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                                     137
            Effects of Open Air Industrial Plant Construction





     The effects of open air industrial plant construction are roughly similar




to those of building construction.   These include loss of natural vegetation




and topsoil, increased turbidity and sedimentation of the local waterways,




all of which result fron the construction activities themselves.   In addition,




there exists the strong possibility of significant wetland pollution from a




variety of chemicals employed in the construction processes.   Among the most




important of these are the heavy metals which derive from rusty building




supplies, welding chemicals, paint, galvanizing, water-proofing, and chemical-




proofing materials.  Concrete and bituminous slabs add salts and coal tars




to leachate.




     In operation no factory is totally free of leakage, accidents, wastes,




and by-products, and an open air plant often permits such materials to be




efficiently carried off in ditches and storm drains to the nearest waterway.




Some of the modern plants have ponding areas where solid residues are allowed




to settle out before the water passes to the stream, but few remove all the




dissolved chemical contaminants.




     In operation the plant will require supplies of raw materials, and it




will produce products.  These necessitate transportation and parking, and they




produce the associated chemical contamination.   Many plants such as refineries,




smelters, etc. introduce noxious chemicals into the atmosphere which may even-




tually enter water courses, and some such as steel mills, power plants, etc.




require large quantities of water for cooling or other purposes.   If such water




is reintroduced to the stream it may have chemical contaminants or an elevated




temperature.  If the water is consumed in the plant, as through steam production,




the water course suffers reduced flow.




     The general long-range effect is increased surface runoff of chemically




contaminated water, but additional effects will relate  to the particular

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                                    138





nature of the plant.  Major effects of open air industrial plant construction




are given in Table 4.3.






               Effects of Drainage Structure Construction





     The effects of culvert and drainage ditch construction have already been




discussed under the heading, "Line Construction Activities."  Bridge construc-




tion, whether carried out completely on land or partially in the water will




temporarily cause some erosion, stream turbidity, and sedimentation, and this




is especially true if there is considerable construction activity on the flood-




plains or adjacent river bluffs.  Some devegetation and topsoil removal is




also inevitable.  In modern highway construction bridge and overpass construc-




tion may precede pouring of the concrete roadway by some months.  During this




time the prepared roadbed may be subject to severe and continual erosion.




     By and large, the long-term effects of bridge construction are negligible,




but vehicular traffic over the bridge will certainly contaminate the water and




stream-bottom sediments with heavy metals, asbestos fibers, and unoxidized




hydrocarbons.  The long-term effects of drainage ditch construction are many,




and these have been covered earlier.   Effects of drainage structure construction




are given in Table 4.3.






                     Effects of Tunnel Construction





     The primary effects of tunneling operations on wetland areas relate to




the disposal of excavated materials.   Some stream sedimentation may result




from untidy transport and from any pumping, washing and drainage operations




associated with tunnel construction.   The large volumes of excavated rock and




earth must be placed somewhere, and lowland or wetland filling will destroy




such habitats.   The construction plant and yard will eliminate additional




habitat temporarily.  Large volumes of cement are generally required, and




some chemical contamination from large cement plants is inevitable.

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                                     1.39
Table 4.3.  Effects of building, open air industrial plant, drainage

            structure, and tunnel construction on physical and chemical

            characteristics of wetlands.
                             Physical and

                                chemical

                                  effects
             Construction

               activity
                                                                 CO
                                                                 0)
                                                                 bl
                                                                 a
                                                                 cfl
       Building construction
                                                       x
                                                          x
                                                             x
x
       Open air industrial plant construction
                                                 x
                                                    x
                                                       x
                                                             x
                                                                x
                                                                   x
       Drainage structure construction
                                                       x
                                                          x
                                                                   x
       Tunnel construction
                                                          x
                                                             x
       Long term effects
                                                 x
                                                       x
x

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                                    140





     The major long-term effect derives from the quantity of wetland habitat




destroyed or modified by dump and fill operations.  Effects of tunnel construc-




tion are given in Table 4.3.






                    Effects of Mineral Extraction on Land





     The environmental effects of terrestrial mineral extraction have been




covered in some detail by the following key reports:  Bayly and Williams (1973),




Boccardy and Spaulding (1968), Davis (1971, 1973), Hynes (I960), Kinney (1964),




Parsons (1968), Spaulding and Ogden (1968), and U.S. Department of the Interior




Reports on mining effects (1966, 1967).  Environmental modifications associated




with mining operations relate in part to the specificities of the particular




type of minerals being extracted, the methods employed, and the topography




being worked, and they also relate  to  the fact that any mining activities will




produce enormous quantities of extracted materials which must be placed some-




where.  In the present section each of the major types of mining operation will




be briefly reviewed in terms of the activities involved and their specific




effects, and then the general and cumulative effects of mining will be considered




in terms of their topographic, physical, and chemical effects on wetlands.






Specific types of mining operations - Surface mining includes placer, open




pit, and strip mining operations.  Placer mining is carried out in stream beds,




on floodplains, and on stream banks in search of gold and other minerals.   It




involves the digging of large volumes of soil, sand, and gravel, primarily




through hydraulic, dredge,  or dragline operations.  Hydraulic mining entails




the use of high pressure water jets to erode stream banks for the recovery of




minerals.   Dredge and dragline operations employ buckets or suction apparatus




to eat through stream beds  and low floodplains.   Both types of activity require




enormous quantities of water for digging and processing (up to 32,000 gal/cubic

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                                     141







yard for hydraulic operations and up to 10,000 gal/cubic yard for dredge and




dragline operations) (Wells, 1969).  Both processes destroy stream beds and




alluvial valley soils, and both produce incredible quantities of gravels,




sands, and fine silts, much of which enters streams, creating turbidity and




sedimentation problems far downstream.  Spaulding and Ogden (1968) quote the




following statistics.  Hydraulicking in the Boise River Basin of Idaho produced




128,500 tons of silt in 18 months.  Dredging in the Salmon River produced




enough silt to cover 13 miles of stream bottom with 1/16 of an inch of silt




every 10 days.  Dredging in Siegel Creek of California raised stream temperatures




4-5°.




     Open pit mining varies from shallow quarries for limestone, building




stone, gravel, sand, and clay to the deep pits opened up for the recovery of




iron (as in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota), copper (as in Bingham Canyon of




Utah) coal, and uranium.  These are all basically quarrying operations.  They




involve removal of the soil and bedrock overburden, followed by digging and




extraction of the desired mineral and rock deposits.  Some of the pits exceed




a depth of 1,700 feet.   Since most of the pit is below the level of the ground




water table, seepage water must constantly be pumped out to maintain reasonably




dry working conditions at the pit bottom.  Overburden, non-useful extractives,




and spent ores may be piled near the mines or near the ore-extraction plants.




Water and wind erosion may transport large quantities of inert or chemically




active materials into neighboring waterways, and pit pumping operations add




further quantities.  Many of the fine particulates are sharp and angular in




distinction from normal stream particles which are weathered and rounded.




     Strip mining is e™Cloyed in the extraction of coal, sand, gravel, stone,




clay, gypsum, phosphate, and certain minerals such as iron and copper.  As in




the case of open pit mines the soil and rock overburden must be removed, but




strip mining is employed where the vein or seam lies essentially parallel to

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                                    142






the surface and shallow enough to make overburden removal economical.   (Auger




and contour mining may be employed where the seam is not parallel to the surface.)




Strip mines destroy the soil and produce large quantities of soil and bedrock




spoil wastes, as well as spent ore piles.   They also result in immense areas of




bedrock exposure and long lines of vertical highwalls.  Some of the waste piles




are inert, others are chemically active.  Large quantities of particulate spoils




and chemical leachates enter streams and other wetlands.




     Where the veins and seams of coal and various metals are too deep for




overburden removal the ores are extracted through drift mining operations or




tunneling.  Drift mines may proceed laterally into the side of a hill, or a




vertical shaft may be sunk, and the drift mines proceed laterally from the




shaft.  Vertical shafts may produce very deep mines.  Large volumes of rock




and ores are extracted, and these are eventually placed in huge dumps and spoil




piles.  Fine mill tailings are also produced.  As in the case of surface mining




spoils, much of the material is eventually allowed to run into streams and




other wetlands.   Since many of the drift mines are below the water table level




they must constantly be pumped dry.  The extracted waters, which often enter




surface wetlands, may be salty and acid, and they generally contain large




quantities of minerals, some of which may be radioactive.



     Drilling operations produce water, natural gas, petroleum and other liquid




substances.   Deep oil wells generally produce fair quantities of briny waters,




rich in chlorides, but often containing fluorine and fluorides (Ellis, Westfall,




and Ellis, 1948).  Where such brines are permitted to enter natural surface water




courses or shallow groundwater, petroleum as well as salt contamination may occur.






Topographic effects - Removal of soil and overburden involves the destruction




of valuable topsoil.   Spoil piles, waste disposal sites, and tailings often




bury additional topsoil.  Abandoned mining operations often leave quarries




and other open pits and depressions between  spoil piles.  Many of these eventually

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                                    143





become filled with seepage water.  Exposure of bedrock creates  hard surface




which accelerates runoff, either to surface drainage or through fractures and




tunnels to ground water or deep mines.




     Many of the mining activities take place in hilly or mountainous terrain.




Access roads and survey trails are often poorly constructed and subject to




severe erosion.  It has been the general practice in mining operations to bull-




doze mine spoil over the edge of the mine shelf where it falls downslope through




the forest and brush of the hillside and into the valleys and creeks below.




Hillside vegetation is destroyed.  The material remaining on the slopes has a




high porosity and is subject to tremendous landslides, especially in rainy




weather.  Erosion and landslides add further sediment to the floodplains and




streams, and they may dam up the streams entirely.




     Mining operations, and especially strip mining, produce many miles of




vertical exposed cliff faces, or highwalls, which interfere with natural animal




movement, and which may continue to provide seepage and leaching through ground




water movement.  Water tables in the land above may be considerably lowered.




Ogden and Spaulding (1968) reported that 34,500 miles of highwalls now exist in




the United States from surface mining operations, some over 1,700 feet high,



and sixty-three percent of which are over 15 feet high.  Topographic effects




of mining operations are given in Table 4.4.






Physical effects - In some mining operations lakes have been drained.  More




often they have been used as receptacles for spoil and mine tailings which




tend to lower the depth of the water and cover the bottom with extensive layers




of foreign materials or obliterate the lake entirely.  Streams have been altered




by channeling, diversion, and impoundment.  The silt load and turbidity levels




have increased manyfold.  Spaulding and Ogden (1968) point out that Appalachian




strip mines alone produce an estimated 34 million tons of sediment per year.

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                                     144


Table 4.4.   Topographic effects of mineral extraction on wetlands.



     Removal of natural cover

     Removal and burial of topsoil

     Exposure of vast bare rock surfaces

     Creation of many linear miles of vertical highwalls, many of which
         seep

     Creation of open pits,  quarries, and spoil depressions  which may
         fill by seepage

     Creation of vast areas  of spoil piles which seep and erode and are
         physically unstable

     Coverage of hillsides and valleys with spoil and tailings which are
         unstable and subject to landslides,  erosion, and seepage

     Acceleration of surface runoff

     Greatly increased erosion

     Watercourse modification by spoil and tailing impoundment

     Ground water lowering

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                                     145
As the streams are filled with sediments the bottoms become compacted, and the




stream beds widen across the floodplain.  Habitat diversity disappears.   These




effects continue downstream many miles from the source of the sediments, and




the widespread occurrence of these sedimentation problems have created a




massive impact on the nation's wetlands.  Thousands of miles of stream beds




and thousands of acres of estuaries and ocean floors are affected.   Physical




effects of mining operations are given in Table 4.5.






Chemical effects - Much of the material produced from mining and processing




is chemically inert.  This material includes most soils, gravels, sands, silts,




rock and stone residues, and to some extent, coal dust.  Indirectly, these




materials may influence water chemistry by covering the bottom, reducing light




penetration,  and influencing biological processes, as will be discussed in the




next chapter.




     The mine workings, spoil dumps, and tailings may contain a variety of




chemical elements including sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, sulfur,




chlorine, copper, lead, zinc, aluminum, arsenic, and radioactive materials.




These occur in a variety of chemical combinations, the most important and often




most abundant are the metallic sulfides (pyrites).  Lead and zinc ores produce




large quantities of lead and zinc sulfides, and coal mining produces large




amounts of iron sulfides.  Wet oxidation of the sulfides takes place in the




mines, spoil piles, drainage areas, and receiving wetlands.  This set of




chemical reactions produces a variety of products including metallic oxides




and hydroxides, as well as large quantities of sulfuric acid.  Some of the




heavy metals which are eroded or leached from the mine spoils would tend to




precipitate to the bottom of waters as insoluble carbonates (especially lead




and zinc).  The sulfuric acid, however, upsets the natural buffer system of




native waters, converting carbonates to bicarbonates and these to carbon

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                                     146


Table 4.5.   Physical effects of mineral extraction on wetlands.



     Drainage of wetland areas

     Filling of wetlands with spoil and tailings

     Alteration of stream courses through channelization,  diversion,  and
         impoundment

     Widening of stream beds

     Covering of wetland bottom with spoil and tailings

     Increased silt load

     Increased turbidity

     Decreased light penetration

     Reduction of wetland habitat diversity

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                                    147






dioxide which escapes as a gas.  The remaining waters of affected lakes, pits,




and streams are soft and have low pH values (sometimes below 3.0, but values




in the range of 4.0-4.5 are not uncommon).  Lead, zinc and certain other heavy




metals are soluble in acid waters.  Some of the iron and aluminum remains in




suspension and solution, whereas some becomes precipitated as complex oxides




and hydroxides.  These often cover the stream bottoms in heavily affected areas.




Increased chemical oxygen demand may lower the free oxygen tension of affected




waters.




     Parsons (1968) reported that streams in mining areas are affected by both




periodic and continuous flows of acid mine effluents.  Rainfall initiates




periodic excessive mineral and acid flows from the spoil piles by dissolving




and carrying effluents into the streams.   Post-rain persistence derives from




the overflow of acidified lakes and seepage from abandoned cuts and drifts.  The




toxic heavy metals persist in lakes and streams.   As they pass downstream they




become diluted by the entrance of unpolluted tributary stream waters.  Some may




become oxidized.   Many eventually become precipitated, buried, and otherwise




detoxified.




     In mining areas much surface water eventually enters deep mines by pumping




or seepage through fractures and drill holes.   This water is often very acid,




and in its passage through the earth it often picks up heavy metals and radio-




active materials.   If this water is pumped out or if it drains from drifts it




will contaminate the surface waters, and the same will happen if it seeps out




through springs.   Often, however, it seeps laterally and downward to contaminate




the underground aquifers.  Chemical effects of mining operations are given in




Table 4.6.




     Boccardi and Spaulding (1968) provided information on the extent of mining




damage in the United States.  According to their figures 3.2 million acres of




land surface (including wetlands) have been seriously disturbed or destroyed.

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                                     148
Table 4.6.   Chemical effects of mineral extraction on wetlands.
     Addition of large quantities of chemical elements to wetland
         habitats (especially sodium, calcium, magnesium, silicon,
         sulfur, chlorine, fluorine, copper,  lead,  zinc,  aluminum,
         iron, arsenic, and radioactive materials)

     Increase of salt content of wetland waters and bottoms

     Addition of large quantities of chemically reduced materials
         (especially sulfides)

     Addition of metallic oxides and hydroxides

     Addition of large quantities of sulfuric acid

     Drastic lowering of pH

     Reduction and elimination of carbonates  (and,  hence, the natural
         buffering system)

     Placing of heavy metals into solution

     Reduction of free oxygen

     Contamination of ground water and aquifers

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                                     149





A total of 34,000 miles of highwalls have been created.  At least 13,000 miles




of streams, 281 natural lakes, and 168 reservoirs have been disturbed or destroyed.




These figures are undoubtedly underestimates, and the extent of the disturbance




is increasing at an accelerated pace.






          Effects of Construction Activities Associated Primarily




                   with Wetland Areas and Water Bottoms






                        Effects of Dam Construction





     In considering the effects of dam construction on the physical and chemical




factors of wetland environments four dimensions of the problem must be recog-




nized and understood:  1) the nature of the dam and its impoundment, 2) the




time-phased sequence of events, 3) water management practices after the dam




is operational, and 4) the downstream series of effects.  Each of these




dimensions will be explained briefly before detailed consideration of the




effects.




     Dams differ greatly in size, structural composition, and design.  Each




is tailored to the local terrain, anticipated storage volume and flow rate,




and function.  The present discussion will consider the large masonry multiple-



use dam, but most of the comments could equally apply to smaller, earthen, and




special-use dams.




     Dams are built with a certain life expectancy.  During this period the




dam and its impoundment pass through a series of stages which, for present




purposes, may be listed as follows:  construction, impoundment filling, basin




leaching, sedimentation, and senescent phases.   Environmental effects, thus,




will vary with time in relation to these phases.




     The finished dam is a water management tool which may be utilized in




several ways.  If water storage is the purpose the reservoir may be kept nearly




or quite full.  When water is needed for irrigation, power production, or

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                                    150





navigation it may be released through irrigation locks, conduits to power




turbines, or over the spillway.  Release may occur near the top, at the middle,




or near the bottom of the dam.  Water levels in the impoundment may vary season-




ally or over the space of a few days or hours.  Tailwater flows may vary season-




ally (in response to rainfall or drought, irrigation needs, or downstream




navigation requirements) or in the space of a few hours (in response to daily




peaks in electrical power requirements).  Multiple-dam systems such as those




which occur on the Tennessee and Missouri Rivers, provide complex multi-phasic




tools for the allocation of water resources throughout an entire drainage basin.




     The physical and chemical effects of dams are of major geographic propor-




tions.   Upstream the effects extend to the upper reaches of the impoundment




(and further, when biological effects are considered).  Intense effects are




felt in the neighborhood of the dam structure, _i.e_. , both immediately above




and below the dam.   Downstream the effects may be evident throughout the lower




reaches as well as in the estuary and on the nearby continental shelf.




     Key references to the physical and chemical effects of dams include the




following:  Bayly and Williams (1973), Copeland (1966, 1970), Ebel (1969),




Hynes (1972), Morris, et al. (1968), Neel (1963), Soltero, Wright, and




Horpestead (1973),  Sylvester (1958), Wirth, et al.  (1970), and Wright (1967).






Effects during construction period - During the period of dam construction the




water flow of the stream is blocked off by the cofferdams.  Some of the flow




may proceed through the lateral tunnels, but the volume and seasonal programming




of such flow will certainly differ from the normal pattern of flow.  Until the




impoundment reaches the height of the tunnels the flow may be blocked off




completely for a period.  Rock blasting and excavation will add sediments to




the stream as will erosion from roads and work areas.   Some chemical leaching




will occur from  the  concrete of  the  dam itself.  Except for  interference with




the flow  pattern,  such  effects are  temporary  and local  in extent.

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                                    151
Upstream effects of the impoundment - As the water level of the impoundment




rises it will inundate floodplains, low tributary creeks, lakes, ponds, marshes,




and swamps which lie in the lower reaches of the basin above the dam.  Eventually




the reservoir will become a long, multi-branched body of water whose deepest




point is adjacent to the dam itself.  This reservoir will be subject to con-




siderable water loss through surface evaporation.  Water erosion will tend to




cut away banks and partially submerged hills, especially in arid regions.




Streams which enter the reservoir will deposit vast quantities of sediment as




deltas near the stream mouths.   During the early years of the life of a reservoir




great quantities of soluble minerals are leached from the bed and banks of the




basin.  Neel (1963) reported that during the period 1935-1948 an estimated 20




million tons of dissolved materials were picked up by Lake Mead.  This included




12.2 million tons of sulfate, 5.1 million tons of calcium, and 2.7 million tons




of sodium, potassium, and chloride.  Nitrogen and phosphorus tend to increase,




due undoubtedly to soil leaching and decomposition of inundated vegetation.




     With passage of time the sedimentation deltas build further out, coalesce,




and continue building downstream.  Heavy marl deposits (calcium carbonate)




may build up on the reservoir bottom.   With sediment accumulation the storage




capacity of the impoundment steadily decreases.   Water masses often remain




somewhat distinct within the reservoir, and seasonal river flows may be delayed




in passage.  In extreme cases summer runoff may not emerge until the following




winter.   After the first few years the quantity of dissolved minerals in the




reservoir tends to decline due to diminished leaching and to downstream passage




of the more highly charged early waters.




     Reservoir waters often become stratified during the summer months.  Upper




layers receive ample light for photosynthesis and tend to be fresher and to




have higher levels of oxygen and temperature.  Bottom waters are cooler, poorly




illuminated, and have higher levels of salt and nutrients.  The bottom waters

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                                     152







may become anaerobic and develop toxic concentrations of methane, hydrogen




sulfide, and other unoxidized chemicals.  The pH is often low, and metallic




ions may be in solution.




     Operation of the dam greatly influences conditions within the reservoir.




Water level reduction often exposes broad bands of land at the margins of the




reservoir, and since such bands are alternately flooded and exposed, permanent




vegetative cover cannot develop.  Such riparian habitat loss is particularly criti-




cal in arid plains country and in mountainous areas where winter range may be




affected.  Such areas become subject to severe erosion which moves the mudbanks




further downstream in the reservoir.  Eventually most reservoirs should become




silted up.  Efforts to prolong the life of reservoirs involve dredging as well as




release of bottom silt-laden waters through low-level conduits in the dam.  Up-




stream effects of dam construction are given in Table 4.7.






Downstream effects of the dam - Downstream effects will vary with the pattern




of water release, and in any event, this pattern will differ widely from that




of the normal stream flow.   One of the major reasons for constructing dams is




to control floods, and invariably the release pattern will avoid normal flood-




flow rates and normal downstream water level heights.  Downstream floodplains




are no longer subject to flood, and maximum stream flows are considerably




diminished.   Beyond this, the release pattern may vary in strange ways.  In




some cases much of the volume of flow is passed out into irrigation ditches




during dry weather, severly reducing flow immediately below the dam.  Due




to evaporation in the reservoir and drainage ditches the return water which




enters downstream may be considerably reduced in quantity.  In other instances,




especially in dams which generate hydro-electric power, conditions the down-




stream reach may vary from those of a large river to those of a small headwater




within a short period of time.

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                                    153
Table 4.7.  Upstream effects of dam construction on the physical and chemical

            characteristics of wetlands.


     Habitat loss through inundation of floodplains, low tributary creeks,
         lakes, ponds, marshes, and swamps

     Loss of water through surface evaporation

     Water erosion of banks and submerged hills

     Formation of sedimentary deltas around mouths of entering streams
         (which enlarge throughout life of reservoir)

     Leaching of soluble materials from bed and banks of basin

     Initial increase in dissolved salts and nutrients

     Precipitation of bottom marl deposits

     Delayed water passage through reservoir

     Temperature and chemical stratification of reservoir waters

     Devegetation of broad band around water's edge due to water level
         fluctuation

     Long-term reduction in dissolved salts and nutrients

     Long-term sedimentation of basin

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                                      154






     Since downstream floodplains are no longer inundated the floodplain lakes,




marshes, swamps, and ponds do not receive annual or seasonal replenishment of




water and nutrients.  Floodplain ground water levels recede.  Floodplains now




fail to receive annual silt and nutrient blankets.  Leaf fall and other loose




floodplain vegetation is no longer swept into the downstream channels.  Flood-




plain protection leads to floodplain utilization for agriculture, construction,




and other activities.  This, in turn, leads to channelization, erosion, and




other problems discussed earlier.




     Water which does pass through (or over) the dam varies in quality from




that of the undammed river.   Bottom level release may produce vast quantities




of suspended materials during the periods of flushing.  At such times the




stream becomes a "river of mud."  In normal operation, however, the discharge




water is quite clear, the major portion of the suspended matter having been




deposited in the reservoir.   During spring and summer months release from the




upper levels of the dam provide high temperature epilimnic waters, rich in




oxygen and reservoir plankton and often low in nutrients.  Release from below




the thermocline provides low temperature hypolimnic water which may have re-




duced pH but large quantities of nutrients and decomposing organic matter.




Such waters may also contain hydrogen sulfide, ferrous and manganous compounds,




as well as other heavy metals.   As in the case of epilimnic release the oxygen




content is often high due to oxygen picked up during passage through dam conduits




and the free-fall plunge into the stilling basin below the dam, but low oxygen




conditions in tailwaters have been reported.  At the same time atmospheric




nitrogen is dissolved in the water and supersaturation is not infrequent below




large impoundments.  Values in excess of 1307o of nitrogen saturation have been




recorded.   High nitrogen values often persist for many miles downstream.




     Further downstream when irrigation water is finally reintroduced, the




stream flow is augmented with relatively saline water due to salts leached from

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                                     155






the irrigated land.  Nutrients may also be high if the irrigated land has




received fertilizer treatment.  As mentioned above, even after the irrigation




water reenters the stream the total flow volume is reduced due to evaporative




water loss.  Reduction in peak flows and reduction in total flow result in




reduced flushing, and below the dam sediments, which would normally be swept




away during flood flow, now accumulate in the stream bed.  This tends to elevate




the stream bottom and reduce the cross-sectional area of the stream, gradually




clogging channels anddeveloping a downstream flood hazard.  Thus, the dam




eventually recreates the problem which it was designed to correct.  Siltation




in the reservoir above the dam and in the downstream reaches of the river now




require extensive dredging operations to prolong reservoir life and to maintain




downstream channels for navigation.




     Major effects of stream impoundment are felt by the downstream estuaries




and adjacent continental shelves, and these effects have been especially well




documented by Copeland (1966, 1970).  Following upstream impoundment the estuary




receives reduced quantities of freshwater.  Peak flows are never extreme, and




the pattern and seasonality of the flow are highly abnormal.  Although incoming




sediment loads are greatly diminished, reduced flushing leads to sediment




accumulation and altered patterns of scouring, shoaling, and general bottom




contouring due to wind disturbance of the shallow waters.  Reduced flushing




also leads to buildup of pollutants, especially pesticides and heavy metals,




which were normally flushed out with the excess sediment load at high flood




stages.  General levels of salinity increase considerably, and the important




salinity gradient of the estuary is much modified.  Circulation patterns change




in response to reduced freshwater inflow and recontouring of the bottom.  The




quantity of nutrients brought into the estuary is considerably diminished.




     These problems are greatly accentuated in arid areas where the salinity




balance is especially critical.  Chapman  (1966), for example, has pointed out

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                                      156






that the monstrous Texas Basins Project  (involving a series of dams and irrigation




diversions affecting all the Texas coastal streams) would reduce the freshwater




inflow to the estuaries by over 50% with corresponding major deleterious effects




on the quality of the estuarine environments and reduction in commercial fish-




ery harvest potential.




     The coastal impact of upstream dams is very great, but little appreciated.




Just as the estuary receives less freshwater, so it delivers less flow to the




adjacent marine environment.  The seasonal pattern of outflow is also highly




modified, and both dissolved and suspended nutrients normally associated with the




outflow are considerably reduced.   Perhaps the greatest impact is upon the




coastal beaches.   The location and condition of a given coastal beach represents




a balance between deposition of river-borne sand and the erosional forces of




wind, waves, and longshore currents.   As pointed out by Inman and Brush (1973),




beach nourishment from river sediments has been severely curtailed along much of




the nation's coastline.   As a result, many beaches are suffering severe erosion,




and others are maintained only through artificial stabilization.   Louisiana is




losing coastal land at the rate of 16 1/2 square miles per year,  much of which




is related to beach erosion.  The Silver Strand Beach of southern California




has been maintained by artificially replacing 22 million cubic meters of sand




between 1941 and 1967.  Jetties and groynes have been employed in other areas in




an effort to stabilize eroding shorelines.




     From the above considerations it is clear that impoundment has varied and




far-reaching effects upon the nation's wetlands and their margins.   Among the most




important of these are the entrapment of sediments, general diminution in total




annual flow volume, reduction in peak flow rate (hence, reduced flushing), and




altered patterns of stream flow.   However, a special point must be made con-




cerning associated wetland habitat alteration.  Dams are, of necessity, con-




structed in areas where bluffs or cliffs are available to anchor the dams and

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                                     157





to contain the impounded waters.  With the great proliferation of dams on th«




nation's waterways, the habitats associated with such environments are in danger




of disappearing.  Heavy sedimentation in the reservoir, downstream reaches, and




estuaries greatly reduces habitat diversity and is converting the waterways to




monotonous muddy drains.  Especially effected are riffles and rapids which may




also become endangered habitats as the pace of dam building continues.  Down-




stream effects of dam construction are given in Table 4.8.






                 Effects of Fill Construction in Wetlands





     All wetlands are areas of surface and subsurface water movement.  Highways,




railways, and other long linear construction projects (including linear spoil




banks) are essentially dams which retard or prevent water movement in the




normal fashion.  Such interference is especially critical in coastal marshes




and swamps where interference with freshwater flow permits saltwater intrusion




into the wetlands on the seaward side of the construction.  Considerable damage




has resulted from saltwater intrusion into coastal wetlands, especially along




the Atlantic seaboard, in the Florida everglades, and in the Louisiana marsh




and swamplands.  During the process of construction side canals are often



excavated parallel to the rights-of-way.  Such canals accelerate runoff,




draining the submerged lands and reducing water table levels, and they also




provide ready access for saltwater penetration.  Construction of airports and




other structures in wetland areas involves considerable filling for the structure




itself, as well as the building associated with access roads and/or canals.




Spoil banks give rise to erosion problems.  All these activities result in the




direct and indirect loss of large acreages of wetland habitat.   These topics




will be discussed in greater detail in the section dealing with the "Effects




of Dredging and the Placement of Dredge Spoil."  Effects of fill construction




are listed in Table 4.9.

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                                     158
Table 4.8.   Downstream effects of dam construction on the physical and

            chemical characteristics of wetlands.



   General  effects

     Reduction in total volume of flow

     Deviation from normal seasonal flow patterns

     Severe reduction in wetland habitat diversity

     Jeopardization of certain wetland habitat types, generally those
         associated with fast flow (riffles, rapids,  and areas between
         bluffs and cliffs which are amenable to damming and impoundment)


   Effects  near the dam and for a few miles downstream

     Elimination of peak flows

     Sudden and drastic changes in flow rates

     Reduction in sediment flushing

     Sediment accumulation

     Elimination of floodplain flooding

         Elimination of annual replenishment of floodplain wetlands with
             water and nutrients

         Reduction in ground water levels

         Reduction of leaf litter wash into stream

     Sudden elimination of large volumes of sediments into stream ("river
         mud" from reservoir bottom flushing)

     Modification of water temperature (by release of water from epi- or
         hypolimnion of reservoir)

     Modification of stream nutrient loads (by release of water from epi-
         or hypolimnion of reservoir)

     Reduction in pH (by release of hypolimnic waters)

     Release of hydrogen sulfide and other reducing compounds (by
         hypolimnic release)

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                                     159
Table 4.8.  (continued)
     Reduction of oxygen content (by hypolimnic release)




     Supersaturation with nitrogen gas






   Effects some miles further downstream




     Increase in salt content (from irrigation water return)




     Reduced flushing




         Increased sediment accumulation




         Clogging of channels




         Shallowing of stream




     Creation of flood hazard






   Effects on downstream estuaries




     Reduction of freshwater input




     Reduction of peak flows




     Reduction of flushing




     Abnormal seasonality of flow




     Reduction of sediment and nutrient input by stream




     Sediment accumulation




     Altered patterns of shoaling and bottom contouring




     Build-up of sediment-associated pollutants




     Modified water circulation patterns




     Increased saltwater penetration




     Increased estuarine salinity




     Sharpened salinity gradients

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                                    160





Table 4.8.  (continued)
   Effects on adjacent marine areas




     Reduction of estuarine water outflow




     Reduction of nutrient transport to continental shelf




     Reduction of sediment transport for beach nourishment

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                                    161
                     Effects of Bridging in Wetlands





     The effects of bridge construction over streams have already been covered




under the topic "Effects of Construction of Drainage Structures."  Bridging




in marshes and swamps invariably requires either road or canal construction to




provide access to the working site of the advancing bridge.   Rights-of-way may




be cleared or built up with the spoil removed in the process of canal con-




struction.  Effects of bridging in wetlands are listed in Table 4.9.   The




effects of canals and spoil banks will be covered in the following section.






