.f:."ic volumec of i-of-a;;.^ collection vc-
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-6-
the source of the Tokyo refuse v/ar.
In order to solve these problems, resliipping
and conversion to large-volume transport by
means of the establishment of relay bases is
beginning, and the possibility of the adoption
of refuse transport pipes is also being studied.
(4). Facilities in the Environs of Refuse Incinera-
tion Plants
'Vhen refuse incineration facilities are "built,
opposition from prior residents of the area is
strong, and there is trouble in maintaining
sites. Therefore, along v/ith the improvement
of refuse incineration facilities, steps towards
restoration vis a vis -area residents, such as
forestation in the environs of the facilities,
the creation of parks, the establishment of
v/arm v/ater pools through use of v;aste heat, and
public presentations are generally being taken.
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XII
Collection and Transport of Household Solid Wastes
1974. 9, 24
:.: / j zrvzsicr.-:, '.:JTY \rAEAJ
"L ',-'',L J't ;_J-^jI-'V-"'.lT:0.-i- JAi'A.l
-------
Collection .a^J Transport of Household Solid Wastes
1. The Present State of Collection and Transport
In 1971, Governor of Tokyo Metropolis declared his attitude to be
tackled with the difficult problem of waste management by using the term
"war against wastes". In the past three years since, then various improve-
ments were made in various fields of waste management, but no basic solution
has yet been made of this problem. The greatest reason for this may be that
the change in our country's circumstances of waste (household solid wastes)
were so rapid in the past twenty some years that the administrative measures
for waste management have been unable to catch up with the changes.
The economy of our country continued to grow at a high rate from the
first half of the 1950's. During this period the population canie to be
concentrated in cities, the society was converted to that of mass consump-
tion and the undertakings dealing with used articles, repair works and
collection of waste articles have declined. All this has caused the
generation of solid wastes to increase quite drastically in quantity. And
together with the rapid increase of waste, there has been a change in the
quality of waste due to tha rise of people's living standard and the spread
of the use of synthetic chenical products. As a result; the management of
solid waster, has become ver7/ difficult to be handled by the existing systems.
^ .u-pOoi.L jJciCj at a ;'.r-^<~t ui^tar.:. _ irou ttiz M.uit-uy
.-is in th;it oฃ the people * s attit-u.:.1. to;7-rd their environment, which coa-
urjiit i..:o >.',..:- j.iiiotivitlv'e .'cf.cr.o :.'' .-isLa ina't.. jc.naat vitb d\f licultics.
-------
Y'rte administration of r;-iste nanageraent in Japan, is based on "Wastes
Dlsp''>';al. and Pub Lie C. Leans Lny Lav/'1 ar.J is nalnly taken charge of by the
Ministry of Health and Welfare.
As for the present way of waste collection and transport in our
country, at a fixed tine of a fixed day (once every other day to every
four days) each individual household brings polyethylene containers.,
vinyl bags or paper bags containing refuse onto a certain place on a. road
or a refuse dumping ground adjacent to a road, and these bags are collected
by a snail-size waste collection vehicle (dump truck or packer car)
As to the present state of waste management, a survey conducted in
1972 shoved that about 87.8% oฃ the country's total population, that is
87.8% of 106.2 million persons, availed themselves of the household solid
waste collection service delivered by each municipality. The total of the
solid x^aste collected throughout the country amounts to 92,000 metric tons
per day. which is to be collected and transported by about 22^900 vehicles.
Sinca tha roads in Japanese urban areas are usually rather narrow, smaller
cars are adopted as waste collection and transport vehicle > and their
average loading capacity is 2.0 metric tons (see Table-1) .
As is shown in Tabla-l both tb.2 number and the loading capacity of
J
collection and transport vehicles are rapidly increasing, and especially
noted is their increase after IS 71, As for the types of vehicles, there
has bfeen a remarkable inc::. t:ie. c.'._-^'..".st:!.n-a~ of eoll<>ctior>. such as
-------
Cfifric concli.ti.ons. As to the expenditure of solid waste management., en.
the othar hand., it hsf. fcaen rapidly uprising throughout the country as
is illustrated in Table-3. The average increase rate of the expenditure
has been 125%/year in the past eight years, but it has been remarkably
drastic after 1971. It is considered that most of this increase in
expenditure is due to the hike of cost of collection and transport.
2. Problems of Waste Collection and Transport
There are various problems to be listed concerning solid waste manage-
ment, which have all come to the fore in our country. But in relation to
the waste collection and transport, they can be grasped from the four
aspects, public cleansing administration, daily life of the people, urban
environment and development of new towns, . For the administration of public
cleansing, the problems to be coped with are the increased probability of
the danger to be caused to the waste collection workers the difficulties
of site selection of waste disposal center (incinerating factory, plant
for reprocessing wasta into fertilizer, etc.) and waste dumping ground
(reclamation ground., etc,) due to the oppositions and resistance raised
by residents in the area against the concentration of waste truck traffic,
f
the drastic uprise of the waste collection and transport cost (from collec-
tion to disposal).
T-'.ile on che pare cr t".:o psopio's daily 3ifo; die naj'r nroblsras
?.r2 th'i '"_"u;-iL-lativ-.i .1 " *'. -_i3:\ rafu-e Lift out for -\ Ion:; tini'd because of
.', - deer = "1.-?a 01 roT^e co^l=ctior. Jre::ca:.cy, -'.-.- -./.aste bec'rii?1.,:; norc nassive
,-..J bulky c':i2 D^jr.l-r.'' _, havi:,,^; to 'jc tine-bound co put out tha vn.sre at
a fixed tine, etc,
lu tha vistj^oint of th; urb.ir. environraan.ty ta2 sida;falks o^ roads or
-------
s 'm; tines even the road sid-js in urban. aread have ths household solid
;,<..;: a: 3 ac;uj.ulu.teu oa thar., which can b-a an inpadiment to the traFtic
of pedestrians or bicycles. Ths waste collection cars have to go slow
alon^ the roads and have to stop a while frequently in ord^r to collect
th-e accumulated wastes, vhich is one ot' tha factors deteriorating the
road traffic efficiency.
Moreover 3 in the vicinity of waste incineration plants or waste
dumping ground, there is the traffic of waste transport vehicles in
concentration occupying a major portion of the traffic volume. This
gives rise to traffic accidents, noise, vibration, exhaust gas and other
unsanitary conditions- which all cause much nuisance to the nearby
residents. These are the major problems to be dealt with from the stand-
point of road administration or protection of urban environment., and they
seak immediate solutions.
One of the characteristic features of our country is found in the
construction of large-scale naw towns in the outskirts of big cities.
Tha municipality with big vacant land in which such new towns are to be
developed usually has a small population and limited industries and as
a natter of coarse it cannot at once be adapted to the scale of the new
town in terms of financial scale as well as administrative competence.
Accordingly, v'^er. ch'i uanicipality has all of a sudden accommodated
;!"i -O'julatio'": .15 iva.v.' as-, i^varal timon of Its original within the same
'.cipal boundary. t'.'iLr. ^ :.-: ~3>. va ;;Lll bs i:\->o;-;a<-l oa e/ary asyact of the
\ t.y, '^th res^-'ict to tha
i-..;c icc;-a:ujvi Lho r._nb^r o: .'ot^^i1.-: c a .-'iL'f icicat extent witliin a vary
.,',-irt timo, Such aa increaie oC tlis Muivicipality : 3 burden both adtnini-
-------
claansinj, but Lt ha;: emerged in the administration of education, and many
or.hir f: Lei-Is. This Is often the reason why the de-'-ilopir^nt of a large
scali new town t-nds to ba rejected by municipalities, This is one of
the most difficult problems for our country.
3. Measures for Collection and Transport
A number of measures have already been executed for the solution of
above-mentioned problems.
As to the containers of wastes for collection, they used to be waste
boxes made of wood. But nowadays polyethylene garbage containers are
being adopted, which have unified sizes and forms easy to be collected
and much, more sanitary as well as good in appearance, More spreading in
use than polyethylene containers now are vinyl bags and paper bags with
improved conveniency in collection and sanitation. Storage containers
(public containers specially designed for mechanical collection and/or
transport) are also partially used.
As for the waste collection places, collection at waste dumping
ground is now adopted instead of the former collection at each household
in order to improve the efficiency of collection. In some regions it is
obligatory for large buildings to provide an access for waste collection
vehicles.
Regarding the collection time, ic is now cixed hour fixed day
collection ir-jcead of collection at irregular frcciuency*
Tht: :;.i.;.ca collection vc-iiclo-j used t.j j~~ dunp urucks-, but ..to*.-; Lhey
.ire chanjeci co s"-?.ciai vehicles juch aj p-ic/.er cars ^ith r-'proved sanita-
tion .irid et'f ic.ten.cy, The use of cant dinar cr.rt; is also bains anhjmcea
in some regions.
-------
Iha transport of collected wastes is closely related to the road traffic
co.v/i.;,tic/a in our country. Cor-version is now being promoted from the direct
deliv-ixy by small collection vehicles to the transport by large transport
vshicle5> large container cars and transport vessels. However since the
land acquisition of transit base for transshipment from collection
vehicles to transport vehicles is very difficult, the rationalization
of transport system is making a very slow progress at present.
Apart from the above measures which have so far been taken for the
rationalization of refuse collection and transport system, new measures
are about to be established mainly from the standpoints of city planning
and road administration.
The cities have to meet various requirements such as that they have
to be preserve sanitation and beauty, that the impediments caused to
traffic by refuse collection have to be eliminated, that the refuse
collection system has to be convenient for the residents, that the labor
of refuse collection and transport must be saved, etc. In order to
satisfy these requirements, special facilities such as pipes for the
exclusive use of household solid waste management have to be provided to
cities just as sewage systems as their own facilities for the management
of liquid wastes. In this context, it is proposed that such facilities
fcr the management ot household solid wastes should be constructed within
t'.-..; total framework of urban facility construction.
-' .-.-j^or.aci.^ Cev.lsctieri .-qr-.d Tr^nspc-rt Systan
.' v~c,;un. tr-in>~ort ovi'ton IMซ V-en devv.o-jed reccntlv as one of. the new
ii--^;-_05 of solid wa&te coliecciou, a:;,.1. > ". i.r> ;^te. of tan applied than
ev^r in various new towns of European countries. Also development is now
-------
un^r way for a system to transport all the collected solid wastes by pipes
ov-::ic a long distance or for a driverlcss guide way system. And, a study
is being made as to a concept of formulating a future automatic collec-
tion and transport system by combining thase new types of hardware,
'This concept of refuse collection and transport system is as follows:
A refuse throw-in box (refuse post) is set up at every household or
at one place for every 20 - 30 households in which they can throw solid.
wastes other than big refuse. And through the vacuum collection pipes
which are distributed throughout a city, the wastes are sucked in and
carried to a waste collection center by valve operation controlled by a
central control system. As the economical waste suction distance of this
system is estimated at 1.5 - 2.0 Kins, a small-scale new town, will be
able to adopt a complete household solid wastes management system by
connecting this system directly with an incineration plant. However, in
the case of an area where the incineration plant is located far from the
collection center or a large-scale new town and a built-up area covering
a wide area, wastes have to be re-collected and transported over a long
or a medium distance, which will require a further improved system. As
the system of long or medium distance transport of this kind, capsule
transport5 pressure pipe transport and vacuum transport are being developed.
*?
Moreover5 in casa of big citiess where a long distance and mass transport
is required, container transport of solid wastes by a new traffic system
(such ,?.3 nediun-volune gui.ia way system) will bs ciora advantageous in
"?sr cas^.s ~!v"i-. u%.2 ?.j.;iv.-i-"\?.."A:"..5,*, capsule tramvTorc and others.
In chis '.-.}, iiGur.V::old joii-l -'..sees can !v? automatically collected
and transposed in o.r^a.-> irorn .1 j-.uili-scalj new town to big cities by
c!:a combination of vacuum collection, capsule transport and medium-volume
-------
It is considered that the pipes for the automatic collection and
transport of household solid wastes are to be placed mainly under roads,
Especially} 'Vith respect to refuse posts which ara to be provided to
residential areas with lower buildings5 they cannot function to serve the
'residents unless th-ay are placed on sidewalks or on. the land abutting
an roads.
On the other hand, howevers the road area has already bean applied to
complicated uses with various attachments and properties built on or below
them. The result is that the excavation for the maintenance and repair of,
roads causes much hindrance to road traffic at present.
In order to prevent that hindrance, the Road Law (Law No.180, 1952)
provides that any exclusive use of road shall be determined by the judge-
ments of the road authority except when there are particular provisions of
the law. Pipes and cables under roads must be well adjusted and coordinated
and located according to a definite plan. For this purpose, the construc-
tion of cotamon ducts for utility pipes and cables is being promoted in
order to accommodate these in a highly intensive and efficient way.
Simultaneously, a policy is being adopted in road administration to
approve the placement of only those as ara designated by city planning
as supply and disposal facilities,
Therefore, it is very important to include refuse incineration plants
as well as the pipes for refuse collection and transport as an indispensible
part of city planning,, not only because they can be planned and constructed
in h-ir.aony witn the land use plan of the neighboring area and oฃfter city
ir.ciiitics jut also because it enables a batter ivad adninistratioi?-*
-------
5., The Present State of Au tons tic Collection and Transport System in Japan
At the time when th-i national budget of fiscal 1974 was under delibera-
tion, a proposition was raised that the national government should subsidize
the construction cost of the automatic collection and transport system to
be undertaken by local governments. This proposition was rejected as
being premature. However, there is an increasing demand for the establish-
ment of the automatic collection and transport system in new towns, and
this subsidy system is strongly demanded again at present in the compilation
of 1975 national budget.
Table-4 shows the areas for which the construction of the automatic
collection and transport system is already decided. In other various
large-scale new towns and redeveloped areas studies are now going on as
to whether the same system should be established.
As for the development of hardware for the system in our country,
there are at present 7 industrial groups for vacuum collection, system,
3 industrial groups for capsule transport system (a system to transport
capsules by the movement of liquid in pipes), 1 group for pressure trans-
port and 9 industrial groups for P^T-type system,, which are engaged in
research and development.
Five of the seven industrial groups working on vacuum collection
system have technical tie-up with foreign companies-, and the other two
are domestic companies with no tie-up r-ith foreign countries, Three of
:'.;?.e savan ccnpar.ie;? installed Cull-sized test plants in 1972 and after-
--i~:.c. ir.-l th^y are con.lMCtir'/j various exp^ri-n^a1::. for the understanding
7ir;d t'-ie ?v~u:tion r-v r;i2 pr-^l-r."? '<ฃ r.v""3e ~oV 2c". Ion in cur country *
Conc^r-.iir.^ t\a capsule transport, one cf the three industrial groups
installed a full-sized nsst plant in-1972 and has executed various experiments,
-------
As to P -assure transport systen, chough only oae sroup is engaged in
C"L= i.y5t:ฃn; tha ?,roun has installed a test plant of full siza and
lias succeeded in. transport: experiments with its own domestic technology.
With respact to PRT system, the construction plan is being promoted
mainly for passengers. There are sonie groups which are proceeding with
the development of hardware of this system for refuse transport, though
there is yet no specific plan to construct the facilities exclusively for
refuse transport immediately right now. The development of PRT system
in our country is now undertaken by five industrial groups of domestic
technology and other four industrial groups which are under technical
tie-up with foreign countries. Test lines have been provided at seven
places where various experiments are being conducted. For the construction
of PRT system, demands have been raised from three new towns in the
compilation of 1975 national budget for a government subsidy to be
extended as a. part of road construction expenditure.
6= Conclusion
As mentioned above, so far as the hardware of the automatic waste
collection and transport system is concerned, it is the manufacturing
groups that have been engaged in research and development in our country.
In order to establish this system as one of the urban public facilities,
several problems have to be solved, In the first place; the standards
:";: ;'..ฃ sy^iar.. r.aot "je sst up s.:ch as the standard oC planning, t'n.3 jjtaridar
?" ^truituro. th.t; ccar.dard of ;,cf2;-- :;?'vi pacurit.'/ the st^'.ruIarJ ci envirun-
.--.ir., etc., ''hic':i are under study at rrosaat.
I'.ie secor.-J problem arii^^ fro- th^ faar th.it: u'.\2 ur>?rs of th~; 3 system
:nij:'.u discharge whatever they consider are wastes, because it is too
-------
convenieac> and as a result thi amount of wastes might be the more
expanded,. This problem will be solved by strengthening the collection
of wastes by sorting thara by kind that has recently been put into practice
let most cities of Japan as well as by further promoting the development of
waste sorting techniques which are now under developnant along with the
propagation of this system.
The third problem is that measures have to be taken in. order to
prevent this system1s being used as a place in which to conceal the
evidences of crimes. Various studies are being made for this problem,
but so far no conclusive solution has been worked out.
The fourth problem is about the establishment of the principle for
the allocation of construction expenses and maintenance or management
expenses of the system. As for the construction expenses, a direction has
been fixed to subsidize local governments. However, regarding the
maintenance and management expenses, there is an urgent necessity to
establish a principle for a fair allocation of the expenses since the
ordinary waste collection of household solid wastes is providing free
service for residents.
The development of science and technology is amazing indeed in recent
years. However, since the development of science and technology is too
rapid and the society has not been sufficiently prepared to accept the
developments there are many cases that thay cannot be presented to the
use of the people. Tlio utilization of the latest technology should be
-o^sacs^: only alter a ^-^Jiic i_:ic .i^sessment is n?de or the merits as x?ell
ซ3 tha cer.er'. ;s as ill effects of the cschnoio^ > It is required L'nat
offorts should lv> nacia in ordar to conL.ir.iiaily r'Ca^p the up-to-date
information of the development oฃ technology which will lead to the welfare
01 the paopla as well as to nurture tb.2 ra?.dir.ess of the society to accept
11 -
-------
_/.-: cecbnolo^icai. d'cveloo.;.^.:.-, This should bi done not only In. the field
cr, Ji^zor.atic waste collactzo-; and transport system of our concern but also
i:i Dthar various fields,
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XIII
ACTUAL CO;il;ITIOi;3 III REFUSE j[.iAWAGE:.:EitT
IN JAPANESE CITIES
TAKASHI MIYAHOHARA
AUGUST, 1974
ENVIROI-n.ZCNTAL CLEANING BUREAU,
YOKOHAMA
Tiie paper to "be presenter, to:
"The Sucoiicl Jc'p-:.n-U.3. Conference on Solic. \Vaste
r.^r-'-.:jG]::'jnt," Scpter/oer, 1974, ".."C'.ฃh:rp-^l;on, D.C., U.S.A,
-------
ACTUAL COHDITIONS 117 REFUSE IIANAGELENT IN JAPANESE CITIES
1. Content of City Refuse
City refuse is solid waste materials discharged
from city residents' daily life. It is classified as
garbage, rubbish, or large refuse. In particular, a
mixture of garbage and rubbish is called household re-
fuse.
It is the responsibility of the local govern-
ments to manage this city refuse, and it is a fundamen-
tal principle that local governments v/ill do all of the
collection, transport, intermediate treatment, and .final
disposal. The methods of their treatment processes
differ according to such factors as city location, shape,
and financial situation.
2. The Nature and Volume of Household Refuse
The volume of household refuse discharged dif-
fers by city, season, standard of living, lifestyle, and
so forth, and i:i J^p^n it averages about 1 kg. per day
-------
2"
per pecuon. TMa unit cli3clu.1.:',;;:; volumn Jncrcacor, in
proportion to city sise and in proportion to a resi-
dent's income level. 3y 1985 it is estimated it v/ill
increase to about 1.5 kฃ. Per day Per person.
The nature of household refuse also differs
seasonally, annually, and regionally. As shown in
Figure 1, which indicates the nature of household re-
fuse in Yokohama in 1973, Japanese household refuse
is distinctively high in water content and low in
heating value.
3. Concerning Large Refuse
As housing conditions "become more crowded and
standard of living rises, v:hen televisions, washing
machines, and furniture, which were used as permanent-
ly durable goods, breax down or go out of style, they
begin to be used as non-durable consumer goods, new
ones are bought in their place, and, if useless, they
are discharged as refuse. These are called large re-
fuse, and, since compared to household refuse, they
are larger and more often include incombustible mater-
iolc, there h?,vo been oroblemc ir. the pr:st as to smooth
\.o~v r . o ~:' ' ecv, > on oi^..o.-._; p.nci
-------
merit technology. It became necessary "to collect them
separately from household refuse end. to insert pulveri-
zing and compressing processes into the management pro-
cess.
4. Collection of City Refuse
General methods include mixing garbage and
rubbish and storing them in receptacles which are per-
iodically collected by collection vehicles and trans-
ported to treatment plants and landfill disposal sites.
The method was selected "by which it is collected from
a prescribed place at a fixed time on a fixed day. In
general it is collected with a frequency of "two or
three times a week.
large refuse is collected either once a month
or once every three months oh a fixed day. So that
large refuse may be brought to the prescribed freight
collection spots in the road on the appointed day and
time, it is necessary to have sanitary storage places
within the house, while a receptacle of capacity to
match the frequency level and volume of discharge, and
a pl:':cc to lira::? this receptacle must be suitably main-
tained.
-------
In this kind of collection and transportation
ป
system, on the average in Japan, the standard worker
handler a volume of a"bout 1,5 tons daily, not an un-
healthily high work load.
The cost of city refuse management is handled
by a tax paid by city residents, yet in the cost of re-
fuse management, the majority (about 70^) is taken up
by collection and transport.
Hereafter, it is necessary to have optimum dis-
tribution of personnel and collection vehicles, and a
uniform standard size a.nd shape for receptacles; also,
it is necessary to optimize the number and location of
collection points and the scale and distribution of dis-
posal sites, and, along v-ith a plan to make standard
transportation more efficient, it is necessary to develop
and adapt technology for such things as the improvement
of heavy vehicles, train transportation, adaptation of
transportation in containers, and compressed air trans-
portation,
5. 2rog-.t:r.ent of City Refuse
Such methods ac iv:.c in ^ration, coerceting, end
-------
-5-
tho vicinity of cities, where population density is high
arid the flow of materials is taxing, incineration is em-
phasized in order to deal with it sanitarily and in a
short tine.
However, there is a certainty of opposition from
residents to the building of incineration facilities, and
they have become representative of disliked nunicipal
facilities.
Hereafter, environmental pollution controls for
incineration facilities will have to toe completed. For
example, a standard for soot discharge of "below 0.03 g/
STPm", and a ground level concentration of toxic gases
such as SO . HO,., and HG1, of "belov; 0.005 ppm. are
JL .A.
planned for large cities; these standards are stricter
than national standards and are independentely formulated.
Buildings constructed should be of a design which
matches municipal environment.
"Waste h3:it shoulC be used reasonably* ?or example,
warm water pools, facilities for the benefit of the el-
derly, and the improvement of benefits for residents of
the areas near rcfuco treatment plants should, be plc-mi? d.
rirj.cc th'j Meeting v.jjjic of house
-------
-6-
hold refuse is 1200-1500 kcal./kg., it has a heating
capacity about one quarter that of coal or city gas,
and can IDC used for the generation of electrical pov/er,
for community hot water supplies, community central
heating systems, and so forth.
Large refuse is crushed, the combustible mater-
ials incinerated, recyclable materials reclaimed as
resources, and other materials used for landfill.
Since the technology of crushing and separation is nevr,
future technological developments are anticipated.
Systems for the reclaiming and use of paper,
glass, metal, etc., which are contained in household
refuse, are "being researched, and there are methods
"both for separation at the time of discharge and for
mechanical separation of collected garbage, and the
former is working v/ell through residents' organization;
but there are problems in that the cost of reclaimed
:^rterials is unstable cjid cooperation by residents is
necessary.
Research and development are being carried on
nethodi' for compressing r^rb",r;e and using
~nc re-
-------
7-
maining ashes after incinoration and effectively using
them for building or engineering materials.
Compos tin,:; is one influential disposal method,
since it is in effective use, "but the demand for cos-
post has declined. Since the era of demand for compost
does not conform v/ith manufacturing, it is necessary to
have a large volume of stock, and so it does not often
occur in Japanese cities.
Outside of incineration, most disposal is done
"by landfill. landfill of both incombustible refuse and
of ashes left after incineration occur together. Land-
fill sites have been established in both suburban hills
and v/aterfronts, but since there is the problem, of water
contamination v/ith waterfront landfill, most cities use
mountainside landfill.
Landfill occurs by piling up alternate layers of
refuse less than 3 meters thick and of soil cover more
than 0.5 netere thick. In order to prevent environ-
mental pollution, and as a countermeasure against foul
odors, plenty of covering materials are used, and in-
sec tide 2 ic c.ii;.:er3ed to prevent ;;^olif cr'_tion of
harriiful insec-;;::. Hov/ov01", ii tiiero is no crot,t:aent of
-------
v/ater contaminated "by leachate, or if equipment for
the ventilation or conoustion of gas produced iron the
refuse layers (50-60^ nethane) is not built, then com-
plete environmental pollution controls have not "been
planned.
-------
OF LBACIIATE A1TD GASES DISCHARGED PROM LANDFILL SIT2S
Using Yokohama as art Actual Ezampla
by
TAKASHI LHYMOHARA
EFVIROi::naiTx\L CT/flAIIIrlG BUIliAU,
YOKOHAZ-IA
Tlic priv;or to "bo pre;>3n~tod toi
:!Tli? .^j- cor''" -."'/?; .n-7'.3. Oonl'orrp.co cri Solid V/acte
~..:^::. ;::,:': nt," Sc"o^T.;.:00r, I9ri-l, ..o-clii.i^':o:>, D . C ., U.S.A.
-------
TREATLIEilT 0? LEAC1J.T3 AIH) OASiCS DISCHARGED PRO:.I LAITDPILL SIDES
Using Yokohama as an Actual Example
1. Volume of Landfill Refuse
In Yokohama, of the approximately 3000 tons of re-
fuse collected by the city daily, about 1500 tons are dis-
posed of by incineration, while the remaining 1500 tons
and about 300 tons of incineration ash are disposed of
through landfill.
2. General Aspects of Landfill Sites
Landfill sites have been established in the city's
suburban mountain valleys, and currently are four in num-
ber, covering areas of between 80,000 and 550,000 square
meters. Since the landfill sites are small in scale, the
period of landfill for one site is about tv/o years.
Landfill sites are land borrowed from private land-
owners in order to landfill refuse, create land, and re-
turn it, but there are tv/o landfill sites vrhich have not
yet been returned because the production of leachate and
ฃ-;?,s h'-n nov. --ot ccc/ro:;.
refuse cv
-------
level land, with two to four layers of refuse and cover-
ing material piled on the slopes. One layer of refuse is
about tv;o to three rasters thick, while one la,yer of cover-
ing material is about half a meter thick. The final layer
of covering material is approximately one meter thick.
Since the refuse is decomposed by anaerobic decom-
position, leachate and gas are produced.
4ป Treatment of Leachate
(1). Volume of Leachate
V/ater contained in refuse is exuded, as
are rairr.vater and water contained in decom-
posed organic materials, both of which have
permeated the layers of refuse..
Consequently, the water volume differs
according to topography, climatic conditions,
and the nature of the soil, but it is largely
deteraided "by the valley's water volume and
precipitation prior to landfill
(2)ซ Method of Leachatc Discharge
Prior to landfill, perforated drainage
"oir.O"; :"_ 2 1 ~"oi in Ed'/cmc^.. ?,o indicated in
-------
(3)ป Quality of Leachate
'Leschate will exude iron landfill sites
after about the first six months. The quali-
ty oT this water is as follows:
pH 5-6
BOD 1000 - 2000 ppm.
S3 500 - 1000 ppm.
Total Fe 150 - 35C ppn.
Total N 100 - 300 ppm.
(4). Changes in Leachate Volume and Quality
leachate starts six months after landfill
"begins, and six months after landfill is ter-
minated, the v;ater volume decreases to about
one-third, while the BOD concentration also
lowers to one third. (Figure 2).
During precipitation, the water volume in-
creases, but since the concentration of BOD
does not decrease, the concentration of pol-
lutc_ntc decreases.
It "tc.-:?3 about two ;ye?r3 until the secre-
tioi'i o'? Ir^c/iate cec;1":.
-------
(5') i Treatment of Leachate
Since drainage fron landfill sites flov;s
into rivers and irrigation canals, it must
"be purified. Many treatment methods were
tried, "but the method of combining acti-
vated sludge processes and the coagulating
sedimentation process was the most success-
ful. A flow chart of this process is shown
as Figure 3.
The standard for the quality of treated
water is as follows:
BOD "below 30 ppm.
SS "below 70 ppia.
Total Pe "below 3 ppni.
5. Exhausted Gas
Since refuse decomposes anaerobically in landfill,
combustible gas is produced. Gas composition is mainly
CH, , CQ2, and Up. It is necessary to provide gas vents
as well as burners, and to ventilate and bum it.
Gas production is large principally in the en-
viror~3 cT rlvj 1^ .'":" ill. It is t":ioj.g}i': thcj,t this is due
o .o cr.'i.;.- -j- c -L.\:.'. G-;v:.;c.. ;.'." rou
-------
the "base ground layer. The conditions for the construc-
tion of gas vents are indicated in Figure 4-.
Gao ventilation pipes are 15 cm. perforated vinyl
chloride pipes v/iiich are layed about three meters "below
the surface of the final layer. Gas passes through these
pipes, flowing from low to high locations.
Ventilation pipes are spaced at approximately
thirty-meter intervals in level land and at fifty-meter
intervals in sloping land; they draw the produced gas up
to the surface of the land to be burned. Since the gas
has a pressure of 3-5 mm.Aq., and blows out of the pipes
naturally, this natural draft is used in its combustion*
An outline of the combustion facilities is given in Fig-
ure 5 .
Since gas ventilation pipes and combustion facili-
ties are built on the topmost refuse layer, combustion
starts from the time that landfill is for the most part
over. Gas combustion continues for three years after
landfill is terminated and the final soil covering occurs,
Although the volume of gas produced has not been
measured, there :L ~ a tendency for the vclir-e of gas pro-
continvi.ir. ; c'-cn.r vor:."ohor iv.vl higher
-------
XIV
TREATLI21TT 0? TOIIC ViASTES
T3UTOLIU FUKUDA
TADAYUKI L'lORISHITA
AUGUST, 1974
DEPARTMENT OP UATER SUPPLY AND EHVIRON1-IS1ITAL SANITATION,
EJTVIROJTT-SITTAL HEALTH BUREAU,
MINISTRY OP HEALTH AND \7ELPAHE of
JAPAN
aper to ~oe proGontcd -to:
"n'hn ooconcl J,v-:.a:i-TJ.3. Confero.aco on Solid .Vc.rjte
eaont,ls Scp-'jemoor, 3-071, '..cishiii^ton, D.C., U.S.A.
-------
Tl-IUTT OF TOZIC Y/AST3S
1. Introduction
In January, 1972, a conference was held in Tokyo
concerning the general administration of waste manage-
ment in Japan; a report was given at the First Japan-
U.S. Conference on Solid '.Vaste Management. In it, an
explanation was given covering all phases of the "Y/aate
Management and Public Cleansing Lav/11 (1970, Law Number
137, afterwards referred to as the "Waste Management
Act")ป which is the focus of the movement to advance
waste management. .Dhe explanation included the purpose
of the law, its definition of waste materials, and ex-
planations of duties of the enterpriser, general waste
management, industrial waste management, penal regula-
tions, and so forth. However, standards for waste col-
lection, management, snd disposal are prescribed "by
the Cabinet Orders based on the "V/aste Management Act"
and on the "Llarine Pollution Control Lav;" (1970, Law-
Number 135); and since the standards for collection,
-------
transportation, and disposal of the toxic waste materials
to "be discussed are included in these Cabinet Orders, v/e
will "begin our explanation with these standards.
*Hadioactive wastes are not dealt with here
as if included in "toxic wastes."
2. Standards for the Collection, Transportation, and
Disposal of Toxic '.Vastes
2-1. The Range of Toxic Wastes
Among industrial wastes, those treated as
toxic wastes are of four kinds (applicable in the condi-
tions listed "below): sludge, slag, acid wastes, and al-
kaline wastes; related toxic materials are of seven kinds:
mercury and mercuric cozroounds, cadmium, and cadmium com-
pounds, lead and lead compounds, organic phosphate com-
pounds, Cr+0 compounds, arsenic and arsenic compounds,
and cyanide compounds.
Table 1
(1). Sludge produced at institutions or factories
having the equipment described in the left-
hand column of Table 1, or such products which
have "been treated for disposal, which, include
the materials mentioned in the right-hand
-------
column of the table (limited to those which
do not confirm with the standards set by Order'
of the Prime Minister's Office).
(2). Authorized public sewerage sludge or such
sludge treated for disposal, which include one
of the above-mentioned seven kinds of toxic
materials (limited to those v/hich do not con-
form to the standards set by Order of the Prime
Llinister's Office).
(3)ป Slag or slag treated for disposal, which in-
clude some of six of the above-mentioned toxic
materials, but do not include cyanide compounds
(limited to those which do not conform to the
standards set by Order of the Prime Minister's
Office).
(4). Acid or alkaline wastes produced at factories
and institutions owning the equipment described
in the left-hand column of Table 1, v/hich in-
clude materials in the right-hand column of
the same table.
(ITote:) "Authorised public sewerage sludge," ac-
cording to the Cabinet Order on Sev/erage Act
-------
(1959, Cabinet Order number 147) Number 13
article 2, is authorized sludge, but as of
the present (August 1974), such authorisation
has not been achieved.
2-2. Standards for the Collection, Transportation, and
Disposal of Tozic Wastes
(1). Standards for Landfill Disposal
1). As for sludge, authorized public sewerage
sludge, or such materials treated for dispo-
sal (materials described in 2-1(1) and (2)),
which include mercury and its compounds, or
cyanide compounds, and are judged to be toxic:
(1). If these materials are solidified in
concrete, landfill occurs so that
there is interception of any seepage
into groundwater and public \vater
areas.
(2). If these materials are not solidified
in concrete, they are to be detoxi-
fied and used in general landfill, or
(3). Through solidification in concrete,
the toxic materials are treated so
-------
that they will not leak out; if. they
are non-toxic, general landfill say
occur; if they are toxic, landfill
nust occur in such a way that seep-
age into groundv/ater is intercepted.
2), As for sludge, authorized public sewerage
sludge, or these materials treated for
disposal (materials described in 2-1(1)
and (2)), which, include cadmium and cad-
mium compounds, lead and lead compounds,
organic phosphate compounds, Or com-
pounds, arsenic and arsenic compounds,
and are therefore materials judged to "be
toxic; and slag or slag treated for dis-
posal, \vhich includes any of six of the
toxic naterials except cyanide (materials
described in 2-l(3))ป and are therefore
judged to be toxic:
(1). If they are reduced to non-toxic
materials, general landfill may
occur, or (otherwise)
(2). Seepage interception landfill must
-------
take place.
3). Y/hen sludge landfill occurs, the follow-
ing standards are prescribed, regardless
of whether materials are toxic or non-toxic:
(1). In cases where sludge landfill dis-
posal occurs (excluding wet-type
landfill), prior incineration using
incineration equipment must occur,
or the water content must "be "below
85*.
(2). In cases where organic sludge
(sludge removed from public sewers
or river basin sewers, excluding
materials digested using digestion
facilities and those materials whose
organic content is smaller than that
of materials digested using digestion
facilities; same below) is disposed
of by wet-type landfill, prior in-
cineration using incineration equip-
ment must take place.
(3). For organic sludge or such sludge
-------
treated for disposal (excluding
materials incinerated with an ig-
nition loss of less than 15/ฃ, and
those solidified in concrete:
(a). In cases of landfill dispo-
sal of wastes generally more
than 40$ organic wastes,
each landfill layer should
be less than 50 cm. thick.
(b). In general, in cases where
it's less than 40$, each,
layer should generally be
less than 3 m. thick
Horeover, each layer should have a
surface cover of about 50 cm. of
sand and soil. In cases of small
scale landfill disposal, however,
(landfill in an area of less than
p
10,000 m or of a volume less than
50,000 m-*), or in cases of landfill
disposal utilizing subterranean air
spaces, this is not to be applied.
-------
Also, along with the provision of
ventilation equipment for the land-
fill area and the removal of methane
and other gases produced in the area,
measures necessary to prevent the
outbreak of fires should be prac-
ticed. But in cases of small scale
landfill disposal this is not to be
applied.