            Effects of Dredging and Placement of Dredge Spoil





     Dredging and associated activities have complex, far-reaching, and pro-




found effects upon the wetlands of the nation, and these effects have apparently




never been considered in all their ecological ramifications.  Yet, by Congres-




sional authorization the U.S.  Army Corps of Engineers alone dredges up an




estimated 250 million cubic yards of spoil material each year (Boyd,  at al.,




1972), most of which is in the chemically reduced condition and much of which




is polluted.  By and large, the impact of dredging falls into two general




categories:  the effects of removal of bottom materials (through channeliza-




tion and the creation of holes) and the effects of the extracted materials




(either during the removal process or after they have been dumped as spoil).




These effects are so intimately bound together that they will be taken up




together, and the discussion will proceed according to the following topics.




     1.  General and immediate effects of dredging




     2.  Effects of stream channelization




     3.  Effects of channelization and spoil dumping on wooded floodplains and




         swamp s




     4.  Effects of dredging in bays and estuaries

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                                      162
Table 4.9.   Effects of fill construction and bridging on the physical  and

            chemical characteristics of wetlands.   Only the immediate  and

            generalized effects are presented in this table.   Further

            details concerning the fill and bridge problems will be found

            in the tables relating to dredging and spoil placement.



   Effects  of fill construction

     Interference with surface flow through the wetland

     Creation of spoil banks

     Creation of canals through the wetland

     Creation of spoil and canal erosional  problems

     Loss of wetland habitat (especially freshwater marsh habitat in
         coastal areas)

     Creation of marshland salinity problems (in coastal areas)


   Effects  of bridging

     Creation of canals and open water areas

     Creation of spoil piles and banks

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                                     163






     5.  Effects of dredging and spoil placement in marshlands




     6.  Effects of dredging and spoil dumping on the continental shelf





Some of the more important references concerning the physical and chemical




effects of dredging and spoiling on the nation's wetlands include the following:




Barstow (1971), Boyd, et al. (1972), Chapman (1967, 1968), Copeland (1966, 1970),




Cronin, e± al. (1971), Emerson (1971), Gagliano and van Beek (1973), Haddock




(1972), Odum  (1970), St. Amant (1970, 1972), and Taylor and Saloman (1969).






General and immediate effects of dredging - Regardless of whether the dredging




takes place by means of bucket, dragline, or hydraulic dredge, the primary




results are the creation of deep holes or linear channels and the temporary




suspension of large clouds of sedimentary materials.   Isolated holes act as




sedimentary basins for particulate material.  If circulation is poor and




especially if organic matter is available such holes tend to become anoxic.




Surface particle sizes in dredge holes are considerably finer than those of the




unmodified bottom.   In areas of poor circulation (such as some sections of




Biscayne Bay) dredge holes may persist for decades.  Linear channels are generally




subject to high rates of water flow, and hence seldom develop anaerobic conditions



unless they are present in high organic environments (such as swamps and marshes)




or are protected from wind and water current action (as through a surface coat




of water hyacinths and alligator weeds).   By and large, channelization facili-




tates water flow and flushing, and in this respect it may greatly influence




local as well as downstream conditions.




     The cutting and digging action of the dredging operation breaks through




the thin oxidized layer of the submerged soil and exposes the deep unoxidized




layer.   Furthermore, most of the sediments placed in suspension are removed




from this layer and, hence, are in the chemically reduced state.   Such materials




have very high chemical and biological oxygen demands.   Frankenberg and Westerfield

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                                    164






 (1969) calculated that some dredge spoils require 535 times their own volume of oxy-




 gen for complete oxidation, and Brown and Clark (1968) reported oxygen levels near




 dredges 18-83 percent below normal.  Both the sedimentary particles and the




 interstitial waters released contain immediately toxic materials such as




 hydrogen sulfide, methane, and a variety of organic acids, ketones, aldehydes,




 etc., as well as heavy metals and pesticides which exhibit persistent toxic




 effects.  Turbidity, per se, reduces light penetration and interferes with




 photosynthetic production of oxygen, and it tends to elevate water temperatures.




 Eventually the suspended material settles to the bottom either near the dredging




 site or far downstream.  Thus, there is a redistribution of sediments together




 with whatever nutrients and chemical pollutants which they may contain, and




 this may result in modified bottom topography and altered patterns of water




 circulation.   Such sedimentation problems are greatly accentuated when dredge




 spoil is placed back into the water.  General and immediate effects of dredging




 and spoil placement are listed in Table 4.10.






 Effects of stream channelization - Stream channelization is carried out for two




 primary reasons, to reduce flood hazard and to maintain open deep-water naviga-




 tion channels.  Both types of projects often cut off meanders and straighten




 stream beds.   Deepening of the channel causes a drop in the water table level




 of the surrounding lands, and it leads to erosion of tributary streams which




 cut their beds more deeply in accommodation to the main stream.  Reduction in




 stream length produces a steeper stream gradient and a faster flow rate.  This




 increases the erosive power of the water and its ability to transport sediments.




Erosive cutting tends to broaden the stream channel.  Streambank vegetation




would tend to reduce edge erosion by providing bank protection and retarding




 flow, but if the vegetation has been removed erosion and channel widening




 proceed unimpeded.   Increased flow tends to reduce habitat diversity by elimina-




 tion of littoral areas (shallow backwaters and sloughs), riffle and rapid areas,

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                                      165






Table 4.10.  Effects of dredging and placement of dredge spoil;  general




             and immediate effects.








     Modification of wetland bottom topography




         Creation of persistent dredge holes (sometimes becoming anoxic)




         Creation of channels




         Creation of canals




     Modification of water circulation patterns




     Increased turbidity of water




         Increased oxygen demand




         Reduced light penetration




         Reduced photosynthetic oxygen production




         Release of toxic organic compounds




         Release of pesticides, heavy metals,  and hydrogen sulfide




         Increased temperature




     Bottom siltation with very fine sediments

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                                     166






and eddy and pool habitats.  Dredged streams become linear ditches with relative-




ly uniform habitat conditions.




     Downstream from the dredged area the situation is different.  When the




stream returns to its normal shallower gradient the flow rate diminishes and




suspended sediment is dropped out.  This creates a shallower stream bed and a




greater hazard of downstream flooding.  Effects of stream channelization are




given in Table 4.11.






Effects of channelization and spoil dumping on floodplains and swamps - Flood-




plain and swamp channelization, especially when it accompanies mainstream




channelization, as it usually does, tends to drain lakes, sloughs, and swamps




and to lower the water table of the land.  This reduces or eliminates the annual




flood, prevents restocking of any remaining wetlands, and cuts off the sediment




load normally deposited in such environments.  Aquifer and ground water recharge




is also reduced.  Wetland becomes dryland.  Channelization is frequently accom-




panied by extensive timber cutting, and the dry lowlands are quickly invaded




by agricultural and other land-related activities.  Erosion now becomes a




problem.   If the area is in the low coastal plain saltwater penetration may




occur.




     Spoil banks and levees placed along floodplains and through swamplands




tend to contain the mainstream.  Peak flows no longer flood the adjacent land




but are sent downstream as surges.  Large quantities of nutrients and valuable




freshwater is lost, eventually to estuaries or to the sea.   Effects of channelizing




floodplains and swamps are listed in Table 4.12.






Effects of dredging in bays and estuaries - Dredging in bays and estuaries




modifies bottom topography through excavation of holes and channels and through




creation of sediment banks and spoil areas.  If spoil banks are laid down the

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                                     167






Table 4.11.  Effects of dredging and placement of dredge spoil;  stream




             channelization effects.








     Stream straightening




         Cutting off of meanders




         Shortening of stream length




     Deepening of channel




         Lowering of water table




     Increase in stream gradient




         Increase in flow rate




         Increase in channel and bank erosion




         Widening of channel




     Reduction in stream habitat diversity




     Increase in downstream sedimentation




     Increase in downstream flood hazard

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                                    168
Table 4.12.  Effects of dredging and placement of spoil;  effects of

             channelizing floodplains and swamps.



     Drainage of surface waters

     Lowering of water table

     Elimination of periodic flooding and fertilization

     Reduction of ground water recharge

     Increase in erosion

     Peak streamflow sent downstream as surge

     Increased saltwater penetration (in coastal areas)

     Exposure to deforestation, agriculture,  construction, and other
         human use

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                                     169






bay or estuary may become segmented, with siltation and shoaling taking place




in the quieter backwaters.  Water circulation may be greatly affected with




altered patterns of tidal exchange and mixing.  Directions, velocities and




seasonal programming of currents may be changed.  Extensive shoaling may re-




duce flushing and lead to closure or reduction of the passes connecting with




the sea.  Channels may accelerate the passage of freshwater through the estuary,




and if deep they will certainly accelerate penetration of saline bottom waters




into the bay or estuary.   This would increase the salt concentration and sharpen




the salinity gradient.




     In addition to topographic and circulation changes, dredging increases




turbidity with its attendant effects, as discussed earlier.  Hydraulic dredges




generate the greatest siltation and turbidity problem, and Hellier and Kornicker




(1962) found fine sediment to be deposited between 0.5 and 1.0 mile downstream




from a dredging operation.  In Boca Ciega Bay, Florida, Taylor and Saloman




(1969) noted that sediments in undredged areas included about 94 percent sand




and shell, whereas dredged areas were covered with very fine sediments, showing




92 percent clay and silt.  These fine sediments formed a thin surface ooze




which give poor internal oxygen circulation and lead to oxygen reduction both




within the sediments and in the overlying waters.  In areas protected from




wind action and general water circulation oxygen values in the overlying waters




were reduced in some cases to about 2 ml/1.  Effects of dredging in bays and




estuaries are listed in Table 4.13.






Effects of dredging and spoil placement in marshlands - Dredging in inland




freshwater marshes accelerates drainage, reduces ground water levels, and tends




to convert wetland to dryland.  Spoil placement in freshwater marshes destroys




additional freshwater habitat.  These effects are relatively straight-forward.




     In coastal marshes the matter is considerably more complex because of the




adjacency of saltwater and the natural process of coastal subsidence.  Most of

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                                     170





Table 4.13.   Effects of dredging and placement of spoil;   effects of




             dredging in bays and estuaries.








     Modification of bottom topography




         Creation of bottom holes and channels




         Segmentation and shoaling




     Modification of current patterns (directions and velocities)




         Modification of flushing patterns




         Altered patterns of tidal exchange and mixing




         Acceleration of passage of freshwater through the estuary




         Increased penetration of saline water into the estuary




         Sharpening of estuarine salinity gradients




     Increase in turbidity




     Reduction in particle size of surface sediments




     Reduction in oxygen concentration,  especially of near-bottom water

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                                    171





the present discussion will center around the Louisiana marshes which have




been extensively dredged and fairly well studied, but the information applies




to other coastal marshes, as well.  Coastal marshes of Louisiana, in the un-




disturbed state, represent vast drainage systems.  Freshwater enters on one




side, generally from the floodwaters of annual river overflow, and it gradually




works down to the coast in a broad, flat surface sheet.  Occasional creeks




and bayous aid in the runoff.  Near the estuaries the marshes are dissected




by dendritic tidal creeks.  Thus, through the marsh there is naturally a gradual




salinity gradient from freshwater to the more brackish waters of the estuary.




Marshes overlie deep layers of unconsolidated river deposits which gradually




undergo compaction as the water is squeezed out.  Such marshes would gradually




subside, but sediment input through river overflow and build-up of organic




matter through plant growth counteract this tendency and maintain the delicate




land-sea, and freshwater-saltwater balances.




     Dredging and channelization of marshes accelerates the rate of freshwater




runoff, and it may lower the water table of the soil, drying out the higher




areas of the marsh.   Artificial canals do not represent natural coastal mean-




dering streams, but they pass in straight lines for human purposes.  Often they




criss-cross in random fashion.  Once opened, such canals tend to widen due to




tidal and other natural action or due to the effects of boat traffic.  Land




loss from canal erosion has reached serious proportions in Louisiana and else-




where.




     In addition to draining away the freshwater, the canals offer paths for




saltwater penetration of the marshlands, and this is especially prominent in




the deeper canals.  Since rivers no longer are permitted to flood the upper




reaches of the marshes, they are now deprived of both the annual freshwater




and the annual sediment load.  Thus, as compaction and subsidence proceed,




and as saltwater penetrates through the canals, the effect of saltwater is being

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                                     172






felt further and further inland.  Vehicular traffic over the marshlands (mud-




boats, marsh buggies, tugs, barges, and other heavy equipment) associated with




construction activities accentuates this problem.




     Marsh canals have very high contents of organic matter and high oxygen




demands.  Yet water circulation is often poor, and this leads to reducing or




near reducing conditions, especially in the bottom waters.   Saltwater is rich




in sulfates, and when the sulfates enter the reducing conditions the sulfates




are converted to sulfides which are very potent biotoxins.   Precipitated iron




sulfide is a common marsh deposit.




     Soil banks are often cast up alongside the canals creating a surface dam




effect.  Such banks impound waters on both sides and seriously interfere with




normal surface drainage patterns.   The spoil banks directly cover vast acreages




of marshland, and erosion from the spoil banks tends to drain back into the




canal, on one side, and into the marshland, on the other.   Since the sediment




itself is mostly in the chemically reduced state it tends  to lower the oxygen




concentration of the canal waters when it flows back.   Erosion of spoil banks




and shallowing of canals requires redredging in a never-ending cycle.   Effects




of canalization and spoil placement in marshlands are listed in Table 4.14.






Effects of dredging and spoil dumping on the continental shelf - Because of




the vast area involved and the enormous dilution capacity  of the oceans,




dredging and associated turbidity and sedimentation cannot  be considered to




create any significant environmental problem on the continental shelf.   Reduced




sediments placed in suspension would be quickly oxidized due to the high levels




of dissolved oxygen in sea water.   Ocean dumping of land and freshwater-derived




spoils, however, poses severe hazards.   According to federal statistics dredge




spoils account for 80 percent of all ocean dumping, and 34  percent of this amount




is polluted.   If major spawning areas are avoided it seems  unlikely that un-




contaminated spoil would create a major environmental problem (although it does

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                                     173


Table 4.14.   Effects of dredging and placement of dredge spoil:   effects of

             canalization and spoil placement in marshlands.



     Interference with surface drainage patterns

         Acceleration of surface drainage by canals

         Damming of surface drainage by spoil banks

         General acceleration of freshwater runoff

     Loss of marshland habitat

         Loss due to canalization

         Loss due to water table lowering

         Loss due to erosion and widening of canals

         Loss due to spoil coverage

         Loss due to acceleration of marsh subsidence

     Acceleration of saltwater penetration

     Conversion of sulfates (of saltwater) to sulfides in the canals and
         precipitation of iron sulfide in the canals

     Erosion of spoil banks and distribution of chemically reduced
         sediment into canals and open marsh

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                                     174






seem a waste of a good resource).  Dumping of pollutants into sea water, however,




could create major problems, depending upon the nature of the pollutants and the




quantities involved.






         Effects of Construction Activities Associated Primarily




                          With Waterway Margins






             Effects of Construction of Breakwaters, Seawalls,




                      and Shore Protection Systems





     Understanding of the effects of shoreline construction requires some know-




ledge of the natural forces which create and maintain the beach zone.   Beach




dynamics have recently been discussed in some detail by Inman and Brush (1973)




and Dolan (1972).  Wherever  there are waves and an adequate supply of sand,




beaches form.  When wave action is low, the active beach zone is very narrow,




but when wave action is high, as during storms, the active zone is quite broad,




extending both seaward and landward of the former surf edge.   The slope of the




beach is the natural response to the energy of impacting waves.   Shallow slopes




absorb the impact over a fairly broad zone, but steep slopes receive the full




impact and produce reflecting waves which have high erosive power.  Waves




traveling directly toward shore tend to contain the sand against the shore, but




waves breaking at an angle cause sand to be transported along the shore.  The




power of the waves places sand particles in suspension and creates the longshore




current for lateral transport of the sand.  Under natural conditions riverborne




sand nourishes the beaches and continually replaces that lost through erosion and




longshore transport.




     Construction activities which do not take into account the basic physics of




beach dynamics create problems which require further construction or continual




maintenance.   Breakwaters groynes, and other structures which project perpendicular

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                                     175
to a beach interrupt the longshore current and lateral transport of beach sand.




As a result, sand is accumulated on the upstream side, and beach erosion occurs




just downstream from the barrier.  Additional barriers placed downstream simply




transfer the beach erosion process further downstream of each succeeding barrier.




The beaches at Miami Beach, Florida and Cape May, N.  J. have been referred to




as, "Cascades of groynes."  At each step some of the beach habitat is temporarily




lost (Cronin, Gunter, and Hopkins, 1971).




     Artificial beach nourishment creates two problems, one where the sand is




removed, and another where it is placed.  Source sand may be removed from the




continental shelf in front of the beach, from beach dunes, or from lagoons and




other low lying areas behind the dunes.  Removal from the nearshore shelf creates




a steeper slope so that waves impact the shore with greater force.  Removal of




dunes eliminates important high-beach habitat and reduces protection of the back




lagoons.  Removal of material from behind the dunes eliminates important lagoonal




habitat.  Addition of sand to the forebeach eliminates that habitat until species




can reinvade.  All of these effects are temporary, but since construction is




working against the natural forces, repeated maintenance is often required.  This




means that repeated habitat destruction is generally the price of artificial




shoreline stability.




     Beach dune stabilization by sandbags and other methods creates a narrower




forebeach and a steepened profile.  Finer sands are eroded from the surf zone,




and the steepened beach of coarse sand creates reflection waves which further




accelerate beach erosion.  The loss of fine sand means that new dunes cannot




form.  Dolan (1972) noted that between 1945 and 1969 the barrier beaches of North




Carolina's Outer Banks had been reduced in width by 9.3 percent, the active sand




zone had been reduced by 20.1 percent, and the "stabilized" dune area had been




reduced by 10.7 percent.

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                                     176






                 Effects of Wharves»Piers, and Bulkheads





     Wharves,piers, and bulkheads tend to be abrupt vertical walls which extend




into relatively deep water.  Their construction involves permanent elimination




of valuable intertidal and subtidal water-edge habitat (Sykes, 1971).  Such




habitat is often the most productive zone of estuaries (Odum, 1970).  Dredging to




obtain fill for such structures removes additional shallow or deeper water habi-




tat.  About three acres of submerged sediments are generally required to create




one acre of filled land.  The hard vertical surfaces create reflection waves which




further disturb sediments.   When these structures are built in groups they may




create blind channels where circulation is poor and where anaerobic conditions




readily develop.






                     Deepwater Moorings and Dolphins





     Deepwater structures which occupy small areas of bottom and which do not




materially interfere with water circulation patterns are not known to create




major deleterious environmental effects.   In operation, all types of port facilities




may be expected to generate water pollution problems, both from spillage and from




flushing of domestic wastes, but such problems are beyond the scope of the present




work.






                                Pipelines





     Submarine pipelines which are buried in the bottom sediments are not known




to create significant environmental damage, either in the construction or opera-




tional phases.   The limited environmental disturbance associated with initial




burial is apparently quickly repaired.   Unburied pipes may constitute barriers




for species of bottom-dwelling organisms which normally move longshore or offshore,




but this remains to be documented.   Pollution from leaks or breaks could cause




serious local problems.

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                                    177






                           Mineral Extraction





     Offshore dredging for sand, gravel, and shell locally destroys bottom




habitat which may eventually recover.   Large scale removal of coarse materials




would eliminate protective cover and change the nature of the bottom habitat.




Dredging near shores could remove protective barriers and result in greater ero-




sion of the beach such as occurred in England where the village of Hallsands was




severely eroded after a half million tons of gravel had been removed from a bank




just offshore (Inman and Brush, 1973).




     Extraction of chemicals from seawater is not known to cause significant




environmental damage except for loss of coastal habitat where the extraction




plant is located.  If solar evaporation of seawater is involved, extensive land




areas may be utilized as evaporation pans.






             Offshore Drilling for Petroleum and Natural Gas





     Problems of offshore drilling rigs stem from water pollution hazards rather




than from construction activities or the presence of the structures themselves.




Drilling rigs provide hard substrates and a certain amount of structural complex-




ity.  When present in soft-bottom shelf areas they tend to be populated by species




which may otherwise be rare in the area.  Whether this is beneficial or deleter-




ious cannot be stated at present, especially since very little solid scientific




information is available on the subject.






             Effects of Construction Under Arctic Conditions





     Because of the mineral potential of the Alaska north slope, considerable




interest is now being focused on that area.  Although a great deal has yet to




be learned about the hazards of construction on tundra  and in the Arctic Ocean,




some information is available.     This has been summarized in a recent publica-




tion by Brooks, _et al (1971).

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                                    178







     The tundra of the Arctic Slope is underlain by ground permanently frozen




 to depths ranging to over 2,000 feet.  During the brief summer the surface may




 thaw to depths of 4 to 60 inches.  Since the soil is water-logged and soggy in




 the summer, it provides poor foundation for surface construction.  Roads, build-




 ings, and pipelines must either be elevated or placed upon an insulated founda-




 tion such as gravel.  Off-road transport of heavy equipment and supplies tends




 to tear up the fragile surface layer and to create scars which may last for




 centuries.  When such activities are carried out on an extensive scale the en-




 vironmental damage would be considerable.




     Solid waste disposal is a special problem because of the slow rates of




 biological decomposition, lack of burial sites, cost of transporting wastes,




 and a natural human tendency in very cold weather to discard everything that is




 not immediately useful.   Incineration of biological wastes and general clean up




 of noncombustible wastes are recommended.




     The Arctic Ocean is covered with pack-ice which, during the winter months,




may become continuous with beaches or landfast ice.   During the summer months the




 shallow margin of the Arctic Ocean is ice-free to several miles offshore.  Since




 the ice pack is not static,  offshore construction must take into account the




 powerful forces of ice movement.   Potential effects of a major petroleum spill




 on tundra or ocean are horrible to contemplate, even in our present state of ig-




norance concerning properties and rates of biological decomposition of petroleum




under very low temperature conditions.




     Construction and maintenance under extreme environmental conditions may lead




 to equipment failure, human error, and a tendency toward negligence.   Planning




 for construction under Ar-cic conditions must, therefore, incorporate high con-




 struction standards, most advanced safety devices, attention to good "housekeeping",




 and provision for frequent inspection and monitoring.

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                                     179
                                 Summary


     The primary physical and chemical effects of construction activities on

the riparian and wetland environments of the United States are summarized in

Table 4.15.  The four classes of activity which exert the most profound effects

are 1) general lowland construction, 2) mineral extraction on land,  3)  dam con-

struction, and 4) dredging and spoil placement.

     The most important riparian effects include:

       - Loss of riparian habitat
       - Removal of vegetative cover
       - Removal of topsoil
       - Increased surface runoff
       - Increased soil erosion
       - Lowered water table

     Within the wetland environment the most important effects (listed  by cate-

gory) are as follows:

     Circulation

       - Loss of wetland habitat
       - Reduction of habitat diversity
       - Modification of normal seasonal flow patterns
       - Drastic fluctuation in water levels and flow rates
       - Reduction in flow volume
       - Increased downstream flooding

     Sediment

       - Creation of canals in swamps and marshes
       - Increase in turbidity
       - Increase in sedimentation
       - Clogging of stream riffles
       - Filling of pool areas
       - Alteration of bottom topography

     Chemical and physical properties

       - Reduction in light penetration
       - Elevation of temperature
       - Modification of natural chemical composition
       - Increased oxygen demand
       - Addition of chemical pollutants
       - Build-up of bottom pollutants
       - Increase in salinity (in coastal estuaries, marshes, and swamps)

     On the basis of knowledge of the physical and chemical consequences of major

construction activities it will be possible to analyze the biological effects.

-------
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                                    181




                                Chapter 5





               BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CONTRUCTION ACTIVITIES




                          WHICH AFFECT WETLANDS





     The nation's aquatic ecosystems and their component species are in grave




jeopardy.  Over 75 native American  fishes are known to have become extinct




within historic time, and Miller (1972) lists an additional 305 which are now




considered to be threatened.  This  does not take account of the thousands of




local populations which have disappeared, nor do we yet have adequate records




on most aquatic plant and invertebrate species.  The reasons for the trouble




are not hard to find.  Funk and Ruhr (1971) concluded that from an ecological




standpoint the worst thing that can happen to a stream is impoundment, and




the second worst thing is channelization.  Impoundment has totally changed




the molluscan fauna of the Tennessee River, dammed to form the Kentucky Re-




servoir, and it is concluded that the rich preimpoundment fauna is doomed.




Over one-half the known species of mussels of the Illinois River have dis-




appeared, and many others are on the verge of extinction.  Nearly 100% of




the major streams of northern Missouri have been dammed or channelized.




     Loss of riparian habitat has also played a role.  About half of the ori-




ginal 400,000 acres of rich bottomland along the Illinois River between La




Salle and Grafton have been drained and devegetated creating a great loss




of spawning grounds for fishes and nesting and feeding grounds for water-




fowl.  Devegetated watersheds of New Hampshire have been shown to lose nu-




trients at a rate of 173 metric tons/km^ during the first two years.  Loss




of wetland habitat, extreme water level fluctuation, sedimentation, and




associated chemical changes are clearly destroying one of the nation's most




valuable natural resources.

-------
                                    182





       Environmental Stress Factors and Modes of Biological Response





                  The Nature of Environmental Modifications




     As noted in the previous chapter,  environmental modifications seldom,




if ever, affect only a single physical  or chemical factor.   The effects




come in groups, and such groups fall into two distinct dimensions.  These




include a) the primary effects which occur in immediate response to the




environmental modification, and b)  the  secondary and tertiary time-related




effects which take place later and often some distance from the area of




primary modification.  For convenience  in the present discussion, the parade




of effects resulting from a given set of primary disturbances will be




referred to as a factor train.  One such factor train is presented in




Figure 5.1 where the human activity is  floodplain construction, and the




primary effects are removal of vegetation and removal of topsoil.  In the




Figure only the physical events are given, but extensive analysis would




include details of the chemical and biological modifications, as well.




Figures 5,2 - 5.7 provide factor train analyses for the other types of




major construction activities previously discussed.  It is the purpose of




the present chapter to examine the chemical and biological events resulting




from the physical modifications so that the entire spectrum of events may




be clearly understood.




     It will be recognized that factor train analysis is the first step




in the direction of systems analysis of environmental impact.  The sub-




stitution of quantitative data for verbal descriptions and substitution of




equations for the arrows would set the stage for computer simulation of the




effects of environmental modification.   This topic will be considered in




greater detail in the following chapter.




     If a given type of construction activity results in a train of




physical, chemical, and biological events, so different types of

-------
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                                  190


construction may result in some of the same types of physical, chemi-


cal, and biological consequences.   For example,  increased stream


turbidity may result from floodplain construction, mineral extraction,


impoundment, and dredging and spoil placement.   Increased downstream


flooding may stem from floodplain construction,  mineral extraction,


impoundment, and dredging and spoil placement.   Increase in estuarine


salinity may be occasioned by impoundment,  fill  construction, and


dredging and spoil placement (Table 4.15).   The  fact that a given


environmental factor may derive from multiple causes tends to con-


found efforts at quantitative analysis.  Whereas, one may find figures


for the total sediment load carried by the  streams of the nation, it


is near impossible to ascribe a given percentage of the sediment load


to each of the causative agents.


     Finally, it is important to note that  two or more factors acting


in combination may produce results which could not have been predicted


on the basis of knowledge of the action of  single factors taken one


at a time.  In some cases, one factor tends to partially cancel another


(antagonism) but in other cases the combined effect may be more severe


than the simple sum of the two acting separately  (synergism)  (Darnell,


1973).  The complexity of such interactions is illustrated in a re-


cent article by Liang and Lichtenstein (1974).  In a turbulent aquatic


environment certain herbicides enhance the  toxicity of selected in-


secticides to a number of insect species.  However, a small amount


of suspended soil sediment rendered the herbicide-insecticide solution


essentially non-toxic.  The herbicide was synergistic with the in-
                 *

secticide, but the suspended soil particles exerted an antagonistic


effect.  Unfortunately, we are grossly ignorant of most multi-factor


effects, even though they are certainly important and should be taken

-------
                                  191





into account when dealing with environmental modification projects.






   Modes of Biological Response to Environmental Stress Factors




     Before describing detailed biological consequences of the various




physical and chemical modifications of riparian and wetland environ-




ments, it is appropriate to examine the potential categories of




biological response.  Each of the physical and chemical modifications




may be thought of as an actual or potential stress agent which is im-




posed upon the already hostile environment of the organism or group.




It is the biological response to the total stress situation that con-




cerns us here.




     At the outset, it is clear that biological response may mani-




fest itself at any of the several levels of biological organization




(Darnell, 1971, 1973; Woodwell, 1970).




- At the level of the individual organism, response may be physiologi-




  cal, behavioral, or reproductive.  For example, an organism may ex-




  perience elevated or depressed respiration; it may be stimulated




  to move out of the stress area; or it may fail to copulate.  Under




  extreme stress the individual will die.




- At the level of the population, the more sensitive individuals will




  feel the first effects of stress.  As the level of stress is in-




  creased, even the most tolerant forms show symptom*.  At this point




  the most sensitive individuals have already disappeared, and the




  population has undergone considerable genetic simplification.  How-




  ever, the population level may remain highland to the casual ob-




  server, at least, the surviving individuals may appear to be in




  reasonable health right up to the point  of population extinction.




- At the level of the species, different populations vary in their




  sensitivity to environmental stress agents.  As the stress level

-------
                                  192



  is increased, sensitive populations will disappear first while




  hardier populations are still undergoing genetic simplification.




  Under very high stress even the hardiest populations will be eli-




  minated .




- At the level of the community, shifts in species composition and




  relative  abundance are noted as some species become reduced or




  absent and others find conditions more favorable, especially in




  the atmosphere of reduced competition.  The rate or intensity of




  certain vital processes (such as photosynthesis and respiration)




  may change.  There may be a depression in the total number of species




  (species  diversity) or in the number of individuals of certain




  species.   In the extreme case the community will collapse.  Diver-




  sity indices (which relate the number of individuals to the number




  of species present) are sometimes employed as a rough index of pollu-




  tion or other community stress (Patten, 1962; Wilhm and Dorris,




  1968).  Whereas, such measures are useful, they reflect only a




  fraction of the total community response to stress.  Hence, they




  are most  useful when accompanied by other data on species composition,




  abundance of indicator species, measures of community metabolism,




  etc.  The generalized response patterns discussed above are sum-




  marized in Table 5.1 which expresses the biological response at




  the different organizational levels in relation to the degree of




  stress imposed.




     In the above examples, biological response is generally graded




in relation to the intensity of the stress agent.  Another class of




response occurs when everything seems to be going along fine until a




certain threshhold is reached, beyond this point the system suddenly




goes awry or collapses.  For example, many tropical and subtropical

-------
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                                  194






species such as corals apparently exist much of the time near the




upper limit of their temperature tolerance range.   Under such condi-




tions they may thrive indefin ately.  However, a slight increase in




temperature may be sufficient to cause extreme stress and widespread




mortality.




     A related type of situation occurs with certain estuarine or-




ganisms.  For example, the Virginia oyster can thrive under salinity




conditions ranging from about 7 to 30 parts per thousand.  Neverthe-




less, in nature they generally do poorly at higher salinities which




permit the entrance of a parasitic marine fungus and the predatory




oyster drill.  Thus, above a given threshold salinity the oysters are




in trouble, not from the salinity itself, but from removal of barriers




to disease and predation.




     A somewhat similar type of reaction is observed in the case of




nutrient enrichment (eutrophication).  As more nutrient (especially




nitrogen and phosphorus) are added to an aquatic area, the biological




system is stimulated to higher and higher rates of metabolism and




production until a certain threshhold is reached.   Beyond this point




respiration exceeds the rate of oxygen transport.   The system suddenly




undergoes oxygen depletion,  becomes anaerobic, and collapses.  Up




until the point of collapse everything seemed to be going along fine.




     In considering the problem of biological response to environ-




mental stress agents, attention must be given to the matter of bio-




logical interactions.  In an earlier example, high salinity effects




upon oysters were mediated through a fungus and a predator, but many




other types of biological interaction mechanisms exist.  Prior to




the construction of the Keokuk Dam certain clams were abundant in




the upper Mississippi River.  Following construction of the dam they

-------
                                  195



ceased to exist above the dam.  Normally the larval clams were


transported upstream attached to the gills of the migratory skipjack


fish.  When the skipjack was barred from upstream passage, the up-


stream clam population collapsed (Eddy and Surber, 1947).  Probably


all biological responses involve interactions where one or more


species are affected at first, and these in turn, affect others in


stepwise biological chain reactions.  Without intense study, however,


many of the subtle interactions will escape notice, even though their


importance may be very great.


     In summary, it is clear that physical and chemical modifications


of the environment may act as stress agents, placing burdens upon


biological systems.  Biological response may be gradual and related


to the intensity of factor application, or it may conform to an all


or nothing relationship where a threshhold defines the difference


between success and failure of the biological system.  Response may


be manifested at several different levels of biological organization.


Of especial concern is thevfcatter of biological interaction where
                                        i,

those species initially affected, in turn, affect other species in


biological chain reactions.  Since the species of a community share


the same physical and chemical environment and since the population


levels of the different species are mutually interdependent, complex


patterns of biological response interactions must always be suspected


whether the symptoms are obvious or not.

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                                    196






               Biological Effects on the Riparian Environment




     The biological importance of riparian habitat is very great, but is




seldom fully appreciated.  As pointed out by Funk and Ruhr (1971) , "A stream




is more than a waterway, it is the focus of the ecology of a watershed	




Many mammals and birds live there because of the stream.  Although to some




it is only a source of water, to many it is a vital habitat for which a




ditch will not substitute.  Raccoons, mink, muskrats, herons, kingfishers,




cormorants, waterfowl, including redheads, canvasback, wood ducks, and




hooded mergansers, depend on streams for food, cover, and den or nest sites.




In agricultural areas, most of the remaining permanent woody cover is likely




to be associated with the stream and floodplain.  In arid regions only the




flood plain may have sufficient moisture to support trees.  In more humid




areas, the threat of flood may make it unprofitable to cultivate the low-




lands, and they are permitted to grow up in woody or wet land vegetation




attractive to wildlife.  Even in intensively cultivated floodplains, the




trees that are left are usually on the stream banks.  Bottomland and marshes




provide cover, food, resting aieas and den sites for trophy-size whitetailed




and mule deer, squirrels and other forest game and furbearers, shore birds,




and waterfowl, many of which are rare or endangered."  Gunter (1957) noted




that most aquatic species spawn in shallows and that the floodplain over-




flow areas were historically the prime spawning grounds for Mississippi




River aquatic life.  They also have provided haven for vast flocks of water




birds.  Now, as a consequence of over 2,500 miles of levees and a host of




other human activities, they are mostly gone, destroyed primarily through




habitat elimination.




     Table 5.2 summarizes the cumulative effects of construction activities




on riparian environments, largely independent of the type of construction

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                                     197
Table 5.2.  Cumulative effects of construction on riparian environments,



 • Direct removal of vegetation

 • Direct removal of topsoil

 • Habitat destruction by dumping and surfacing
     - Landfill from construction projects
     - Hard-topping for roads, factories, etc.
     - Grading and concreting for drainage ditches
     - Rip-rapping of banks
     - Dumping of mine overburden, spoil, tailings
     - Dumping of dredge spoil
     - Levee construction
     - Construction of primitive access,  logging, and mining roads
         (esp. in steep or rough terrain)

 • Habitat destruction by digging
     - Ditching (main, as well as lateral ditches)
     - Mining (esp. placer mining and sand and gravel excavation)

 • Habitat modification by water level manipulation
     - Permanent flooding
     - Alternate flooding
     - Protection from flooding
     - Drainage
     - Lowering of soil water table

 • Habitat modification by indirect methods
     - Erosion and loss of nutrients
     - Chemical modification by leaching  of acids, metals, and sul-
         fides from spoil; leaching of chemicals  from pavement;  addi-
         tion of salts (sodium and calcium chloride); motor vehicle
         wastes (petroleum products, heavy metals); other chemical
         wastes from factories; etc.
     - Introduction of exotic vegetation

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                                    198
activity which produced the effects.  Every type of riparian construction




activity removes native vegetation and topsoil.  If only the vegetation




were removed, secondary succession could replace the original community




in perhaps fifty to a hundred years, but when the topsoil is taken away,




primary succession must take place.  This is a very slow process which may




require a thousand or more years to complete.  Removal of topsoil is a




very serious offense against nature and against future human generations




who will have to pay the price for lowered fertility and reduced environ-




mental options.  Borman, et al (1969) have discussed in depth the ability




of natural forest ecosystems to retain fertility and to regulate the




particulate and solution losses of chemical elements to drainage streams.




Likens, e£ al (1970) have demonstrated in precise detail the nutrient losses




resulting from devegetation of a New England watershed.  During the first




two years after cutting, the average streamwater nutrient concentrations




increased as follows:  417% for Ca++, 408% for Mg"^1", 1558% for K+, and




177% for Na+.  Total gross export of dissolved solids, exclusive of or-




ganic matter, was about 75 metric tons/km2 the first year and about 97




metric tons/km^ the second year, a 6-8 fold increase over losses from the




undisturbed watershed.  Nutrient loss was accompanied by a large increase




in surface runoff water.




     The removal of vegetation temporarily deprives riparian species of food,




cover, and nesting and denning sites, but the loss of fertility means a




long-term reduction in the capacity of the ecosystem to recover.  Although




the New England studies need verification from other areas, the results are




consistent with available information.  For example, Hoover (1944) reported




increased water loss following devegetation in North Carolina, and Tarzwell




(1938a) noted that vegetative cover in the watershed retains soil moisture




and helps prevent floods in the southwest.

-------
                                    199






     Riparian habitat is lost as a result of dumping and filling activities,




as noted in Table 5.2.  The vulnerability of floodplain marshes, swamps,




ponds, bogs, and other low-lying areas makes them prime targets for solid




waste disposal, especially when the wildlife value of such areas is




not appreciated by land owners and local authorities, as is usually the




case.  When hard surfacing is placed over riparian habitat, the destruction




is, for all practical purposes, permanent.  If the spoil material is sub-




ject to erosion and leaching, and especially if it is chemically active,




the effects may be felt over broad areas of the floodplain and in the




adjacent and downstream waters.




     Levee construction is a special case of floodplain dumping since




levees are built to contain the stream and to prevent natural flooding of




riparian environments.  As noted by Gunter (1957) and others, swamps and




other riparian wetlands lying on the landward side of the levee fail to




receive the annual replenishment of water, nutrients, and aquatic stocks.




Furthermore, they then become subject to drainage followed by devegetation




and agricultural and industrial development.




     Perhaps the greatest impact of human activities on wetlands occurs




through digging activities, especially drainage ditching and mining.  As




noted earlier, once the main drainage ditch has been completed, it is




followed in short order by the development of lateral or feeder ditches.




By this means, the standing surface water is removed, and the water table




is effectively lowered.  Most marginal aquatic and riparian plant species




are quite sensitive to even minor changes in water level. Therefore, lowering




of the water table induces a shift from lowland, moisture-requiring to up-




land vegetational types.  Starrett (1972) has reviewed the history of




leveeing and draining of bottomlands of the Illinois River during the past

-------
                                    200






century.  He pointed out that about 200,000 of the original 400,000 acres




of floodplain between La Salle and Grafton, 111.  have been drained and




that the impact on the aquatic life of the Illinois River valley has been




considerable.  Originally the floodplain lakes and marshes provided spawning




grounds for many fishes (including largemouth bass, northern pike, and




yellow perch) and feeding and resting areas for migratory waterfowl.




Nesting sites along the water's edge was available for the least bittern,




several species of rails, long-billed marsh wren, and red-winged blackbirds.




A thriving turtle industry was supported, and in 1899 over a half million




pounds of turtles were marketed from the valley.   Today the annual turtle




harvest amounts to only a few hundred pounds, most turtle species have




dramatically declined, and at least two  aquatic snakes (copper-bellied water-




snake and diamond-back watersnake) and one turtle  (Blanding's turtle) are




now possibly extirpated from the river and its floodplain.  Figure 5.8,




taken from Starrett (ibid.) illustrates  the habitat and species changes




which have occurred.




     Barstow (1970, 1971) analyzed the environmental and economic cost of




a riparian drainage project in northwestern Tennessee, already one third




complete.  The prechannelization habitat included  218,900 acres of complex




overflow bottomland timber, swamp, and permanent water.  Already about 60%




of the woodland and wetland have been cleared, and aquatic habitats have




almost been eliminated.  Woodland-field edge habitat is also nearly gone.




The frequency and duration of flooding has declined, soil moisture has been




reduced, and severe erosion has taken place.  Estimates of total habitat




loss when the project is completed are as follows:  aquatic habitat - 95%




reduction, woodland and wetland - 70% reduction, edge habitat - 75% reduc-




tion.  Estimated wildlife and fishery losses include:  fishery - 95%,

-------
                                 201
SUtMERGENT VEGETATION
VEUOW KKN
uueeitL
LAKCMOUTH BASS
MGMOUTH BUFFALO
MAYFUtS
NAIADS
FINGERNAIL CLAMS
SNAIIS
WATf*FOWL{«fc»chM}
1870's
SAND
Quiver Lake
1960's
~xSj@jgigjgffi/
Silt

NO VEGETATION
CAM
GIZZARD SHAD
•IGMOUTH BUFFALO
ILACK BULLHEAD
CRAPPIES
WHITE BASS
TU1IFICIDAC WORMS
NAIAOS (h«)
WATE«FOWLt«Mrc.)
GIZZAW SHAO 5U«MB«GENT VEGETATON
CRAfPIES EMERGENT VEGETATION
IAROEMCUTH IASS tIGMOUTH IUFFALO
•IGMOUTH BUFFALO LARGEMOUTH IASS
MAYFLIES ILUEGILl
CADDIS FLIES NORTHERN F1KE
NAIADS NAIADS I*~J^» ipol
FINGERNAIL CLAMS WATERFOWL IcWuhMl
SNAILS MUSKRAn (obwfanl)

NATURAL
LEVEE ,
\ s~3SL • . • 	 --J* —
NJ . '-• '-'• : / THOMPSON-SLAKE
Illinois River ^ MAK
LEVEE * . •* J ^
HIGHf R WATER LEVEL 1 1 /v4 * fl"?yT^ /M^
^*~"^ ^=" 	 -~ jf^^ THOMPSON'S LAKE DRAINAGE DISTRICT
^pft = ^ °"TCM
DREDGED CHANNEL
CARP CORN
GIZZARD SHAD CATTLE
EMERALD SHMER COTTON-TAIL tAUIT
•LACK BULLHEAD srARtiNG
CRAPflES
TUftlFICIDAC WORMS
MIDGE IAKVAE
NAIADS { K«C«)


Figure 5.8. Schematic illustration of the impact of human activ-
            ity during the past century on the ecology of the
            Illinois River and two of its adjoining bottomland
            lakes near Havana, Illinois. (Taken from Starrett,
            1972.)

-------
                                    202





waterfowl - 86% (wood duck - 95%), furbearers - 95%, forest species




(squirrel, raccoon, swamp rabbit, deer, and turkey) - 70%, and edge species




(cottontail and bobwhite quail) - 75%.  On the basis of known habitat pro-




duction, hunting and fishing harvest, and differential habitat destruction




Barstow (ibid.) estimated that the net financial loss of known wildlife




values would exceed $4 million (or about $20./acre).  This is clearly an




underestimate because it is based only upon the known, tangible, and




economically expressable values of the various habitats.  Costs of soil




erosion, non-harvested species, and other intangibles have not been in-




cluded.  It is important to note that the estimated damage far exceeds that




initially provided by the Army Corps of Engineers.  (At the time of publi-




cation the project had been halted by litigation.  Major points involve




questions pertaining to the Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958, National




Environmental Policy Act of 1970, and state maintenance responsibilities.




Such civil action may, in time, provide a real legal basis for natural




resource protection.)




     Choate (1972) has noted similar patterns in Minnesota.  Channelization




of floodplain has drained lakes, marshes, and other lowland habitat, pro-




ducing dry land which then becomes used for agricultural production.  In




the process wetlands, valuable for wildlife production, have been lost.




Most of the wetland drainage has been federally subsidized by the Soil




Conservation Service.  Shaw and Fredine (1971) provide figures showing that




the amount of land in the United States "improved" or reclaimed by drainage




has increased from 29.6 to 41.8 million acres between 1930 and 1950.  They




also quote a statemeri. by the U.S. Department of Agriculture  (1953) as




follows:




     "Our country includes within its boundaries 125 million acres of




      undeveloped wet and swamp lands which are subject to overflow.

-------
                                 203
     With proper drainage and protection, an estimated two-fifths of




     this area, or 50 million acres, would be physically suitable for




     crop or pasture use."  (Wooten, 1953).




Clearly, the federal government, itself is the major actor in the




destruction of shallow wetland and riparian resources of the nation,




through levee construction and drainage projects, as well as through




dam construction and channelization.




     Water level change through alternate or permanent flooding greatly




modifies the riparian environment.  Aquatic and lowland vegetation is quite




sensitive to water level changes (Bourn and Cottam, 1950; Harris and




Marshall, 1963).  Periodic drawdown of flooded areas desiccates and kills




submerged and emergent vegetation, permitting invasion by annual weeds




(Meeks, 1969).  Alternating the water level inhibits natural development




of shoreline vegetation (Roebeck, et _al, 1954), and submergence kills




off emergent vegetation (Braun and Beland, 1958; McDonald, 1955).  Frequent




or extreme fluctuation in water level creates a broad devegetated zone




around the edge of reservoirs.




     Most species of ducks nest near water, and flooding is a major cause




of nest failure (Miller and Collins, 1954).  Fluctuating water level also




damages nests and reduces hatching success (Wolf, 1955).  As the water




level rises some nests are deserted.  Others are built up and then become



unstable when the water level declines.  This also leads to nest desertion




(Wolf, ibid.).  Flooding also leads to desertion and nesting failure in



Canada geese (Miller and Collins, 1953).




     Yearger (1949) gave results of an 8-year study of the effects of per-




manent flooding on riparian timber at the confluence of the Illinois and




Mississippi Rivers.  Results are reported under three categories:  1) timber

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                                     204
actually flooded, 2) timber on sites where the water table had been raised




to the ground surface, and 3) timber on unflooded land, where the average




summer water table had been raised approximately 3 feet.  Timber species




mortality is given in Table 5.3.  In the flooded area dead timber was




noticeable at three years and pronounced at eight years.  It was noted that




flooding evicted many species of floodplain animals including opossums,




cottontails, woodchucks, skunks, and foxes.  Hall, Penfound, and Hess (1946)




studied the water level relationships of lowland plants.  They provided a




list of the woody species, ranked in approximate order of tolerance to inunda-




tion.  They also gave information on the effects of 30 days' flooding of




59 species of marginal herbaceous plants, most of which did not survive.




     Inundation of floodplain forests results in considerable nutrient loss.




The dying forest decomposes, releasing the organically-bound nutrients.




Additionally, many of the soil nutrients are taken up into solution and




transported away in the water currents.  Nutrient enrichment of the water




over flooded land may lead to extensive development of aquatic vegetation.




This may take the form of submerged rooted plants if the water is shallow,




algal growth if the water is deeper, and floating vegetation if protected




from the wind or in southern waters.  Important among the floating plants




are duckweed, water hyacinth, alligatorweed, and water lettuce.  Extensive




siltation and eutrophic development will result in rapid filling or shallow




flooded areas.  These processes are well illustrated in Figure 5.9 which




shows in a very dramatic way the stages of anticipated change resulting




from reservoir construction in central Florida.




     Mention should be made of losses in riparian habitat as a result of




chemical changes.  The most dramatic of these is habitat deterioration due




to acid mine spoil.  Bramble and Ashley (1955) found that acid spoil banks




are vegetated very slowly and that even after 35 years the spoil bank

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                                    205
Table 5.3.   Mortality of tree species in relation to water level in an
            Illinois floodplain forest following impoundment.   Data were
            taken six years after water level rise and represent tallies
            of individual tagged trees.  Dashes indicate that  no trees
            of the particular species were tagged in the particular water
            level zone.

Pin oak
Pecan
Waterlocust
Persimmon
Hawthorn
Hackberry
American elm
Silver maple
Bur oak
Holly
Cottonwood
White ash
Waterprivet
Buttonbush
Black willow

Trees in water
100.0
100.0
96.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
71.0
83.0
60.0
43.5
Percent dead trees
Trees in mud
100.0
100.0
100.0
80.0
75.0
66.7
51.4
45.5
-
0.0
0.0
16.7
0.0
-
_

Trees on land
28.2
0.0
4.2
3.7
11.7
4.2
6.1
5.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-
_

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                  206
 A. Natural  river and riparian environment
    with representative wildlife species.
m!msmmm
     .,.,
 B. Reservoir with dead and  dying trees. Note
   hyacinths and other floating vegetation forming
   a dense mat over the water surface.
  C.  Eventual stage of reservoir. Algae have
     replaced water hyacinths,  and siltation
     is nearly complete.
Figure 5.9. Effects of reservoir construction on stream and
           riparian environment of  central Florida. (Taken
           from Florida Defenders of  the Environment,  1970.)

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                                     207
vegetation is sparse and nowhere near the regional community climax.  As




brought out in the previous chapter, Parsons  (1968) and others have noted




that spoil piles continue to leach out sulfuric acid and heavy metals for




many years.  These chemicals spread out and poison the soil for a consider-




able radius around the piles.  Certain types  of industry, notably metal




smelters, may introduce noxious effluents into the atmosphere, and if lo-




cated on or near floodplains they will adversely affect the riparian en-




vironments.  The classical cases involve the  copper smelters at Copperhill,




Tennessee and near Butte, Montana where sulfuric acid released into the




atmosphere has killed the vegetation and seriously eroded soil for miles




around (Odum, 1959).  Salts may be derived from leaching, certain industrial




processes, and roadways (where sodium and calcium chloride are spread to




melt winter snow and ice).  Vegetation is known to be quite sensitive to




changes in soil salinity (Rollins, 1973).  Vegetational effects from motor




exhausts and highway runoff have not been well documented, but highway en-




gineers have often been hard pressed to locate plants that can survive in




the median strips of California freeways.




     Human modifications of riparian environments incur another suite of




environmental changes in relation to the behavior of animal species.  Many




construction projects impose barriers to normal movement.  Mountain species




which normally overwinter in the valleys may  require riparian environments




for winter food and shelter.  Streamside highways and fences may prevent




access to the water so that many animals may not be able to drink or search




for food.  Under natural conditions the unaltered floodplain provides passage




for daily or nightly foraging along the stream bank.  Construction undoubted-




ly blocks the along-stream passage of such species.  Roadkills are undoubtedly




more frequent in low wet areas than in uplands.  Little information is

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                                   208
available on the precise effects of human noise, activity, and vehicular




exhausts on wild populations, but it is clear that nature quietly recedes




in the press of human construction, development, and use.




     Finally, mention should be made of the problem of exotic species




introduction.  When engineers finish a construction project on the flood-




plains, the last step is to restore the "natural" landscape, ,i_.£. to reseed




or resod with exotic species of vegetation ("Kentucky" bluegrass, bermuda




grass, some species of rye grass—all native to Europe).  These species are




used because they are hardy and will grow almost anywhere.  From the ecologi-




cal standpoint, they are dangerous weeds which can out-compete and eliminate




many of the native species which are valuable for other reasons.  Other types




of weeds are brought in inadvertantly.  Spoil heaps and other disturbance




areas are often overgrown with such exotics.  Whereas, a levee or a road




and its cleared right-of-way may constitute an effective barrier to movement




of woodland species, they can form ready-made avenues for invasion by dry-




land and prairie-type species.  The faunal and floral mixing associated




with construction activities is quietly crowding out many of the native




forms, and this process is certainly reducing the size and genetic diversity




of many local populations of the native species.  This is an important and




often overlooked point.






            Biological Effects of Modification of Water Levels




                              and Flow Regimes






      It is axiomatic that modification of one environmental factor always




 results in the simultaneous alteration of others.  Whereas, side effects




 may be minimized in carefully controlled laboratory experiments, in nature




 the changes come in groups of accompanying factors.  For example, modifica-

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                                   209
tion of stream flow rate changes the sediment-carrying capacity, erosive




power, and oxygen carrying capacity of the water, as well as a host of




other factors.  Likewise, varying the water level in a reservoir occasions




a suite of changes.  In the present and following sections reference must




be made to both laboratory and field studies, and in relation to the latter




it must be recognized that detailed interpretation is complicated by side




issues.  Where these appear to be significant they will be pointed out.




Cumulative effects of construction on wetland habitats related to modifica-




tion of water levels and flow regimes are given in Table 5.4.






                   Modification of Water Edge Habitat






     Water edge habitat is modified principally through changes in water




level.  These changes are brought about through reservoir filling, reservoir




water level manipulation, channelization, and ditching, as well as riparian




and upland construction and mining activities.  Important among the primary




effects of water level change are deepening, shallowing, and fluctuation




in water level with their attendant factors of flooding, exposure, and al-




teration in flood-exposure.




     Slight changes in water level are known to greatly influence the com-




position of shallow water vegetation (Harris and Marshall, 1963).  This




topic has been studied in some detail in the Tennessee Valley by Hall,




Penfound, and Hess (1946).  Many aquatic species are depth sensitive and




significantly increasing the depth can damage or kill the submerged, floating




leaf, and emergent species.  These same species are also sensitive to ex-




posure, and lowering the water level can also eliminate the water-edge ve-




getation.  Cyclical annual fluctuation in water level is characteristic




of most natural bodies of water, and since the normal ebb and flow of water

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                                   210
Table 5.4.  Cumulative effects of construction on wetlands,  especially
            related to modification of water levels and flow regimes.
 • Modification of water edge habitat
     - Deepening (as through reservoir filling and leveeing)
     - Lowering of water level (drawdown)
     - Alteration of normal seasonal pattern of water level fluctuation

 • Modification of flow rates
     - Great increase in flow velocity
     - Great decrease in flow velocity
     - Elimination of peak flows
     - Alteration of normal seasonal pattern of flow

 • Biological effects of channelization, a multi-factor problem

 • Direct biological effects of man-made structures
     - Dams and turbines
     - Irrigation pumps
     - Water diversions

 • Special biological problems
     - Problems associated with nutrient input from riparian environments
     - Problems associated with upstream migration and downstream drift
     - Problems associated with biological orientation compounds

 • Special problems of coastal wetlands
     - Coastal marshes
     - Estuaries

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                                   211
level is related to meteorological factors, it occurs with some predict-




able seasonal regularity.  Natural vegetation is, thus, adapted to the




normal seasonal patterns of both timing and degree of change.   Hall, et al




(ibid.) point out that water-edge vegetation survival is not only related




to depth and exposure, but it is also strongly influenced by the seasonal




timing of the occurrence.




     Water-edge vegetation provides habitat for a great variety of in-




vertebrate animals, small fishes, and numerous species of waterfowl which




find food and shelter here.  Severe reduction or destruction of such vege-




tation eliminates the habitat and destroys the species populations.  This,




in turn, impoverishes those larger fishes, shoreline animals,  and wading




birds which normally forage in such habitats.  Severe reduction in water




level creates a broad devegetated zone around the edge of many reservoirs




which is essentially devoid of life and subject to heavy erosion during




periods of exposure.




     Edge vegetation is important to the aquatic environment for other




reasons.  Sediments eroded from the banks and shores are normally trapped




in the marginal vegetation, which, thus, provides a natural filtration zone




between land and open water.  This reduces the level of turbidity in the




open water.  Edge vegetation also traps large quantities of nutrients, and




in considerable degree it regulates nutrient levels of the entire aquatic




system.  Experienced aquarists are aware of the ability of submerged ve-




getation to remove nitrogenous waste products produced by fishes and other




aquatic animals, and it is likely that organic compounds released by the




aquatic vegetation are important in conditioning the water in other ways.




For all these reasons edge vegetation is important in balancing natural




aquatic systems, and removal of this vegetation is generally quite harmful

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                                   212
to the systems.




     As noted by Fraser (1972) most species of freshwater animals are




limited in their depth preferences during at least some stages of their




life histories.  Shallow water vegetation beds are the normal spawning




areas and juvenile habitats for many species of fishes which inhabit the




deeper water as adults.  In the absence of such beds the deep-water popu-




lations are affected by recruitment failure.  Other species including many




mollusks pass most of their life stages in the shallow water environment.




Whether or not they are directly dependent upon the vegetation beds for




food and shelter, they cannot survive conditions of prolonged exposure or




heavy sedimentation resulting from erosion.  Bates (1962), for example,




has shown that impoundment has almost totally changed the species composi-




tion of the molluscan fauna of the sector of the Tennessee River impounded




as the Kentucky Reservoir.  Comparison of pre- and post-impoundment collec-




tions revealed that the rich pre-impoundment molluscan fauna is doomed.




Roebeck, et al (1954) , reporting on Roosevelt Lake of the Columbia River,




noted that lack of shallow water areas is detrimental to both vegetation




and bottom fauna.  They found that reservoir drawdown, in addition to in-




hibiting natural development of shore vegetation, decreases biological




productivity, in general, and results in a community of bottom animals




less desireable as fish food.




     The biological composition of reservoirs is generally vastly different




from that of the pre-impoundment stream.  Such changes have recently been




documented in great detail in several symposium volumes (Hall,




1971; Lane, et_ al_, 1967; and Oglesby, &t_ al, 1972), as well as in a number




of synthesis books (see, for example, Bayly and Williams, 1973 and Hynes,




1972).  It is presumed that a detailed treatment of reservoir biology is

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                                   213
not called for in the present volume.




     The effect of water level modification per se in streams below im-




poundments has not been well studied, but some information is available.




Dorris and Copeland (1962) reported that winter drawdown of water in a




Mississippi River impoundment reduced larval mayfly populations both




above and below the dam.  Starrett (1951) in Iowa noted that when stream




water levels remain low throughout the year, minnows are denied access to




floodplain backwaters, and spawning failure results.  In a very informative




study, Fisher and LaVoy (1972) reported that water level fluctuations be-




low a dam in Connecticut produced a freshwater "intertidal" zone.  A




transect from the high to the low water mark revealed radical changes in




both the density and diversity of the invertebrate populations.  Community




composition shifted from chixonomid-oligochaete predominance on the most




exposed sites to mollusk predominance on the least exposed sites.  Stated




another way, the mollusks were unable to withstand desiccation, and the




insect larvae and worms, which are much more desireable fish food, were




largely unavailable to the fishes.  Spence and Hynes (1971) compared the




macroinvertebrate riffle fauna upstream and downstream of an impoundment.




Downstream there was an increase in availability of organic detritus for




food, a 4-week lag in early summer temperature rise, and a maximum tempera-




ture 6°C. cooler than that found upstream.  In the downstream riffle stone-




flies were absent, and certain other groups of insect larvae (mayflies,




midges, blackflies, water beetles) and crustaceans (amphipods) showed in-




creases.  The differences were interpreted as reflecting a mild increase




in the availability of organic matter for food.




     Gunter (1957) has pointed out that, due to the walling effect of the




extensive levee system, the high water stages of the lower Mississippi

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                                   214
River get higher and higher.  The peak flow now is about seven times higher




than it was before the levees.  Absolutely no published information exists




on the fauna of the lower Mississippi River, and there is no way of knowing




what effects, if any, the increase in depth (and velocity) may have on the




biota of the nation's largest stream.  This is a major gap in the American




biological and limnological literature, and before further modifications




of this stream are permitted, major studies should be undertaken to deter-




mine what is there and what is happening.






                       Modification of Flow Rates






     Stream flow rate is affected by several types of construction activity.




Floodplain construction and ditching lead to very rapid runoff and sudden




peak flows following rainstorms.  This is followed by very low flow during




the periods between rains.  Reservoir management may lead to very high




and very low flows downstream, but peak flows are often controlled to re-




duce flooding.  Channelization also increases flow velocity, but since




several other factors are also affected, channelization will be discussed




as a separate topic.




     In an important recent review Fraser (1972) pointed out that flow




velocity is the dominant physical factor affecting stream life.  Most




stream-dwelling species are adapted to and require particular flow velo-




cities.  Ranges of tolerance are rather narrow, and they often vary with




different stages of the life history.  Spawning, egg development, juvenile




growth, adult life, and migratory behavior are all influenced directly by




the current factor.  Indirectly, velocity may determine food and habitat




availability through its influence on invertebrate life, turbidity, bottom




erosion, and sedimentation.  Most of our knowledge of the effects of stream

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                                   215
flow on aquatic life stems from work on game fish species, especially




salmon and trout.  Studies on other forms are badly needed.




     Very high stream velocities associated with flood flow generally




have adverse affects on the stream biota.  Entire year classes of small-




mouth bass are frequently lost during Illinois floods when the fry are less




than an inch long (Larimore and Duever, 1968).  Severe flooding in Minnesota




can nearly eliminate the two youngest year classes of trout and reduce the




density of the older fish (Elwood and Waters, 1969).  In the latter study,




floods were found to affect a combination of factors.  Sand and debris




filled pool areas and blanketed the riffles.  Invertebrate populations




were severely damaged, decreasing the food supply.  The total standing




crop of living matter in the study area was reduced to one-sixth of its




former value after four severe floods.  In California it has been found




that floods can change the species composition of a stream and that the




effects may persist for several years (Seegrist and Card, 1972).  The




primary effect is through decimation of developing eggs and young through




erosion or siltation of spawning areas (Gangmark and Broad, 1956).  Tarzwell




(1938) noted that floods are the outstanding limiting factor in southwest




streams, destroying habitat cover, sweeping away organic matter, and




blanketing everything in the water with a layer of fine silt.  Many species




of fishes will actively select appropriate flow velocities when given a




choice (Baldes and Vincent, 1969; Weaver, 1963) and will tend to avoid




unnecessarily rapid flow.  For example, Peters (1967) found few trout where




the stream discharge was rapid (4-485 cfs) and erratic, whereas trout of




all ages were abundant and reproduction was good where the discharge was




moderate (10-12 cfs) and stable.




     The effects of low velocities can be even more devastating to stream

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                                   216
life than floods.  Harvey and Davis (1970) completed a regression analysis




of the biological and physical variables which affect survival of young




salmon in streams of Maine, and their results clearly show that the most




important single factor is the level of stream flow during the dry seasons.




During very low flow rates streams develop low oxygen and high carbon




dioxide tensions which may become lethal to fishes (Schneller, 1955).




Older trout respond to low flows by moving into deeper pools (Kraft, 1972).




Low flow velocity through the  interstices of riffles reduces the numbers




of young trout and salmon hatched (Coble, 1961), and it reduces the size




and viability of those which do hatch (Shumway, et^ al, 1964; Silver, et al,




1963).  Discontinuous flow reduces the stream habitat to a series of iso-




lated pools which often become stagnant, and it also exposes the surviving




fishes and invertebrates to greater predation by both aquatic and terrestrial




animals (Larimore, et_ al, 1959; Slack, 1955).  Clothier (1953) noted that




upstream irrigation diversions dry up sections of the West Gallatin River




of Montana every year.  The pools become warm and stagnant, and many fishes




die.




     Unstable or severely alternating stream flow creates a habitat that




few species can tolerate.  Populations of such habitats are marked by re-




peated invasion and demise.  Gangmark and Bakkala (1960) have reported that,




due to unstable stream flow, salmon fry of the Sacramento River of California




have averaged 95.8% mortality during the past six years.




     A great deal has been written on the relation of water velocity to




migration, especially of trout and salmon, and much of this literature




has been reviewed by Fraser (1972) .  Flow rate influences the timing and




rate as well as the specific path of migration.  In some species special




chemical substances are known to direct the fishes in their migratory routes,

-------
                                  217
and Creutzberg (1961) has suggested that reduced stream flow may mask the




"orientation compounds" and interfere with the migrations.






                  Biological Effects of Channelization






     Stream channelization involves straightening the natural meanders,




clearing the banks, and widening and deepening the channel.  It is under-




taken to facilitate navigation, assist in flood control, and increase




arable land.  As noted by Funk and Ruhr (1971), changes associated with




channelization, "have far-reaching ecological effects, some of which may




be disastrous	  Stream channelization is almost always planned and




carried out with little consideration given to the natural environment.