4) * Y/"hen landfill using industrial v/astes oc-
curs, the following standards are applied:
(1). llecessary precautions should be ta-
ken to prevent offensive odors from
emanating from the landfill site.
.(2). Rats should be prevented from living
on landfill sites, and mosquitoes,
flies, and other harmful insects
should be stopped from multiplying
there.
(3). Landfill sites should be enclosed
v.'ith a fence and the fact that they
are areas for the disposal of indus
-------
trial wastes should "be indicated,
(At toxic industrial waste landfill
sites, that they are areas for the
disposal of toxic industrial
wastes.
(4). Landfill sites should be insulated
to protect public river "basins and
ground water. But in cases of the
disposal of non-toxic industrial
wastes, when the necessary precau-
tions are taken to prevent contam-
ination of public river basins and
groundwater by landfill leachate,
this is not to be applied.
(5). landfill disposal of acid and alka-
line wastes (described in 2-1 (4))
is prohibited, regardless of whe-
ther they are toxic or non-toxic.
(2). Standards for llarine Disposal
1). Sludge or authorized public sewerage sludge
(nai;erials described in 2-1(1) and (2)),
slag (materials described in 2-1(3)), or
-------
acid, or alkaline wastes (materials described
in 2-1(4)), which are judged to be toxic,
oust not be disposed of in the oceans.
2). Sludge or authorized public sewerage sludge
(materials described in 2-1(1).and (2)),
which include cyanide compounds and are
fudged to be toxic (but when including
others of the six kinds of toxic compounds
besides cyanide compounds, those materials
fudged to be non-toxic), which have been
incinerated with less than 15$ ignition loss,
can be disposed of in Marine Area B.
3). Tf'hen sludge or authorized public sewerage
sludge (materials described in 2-1(1) and
(2)) which are judged to be toxic are soli-
dified in concrete so that toxic materials
included in the sludge will not leak, they
nay be disposed of in Marine Area A.
4). V/hen sludge or authorized public sewerage
sludge (materials described in 2-1(1) and
(2)) which include mercury and raercurie
compounds and are judged to be toxic, (but
10
-------
wh.en including others of the five toxic
. materials "besides mercury and its con-
pounds and cyanide compounds, materials-
judged to be non-toxic) are calcinated
and thereby made nontoxic, they may "be
disposed of in Llarine Area B.
5). Detoxified inorganic sludge (excluding
water-soluble materials) and detoxified
slag may be disposed of in Marine Area B,
6). Detoxified organic sludge, detoxified
water soluble inorganic sludge, or detox-
ified acid or alkaline wastes may be dis-
posed of in Llarine Area C.
7). Even though materials may be sludge or
acid or alkaline v/astes v:hich, according
to articles 2) through 6) above, may be
disposed of in the oceans,
(1). If materials are types of oils,
or
(2). If materials are discharges from
a phenolic resin manufacturing
industry and contain phenols,
11
-------
they nay not be disposed of in the oceans.
8). Llarine Area A, Marine Area B, and Marine
Area C, referred to in 2) through 6), will
be called narine areas when indicated "below.
The standards concerning methods of discharge
when discharging wastes in any of the narine
areas is as follows:
Discharge Area
Marine Area A
Marine Area 3
Llarine Area C
Standards for Discharge
Liethod
1. Specific gravity
must be over 1.2
when discharging.
2. Discharge must not
take place when
vessel is moving.
1. and 2. from above,
and:
3. 17 o discharge in
powder form.
1. Discharge below
she surface of the
ocean.
2. Discharge while
the- vessel is
ncving.
Related Standards
Precautions
must be taken
which are nec-
essary to in-
sure that the
wastes sink as
quickly as
possible, and
that they ac-
cumulate as
sediment.
Discharge
waste in
small quanti-
ties at a
tine and take
necessary
precautions
to insure
that the
wastes dif-
fuse in the
ocean as
quickly as
possible.
H>H>fel
H0{3
O p &
440
P P
O <{
P H) O
Cits'
H- c+
P pj
P 4 <
P H- 0
, |3 H-
i 1 *
cr'O
<[> P
O
4 Q
O
cฑ fr1
f3* O
4
O O
Hj
P 0
4 4
H* O
O H-
CQ
12
-------
-------
9). In general, even with industrial waste a
which can "be disposed of in the oceans,
marine disposal should not occur when no
special hindrance to landfill disposal
can "be found.
(3). Other Standards
1). Collection, transportation, and disposal
of wastes should "be carried out so that
the wastes will not fly about or drift
away.
2). The establishment of waste treatment
facilities should "be carried out in
such a T?ay that there is no fear of a
rise of hindrances to the preservation
of the environment in which we live.
3). Precautions should he taken so that there
is no fear of wastes flying about, drift-
ing av;ay, or giving off offensive odors
from transportation vehicles, receptacles,
or pipelines.
2-3. Standards Established by Order of the Prime
Llinister's Cffice Concerning Toxic Industrial
"Yastes
13
-------
The basic standards are those stated in 2-1,
parts (1) to (3). In order to test wastes for levels, of
toxic materials, solubility tests are used for landfill
disposal; for marine disposal, slag, inorganic author-
ized sev/erage sludge, and inorganic sludge (excluding
water soluble materials) are inspected by solubility
tests, and organic sludge, water soluble inorganic
sludge, and organic authorized public sev/erage sludge
are inspected by content tests. Acceptable values to
be detected in such inspections are indicated in (1)
and (2) below. The inspection methods will be described
later in section 2-4.
(1). Standards for Acceptable levels Detected "by
Solubility Tests
2
3
4
Alkyl Llercuric Compounds
Kercury or Her curie
Compounds
Cadmium or Cadmium
Compounds
Lead or Lee.:!
Compounds
Organic Phosphate
Compounds
No detection of alkyl mer-
curic compounds
No detection of mercury
In 1 1. of sample fluid,
less than 0.3 mg. cadmiun
In 1 1. of sample fluid,
less than 3 mg. lead
In 1 1. of sample fluid,
less than 1 mg. organic
phosphate
14
-------
Cr Compounds
In 1 1. of sample fluid,
less than 1.5 mg. Cr*6
Arsenic and Arsenic
Compounds
In 1 1. of sample fluid,
less than 1.5 mg, arsenic
7; Cyanide Compounds
In 1 1. of sample fluid,
less than 1 mg. cyanide
(2). Standards for Acceptable Levels Detected "by
Content Tests
i
2
3
4
Alkyl Mercuric Compounds
Mercury or Mercuric
Compounds
Cadmium or Cadmium
Compounds
Lead or Lead
Compounds
"
Organic Phosphate
Compounds
5 ! Cr+0 Compotinns
6
'
7
t
Arsenic and Arsenic
Compounds
Cyanide Compounds
No detection of alkyl
mercuric compounds
In 1 kg. of test mater-
ials, less than 2 mgป
mercury
In 1 kg. of test mater-
ials, less than 5 mg.
cadmium
In 1 kg. test mater-
ials, less than 50 mg.
lead
In 1 kg. test materials,
less than 5 mg. organic
phosphate compounds
In 1 kg. of test mater-
ials, less than 25 mg.
Cr+6
In 1 kg. of test mater-
ials, less than 25 mg.
arsenic
In 1 kg. test materials,
less than 5 mg. cyanide
15
-------
2-4. Methods of Inspection of Toxic Llateriala Included
In Industrial 7/astes
Using solubility tests and content tests, in-
spection of toxic nsterials included in industrial wastes
occurs according to the f ollov/ing procedures:"
(1). Preparation of Sample Fluid for Solubility Tests
Preparation of Test Materials
1). Sludge4 Sample as it is and remove for-
eign substances such as pebbles,
2). Materials Other than Sludge*
Particle diameter less than 5 mm. -ป
Sample as it is.
Other materials*
Sample as they are, and after
pulverizing, make particles
larger than 0.5 mm. and smaller
than 5 mm. by using sieves num-
bers 32 and 4.
Regulation of Test Fluids
1). Sludge for landfill disposal (excluding
offshore land reclamation disposal), slag,
or these materials treated for disposal4
16
-------
Uix the test materials (g.) and solvent
(HC1 or COo added to pure water so that
the pH is above 5.8 and "below 6.3) (ml.)
in a weight-volume ratio of 10#, and
make more than 100 ml, of the fluid mix-
ture.
2). Slag for offshore land reclamation dispo-
sal, sludge treated for disposal, slag
solidified in concrete, sludge calcinated
for marine disposal, or slag^
Mix the test material (g.) and solvent
(NaOH, NapCO,, or NaHCO-. added to pure
water so that the pH is above 7*8 and
belov; 8.3) (ml.) in a weight-volume
ratio of 10^, and make more than 100 ml,
3). Sludge made fron slag treated for disposal
in offshore land reclamation, sludge, and
inorganic sludge for marine disposal (ex-
cluding 7/ater soluble materials)^
Add solvent (liaOH, Na2CO-j, or KaHCO.
added to pure water so that the pH is
a"oove 7.8 and "below 8.3) to the test
17
-------
materials so that there is a weight-
volume ratio of 3$ solid material (g.)
included in the fluid mixture. (For
soliis included in sludge, use the
weight of materials remaining- after
elaboration.
Solubility of Toxic Materials
Stir or shake continuously for 6 hours
at normal temperature (about 20ฐ C.) and
normal pressure (about 1 atmosphere).
Preparation of Sample Fluids
Measure and take off the precise volume
needed for examination froa the supernatant of
the liquid regaining after the solvent and
test fluid have been filtered using Type 5-C
filter paper and put in a centrifuge below
5000 rpm. for 20 minutes.
(2). Preparation cf Sample Fluids for Content Tests
Preparation of Test Materials
Take up the test materials as they are
into a beaker (500 ml. volume), and, using a
noii-metal spatula, crush the small lumps;
Regulation of Test Fluids
T
18
-------
pass the homogeneous liquid through a synthetic
fiber sieve (do not use a metal one) v/ith 2 mm.
apertures, then measure off the necessary vol-
ume (more than 200 g.) accurately from the
liquid which, passed through, pour it into a
graduated cylinder v/ith a cock attached (1 1.
capacity) and add pure v/ater to make 1 liter
in all.
Preparation of Sample Fluid
1). In cases of sample fluid relating to sludge
v/ith a Cr content4
Take off the necessary, volume of sample
fluid from the supernatant of the liquid
regaining after the test liquid has been
filtered through a glass filter and the
solvent and test liquid have been cen-
trifuge d at less than 5000 rpm. for 20
minut e s.
2). In cases using other materials>
After making the test fluid homogeneous
by vigorously shaking and mixing it,
quickly measure and remove the precise
19
-------
amount needed for explanation.
(3). Method of Examination of Sample Fluids
Abridged. (Corresponds to the method established
by JIS).
(4). Calculation of Density
Solubility
Tests
Content
Tests
Sludge to be used for
landfill disposal (ex-
cluding offshore land
reclanation disposal)
(linited to materials
with a water content
greater than 85fo).
Other materials
Sludge (limited to
materials with a
water content of
more than 95$).
Other sludge
- --
~ x
15
-p
x 10-
ci =.
c = -_
2 VxW
ฐ2 ~ VxY/
100-P
10
Where:
A: Weight of toxic materials tested (rag.)
C-^: -Density of toxic materials (number of
ng. dissolved in 1 1. of sample fluid)
$2* Density of toxic materials (number of
mg. included in 1 kg. of test material)
P: V/ater content of test materials
V: Volume of sample fluids (ml.)
W: Weight of test materials (g.)
20
-------
3. [Management of Disposed Household Appliances V/hich
Contain Parts ".Yhich Utilize PCBs
3-1. History
Betv/een 1954 and the end of 1971, about 53,000
tons of PC3 v/ere used in Japan, but the Kanemi PC3 Poi-
soning Incident served as a turning point, and since
1971, there have "been: (1) a ban on the use of PCB-
containing carbonless copying paper; (2) a ban on recla-
mation use of PCB-containing carbonless copying paper;
(3) a report concerning the circumstances of PCS use by
makers of large machines such as transformers and con-
densers, and by users and importers, and instructions
to make up records; (4-) with a series of measures
such as the suspension of production of transformers,
condensers, and thernal media (August, 1972), a plan, of
countermeasure treatment concerning a large proportion
of the intended use was formulated.
On the one hand, before the ban on use, 800 tons
of PCBs were used in condensers in hone electrical ap-
pliances; yet when v;e take into account their years of
durability, it is estimated that at the present (1973)
there is still about 540 tons in all households.
21
-------
PCBs do not leak into the air or diffuse while
household electrical appliances are in use; moreover, .
at present it is thought that there is no environmen-
tal contani.n2.tion occurring "because of the landfill
and other types of disposal of discharged household
electrical appliances which occur in all municipali-
ties. Still, the Ministries of Health and Welfare,
and International Trade and Industry carefully consi-
dered the tendency in disposal of household appliances
from the present onward, and, in hopes of entirely
preventing environmental contamination in the future,
"began in August 1973 to supervise local public organi-
zations and related producing organizations in taking
PC3-titilizing parts out of household electrical appli-
ances v/hich contain then prior to disposal.
3-2. The Products in Question
The products currently in question are limited
to three kinds: television ("both "black and white and
color), air conditioners, and electric ranges. The
PCBs used in these three kinds of appliances make up
95/= of all PCBs contained in all household electrical
appliances. There are comparatively many large manu-
22
-------
facturers of these items, and their organizations for
the removal of parts containing PCBs are considered to
be reliably structured.
3-3. Removal of Parts Containing PCBs
In principle, since long ago the municipali-
ties were to carry out the collection, transportation,
and disposal of v;aste household appliances, but in
relation to the appliances which contain parts using
PCBs:
(1). At the tine of disposal, the removal of parts
utilizing PCBs must occur in advance under the
responsibility of the maker.
(2). The maker will store the removed PCB-utilizing
parts for the present until an appropriate dis-
posal method is decided upon. Still, since
this does not include all household appliances
in general use, for the purposes of distin-
guishing then, the Llinistry of International
Trade and Industry will compile a list of
household electrical appliances which include
PCBs.
The precise methods of removal of the PCB-
23
-------
utilising parts "by the maker have been decided
by conferences between the makers and local
governments.
3-4. The precise ne-iiocis for removal of the PCB-
izing parts decided upon at the conferences of lo-
cal governments and makers fall into the following two
general types:
(1). A method by which the makers would be contacted
by the municipalities and v/ould examine and re-
move the parts at the place v/here they had been
collected from the municipalities.
(2). A method by which the makers would be contacted
by the consumers who want to dispose of the
household electrical appliances, and, after
examining whether there are any PCB-utilizing
parts, and removing them if there are, the
makers would attach a voucher in an easily visi-
ble part of tr.e appliance to be disposed of..
24
-------
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130.000: 4-
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Scrap and built
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1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
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3rd 5-Year National Program
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pj;per t:o !^e or-^ sen ted. co:
"Tha Srjcor.d J-dpan-U.S. Conference on Solid WastG Kanager.ient"
Sepฑ3"b:.-r, 1974, i.'ashir.gtoa, D.C., U.S.A.
XV
RESOURCE RECOVERY FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN JAPAN
by
SuJcehiro GOTOH
and
Michio NAKAJIKU
Office of Research and Development Programs
Agency of Industrial Science and Technology
Ministry of International Trade and Industry
Kasunigaseki, Tokyo 100
August, 1974
X"
Jf*
-------
ABSTRACT
The paper consists of essentially two parts; the first
deals with a general overview on resource recovery in Japan,
and the second with the resource recovery research and development
project currently underway at the Agency of Industrial Science &
Technology, M.I.T.I.
In the first part, the historical background on the resource
recovery concept in Japan is reviewed, which then is followed by
the current status and future trends with particular emphasis on
legal, social, institutional and economic aspects. Recent tech-
nological developments of processing system aimed at resource
recovery from, the Japanese municipal refuse are also reviewed and
some problems regarding the technology encountered in the effort
are described. In addition, an assessment of impacts of resource
recovery on the municipality and the country as a whole are dis-
cussed.
In the second part, AIST's Resource Recovery Project is
described in detail: Firstly, the basic project concept with its
objectives, Agency's responsibilities, the R & D organization and
the financing summarized is presented. Secondly, the R & D program
areas are reviewed with the specific aim for each research theme.
Thirdly/ as the project is in its second year of Phase I term,
current progress and sor.e important results obtained from the
feasibility studies on the selected research topics are stated
and an interim evaluation is made. Finally, currently proposed
Phase II term of the Project, which shall start with the FY 1976
and las~ for three to five years is briefed to give some idea on
what the Agency expects before the resource recovery system is ;
transferred to the municipality and implemented in this country.
-------
Phase II of the Project is essentially a demonstration of
alternative prototype resource recovery systems under the Japanese
socio-econoracal circunstances for the effective future implemen-
tation.
Sor.e concluding remarks based on our AIST's project manage-
ment are also oresented.
-------
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
i. GENERAL OVERVIEW or RESOURCE RECOVERY IN JAPAN 3
BACKGROUND
Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law 6
From Disposal to Resource Recovery 8-
CURRENT STATUS AND TRENDS
Japanese Municipal Waste for Resource Recovery 10
Municipality's Trends for Resource Recovery 17
Trends Observed in (Central) Government's Efforts 21
Trends in Industry ' 24
RESOURCE RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY
Characteristics of Resource Recovery Systems 28
Problems Identified in Resource Recovery R & D 31
r:Oy-TSCH>:CLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Economic Factors 34
Social Factors 36
II. THE AIST'S R & D PROJECT ON RESOURCE RECOVERY 38
C'JTLISS OF THE PROJECT
?. & D PROGRAMS
Selection of the Program Fields 41
Brief Review of Elemental Technology Fields 45
Target cf Major Selected R & D Programs ' 52
DEVELOPMENT STATUS O? MAJOR R & D PROGRAMS
Lev; Temperature Shredding and Separation of Plastic Wastes 54
Cryogenic Shredding Technology for Bulky Wastes 54
-------
Air Classification and Related Sorting System 55
Se~i-vat Pulverizing and Classification Process 56
Magnetic Fluid. .Sorting Technology for Non-ferrous Metals 57
Fluicii zed-bed Thermal Decomposition Process for " ~
Oil Recovery 58
Fluidized-bed Pyrolysis/Conbustion Dual Reactor
System for Fuel Gas Recovery 59
Conceptual Design of a Total System for
Resource Recovery and Reuse 60
IKE PHASE II PLAN
The Need for Phase II of the Project 61
Outline of Phase II Plan 62
CONCLUSIONS 64
(APPENDIX)
FURTHER INFORMATION ON ENERGY RECOVERY PROGRAMS
A. Hydrogenation and Catalytic Pyrolysis Technology
(Government Industrial Development Lab., Hokkaido)
3. Fixed-bed Pyrolysis Technology of Cubitted Waste for
Fuel Gases (National Research Institute for Pollution
and Resources, Kawaguchi)
C. Corr.bir.ed Reactor Pyrolysis System
(National Chemical Laboratory for Industry, Tokyo)
D. Fluidized-bed Pyrolysis Process for Oil Recovery
(Hitachi, Ltd)
S. Fiuidized-bed Pyrolysis/Combustion Dual Reactor System
for Fuel Gas Recovery (Ebara Manufacturing Co., Ltd)
-------
RESOURCE RECOVERY FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IX JAPAX
by
Sukehiro GOTOH and Michio NAKAJIKU*
The present report discusses, among various problems
regarding the solid waste, recovery of materials ana energy
resources out of municipal solid wastes. The discussion restricts
itself to the resource recovery aspect and will only cover the
collection and disposal whenever the necessity arises.