Existing and potential recreational areas are defaced, fish and wildlife




habitat is altered or destroyed, bottom-land timber is removed, and natural




beauty is marred.  Many more miles of stream are destroyed than is indi-




cated by the miles of ditch created.  A river meandering over a wide flood-




plain may be reduced to a straight ditch one-half or one-third as long as




the original stream."




     As discussed in Chapter 4, channelization lowers the level of the




stream and the riparian water table, increases the rate of surface runoff,




increases the stream flow rate, enhances bank and bottom erosion, and




transports a heavier sediment load than the unchannelized stream.  Dredge




spoil is deposited on adjacent banks, covering the vegetation and elimina-




ting riparian habitat.  Downstream where the natural stream gradient still




exists, sedimentation occurs so that the stream tends to shallow, increasing




the flood hazard.  For these reasons many of the biological effects noted




in the above sections (resulting from modification of riparian environments,




alteration of water edge habitat, and change of flow rates) apply to the




channelization problem.  In addition, many of the effects of sedimentation

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                                  218
(discussed in a later section) also apply.  The present section concerns




the in-stream biological effects of channelization which have been reported




and which are clearly due to a combination of the above factors.  Special




attention is drawn to the published results of a recent stream channeliza-




tion symposium (Schneberger and Funk, 1971) which' summarizes much of our




present knowledge of the subject.




     Channelization has been reported to reduce the size and diversity of




the stream habitat, destroy key productive areas, and cause great shifts




in species composition in the Missouri River of Nebraska (Morris, et al,




1968).  The volume of benthic invertebrates was  reduced by 79% in channel-




ized North Carolina streams (Tarplee, ejt al, 1971).  Studies in a channel-




ized section of the Little Sioux River of Iowa suggested a lack of suitable




attachment surfaces for benthic invertebrates (Hansen, 1971), and Morris,




et al (1968) reported a higher standing crop of drifting invertebrates from




an unaltered portion of the Missouri River.




     Channelization has been shown to greatly reduce the standing crop and




diversity of fish populations of streams in several regions of the nation.




In a study of the fish populations of 23 channelized and 36 natural streams




of North Carolina Bayless and Smith  (1967) found that channelization re-




duced the number of game fishes  (over 6 inches in length) by 90%, and re-




duced the weight by 80%.  They noted only limited recovery 40 years after




the channelization took place.  Also in North Carolina Tarplee, et al (1971)




reported that the standing crop of channelized streams for all fish species




was 32% and for game species only 23% of that found in natural streams.




On the Little Bighorn River of Montana Peters and Alvord (1964) reported




that 1,987 channel alterations had been made in  768 miles of stream.  The




unmodified stream sections produced  5 1/2 times  as many trout and 10 1/2

-------
                                  219
times as many whitefish as the channelized sections.  Also in Montana




Whitney and Bailey (1959) found a 94% decrease in the number and weight




of large-size game fishes and an 85% reduction in the number and 76% re-




duction in weight of small-size game fishes one year after a channelization




project.  Five years later the numbers were still only one-third as large




as those encountered prior to the channelization.  In an Idaho stream




Stroud (1971) found 7 times as many trout and 60 times as many whitefish




in natural streams as in channelized ones.  The weight differential was




14 to 1.




     In a major study Congdon (1971) studied the effects of channelization




on the fish populations of the Chariton River, Missouri.  He found that




channelization reduced the number of fish species from 23 to 13, the total




standing crop from 304 to 53 pounds per acre (an 83% reduction), and the




standing crop of catchable-size fish from 187 to 27 pounds per acre (an




86% reduction).  There were six species of catchable-size fish in the un-




altered section and only 4 in the channelized section.




     From such studies it is clear that channelization markedly reduces




the diversity of habitat and the diversity and standing crops of benthic




invertebrates and fishes.  Funk and Ruhr  (1971) concluded that from an eco-



logical standpoint the worst thing that can happen to a stream is impound-




ment because thereafter the stream ceases to exist as an ecological entity;




it is dead.  They further concluded that channelization is the second worst




thing that can happen because thereafter the stream ecosystem is permanently




disabled.  Congdon (1971) pointed out that nearly 100% of the 1,842 miles




of major streams in Missouri north of the Missouri River have been channelized




or are threatened with channelization or inundation by flood control reser-




voirs.  Comparable information is not currently available for other regions

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                                  220
of the nation, but it is becoming quite obvious that certain types of stream




environments and stream ecosystem types are in great danger of extinction




from the twin threats of impoundment and channelization.






            Direct Biological Effects of Man-made Structures






     Man-made structures may exert significant pressures  upon natural




populations of aquatic animals, and several examples will be presented




to illustrate a category of problems which are not well documented in the




literature.




     Hydroelectric dams pass enormous quantities of water down shafts and




through turbines to generate electric power.  Fishes and  other aquatic




organisms which pass through such systems may be injured  or killed.




Schoeneman, £t al_ (1961) noted a 4-9% mortality in fishes passing through tur-




bines, and he pointed out that a series of ten dams on a  given stream might




be expected to cause a 45% mortality in any group of young salmon migrating




downstream.  If spillways were unavailable or improperly  designed the morta-




lity at each dam would be raised, creating a cumulative mortality of 70%




for ten dams.  Screens and other devices may alleviate the situation some-




what, but some mortality among smaller individuals would  seem inevitable.




A related but more complicated problem exists in connection with cooling




coils of thermal power plants.  Here, high temperature rather than turbines




would be important, but the mortality of aquatic life could be even more




extensive.  The effect of dams in obstructing upstream passage of migratory




species is well known (Eraser, 1972), and even the mollusk species which




depend upon fishes for upstream transport can be extirpated from stream




sections above dams (Eddy and Surber, 1947).




     Mortality of fishes and other aquatic life in relation to irrigation

-------
                                  221
diversions is a widespread problem in the western states (Clothier, 1953).




In California young salmon may be injured or killed by passage through un-




screened irrigation pumps (Hallock and Van Woert, 1959), and young striped




bass are destroyed in quantity by water diversions in the Sacramento River




drainage (Calhoun, 1953).  The problem has also been studied in the West




Gallatin River drainage of Montana by Clothier (1953).  Within a 20-mile




stretch of the river 52 canals irrigate about 90,000 acres of land.  During




a 2-year period legal-size game fish losses were estimated to include




13,400 fishes weighing 5,600 pounds.  Translation of this figure to the




vast acreage of irrigated lands of the west suggests a staggering toll




of game fishes alone.  Meanwhile, the fate of non-game fishes and inverte-




brates can only be guessed.






                       Special Biological Problems






Allochthonous organic matter as a nutrient source - It is fairly well docu-




mented now that the productivity of stream ecosystems is greatly dependent




upon the input of organic matter derived from the riparian environment.




Leaves and in some cases terrestrial insects are the chief sources of this




organic matter.  Hynes (1972) estimated that a stream flowing through a




wooded valley probably receives a kilogram of such material per meter (or




two-thirds of a pound per foot) of length per year.  Much of the leaf




litter is fairly rapidly decomposed, since bacterial populations increase




to handle the nutrient source (Wetzel and Manny, 1972).  Alder leaves have




been shown to be especially rich in nitrogen (Goldman, 1961).  The imported




decomposing leaf material has been found to be the chief energy source of




the small insects and crustaceans which make up the primary consumers and,




by extension, for the entire benthic community (Minshall, 1967).  Chapman

-------
                                  222
and Demory (1963) have shown that over half the energy reaching trout




(either directly from terrestrial insects or indirectly through detritus-




feeding aquatic insects) is derived from terrestrial sources.  In the latter




study trout populations of the most densely shaded streams were those most




heavily dependent upon the riparian environment.




     Some of the introduced vegetation is trapped in riffles and pool




bottoms and is utilized locally.  Some of it passes downstream with the




drift and nourishes the downstream populations.  In either event, it is




clear that devegetation of floodplains eliminates both the leaf litter and




insects which are so important in maintaining the biological economy of




healthy streams.  Elimination of normal flooding may accomplish much the




same result.  On the other hand, extremely high flow rates may sweep an




area clean of most of the imported detritus, and if accompanied by heavy




erosion, it may leave the material covered by a blanket of silt where it




is essentially unavailable as a food source for most of the smaller inverte-




brates.




     Whereas devegetation of the floodplain deprives the stream of leaf




litter, the accompanying surface runoff, leaching, and erosion will result




in stream enrichment with mineral nutrients.  Similar nutrient enrichment




of aquatic systems results when riparian environments are flooded (through




impoundment) and when the hypolimnic waters of a reservoir are released




into the stream below a dam (Neel, 1963).




     The primary effect of nutrient enrichment is stimulation of plant




growth, and this may take the form of phytoplankton, attached algae, rooted




vegetation, or floating plants.  Secondarily, this stimulates animal pro-




duction, decomposition, and increased oxygen demand.   With increased




production and decomposition the oxygen demand may exceed the rate of




oxygen availability, leading to very low oxygen levels or to total depletion.

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                                   223
Most animals useful to man require significant levels of oxygen for res-




piration, and stream animals are especially sensitive to oxygen reduction.




Although moderate enrichment may be beneficial, heavy enrichment invariably




proves disastrous.




     Devegetation and flooding may lead only to temporary nutrient enrich-




ment, because once the minerals have been leached out and eroded they are




gone.  In the long run they are lost to both the riparian and the aquatic




system.






Upstream migration and downstream drift - A natural stream is a dynamic area




where the aquatic populations move about on a regular or periodic basis.




It has been found that many of the benthic invertebrates drift downstream




with the current and make their way back upstream either by movement against




the current or as flying adults.  Downstream drift is normally a dispersal




rather than a depletion process, and only a fraction of the resident popu-




lation of a given area is in transit at a given time.  When riffle-inhabiting




animals achieve high population densities, some of the individuals apparently




"let go" and float down to the next riffle or beyond (Dimond, 1967).  This




naturally reduces population density in overcrowded riffles, and it aids in




the rapid repopulation of downstream riffles which may have reduced densities.




According to Waters (1964) a depleted riffle may be repopulated within about




two weeks, although details would certainly vary with stream size, location,




and flow rate, as well as species composition.




     Changes in environmental conditions, and especially decrease in water




quality, affect drift rates.  Details are not well understood at the present




time.  The rate of drift increases with elevated water temperature (Waters,




1968), and it seems to be inversely related to stream flow rate (Minshall

-------
                                   224
and Winger, 1968).  Large numbers of invertebrates leave the riffles during



low flow rates, presumably because at such times the oxygen level within the



riffles is decreased.  Failure to maintain low flow rates in streams removes



large populations of invertebrates from the riffle habitats.  Morris, et al



(1968) have shown that channelization greatly reduces the rate of drift,



production in a channelized stream dropping from 68 to 8 g per acre foot of



water flow after channelization.



     The significance of invertebrate drift in streams is, to some extent



at least, obvious.  As noted by Waters (1962a) riffles are areas of aquatic



insect production, whereas the intervening pools are areas of consumption.



Drifting insects and crustaceans supply a large measure of the food of stream



fishes, most of which reside in pools.  Drifting also adjusts population



size within a riffle to the prevailing environmental conditions, and it aids



in repopulating spent riffles, assuring full utilization of available riffle



habitats.  In most headwater streams riffles and rapids are spaced rather



evenly and regularly downstream.  They are important not only as food sources



but as spawning areas for many aquatic species including the fishes.  Such



habitats are shallower than pools and are the most vulnerable to changes in



stream flow rate.  They are the first to suffer the effects of low oxygen



and desiccation accompanying reduced flow, and they are also very sensitive



to sedimentation which may clog spaces between rocks and stones and induce



anaerobic conditions.





Biological orientation compounds - It has long been known that organic chemi-



cals play an important role in the behavior of aquatic animals beyond any



importance that they may have for nutrition (von Frisch, 1941).  The sensi-



tivity of aquatic animals to dissolved organic chemicals is extremely acute,


                        —18
concentrations of 3 X 10    being detectable by some species (Teichman, 1957).

-------
                                   225
At such concentrations only a few molecules would impinge upon the sensory




organs at any one time.  Some species can sort out individual scents from




a variety of conflicting odors  (Walker and Hasler, 1949).  Hasler (1966) has




presented convincing evidence that natural chemical substances in the water




play an important role in guiding migrating salmon to their home streams for




spawning.  Creutzberg  (1959) has demonstrated that larval eels (elvers) can




discriminate between ebb and flow waters where the river enters the sea, pro-




viding a chemical and sensory basis for utilizing the flow tide to take them




on their migratory path into fresh water.  Creutzberg (ibid.) also found that




filtering the water through charcoal removes the elvers' ability to distinguish




the two types of water.  Even though the elvers can detect incredibly low




concentrations of chemical substances, adsorption by charcoal particles ap-




parently removes sufficient molecules to eliminate the response.




     From such experiments it has become clear that chemical substances in




the water provide important cues governing the daily and seasonal behavior




of aquatic animals.  Location of food, recognition of species, finding of




hosts, recognition of sex, stimulation of breeding, migratory orientation,




alarm, and avoidance are some of the behavior patterns known to depend, at




least in part, upon chemical cues.  Undoubtedly, there are many others.




Whether masking by chemical pollutants ever occurs is an open question, but




direct damage to the delicate sensory membrane by mining waste acids, heavy




metals, and other strong chemicals seems to be a distinct possibility.  Clay




particles, like charcoal, are known to remove minerals such as phosphorus




and certain organic chemicals from solution.  It appears quite likely that




heavy sediment loads would be capable of removing important cue chemicals




from waters, thereby inhibiting the normal behavior patterns of aquatic




animals.  In view of the heavy sediment loads now being placed in the nation's




waterways, this possibility cannot be ignored.

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                                   226
                  Special Problems of Coastal Wetlands






Coastal marshes - As pointed out earlier, the coastal marsh is a semi-aquatic




system in equilibrium with the prevailing climatic, hydrographic, geological,




and biological forces of the coast.  Even slight modification in the level




of the water table or the rate of surface freshwater flow greatly modifies




the biological characteristics of the system.  Although the coastal marshes




vary greatly in detail, a more or less typical marsh has freshwater vegetation




at the landward side, saltwater vegetation at the seaward or bayward edge,




and a gradient of species between.  Typically the marsh is drained by highly




dendritic tidal creeks which empty into the bay or estuary.  Freshwater




entering along the upper edges of the marsh drain across the surface and




enter the tidal creeks.




     Many of the marshes of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts have undergone great




attrition in recent years, primarily as a result of levee and canal construc-




tion.  A levee placed across the upper end of a coastal marsh has the following




primary effects:




     - cuts off all distributaries feeding the marsh,




     - prevents freshwater flooding,




     - prevents annual flushing,




     - prevents annual renewal of sediments and nutrients,




     - ends formation of new marshes.




Canals which lace the coastal marshes for navigation, pipelines, or mosquito




control have the following primary effects:




     - intercept and carry off freshwater drainage,




     - block freshwater from flowing across the portion of the marsh that




       is seaward of the first canal,




     - rapidly carry off freshwater  to the bay or estuary,

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                                   227
     -  lower  the water  table,




     -  permit saltwater intrusion well  into  the marsh proper.




     The biological consequences are clear.  On the Atlantic coast where




subsidence rates are fairly slow the marsh vegetation gives way to dry land




vegetation with accompanying changes in the animal populations.  Bourn and




Cottam  (1950) reported  on a detailed 10-year study of the fate of a drained




coastal marsh in Delaware.  Prior to canalization 90% of the marsh vegeta-




tion was saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) with smaller amounts




of other marsh species, especially at higher elevations.  A few open water




areas supported luxuriant growths of widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) and other




submerged aquatic species.




     Ten years after ditching had taken place the wetland plants had been




reduced to small groups in the remaining low spots and along canal margins.




Groundselbush (Baccharis halimifolia) dominated the plant community which




now was made up largely of dry land species such as asters, goldenrods,




terrestrial grasses, and young trees (pine, juniper, sweetgum, maple, and




hawthorn).  Aquatic animal populations of the ditched areas had been greatly




reduced in areal extent and in density, even in the wetland habitat which




still remained (Table 5.5).  The density of the total invertebrate population




was reduced from 39 to  97% in the various samples, and the mollusks and




crustaceans, which make up important food items for many fishes and shore




birds, were reduced 32to 100%. Open aquatic areas, which formerly supported




widgeongrass and other  important duck foods, had been reduced to mud flats




and dry land.  Thus, the wetland habitat, important in the production of fishes,




shellfishes, ducks, and wading birds, had given way to land with its low




wildlife values.   This particular study is especially informative, since it




provides both pre- and post-construction conditions, it follows the effects




for several years, and it was designed to determine the effects of the

-------
                                   228
Table 5.5.  Effects of ditching a Delaware tidewater marsh on the aquatic
            invertebrate populations.  Vegetational zones are characterized
            by the dominant plant species.  Six-foot square quadrats were
            sampled for comparison of invertebrate density in the drained
            and undrained sections of the marsh, and they represent three
            consecutive years of sampling during the months of April-
            December.
      Vegetation
        zones
 Feet above mean
sea level (for the
undisturbed marsh)
 Percent reduction of the
 invertebrate populations

    Total     Mollusks and
invertebrates crustaceans
Saltmarsh cordgrass
(Spartina alterniflora)

Saltgrass
(Distichlis spicata)

Saltmeadow cordgrass
(Spartina patens)

Saltmarsh bulrush
(Scirpus robustus)
    1.88-2.93


    2.35-2.90


    2.58-3.32


       2.75
    39-82


    64-88


    41-97


    50-97
32-95


82-94


55-100


58-98

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                                   229
construction activity.  This is the type of study which must be available




to provide a firm basis for predicting environmental impacts.




     On a subsiding coast, such as occurs in southern Louisiana, elimination




of the normal freshwater and sediment input upsets the land-water equilibrium,




and the subsiding marsh tends to become an open water area.  This tendency




is intensified by canals which drain the marshes, enhancing compaction, and




which tend to grow wider as a result of marginal subsidence, wave erosion,




and disturbance from boat traffic.  Plant production by marsh grasses of




the Gulf coast is very high, exceeding 10 tons per acre per year (de la Cruz,




1974), and a great deal of additional plant production occurs in the marshes




due to attached algae, mud flat diatoms, and phytoplankton in the shallow




waters.  A large fraction of this organic matter is exported through tidal




creeks to nearby bays and estuaries.  When the marsh becomes an open water




area, however, production is apparently reduced, and instead of exporting




organic matter, the area becomes a nutrient sink.  Birds and mammals no longer




find food and refuge among the marsh grasses, and canals create migrational




barriers to terrestrial and semi-terrestrial animals which utilize the marsh.




Complete shifts in vegetation accompany increased salinity and subsidence.




     Saltwater intrusion increases the salinity of the marshes, eliminating



the broad mixing zone so important as nursery grounds for juvenile fishes,




shrimp, and crabs.   In deeper channels where reducing conditions prevail




large quantities of hydrogen sulfide are produced which are toxic to the




marsh grasses (Smith, 1970) and to the aquatic animals.  Acid conditions of




the canals may also result in release of heavy metals from the sediments.




As a result of habitat loss, decreased food supply, increased salinity, and




increased hydrogen sulfide, populations of aquatic animals are adversely




affected.  Moore and Trent (1971) compared oyster production in natural and

-------
                                   230
canalized marshes.  They found that in the altered marsh the set of young




oysters was reduced by over 90%, juvenile growth was slowed, average length




was reduced by 36%, weight was reduced by 27%, and mortality was increased




by 39%.  As a result of these and other studies, St. Amant (unpublished) has




concluded that lack of freshwater has drastically modified the ecology of




coastal marshes and severely damaged production of valuable oysters, shrimp,




fur animals, and waterfowl.






Estuaries - The nearshore and continental shelf fishery harvest of the United




States annually exceeds 4.3 million pounds valued at $520 million.  Around




90% of the species of commercial importance either pass their entire lives




within the estuary or require the estuary as a nursery ground during the




critical early life history stages.  Reduced freshwater inflow exerts a pro-




found influence on the biological system of the estuary.  As noted earlier,




the physical effects of reduced freshwater inflow include greater intrusion




of saltwater, reduction of low salinity environments, reduction in the extent of




the fresh-saltwater mixing zone, reduction in water level, and exposure of more




dry land.  These factors, in turn, result in six basic detremental effects




upon the biology of the estuary.




     1) Estuaries are nutrient traps, and the mechanisms responsible for




maintaining the high fertility and high productivity of the estuary are asso-




ciated with the mixing process.  Reduction of freshwater input can be ex-




pected to result in a long range reduction in estuarine fertility (Copeland,




1966b).




     2) The estuary is an important nursery area for many of the coastal




species which prefer, utilize, and in many cases, require, low salinity waters.




Important among these are the white shrimp and the blue crab, and to less




extent, the brown shrimp.  Saltwater intrusion greatly restricts the availability

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                                   231
of suitable habitat for these and other species.  Hoese (1967) noted that




during extreme drought years when the salinity of Texas bays rises abnormally,




the white shrimp and blue crab populations are damaged.  Gunter (1974) has




pointed out that very high salinities (hypersaline conditions) are quite




detrimental to the normal estuarine species.




     3) Most of the coastal species spawn in the nearshore areas of the con-




tinental shelf, and the young must make a long migration into the estuaries.




This migration is dependent upon the availability of strong bottom currents.




Odum (1970) has pointed out that limitation of freshwater inflow might ser-




iously interfere with the larval migration.  In similar vein, Copeland (1966b)




has found that the peak inward migration of larval penaeid shrimp coincides




with the high spring flow of rivers, and he suggested that modification of




the normal seasonal flow pattern would seriously interfere with this migra-




tion.




     4) The low salinity condition of an estuary forms a barrier which pre-




vents the entrance of many marine species.  Elevation of estuarine salinity




permits penetration by marine competitors, diseases, parasites, and predators.




Hoese (1967) has shown that during extremely dry years when the salinity




rises in estuaries of the Texas coast, oyster drills (Thais and Urosalpinx)




enter and attack the oyster populations, hard clams become established in




the estuary, and sharks become more abundant.  Similar findings have been




reported by other workers on the Gulf and south Atlantic coasts.




     5) Increasing evidence points to the fact that chemical cues play an




important role in guiding young fishes and invertebrates into the estuaries.




Kristensen (1964) demonstrated that young shrimp and fishes exhibit a pre-




ference for baywater and seawater when offered a choice.  The chemical cues




are presumed to be dissolved organic compounds derived from the estuary or

-------
                                   232
from the river which enters the estuary.  This topic has been explored by




Odum (1970).   Reduction in the input of freshwater could result in a decrease




in the levels of such chemicals which pass from the estuary into the sea,




and this, in turn, could interfere with the efforts of young marine animals




to find their ways into the estuary.




     6) Most of the harvest of estuarine-reared fishes and invertebrates




takes place in the near-shore waters of the continental shelf.  This fishery




depends upon the successful movement of the estuarine animals into the off-




shore waters.  Tabb, et al (1962) reported a year in which the large juvenile




pink shrimp remained in estuaries of the Florida Everglades rather than




moving to the outside waters, as is usually the case.  During that year the




salinities were abnormally high (about 30 parts per thousand).  Such high




salinities result from a combination of low rainfall and inland water diver-




sion projects.




     As a result of such factors, the annual fish and shellfish harvest clearly




reflects estuarine salinity conditions.  This has been demonstrated in a




very dramatic way by Chapman (1966).  Comparing the average annual fishery




harvest with the average annual tributary stream discharge into the estuaries




of the Texas coast, he showed a high correlation between harvest and fresh-




water input  (Figure 5.10a).  He also demonstrated a marked correlation between




harvest and estuarine salinity by comparing the wet and dry year catch




statistics (Figure 5.10b).  Whereas, such data are available only for the




commercially valuable species, the same principles apply to all the estuarine




inhabitants.




     Within  the estuary, circulation patterns are modified by artificial




spoil banks  created by dredging (Odum, 1970).  Long, linear spoil barriers




may block circulation of certain sections of the estuary, permitting establish-




ment of stratified water conditions.  Bottom layers may become anaerobic,

-------
                                   233
               Is?
                  :
               511
      500

      400 :

      100'

       75

       50

       25
                       I

                       2

                       3

                       4

                       5




                      60 !
                        LAGUNA
                        MADRE

                              CORPUS
                              CHRIST I
ARANSAS    MATAGORDA     SABINE

                 GALVESTON"
                             SAN
                           ANTONIO
                          -WEST-
                    -ESTUARINE SYSTEM-
                                                         -EAST-
                •> c
                o a
                > o
                •- a.
                o
                x -s
                     300 r
       200
                      100
             WET YEAR
                  Discharge
                                            DRY  YEAR
                           Harvest

                                           Harvest
                                                 Discharge

                                                        -\ 30
                                           20
                                                          10
                                                o «
Figure 5.10.
Relationship  between commercial fishery harvest and fresh-
water discharge into estuaries of  the  Texas coast.  A.
Comparison  of harvest and tributary  discharge of individual
estuaries  (tributary discharge adjusted for estuarine basin
volume by dividing basin volume by discharge volume).  B.
Comparison  of harvest of all Texas estuaries during a series
of wet years  with harvest during a series of dry years,
period 1956-62).   Modified from Chapman,  1966.

-------
                                   234
rendering them unsuitable as habitat for most estuarine species.  Sedimenta-




tion increases in the dead-water areas, and this ultimately leads to shoaling




which further restricts the estuarine habitat.  Bayfill housing development




also restricts circulation, reduces oxygen levels, and creates an environ-




ment that is unsuitable for most estuarine inhabitants (Taylor and Saloman,




1969) .






           Biological Effects of Suspended Solids and Sediments






             The Nature of Suspended and Sedimented Materials






     Solid materials are placed into the water or redistributed therein by




every type of construction activity which takes place in the riparian or




wetland environments.  In fact, this is probably the most widespread effect




of human activity upon wetland environments, and certainly it is one of the




most devastating.  Unfortunately, it is one of the most difficult to monitor




and to control, since the effects of a given project, although persistent,




are often quite local.




     Suspended solids include both inorganic and organic materials which




vary in size from minute clay particles to material the size of rocks or




larger.  Most of the substances added to the water or resuspended include




a spectrum of particle sizes.  The ability of the water to transport such




materials relates to the submerged density of the material and to the water




velocity and associated turbulence.  Larger and denser particles are dropped




out first, and the finer materials of colloidal size may remain in suspension




almost indefinitely.  Thus, human activity affects the sedimentary regime,




not only through the addition of materials to the water and through digging




in the water bottoms, but also through modification of water flow rates.

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                                   235
     Most of the suspended and sedimented materials are inorganic particles




which are essentially chemically inert.  These include clay, silt, sand,




gravel, rocks, and other substances derived from soil and bedrock.  If the




materials are calcareous in nature, such as limestone, however, they may




play an important role in buffering the water and sediments against major




shifts in pH.  In aggregate, small particles have enormous surface areas,




and they effectively adsorb many types of chemicals which may be dissolved




in the water, removing them from the water column by sedimentation.  Such




chemicals include nutrients, such as phosphorus,and toxic materials such as




pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, and radioactive substances (Lackey,




et al, 1959).




     Organic materials are also added to aquatic environments, and these in-




clude both natural and synthetic substances.  The natural organics represent




a special class of materials since their densities are only slightly greater




than water, making them easily transportable, and also because they are all




biodegradable.  Such materials are concentrated nutrient sources which re-




quire oxygen for decomposition.  Large organic loads, therefore, lead to




local oxygen depletion.  Synthetic organics may be chemically inert, as is




the case with many plastic materials and other organic polymers, or they may




be highly toxic to aquatic life, as in the case of many pesticides, herbicides,




and industrial chemicals.  Whether ultimately degradable or not, most are




highly persistent in the aquatic environment, and most wind up in the sedi-




ments.




     Most estuarine and marine animals and many freshwater algae can remove




dissolved organic materials from very dilute solutions, but freshwater




animals generally cannot (Stephens, 1967; Stephens and Schinske, 1961).




However, since most of the dissolved materials become adsorbed onto particles




and are deposited in the sediments, they become available to the benthic

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                                   236
animals as particulate matter.   Through this means they are consumed and




enter the food chains, even in freshwater.




     In the present discussion the biological effects of suspended and




sedimented solids will be considered under the topics of turbidity, suspended




solids, and sedimentation.  However, these are all related aspects of the




same problem, and the distinction, although useful for analytical purposes,




is somewhat arbitrary.  In real situations all three problems occur simultan-




eously, and in field studies it is often difficult to distinguish which of




the factors is predominant in a given instance.  This entire subject has




been reviewed rather thoroughly by Cordone and Kelley (1961).






                      Biological Effects of Turbidity






     Penetration of light through natural waters is greatly reduced by the




presence of suspended solids, and this reduction is referred to as turbidity.




This factor interferes with biological systems primarily through reduction




in the depth of penetration of sunlight and in reduced visibility.  On the




basis of over 5,000 turbidity observations throughout many sections of the




nation, Ellis (1936) pointed to an alarming decrease in light penetration




in the inland streams.






Reduction of photosynthesis - The growth of suspended and attached vegeta-




tion depends upon the availability of light to support photosynthesis, hence




any decrease in light availability would be expected to interfere with pri-




mary production (Wilson, 1957; Verduin, 1954).  Direct measurements have,




indeed, demonstrated that suspended solids decrease the depth of the photic




zone (Krone, 1963).  Buck (1956) found that phytoplankton production was




12.8 times as great in clear ponds as in very turbid ones.  Lackey, et al




(1959) reported similar results for streams.  King and Ball (1964) showed

-------
                                   237
that a doubling of the inorganic sediment load of a stream (442-948 units)




reduced primary production by the attached algae (aufwuchs) by more than




half (269-124 mg C/m2/day).  Jackson and Starrett (1959) demonstrated




that in a shallow Illinois lake, in the absence of rooted vegetation, tur-




bidity is a direct function of wind disturbance of the bottom sediments,




but that when rooted vegetation is present, the wind effect upon turbidity




is minimized (Figure 5.11).  On the other hand, several investigators have




found that persistently high turbidity limits the development of rooted




vegetation (Hart and Fuller, 1972; Odum, 1963; Steenis, 1947; and Strawn,




1961).




     From these and related studies it is clear that interference with




photosynthesis can destroy phytoplankton, attached algae, and rooted ve-




getation, thus eliminating the food base of aquatic ecosystems.  Reduction




in the food base leads to a reduction or collapse of the consumer species.




King and Ball (1964) showed that during a period of heavy sediment load




a Michigan stream suffered a 61 percent decrease in primary producers, a




68 percent reduction in the production of attached algae, and a 58 percent




reduction in the energy required by the consumers of the community.  Re-




duction or elimination of submerged vegetation creates a number of problems




in addition to the loss of a primary production source.  Upon death, it




decomposes and creates a locally high oxygen demand which could lead to




anaerobic conditions.  Loss of vegetation removes shelter for a variety




of aquatic animals, exposing them to severe predation (Lackey, et_ al_, 1959;




Giles and Zemora, 1973).  In the long run, it removes an important food




source for many aquatic species (Strawn, 1961).  Vegetation beds protect




bottom areas from erosion and they induce sedimentation.  Removal of ve-




getation beds exposes the bottom to scouring and erosion.  Dexter (1944)

-------
                                238
         700 ^_
         600
         500
         400
        £
        a.
        a.
        Q200
        OQ
        QC
          100
                         SPRING
                          ( no vegetation present)
          Q	SUMMER

            (vegetation present)
                                          o
               --0—-0-*
              i      10     14     18     22

               WIND VELOCITY  fm.p.h.)
                                   26
30
34
Figure 5.11.
Turbidities of Lake Chautauqua, Illinois occurring at
various wind velocities (average maximum one hour pre-
ceeding collection time) in the absence and presence
of rooted vegetation.   (After Jackson and Starrett,
1959).

-------
                                   239
studied the effects of removal of the rooted vegetation from a shallow




marine area in Massachusetts and concluded that removal of the vegetation




resulted in disruption of the entire biotic community.