On the occasion of the First Conference in Tokyo, Mr. John
P. Lehman, of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, presented a
report entitled "Resource Recovery: An Assessment", and we were
given a good opportunity to grasp a wide variety of activities and
efforts being made in the resource recovery field in the United
States. In response to Mr. Lehman's paper, a brief comment was
made, at the time, by (late) Mr. Rycsaku Shimizu of Japanese
Agency of Science & Technology. In this comment, Mr. Shimizu
pointed out that the systems approach to the problem which he
considered most important was lacking in the.Japanese effort.
Based on these discussions of the First Conference, this paper
reports, in the resource recovery field in Japan, what have been
done so far, how is the current status, what are the problems and
what are being planned now.
The paper consists of the following subjects. In the first
part, an outline of resource recovery and reuse will be presented:
Various efforts from local autonomous, consumers, central government
and industry sectors are summarized. And then problems and barriers
to resource recovery identified in this country will be discussed
* Both Dr. Gotoh and Mr. Makajiku are at the Office of Research
anc Development Programs, A.I.S.T., Japanese Ministry oฃ International
Trace a:.d Industry.
-------
-2-
with emphasis first on the technological and secondly on non-
technological aspect.
In the latter half of the paper, AIST's effort since the
FY 1972 is summarized: This is an essentially technological
R & D effort of the central Government, although its related
sccio-economical matters and the impacts assessments are
concurrently dealt with in order to implement the system effectively.
Emphasis is thus placed on the comprehensive treatment of the subject
-------
i. GENERAL OVERVIEW o? RESOURCE RECOVERY IN JAPAN
BACKGROUND
As in the United Stares, resource recovery, or recycling,
in Japan has taken various forms in the past. Let us call this
stagewise change in the recycling form as "a level of recycling".
The lowest level of recycling, by which we mean, for example,
returning bottles tc the food or liquor store,, or selling bundles
of old newsprint, cloths, bottles, or the likes to a ragman, has
long been and is now practised in every city or town. At this level,
one does not need any special systematized effort, instead simply
follows the tradition of the society with a little effort. To some
extent, however, it is said that this depends on the life style or
more general value concept of those days. In Japan, the idea'to
use things effectively and repeatedly was once considered a virtue
and the public awareness on the scarcity of natural resources in
this island country enhanced the idea. At least, this was very
true till the end of the World War II. And for another decade or
so in the-postwar society before Japan emerged as an industrial
ซ4.
ccur.-ry in the world, this life style had been still considered a
virtue.
For the past 10 to 15 years, however, this level of recycling
has been diminishing gradually, almost without being noticed.
This period of time turns out to have been the time when mass pro-
duction and mass consumption in Japan started and were actually
taking its shape, and concurrently the per capita GNP or income, or
labor cost was sharply increasing. This general circumstances and
chance in public awareness unfavored the recycling and, because of
higher costs of repairing or storing, one started discarding such
things as cnce unthinkable; refrigerators, TV sets, relatively new
t
furnitures, etc.
-------
shows an increase in the daily percapita production
of municipal solid waste (national average) as compared with
changes in the tOual population and net GNP values. It is known
that uh^ percapita generation is strongly related to the net GI-IP,
whose linear relationship was confirmed. Along with this large
growth rate of percapita was~e generation during this period, a
sharp change in the waste composition, both physical and chemical,
was observed. This chance owed to the fact that the collected
waste cc-r.tair.ed more and more plastics, bulky wastes, mingling
industrial wastes and other newer (and normally hard-to-treat and
dispose) materials.
VJith all this historical background, little attention has
been paid, till recently, on much higher levels of recycling~or
reclaimation, such as heat reuse and electric generation out of
waste, materials extraction (paper fibers, ferrous and nonferrous
metals, etc.) from mixed collected waste stream, or incinerator
residues processing.
Cniy exception for this level of recycling is the high-speed
mechanical composting, which is a conversion-type resource recla-
mation from mixed municipal waste. As early as back in 1956, and
for the following ten years, more than 30 plants for composting had
been constructed and operated successfully in Japan. However,
by the end of 1971, the number of plants was counted only 28, of
which mostly suffered frcm economical problems. As now, seven
planes remain barely in the whole country.
Although it is anticipated/that the compsting will come into
che light again(oy many people/, this past failure appears to be
predominantly economical; especially in contrast v/ith chemical
fertilizers. Farmers once were heard to be complaining about
contamination of compost with such non-compostables as glass or !
olastics.
-------
i:.2L2 1 YEARLY CEAITJE IN AVERAGE PZR CAPITA WASTE GSNERATIOII
Year
- " <~
1351
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1965
1969
1970
copulation
do4)
c 7 c a
X , >^ฐ
9,473
9,561
9,654
9,748
9,340
9,952
10,131
10,257
10,372
1971 _ 10,^54
Average Per
Capita
Generation
(s)
ฐM
491
498
613
660
695
712
755
315
870
910
960
G^.T (Net)
(billion yens)
20,348
24,275
24,610
27,783
30,788
32,451
36,286
41,140
46,734
52,522
57,441
60,723
Source: Minis~ry of Health & Welfare Data
-------
Nevertheless, the need for resource recovery at various
levels is increasingly emphasized, as the r.av:2r value concept
based or. essentially such idea a.c; "the Spaceship Zarth" is
becoming accepted in this country. Tc, illustrate on-3 aspect
of this need, a macroscopic material balance is giver, in Table 2.
This shows that, in 1971, Japan irr.ported (rav;) materials of various
kinds including foods and oils with an arr.cunt cf 500 rr.illion tons*
and exports of products totalled to 45 r.illicn tons; which, in
turn, means the difference of ca. 40C rr.illion tons wers being
deposited in -various-forms,,of. nater.iaL.cr .wa_ste in this_ country.
Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law
When discussing resource recovery from municipal waste, one
has to refer to this'law as the sole national law on the waste
handling in Japan. The Law passed in the National Diet (Japanese
Parliament) in December, 1970 and was enacted in September/ 1971,
with the accompaning working rules of related governmental agencies.
The waste, according to the Law/ is legally divided into two cate-
gories; the industrial and the general waste. Further, responsibili-
ties for treatment of the former are assumed for the enterp~feneur-
in charge of the emission, while the latter is for the municipal
authority. However, in practice, some amount of industrial waste
is mingled with the normal general waste and is hauled by the
municipality. Thus the term "municipal waste" or simply "unburn
refuge", although it'is not defined in any form in the Law, is
commonly used and understood as the wasze which is actually hauled
and disposed of by the municipality.
The Law, as its title partially indicates, is a revision of
the formerly known "Public Cleansing Lav;".- Ivith this revision, an
irportaivt point is that the Law now classifies the wastes and
assurr.es the responsibility for their disposal, although there is
\/
A ton in this reoort is in theme trie unit cr equivalent, to
1,000 Kgs (ca. 2~,200 lbi=). A
-------
CA2LZ 2 MA12RIAL TRADE BALANCE
(l^pori.)
10 tons
r C 0 ZS
Iron Ore
<~ _-_, ^ - -, - "O-rt- -^
C~r.er Minerals
Crrade Oil
Ccal
Others
Total
0.2
. 1.2
0.2
0.4
2.5
0.5
0.2
5.0
(Export)
Q
10 tons
3-eel
vฃ i-i is er
Csrsr.t
Foods
Textiles
Ships
Other Products
Total
0.24
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.05
0.45
-------
r.o specific instructions or incentives for resource recovery
involved with. For the municipality, the Law authorizes exemption
from the direct disposal cf the industrial waste, which is generally
considered a new development in a leqal sense.
?rcm Disposal to Resource Recovery
Traditional handling of municipal refuge, as indicated in the
Disposal Lav:, has never intended a higher level recycling until
very recently. However, the need for resource recovery observed
for the last couple of years, arose first from the municipality
sector, then from consumers and now is positively supported by the
industry sector. At a recent meeting of the National Federation of
Municipal Authorities for Public Cleansing (whose member municipali-
ties are counted 498) , a resolution for promoting technology develop-
ment of resource recovery was made formally.
The reasons that the municipality first came for resource
recovery'appear to be as follows: Firstly, the municipality with
the traditional disposal cf incineration or landfilling became
simply not manageable with the increasing amount of complex-in-
composition refuse, by both financial and technological means.
Secondly, the citizen's awareness for resource recovery instead of
disposing the waste has been giving constant pressures to the
municipality. These two reasons have together formed the following
trends.
Consumer's and citizen's increasing desire for higher quality
of the environment, has made the municipality aware of that
any simple disposal method which is/^environmentally acceptable
will no longer practical. ^everf>
The municipality has thus realized that any such processing
-------
-9-
costs a lot: With incineration, the facilities for air pollution
control, water treatment and residues disposal satisfying ever
getting severer emission standards are costly. Similarly, with
landfilling, costs for abatement of odor, soil pollution,
vibrations, noises",/ traffic jam of hauling vehicles and other
adverse effects are staggering.
Land purchasing for disposal or processing has become increasingly
difficult for the municipality because of neighborhood's opposition
and the increase of land price.
Public av;areness of scarcity of natural resources in this country
has increased recently, especially after the Arab Oil Embargo
last autumn.
Industries who have been concerned mainly with recycling of
VJTC^^y
industrial wastes alone, nowYnarnec their attention~ro~resฉtปr-ce
recovery from municipal refuse.
Government, throught various agencies, has started diversified
efforts for resource recovery, based on the national interest
for protection of resources depletion and from foreign countries'
threats on the diplomatic stage.
-------
CURRENT STATUS A::D TRZI-TPg
Japanese Municipal Waste for Resource Recovery
As it is so in Europe and the United States, the composition
and other characteristics of the Japanese waste are subject to
greater change with seasons and locality. It is important to
grasp those variations no natter what type cf recycling is intended.
A typical example of a yearly averaged composition of the
Japanese municipal refuse is shown in Table 3. This is the average
composition of the waste collected in 'Tokyo Metropolitan area in
1972 with the averaged moisture content (in percentage) for each
entry. Compared with the composition of the American refuse, the
followings are noteworthy for the Japanese waste on the average sense,
Overall moisture content is approximately twice as much higher.
Plastic content is 2 to 3 times more.
4*.
- Food waste which is normally very much wet, occupies relatively
higher content.
Metals fraction is about half that cf the American refuse.
Paper fraction is also relatively lower.
Because of these relative features, the Japanese waste has,
on the average, a heating value cf 1,330 Kcal/kg; generally
ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 Kcal/kg. Although the carclic value
tends to increase, this relatively lever heating value is considered
a disadvantage especially for energy recovery from the Japanese
*" ซ
municipal waste.
-------
-.T >".' ~T~-r^' i\:7) Ti'3 /'""Z'3 5 yCT
- r-::a"G XSIXOPGLITAI: AREA 1:1-1972
; . - -^ .: - . j__
1
- ; Isz-ilss
_2 !
-2 j V.'icis, 3az:boo
1 j Rubbers, Leather
O !
" i '
j Garbage (Food V/aste)
i
| Other Crgaziics
3 j Petals
c c: j Glass, Ceramics
o cs ! '
ง ; C-:her Ir.cr^ar^cs
^*
V/ei^ht Percent
(V/et 3-se)
33.?
1 *
3.6
4.2 -
0.5
22.7
5.7
4.1
7.1
6.6
Av. Koisture
Content, reroent
5"1 .3
36.6
44-6
41.7
13.0
76.3
55-5
5.7
1.2
_
~in::v~z ANALYSIS AICD HZA':I::C- YALUS c? TH3 CCMBUSTIBLZ
f -.\ ' /'--\ ~ /'-"
->-; | \-"-; ! U;
51.8* ; 2.= ;, !- 33-::
o--:--,-r.
(s)
0.1 %
AT.: -,-. -.,, .
u j. ^1 Ogcil
(:0
Heat iris?
Value"
:-:cai/KS
2.6 5i j 4,753
ฃc-jrce: Il^-ii l-l^ibucsu (Solid Waste), September, 197.3-
-------
The combustible fraction which car. be the raw material fcr
thc- "back-end systeir." like pyrolysis has, however, a co-parable
chemical composition. An ultimate analysis is illustrated ir.
Table 4. The heating value of this combustible for this example
was 4755 Kcal/kc (dry base), which is, together with its chemical
composition, approximately equal to those cf rhe corbustible frac-
tions of European ana American refuge. This suffices to say uhat
the large part of the combustibles is cellulosic no matter where
the refuse comes.
In conclusion, the Japanese waste is handicapped in that the
pretreatment of separating the organics from inorganics requires
a more complicated, thus costly processing.
Almost - all present consumer goods or products are considered
the potential input to the municipal was 3= processing. Thus what-
ever type of resource recovery may be intended, the current statistics
on those materials and products are of relevant importance. Further-
more, the data may become important for predicting the change in
the future refuse composition and the possibility of success for
the present source separation for facilitating the recycling.
At present, source separation practiced in the Tckyo Metropolitan
(Special District) areas, for example, requires the house^wife to
separate the waste into three categories; the normal waste, hard-
for-disposal waste such as plastics or non-combustibles and bulky-
matters. The first two types of waste are picked up daily or every
other day, while the bulky wastes are hauled less frequently/-
usually or.ce every two weeks or so.
In Table 3, six important materials or products were selected,
that might result in the potential effec-s en the municipal was~e
cor position. They rivr- (1) automobiles, (2) pacer, (3) plastics,
(4. home c-lectric appliances, (5) metal cans and (6) glass bcttles.
-------
MAJOR V/AoIZ ?r:CL'"/JT3
75 (3) I T?5 (3)
5.6
2,610
10.32
3,000
10.51
11.3B
3,630
11.73
E: Estimated
(Unit: ICr tons)
..-, f ^\ I . -, , /-_\
'7p U; i :- t-J
15,613
15,60
U I _C
,600
- -, ^ ^ .
2,CC,
59.^
'o 7-
-'/'-
17,030 13,000
7,200 j 7,600
5,330 5,300
2,230 j 2,300
!
E: EstL-natad
-------
-o -ซ_,,
j-J jjiปS
^\,^ ,-, ,::u)r^) ,;
---,-------- --- ;-~-7 r^.^1 u _--.,., 677
".";... -5 I- 1 -;.;-._:.- 3 l.'-.-S 1ฃฃ.2 2C<;.7 235
- ~ V "l -" ~ - - - -v% ."> - ~* ' ซ ^s C'Q 1 ", ~ Ci 1*C
~~"" ^~^" ' i "~" x~'~ ~"'*' 1
3/A (;'} ! 2?. -5 31.32 j 33-36 34-
i i
:/3 (-/-:, i 5:. 42 50.59 ; 30.50 50.
f
! 1
(,)
.1
.0
70
62
:;. Ci>
131.4
35.35
50.75
V.'aste 2ic~9 ZlscTric; A'c'dlisjncss
Estina
(Unit: 10s" units)
-72
'73 (2)
-974 (^
Frcduc-l
tion i
209
.a;.
f-
\
i-
-.er
135
19
533 !
320
153
27
303
175
33
155
314 i 290 253
2s:
;>, .>
125
-------
^"\. FY
^\^
Steel Can
(1C-5 tens)
'"*.._ __ ri -, -^
_(ij. .-.n i n urn LSJI
(1C6 cans)
1972
35
160
'75 (I) '7- (Z)
17c 26;;
61- ^ 1,6=1
'75 (I)
590
1,555
'76 (E)
^50
2,000
(6) Glass Container
Uni": tons)
^^-^^^ FY
^^-^^
Production A
V/aste Bottles
3
Hcusehold
Source C
3/A (?6)
C/2 (55)
1S72
1,345,970
555,191
551,515
50. oc
60.00
1 7 - '_-'
i S . ,
If- r1 ^ - -v
,5---,--^
--rr*. *>
^ >J,--u
-i > -~ ' '
^ ^ 4 C' 1_
ฃ:.::
'"7- (-)
o "*. '-i.'* ^ r,r
ฃ, j '^f *-, U y '*J W w
cGC 5 000
^c. ,OCป
50. cc
^", ^r>
C'^.'^'J
i~s r^1)
1 > V /
7 TO r. "^
^1 ซ UO j ^ ^ ->
650, ccc
> / O j ^ j -j
50. cc
< n , rs
-/ J , -->
'76 (I)
2,2oo,c:c
660, CCO
>xc ป ^ -'-'
50. cc
60. c:
-------
-16-
For the all products, except ::.etai car.s, yearly statistical figures
on both production and disposal are listed.
The automobiles abandoned on the street, for example, call
now public attention, and who is actually responsibl-eand who
should pay for taking care of is a central controversy among the
municipal authority, automobile manufacturers, and the residents.
Considering the fact that the municipal sanitation department is
not capable of disposing or recycling of those cars, the future
of this problem is hardly predicable.
For papers, the recycle ratio (recycled amount/production)
instead of waste paper amount is listed. The figure of 38 percent
recycle ratio already observed in 1972, is almost two times the
corresponding American figure of 19 percent in 1967, which was
reported last year at the First Conference. tAs predicted in this
table, the ratio is expected to still increase at least nearly by
5 percent two years from now. Further we are optimistic for this:
Recent technological development by the AIST, which shall be des-
cribed later, has made possible to recover reusable paper fraction
->*.
out of the mixed refuse mechanically in the most efficient and
effective manner. When the equipment being installed in the near
future on an extensive scale, the paper recycle ratio is expected
to increase further more, perhaps reaching somewhat 55 percent or
more.
As for the plastics, only the waste fraction is indicated.
Recent MITI's data show, however, ths-, in 1572, 163,CDC tens out
of 1,862,CCO tons of the waste plasrics (approximately 9 percent)
were recycled in one form or another. Current estimate for the
plastic recycling based on the data gives 523^000 tons of 2,589,000
x-;aste tons in 1976, which corresponds to about 20 percent.
-------
-17-
Municipality's Trends for Resource P.s^vcry
As stated before, no specific effort fcr resource recovery by
the municipality has been observed except the high-speed composting.
Future trends, however, include many possibilities for the
Japanese municipality. Most promising one for earlier realization
is heat recovery by incineration. This possibility rr.av be espe-
cially higher for large cities, where large scale-incineration is
actually in practice. On a naticr.al basis, transfer frcr. land-
filling to incineration in refuge disposal has been enhanced by
the Ministry of Health and Welfare through its First (Ji 1963 -
?Y 1967) and Second (FY 1967 - FY 1971) rive-Year Plans for Incinera-
tion. During the period, a large number of quality incineration
facilities had been constructed mainly in large cities, with grants-
in-aid from the Government.
I
As the result, by the end of 1971 in seven largest cities,
40.5 (wt) % of the total refuse went to the incinerator, and the
rest to landfilling, with a trace percentage for composting.
Figure 1 shows the percentage of incineration, in Tokyo, Yokohama,
Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe and Kita-Xyushu, which all together
collected the refuse of an amount of ^ million tons in 1971.
This amount of waste is approximately one quarter of the total
municipal refuse that was collected in Japan in the* year.
With this enhancement of incineration fcr disposal, relatively
newer incinerators have some kind cf hsat recovery facilities.
Among them, waste heat boiler is r.csr ccr.vr.cn fcr providing hot
vater or low quality steam to the nearby u-ilities or public
buildings like nursing homes. Some bcilers are capable to genera-e
electricity of fev; thousand kilowatts, which usually"is cnly for in-
olant r-cv;er use for .conserving the normal utilities. Table 6
illustrates these examples practised or planned in the Tokyo and
-------
FY iy,
Osaka
Koce
1,513
-12
ฃ3 7
5 3. 6
7 1.0
Incineration
53.8
57.8
60
_i 1_
SO
Sta-is-ics Assoc, (Ed.): "Gcmxjarable
r-a Cities - 5Y 1971 -". (i?73)
-------
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-------
Suburban cities.
Since Japan is located in the terr.perate climate region/
except Hokkaido, district haatir.g is r.z~ practiced as ir; Europe
and/or in a part o.J
?his in ~urn r.eans that the waste
heat recovery by incineration for district hearing purpose is not
practical without any piping facilities. For the electrical power
generation, out-plant supply is, ir. principle, quite possible,
although it is not performed because cf non-technological reasons.
Current boilers are mostly cf waste heat type and the wsterwall
furnaces are not used extensively. Ilajcr non-technological barrier
for electricity is that most electric utility companies are reluc-
tant for this idea, simply because of lew quality electricity with
fluctuations both in time and quantity. In. addition, most coal
burning power plants had been long before modified to oil or gas-
fired furnaces, in Japan.
In this respect, the only e:-rcepticr. is the Nishiycdo Incineration
Plant of the Osaka City. The plant has a processing capacity of
400 tons of refuge per day, and is equipped with two 2,700 KW
generators, with output voltage cf 6y6Cj V. formal power output
is 1,600 KW each generator. Of this 3,200 Ki~,, 700 K?7 is consumed
for in-plant use, the remainder 2,500 l-7.\ is for selling. Kansai
Electric is purchasing this electricity with ar. average price of
2.46 yens per kilowatt-hour or ca. 3.2 mils/KTvrl (Incidentally,
current end-use average price of electricity in Japan is somewhere
around 7 yens/KWH, or 23 mils/KWE.}
in Tokyo, Katsushika Ir.cinerati
ccr.structicr. and shall he cperatei. f
electricity of 12,000 KW, with a refuge
Of this, 5,000 K:.T is agreed with ickyc
This trend for energy recovery by sell;
to be fo.s~ered in the future with the i
paiitv sector.
rlar.r "hich is ncv; under
~ arr.cunz of 1,20C tens/day.
Electric to he bc'j.cr^t.
r.r elec~rici~y is expecte
r.itiative taken bv the r.iu:-
-------
ror "Che past lev; years, ccr.ruri~y (civic) groups in co-
operation with city's sanitation authority have besn ir.C-ris.sir.cly
encaged ir. active recycling rr.over:.ฃrt, ir. rr.any cities. Of these,
the best known one is the recycling in Tcshirra Special Ware of
Tokyo, which often is referred to as !:rr.e Tcshima Project".
The principal idea for this Project as as foliov;s: Block ccmr.urity
societies, which have long been in exiszence traditionally in Jc"ar.
known as "cho-kais", or communal organs, take the initiative of ~ha
Project. A participating cho-kai asks its rr.3r.ber farr.ilies to brar.g
whatever recyclable things to a nearby specified lot on a specific
data by a certain tine. And the chc-kaa previously had asked via
its Ward's Sanitation Office to send truck (s) of recycling firm's)
to the lot to pick the materials up. The Ward Sanitation Office
which belongs to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, normally gives
the permit'- for this activity, arranges the hauling schedule fcr
the secondly material dealers and refunds the profit to the cho-
kai .
Recently a variation of this scheme is seen: Instead of zhe
dealer's truck pick-up, the Ward's sanitaticn collection trucks
haul all materials gathered and transport to the dealer's plar.u.
This variation has an advantage that the lot is kept always clean
without any left-over, which is often seen in the Toshima Project.
The results by this recycling activities are summarized in
Table 7.
Trencs Observed in (Central) Govern.-:.--nt' s Efforts
Various efforts of the Cenrral Gcvernrr.ent through itฃ Aganr:aฃฃ
and Ministries, have been placed for resource recovery. ---rr.or.r -hc=e
the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MIT!), T.."hich
-------
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-------
has been playing a supervisory rcle for all production industry,
have been riainly concerned with recovery and reuse of industrial
wastes to increase production efficiency.
However, for the municipal refuse, little attention had been
paid for resource recovery till two to three years ago, except
that soir.e investigations on the szate-cf-the-art were performed.
The Agency of Science & Technology, an independent governmental
agency, through its Resources Investigation Office, v:as the
earliest to perform this kind of surveys and studies en both the
general waste and industrial waste since 1965 or 1967.
The Agency of Industrial Science & Technology (AIST) of the
MITI, as shall be described later, planned a R & D Project for
Resource Recovery from the municipal waste back in 1971 and one
year study program budget was appropriated for the FY 1972.
The R & D for resource recovery technology and system formally
started from FY 1973, as one of the -Taticnai Projects conducted ar
the AIST.
The Ministry of Health and Welfare, which is traditionally
concerned with solid wastes from disposal viewpoint, has not been
much involved with resource recovery ur.til very recently.
It is generally well known that an- inter-institutional projecl
for utility-oriented resource recovery on a gigantic raft afloat c:
held in the coastal ocean is in its planning stage. The prograr.
had been studied by the Research Institute for Ocean Economics.
a non-profit organization, for t-.-;o years and the prograr. concept
V.-5.E employed as a governmental project since the beginning of ~:f
1974. (April 1, 1974). An amount, of approximately 5C million yens
(ca. .170,000 US dollars) was appropriated for this study. Ar.i the
participating agencies include the Environment Agency, the MITI
through ius Office of Ocean Development, Z-Cinistry of Health &
Welfare and the .Ministry of Transportation. The feasibility of
-------
of this ir.arine utility plant is considered very high, because
this type of resource recovery plant is normally for large cities
and most large cities in Japan are located en the ccastai region.
If, for example, such ir.arine plant is planned in the Tokyo Bay,
the plant could serve not only Tokyo Metropolis but also its
surrounding suburbs in an organized manner.
At present, the plant facilities shall include ,mostlv; tech-
nologies and processesydeveloped by rhe AIST, and the transportatic:
of refuge from the coast to the floating plant shall be conducted b]
the pipeline. The plant is planned to have a pyrolysis process,
desalination process and possibly materials recovery section.
Current central Government's efforts for resource recovery
from the municipal waste, described above briefly, involve a wide
variety of agencies. There is a.trend observed, however, that
those scattered efforts will be incorporated to enhance its
efficiency. This means an intensi\7e inter-institutional cc-
operation which is normally hindered by the "unseen" barriers.
Nevertheless, it is predicted that the Environment Agency, created
back in 1971, shall play an important role as the leading agency in
this organization of the efforts.
Trends in Industry "
Industry as a private firm or group has been traditionally
concerned with recycling of only industrial wastes. This is
known as the in-plant recycling. In this respect, pyrolytic
liquefaction of by-products cr was re plastics at rhe polyrer
manufacturing plant, for example, has been ccr.s for the resource
conservation purpose. The Government (MITI) has taken an incenti
policy, encouraging the industry to this kind of plant by means o
grants-in-aid, lev; interest loans, special amortization plan cf r
-------
facilities, and tax exempts.
The in-plant recycling (known in Japan often as "clcsecization"
of zhe plant) has been increasingly enhanced recently because of
the decreasing number of contractors who take care of plants wastes
for disposal or reuse and its increase in disposal cost as the
environmental restrictions are getting severer.
Industry, in its large part, has shown no interes_t__in resource
recovery from the municipal refuse, with the exception of plant manu
facturers. However, as the municipality, faced with increasing
amount of industrial wastes mingled with the normal waste (it is
termed as the "hard-to-dispose waste" by the municipality)T started
denouncing the industrial circles that they should somehow assume the
responsibility for this, the industry producing these materials cr
products responded with showing some actions. For example, manu-
facturers of home electric appliances, automobiles, plastic products,
and packaging materials, have shewn recycling plans or programs
that prevent those materials from coming into the municipal waste
stream and give some technological solutions.
Normal industry's approach to this problem exemplified by
first establishing functional organization with concerned firms and
performing various activities ranging from establishing the data base
to operating some demonstration plants, which are usually supported
or. funded in part by the Government. The Plastic Waste Management
Institute, for example, was established back in 1972 by 34 polymer
manufacturing companies. The HIT1 has been cooperative with the
Institute since its formation, providing various assistances inclu-
ding subsidies, information and authorization cr. ccr.ductz.r.g rescurcs
recovery projects. The Institute is also instrumental ir. providing
government's grants-in-aid for plastic reutiiization programs cf
individual efforts. It has two recycling pi anus runnir.gr one in
Fur.abc.s.hi City ar.d another in Koshigaya City, in both cf which the
source separation of elastic materials or -crccucrs are practiced
-------
Another example of industry - Governm.-r.i jcir.t project was
the establishment of the Ivaste Pa-er ?.ecycling Promotion Center.
The Center v:as erected in June, 1374. Izs primary concern is
the storage of waste paper for providing stable supply and thus
for higher repayment of recycled pacer.
Furthermore, in July, 1974, the Japan Electrical Manufacturers
Association which is representative zz essentially ail manufacturers
of electrical appliances, established with a governmental assistance,
the Recycling Association from Used Zlectric Appliances. The latter
Association is setting many plans to recover resources from municipal
bulky wastes, whose large fraction is used electric appliances.
The automotive industry and container manufacturing industry show
interest in establishing the similar organisations that will be
involved with recycling.
Responded to those movements in various industrial circles,
the Bureau of Industrial Location and Environmental Protection,
MITI, planned an incentive legislation for resource recovery early
this summer. However, the legislation was not succeeded because of
disagreement on practical details among various industrial sectors,
and was temporarily postponed. Instead, the Bureau is planning
establishing an organization called, the Clear. Japan Center in the
~Y 1975. The Center is intended tc ccuple the resource recovery
effort with the "Keep Japan Seauuiful" rover in- fiitsr^d cumntiy
e:.~icted to merge vith other cenuars cr ir,s~i~ut_cr.s "co ^rc = r.i^i
municipality by exchanging informaticn and holding seminars cr
mating for training the municipal employees for resource reccv.
Thฃ.- Center in FY IS 75 as one of the- r?;curce recover-- efforts,
shc.il have two model olants at select=-f citiss, v;here
C U.U....'.
-------
-27-
straticn of r.aterials recovery fro::. z~.a bul!-:y wastes is ^0 be
conducted.
Tne Japan Resources Technical Instiru.e with its ~3~ber
cor.panies of r.ore than 100, v/as established bach in 196S from
the permission of the Agency of Scier.c-a and Technology and has
been playing a pioneering role in the resource recovery field of
both industrial and municipal wastes in Japan. The Institute
is the oldest of this kind and represented by various industries.
Recently, as of September 9, 1974, -he Institute and the National
Center for Resource Recovery signed an agreement on the joint
cooperative program of exchanging inforr^rion on resource recovery
in both Japan and the United States.
-------
, ._. -'_^. - <,. o-w
;. "_ ~ri ze:
rescurece rc-ccvary
r.ll into (1) Lxrracr
r. cf uhe 1"C".R.
inclusive, is the
5cr each subdivision nuriered ir. -/.s -able, r^ny unit cperaticr.s
.;_: _rc,c-3Sฃi;S are ccr^siclered. Under '1* the Extraction MRS, two
r./._-ep cf processes are identified. The first type is the process
ir. which products or parts such as bottles, cans or live motor of
z'-.a refrigerator are reclaimed and the recovered products can
easily be fed back to the nearest production line without nuch
processing. Difficulty for this prccess is to identify the material
-o b& reclaimed out cf the mixed waste strean and select it effectively.
HaV.d picking is the typical seans for recovery.
The Secor.J. type process for the ^:<:tracticn MRS includes the
r? .-lc.-r.-ior. of such rev r.ateriais as glass cuiist, pulp fibre,
--!-:-: r.ur. ::c-.J"or and so forth. The ba.ฃir idea is ro extract ~he
:'jiSts o~^ c'"ji3""i"'r'cr a*"d sor*^l~~c' ^"rsraTLic^s. Si^ce the
recai.rr:ec iT.c.'cenaiS detsnc.? _arce_y on ~c.as purify
r .-.'..-"r..ra';!en efficiency, the processing is usually cone in uhe
7" 't 1 s~i.cs ฃ."d''cr ~"lti~oass fashion.
-------
:ic"cion Material R
;arat ion/re fining)
'(2) '. :r.vsrsicr. Material Reoovsry
(or.esical, biological, etc.)
3SS
Sr.ergy Recovery
(-herzal, electri-
cal, etc.)
I (3) Storaole/Transportable Energy-
Recovery
(pyrolysis, hydrogenatin, etc.)
(4) lirect Energy Recovery
(incineration po-./er generation,
e'cc.)
BES
BES
-------
Ur.der the (2) category, or Conversion ::r..S, ccr:pc?zlr.r ,
c:. treble rrethar.ation , single-cell prczsir. "yi-.-ir.3Sis, alcohol
s'-"~.~.~. es i. s and catalytic hydrccG.rvrti.cr.. zc :;crm i~. __ 3, uzilmmg
crt-.-.r.ic fraction of the waste and calci.'.azi on zc form building
reus, are
exemplified.
The first zype cf the energy recovery/ term:;- hire as the
(3; Storable and Transportable Ir.erry ; Source-} ?:: cover/ Sysren
(Z?vS), includes pyroly-ic conversion przce^se? zo fuel gaoes
and oils, and sorr.etirpes to chars. I- ray be pointed cut rhat the
crc* cesses classif ed in no (2) ar^'d ' ~ c'~are t""-~ "-a7"^ 'p^o'^ess
principle like pyrolysis, although the products frc~; -he (2) are
considered as raw materials, vrhiie zhe ones frcr. the [2] as energy
sources. This means zhat the process operazing conditions usually
differ. The products from the (2) & (3) are, in nest instances,
subject to refining crocess for cor~~5.ra.blr? rvaliz"." "-rith zhe corres-
pc.-ding virgin materials.
Electric power generation is typical example of the (4) Direct
ET-.S. The process systems in the (4) cazagcry are rair.lv concerned
v;ith the matching of energy supply/demand relationship both in
quantity and timing. Most modern incinerators vrith pcver cenerazing
facilities are known to have an une::peczed lo~-er zherr.r.l efficiency
simply because of "steaming off", most of the zime .
Two major difficulties are identified in the resource recovery
one is "
----'' ~"-.-, '
r^ - - - T-' t a _~ i*~-iz- cr t ar* ce \ ~" en f o -~r' u _ az i n' a r-~ s o v ~ - c ^ r - co'' "-"T ~' ~ ~ "
\,_zh kno"n components satisfyinc a s^z zz specific rc-:i~nal cc".n_i-
ticns. Ine second difficulty is r.orr:.a_ly ;:suni in d-islgnir.; -
re-cvrco recovery process nez-.-c;:k thaz is f r.:'. ^zicna 1 :-.:-. d flexnl^
&r._.-.'i ~o acoopt all possible variations .in
r?,zcriai and energy fiws as bell :.
-------
Input refuse flow is constantly obtainable ;_n rho ^v.-c.fy-sz;-7.c;
rr.unr.3r.
Input variations expected both in ccrrrositicr. and quantity cc.r.
.'.-o easily absorbed.
Output energy and materials including net crly the products
but also all by-products must satisfy the local (environ: er.tal;
emission standards.
Recovered output resources of energy and ma-erz-als must be in
some form to maximize the marketability with cor.paracively higher
production efficiency.
Problems Identified in Resource Recovery R & D
No matter how high level and efficiency resource recovery
system is intended, fundamental principles observed in the conve
tional soild wasce management and the environmental acceptabilit
r- V'
O ฃ^ O\7Ct~O 7~> "y*O*C'T~'^^'~'~T-f">O C^^'TC'F"'^'"' r^"'^C-'n r* f- - ^ -^1 ^r^^>*^>'ii*-*
~ i at ov^jut^i.. i.iubLL ~^3 LJJo iaciiLoij-^Cv- j-.idi w^... ^ w-.rr ^\_y'-*^--_^_-
"* /l\
principle. Table 9 sujrjr:arizes the scild waste processing princi
observed under the Japanese circumstances.