Decreased visibility - Decreased visibility has been shown to interfere




with normal behavior patterns of some fishes.  Heimstra and Damkot (1969)




compared the behavior of largemouth bass and green sunfish in clear water




with that in two conditions of mild turbidity and found that the experimental




fishes showed a marked reduction in general swimming activity, social domi-




nance patterns were modified, and the fishes frequently engaged in "cough-




ing" and gill-scraping behavior (both mechanisms apparently aid in freeing




the gills of accumulated particulate material.  Cooper (1956) and Smith




(1940) have shown that in natural streams spawning  salmon  avoid turbid




water and crowd into the limited clear-water areas to such an extent that




spawning individuals destroy each other's nests.  Bachmann (1959) showed




that even low levels of turbidity (35 ppm) greatly interfere with feeding




by cutthroat trout.  In this experiment, fishes in the clear stream re-




mained active, whereas those in the turbid stream sought cover.  Several




field studies have demonstrated that turbid waters act as a barrier to




migrating salmon (Smith, 1940; Sumner and Smith, 1939).  An indirect




but striking measure of fish activity and feeding in relation to turbidity




was reported by Bennett, .§£31 (1940) who compared the numbers of bass




and bluegills caught in relation to water transparency in an Illinois




lake.  When visibility was low (0.5-2.0 feet) the catch was low (2.04 fish




per man-hour of fishing effort), but when visibility was high (3.5-4.5




feet) the average catch more than tripled (6.53 fish per man-hour).  There




seems little question but what even low levels of turbidity influence




various behavior patterns of fishes, but critical work with higher turbidities

-------
                                   240
which are known to exist are very difficult owing to the impossibility




of observing behavior in very turbid water.






                  Biological Effects of Suspended Solids






     Aside from interference with light penetration and visibility, sus-




pended solids greatly modify the physical and chemical characteristics




of aquatic environments, and both directly and indirectly they exert




stress upon the biological systems.






Temperature effects - Suspended sediments absorb radiant energy from sun-




light and transform this into heat.  Since the sunlight enters from above,




it is the surface waters that are warmed.  In relatively calm water,




warming of the surface layer stabilizes the water column and inhibits




vertical mixing.  Deprived of access to the atmosphere, the bottom waters




develop low oxygen conditions and may become anaerobic.  However, if water




movement is sufficient to prevent thermal stratification, as occurs in




swift streams, the water becomes uniformly heated from top to bottom.




Warm water holds less oxygen than cool water.  Modification of temperature




regime and oxygen content and distribution profoundly effects the biolog-




ical systems.






Oxygen reduction and pH changes - Suspended sediments almost always reduce




the oxygen concentration of natural waters.  This may occur through inhibi-




tion of photosynthesis or through heating and thermal stratification, as




noted above, or it may result from increased oxygen demand.  Many types of




sedimentary particles contain chemically reduced substances such as sul-




fides, especially if they are raised from the bottom sediments (as through




dredging) or if they are derived from mineralized materials of the ground

-------
                                   241
(as from mine spoils).  Such suspended particles have a chemical oxygen




demand (C.O.D.) and may remove appreciable quantities of oxygen from the




water.




     Most suspended particles become coated with bacteria and other




microorganisms which decompose organic matter and create a biological




oxygen demand (B.O.D.).  Since organic matter is everywhere present in




aquatic systems, the biological oxygen demand is inevitable.  If the level




of organic matter is high, then anaerobic conditions may result.  Biolog-




ical oxidation, in turn, leads to increased levels of carbon dioxide, and




this results in decreased pH.  Thus, if the suspended sediments are not




calcareous and cannot buffer the water, increased acidity results.






Effects on primary production - Particles in suspension affect primary




production in several ways.  By reducing light penetration they inhibit




photosynthesis.  By adsorption they remove critical nutrients (especially




phosphate) from solution.  However, laboratory studies by Lackey, et al




(1959) have demonstrated that fine particulate matter can also very ef-




ficiently remove certain types of phytoplankton organisms from suspension.




Muck, sand, and clay were found to be effective, the latter being capable




of removing over 99 percent of the algae within 20 minutes.  Algae ap-




parently adhere to the particulate matter and are precipitated to the




bottom.  Williams (1966) has shown that suspended solids may also reduce




zooplankton populations.






Effects on respiration - Most aquatic animals require free oxygen for




respiration, and they are very sensitive to oxygen reduction below criti-




cal minimum levels.  Gradual reduction in oxygen levels by any of the pre-




viously discussed methods would selectively eliminate species in sequence,

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                                  242
based upon levels of minimum oxygen tolerance.  Complete removal of the




oxygen would destroy all but the anaerobic species.  Oxygen depletion in




the lower layer of the water would eliminate most of the species of the




bottom fauna.  Wallen (1951) and others have shown that extremely high




levels of suspended materials can suffocate fishes by clogging the gill




filaments and filling the opercular cavity.  Sharp and angular stony




materials, which result from mining and quarrying activities, are abrasive




to soft tissues and can directly damage the delicate gill filaments (Kemp,




1949), reducing the effective respiratory surface, lowering respiratory




efficiency, and leading to microbial infection (Ellis, 1944).  Gill-




clogging and tissue damage undoubtedly affect mollusks and other inverte-




brates, as well.






Other effects of suspended sediments - Suspended sediments interfere with




feeding and nutrition of aquatic animals.  Reduction in primary production




and destruction of benthic animals may seriously interfere with the food




supply.  Many aquatic animals feed by straining and filtration of organic




particles from the water.  High levels of suspended sediments can clog




such mechanisms and lead to starvation.  Decreased visibility can reduce




an aquatic animal's efficiency in locating food.  Silt particles are known




to be very effective in removing organic compounds from solution, and they




may play a role in reducing feeding efficiency by removing the chemical




odors important in guiding aquatic animals to the appropriate food sources.




     Suspended solids are known to interfere with upstream migration and




spawning in some species.  Farley (1966) and Radtke and Turner (1967) demon-




strated that upstream migration of prereproductive striped bass was greater




when the suspended solids were low and that 350 ppm (parts per million)

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                                   243
is the critical level that blocks the migration.  An even lower concen-




tration of suspended solids was required for spawning, and very few bass




eggs were found at concentrations above 150 ppm.




     Aquatic animals already under stress from starvation, are subject




to greater predation than those in healthy condition.  Hertig and Witt




(1967) demonstrated that, under conditions of physical impairment, prey




species (young bass, bluegill, and green sunfish) showed reduced avoidance




reaction, more sluggish swimming behavior, and more rapid exhaustion when




under attack by predators.




     Suspended solids may tax an animal's metabolism and energy resources,




even though they do not directly induce mortality.  Loosanoff and Tommers




(1948) found that pumping rates of adult oysters were reduced by 57 percent




when they were subjected to silt loads of 100 ppm and by 94 percent when




exposed to loads of 3-4,000 ppm.  Pumping provides for respiration and




nutrition, and prolonged reduction in pumping could be expected to induce




metabolic stress.  Decreased oyster growth in areas of high suspended




solids has been reported by Wilson (1950).




     From the above discussion it is clear that suspended solids affect




aquatic populations in many ways.  One of the clearest demonstrations of




the overall effect of suspended matter on phytoplankton and fish produc-




tion has been provided by Buck (1956).  Clear ponds (less than 25 mg/1




of suspended solids) produced 12.8 times as much phytoplankton and 5.5




times as much fish weight as the very turbid ponds (more than 100 mg/1




of suspended solids).  A somewhat related study was reported by Tsai (1973)




who found a strong negative correlation between persistent turbidity, due




to organic solids, and fish species diversity in a stream.  Thus, both




the quality and the quantity of suspended matter must be taken into account

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                                   244







in considering the effects of suspended solids on aquatic life.






                    Biological Effects  of Sedimentation






     A very large technical literature  exists on the subject of  the bio-




logical effects of sedimentation on aquatic organisms.   Much of  this




literature has been reviewed by Cordone and Kelley (1961), and only the




more significant references will be included here.  Accumulated  knowledge




overwhelmingly demonstrates the adverse effects of sedimentation on aquatic




biological systems.  These effects are  mediated through scouring away of




surface organisms, smothering with a blanket of sediments, reducing habi-




tat diversity and desireability through bottom filling, and modification




of the nature of the bottom substrate through addition or redistribution




of sedimentary materials(Wilson, 1957).






Effect of sedimentation on primary production - Gordone and Pennoyer (1960)




found that abundant algal pads were virtually destroyed by sediment dis-




charged into the Truckee River of California.  Presumably, much of this




was due to scouring, although smothering may also have been involved.




Phinney (1959) concluded that sedimentation reduces the photosynthetic




rate of aquatic vegetation by acting as a physical barrier to free exchange




of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) necessary for their survival.  King




and Ball (1964) determined that doubling of the sedimentation rate decreased




production of the attached algae (aufwuchs) by 70 percent.  Thus, primary




production is inhibited not only by turbidity and the effects of suspended




solids, but also by scouring and smothering.






Effect of sedimentation on bottom animals - Stream animals are adapted to




maintain their positions against normally occurring flow regimes.  Excessive

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                                   245
flow combined with abrasive suspended particles may scour the rocks clean




of insects, crustaceans and other stream dwellers.  More important than




the scouring effect, however, is the blanketing of the bottom with a




heavy layer of sterile inorganic sediments.  For example, Ellis (1931a)




pointed out that in the upper Mississippi River bottom siltation is




overwhelming the bottom fauna faster than it is able to adjust itself,




with the result that many species are being eliminated or greatly reduced




in numbers.  This effect applies both to the riffle and pool areas of up-




stream habitats and to the downstream continuous flow section.  Hynes




(1974) has found that riffle animals may be present as deep as 50 cm (20




inches) below the surface.  Their existence depends upon water circulation




through the interstices between the rocks and gravels which make up the




physical structure of the riffle.  This circulating water brings in ade-




quate oxygen for respiration, and it removes carbon dioxide and metabolic




wastes so that they do not accumulate in poisonous concentrations.  Heavy




sedimentation fills the interstices and reduces the water flow.  The riffle




animals then die due to suffocation or poisoning by metabolic wastes and




unoxidized by-products of bacterial activity (nitrogenous products, carbon




dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, organic acids, etc.).  In pools and continuous




flow sections silt may cover insect and mussel populations faster than




they can respond.  Ellis (1931b), for example, pointed out that in the




Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennessee Rivers erosional silt is destroying the




mussel populations.  Sumner and Smith (1939) found that production of bottom




animals in silted areas is only about half that in unsilted areas.  Casey




(1959) showed that stream dredging silted over the bottom for about one-




fourth of a mile downstream and within that area the bottom was almost




completely devoid of aquatic animals.  One mile downstream the benthic

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                                   246
animals were still reduced by over 50 percent.   Cordone and Pennoyer (1960)




reported that a gravel washing plant reduced the bottom animals immediately




downstream by 90 percent and that ten miles downstream the reduction was




still 75 percent.  Starrett (1971) stated that  of the original 49 known




native species of mussels of the Illinois River 25 species have disappeared,




and many of the surviving species are now quite limited in distribution.




He concluded that siltation is one of the major factors responsible for




this loss.  Within Chesapeake Bay, Cronin, at al (1970) found that spoil




from a dredging site covered an area at least five times as large as the




defined spoil site and that within the blanketed area there was a 71 per-




cent reduction in number and 64 percent reduction in biomass (weight) of




the bottom animals.  There was also a marked reduction in the number of




species present.  From these and many other similar studies Cordone and




Kelley concluded that there is overwhelming evidence that the deposition




of sediment can and often has destroyed large quantities of bottom fauna




including especially insect and mollusk populations.






Effect of sedimentation on fish populations - Sedimentation adversely




affects fish populations in three ways:  it reduces or eliminates the




food supply, it destroys fish habitat, and it adversely affects reproduction




by elimination of spawning areas or smothering the eggs and larvae after




spawning has been completed.




     Destruction of the bottom invertebrate populations (as discussed above)




eliminates the chief food supply of most fish species.  Cooper (1953) and




others have found a high correlation between availability of food organisms




and growth in fishes.  Leonard (1948) referring to the fishes in Michigan,




pointed out that, "the food supply is, more frequently than any other,  the




limiting factor in our waters."

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                                   247
     Suitable habitat is also important.  A close correlation has been




found between the number and depth of pool areas and the number of large




fishes present in a stream.  Saunders and Smith (1965) have shown that




heavy sedimentation may cover riffles, fill pools, and fill undercuts




along banks.  As a result, many fishes move downstream seeking better




habitat, in some cases leaving behind a much reduced population.  Sumner




and Smith concluded that, "shelter is just as important as food."




     Many fish species, especially the salmonids, spawn in riffles and




gravelly areas characterized by high permeability and flow of the inter-




gravel waters.  Because of the high recreational and commercial interest




in trout and salmon, a great deal of attention has been given to the effects




of sedimentation on the success of spawning and survival of eggs and




young.  Gangmark and Bakkala (1960) have shown that siltation of gravel




beds can severely restrict or eliminate suitable spawning grounds for such




fishes.  They have also demonstrated that mortality of salmon eggs is in-




versely related to inter-gravel  seepage rates and oxygen levels (Table 5.6).




Mortality of the young is clearly due to a variety of factors.  In a silted




riffle the carbon dioxide level builds up, inhibiting the rate of uptake




of oxygen by the eggs and embryos.  This leads to deceleration of the



metabolic rate which, if prolonged, is lethal (Alderdice and Wickett, 1958).




Generally, the critical levels of dissolved oxygen are about 1 ppm for




the early developmental stages and greater than 7 ppm shortly after hatching




(Alderdice, et al, 1958).  Death may also ensue from build-up of metabolic




wastes and organic decomposition products of invertebrates which have perished




in the riffle.  Stagnating sediment-water samples have also been shown to




release heavy metals (iron, manganese, zinc, and others) as soluble organo-




metallic complexes (Schindler, e£ aiL, 1972).  McNeil, et_ al_ (1964) have

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                                  248
Table 5.6.  Mortality of king salmon eggs in relation to velocity of
            inter-gravel seepage flow (A) and inter-gravel dissolved
            oxygen level (B).  (After Gangmark and Bakkala, 1960).
A.  Mortality as a function of flow velocity.
      Velocity of seepage water                 Average mortality
               (ft/hr)                                  (%)

                  <0.5                                 40.0
               0.5-0.9                                 33.1
               1.0-1.4                                 24.0
               1.5-1.9                                 10.1
               2.0-2.4                                 12.9
               2.5-2.9                                 13.0
               3.0-3.4                                 10.8
               3.5-3.9                                  5.3
               4.0-4.4                                  2.9
               4.5-4.9                                  3.8
              >5.0                                      5.8
B.  Mortality as a function of dissolved oxygen.
          Dissolved oxygen                       Average mortality
                (ppm)                                   (%)

                   <5.0                                37.8
               5.0- 6.9                                13.6
               7.0- 8.9                                12.2
               9.0-10.9                                 9.6
              11.0-12.9                                10.8
             >13.0                                      3.9

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                                  249






shown that riffles contaminated by decomposing salmon eggs may remain




toxic for over a year.  These results, based largely upon salmon and




trout, undoubtedly apply to many other fish species, as well.






               Biological Importance of Bottom Sediment Type






     Plants and animals are found where they are because of favorable




habitat conditions, and within the aquatic environment the composition




of the substratum is of paramount importance to many species.  Modifica-




tion of the substratum inevitably spells success for some and failure for




others with a resulting change in the complexity and productivity of the




entire biological system.




     Attached aquatic algae generally require hard substrate for anchorage.




They flourish on rocks and stones of riffles and on sticks and brush, but




they are generally absent from soft bottoms.  Rooted vegetation, on the




other hand, requires soft substratum and tends to be associated with pools




and other quiet water areas.




     The riffle fauna is specifically adapted to a habitat composed of




stone, rock, and gravel, with ample inter-particle space for the circula-




tion of water, gases, and dissolved chemicals.  Even within pools and other




soft-bottom areas, however, the grain size of bottom sediments has been




shown to be of utmost importance in determining the distribution of mi-




croscopic bottom animals (Sanders, 1958; Wieser, 1959; and others), mollusks




(Harman, 1972) , and other invertebrates (Pennak and Van Gerpen,  1947).




     Smith and Moyle (1944) have discussed the significance of bottom type




in the production of aquatic invertebrates of importance as fish food.




     "The most important single factor affecting the bottom fauna pro-




duction of streams is the physical nature of the bottom.  Rubble is the

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                                   250
most productive type.  Such a bottom is fairly stable, has an abundance




of small interstices to provide shelter for bottom organisms, and presents




a large surface for the growth of microscopic plants that are the basic




food of most smaller aquatic animals.   Food production decreases as the




particles become larger or smaller than rubble size and is poorest on




bedrock and fine sand . . .  Muck, being an organic soil, tends to be more




fertile than fine-grained inorganic soils and may in some instances ex-




ceed the production on rubble."




     Tarzwell (1937) , on the basis of a large series of bottom samples




from Michigan trout streams, rated the bottom types in terms of relative




production of bottom animals (Table 5.7).  Sandy bottoms were found to




produce the fewest organisms.  Giving sand a productivity rating of 1,




the relative productivity of the other bottom types was found to range




up to 53.  However, when vegetation was also included, the productivity




values ranged up to 452.




     Habitat diversity is accompanied by biological complexity, but habitat




simplification leads to biological monotony.  This phenomenon is amply




demonstrated by the data of Tarzwell (ibid.) for bottom invertebrates,




in general, and Harman (1972) has provided striking evidence of the cor-




relation between habitat diversity and mollusk species diversity (Figure 5.12)




     Langlois (1941) concluded that simplification of the bottom habitat




also leads to a reduction in the variety of fish species present in an




area.  The problem is further complicated by the fact that the surviving




species are generally of less desireable types—"biological weeds."  For




example, Trautman (1957), referring to human influences on the fish popu-




lations of the state of Ohio, concluded:




     "These drastic modifications have considerably modified the fish fauna,

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                                  251
Table 5.7.  Relative productivity of various substrate types in Michigan
            trout streams.  Productivity represents standing crops in
            terms of number of organisms present.  All data are expressed
            in relation to the number found in sand.  (After Tarzwell,
            1937).
         Substrate type                         Relative rating

       sand                                            1

       marl                                            6

       fine gravel                                     9

       sand and silt                                  10.5

       gravel and sand                                12

       sand, silt, and debris                         13

       gravel and silt                                14

       rubble                                         29

       coarse gravel                                  32

       mucky areas                                    35

       medium gravel                                  36

       gravel and rubble                              53

       sand and gravel with plants                    67

       muck, sand, and plants                         67

       moss on fine gravel                            89

       moss on coarse gravel                         111

       moss on gravel and rubble                     140

       vegetation beds                             159-452

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                                 252
              O1-4

18

16


14

12

10

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                  24         6        8        10
           NUMBER  OF SUBSTRATE  TYPES IN  HABITAT
12
Figure 5.12.   Relationship of substrate diversity  and mollusk
              species diversity based upon samples from 348 collec-
              tion  sites in central New York state (After Harmon, 1972),

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                                   253






changing it from a species complex, dominated by fishes requiring clear




and/or vegetated waters to one dominated by those species tolerant of much




turbidity of water and of bottoms composed of clayey silts.  There has




been a shift from large fishes of great food value to smaller species un-




fit as human food, or larger fishes of inferior quality as human food."




     Unfortunately, the same general types of conclusions can be applied




to streams throughout the United States.  Siltation is destroying the




most productive habitat types, especially the riffle, gravel, and rubble




types, which are everywhere being interred under a blanket of inorganic




silt.  Habitat for smallmouth bass, trout, and salmon is giving way to




habitat for carp, suckers, and drumfish.  Cordone and Kelley (1961)




summarized the problem as follows:




     "Fisheries resources dependent upon the maintenance of natural condi-




tions are threatened with significant damage—if not complete destruction—




by the construction of dams, by pollution, and by erosion 	  Erosion




is probably the most insidious of the three, for it is often unspectacular




and goes unnoticed from one year to the next.  The damage is widespread




and permanent."






         Biological Effects of Other Physical and Chemical Factors






     A great deal of published information has recently become available




concerning water quality and water pollution, and much of this informa-




tion is in the nature of summary and synthesis of existing knowledge.  One




of the most recent and authoritative sources is the book, "Water Quality




Criteria, 1972" (prepared for the National Academy of Sciences by the Com-




mittee on Water Quality Criteria).  Since it would be pointless to duplicate




the effort which has gone into such studies, the present section will




build upon the information provided in the Water Quality Criteria book

-------
                                  254
(mentioned above)  and interpret this information within the context of




the construction activity problem.






                     Biological Effects of Temperature






     Temperature exerts a controlling influence on the lives of aquatic




organisms.  All have upper and lower thermal tolerance limits, optimum




temperatures for growth, preferred  temperatures in thermal gradients,




and temperature limitations for migration, spawning, and egg incubation.




All of these factors vary in relation to life history stage, season of




the year, and immediate prehistory of the organism.  Temperature response




is also dependent upon the rate of change of the thermal regime.  In




addition, temperature affects the response of organisms to other environ-




mental factors.




     Temperature affects the aquatic environment in many ways.  It influences




the density of the water and may be largely responsible for the establish-




ment of stratification which inhibits mixing.  It determines the presence




or absence of an ice cover, and it determines the oxygen carrying capacity




of the water.  Both through its direct affects on the organisms and through




the indirect effects of environmental modification, temperature determines,




in large measure, the composition of aquatic communities.




     Construction activities affect the temperature of aquatic systems in




several ways.  Removal of floodplain vegetation eliminates shading and




leads to temperature elevation in streams  (Gray and Edington, 1969).




Turbidity, which results from a variety of types of construction activity,




also leads to temperature elevation.  Replacement of riparian vegetation




with roadways and other hard surfaces causes depressed stream levels and




reduced flow rates during dry weather and  to rapid run-off and quick

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                                   255
elevation of stream flow following rains.  These factors are accompanied




by sudden and extreme fluctuation in stream temperatures.  Chapman (1962)




reviewed the effects of logging activities on west coast streams, and his




discussion of the effects of removal of the riparian vegetation are quite




revealing.




     "Summer stream temperature regimes following logging depend largely




upon what happens to riparian vegetation during logging.  Streams shaded




by vegetation tend to be cooler than their more open counterparts (Cormack,




1949; Green, 1950).  Scattered checks of similar logged and unlogged




drainages in Oregon's Alsea River basin have shown temperatures to be as




much as ten degrees greater in logged areas where riparian vegetation was




completely removed.  Winter temperature minima can be expected to be lower




in exposed streams than is the case in well-covered ones (Green, 1950)."




     "Stream temperatures may rise following logging to levels at which




high mortality of salmonids will occur.  A less obvious effect is the possi-




ble increase in parasitism and disease in warmer water (Davis, 1953).




Certain "coarse" fishes may move into salmonid habitat if stream tempera-




tures rise."




     "Decreases in winter stream temperature minima following any removal




of streamside vegetation would be harmful to incubating embryos in certain




circumstances.  Lower winter temperatures would extend considerably the




incubation period for all fall or winter-spawning fish, and this category




includes most of the salmonids likely to be in streams of the Pacific




Coast.  The longer embryos remain in the gravel, the more probable is the




occurrence of severe floods and unfavorable intragravel water conditions.




Extension of fry emergence beyond normal could increase losses to preda-




tors and decrease growth increment in the first year of life."

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                                  256
     Dams greatly influence the temperature of the downstream water, and




this effect may persist for many miles.   Continuous and steady release




from a given reservoir level may stabilize the stream temperature and




dampen normal daily or seasonal temperature variation patterns.  Upper




level release tends to elevate the stream temperature, whereas lower




level release depresses the temperature.   Neel (1963) pointed out   that




reservoirs delay temperature rise in the spring and decline in the autumn,




since more time is required for their relatively great volumes of water




to approach air temperatures.  They also postpone ice formation and spring




breakup.  Such deviations from the normal stream temperature patterns




are reflected in the biological makeup of the stream communities.




Lehmkuhl (1972) found that the kinds and numbers of aquatic insects was




greatly reduced below a dam, and he attributed this to the altered ther-




mal patterns.  This effect was still evident 70 miles downstream.  In some




instances cold-water fauna has replaced warm-water fauna in the tailwaters




of dams where hypolimnic release occurs during the summer months (Neel, 1963)




     The effects of temperature on aquatic plants and animals has been




thoroughly considered by various authors in the book edited by Krenkel




and Parker (1969).  A few of the more important effects are mentioned




here.  Insect stream drift increases with a rise in temperature (Waters,




1968).  Survival of aquatic crustaceans decreases as the temperature ap-




proaches the thermally lethal value (Hair, 1971).  Oysters are better able




to survive low salinity conditions if the temperature also is low (Butler,




1952) , and under conditions of osmotic stress the upper lethal temperature




of the ribbed mussel is depressed (Waugh and Garside, 1971).  At low tem-




peratures fishes consume a smaller quantity of food and a smaller range of




prey than at higher temperatures (Keast, 1968).  At low temperatures the

-------
                                  257
rate of food digestion is retarded (Brett and Higgs, 1970; Molnar and Tolg, 1962),




and the rate of growth is slowed (Coble, 1967).  On the other hand, heat




stressed fishes are more vulnerable to predation (Sylvester, 1972; 1973),




more susceptible to disease (Plumb, 1973), and less tolerant of certain




forms of pollution such as zinc (Burton, et_ ai_ 1972).  Tolerance for low




oxygen (Moss and Scott, 1961)  and nitrogen supersaturation (Ebel, et al




1971) is reduced at higher temperatures.  Water temperature controls and




may delay salmon migrations (Major and Mitchell, 1966), and temperature




plays a major role in the survival of fish eggs (Bailey and Evans, 1971)




and in the rate of embryonic development (Garside, 1966).  There can be




no doubt that modification of the normal temperature level, seasonal




pattern, or rate of change induces widespread and profound changes in the




biological composition of aquatic systems.







              Biological Effects of pH and Associated Factors






     The factor pH is an indication of hydrogen ion activity.  pH values




below 7.0 indicate acid and those above 7.0 indicate alkaline conditions.




In natural waters low pH values may be due to the accumulation of free




carbon dioxide (which combines with water to form carbonic acid) or to




organic acids (especially humic and fulvic acids) which may be leached




from highly organic soils of bogs, swamps, and marshes.  The organic




acids are derived from partial decomposition of organic matter, especially




in anaerobic environments.  Naturally occuring high pH values are asso-




ciated with areas rich in alkaline minerals (calcium, magnesium, potassium,




and sodium).  Certain groups of salts act as natural buffering systems




which tend to maintain rather stable pH values in natural waters.  In




freshwater the carbonate system is the primary buffer, but in marine




water  phosphates, sulfates, and other groups are also important.

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                                   258
     Construction activities may modify the pH of wetlands in several




ways.  Any significant rise in turbidity is likely to be accompanied




by an increase in carbon dioxide with a reduction in pH.  Release of




hypolimnic bottom water  from dams may lower the pH of the downstream




waters.  Dredging operations which disturb the anaerobic layers of stream,




estuary, and lake bottoms tend to lower the pH of the overlying waters.




Creation of conditions of poor circulation or organic enrichment will




also lead to accumulation of carbon dioxide and reduction in pH.  Crea-




tion of canals in high organic environments such as marshes and swamps




permits leaching of organic acids into natural waters with consequent




lowering of the pH.  Spoil banks created from such high organic material




are inevitably acid.  As discussed in some detail earlier, mining wastes




leach out large quantities of sulfuric acid which lower the pH of wetland




environments often well below the tolerance limits of all forms of life.




     Many of the natural waters of the nation are rich in alkaline metals




and, therefore, they are buffered against severe reduction in pH which




might be occasioned by moderate disturbance.  This is especially true




where there are ample limestone and dolomite formations and where the soils




are rich in lime compounds.  These are so-called "hard water" areas.  "Soft




waters" have poor buffering capacities and often exhibit naturally low pH




values.  Even minor additions of acidic materials may have significant




biological effects in such waters.  These are encountered especially where




streams drain coniferous forests and bogs and in the swampy and marshy areas




of the south Atlantic and Gulf states.




     The most significant construction-related activity affecting pH of




the nation's waters is mining.  As discussed earlier5spoil piles and mine




tailings are generally rich in sulfides which, as a result of oxidation and

-------
                                   259
hydrolysis, yield sulfuric acid in quantity.  The volume is frequently suf-




ficient to overcome the natural buffer system and lower the pH well below




the tolerance levels of all species.  The significance of such acid mining




wastes has been discussed by Spaulding and Ogden (1968).




     "Thousands of miles of streams and many reservoirs have been polluted




with sulphuric acid and will not sustain fish life (Kinney, 1964).  In many




areas this is not a permanent condition but a periodic thing; fish move




into the area and survive for a few months only to be wiped out by the first




runoff that brings an acid discharge.  Acids change the water quality of




streams into which they are discharged, affecting the fish and wildlife in




several ways.  The acids may be in such concentrations as to be lethal; they




may be harmful because of anions of high toxicity or marked toxic properties




as dissociated molecules; and they may bring about changes in the fishes'




condition and rate of growth.  Acids also suppress or prevent reproduction




of desirable sport fishes."




     "All aquatic organisms have a pH tolerance range, and in some fish this




is exceedingly narrow.  For good sport fish production, it is essential to




control pH values between 5.6 and 8.5 most of the time (Stroud, 1967).  Al-




though fish can exist for short periods at slightly above and below this




range, pH readings lower than 6.0 are considered unfavorable for sport fishes,




The pH was recorded for each of the 448 streams examined in the random




sampling:  49 percent were below 6.0, and 16 percent were below 4.5.  Of




the 290 ponds  sampled, 46 percent had a pH below 6.0, and 20 percent were




below 4.5.  Forty-five percent of the streams and 53 percent of the ponds




had no fish.  Twenty percent of both the streams and the ponds had no visi-




ble aquatic life."




     "	 One of the worst fish kills in 1966 occurred after heavy rains




on the Allegheny River watershed in August.  Mine acid deposits were washed

-------
                                  260
into the river, causing the death of 1 million fish near Sharpsburg, Pa."




     "	 Coal mines abandoned 50 years ago in Appalachia still contribute




acid, silt, and sediment to downstream areas.  Toxic spoil which will not




support vegetation was evident in every Appalachian State visited.  The




leaching of acid from pyrite, marcasite, and other sulphur-bearing strata




is not a. rapid process even in areas having in excess of 50 inches of preci-




pitation annually.  Estimates of the time required to leach exposed acidic




materials in Appalachia range from 800 to 3,000 years."




     The pH tolerance of freshwater organisms varies from one species to




another (Wiebe, et_ ^_, 1934), but the greatest diversity and the highest




productivity occur within the range 5.6-8.5.  Most freshwater forms have




a fairly broad range of tolerance, but marine organisms are not adapted to




broad shifts in pH (Tarzwell, 1966), since seawater is highly buffered and




seldom shifts very much from about 8.0.  pH values influence tolerance of




aquatic organisms to low oxygen and other stressful conditions.  Of especial




importance is the fact that low pH values increase the solubility of some




heavy metals and also increase the toxicity of such metals to aquatic or-




ganisms (Tarzwell, 1966).  Low pH is often accompanied by high sulfide levels,




and the combination is especially toxic.




     High pH values are rather rare in natural waters, and they seldom re-




sult from construction activities.  However, Gushing and Olson (1963) demon-




strated rather clearly that burning of streamside vegetation added so much




alkaline ash to the water that the pH rose sharply from 7.8 to 11.1-11.3.




The level of potassium tripled, that of calcium and magnesium doubled, and




sodium rose slightly.  Water samples proved highly toxic to fishes, but when




they were neutralized with hydrochloric acid, no mortalities resulted.




     Except in the case of some industrial effluents and possibly mining




spoils, pH is seldom a major problem of itself.  Rather, modifications in pH

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                                   261
are often accompanied by other stressful factors  (low oxygen, high carbon




dioxide, high hydrogen sulfide, increased levels  of heavy metals, etc.).




It is the combination of pH with these other factors that causes most of




the biological damage.






               Biological Effects of Oxygen and Related Factors






     Oxygen is required for respiration by most aquatic organisms, and in-




deed water quality is often expressed primarily in terms of the dissolved




oxygen content.  The temperature of the water determines how much oxygen




a given volume of water can hold at saturation.  Colder water holds more




gas than warmer water, and any factor which elevates the temperature re-




duces the quantity of oxygen which can be held in solution.




     For a given temperature, the quantity of oxygen in a body of water de-




pends upon the rate at which it is introduced, the effectiveness of in-




ternal circulation for oxygen transport, and the rate at which it is utilized.




Oxygen is introduced through atmospheric exchange and photosynthesis.  At-




mospheric exchange takes place across the surface interface, and this ex-




change may be increased through surface disturbance, such as ripple and




wave action, and through rapid and turbulent flow of the water, as In fast




streams.  Riffle areas create disorganized flow patterns, waves, and




splashes which greatly facilitate aeration of stream water.   Any factors




which reduce the surface area, interfere with surface gas exchange, retard




current flow, or decrease turbulence would be expected to reduce the quantity




of oxygen in the water.




     Through photosynthesis, green plants produce large quantities of oxygen.




Beds of rooted vegetation are very effective, as are the growths of filament-




ous algae which carpet rocks and stones of stream bottoms and the suspended

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                                   262






phytoplankton of lakes, ponds,  and estuaries.   Any factors which decrease




photosynthesis will reduce the  quantity of oxygen being produced within a




body of water.




     Oxygen is utilized in the  aquatic environment by all organisms which




carry on aerobic respiration.  This means that oxygen demand relates, in




large measure, to the level of  respiring plants and animals.  Normally res-




piration is held in check by the amount of readily oxidizable organic matter




present, but when the organic load is increased, as through the introduction




of sewage or other organic wastes, the bacterial population will rapidly in-




crease and elevate the oxygen demand.  A rise in temperature will increase




metabolic rates and hence oxygen demands of aquatic organisms.  Any chemicals




in the reduced state, such as sulfides, which enter the water also create a




chemical oxygen demand.




     For the most part, oxygen enters the water through the upper layers, and




the oxygen demand is often greatest either at or near the bottom.  For




these reasons, internal circulation is of vital importance in maintaining




healthy aquatic systems.  Any factors which interfere with vertical or hori-




zontal circulation patterns may be expected to lead to reduced oxygen or




anaerobic conditions in at least part of the system.  Oxygenation within the




estuary is a partial exception to the above rule.  Salt water enters the




estuary as a wedge of cool bottom water which may contain a higher level of




dissolved oxygen than the surface water.  However, in the absence of active




circulation oxygen may become depleted within the bottom salt water, leading




to stagnant conditions there.




     From the above considerations it is clear that every type of construc-




tion activity will effect the oxygen levels of aquatic environments, because




anything that retards flow rate,  increases turbidity, elevates temperature,

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                                    263
increases organic load, adds reduced chemicals, or reduces internal circula-




tion will decrease the level of dissolved oxygen.  Primary modes whereby




construction reduces the levels of dissolved oxygen are presented in Table




5.8.




     Most of our information on the effect of reduced oxygen derives from re-




search on fishes.  This literature has recently been reviewed by Doudoroff




and Shumway (1970) and summarized in the book, "Water Quality Criteria, 1972."




These authors point out that the eggs and early developmental stages tend to




be the most sensitive to low oxygen conditions and that sensitivity varies




from one species to another.  Nevertheless, very low oxygen levels (below




4.0 mg/1) are generally unfavorable for most fish species.  Considerably




less attention has been given to the oxygen requirements of aquatic inverte-




brates, but Nebeker (1972) has recently addressed this problem.  He found that




aquatic insects which respire with gills or through cuticular exchange generally




respond to low oxygen conditions much the same as fishes, i-£., there is con-




siderable variability in the sensitivity of different species, most of the




important species require fairly high concentrations, and some life history




stages are more sensitive than others.  For example, some insects could sur-




vive under oxygen tensions too low to permit emergence.  Considerable evidence




is now available to show that aquatic animals under stress of low oxygen are




less able to cope with additional stress conditions such as high temperature,




low pH, and chemical pollution.






                    Biological Effects of Carbon Dioxide






     Carbon dioxide enters aquatic systems through gaseous exchange with the




atmosphere and through the respiration of aquatic organisms, especially the




microorganisms.  In healthy aquatic environments the carbon dioxide level

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                                       264
Table  5.8.  Primary modes whereby major types  of construction activities

             reduce the levels of dissolved oxygen in wetland environments,
                 Modes  of

                  effect
      Type of

    construction

      activity
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Floodplain construction


Mining activities


Dam construction

   - upstream


   - immediately downstream


   - far downstream


Dredging and spoil

   placement
                      X
x
X
         X
                      X
                  X
                                        X
             X

-------
                                    265
seldom exceeds 5 mg/1, but much higher values occur in waters polluted with




organic wastes.  Carbon dioxide influences aquatic organisms in three pri-




mary ways.  It is an important component of the alkaline buffer system of




natural waters, it may interfere with respiration and behavior, and it acts




synergistically with other environmental factors.to create stress situations.




     The buffer system of most natural waters involves the reversible trans-




formation of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid to bicarbonate to carbonate, as




illustrated below.




               C02 %    ^  H2C03       ^ HC03~        •*» C03=




Free carbon dioxide and carbonate cannot coexist, since they would neutra-




lize each other to form bicarbonate.  At high pH values  carbonate is pre-




sent, but under acid conditions free carbon dioxide is liberated.  Labora-




tory studies have demonstrated that very high levels of free carbon dioxide




inhibit fish respiration, but such levels are seldom present in natural




waters.  However, it appears likely that sulfuric acid from mine spoils would




shift the carbonate equilibrium to the left temporarily liberating very large




amounts of free carbon dioxide.  The possibility of more subtle effects of




carbon dioxide change within the normal range cannot be ignored.  For ex-




ample, Sherer (1971) found that even slight shifts in carbon dioxide tension




(well within the normal range) could reduce and completely eliminate the




natural light-avoidance reaction of walleyes.




     The toxicity of certain pollutants such as heavy metals and metallo-




cyanide complexes to fishes may increase dramatically as a result of slight




reductions in pH.  Such reductions could be brought about by an increase in




free carbon dioxide.




     Construction activities increase the carbon dioxide concentration of




natural waters by increasing turbidity and sedimentation, lowering the pH,

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                                    266
decreasing the flow rate, and interfering with circulation patterns.  High




levels of turbidity and sedimentation are known to kill vegetation beds.




Upon death, the vegetation decomposes releasing carbon dioxide.  Sedimentary




particles provide surfaces for attachment of bacteria which produce carbon




dioxide.  In the absence of photosynthetic vegetation the carbon dioxide




level builds up.  Sediments inhibit free circulation in riffles leading to




build-up of carbon dioxide, inhibition of respiration, and death of fish




eggs and larvae, as well as insects and crustacean inhabitants of the riffles.




      Reduction in pH, as discussed above, also releases large quantities of




free carbon dioxide.  Reduction of minimal flow rates in streams leads to




stagnation of the pool areas.  Stream aeration, which normally results from




turbulent flow, is reduced, and the carbon dioxide, liberated by decomposing




organic matter and respiration of the aquatic plants and animals, builds up.




Stagnation also results when free circulation of estuaries is inhibited, and




when poor circulation occurs in marshland canals and in coastal areas where




free water movement is inhibited by bulkheads and other structures.






                    Biological Effects of Hydrogen Sulfide






     Hydrogen sulfide is a deadly gas which  is highly soluble in water.  Under




natural  conditions it results from the anaerobic decomposition of organic




matter,  and it  is a normal component of the  interstitial water of submerged




soils.   Under conditions of low oxygen and poor circulation it may  pass




through  the mud/water interface and saturate the bottom waters creating a




very inhospitable environment for most forms of life.




     Hydrogen sulfide also develops when  soluble sulfides enter the water




under  conditions of low  pH and when sulfates are introduced into reducing




environments  (as when seawater penetrates canals through coastal marshlands).

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                                  267






     Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that hydrogen sulfide at




very low concentrations is very toxic to certain benthic invertebrates




(Smith, 1971) and to fish eggs, fry, and juveniles.  It is also toxic to




larger fishes at slightly higher concentrations.  Adelman and Smith (1970)




found that low concentrations of hydrogen sulfide decreased growth rates




and induced anatomical malformations in northern pike fry.  Oseid and




Smith (1972) determined that young of the year bluegills suffered decreased




endurance and reduced growth rates when subjected to hydrogen sulfide.




Bonn and Follis (1947) showed that young catfish are more sensitive than




adults.  Experiments to date suggest that hydrogen sulfide is more toxic




under conditions of low oxygen (Shelford, 1917), low pH, and high tempera-




ture.  The fact that it enters aquatic systems from the sediments means




that the eggs and young of fishes and many of the important fish food or-




ganisms are apt to be subject to the highest concentrations when stagnant




conditions develop.




     Construction activities increase hydrogen sulfide levels by increasing




sedimentation and burial of organic matter, lowering of the oxygen and the




pH of the water, digging and stirring up of bottom sediments, low level




release of water from dams, canalization of coastal marshes (permitting sub-




sequent entry of salt water), reduction of minimal flow rates and internal




circulation patterns, and introduction of sulfides and acids into wetland




environments.  Considering the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide for most forms




of aquatic life, the book on "Water Quality Criteria, 1972" recommends that




the concentration of total sulfides not exceed 0.002 mg/1 at any time or




place.

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                                 268
  Biological Effects of Heavy Metals and Other Chemical Pollutants




     A considerable literature has recently developed concerning the effects




of chemical pollutants on aquatic organisms, and much of this information




is reviewed in the book, "Water Quality Criteria, 1972."  The topic is of




interest here insofar as it is influenced by construction activities.




Attention will be focused upon heavy metals, with some treatment of radio-




active isotopes and chlorinated hydrocarbons.




     Heavy metals enter aquatic systems both through natural erosional




processes and through human activities.  The importance of the latter




factor is illustrated by recent estimates indicating that human activities




place about 26 times as much mercury into the environment as that which




arrives by natural processes (6,000/230 metric tons/year, worldwide).




Through natural run-off, storm sewers, sewage and industrial outfalls,




and other means, much of the heavy metal released winds up in the nation's




wetlands.  Metals may exist in water as dissolved ions, in organic




complexes, adsorbed on clay particles, as suspended precipitates, or as




components of living or dead organisms.  In the metallic or the oxidized




forms most of the metals are relatively insoluble in water, and therefore,




they tend to accumulate in the bottom sediments grading downstream from




their points of entry.  All the metals differ from one another in specific




chemical and physical properties such as electronegativity, solubility




of the sulfide, order of chelate stability, affinity for plankton, etc.




Therefore, it is difficult to generalize about their processes and fates




in the wetland environment.  However, a few important points may be made.




     Reduction in pH often results in increased solubility of heavy metals.




Therefore, when acids are added to natural waters or when anaerobic




conditions develop, more heavy metals are placed into the water column.

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                                  269
The same occurs when metal-containing bottom sediments are thoroughly




stirred or dug up, as by dredging operations.  Free carbon dioxide




tends to reduce the pH, and this means that the gills of fishes and




other aquatic animals which may produce locally high concentrations of




carbon dioxide may effectively remove heavy metals from silt particles




in suspension.




     An important relationship exists between the carbonate content of




water (water hardness) and the toxicity of most heavy metals to fishes




and other aquatic animals.  As a general rule, the lower the carbonate




content, the more toxic is the metal.




     Among the heavy metals, mercury is somewhat unique because of the




ease with which microbes convert insoluble metallic mercury to soluble




methyl mercury.  In this form it may enter the biological food chains




and undergo magnification through different food chain steps.  The acute




toxicity of heavy metals apparently stems from their ability to poison




critical enzyme systems of the aquatic organisms, but lead and some




other metals are known to coagulate mucus on the gills of fishes which




may lead to suffocation as well as direct gill tissue damage.




     Construction activities increase the levels or toxicity of heavy




metals in several ways.  Mining activities place large quantities of




heavy metals into wetland environments, and at the same time they add




large quantities of sulfuric acid.  The latter reduces the pH and




eliminates the carbonate, greatly intensifying the .toxicity of the




metals.  Ditching of floodplains ultimately results in rapid runoff of




surface water from urban, industrial, and agricultural areas which may




bring loads of heavy metals.  Dams encourage sediment accumulation and




heavy metal retention in the unflushed downstream areas.  Hypolimnic

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                                 270





release may decrease the pH.   Dredging resuspends the metal-containing




sediments.  Canalization of coastal wetlands permits penetration of




saltwater and may lead to precipitation of the contained metals.




     Radioactivity may be associated with a variety of chemical elements,




including heavy metals.  Of particular interest here is the fact that a




number of radioactive materials are known to be easily adsorbed to the




surface of suspended particles so that they may be removed from the water




column and placed in the sediments (Lackey, et_ al, 1959).  Dredging




activities may ultimately resuspend this material after it has become




very concentrated.  Much of the radioactivity of natural waters is




derived from the spoils of mining activities.  The dangers of radio-




activity are well known and need not be detailed here.




     Long-lived chlorinated hydrocarbons likewise tend to be adsorbed




to suspended particles and to accumulate in bottom sediments only to be




released in quantity later.  The toxicity of chlorinated hydrocarbons




to terrestrial insects is widely recognized, but they also can be




quite lethal to aquatic insects and crustaceans.




     Estuaries represent a special problem because of their tendency to




trap sediments containing heavy metals, radioactive materials, chlorinated




hydrocarbons, and other pollutants.  The possibility of raising such




materials during dredging operations should be thoroughly investigated.

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                                  271
                              Chapter 6
                              SYNTHESIS

     Wetland environments and aquatic ecosystems are valuable national
assets which simply cannot be discarded through accident, ignorance,
indifference, or design.  Although considerable attention has through
the years been focused on chemical water pollution and water quality
standards, this is only one aspect of the more general problem of
wetland protection.  As repeatedly demonstrated in the preceding pages,
rampant construction activities are rapidly eliminating wetland habitats
and changing the characteristics of others, generally for the worse.
Such modifications are nationwide in their effects, and only a portion
of the modifications would normally be considered under the heading of
water pollution, as it is usually considered.  It remains in the present
chapter to highlight the causes of wetland deterioration and the major
patterns of response, to point out immediate steps which may be taken to
reverse the trend of wetland deterioration, and to provide a focus on
protection of wetland environments of the future.

       Wetland Deterioration - Causes and Response Patterns

                  Causes of Wetland Deterioration

     Clearly, the most critical cause of wetland deterioration is loss
of wetland habitat.  Construction of a dam automatically eliminates a
stretch of river habitat upstream for the length of the reservoir and
downstream to the limit of severe waterflow modification.  Construction
of levees leads to absolute obliteration of the wetland habitat of the
"protected" floodplain.  Canalization and saltwater encroachment destroy
the wetland habitat values of coastal marshlands.  Heavy siltation
eliminates riffle and pool habitats.  Mining wastes totally destroy

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                                  272
aquatic and riparian systems.  The list is long and can be well documented.




Unquestionably, over one half of the native wetland systems of the nation




have been eliminated or so severely modified that they bear little




resemblance to the original ecosystem types.




     The second most critical cause of wetland deterioration is chronic




stress.  Modification of flow rates and seasonal flow patterns, and




particularly the elimination of peak flows, has greatly altered species




compositions and standing crops in wetlands affected by dams, dredging,




channelization, canalization, and levee construction.  Leaching spoil




piles, saltwater encroachment, loss of riparian vegetation and nutrients




and loss of beach nourishment have created chronic distress problems for




wetland systems.




     The third cause is the short-term but locally severe effect




associated with individual construction projects.  After completion of




the project reinvasion may permit gradual reestablishment of the original




aquatic system.  This type of problem would be of little overall conse-




quence if it were not for the fact that so many construction projects




are currently in progress.  A bridge, a local highway on a floodplain,




a dredging project, a drainage ditch, a pier, a port—on and on.  These




little projects all over the county are pecking away at the nation's




wetlands and creating a massive cumulative general problem.




     The fourth cause of wetland deterioration may properly be termed




wetland pollution, per se.  Floodplain construction leads to rapid




runoff of surface water from urban, industrial, and transportation pave-




ments, together with all the vehicular and other chemical pollutants




associated with human activities.  Riparian canalization engenders to  the




same results.  Mining wastes produce chemical pollutants involving acids,




metal  sulfides and oxides, and radioactive materials.  Dredging releases

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                                  273
a variety of chemical pollutants from the sediments.  Dams may create




nitrogen gas supersaturation, and so on.  Chemical pollution is important,




but it is not the most important by-product of construction unless,




perhaps, suspended sediments are included as a major type of pollution.






                   Patterns of Wetland Response






     Patterns of wetland ecosystem response to disturbance may be




viewed from the perspective of space or time.  Potential upstream-




downstream response patterns are diagrammatically illustrated in




Figure 6.1-A.  By whatever measure is used (species composition, diversity,




standing crop, productivity, etc.) the original ecosystem is eliminated




from a stretch of habitat downstream from the construction site.  Further




downstream, as a result of sedimentation, dilution, neutralization, etc.,




the effect is diminished, and the undamaged system may eventually be




found.  Such responses are commonly produced downstream from sites of




pollution, heavy siltation, and other forms of water quality modification.




     A two-stage response is shown in Figure 6.1-B.  Immediately down-




stream from the construction site one level of response is evident, but




farther downstream a second pattern of response appears.  For example,




by reduction of water flow, a dam may have a moderate effect upon the




stream ecosystem but a major effect upon that of the estuary or nearby




coast.  Modification of flow patterns, flow volumes, and nutrient loads




may fall into this category.




     Both upstream and downstream responses are shown in Figure 6.1-C.




This demonstrates the effect of impoundment on a stretch of stream.  Up-




stream the native stream biota is eliminated in favor of reservoir




(= lake-like) biota, and downstream it may be eliminated or replaced,

-------
                                 274
        A.



/
/
/
I
\ s
             I
                  INTENSE EFFECT
RECOVERY
 ZONE
          CONSTRUCTION
             SITE
         LITTLE EFFECT
      DOWNSTREAM
        B.
                     INITIAL EFFECT
          CONSTRUCTION
             SITE
       SECOND EFFECT

^  DOWNSTREAM
        C.
X
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
S
/
1
1
1
1
*
j
s
              UPSTREAM
          DOWNSTREAM
                               CONSTRUCTION
                                SITE
Figure  6.1. Upstream-downstream patterns of wetland  ecosystem response
            to construction disturbance. A. Simple downstream effect
            followed by gradual recovery. B. Two-stage response. C.
            Response both upstream and downstream of construction site.
            For further explanation,  see text.

-------
                                  275
depending upon water release patterns.  Far downstream the original




stream ecosystem may still be encountered.




     Potential time response patterns are illustrated in Figure 6.2.




Elimination followed by complete (a) or partial (b) recovery is shown




in Figure 6.2-A.  This is the typical pattern encountered in recovery




from chemical pollution, local dredging projects, and short-term




modification of flow rates, riparian vegetation, and the like.  Depend-




ing upon the nature and extent of the damage, recovery may be total or




partial.




     In the second case (Figure 6.2-B) initial stimulation is followed




by a longer-range reduction in production or diversity.  This is the




pattern which is likely to be exhibited following floodplain devegetation




and nutrient leaching.  Although there is initial stimulation, once the




organic and inorganic nutrients are gone the system settles down to a




lower level equilibrium.  Although positive proof is lacking, it is




highly probable that most of the nation's wetlands which have been




subjected to floodplain devegetation or heavy siltation have followed




this pattern and now exist in the low equilibrium chronic phase.




     Another response pattern is that which exhibits a delayed effect




(Figure 6.2-C).  This may result from life history peculiarities,




environmental idiosyncrosies, multiple construction projects, or a




combination of these.  Stream siltation at one season may reduce




salmon and trout spawning at another season.  Chemical pollution may




permit aquatic insects to survive for awhile, but not to emerge or




reproduce.  Water diversion at one season may lead to reduction in




stream flow at another, especially if coupled with a drought period.




Heavy metals gradually added to wetland bottom sediments through the

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                                 276
             A.


1
g
I
LEVEL ff
1
1 _
1 x'
/•'
                       INHIBITION    RECOVERY   NO EFFECT OR
                                           CHRONIC EFFECT
             B.
                       STIMULATION
                                         CHRONIC EFFECT
             C.
                          LAG TIME
                                           INHIBITION
             D.
                        / -
                    1  SUBSTITUTION     CHRONIC MODIFICATION

                   CONSTRUCTION
                   PERIOD        TIME  	Jfc-
Figure 6.2. Time-related  patterns  of wetland  ecosystem response to
             construction  disturbance.  A. Elimination  followed by
             complete  (a)  or partial  (b) recovery. B.  Stimulation
             followed by depression.  C. Delayed response.  D. Substi-
             tution response.

-------
                                  277
years may be suddenly released by a dredging project.  Delayed response




patterns are probably more common than is generally recognized.




     In the final case (Figure 6.2-D) one set of species is substituted




for another with little apparent reduction in diversity, production, or




other characteristics.  To the untrained observer this may make little




difference, but it may be of considerable ecological and even economic




importance.  If upstream impoundment reduces stream flow causing a




marked salinity increase within an estuary the resulting faunal shift may




not show up in simple species counts and diversity indices, and it may




make little theoretical difference.   At stake, however, are thousands




of dollars worth of commercially harvestable fish, shrimp, crab, and




oyster populations which will potentially be damaged or lost as a




result of the salinity shift.




     The ecosystem response patterns illustrated above are not mutually




exclusive, but they can grade into one another.  Nor is the above




treatment exhaustive, since other response modes could have been given.




The real significance of such patterns is that they demonstrate a




reasonable degree of predictability of cumulative biological phenomena




in response to human manipulation, and predictability of response is the




necessary basis for intelligent natural resource management.  With the




accumulation of more detailed and specific information we may look forward




to an increasingly sophisticated wetland management capability.






     Immediate Steps Toward Reduction of Wetland Deterioration






     Although major gaps in our knowledge clearly exist, much is now




definitely known concerning the effects of specific types of construction




activity on wetland environments, and a great deal more can be presumed

-------
                                  278







from related studies.  On the basis of information presented herein,




the following steps may be taken now to reverse the nationwide trend




toward wetland deterioration and destruction.




• Establishment of wetland sanctuaries.  Subject to the twin pressures




of construction and pollution, the wetland environments are disappearing




and deteriorating.  This pressure is being placed more upon certain




environmental types than upon others, and some are more sensitive than




others.  Some of the wetland types are more valuable than others as




habitat for endangered, economically important, or esthetically interest-




ing species.  The more sensitive and the more pressured wetlands cannot




be expected to survive, ecologically and genetically intact, without




deliberate protective intervention.  Such sites are of primary importance




to protect representative and endangered wetland ecosystem types from




further deterioration.  However, such sanctuaries should provide numerous




secondary advantages, such as scientific study sites for aquatic eco-




system function, environmental quality monitoring sites, and control




areas for environmental manipulation studies (Darnell, e_t_ _al_, 1974).




• Curtailment of the most environmentally destructive types of




construction project.  Technology without reason is a monster.  Not




everything that is doable is worth doing.  We are entering an age when




the old cliches about "progress," "development," "growth," and so on




simply do not hold water, of themselves.  It is an age when individual




projects must be justified on their own merit in light of the social,




economic, and environmental costs.  In such an atmosphere of public




scrutiny it is important to consider all of the alternative means of




achieving desirable social goals and to refrain from carrying out those




construction projects whose environmental price is too high.  It is worth




noting here that the rarer a given type of wetland ecosystem becomes, the

-------
                                  279






more valuable it becomes to society as a means of preserving components




of a living system which may be of critical importance in preserving




the options of future generations.  Who will decide to destroy the last




riffle?




• Amelioration of the effects of necessary construction.  For those




projects which are judged to be socially desirable, every effort should




be made to ensure that the environmentally least damaging methods are




employed, even if such methods are not always the most economical in




the short run.  A great deal of the present wetland problem stems from




lack of incentive to protect the environment, rather than lack of tech-




nological capability.  Adequate sedimentation basins should be built




into storm sewer discharge systems.  Dredging operations should incorporate




settling basins, if on land and sediment curtains if spoil must be released




in the water.  Marshland canals should all be gated to prevent saltwater




intrusion.  Dams and levees should contain adequate engineering and




management provisions for release of freshwater to streams, floodplains,




swamps, and marshes in order to maintain favorable flow and overflow




patterns to protect aquatic wildlife values.  In planning construction




projects consideration should be given to seasonal ecological patterns




so that habitat modification would not violate breeding and nursery




activities.




     Each construction project should give adequate attention to the




matter of "good housekeeping."  Sloppy engineering practices can lead to




unnecessary erosion and chemical pollution, excess habitat destruction,




and accumulation of undesirable construction litter.  Contracts should




specify quality control of environmental damage during the progress of




construction and thorough clean-up when a project is terminated.




Adequate monitoring should also be provided for.

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                                  280







• Adoption of effective environmental quality criteria.   The information




presented in the book "Water Quality Criteria,  1972" is  exceptionally




detailed and scientifically sound, and if its recommendations are adopted




and enforced they will go a long way toward maintaining  ecologically




viable aquatic systems.  However, they are not alone sufficient to




prevent significant wetland deterioration and destruction.  They are




essentially pollution-related standards, and they do not really address




many of the wetland problems resulting from engineering activities.




An additional set of criteria is necessary to handle the following types




of problems:




     - wetland nutrient loss through floodplain devegetation




     - wetland habitat loss through dumping and filling




     - wetland habitat loss through riparian ditching, canalization,




       leveeing, and spoil-banking




     - maintenance of minimally adequate flow rates




     - provision for adequate peak flows




     - provision for ecologically appropriate seasonal flow regimes




     - maintenance of adequate water levels




     - maintenance of appropriate internal circulation patterns




     - prevention of saltwater intrusion




     - prevention of excess bottom sedimentation




Tarzwell  (1957) listed the environmental requirements of fishes as




follows:




     - favorable water supply




     - suitable spawning areas




     - adequate food supply for all age groups




     - good  shelter

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                                  281
He also pointed out that the suitability depends upon quantity, quality,




and permanence.  These criteria apply, as well, to the other inhabitants




of aquatic ecosystems.  Protection of water quality is important, but it




should be coupled with adequate attention to the other factors which make




for favorable wetland habitats.  Environmental protection involves




sophisticated environmental management, not just pollution control.




Such management should incorporate considerations of ecosystem function




(which cannot adequately be reflected by acute species toxicity studies




in the laboratory).  Above all, environmental management should include




adequate monitoring and enforcement.




• Adoption of a requirement for post-construction environmental




impact statements.  At the present time, once a construction has been




approved the contractor may or may not meet the conditions predicted




in the pre-construction environmental impact statement.  Certainly, in




many cases there is far greater environmental damage than originally




predicted.  In order to increase the truth of predictions and to provide




a firmer basis for future predictions, post-construction studies should




be run to determine how accurate the predictions were and how much the




predicted damage has been exceeded.




• Devotion of special attention to sensitive or endangered habitat




or ecosystem types.  Adoption of uniform water quality standards for the




United States, while administratively desirable, in a sense ignores




regional and local ecological needs.  As a supplement to nationwide




minimal standards, there should be recognition of the fact that certain




types of wetland areas are now in trouble and that special precautions




should be taken to preserve environmental quality in those wetland types




which are in jeopardy.  Some types of wetland area are threatened because

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                                  282
they are often put to other uses which are incompatible with their




natural qualities.  Included among such areas are the following:




     - stream sections between bluffs which may be the only stretches




       of swift water for miles (especially amenable to damming)




     - certain floodplain types (which are easily destroyed by levees




       or canals and drainage ditches)




     - shallow ponds and marshes near urban developments (which are




       readily filled for land development)




     - coastal marshes and swamps (which are attractive for mineral




       extraction, land fill, drainage, and other activities)




     - estuaries  (which may be damaged directly through dredging and




       development or indirectly through modification of freshwater




       inflow or nutrient inputs.




Other types of wetland areas are in danger because of their rarity or




sensitivity to human activities.  Examples of these include the




following:




     - springs and spring runs of the arid southwest and Great Basin




       region (such small isolated areas are often the habitat for




       rare species, and they are exceptionally sensitive to water




       withdrawal)




     - small streams, in general (these are quite sensitive to even




       modest modifications because of their small size)




     - riffle areas of streams of all sizes (these are especially




       sensitive  to siltation damage)




     - habitats of rare or endangered species (rare species often occur




       in groups because they frequently occupy unique types of habitats)

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                                  283
Sophisticated management of the nation's wetlands will require special




attention to such special environments if wetland diversity is to be




retained.




• Restoration of degraded environments.  Many of the nation's degraded




wetland environments can be partially or fully restored through remedial




action.  Although there is much to be learned about the technology of



environmental restoration, a great deal is now known, and this informa-





tion should be put to use on a broad scale.  Examples of remedial




measures which might be undertaken now to restore degraded wetland




habitat types include the following:




     - creation of new riffles (by use of bulldozers, etc.) and




       desedimentation of old ones (by use of hoses and water jets)




     - liming of acid waters to raise the pH




     - aeration of hypolimnic waters of reservoirs and low-oxygen or




       anaerobic areas of streams, marshland canals, and estuaries




       (by means of pumps and perforated hoses)




     - restoration of coastal marshes and swamps by increased fresh-




       water release




     - gating of coastal marshland and swampland canals to prevent




       saltwater intrusion and to reduce erosion of canal banks




     - stabilization of wetland margins through revegetation projects




     - reestablishment of damaged marshlands through plantings of




       marshgrasses (especially, Spartina)




     - reestablishment of submarine meadows through plantings of




       submerged grasses (especially, Zostera and Thalassia)

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                                  284
Examples of remedial measures which might be taken now to restore




terrestrial and riparian environments which degrade wetland habitats




include the following:




     - neutralization and revegetation of spoil banks and levees




     - contouring, neutralization, and revegetation of mine waste piles




     - opening of levees to permit periodic floodplain flooding




     - creation of settling basins and other sediment traps near the




       stream-entrance of drainage ditches and storm sewer outlets.




There is considerable room for the application of creative engineering




to the problem of wetland restoration.




• Synthesis and dissemination of knowledge concerning the effects of




construction activities in wetlands and what can be done about them.




The present volume has covered the main issues concerning the effects




of construction activities in wetland environments and it has pinpointed




a few of the remedies, but it has by no means exhausted these topics.




What is now needed is the information which can be provided by




specialists in the relevant disciplines and especially those who are




knowledgeable about the specific problems of different regions of the




nation.  This knowledge can and should be brought together through a




series of conferences and reports.  The information thus obtained could




serve as the basis for establishment of effective environmental protec-




tion and restoration policy which is technically sound and sensitive to




regional and local environmental requirements.  The information should




also be widely disseminated so that it could be put to most effective




use by regulatory agencies, construction firms, and local environmental




groups.

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                                  285
                       The Longer-Range View






     Maintenance of the quality of the nation's wetlands is one subset




of the more general problem of overall environmental protection.  Nor




can wetlands really be protected without attention to environmental




quality on land and in the atmosphere.  This is so because of the water




solubility of so many substances and because of the downstream,




gravity-based aspects of the hydrological and erosional cycles.




Practically everything that civilization does, sooner or later affects




the wetlands.  Therefore, in the future wetland protection must be




wedded to a total national program for environmental protection which



begins in the uplands and carries through into the sea.  The grand




cycles of nature can help us or defeat us, depending upon whether we




work with or against them.




     Long-range maintenance of environmental quality in the nation's




wetlands involves several additional aspects which should be clearly




recognized and addressed.  Increasing human populations and rising




levels of technology will unquestionably place more pressures on the




nation's wetland environments in the future, and without adequate




safeguards such pressures will lead to further stress, genetic simpli-




fication, species extinction, ecosystem deterioration, and habitat loss.




On the other hand, society is becoming aware of the values of natural




ecosystems and sensitive to the environmental cost of technological




advance, and it is becoming more willing to accept the real costs of




environmental protection.  Furthermore, the technology for environmental




improvement is beginning to be developed, and if stimulated, it could




become highly sophisticated within a few years.  The real problems are




— what do we want in the way of environmental quality and how do we




get there?

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                                  286
           Definition of Desired Environmental Condition






     Systematic planning begins with a clear definition of the desired




future state or condition.  If we do not have a definite set of goals,




we are not likely to achieve them.  Along the way we are apt to lose




a little here and a little there, gradually foreclosing on the options




of future generations.  Therefore, we must decide now what kind of




environment we want, say — twenty years (one human generation) from




now, and take deliberate steps to insure the capability of achieving




it.  Definition of the desired future environment should be accomplished




by a high-level committee of private citizens, governmental representa-




tives, and technological specialists.  It should address itself not




only to the environmental state definition, but also to the social




and institutional framework which will be required to monitor and maintain




the environment in the desired state in light of society's other projected




demands upon the environmental resources.  Such planning should be




instituted now.