In view of those general process 'principles/ the ^fcllowin-g
problems have been identified in the course of R & D, purposed f
the Japanese environment:
The first problem is concerned with the hazardous materials
coning into the normal municipal waste. PCE and its related chu.
explosives,mercury vapor, several hea"y -.etais , are e;:r:rplss of
thc^e hazardous raterials. The inclusicn of rh^7e r-: ~'-'::. -- Is occ",
bcoause of uncareful and/or i.j.lc-c.1 d^r-ing, r: /: fr; -_'-':.:':1.' .'---
district *,;here the residential and ir.ius~rial ^c-ctcrs ^::-- .~.i.-gl_
Tho trouble is that the material is hazardous onou~h fcr r.::r.-:\l
handlinq of the v.'aste and too little in cuanzi~" re be r--co'-i-r^'l.
-------
~* W U J ~ - j
.ir.viror-zer.~al
ty
--i^r.er Zocr.cnics
or^ar.is.Tis durir.^; ^r.e co'^rse froir. gsnera
tion to uli;i".a~3 iispcsal.
Minir^-un secondary pollutions of the
processing facilit".
Lesser i~pact3 on the existing socio-
ecor.omicai ar.d environaental systems.
Lov/er na~ processing cost vith revenues
~he recycled products.
Higher marketability of the recycled
products .
-------
probie-rr. is bas^d en -^':.c c;r.^.:^ charac^__'istics
of -che J&panese refuse; higher v.'-ic-ar ar.c. fcr;d vaste consent.
In addition ro those charac-ceri^-;.::^ 7 the - r-rrzerate ciir:--te has
r.ade it difficult to design a sys^er wh-icr. has a reasc:-.i.ble prcccs:
efficiency and is satisfactory fcr -he hyrienic ccnditior.s.
The third problem may be sor.ahcr-" reirced to the first.
In ir.any municipalities of this couritry, bu_/.y v;astes and the hard-
to-process refuse whose content rr.ay vary frc^L or.e municipality to
another, are collected separately ar.d v.vlrh different frequency ar
the source. And no suitable technology fcr those types cf v,vaste
is available for disposal and/or resource recovery processing.
For exarr.ple, a source separation cf clastic-rich produc~s and the
non-ccrjoustibles in one container is conducted currently in the
Tokyo Metropolitan Areas, because of the adverse effects on the
incineration facilities. No workable zechr.clcgy airr.ed at disposal
or resource recovery to pick up ?T."C r.aterials selectively out cf
this mixture has .-e-^- vet been develo-ed.
-------
az may ,oe saiG ~nar,
racman recycling", no general concensus on tha methciclc^y for tha
implementation of resource recovery systems /.as yet be^r. observer
in this country, although increasing a-.rarer.ess fcr resource recovery
is confirmed. This means that the non-technological factors, i.e.
societal, economical and institutional factors, are yet ^c become
mature before the resource recovery is ~o be impleir.er.ted effectively
_L ij. ซj ci ^j to. i ' _
The real probler. appears to be the lack cf prefer information
on resource recovery: Dissemination of technical ir.f creation and
administrative policies, training ar.c ecucaticn have been generally
conducted not in a satisfactory nanner. An expert technologist in
this field and a friend of one of the authors, for sr-rarvple, onca
told that a maor of a town with p
cf abcut 5C,jOO car.i
to hini to say, "My citizens are all fcr resource recovery.
I consider the power generation is most premising. Introduce me
the professionals, please". However, no one could blar.e the mayor.
Similar examples based on the ignorance r.ay be cited cf the
consumer. Consumers, who are well aware of ~he need for resource
recovery and often very anxious for iz, buy rhe products that are
not favorable for recycling simply because cf zhe lacking .of the
r education.
Recovered resources compared v:ir;
ger.jrally lover graded in the quality,
oarclv because the rav material of re;
-------
-35-
r.iir.icipal refuse, is far poorer ma--rial, ar.d because of -ha
economical disadvantage in refining cr upgrading in order to compete
with the virgin materials.
For some instances, the disadvantage of this kind may become
no problem at all: Recycled pulp per se, for instance, is usually
lov/er in grade compared with the virgin pulp. It has, nevertheless,
its own proper usage and, in addition, can be mixed with virgin
pulp for any fraction.
Kowever, recovered plastic pellets, for example, are usually
lower graded because of contamination of pigments and plasticizers,
and thus have a narrower range of re-application. In this connection,
it is hoped that another different system of industrial material
standards for the recycled be established along with the existing
standards. The latter, known in Japan as the JIS (Japan Industrial
Standards), appears to be better-suited for the virgin material and
its products. (Incidentally, the JIฃ has been handled traditionally
at the AIST, to which both authors belong.)
Current Government's incentives are concerned primarily with
the development of technological processes for resource recovery
or disposal, and not for the recovered (secondary) materials.
One of the reasons is that the recycled materials are yen to be
orcduced on any large scale whose economical assessment is possible.
Recent awareness among the Governmental communities that the
market opportunities, as far as -ha seccr.cs.ry raterial is manu-
fcCiurDd on a s: allsr seals in a scattered rar.r.-r, rill ;:o very
lcv.Tsr ana the price will be unstable, has mad3 possible ~co employ
a central storaga policy for certair. ma-eriais like pap^i'-stock.
The action taken by the Governmer.- (-he MITI) , in this ccnnecticn;
was the foundation and funding of "-'aste ?aper 7c cycling Promotion Cer.'
-------
>june , 19 /-^, ''."."lie, v.'as r~.cn~c.icr.Gc c-_*r_i. ?r r ". ur.'-S ~^~c. .
c.LC'cecx thac., e.n tr.c. nec.r euiu_"ฃ , :?e.r.-.iar rc.c. '_"_"ฃ
or centers for plastics, ferrous e.r.d r.:.::- -Ic._v: . .-; :: ecals , ill
es-a-blisr.ed with the Government incer.rL .-rs.
The MITI is, at present, ccnsidarir.r sor;- forr;; of s^ibsicy
fcr filling the price cap barweer. -/.2 v^rrir. 5.r.d S6cc:~iฃ.ry
materials, in irs plan (at rhe iursau cf Ir.zu = zrial Lccation
and Environmental Protection). I\~evert'--.= les5, rhis and the sirr.i
plan like depletion allowances, have net: yez bsen materialize::..
Other economic incentives tc char.re th= Ccnsur.ers' Lahavicrs
to favor the recycled materials or products ars also discussed at
different administrative levels. Cne "ay cf dcin:, this is to give
an economic disincentive to tax those materials or produces that
have special difficulty in recycling. But again this has not yet
dene in anv wav.
Social factors
There are many social factors involved that hinder the vsy
tc effective resource recovery. r~ h?.ve to admit, in our efforts
of this aspect of problems, that v:e are behind the United States.
The reason for this is mainly because cf the greater serial inerti;
for the existing system in this ccunzry. Anc~her is du; re zhe
fact that the Japanese have a special ;"ychclegical reluctance ~c
ccrstant education ci" er.iaghcerire-r.u.
From the municipality's side, zhe lee;; cf erplcyeec ' cducrtic-
and trair.ir.g fcr resource recovery im~lerrer-taeion is id^r.-cified tc
be the major problem.
-------
Another is the institutional x^'^.;_er... 7hi^ i:.cl_J..:; :'.it c:.l .
local governments but also the Central Gcverr.rr.er.u, and _s considu.. :.:
r.';oi"? serious tr.an gencraj-ly ^..icuc^n i. L ^ricr!L~'>' se'C-tim'j anc. cor.sir,"--
policy planning among the public seczrr is na-urally cf x'itai iirp:r-
rance for effective and efficient realization cf resource recovery.
Finally, legislative reorganization cf both existing and
future lav:s / acts, codes or ordinances for resource recovery rroisz
be cited here with a special err.phasis. Current s-atus of this
aspect of resource recovery effort i/. Japan can be said hard to bea:
-------
II. IMIi AIST'S R S: D PROJECT- CA' R
Tr.e project was initiated to provide a technological solution
;he municipal solid waste problem vhirh has various cociai,
economical and technological impacts. The primary aim v:as ~o
recover resources from the refuse. Current vCasre Disposal and
Public-Cleansing Law states, in the Section 3 of Article 4, that
the Government shall promote the development of rro oiosir.g technology
and provide technical as well as financial aids -co t.-.~ local
autonomous public agency. Uith this legal justification. the
Agency of Industrial Science & Technology, X1TI, in -he FY li-72,
conducted a year-long state-of-zhe arz survey on the resource
recovery from the minicipal refuse and studied the possibility
to start a national R & D project on the subject from the FY 1973.
The project entitled "R & D on Resource Recovery and Reuse Techno-
logical System", was then formally launched as the Phase I that
will last for three years. (Initial budget appropriation plan was
1.6 billicn yens or ca. 5.3 million U.S. dollars, for this period.}
Unlike the conventional production technology R & D projects,
the emphasis was placed on the technology "system", not on any
specific technology alone.
Resource recovery, needless zo ฃ5.y, can only bo
vrhen it satisfies the environment! requirements --"-
lliniszry of Health ฃ.- "eifare v,rho r.ad been -r=_dio:.cr.-;,_]
of solid t.~'zz ::ir.ฃc-er ant.
aims of the project may he S'irr.o.riodc; az follows:
To recvcle the values at the c-:~imil oo:'.__ :ior..;
-------
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(2) To establish the resource rec^/ery ;schr._i
Feasibility study of Zlcr.Lr.-al. T_ ->..": lories
(3) To establish a total system, icr resource recovery
* Conceptual Systems Design and Incentives
(4) To propose a solution to environment:-- problems associated
V7ith the municipal waste -->- Impacts Assessment and l-cll_ticn
Control
The project plan, in its firs~ phase (Phase I)/ thus i
the feasibility study of selectee, eler.enr.ai technologies ana the
conceptual design of a total syster:.. The ?hasa II, based on the
results of Phase I, proposes a demonstration of the total system
with particular emphasis on the technological aspect.
The basic project concept and plan are summarized ir.
Figure 2.
-------
R & D PROGRAMS
Selection of the Program Fields
Elemental Technology - In a resource recovery system, the
subsystems may be identified as the basic processes that should
be termed here as elemental technologies. The concept of an
elemental technology is somewhat similar to that of a unit
operation or unit process in the chemical industry. Elemental
technologies, in the development stage, may be divided broadly
into two categories; peripheral or interfacial elemental techno-
logy and critical elemental technology.
The former is the elemental technology like the magnetic
separator or the mechanical composting technology, that has been
already applied- to the resource recovery of the municipal refuse,
proved to be an established technology, and has no further need
for R & D. The facility or equipment of this type of elemental
technology is already on the market and can be procured with
specifications.
The critical elemental technology, on the other hand, is
an important technology and considered critical in the R & D.
One kind under this elemental technology is the technology based .
on totally new concept or principle. Another kind under this
category is the technology, such as pyrolysis, that has been
practiced in other fields of technology but has not been applied
to resource recovery. And this newer application to resource
recovery may require the feasibility study.
The present R & D is thus mainly concerned with the critical
elemental technology.
-------
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Within a process network for resource recovery, various
fields of elemental technologies may be identified along the
stream of the waste from its source to the ultimate disposal
point. For the present R & D program purpose, four elemental
technology fields were identified; (1) collection/transportation,
(2) size reduction/extraction, (3) decomposition, and (4) re-.
utilization.
Prior to the project initiation, critical technologies for
each program field were first listed and a dozen of program topics
for R & D were selected. They are listed in Table 10.
One kind of sleeted programs, which needed rather basic
research, however were assigned to be conducted at the National
Research Laboratories under AIST, and the other that needed more
advanced technological development were contracted with private
firms that had the potential to carry out the R & D in this field
of technology.
Systems Studies - Because of the complexity of the resource
recovery problems, the importance of a systems approach^ was empha-
sized during the preparation stage of the project in the FY 1972.
Comprehensive study and assessment on the state-of-the art,
and the subsequent systems analysis and, hopefully, a proposal
of the total system with emphasis of technology, were identified
to be necessary, along with the other "hardware" study programs.
A systems study under the title of "Conceptual Design of a Total
System for Resource Recovery and Reuse", that is listed in Table 10,
was contracted with the Japan Industrial Technology Association,
a quasi-governmental agency;,
i
The JITA, being aware of the need for the interdisciplinary
(and, perhaps, multi-disciplinary) study for this project, had
-------
formed, within it, an organization called "Comr.uttee on the Systems
Study of Resource Recovery and Reuse". The Cornnittee, chaired by
Prof. Dr. Yoshitorfhi Oyarr.a, currently director of the National
Research Institute cf Environmental Sciences, of the Environment
Agency, and the former President of the Tokyo Institute of Techno-
logy, is composed of professionals with various disciplines ranging
from engineering to social psychology. The Conjnittee also had at
first six and has now three workshops under it.
* f
The first subcommittee, or Workshop on Elemental Technology
is primarily concerned with the technological state-of-the-art in
resource recovery. It reviews the existing and potential technologies
and makes some evaluations on those technologies. One function of
the Workshop is to check and review the progress status of the
selected R & D programs conducted by the AIST.
The Workshop on Systems Analysis, which is the second sub-
committee, is concerned with computer analysis of some problems
identified critical to the project progress and making the necessary
predictions. In the FY 1973, the Systems Dynamics technique, that
was first developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
was written in Dynamo Statements of a computer language, was utilized
to analyze and predict the role of PVC (polyvinylcholoride polymer)
mixed with the Japanese municipal waste.
The third subcommittee, Workshop on Demonstration Project,
aims at preparing and making assessments on the coming Phase II of
the AIST Project, which is to start from the FY 1976. The Phase II
of the Project, described briefly in Figure 2, is essentially a
demonstration of the total'resource recovery system at selected
municipalities, and can be comparable with the U.S. counterparts of
EPA. Currently, members of the workshop are studying the social,
economical and other characteristics of candidate municipalities.
-------
Brief Review of Elemental Technology Fields
Although the goal of the project is to establish the resource
recovery system, a brief review for each elemental technology field
may be appropriate here. However, before we proceed to the re-
viewing, the total processing system that we nave in our plan in
its generalized form can be depicted in contrast with the existing
disposal systems, as in Figure 3. The resource recovery system
which is intended here is conceptual alternative of the next
generation that would be a substitute for the conventional incinera-
tors or sanitary landfilling.
Collection/Transportation;* Elemental technologies in this
part of the whole processing are not directly related to resource
recovery itself. However, current importance of this technology
field and the relation to the subsequent processing may need a
brief description.
Other than the conventional (packer) truck method, rails,
ships and pipelines are under consideration for application of
refuse collection and transportation in Japan. Among those, the'
pipeline collection and transportation is considered most promising.
The pipeline has many variations; vacuum, capsule, train, pressure
and slurry.
The facilities of pipeline transportation are usually costly
and not economical for less densely populated areas. But once
installed, the operation requires less nan-power and can easily
automated, which is considered a great deal of advantages ever
the conventional truck collection and transportation.
Most technologies regarding the pipeline collection and
transportation have already developed on a commercial scale,
* Collection and transportation may be dealt with separately.
But, because of its close relation between them, no attempt
was made here to separate them.
-------
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- Recycled Values -
Scrap Iron <
IConferrous < '
Containers <
Glass Gullet <
Paper, Pulp <
Plastics <
Coaipost, Hunus <
Fuel Gas, Oils <
Coke, Chars <
Energy (Heat) <
Building <
Materials
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ollection/Trar:sportation
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-------
-47-
and it appears to be not necessary to initiate new R & D programs
except that of slurry pipeline transferring.
Slurry transportation of the waste or other materials like
coal may be very important, particularly for the wet processing
that follows. Municipal waste slurry, because of the largest
content of paper, behaves, in the pipe, in somewhat similar way
as the cellulosic slurry. The waste slurry contaminated with
dirts, and other inorganics, is a complex Non-Newtonian fluid
and its flow characteristics are not known well. The basic
engineering data for designing such pipeline transportation is
considered to be of extreme importance.
Size Reduction/Extraction: For size reduction, shredding
is most commonly employed for the municipal refuse handling, in
which combination of shearing, compression, and impact forces
are utilized effectively. Hence the shredding technolocy is
considered to be a peripheral elemental technology and not for
any further R & D. However, shredders that operate at the room
temperature have such environmentally adverse effects like noises,
vibrations and dust, and are often not acceptable for its aesthetical
and hygienic reasons. In addition to those demerits, shredders
require normally greater power consumption and rather frequent
maintenance job and the shreds coming from this type of equipment
are not suitable for effective materials extraction operations
normally that follow for resource recovery, because of their size
'distribution -and lumping.
Cryogenic shredding, in contrast with the ordinary temperature
shredding, is becoming known to compensate some of the latter's
disadvantages. The basic principle of cryogenic shredding is
as follows: Any solid material when- exposed under the cryogenic
(low temperature) conditions shows a marked embrittleness for a
certain temperature range. This physical property may be utilized
-------
effectively for size reduction and the subsequent selective
extraction of certain, material
Various coolants may bo
For both economical and safe
-195.8ฐC) is most promising.
as a by-product for oxygen pr
inert gas. The latent heat
often suggested for another s
direct utilization of this
of LNG plant location and its
possible tor waste processing.
ty reasons, liquid nitrogen (b.p. =
Liquid nitrogen is normally produced
eduction frcrr. air and is totally
(of vaporization) of imported LNG are
ource of cooling energy; nevertheless,
(cooling) heat seer.s impossible because
need for special handling.
favor
Firsthand estimates
shredding to the resource rec
environmental effects accompa!
shredding would be removed.
cation needs further research
advantage of using considera^
normal liq.N2/refuse ratio
weight basis) may or may not
Technologies associated
are based on a wide variety o
air or hydro-dynamics, parti
conductivity, magneticity, el
and so on.
Thus the selection of
is usually very difficult. I
placed on that the technology
system should perform most ei
size reduction and downstrear.
And the feasibility for the
the application of cryogenic
very processing, because most adverse
nied by the crdi.iary temperature
However, this newer technology appii-
and development.- Economical dis-
le amount of liquid nitrogen (the
rajnges from 0.3 to nearly 1, on the
be compensated with many advantages.
with materials extraction, in general,
f principles: gravity (or density),
die size or shape (screening), electrical
ectrostc.tic force, optical property,
critj
itical technologies for R & D purpose
or the AIST programs, importance was
s a component of a total processing
f actively with respect to upstream
backend components of technology.
Japanese waste was emphasised, too.