       Maintenance of Environmental Quality as an Exercise




                         in Quality Control






     In a political sense, maintenance of environmental quality means




retention of resource options for future generations.  In a biological




sense, it means perpetuation of basic genetic diversity within the




context of the functional integrity of the nation's major ecosystem




types.  In an engineering sense, it is an exercise in quality control




(Darnell and Shimkin, 1972).  Our pathway to  the future is a narrow

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                                  287
track balanced between society's demands, on the one hand, and the




genetic-ecological constraints, on the other.




     Two levels of environmental constraint may be recognized, condi-




tional and categorical.  Conditional constraints rest in the realm of




negotiation and compromise.  Whereas, transgression of such constraints




need not permanently bind future generations, recovery from such




intrusion will be expensive in time and resources.  Categorical con-




straints, however, are absolute.  It is the nature of biological




resources that, with protection, they are infinitely renewable,, but




they become extinct with finality.  An extinct species is non-renewable,




and it cannot be recycled.  In proceeding from the present to the desired




future condition, short-term decisions must be made concerning the




impact-environmental quality balance, but provision must be made for




environmental recovery, and the absolute boundary conditions must, at




all times, be respected.







                  Definition of Boundary Conditions






     In proceeding toward the desired future state there must be a clear




definition of the allowable limits of the impact of our technological




society upon the nation's ecological heritage.  This presupposes




reasonable definition of the absolute requirements of the basic life




support system (absolute constraints), as well as definition of the




ability of ecological systems to withstand chronic pressure short of the



absolute limits.  In most instances we do not now have such information,




and until we can state with considerable certainty that we possess such



knowledge, our wisest course of action is to define permissible impact



levels well short of potential ecosystem destruction.

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                                 288
     Another matter of considerable importance is the fact that safe




planning for the future will involve a change in our basic approach to




the environment.  As recently discussed by Darnell,  et_ ad (1974)...




"In the past, much of the regional and state planning has focused upon




immediate or short-range societal goals, recognizing certain natural




constraints.  The emphasis must now be reversed.  The goal of planners




must be to sustain the vital processes of the nation, recognizing certain




societal constraints."  The emphasis here is upon protection of the vital




ecological and genetic processes.  This is the crux of the environmental




protection problem, and it brings up the question as to whether or not




water quality standards, setting permissible levels of environmental




stress, are really protective in the long-range view.  They are necessary,




but are they enough?  Ultimately environmental protection must be grounded




upon solid genetic and ecological considerations and not simply upon




habitat factors.  To reach this degree of sophistication of environmental




protection will require a great deal of basic and applied research, and




plans for obtaining the necessary technical knowledge should be laid now.




     Environmental impact statements have proven to be of great value




in assessing potential environmental damage.  However, a number of short-




comings may be noted.  Too often they address only the physical and




chemical changes while giving only lip service to the critical biological




issues.  Too often they are prepared by individuals who are not well




grounded in basic science and who are unfamiliar with the pertinent litera-




ture.  Too often they consider only the immediate impacts while ignoring




the longer-range and downstream ecosystem consequences.  Too often the




critical information simply isn't available and one is forced to fall back

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                                 289
on educated guesswork.  At this level the definition of boundary condi-




tions stands in need of improvement.  With refinement the environmental




impact statement can become a much more valuable tool in the future.






  Improving the Technical Basis of Environmental Impact Statements






     Major improvement of the quality of environmental impact statements




rests, in large measure, upon the development of a more definitely pre-




dictive data base.  Two types of information are specifically required.




We need to develop a more sophisticated understanding of the composition




and functions of the wetlands themselves, and we need to understand how




such systems respond to various specific forms of human perturbation.




The present review of the literature dealing with these two problems has




been quite revealing.  There are readily identifiable gaps in our know-




ledge, and much of the important literature on the effects of ecosystem




disturbance is scattered through relatively inaccessable reports.  A




concerted effort to remedy these problems is in order.  In laying the




basis for more sophisticated environmental impact statements of the future,




the following matters should be considered.




• Filling in of major gaps in ecological knowledge.  At the present time




we are woefully ignorant of the ecology of large streams.  There apparently




has never been a major ecological study of the Mississippi River south of




the entrance of the Ohio River, and most of the other large streams of




the nation are very poorly known.  Many faunal surveys have been carried




out on the nation's continental shelves, but most of the shelves have




never been subjected to critical ecological analysis.  For example, it is




impossible on the basis of existing literature to state with certainty




the role of most streams and estuaries in providing nutrients to the shelf




ecosystems.  The genetics of natural aquatic populations has barely been

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                                 290
examined, even though the basic techniques are readily available.   Nor




are we in a position to state with any high degree of certainty the




response of aquatic populations and ecosystems to most forms of stress.




General patterns of response have been noted earlier in the present chapter,




but predicting which species will respond and in what ways is, in most




cases, some distance off.  Finally, we do not yet possess really sophis-




ticated knowledge of total ecosystem function for any of our open aquatic




systems.  Such concepts as "succession", "stability", and "climax"




which carry ready meaning in relation to forest and grassland ecosystems




do not really seem to apply to the open aquatic systems.  These and re-




lated areas will require specific attention if we are to develop the basis




for better impact statements.




• Filling in of major gaps in our knowledge of the ecological effects of




wetland disturbance.  Throughout the writing of the present volume it has




been necessary to extrapolate the potential construction impacts from




studies carried out for an entirely different purpose.  It has also been




necessary to extrapolate from studies carried out in one region of the




nation to their probable relevance in another region.  Although this is




often the best we can do at present, it should not always be so.  Careful




field experiments carried out before, during, and after various types of




construction project are sorely needed, and such studies should be con-




ducted on a regional basis.  As in the case of all valid laboratory




experiments, such field experiments should include adequate controls,




i_.£., each study should involve paired study sites, one of which is left




unmodified and the other of which is deliberately manipulated.

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                                 291
• Establishment of sophisticated wetland ecosystem analysis capability




on a regional basis.  At the present time our wetland ecological knowledge




is something of a hodgepodge of little studies carried out here and there




by scientists and students of varying degrees of capability.  Although




this approach has its merits, it will not alone suffice to provide the




kinds of insights which we now require.  We must develop integrated know-




ledge of the behavior of wetland systems, and this can only be accomplished




through the effort of multi-disciplinary teams of scientists.  The studies




on the Hubbard Brook watershed of New Hampshire stand as a case in point.




The simultaneous examination of the physics, chemistry, and biology of




the same system over a period of years can provide the basis for detailed




interpretation and prediction that we require for intelligent management.




     To accomplish such studies there is a need to establish such teams




on a regional basis throughout the nation.  This might be accomplished




through the strengthening of governmental or university laboratories




already in existence, or it might entail the establishment of certain




new laboratories—one to study the lower Mississippi River, for example.




Alternatively, The Institute of Ecology might be approached to establish




the analytical capability.  Perhaps a combination of the above approaches




could be employed.  In any event, such teams should be technically balanced,




have access to the most modern equipment (including computer capability),




have access to high quality library facilities, and have a high degree of




coherence and permanence.   They should address themselves to the questions




of how do the regional wetland ecosystems function, and what is their




response to various manipulative strategies.

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                                 292
   Common Sense vs. Modeling Approaches to the Quality Control Problem






     It must be assumed that a healthy environment is an absolute pre-




requisite of a healthy society.  Yet maintenance of high environmental




quality of the nation's wetlands presents a management problem of extra-




ordinary complexity.  Their varied resources are of great economic,




recreational, and esthetic value, and pressures for expansion and diver-




sification of potentially destructive use are increasing daily.  However,




unplanned intensive use is, in many cases, demonstrably incompatible




with the health and well being of most aquatic ecosystems.  By what means




may this management problem be handled most effectively?




     The most powerful approach yet developed for attacking complex and




otherwise intractable problems is through the application of systems




analysis.  In the present instance this would involve a perspective on




the total man-environment interactive system, the synthesis of vast




volumes of information into formal mathematical statements of relation-




ships, and the progressive introduction of models and computer technology




to provide information upon which decisions could be based concerning



the best courses of managerial action (Darnell and Shimkin, 1972).




     Models are already available for the simulation of many physical,




chemical, and biological aspects of aquatic systems.  Prediction of




surface runoff, stream flow rate, flow volume, temperature regimes, dis-




solved oxygen, photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition rate, and many




other such parameters is already well within technological capability.




Modeling techniques are also available for treating many sociological




phenomena and for handling such diverse inputs as scientific data and

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                                 293
sociological information within the same systems analysis framework.




Presently available computer hardware is adequate to the task.  Thus,




there is no reason why systems analysis could not immediately be im-




plemented on a nationwide scale to provide the framework for a sophisti-




cated and effective approach to the wetland environmental quality




management problem.  The time is at least ripe for the demonstration,




on a regional scale, that this can be done and that it is not only




worth doing, but that it is the only way to handle the complex environ-




mental management problems of the future.




     For all its advantages, however, the systems approach must be viewed




within a proper context.  Systems analysis and mathematical models




represent analytical tools for the organizion and handling of vast bodies




of information and for aiding in the structuring of our thought processes.




However, by necessity, all models are abstractions and simplifications




of the "real world."  Furthermore, they are more useful in dealing with




certain classes of information then with others.  In the environmental



realm, they are most effective in the handling of those physical,




chemical, and biological processes which lend themselves to quantifica-




tion and to mathematical formulation.  It is simply out of the question




to include all the natural history and life cycle information about all




the biological species of a given environment.  And yet, the natural




history details are what often determines the success or failure of any




given species.




     The long-range protection of environmental quality will certainly




benefit from the progressive introduction of systems analysis.  As the




technical data base grows and as our experience in systematic environ-




mental management increases, we may place greater and greater reliance

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                                 294
upon models and simulation techniques.   However,  there is no foreseeable




substitute for the knowledge and judgment of the  experienced environmental




scientist.  He alone can ask the relevant questions and interpret the




data provided by computer analysis.   Long-range environmental protection,




thus, must be facilitated by means of man-machine,  rather than by machine-




man, analytical systems.

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                                 295
                              BIBLIOGRAPHY


     The present bibliography includes key references to the effects of

construction activities on wetlands, as well as additional references to

hydrology and wetland biology which should prove useful in interpreting

the effects of construction activities.  Considering the breadth of the

subject and the literature known to exist, it is clear that the biblio-

graphy could have been expanded at least five-fold.  Since complete docu-

mentation of the American literature was not the point of the present work,

only the more relevant papers are included.  Those references cited in the

text are marked by asterisks (*) following the reference number.
1.*   Adelman, I. R. and L. L. Smith.  1970.  Effect of hydrogen sulfide
      on northern pike eggs and sac fry.  Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.  99(3):
      501-509.

2.    Affleck, R. J.  1952.  Zinc poisoning in a trout hatchery.  Aust.
      J. Mar. Freshwater Res.  3: 142-169.

3.    Agersborg, H. P. K.  1930.  The influence of temperature on fish.
      Ecol.  11: 136-144.

4.    Ahr, W. M.  1972.  The DDT profile on some south Texas coastal-zone
      sediments:  A study of the mechanisms of pollution dispersal and
      accumulation in nature.  The Envir. Qual. Prog, at TAMU.  EQN 05,
      32p.

5.    Alabaster, J. F.  1970.  River flow and upstream movement and catch
      of migratory salmonids.  J. Fish. Biol.  2: 1-13.

6.    Alabaster, J. S.  1963.  The effect of heated effluents on fish.
      Int. J. Mr Wat. Pollut.  7: 541-563.

7.    Alabaster, J. S.  1964.  The effect of heated effluents on fish.
      Adv. Wat. Pollut. Res.  1: 261-292.

8.    Alabaster, J. S.  1967.  The survival of salmon (Salmo salar L.) and
      sea trout (S_. trutta L.) in fresh and saline water at high tempera-
      ture.  Water Res.  1(10): 717-730.

9.    Alabaster, J. S. and R. L. Welcomme.  1962.  Effect of concentration
      of dissolved oxygen on survival of trout and roach in lethal tempera-
      tures.  Nature (Lond.).  194: 107.

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                                    296
10.   Albrecht, A.  B.  1964.   Some observations on factors associated
      with survival of striped bass eggs and larvae.   Calif.  Fish Game.
      50(2): 101-113.

11.*  Alderdice, D. F.  1963.  Some effects of simultaneous variation in
      salinity, temperature,  and dissolved oxygen on the resistance of
      young coho salmon to a  toxic substance.  J. Fish.  Res.  Bd. Can.
      20(2): 525-550.

12.   Alderdice, D. F. and C. R. Forrester.  1968.  Some effects of salinity
      and temperature on early development and survival of the English
      sole (Parophrys vetulus).  J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.   25(3): 495-521.

13.   Alderdice, D. F. and C. R. Forrester.  1971a.  Effects  of salinity
      and temperature on embryonic development of the petrale sole
      (Eopsetta jordani).   J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.  28: 727-744.

14.   Alderdice, D. F. and C. R. Forrester.  1971b.  Effects  of salinity,
      temperature and dissolved oxygen on early development of the Pacific
      cod (Gadus macrocephalus).  J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.  28: 883-902.

15.   Alderdice, D. F. and F. P. J. Velsen.  1971.  Some effects of salinity
      and temperature on early development of Pacific herring (Clupea
      pallasi).  J. Fish.  Res. Bd. Can.  28: 1545-1562.

16.*  Alderdice, D. F. and W. P. Wickett.  1958.  A note on the response
      of developing chum salmon eggs to free carbon dioxide in solution.
      J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.   15(5): 797-799.

17.*  Alderdice, D. F., W. P. Wickett, and J. R. Brett.   1958.  Some effects
      of temporary exposure to low dissolved oxygen levels on Pacific
      salmon eggs.   J. Fish.  Res. Bd. Can.  15(2): 229-250.

18.*  Aldrich, D. V., C. E. Wood, and K. N. Baxter.  1968.  An ecological
      interpretation of low temperature responses in Penaeus  aztecus and
      P_. setiferus postlarvae.  Bull. Mar. Sci.  18(1):  61-71.

19.   Allee, W. C.   1923.   Studies in marine ecology: III.  Some physical
      factors related to the distribution of littoral invertebrates.  Biol.
      Bull.  44: 205-253.

20.   Allen, K. 0.  and K.  Strawn.  1968.  Heat tolerance of channel catfish
      Ictalurus punctatus.  Proc. 21st Ann. Conf. Southeast Assoc. Fish and
      Game Comm.  Columbia, South Carolina: 399-411.

21.   Allen, K. R.   1960.   Effect of land development on stream bottom faunas,
      Proc. N.Z. Ecol. Soc.  7: 20-21.

22.   Allen, K. R.   1969.   Distinctive aspects of the ecology of stream
      fishes: a review.  J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can.  26(6): 1429-1438.

23.   Amend, D. F., W. T.  Yasutake, and R. Morgan.  1969.  Some factors
      influencing susceptibility of rainbow trout to the acute toxicity of
      an ethyl mercury phosphate formulation  (Timsan).  Trans. Amer. Fish.
      Soc.  98(3):  419-425.

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                                 297
24.   American Society of Limnology and Oceanography.  1972.  Nutrients
      and Eutrophication.  Allen Press, Lawrence, Kans.  328p.

25.*  Anderson, D. R. and F. A. Glover.  1967.  Effects of water manipula-
      tion on waterfowl production.  Trans. 32nd No. Amer. Wildl. Nat.
      Res. Conf.: 292-300.

26.   Anderson, J. R. and R. J. Dicke.  1960.  Ecology of the immature
      stages of some Wisconsin black flies (Simuliidae: Diptera).  Ann.
      Ent. Soc. Am.  53: 386-404.

27.   Anderson, J. W. and D. J. Reish.  1967.  The effects of varied
      dissolved oxygen concentrations and temperature on the woodboring
      isopod genus Limnoria.  Mar. Biol.  1(1): 56-59.

28.*  Anderson, N. H. and D. M. Lehmkuhl.  1968.  Catastrophic drift of
      insects in a woodland stream.  Ecol.  49(2): 198-206.

29.   Andrews, J. W. and R. R. Stickney.  1972.  Interaction of feeding
      rates and environmental temperature on growth, food conversion, and
      body composition of channel catfish.  Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.  101(1):
      94-99.

30.   Anonymous.  1956.  Influence of man on vegetation and environment
      2,300 years ago.  Ecol.  37(2): 394.

31.   Apmann, R. P. and M. B. Otis.  1965.  Sedimentation and stream im-
      provement.  N. Y. Fish and Game.  12(2): 117-126.

32.   Appalachian Regional Commission.  1969.  The incidence and formation
      of mine drainage pollution in Appalachia.  Appendix C to Acid Mine
      Drainage in Appalachia, a report by the Appalachian Regional Commission.

33.   Armitage, K. B.  1958.  Ecology of riffle insects of the Firehole
      River, Wyoming.  Ecol.  39: 571-580.

34.   Armitage, K. B.  1961.  Distribution of riffle insects of the Firehole
      River, Wyoming.  Hydrobiol.  17: 152-174.

35.   Avco Corporation.  1970.  Storm water pollution from urban land
      activity.  U.S. Dept. of the Interior,  Fed. Water Qual.  Admin., U.S.
      Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.


36.   Bader, R. G.  1954.  The role of organic matter in determining the
      distribution of pelecypods in marine sediments.  J. Mar. Res.  13(1):
      32-47.

37.*  Bailey, J. E. and D. R. Evans.  1971.  The low-temperature threshold
      for pink salmon eggs in relation to a proposed hydroelectric installa-
      tion.  Fish. Bull.  69(3): 587-593.

38.*  Baldes, R. J. and R. E. Vincent.  1969.  Physical parameters of micro-
      habitats occupied by brown trout in an experimental flume.  Trans.
      Amer. Fish. Soc.  98(2): 230-238.

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                                    298
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40.   Bamforth, S. S.   1962.   Diurnal changes in shallow aquatic habitats.
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41.   Banner,  A. and J.  A. Van Annan.  1973.   Thermal effects on eggs,
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42.   Barlow,  J. P.,  C.  J. Lorenzen,  and  R.  T.  Myren.  1963.  Eutrophica-
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43.   Barnard, J.  L.   1958.   Amphipod crustaceans as fouling organisms
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44.   Barnes,  H. L. and S. B. Romberger.   1968.   Chemical aspects of acid
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45.*  Barstow, C.  J.   1970.   Impact of channelization on wetland habitat
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46.*  Barstow, C.  J.   1971.   Impact of channelization on wetland habitat
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47.   Bartonek, J. C., J. G.  King, and H. K.  Nelson.   1971.   Problems con-
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48.   Bartsch, A.  F.,  R. J.  Callaway, R.  A.  Wagner, and C. E. Woelke.   1967.
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50.*  Bates, J. M.  1962.  The impact of  impoundment on the mussel fauna
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51.*  Bayless, J.  and W. B.  Smith.  1967.  The effects of channelization
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52.   Bayly, I. A, E.   1963.   Reversed diurnal vertical migration of
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54.*  Bayly, I. A. E. and W. D. Williams.  1973.  Inland waters and their
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55.   Beak, T. W.  1958.  Toleration of fish to toxic pollution.  J. Fish.
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56.   Beeton, A. M.  1969.  Changes in the environment and biota of the
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57.   Beiningen, K. T. and W. J. Ebel.  1968.  Effect of John Day Dam on
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58.*  Beland, R. D.  1953.  The effect of channelization on the fishery
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59.   Seller, W. S.  1972.  Environmental management of the coastal zone.
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60.   Bennett, D. H. and J. W. Gibbons.  1972.  Food of largemouth bass
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61.   Bennett, G. W.  1954.  The effects of a late-summer drawdown on the
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62.   Bennett, G. W., D. H. Thompson, and S. A. Parr.  1940.  Lake Manage-
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63.   Benson, N. G.  1953.  The importance of ground water to trout popu-
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64.   Benson, N. G.  1955.  Observations on anchor ice in a Michigan trout
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65.   Berg, C. J., Jr.  1971.  A review of possible causes of mortality of
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66.   Berner, L.,jr., R. Bieri, E. D. Goldberg, D. Martin, and R. L. Wisner.
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67.   Berner, L. M.  1951.  Limnology of the lower Missouri River.  Ecol.
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68.   Berra, T. M. and G. E. Gunning.   1970.   Repopulation of experiment-
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69.   Bick, G.  H., L. E.  Hornuff, and E. N. Lambremont.  1953.  An eco-
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70.   Bidgood,  B.  F. and A. H. Berst.   1969.   Lethal temperatures for
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71.   Biggs, R.  1967.  Overboard soil disposal  I.  Interior report on
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72.   Biglane,  K.  E. and R. A. Lafleur.   1967.  Notes on estuarine pollu-
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73.   Bilton, H. T. and G. L. Robins.   1973.   The effects of starvation
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74.   Bishai, H. M.  1960.  The effect of water  currents on the survival
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75.   Bishai, H. M.  1960.  Upper lethal temperatures for larval salmonids.
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76.   Bishop, J. E. and H. B. N. Hynes.   1969.  Upstream movements of the
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77.   Biswell,  H.  H. and J. H. Gilman.   1961.   Brush management in relation
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78.   Biswell,  H.  H. and A. M. Schultz.   1958.  Effects of vegetation re-
      moval on spring flow.  Calif.  Fish and Game.  44(3): 211-230.

79.   Bjornn, T. C.  1971.  Trout and salmon movements in two Idaho streams
      as related to temperature, food,  stream flow, cover, and population
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80.   Black, E. C.  1953.  Upper lethal temperatures of some British Columbia
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81.   Black, J. D.  1949.  Changing fish populations as an index of pollu-
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82.   Blair, W. F.  1972.  Ecological aspects.  7-12.  In: Water, Man
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83.   Blaxter, J. H. S.  1960.  The effect of extremes of temperature on
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84.   Bloomfield, C. and J. K. Coulter.  1973.  Genesis and management of
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85.   Blumer, M., J. M. Hunt, J. Atema, and L. Stein.  1973.  Interaction
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86.*  Boccardy, J. A. and W. M. Spaulding, Jr.  1968.  Effects of surface
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87.   Bonn, E. W. and B. J. Follis.  1967.  Effects of hydrogen sulfide
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88.   Bonn, E. W. and B. J. Follis.  1967.  Effects of hydrogen sulfide
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89.   Bonnet, D. E.   1939.   Mortality of the cod egg in relation to tem-
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90.   Boone, E. and  L. G. M. Baas Becking.  1931.  Salt effects on eggs
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91.   Bormann, F. H.  and G. E. Likens.  1967.   Nutrient cycling.  Science.
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92.*  Bormann, F. H.,  G. E. Likens, and J. S.  Eaton.  1969.   Biotic regu-
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93.*  Borman, F. H.,  G. E.  Likens,  D.  W. Fisher, and R. S.  Pierce.  1968.
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94.*  Bourn, W.  S. and C. Cottam.  1950.  Some biological  effects of ditch-
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95.   Boussu, M. F.   1954.   Relationship between trout populations and
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 96.    Boyd,  C.  E.   1971.    The limnological role of  aquatic macrophytes
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 97.*  Boyd,  M.  B.,  R.  T.  Saucier,  J.  W.  Keeley,  R. L.  Montgomery, R.  D.
       Brown, D. B.  Mathis, and C.  J.  Guice.  1972.   Disposal of dredge
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       development  (Vicksburg, Miss.:   U.S. Army  Engineer Waterways Ex-
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 98.*  Bramble,  W.  C. and  R. H. Ashley.  1955.  Natural revegetation of
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 99.*  Branson,  F.  A.  1970.  Vegetation, runoff  and  sediment yield re-
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100.*  Braun, E. L.  and T. J. Beland.   1958.  Mendocino National Forest
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101.    Brett, J. R.   1952.  Temperature tolerance in  young Pacific salmon,
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102.    Brett, J. R.   1956.  Some principles in the thermal requirements
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103.*  Brett, J. R.  and D. A. Higgs.  1970.  Effect of  temperature on  the
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104.    Brett, J. R., M. Hollands, and D.  F. Alderdice.   1958.  The effect
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105.    Brett, J. R., J. E. Shelbourn,  and C. T. Shoop.   1969.  Growth rate
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106.    Briggs, J. C.  1948.  The quantitative effects of a dam upon the
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107.    Briggs, P. T. and J. S. O'Connor.   1971.  Comparison of shore-zone
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108.    Brinkhurst,  R. 0.  1965.  Observations on the recovery of a British
       river from gross organic pollution.  Hydrobiol.   25: 9-51.

109.    Brook, A. J.   1965.  Planktonic algae as indicators of lake types
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110.   Brookhaven National Laboratory.  1969.  Diversity and stability
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112.   Brooks, J. L. and G. E. Hutchinson.  1950.  On the rate of passive
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113.*  Brooks, J. W., J. C. Bartonek, D. R. Klein, D. L. Spencer, and
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114.*  Brown, C. L. and R. Clark.  1968.  Observations on dredging and
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115.   Brown, G. W. and J. T. Krygier.  1970.  Effects of clear-cutting
       on stream temperatures.  Water Resour. Res.  6(4): 1133-1139.

116.*  Buck, D. H.  1956.  Effects of turbidity on fish and fishing.
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117.   Buck, D. H.  1970.  Effects of turbidity on fish and fishing.  Trans.
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118.   Burbanck, W. D., M. E. Pierce, and G. C. Whiteley, Jr.  1956.  A
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       application of the ecotone concept.  Ecol. Monogr.  26: 213-243.

119.   Bureau of Mines.  1971.  Outer Continental Shelf oil, gas, sulfur,
       and salt, leasing, drilling, production, income, and related statis-
       tics, 1971 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological
       Survey), annual petroleum statements, Dec. 23, 1971, Bureau of Mines
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120.*  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.  1966.  Rare and endangered
       fish and wildlife of the United States.  U.S.  Dept.  Interior Resource
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121.   Burns, C. W. and F. H. Rigler.  1967.  Comparison of filtering rates
       of Daphnia rosea in lake water and in suspensions of yeast.  Limnol.
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122.*  Burns, J. W.  1970.  Spawning bed sedimentation studies in northern
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123.   Burns, J. W.  1972.  Some effects of logging and associated road
       construction on northern California streams.  Trans. Amer. Fish.
       Soc.  101(1): 1-17.

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124.   Burnside, K.  R.   1967.   The effects of channelization on fish popu-
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125.   Burrows, R. E.   1964.   Effects of accumulated excretory products
       on hatchery-reared salmonids.   U.S.F.  & W.S., Res.  Rept. 66. 12p.

126.*  Burton, D. T.,  E. L.  Morgan, and J. Cairns,  Jr.   1972.  Mortality
       curves of bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque)  simultaneously
       exposed to temperature  and zinc stress.  Trans.  Amer. Fish. Soc.
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127.*  Bury, R. B.  1972.  The effects of diesel fuel on a stream fauna.
       Calif. Fish and Game.   58(4):  291-295.

128.   Buscemi, P. A.   1958.   Littoral oxygen depletion produced by a
       cover of Elodea canadiensis.  Oikos.  9: 239-245.

129.*  Butler, P. A.  1952.  Effects of floodwaters on oysters in Mississippi
       Sound in 1950.   U.S.F.  & W.S., Res. Rept. 31.  20p.

130.   Butler, P. A.  1965.  Reaction of some estuarine mollusks to envir-
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131.   Butler, P. A.  1966.  Pesticides in the marine environment.  Pest-
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132.   Butler, P. A.  1966.  The problem of pesticides in estuaries.  Amer.
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133.   Butler, P. A.  1967.  Pesticides in the estuary.  Proc. Marsh and
       Estuary Mgmt. Sympsoium, La. State Univ.: 120-124.

134.   Butler, P. A.  1971.   Influence of pesticides on marine ecosystems.
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135.   Butler. P. A. and J.  B. Engle.  1950.   The 1950 opening of the
       Bonnet Carre Spillway—its effect on oysters.  U.S.F. & W.S., Spec.
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136.   Button, D. K.  1969.  Effect of clay on the availability of dilute
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138.   Cairns, J., Jr.  1967.  Suspended solids standards for the protection
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139.   Cairns, J., Jr., D. W. Albaugh, F. Busey, and M. D. Chanay.  1968.
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140.   Cairns, J., Jr., J. S. Crossman, K. L. Dickson, and E. E. Herricks.
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141.   Cairns, J., Jr. and K. L. Dickson.  1971.  A simple method for the
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142.   Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier.  1957.  The effects of temperature
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143.   Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier.  1958.  The effects of periodic
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144.   Cairns, J., Jr. and A. Scheier.  1964.  The effects of sublethal
       levels of zinc and of high temperature upon the toxicity of a
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145.   Calabrese, A.  1969.  Effect of acids and alkalies on survival of
       bluegills and largemouth bass.  U.S.F. & W.S., Tech. Pap. 42. lOp.

146.   Caldwell, J. M. and J. B. Lockett.  1965.  Effects of littoral
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       state of knowledge of factors affecting tidal hydraulics and re-
       lated phenomena (Vicksburg, Miss: U.S. Army Engineer Committee on
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147.*  Calhoun, A. J.  1953.  Distribution of striped bass fry in relation
       to major water diversions.  Calif. Fish and Game.  39(3): 279-299.

148.   Campbell, C. J. and W. A. Dick-Peddie.  1964.  Comparison of
       phreatophyte communities on the Rio Grande in New Mexico.  Ecol.
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149.   Campbell, N.  1961.  The growth of brown trout in acid and alkaline
       waterg.  Salm. Trout Mag. 1961: 47-51.

150.   Carlander, K. D.,  C. A. Carlson, V. Gooch, and T. Wenke.  1967.
       Populations of Hexagenia mayfly naiads in pool 19, Mississippi River,
       1959-1963.  Ecol.   48(5): 873-878.

151.   Carlson, C. A.  1968.  Summer bottom fauna of the Mississippi River,
       above Dam 19, Keokuk, Iowa.  Ecol.  49(1): 162-169.

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152.   Carter, B. T.   1950.   The movement of fishes through navigation
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153.   Carpenter, L.  V. and  L.  K. Herndon.  1933.   Acid  mine drainage from
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154.*  Casey, 0.  E.  1959.   The effects  of placer mining (dredging)  on a
       trout stream.   Idaho  Dept. Fish & Game, Ann. Progr.  Rept.,  Proj.
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155.   Chamberlain, J. L.   1959.  Gulf coast marsh  vegetation as food of
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156.   Chamberlain, L. L.   1972.  Primary productivity in a new and an
       older California reservoir.  Calif. Fish and Game.  58(4):  254-267.