-------
Air classification technology wa:j selected because the
technology had never been properly applied to tho wet Japanese
refuse, though the air classifier is cper cited on a. comnorcial scale
abroad. Plastics extraction in rather purified forms cf pellets
or powder by means of organic solvent (xylene) was another example
to study its applicability to the plastics-rich Japanese waste.
The seni-v/et selective pulverizing system, with a great success
already with the completion of the first year of R & D, is con-%
sidered best fitted to the Japanese waste separation.
For separation of the inorganic fraction, most of the con-
ventional processing technologies may be applicable that have beer.
in practice in the minerals processing. However, newer technology
may be worthy to be studied also. \ technology for separating
various non-ferrous metals by means of magnetic fluid (Ferrofluid^cs,
for example) is a R & D program currently underway. This can be
said of a processing with a heavy medium with variable, but con-
trollable by a dial, apparent density to separate selectively the
metals, one kind at a time.
Decomposition: Solid-wastes may be decomposed thermally,
chemically and biologically. In view of its importance, let us
restrict our discussion here to only the thermal decomposition
of the organic matter. Pyrolysis, in its strict sense, is the
thermal decompostion in an oxygen lacking environment. However,
often known "pyrolytic" processes include partial oxidation (or
combustion) and, may be not called pyrolysis strictly. Because
of this, the term "thermal decompostion" is used here in a much
broader sense than pyrolysis, and distinguished from the incinera-
tion or combustion in that the latter is the thermal decompcsitic:
with an excess amount of air or oxygen.
As stated earlier, the thermal decompaction is one of the
most promising technologies for resource recovery, because it can
-------
-50-
be used for conversion materials recovery as well as energy recovery
in a storable and transportable form. --ior; than a dozen processes
[uroose both in Jar>an and abroad.
are being proposed for this p
Nevertheless, it may be agree
completely workable on a cornm
I thot none has been proved to be
ercial scale v'ith the products being
recovered in an acceptable manner.
General conditions for s
processes are considered more
of the higher raoisture conten
fraction of the Japanese wast
essentially cellulosic with
access of these thermal decomposition
stringent in Japan, simply because
t of the Japanese refuse. The organic
a, however, is stiil considered
s0me amount of hydrocarbons from plastics,
in analyzing a thermal d
material, two distinguished r
identified; endothermic and e
organic matter be decomposed,
first the enthalpy of the mat
and then enable the decompost
instances, is endothermic. A
state of the matter proceeds,
the products and the surround
(or are) usually exothermic.
utilizing superheated steam,
condensation reactions are su
reactions could occur in a se
depending on the reaction sch
At any event, the reacto
reactions effectively and eff
various classifications of th
possible:
The way of supplying the
compostion process of rhe solid organic
action stages should be clearly
cothermic. In order thac the solid
heat must be supplied to increase
rial to a decomposition temperature
on reaction occur, which, in :r:ost
the decomposition to lov;er molecular
the second stage reaction(s) between
ng gases will take place,.which is
Partial oxidation, hydrogenation
r carbon monoxide, and certain
h examples. First and second stage
ies or almost simultaneously,
me and the reaction conditions.
(3) is so designed that the selected
ciently be taken place. Thus the
thermal de compos tier, processes are
heat of the- first endothermic stage
-------
may divide the processes into, 1) external heating, 2) internal
heating, and 3) partial oxidation processes. Or, according to the
major final product scate, another y/ay of subdivision of the
processes are, 1) gasification, 2) liquefaction, and 3) carbonization,
One has to know, however, that, in either one of these processes,
three phases of the final products do exist; for example, in a
gasification process, a small amount of liquids and solids (chars
or inorganic residue) are obtainable as by-products.
Equipmental features often become the name of the processes;
1) single, and 2) combined, or dual reactor pyrolytic systems, or
1) fluidized-bed, 2)fixed, or packed-bed, and 3)rotary kiln reactor
processes. Furthermore, operational characteristics divide the
equipment types to; 1) batch, 2) continuous, and, 3) semi-continuous
processes.
With these diversified nodes of thermal dacompostion processes,
one may easily imagine, by the combination of those subdivisions,
how many processes could be possible. The point is, however, that
a pyrolytic process must first satisfy the basic disposal and
resource recovery principles cited earlier (see Table 9) and be
efficiently operable, without causing any environmentally adverse
effects.
For the AIST R & D programs in this elemental technology field,
three fundamental researches and two more advanced, practical
developments were selected. (Refer to Table 1C).
Basic studies include, 1} fi::ed-bea gasification of molded
waste, 2) catalytic and hyarogenation fluidized-bed reaction for
liquid products, and 3) combined reactor system for gasification.
Fluidized-bed gasification and liquefaction are two contracted,!
but 100 percent supported by the AIST, selected R & D r>rograms
-------
in this technology field.
We believe, with these
decomposition, that, by the c
able to tell which would be
Japanese solid waste under a
t
Re uti1i zation: Element
range from incinerator resid
inanufetcturing process from c
range of technologies and cai
manner.
The importance of this T
final product(s) should have
words, the products have al
the usual lower grade of the
disadvantageous in the marke
One basic research prog
at one of the AIST's Laborat
of incineration and pyrolysi:
smaller fraction of metals c
certain ceramics, along with
concern.
Target oฃ Major Selected R &
1) Low Tcnosrature Shre
To separate PVC plastic frac
separated plastic wastes bv
ive research progress of thermal
nd of the Phase I tern/ we will be
,he best pyrolytic process for the
certain set of condtions.
1 technologies under this category
.e reutilization to wallboard
mpost humus. They cover so wide
not 'be classified in any specific
rocess, however, lies in that the
the higher marketability. In other
r^ady an established market value and
products from waste should not be
opportunities.
am of this project is being conducted
ry, which is aimed at the reutilization
residues. Because of relatively
ntained in them, tiles, bricks and
application of chars, are the major
D Pro or a ITS
.c.ina and Separation of Plastic VJastes
Lion selectively out of the source
:neans of refrigeration.
-------
2) Cryogenic Shredding Technology for Sulky _^as_to3_; To
perform an effective size reduction and separation of complex
products or materials that occupy major fractions of bulky wastes
and are not suitable for regular shredding.
3) Air Classification and Related Sorting System.: For the
first year program, to classify the humid Japanese waste effectively
into the organic and inorganic fractions by means of air classificatie
technology.
4) Semi-wet Shredding and Classification Process: To classify
the damped or moisturized waste into easily processable fractions
and separate the values, like pulp stock, with higher purity.
5) Magnetic Fluid Sorting Technology for Nonferrous Metals;
To separate valuable nonferrous metals, such as aluminum, copper,
zinc, etc., out of the nonmagnetic inorganic mixture of the waste.
6) Fluidized-bed Thermal Decomposition Process for Oil Recovery:
To obtain oils or liquid fuel products effectively by the thermal
decompostion of the organic fraction of refuse.
?) Fluidized-bed Pyrolysis/Conbustion Dual Reactor System for
Fuel Gas Recovery: To apply the dual rector pyrolysis technololgy
to obatin high caloric fuel gas out of the organic component of
solid waste.
-------
DEVELOP; :C:-TT STATUs
Low Temperature ฃh re eld in a anc
First year work (FY 1973
ature pysical properties, lik
heat transmission test of pla
range, and the feasibility of
eratures. Those studies pro\
the subsequent separtion of
was feasible.
Fv
Second year study develc
purpose and provides the equi
fications for the whole process
shredders.
Construction and operati
capacity of 50 Xg/hr should b
the final continuous operatic
(in Tokyo) in order to accu.T.u
followed till March 31, 1976.
Cryogenic Shredding Technology for Bulky Wastes
i.e., by March 3i, 1975. In
equipment was constructed to
rr.a-hine motors, steel coded t
steel, hard plastics, rubbers
particle size distribution, i
OF 1-7..iso.0. :i j< D ?:.-.OG ?--.:! s
Separation of ?.'::r>cic Pastes
) includes basr.c study on lev; temper--
e erabrittler.css, of plastic materials,
stic wastes in the low temperature
shr^c'.ding opera-uions at lover te:r.p-
cd the lew ten.perature shredding and
7C oolv^.srs from other Clastic wastes
ps an optical process for this
pmental desin ana. operational speci-
includiha the coolinq-duct and the
ons of a pilot plant with a processing
e cor.pleto.cl by the autun.n of 1975 and
u^ing the source separate;'..! plastics
late the perfornirnce data should be
complete v;ithin this fiscal year,
its lirst /..ar, a batchv/ise coerar.ed
test such non-crushables as washing
ires, or the like, to recover copper,
, etc. Shredding characteristics,
r exar.ple, and cyogenic properties
-------
of the constituent materials ware studied r-r:cl <>.; optimal set of
operational conditions v.'aa searched -co i\n.ni;;u ze tht amount of
liquid N^ to'bo consumed. Also an ringir.eor.in>-; design of e con-
tinuously operated equipment, which \,as patented, vv.s completed.
At present, the continuous process e^vlp.v.ont with 1 ton/'nr
capacity has been constructed and soon t.:e 'J.ata collection
operations should start. Economical feasibility should be studied
concurrently.
Air Classification and Related Sorting Sj s~^\
A 1 ton/hr (dry basis) pilot plant having throe major units
of horizontal , vertical zig-zag air classifiers and a vibrc-ting
n
scree, was designed, constructed, and operated to separate the
organic and .inorganic fractions effectively from the Japanese
refuse. First, prepared wastes with different compositions and
p.oisture contents, and then actual waste were used to test the
process performance. With an "as-received" refuse with moisture
content of 42 percent, the data shcv/ed a better -Chan expected result
for the separated orcanics with nore than 99 percent purity,
while the separated inorganic fraction v:?.s contaminated vith the
organics and resulted in a purity being less than expected.
Currenly in'its second year program, a process for recovering
plastic rriaterials in refined forra frora the 'separated organic .strearr.
by air classificatioa is being developed. A y.ilot pla..t, bjcGad en
a bench-scale laboratory test for this solvent (xylone) refining
process, v/as designed and is being asser-jled new. The test opera-
tions shall soon begin to collect the performance data.
The third and final year program includes ircitorials extraction
-------
from the inorganic fraction ob
process consisting essentially
separation methods is planned
and glass. The latter half of
organize all processes develop
sorting (materials recovery) s
tained from air classification. A
)f froth floatation and heavy media
to recover ferrous raetal, aluminum
the third year shall be devoted to
ed during the three years as a total
vstera.
Se/ri-wet Pulverizincr and Clas
The technology based on a
in a troiur.el-like equipment.
moisture or damped; if necessa
drum with screen holes and harr
at a different speed. Homogen
diffusion of the moisture and
hammering actions take place
move in the horizontal, longit
selected materials as being r.
classified automatically. Thr
refuse has been proved most pr
Tests done by a modal and
in the first year research evi
refuse was essentially all hie
And a waste paper processor rs
fraction on a trial .basis, ana
recovered material. This is p
separate the paper (recyclable
mixed refuse.without any known
(No air, water and possibly s
to the less power consumption
sification Process
totally newer concept is substanciated
The municipal waste with as-received
try, is fed -co one end of the rotating
uers equipped. wi~h inside and rotating
ization of the waste through the
the size reduction by tumbling arid
almost simultaneously as the waste
adinal direction. During this process,
oulverized will be screened out a.*d
e stagowise classification of the
ctical with an acceptable efficiency.
module units (both operated batchwise)
denced that one of the classified
qualify recyclable waste paper.
covered paper sheets from this
guaranttecd the quality of the
ob.nbiy the simplest process to
alone for better sake) fro.?, tho
e n v 1 : o rime n t a 11 y d i s a d v a r. t; a c.- e s .
oti.1 pollutions are expected, in addition
than the conventicr.ai orocesses.)
-------
'iTiiF \-<:i\r. :i ;; cie^'o^ed i\:.i.i nl.y .- :--^' Jc:a'.ion ol. t:nc tost
I'.xxlul'_> r,'ui.ni.;c nt to a im'jor mo-! ''_ rn:r. 'o c.i-::c.:: the rcc.la-up
factor. And the- desifjyii:,':; or 2 '..,;:;/' r -'i:glo drum continuous
oquivMont is ?--a:.n-j con;: coacar r < L "-. ; t>.3 2~uipricnt "..'ill be
assembled, by tho end of thi b ,':\ ...-; ul -or.:.
In the next yeor, a cle^onsti.c-.:;.io;-: plaiifc of this process will
be constructed. <-': a landfillin-j oij:o oi: ^ suburban city- of Tokyo.
and further porfoj-'inance data v/ill bj r-co'.-riulated before con'^e
Fluid Sorting 1'(jchno3.:..'c:y /o, ;^:'.-- .'errors I let 1 5
The magnetic fluid, which consists of magnetite (Fe^O^)
particles of ca. 100 A average diamster coated with a surface-
active reagent and suspended in a base medium, usually water or
kerosene, plays a central role in this separation technology.
The fluid once placed in a magnetic field, possesses an apparent
density corresponding to the field force. A particle of any non-
ferrous metal submerged in this fluid, therefore, may either float
or sink, depending on its specific gravity. And this is the
principle of this technology.
A batchwise equipment was built in the. first year program and
the some basic research was conducted for the feasibility of the
process for the waste. The process input must be an inorganic
residue after the ferrous metals extracted completely by a magnetic
separator and a mixture of non-ferrous metals and glass, ceramics
or the like. The first year study concluded that both floating anc
sinking units were necessary for effective separation of aluminum
and copper. And also some means to recover the valuable fluid
that would be carried over along with the separated metals must be
-------
developed. Otherwise econo>:J
o.x;3cnsivci magnetic medium sec:
The second year program :
tinuous process equipment vir.1
unit of pretreatrrent by moans
matals and an additional medii
the raain part, of the process.
obtainable within this vear.
not
: isric; ,
tno dcy:. Loprr ^nt of a con-
y c,': 100 X~._ hr. LnJ an'
2 u r r e n t i1;: ?j a r a t i o ;i o f n o n -
ara rocovcry unit v/ill be attached to
The perfcr;r.ance cliica are to be
3ir.e ira:-:e-up experiiucntal rur.s may
be necessary before commercialization ;. .: ihe next fiscal year of
1975.
Fluidized-be'd Therrr.al Decorr.Do.sition
First year experimental
plant with reactor of 160 ram j
plastic coir.position^'v/ere used
fuel product. Also process h
determine the way to supply h
the fluidized-bed reactor. Tl
partial oxidation taking plac
without much changing the hea
study was pe:cforr.-_-d utilizing a oiloi
0. Simulated wastes with varying
to invostigers Lhe yield of liquid
eat balance v.ras studied in order to
eat to decomposition reaction in
result seemed favo.rable for the
o in the reactor for oil recovery
ing value of the liquid product.
The first few months oฃ
devoted to investigating the
* Current price per liter of
ca. 100,000 yens, or 350 U.
will drop to'1,000 yens, or
of commercialization.
Oil Recovery
;he second year (FY 1974) is being
process performance with an actual
is
.his liquid for research use
'. dollars. I'.7e expect ~c.he. ^rice
3 dollars per Titer by the time
-------
A scale-uc reactor with diameter cf bOO ras p is in its
d^sl :?ninj' .-;tage and soon will bo co;:stnt-..:L-:.:";. In -che third year,
nearly a co-onercial scale plant will bo constructed and operated
for thi actual waste on a continuous basis.
Fl u icj. K cd --bed P _ r oly s is/Coinbu .-rtior; Dua, ' :.-.Jjctor__ S y stem for
The basic idea ex thiu proc^cn ifj as follows: The sand,
fluidization rr.cdiun, mixed v:ith charr; producec in the pyrolyric
reactor flows to the second coirhuotion reactor v:here the air is
bein^ blcv/n frcra the bottom, and the burning cf the chars take oLr.ca,
The heated sand in the corpus t ion reactor and. being free of chars
any more then travels back to the first pyrolytic reactor threuch
a pipe to provide the heating and reaction energy to the shredded
waste. Thus the sand, through circulating between the two reactors,
acts as an energy carrier and rhe two reactors are normally in a
therraally equilibriated state with a certain feed rate.
This dual reactor systerr. has bec-r-. a:;oloysd in petroleur:.
cracking process and not totally n.3w. Th 3 c;dvantages cf this syh'cc. "p.
are that the process is suitable for higher caloric gases and
the operation can easily be autoiv.a-cd because cf its inhorenc stc.bil
The first year study was !::; inly concerned on the pyrolytic
reactor section. (Cortibustion reactor that could be combined xvith
is in a v;ide spread use already.) Thv-s a single reactor v.Titn
diameter 300 rn p systeir. v;as designed end ths feasibility of v.ha
t
pyrolysis process to the Japanese wa^te v;as chocked. _ Uasfi pauer
stock being pulverized was use.d to test tho equipment. ?.nd a fuel
can with the lower heating value of nearly 4,000 Kcal/Kra-5 was
obtained at about 830 ฐC. Xoiscuro content was a testing parad
and an interesting result v;as obtained.
-------
Currently, the sand circulufcic
of the sane geometry of the reactor
And the design of a reactor fjyjten
is being performed.
In the final year, a nodule si
and tested of its feasibility on th
is tested en a model unit
-ysteiiL at the room temperature
'ch 500 mm 0 for each reactor
?o plant will be constructed
-, actual waste.
Conceptual Design of a Total System
A partial description of the a
coiitracted study was made earlier.
Current major activity of the
the preparation for the coming ?has
that shall start from the FY 1976.
for Resource Recovery and Reuse
:tivities being done under this
;ee Systems Studies, en pp 42-44
Systems Study Committee is abou
e II demonstaration programs
N
-------
\:e c.ro nc\r (FY 1074) in th:. ^'lo -.--. or.
I;-;-,---, of Fhc-so I o(r t:V;o A 1ST1?; i.o;_o>irc- %?cc/-:y :?.nc? Reuss Project.
.'-s ntcitec" r-ortJ.7 earlier, tho ob j o c <:.: *-_:; ;" .. hu^e I are; 1} technical
c;!i~ systo.i f.o a ~ ibili ty of s"2 oc !: -; -:".-.- :^;."!. ti,chr.o].cgiG:: . .; a^ply
u'".\ r tlio 0 an;jncjsc: ; >h;ysi Ceil ^r.c"! :~''/c-.:il < ::.':! Li.cnj . and 2; cor.ceotvic'l
resign o/ a toLcl xystrri for .-fj ":^:.'v\: '.. "ou . cc recovery .vsteris
ir'/lcronrctio^s. ?.t the CLIC! of ;;::. /!'.;;,: 1. -.". couli not cstimata,
hc\;3ver, that all el cr.i-^nto.l Loo^-iolo ,_L .-" c-:,-v^lo_jcd under t'.u Project
and/or tha total systoia prcposoci should be irrrplerr.^nted shortly
thereafter on a "coraraercial"scale.
The reasons for this nay be as follows: Firstly, those~1:ech-
nologies, unlike the conventional production technologies, for lack
of economical interest, should not be implemented without any
economical aids or incentives of any form. Secondly, nrtn.icipalities
are considered still not yet being ready enough to accept the
resource recovery concept in a. raore realistic manner. Thirdly, and
most important of all, the system demonstration, which is nest needed
by the municipality instead of single technology demonstration
would have not yet performed then.
Because of these reasons, most municipalities being still within
amortization period of current disposal (mostly incineration)
facilities may find the resource recovery systems implementation
too risky to take both in the economical and technical terms. There-
fore, we have to conclude that we need the systems demonstration
for a certain period of time before municipalities would start
implementing the systems safely.
-------
Ovtlin.i oฃ Phase II_ Plan
B^sed on the need justii'i
a cicr.onstration project for tn
followed by the current Phase
include as rauch results of the
The outline of the Phase
Po_r_Lo:l: Three to five years st
Total Bucxactal Aoorpuri^t: on ":-
or 33 million U.S. do
I'-'athod: Construction, operatic.
plants in selected mun
Demonstration Plant: Prototype
to be demonstrated. P
ing to the locality an
generally mere than 10
necessary to dem.onstra
include total systems,
like incinerator, as ti
systems centered en ma
For the demonstration pla
the refuse and the site on whi
made. The AIST, or the Governi
guarantiee plant hardwares, ccj
durina r.he demonstration oeri
Training of employees of
the plant under extreme condtic
on market opportunities of rsc
the environmental impacts, are
the selected municipality.
c> z -
d above, the AIST is now planning
Pha^e II that should be directly
Tho sys~d;:a we would pursue may
Ph <
I t:orm as possible.
I p.lc,n may 'be briefed as follcvd:
rting v;it/i FY 1976.
: Approxiiaately 10 billion yens,
and evaluation of several demonsrration
systems that match the local conditions
ant processing capacity varies accord-
demons traticn purpose. Ucvcever,
tons of refuse per day may be
e the economical factors. Prototypes
each including the existing facilities)
e subsystems. Others may include :
erials recovery and/or energy recovery.
ts, municipalities should provide
h the plant construction would be
ent, on the other hand, should
struction, operation and maintenance
her municipalities, operations of
n,s of incoming refuse, assessments
covered materials or energy, and on
olanned v.'ith the consultation of
-------
do3l':c:;. , t;>o v,:.n]^j ;jl^-
b;.:-;od on i;ho gc.^oral t- i:
Or iil;:c;- it con id ar-l: ih
<'. t, '-i-\ , h?.d ^l<3 :r;'anicipality so
,00 :-.;.; _:i _-.>.:;. "-.y the muni cipality
u I :.-.' .%.': C.'-. / ^rr.^.ent properties.
-------
COXC1USIGNS
From the discussions in th
following concluding rorr.arks r..a
A. The old syle ''ro.gir.an recyc
in Japan.
B. Increased public awareness
rru.-riicipal refuse has ijcen obser
yc-ars .
C. For processing (disposal o
approximately 20 percent indust
with the regular waste causes v
D. Source separation is consi
Municipalities, mostly not for
disposal processing. (Separati
expected damage to the inciner
E. The main features of the J
with the U.S. refuse, are highe
than 50 percent) and higher fra
10 percent).
F. The Japanese paper recycle
the figure of the U.S. counterp
still further.
G. Incinerators are irt a wide
municipalities. But heat recov
being done in Eurooe.
nci
II. Industrial and public (ir
sectors show a great deal of in
the municipal refuse. And vario
ta^en.
fir.-;t half of the paper, the
7 DO sU-V-mar
ling" is currently seldom seen
for resource recovery from the
vod ' especially for the last two
r resource recovery)purpose,
rial waste rorn'ially coming mixed
arious trouble to the municipality,
derably wide spread among Japanese
recycling but for more effective
on of plastic products because of
or, for example.)
at
apanese municipal refuse, compared
average moisture content (more
ction of plastics (reaching nearly
ratio is exceedingly higher than
irt, and anticipated to increase
spread use among the Japanese
ery is not performed as much as
ing the Central Government)
terest in resource recovery from
us efforts are beginning to be
-------
-65-
1. Technological problems identified here include processing of
waste contaminated v/ith hazardous materials, storing of putrescible
ro;i:ub--j or recovered materials, and resource recovery processing of
source separated materials.
J. Nontechnological problems identified here include economics
of recycling processing and recycled resources, and social accept-
ability of the resource recovery concept and recycled resources.
The solution of these problems would take much longer time than
the technological ones.
Conclusions, based on the AIST's Project description in the
latter half of the paper, may be as follows:
A. R & D programs are being conducted on selected "critical"
elemental technologies. And the problems encountered were identified
not much of technical feasibility, rather of systems feasibility.
B. One of the difficulties in the resource recovery process
designing is to synthesize a processing system that absorbs the
input refuse variations in compostion and quantity.
C. System design or process synthesis techniques for resource
recovery systems that must satisfy the diversified local conditions
has not been developed in a satisfactory manner. The need for this
kind of study should be emphasized.
D. ET" & D programs performed during the Phase I period alone may
not be sufficient for the municipality to implement as a resource
recovery system. And the Fhase II of the Project may be necessary
for the svstem demonstration before ~che municipality employs the
system, shown by the AIST without much technological as well as
economical risks.
c
E. Currently planned Phase II include^ construction, operations,
maintenance and assessments of the demonstration plant of several
selected cities.
-------
The MITI, with its consci
has been and shall promote, th
resource recovery systems, and
eccr.or'ical and administrative
resources from various wastes
cooperation of civic and indus
-66-
vation of energy and materials policy,
rouoh tho AIST, R & D programs on
, thrcuc-h its" other Bureaus, various
incentive programs to conserve the
including industrial waste, with
trial sectors.
-------
-r,-"-- -'.-.- ~ n :-.
;-.r.i -az^iytic Pyrclysis Technology
risl Devalop^er.-c Laboratory
-------
RESEARCH CONCERNING THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RE-USE OF
ORGANIC HIGH POLYMERS" WASTES BY CATALYTIC HYDROCRACKING
(THE PURPOSE OF THIS RESEARCH)
It is a purpose of this research to get basic data for establishment
of a process to dispose organic high polymers' wastes by catalytic hydrocracking
and to convert them into completely harmless and reusable substances.
(THE PROGRESS OF THIS RESEARCH UP TO THE PRESENT DATE)
Using a batch autoclave, we have being hydrocracked the organic high
*
polymers in the presence of various catalysts and investigated the conversion
and the properties of reaction products at the reaction temperatures of 250 -^
500*C and the reaction hydrogen pressures of 20^-200 Kg/cm"
We hydrocracked cottons,polyatylene.polypropylenetphenolresinfand melamina
resin under the above reaction conditions.
Polystylene could be hydrocracked to alkylbenzenes.
Polypropylene could be..hydrocracked to C,~C,. paraffine gases and
gasoline fractions.
Phenol resine could be hydrocracked to alkylphenols.
Melamine resin could.be hydrocracked to ammonia,methane,and amino methanes*
Cotton could be hydrocracked to C,~C^ paraffine gases,alcohols,and
' aldehydes.
(NEXT STEP 0? THIS INVESTIGATION) ' "
Organic. fcigh polymers such as celluloses and plastics have a uniform
and regulaly ordered moleculer stracture.
In order to utilizedtheir wastes efficiently, it would be most desirable
to convert them selectively into monomers.
Following the present work, we will try to hydrocrack typical high polymers
catalitically, at the same time to investigate the hydrocracking reaction
process and to get basic data for designing a disposing plant*
-------
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-------
Fixed Bed PyroMsis of .Municipal Organic Solid Wastes Briquett
N'ationai Research Institute for Pollution and Resources,
Kawaguchi, Saitama, Jap^n, 332.
This fundamental research programme deals with not only the resolving
the impact of solid wastes pollution, but also resources recovery from
them.
Pyrolysis using fixed bed for organic solid wastes is to be allowed
easy and steady operation, which is the one well-established at many other
industrial fields. Because constitutions and shapes of solid.wastes vary
with various conditions (time, place and so on).
The fundamental research has been focussed particularly to;
1, Possibility of briquetting of solid wastes,
ป
2, Molding of and removing'water from solid wastes by means of compression
with or without addition of binding maerials,
3, Thermal decomposition behaviours of briquet as functions of temperatures
and duration time. The influences of circumstances and catalysts during
the decomposition are to be tested.
4, Material balance and heat balance in the'course of thermal decomposition,
5, Concept design of pyrol^.sis oven in the basis of results obtained,
and
q } Analysis and use of decomposition products (gas, liquid and residual char)
-------
Research Programme oil Fixed Type Pyrolysis Organic Solid Wastes
Fiscal year
Item of Activites
1974
The constitution of solid wastes and their thermal decom-
position behaviours,
Analysis of thermal decomposition products from solid wastes
! Relation between briquettability and solid wastes constitution
i
I Molding of and removing water from solid wastes by means
|
j of compression with or without addition of binding materials,
Strength of briquett made of solid wastes during drying
and pyrolysisj
Mechanical strength and reactivity of char obtained by
pyrolisis,
Removing of the pollutants such as gaseous and liquid S-
; N-, Cl-containing matters.
Design and building up of fixed bed type oven (carbonizer)
Material balance and heat balance for solid wastes carbo-
nization reaction.
-------
m
3
* -- - r _~^ *
-------
r _ ;ป it it t -
-------
-. ir.-,i r-j-ctor Pyre lysis System
.. ;r.-:-,l Cha.'.ical Laboratory for Industry
-------
Development of the Hybrid^ Retort
to Gasify Urban Refuse
National Chemical Laboratory for Industry
Tha hybrid^ retort is a gasification plant which has invented in
National Chemical Laboratiry for^ Industry as a unit process in the
resource recovery system for urban refuse.
The hybrid*- retort ia characterized by the idea that the retort ia not a -
single unit but is composed of a moving bed gasification unit and ซ, cirtain
,r '
type of incinerator so as to make the best use of the two units* ' The .
incinerator is allowed to choose any typo of solid gaa reactors- ouch aa a
conventional grata kilo* a rotary kiln, and so on. While the gasification
* -
unit mist be an up flow type of moving bed to which the solid waste ia fed
U
' t
from the bottom and the incompletely decomposed solid ia discharged from ,
the top ;.. of the bed as shown in the figure . The retort is expected to
exhibit following effects. '' ,
(1) By, employing a double stages retort, the gasification unit and the
incinerator are hybrided to make the process most effective vith &
sence of optimization. . " ' .
(2) High calories gas can be produced due to sufficient contact of the solid
<
with partial combustion gaa. .
(3) Blockage trouble of the solid bed can be shouted and stable operation
can be continued even the solid bed itself forms a blochage, because the
solid waste is fed from the bottom of the gasification unit and lifted up
with a mechanical force. .
-------
(M Since the solid waste can decompose with taking sufficient ti.v.e, the
solid of a large size can be treated, consequently pretreatmcnt of the
chage can be simplified.
(5) The operation is so stable over a wide range as to keep little advance--
ment of gasification. This characteristic is quite favorable to suit
operation schedule.
(6) Low construction cost and less friction da.aege.
To develop the hybride retort, following research items are pointed out.
(l) A series of gasification experiment with 1 liter retort to predict a
precise material balance of the process.
(2) A. series of gasification experiment with 15 liter retort to clarify the
strength of the charge at a packed state, the permeability of thป bed,and
the characteristics of heat transfer.
(3) Development of the feed mechanism and the chamber geometory to permit
srooth up flow of thet.charge.
The research of these items has launched to conduct in Naional Chemical
Laboratory for Indusry. Based on the performances of these researches, the,
study will be advanced to pilot plant test.
-------
-------
.:.. : ;:: ~-V_-:I ;. r^I "7-;.3 Process for Oil Recoverv
-------
MUNICIPAL REFUSE FYROLY3IS
BY PLJII3IZ3D 3'!Q RKACTOR
The recovery of oil from municipal refuse is acceptable from
-is^r1, because the oil is storaole and there requires mild
reaction condition comparing gas production.
This development program has two major targets as follows;
(1) Yield of the recovered oil is 35 wt.$ to the feed by
dry basis.
(2) The calorific value of the recovered oil is .8,000 kcal/kg.
This system would have the following features;
(1; Required heat of reaction is supplied by partial oxidation
reaction of solid waste and air.
ป
(2; Carrier gas of fluidization consists of a part of produced
gas and air. This combination makes it easy to control
reaction temnerature in the reactor.
-------
STUDY ITEM
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XVI
SECOND U.S.-JAPAN CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Washington, D.C. September 25, 1974
COMMUNIQUE
The Second U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid Waste
Management was held in Washington, D.C. September 24 and
25, 1974.
The Japanese delegation, headed by Mr. Tsutomu
Fukuda, Director, Waterworks and Environmental Department,
Environmental Sanitation Bureau, Ministry of Health and
Welfare, was composed of four national government officials
and one local government official.
The U.S. delegation, headed by Mr. H. Lanier Hickman,
Director of Operations, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, was composed
of five EPA officials and one representative each from the
American Public Works Association and the National Solid
Waste Management Association. Mr. Fitzhugh Green, Associate
Administrator for International Activities, EPA; Mr. Roger
Strelow, Assistant Administrator for Air and Waste
Management, EPA; and Mr. Arsen Darnay, Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Solid Waste Management Programs greeted
the Japanese delegation and delivered opening remarks of
welcome.
In addition to the conference in Washington, the
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- 2 -
Japanese delegation visited various sites demonstrating
EPA's solid waste programs in Baltimore, Maryland; St.
Louis, Missouri; Memphis, Tennessee; Orlando, Florida;
Atlanta, Georgia; and San Francisco, California.
The U.S.-Japanese Conference on Solid Waste Management
grew out of the Second U.S.-Japanese Ministerial Conference
on Environmental Pollution held in Washington, B.C. in June
1971 between then Chairman of the Council on Environmental
Quality Russell Train, and Japanese Minister Sadanori
Yamanaka. The First Conference on Solid Waste Management
was held in Tokoyo in 1973.
During the Conference, the two delegations presented
papers and exchanged information on various aspects of the
solid waste problems confronting each country. Principal
topics were collection and transportation of wastes,
disposal of wastes, hazardous waste management, and
resource recovery. The discussions were vigorous and
both sides agreed that the exchange was very useful.
In order to expand U.S.-Japan cooperation on problems
of solid waste management, the two delegations agreed to
begin to focus on technical areas of solid waste management
which could lead to future joint projects which could result
in improved solid waste management and environmental
protection. Study areas which will receive greater
attention during the next 18 months include:
1. Pyrolysis of solid waste.
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- 3 -
2. Environmental effects of vinyl chloride and PVC.
3. Improved collection systems management and
technology.
4. Environmental effects of improper disposal of solid
waste on the land.
5. Hazardous waste treatment and disposal
technology.
6. Recovery of post-consumer solid waste.
Technical staff of the two governments will begin
detailed discussions and communications in the selected
study areas as the first step in identifying specific
efforts which can benefit the cooperating countries.
Each country will identify specific technical experts to
begin such efforts under the guidance of the project leaders
of the Japanese government and
H. Lanier Hickman, Jr. of the U.S. EPA's Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs.
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OPA (A-107)
UNITED STATES
'ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20460
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE S300
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
EPA-339
XVII
News
Sibbison (202) 755-0344
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 27, 1974
U.S., JAPAN ANNOUNCE SOLID WASTE AGREEMENT
U.S. and Japanese government officials announced agree-
ment today on a plan which could lead to future joint projects
concerning solid waste management, resource recovery and
environmental protection.
The announcement followed the Second U.S. Japan Con-
ference on Solid Waste Management which was held at Environ-
mental Protection Agency headquarters in Washington, D.C.
September 24-25.
Experts in solid waste management from the two countries
will begin detailed communications in a number of study
areas as the first step in identifying cooperative activites
which can benefit the United States and Japan, the announce-
ment said.
The study areas which will receive attention during the
coming months include:
Pyrolysis of solid .waste. This is the use of.solid-
waste as energy through a process invo.lving the physical and
chemical decomposition.of organic matter by the action.of
heat in an oxygen deficient atmosphere.
Environmental effects of vinyl chloride and polyvinyl
chloride; improved collection systems management and
. (more)
Return this sheet if you do NOT wish to receive this material Q, or if change of address Is needed O' (indicate change, including zip code).
EPA FORM J510-1 (REV. B-72) ' '
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2
technology; environmental effects of improper disposal of
solid waste on the land; hazardous waste treatment and dis-
posal technology; recovery of post consumer solid waste;
and management information systems in industrial wastes.
The Japanese and U.S. delegates decided that a third
conference will be held in Japan in late 1975 or early 1976.
The Japanese delegation was headed by Tsutomu Fukuda,
Director, Waterworks and Environment Department, Environ-
mental Sanitation Bureau, Ministry of Health and Welfare.
The other delegates from the national Japanese govern-
ment were: Tadayuki Morishita, Deputy Chief, Industrial
Waste Management Office, Ministry of Health and Welfare;
Michio Nakajiku, Research and Development Office, Agency of
Industrial Science and Technology, Ministry of International
Trade and Industry; Mitsuo Nakano, Head, Road Division,
City Bureau, Ministry of Construction.
The fifth member of the delegation was Takashi
Miyanohara, Sanitation Bureau, Yokohama City.
The U.S. delegation, headed by H. Lanier Hickman,
Director of Operations, Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs, EPA, was composed of five EPA officials and one
representative each from the American Public Works Associa-
tion and the National Solid Waste Management Association.
Fitzhugh Green, Associate Administrator, EPA; Roger Strelow
Assistant Administrator for Air and Waste Management, EPA; and
Arsen Darnay, Deputy Assistant Administrator for Solid Waste
Management Programs, EPA; greeted the Japanese delegation and
delivered opening remarks of welcome.
I f #
yal.117
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