157.   Chambers,  G. V. and A. K. Sparks.  1959. An ecological survey of
       the Houston Ship Channel and adjacent bays.   Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci.
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158.*  Chapman, C. R.  1966.  The Texas  basins project.   83-92.  In: R.  F.
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159.   Chapman, C. R.  1967.  Channelization and spoiling in Gulf Coast
       and south Atlantic  estuaries.  Proc.  Marsh  and Estuary Mgmt.  Symposium,
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160.*  Chapman, D. W.  1962.  Effects of logging upon fish resources of
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161.*  Chapman, D. W. and  R. Demory.  1963.   Seasonal changes in the food
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162.   Charles, J. R.  1966.  Effects of coal-washer wastes on biological
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291.   Erickson, S. J., N. Lackie, and T. E. Maloney.  1970.  A screening
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293.   Fagerstrom,  T.  and A. Jernelov.  1971.  Formation of methyl mercury
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299.   Fimreite, N.,  W. N. Holsworth,  J.  A. Keith, P. A. Pearce, and I. M.
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320.   Fulton, L. A.   1970.  Spawning  areas and abundance of steelhead
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323.*  Gagliano,  S. M.  and J.  L. van Beek.  1973.  Environmental manage-
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324.   Galtsoff,  P. S.   1956.   Ecological changes affecting the pro-
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325.   Galtsoff,  P. S.   1964.   The american oyster Crassostrea virginica
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326.   Gammon, J. R.  1970.  The effect of inorganic sediment on stream
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327.*  Gangmark,  H. A.  and R.  G. Bakkala.   1960.  A comparative study
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328.*  Gangmark, H. A.  and R.  D. Broad.  1956.  Further observations on
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329.   Gannon, J. E. and A. M. Beeton.  1969.  Studies on the effects
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330.   Card, R.  1972.  Persistence of headwater check dams in a trout
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331.*  Garside, E. T.  1966.  Effects of oxygen in relation to temperature
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332.*  Gaufin, A. R. and C. M. Tarzwell.  1952.  Aquatic invertebrates
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333.   Gaufin, A. R. and C. M. Tarzwell.  1955.  Environmental changes  in
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334.   Gaufin, A. R. and C. M. Tarzwell.  1956.  Aquatic macro-invertebrate
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335.   Gauley, J. R.  1966.  Effect of water velocity on passage of
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336.   Gauley, J. R.  1966.  Effect of water velocity on passage of
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337.   Gerking, S. D.  1949.  Characteristics of stream fish populations.
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339.   Gerking, S. D.  1953.  Evidence for the concepts of home range
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341.   Geyer, R. A.  1955.  Effect of the Gulf of Mexico and the
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342.   Geyer, R. A.  1970.  Impacts of environmental changes on Gulf
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343.   Gibson, E. S. and F. E. J. Fry.  1954.  The performance of the
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345.   Gillespie, W. H.   1964.  Effects of coal strip mining in West
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346.   Glime, J. M. and R. M. Clemons.  1972.  Species diversity of
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347.   Glud, John B.  1951.  The effect of man on shellfish populations.
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349.   Godcharles, M. F.  1971.  A study of the effects of a commercial
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350.*  Goldman, C.  R.  1961.   The contribution of alder trees (Alnus
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351.   Gordon, R.  N.  1965.   Fisheries problems associated with hydro-
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352.   Gorham, E.  and D.  J.  Swaine.   1965.   The influence of oxidizing
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353.   Gorham, F.  P.  1899.   The gas-bubble disease of fish and its
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354.   Gosz, J. R., G. E. Likens, and F.  H. Bormann.   1972.  Nutrient
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355.   Graham, J.  M.  1949.   Some effects of temperature and oxygen
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358.   Greenberg,  A. E.  1964.  Plankton of the Sacramento River.
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359.   Greenfield, L. J.   1952.  The distribution of marine borers in
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360.   Griffith, W. H., Jr.   1962-63.  Salt as a possible limiting factor
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361.   Grigg, R. W. and R. S. Kiwala.  1970.  Some ecological effects
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362.   Grimes, C.  B.  1971.   Thermal addition studies of the Crystal
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363.   Grimes, C.  B. and J.  A. Mountain.  1971.  Effects of thermal
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364.   Grindley, J.  1946.  Toxicity to rainbow trout and minnows of
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365.   Grindley, J. R.  1964.  Effect of low salinity water on the vertical
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366.   Gullion, G. W.   1970.  Factors influencing ruffed grouse popula-
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367.*  Gunning, G. E.   1959.  The sensory basis for homing in the
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368.   Gunning, G. E.  and T. M. Berra.  1968.  Repopulation of decimated
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369.*  Gunning, G. E.  and T. M. Berra.  1969.  Fish repopulation of
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370.   Gunning, G. E.  and W. M. Lewis.  1955.  The fish population of
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371.   Gunter, G.  1952.  Historical changes in the Mississippi River
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372.   Gunter, G.  1953.  The relationship of the Bonnet Carre spillway
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373.   Gunter, G.  1956.  Land, water, wildlife and flood control in
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374.   Gunter, G.  1956.  Some relations of faunal distributions to
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376.   Gunter, G.  1961.  Some relations of estuarine organisms to
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377.   Gunter, G.  1969.  Reef shell or mudshell dredging in coastal bays
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378.   Gunter, G.  1972.  Use of dead reef shell and its relation to
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379.   Gunter, G.,  B. S. Ballard, A. Venkataramaiah.   1973.   Salinity
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380.   Gunter, G.,  B. S. Ballard, and A.  Venkataramaiah.  1974.   A
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381.   Gunter, G. and G. E. Hall.  1963.   Biological  investigations of
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382.   Gunter, G. and G. E. Hall.  1965.   A biological investigation
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383.   Gunter, G. and J. McKee.  1960.  On oysters and sulfite waste
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384.   Gunter, G. and W. E. Shell, Jr.  1958.  A study of an estuarine
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385.*  Hair, J. R.   1971.  Upper lethal temperature and thermal shock
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386.   Hale, J. G.  and D. A. Hilden.  1970.  The influence of flow on
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387.   Hall, C. A.  S.  1972.  Migration and metabolism in a temperate
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388.   Hall, D. J., W. E. Cooper, and E.  E. Warner.  1970.  An experi-
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392.   Hamilton, J. D.  1961.  The effect of sand-pit washings on a
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394.*  Hansen, D. R.  1971.  Stream channelization effects on fishes
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397.   Harmon, B. G., C. H. Thomas, and L. Glasgow.  1960.  Waterfowl
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398.   Barrel, R. C., B. J. Davis, and T. C. Dorris.  1967.  Stream
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406.   Hasler, A.  D.   1956.   Influence of environmental reference
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407.   Hasler, A.  D.   1960.   Guideposts of migrating fishes.   Science,
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408.*  Hasler, A.  D.   1966.   Underwater Guideposts.   University of Wis-
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410.   Hasler, A.  D.  and W.  J.  Wisby.  1951.  Discrimination of stream
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415.   Heald, E. J.   1970.  The Everglades estuary:   an example of
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441.   Hopkins, S.  H., J.  W.  Anderson, and K. Horvath.  1973.  The
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446.   Hubbs,  C.  1965.  Developmental temperature tolerance and rates of
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450.   Hubbs, C. and W. F. Hettler.  1964.  Observations on the tolera-
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595.   MacLean, J. A. and J. H.  Gee.   1971.   Effects of temperature
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635.   McNeil, W. J.  1966.  Distribution of spawning pink salmon in
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667.   Morrison, G.  1971.  Dissolved oxygen requirements for embryonic
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670.   Motten, A. F. and C. A. S. Hall.  1972.   Edaphic factors over-
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671.   Mount, D. I.  1966.  The effect of total hardness and pH on acute
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672.   Moyle, J. B. and W. D. Clothier.  1959.   Effects of management
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673.   Moyle, J. B. and N. Hotchkiss.  1945.  The aquatic and marsh
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674.   Mullan, J.  W.  and R.  L.  Applegate.   1969.    Use of an echosounder
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675.   Murphy, D.  A.  and J.  H.  Ehrenreich.   1965.   Effects of timber
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676.   Musser, J.  J.   1963.   Description of physical environment and  of
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677.   National Academy of Sciences.  1969.  Eutrophication;  Causes,
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678.   Naylor, E.   1965.  Effects of heated effluents upon marine and
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680.   Nebeker, A. V.  1972.  Effect of low oxygen concentration on
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681.   Needham, P. R. and A. C. Jones.  1959.  Flow, temperature, solar
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682.   Neel, J. K.  1951.  Interrelations of certain physical and
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683.   Neel, J. K.  1953.  Certain limnological features of a polluted
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685.   Nelson, D.  J.  and D.  C.  Scott.  1962.  Role of detritus in the
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686.   Nelson, J.  S.   1965.   Effects of fish introductions and hydro-
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687.   Nelson, W.  R.   1969.   Biological characteristics of the sauger
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688.   Niering, W. A.  1970.  The dilemma of the coastal wetlands:
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689.   Nimmo, D. R.,  P. D. Wilson, R. R. Blackman, and A. J. Wilson, Jr.
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691.   O'Connel, R. L. and N. A. Thomas.  1965.  Effect of benthic
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692.   O'Connor, D. J.  1965.  Estuarine distribution of nonconservative
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694.   Odum. E. P.  1961.  The role of tidal marshes in estuarine
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695.   Odum, E. P. and H. T. Odum.  1972.  Natural areas as components
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696.   Odum, E. P. and A. E. Smalley.  1959.  Comparison of population
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697.   Odum, H. T.   I960.  Analysis  of  diurnal oxygen  curves  for  the  assay
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698.*  Odum, H. T. 1963.  Productivity measurements in Texas turtle
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699.   Odum, H. T. and D. K. Caldwell.  1955.  Fish respiration in the
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700.   Odum, H. T., and R. F. Wilson.  1962.  Further studies on re-
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701.*  Odum,  W.  E.   1970.   Insidiuous alteration of the estuarine
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702.   Oglesby,  R.  T.  1969.  Effects of controlled nutrient dilution
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705.   Ong, K.  and  J. D. Costlow,  Jr.  1970.   The effect of salinity and
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706.   Ortolano, L.  (ed.).  1973.   Analyzing  the Environmental  Impacts
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707.   Osborn,  B.  1952.  Rain and erosion.  Tex. J.  Sci.  4(3):  300-324.

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709.   Otto,  R.  G.   1971.   Effects of salinity on the survival  and growth
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710.   Owens, M., G. Knowles,  and A. Clark.  1969.  The prediction of the
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711.   Paloumpis, A. A.  1957.  The effects of drought conditions on the
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712.   Parsons, J.  D.  1956.  Factors influencing excessive flows of
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714.   Parsons, J.  W.  1952.  A biological approach to the study and
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715.   Parsons,  J.  W.   1953.   Reference material on "Acid coal mine
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716.   Parsons,  W.  T.   1963.   Water hyacinth,  a pest of  world waterways.
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717.   Patrick,  R.   1949.   A  proposed biological measure of stream
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718.   Patrick,  R., J.  Cairns, Jr., and S. S.  Roback.  1967.   Eco-
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719.   Patrick,  R., J.  Cairns, and A. Scheier.   1968.  The relative
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720.   Patrick,  W.  H.,  Jr. and M.  E. Tusneem.   1972.  Nitrogen loss
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722.   Pearce, J. B.  1969.  Thermal addition  and the benthos, Cape
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724.   Penfound, W. and E. S. Hathaway.  1938.   Plant communities in the
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725.*  Pennak, R. W. and E. D. Van Gerpen.  1947.  Bottom fauna
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726.*  Peters, J. C.  1967.  Effects on a trout stream of sediment from
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727.*  Peters, J. C. and W. Alvord.  1964.  Man-made channel alterations
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728.   Pfitzer,  D.  W.   1954.   Investigations of waters below storage
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729.   Philipson,  G.  N.   1954.   The effect of water flow and oxygen
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730.   Phillipps,  R.  W.  and E.  W.  Claire.   1966.   Intragravel movement
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732.   Pickering,  Q.  H.   1968.   Some effects of dissolved oxygen
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733.   Pierce, N.  D.   1970.  Inland lake dredging evaluation.  Wis.
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737.   Pomeroy, L. R., E. E. Smith, and C. M. Grant.  1965.  The exchange
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741.    Prakash,  A., M.  A.  Rashid,  A.  Jensen, and D.  V.  Subba Rao.
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745.    Ragotzkie, R. A. and R. A.  Bryson.  1953.  Correlation of currents
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747.    Ravera, 0. and V.  Tonolli.   1956.   Body size and number of eggs
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750.    Regier, H. A. and H. F. Henderson.  1973.  Towards a broad
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751.    Reid,  G.  K., Jr.  1955.   A summer  study of the biology and
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753.    Reid,  G.  K., Jr.  1961.   Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries.
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754.    Reif,  C.  B.   1939.   The effect of stream conditions on lake
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756.    Reisen, W.  K. and R. Prins.   1972.  Some ecological relation-
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757.    Reish, D. J., and H. A. Winter.   1954.  The ecology of Alamitos
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758.    Renfro, W.  C.  1963.  Gas-bubble mortality of fishes in Galveston
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759.    Renouf, R.  N.  1972.  Waterfowl utilization of beaver ponds
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762.    Ridgway, G.  J., J. E. Gushing, and G. L. Durall.  1958.
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763.    Riller, R.  E., and C. JM. Coker.  1955.  Effects of naval
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764.    Roback, S.  S. and J. W. Richardson.  1969.  The effects of acid
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765.    Robel, R. J.  1961.  Water depth and turbidity in relation to
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767.*  Roebeck, G. C., C. Henderson, and R. C. Palange.  1954.  Water
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768.*  Rollins, G. L.  1973.  Relationships between soil salinity and
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769.   Rosenzweig, M. L.  1971.  Paradox of enrichment:  destabilization
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770.   Rounsefell, G. A.  1972.  Ecological effects of offshore construc-
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771.   Ruhr, C. E.  1957.  Effect of stream impoundment in Tennessee
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772.   Rupp, R.  1955.  Beaver-trout relationships in the headwaters
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773.   Rutner, F.  1963.  Fundamentals of Limnology.  3rd ed.  Univer-
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774.   Ryden, J. C., J. K. Syers, and R. F. Harris.  1973.  Phosphorus
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777.   Sameoto, D. D.  1969.  Physiological tolerances and behavior
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782.*  Saunders,  J.  W.  and M.  W.  Smith.   1965.   Changes in stream
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783.   Saunders,  Richard L. and John H.  Gee.   1964.   Movements  of young
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796.   Seabloom, R. W.  1958.  Water quality studies in the Wenatchee
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801.   Shaw, P. A. and J. A. Maga.  1943.  The effect of mining silt
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804.   Shearer, L. A., B. J. Jahn, and L. Lenz.  1969.  Deterioration
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808.   Sheridan, W. L.  1962.  Waterflow through a salmon spawning riffle
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811.    Shatter, D.  S.   1961.   Survival of brook trout from egg to
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814.    Siefert, R.  E.   1969.   Biology of the white crappie in Lewis
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816.    Simmons, G.  M.,  Jr.  1972.   A preliminary report on the use  of
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817.    Simmons, H.  B.   1965.   Channel depth as a factor in estuarine
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818.    Simmons, H.  B.,  J. Harrison, and C. J. Huval.   1971.  Predicting
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819.    Simmons, H.  B.,  and F. A. Herrmann.  1969.  Some effects of
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823.   Sindermann, C.  J.  1968.  Oyster mortalities, with  particular
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824.   Singleton, J. R.  1949.  Coastal drainage problems in relation to
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836.   Smith, P. W. and R. Larimore.  1963.  The fishes of Champaign
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837.   Smith, R. F., A. H. Swartz, and W. H. Massmann, (eds).  1966.  A_
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838.   Smith, R.  H.   1953.   A study of waterfowl production on artificial
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840.   Smith, W.  G.   1970.   Spartina 'die-back1 in Louisiana marshlands.
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852.   St. Amant, L. S.  1971.  Impacts of oil on the Gulf Coast.   Trans.
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866.*  Stephens,  G.  C.   1967.   Dissolved organic material as a nutritional
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893.*  Tabb, D.  C., D.  L.  Dubrow,  and A.  E.  Jones.   1962.   Studies on
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921.   Townsend, L. D. and H. Cheyne.  1944.  The influence of hydrogen
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-------
                                  362
922.   Trautman, M.  B.   1939.   The effects of man-made modifications
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923.*  Trautman, M.  B.   1957.   The Fishes of Ohio with Illustrated Keys.
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924.   Trotzky, H. M. and R. W. Gregory.   1974.   The effects of water
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925.*  Tsai, C. F.  1973.  Water quality  and fish life below sewage out-
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926.   Turekian, K.  L.   1971.   Rivers,  tributaries, and estuaries.  9-73.
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927.*  Turner, J. L. and T. C.  Farley.   1971.  Effects of temperature,
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928.   Turner, W. R.  1958.  The effects  of acid mine pollution of the
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929.   Turner, W. R.  1969.  Life history of menhadens in the eastern
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-------
                                  363
936.   U.S. Dept. of the Interior.  1968.   Report of the committee on
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948.   Vacarro, R.  S., G.  D.  Grice, G.  T.  Rowe, and P.  H.  Wiebe.   1972.
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                                  366
977.*  Weaver, C.  R.   1963.   Influence of water velocity upon orientation
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988.   Westgard, R. L.  1964.  Physical and biological aspects of gas-
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                                   367
 992.*  Whitmore,  C.  M.,  C.  E.  Warren, and P.  Doudoroff.   1960.   Avoidance
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 993.*  Whitney, A. N. and J. E.  Bailey.   1959.   Detrimental effects of
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 994.   Wickett, W. Percy.  1954.  The oxygen supply to salmon eggs in
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 995.   Wiebe, A.  H.   1927.   Biological survey of the Upper Mississippi
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 996.*  Wiebe, A.  H., A.  M.  McGarock, A.  C. Fuller, and A. C. Markus.
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 997.*  Wieser, W. 1959.  The effect of grain size on the distribution
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 998.   Wiespape,  L.  M. and D.  V. Aldrich.  1970.  Effects of temperature
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 999.   Wilhm, J.  L.  and T.  C.  Dorris.  1966.   Species diversity of
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                                   369
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                                 370






                              GLOSSARY






adaptation - the adjustment of an organism or population to its environ-




     ment as a result of long-term evolutionary change.




aerobic - the condition associated with the presence of  free oxygen in




     the environment.




allochthonous - of outside origin; .e.£.,  organic matter  of terrestrial




     origin which enters the aquatic environment.




anaerobic - the condition associated with the absence or free oxygen in




     the environment.




aquifer - an underground water bearing stratum of permeable rock, sand,




     or gravel.




atmosphere - all the air surrounding the earth.




benthos - those organisms which live on or in the bottom of a body of




     water.




biogenic elements - chemical elements which are necessary for living




     organisms.




biogeochemical cycles - the more or less circular pathways followed by




     individual chemical elements as they pass from living to non-living




     and back to living portions of the ecosystem.




biosphere - that portion of the earth and its atmosphere in which living




     organisms exist.




brackish water - water whose salt content is intermediate between that




     of fresh water and that of the sea.




caisson - a hollow box which can be lowered into the water and pumped




     out to produce relatively dry working conditions under water.




carcinogenic - capable of causing cancer.

-------
                                 371
climax community - the final stage in the ecological development of an


     area in which the community is able to reproduce itself indefinitely


     under existing conditions.


community - all the plants and animals of an area (or volume) which form


     a functional assemblage.


continental shelf - the submerged margin of a continent extending to a


     depth of approximately 200 meters, where the steep descent to the


     ocean bottom begins.


decomposition - the combined processes whereby microorganisms recycle


     dead organic matter.


dike - a dam or embankment erected to prevent flooding of a lowland area.

dolphin - a buoy or spar used in mooring a ship.


dominant species - a species which is important in a community because


     of its size, abundance, or controlling influence.


dredge spoil - material removed from a wetland bottom during dredging


     operations.


ecosystem - the community and its non-living environment, considered


     collectively.


epilimnion - the surface layer of a thermally-stratified body of water.


erosion - the wearing away of soil or rock by the forces of wind or water.


estuary - the expanded basin at the mouth of a river subject to the


     influence of tides and usually of intermediate salinity.


ferric ion - the condition of the element iron in which it cannot accept

                                                I I i
     more oxygen or give up more electrons (= Fe   ).


ferrous ion - a condition of the element iron in which it can accept

     more oxygen or give up more electrons (= Fe"^").

-------
                                 372
food chain - the series of nutritional steps through which food passes




     from plants to the most predatory animals;  also the nutritional




     steps involved in parasite chains and microbial (decomposer)  chains.




food web - the interlocking pattern formed by parallel and cross-connecting




     food chains.




genetic exchange - the flow of hereditary material between partially




     isolated populations of a given species.




genetic selection - the process whereby certain hereditary materials are




     favored over others, in the passage from one generation to the next.




     In the long-term this results in evolutionary adaptation.




groyne (groin) - a stone or concrete barrier placed approximately per-




     pendicular to the shoreline, and extending both inshore and off-




     shore, to aid in stabilizing the beachline against wave and current




     erosion.




habitat - the natural environment in which an organism lives.




hydrogen sulfide - (H^S) a deadly gas, highly soluble in water, which is




     produced by the partial breakdown of organic matter in anoxic




     environments.




hydrosphere - all the aquatic environments of the earth's surface.




hypolimnion - the bottom layer of a thermally-stratified body of water.




leaching - the removal of soluble materials from soil (as well as mining




     spoils, dredge spoil banks, etc.) by water which passes through.




levee - an embankment built alongside a river to prevent high water from




     flooding the bordering land.




life history - the series of stages through which an organism passes




     during its entire lifetime.

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                                 373
lithosphere - all the solid surface of the earth, ji_.e_.» the terrestrial




     soil, rock, etc.




metabolism - all the chemical and physical processes which collectively




     make up the internal functioning of an organism.




nekton - all aquatic animals which are large enough and powerful enough




     to maintain their positions in the water against the prevailing




     current.




nitrate - the chemical ion resulting from the complete oxidation of




     nitrogen (=NO ~).




nitrite - one of the incompletely oxidized states of nitrogen (=NO? ).




nutrient - an organic or inorganic chemical substance required for the




     growth and reproduction of organisms.




organic detritus - dead organic material that is in the process of decom-




     position.




organic molecule - any chemical molecule containing the element carbon




     (and usually hydrogen and oxygen) which is produced by living organisms




     and is not in the completely oxidized condition.




overburden - the soil, rock, and other material which lies on top of a




     shallow mineral deposit.




oxidized state - the condition of a chemical element, ion, or molecule




     in which it cannot accept any more oxygen (or give up any more




     electrons).




oxygen demand - the quantity of oxygen utilized by an aquatic system (or




     a sample of the system) during a given period of time.  This consists




     of two components.  Biological oxygen demand (B.O.D.) is the amount




     of oxygen required by the organisms for respiration during the period

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                                 374
     of time.  This gives a rough measure of the amount of readily




     oxidizable organic matter present.  Chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D.)




     is the amount of oxygen required for non-biological oxidation pro-




     cesses during the period of time.




pH - negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration, used to indi-




     cate the acidity or alkalinity of an aquaeous solution.  pH 7.0 is




     neutral; values below that are considered acid, and values above




     are considered alkaline.




photosynthesis - the chemical processes through which green plants




     manufacture organic molecules from inorganic using sunlight as an




     energy source.




plankton - the microscopic, free-floating plants and animals of aquatic




     ecosystems.  These include microscopic plants (phytoplanktoii) and




     microscopic animals (zooplankton).




population - a group of organisms of the same species which live in the




     same general area and which freely interbreed.




production - the quantity of organic matter produced by a living system




     (i.e.., by an organism, a group of organisms, or an ecosystem).




     Two types of production are recognized.  Primary production is the




     quantity of organic matter produced by green plants through photo-




     synthesis.  Secondary production  is the quantity of animal material




     produced.




productivity - the rate of production  of organic matter by living




     organisms (i.«,§_., the amount per unit time).




reduced state - the  condition of a chemical element, ion, or molecule




     in which it can accept additional oxygen  (or give up additional




     electrons).

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                                 375
respiration - biological oxidation processes which liberate energy for




     metabolism.  Two types of respiration are recognized.  Aerobic




     respiration involves the use of oxygen (as the hydrogen acceptor),




     and the end products are carbon dioxide and water.  Anaerobic




     respiration involves the use of a chemical other than oxygen (as




     the hydrogen acceptor),  and the end products may be sulfides and




     other such compounds.




revetment - a facing of stone, cement, sandbags, or other stable material




     used to protect a wall or bank of earth from erosion.




riparian environment - the terrestrial environment adjacent to a body of




     water which influences and is often influenced by the water body




     (includes bank, floodplain, and at least the lower bluff of a




     stream, lake, etc.).




riprap - rock, stone, or other rough material placed on stream banks,




     dam faces, and other structures to protect against erosion by the




     water.




sediment load - all particulate material (inorganic or organic) sus-




     pended in or transported downstream by water (may include clay,




     silt, sand, organic detritus, etc.).




sedimentation - the settling out of suspended matter from the water to




     the bottom.




seston - very fine matter suspended in water (with diameters usually




     less than 1.0 mm).




species - a group of populations in which the organisms are capable of




     exchanging genetic material (jL.e^, of successfully interbreeding).




species diversity - the variety of types of organisms present in an area.




     For purposes of quantification the variety of species may be related




     to their relative abundance in the form of a species diversity index.

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                                 376
spoil bank - a shoal (in the water)  or a pile or ridge (on land)  created
     by the dumping of dredged material taken from the bottom of  a wetland
     area.
stratification - division into layers (as a body of water which becomes
     separated into a warmer upper and cooler lower layer).   Stratifica-
     tion inhibits internal circulation and mixing of the layers, often
     leading to depleted nutrients in the upper layer and depleted oxygen
     in the lower layer.
stream drift - the material which collects in fine-meshed nets stretched
     across or suspended in streams.  Drift includes free-floating
     aquatic organisms as well as organic detritus.
stress - a strain or pressure applied to an organism (or group of
     organisms).  Sometimes used to refer to the state or condition of
     an organism or group to which the pressure has been applied.  All
     organisms which are existing under suboptimal conditions are subject
     to some degree of stress.
stress response - the response of an organism (or group of organisms)
     to an unfavorable or stress-producing factor.  Two types of  stress
     response are recognized.  Generalized response is a response to
     stress itself and bears no relation to the nature of the stress
     agent.  Specific response is an adjustment to the particular type
     of stress agent, e_.£., sweating is a specific response to high
     temperature.
succession - the orderly process of community change, involving sequential
     replacement of regular stages, until the stable climax condition is
     reached.
sulfate - the chemical ion resulting from the complete oxidation of sulfur
     (=so4=).

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                                 377
sulfide - one of the incompletely oxidized states of sulfur (=S ).  It




     may exist as hydrogen sulfide, iron sulfide, lead sulfide, etc.




     Most sulfides are highly toxic to living systems.




synergism - the interaction of two or more factors to produce an effect




     on a living system which is greater than the simple sum of the




     effect produced by each factor acting alone.  In essence, one




     factor multiplies the biological effect of the other.




tailwater - the water in a river or canal immediately downstream from a




     structure such as a dam.




thermocline - the narrow zone, in a thermally stratified body of water,




     which separates the warmer surface layer from the cooler bottom




     layer.  It is characterized by a steep thermal gradient.




tolerance - an organism's capacity to endure or adapt to unfavorable




     environmental conditions.




transpiration - the loss of water from plants, normally as vapor.




turbidity - the condition of water resulting from the presence of




     suspended material, often expressed as interference with light




     transmission.



water table - the level in the soil below which the ground is saturated




     with water.




wetland - land containing high quantities of soil moisture, i...e., sub-




     merged or where the water table is at or near the surface for most




     of the year.

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                                378
                               INDEX






     To facilitate its use the present index has been divided into six




subject area categories:  biological group, construction activity or




structure, environment type, environmental factor, geographic area,




and miscellaneous.  This division facilitates the location of page refer-




ences if the user simply considers the category of the desired reference.




If the information cannot be located in the expected category, the




miscellaneous section should be consulted.  The categorization of




references also facilitates search for dual or multiple-category infor-




mation by a method similar to triangulation.  For example, to locate




information on the effect of levees on waterfowl one compares the page




numbers given for "levees" (under the construction category) with page




numbers given for "birds" (under the biological group category).  The




coincidence of page numbers should reveal the location of the appro-




priate information.

-------
                                379
                        A. BIOLOGICAL GROUP


fauna

   general, 29, 181, 208, 223, 237, 256, 262, 266, 273

   amphibian, 65, 68

   bird, 65, 68-69, 72-74, 181, 196, 200-203, 211, 227, 229-230

   fish, 29, 65, 68, 71-74, 156, 181, 195, 200-201, 211-213, 215-216,
         219-222, 224-225, 227, 229-233, 239, 242-243, 246-250, 253,
         255, 257, 259-260, 263, 265, 267, 269, 277, 280

   invertebrate, 24, 65, 68-69, 71-73, 181, 194-195, 201, 211-213,
         215-216, 218-224, 227-233, 242-243, 245-246, 249-250, 252, 256,
         263, 266-267, 270, 275, 277

   mammal, 65, 68-69, 196, 201-202, 204, 229-230

   reptile, 200
flora

   general, 66-67, 70, 72, 151, 164, 171, 199, 207-208, 237, 256, 262,
         266, 273, 275

   alga, 62, 65, 70, 72-73, 204, 206, 222, 229, 235-237, 241, 244, 249,
         251, 261

   aquatic, floating, 65, 163, 204, 206, 209, 222

          , rooted, 24-25, 27, 62, 65-66, 68, 181, 203-204, 209, 211-212,
                  222, 226-229, 236-237, 239, 249-251, 261, 266, 283

   marsh grass, 20-21, 64-66, 72

   shrub, 20-21, 27, 65, 69, 227

   tree, 20-21, 27, 64-65, 67-69, 73, 130, 196, 200, 203-206, 217, 227,
         255
               B. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY OR STRUCTURE


blasting, 78, 98, 100, 108-109, 150

breakwater, 77, 115-117

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                               380
bridge, 92-95, 110, 138, 161, 180-180c, 272

bulkhead, 119-120, 266

caisson, 95, 117, 120

canal, 83-84, 111, 134-136, 157, 161-162, 165, 171-173, 179, 180b, 189,
      226-227, 229-230, 258, 261, 266, 270-272, 279-280, 282-283

channel, 77, 93-94, 106, 110-111, 134, 143, 146, 154, 161, 163-168, 171,
      180-180c, 181, 188-189, 200-203, 209-210, 214, 217-220, 224, 272

cofferdam, 102, 104, 150

culvert, 92-94, 138

dam, 29, 77, 100-106, 110-111, 125, 143, 146, 149-160, 179, 180-180c,
      181, 185-187, 190, 194-195, 203, 205, 210, 212-213, 219-220, 222,
      253, 256, 258, 264, 267, 271-273, 277, 279, 282

demolition, 88-89

devegetation, 76, 78, 80, 83-84, 89-91, 126, 128-129, 131-132, 134,
      136-139, 143-144, 153, 179-183, 185, 188, 197-199, 203, 205, 211,
      217, 222, 254, 264, 272, 275, 280

dike, 82-83, 110

ditch, 77, 83-86, 106-107, 110, 130, 133-136, 138, 152, 166, 180-180c,
      197, 199, 201, 209, 214, 217, 227, 272, 280, 282, 284

dragline, 80, 84, 92, 98, 108, 110, 123, 140-141, 163

dredge, 77, 108, 110-114, 116-117, 122, 125, 134, 140-141, 152, 155,
      161-173, 176-177, 179, 180-180c, 188-190, 197, 232, 245-246, 264,
      270, 272, 275, 277, 279, 282

dump and fill, 77-79, 82-83, 98, 106-110, 113, 116-117, 125, 131, 138,
      140, 157, 161-163, 165-170, 172-174, 176, 180-180c, 190, 197, 199,
      280, 282

excavation, 78-80, 82-85, 88-91, 102, 125, 130, 133, 140-141, 175, 184,
      197, 199, 234, 269

groyne (see jetty)

irrigation, 83-84, 149-150, 152, 154-156, 210, 216, 220-221

jetty, 118, 156, 174-175

levee, 78, 82-83, 110, 113, 166, 196-197, 199, 201, 203, 208, 210, 213,
      226, 271-272, 279-280, 282, 284

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                                381
mining

   general, 29, 77, 80, 98-100, 122-125, 131, 140-149, 179, 180-180c,
         184, 190, 197, 199, 209, 258-259, 264, 269, 271

   auger, 142

   contour, 142

   drift, 99-101, 142, 184

   drilling, 100, 122, 142, 177

   offshore, 77, 122, 177

   open pit, 98, 125, 140-141, 184

   placer, 140-141, 184, 197

   quarrying, 98, 141, 184

   strip, 98-101, 125, 140-143, 184


mooring, 77, 119, 121, 176

overburden removal, 80, 82, 98, 141, 184

pier, 110, 119-120, 176, 272

pipeline construction, 77, 83-85, 87, 123-124, 133, 136, 176, 178

port, 77, 110, 119-120, 176, 272

riprap, 82-83, 118, 197

seawall, 77, 118, 174

spoil, 77, 98, 101, 107-108, 110, 113, 125, 134, 141-146, 157, 161-170,
      172-173, 179, 180-180c, 184, 188-190, 197, 204, 207-208, 217, 232,
      241, 246, 258-260, 264-265, 271, 280, 284

stream diversion, 102, 143, 146

stream straightening, 131, 134, 164, 167, 180b, 188, 217

surfacing, 77-81, 128-130, 180-180c, 197, 199, 254

topsoil removal, 126, 128-129, 136-139, 142, 144, 179, 180, 182-183,
      197-198

tunneling, 96-98, 138-139, 142, 180-180c, 184

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                               382
                       C.  ENVIRONMENT TYPE


bay, 25, 59, 161, 166, 169-170, 180-180c, 189, 226, 229, 231

beach, 68, 126, 156, 174-175, 180, 187, 272

bog, 199, 257-258

continental shelf, 25-26,  55, 59, 73-75, 155-156, 160, 163, 166, 172,
      174-176, 180-180c, 187, 231-232, 289

desert, 55

estuary, 21-25, 54-55, 59, 70-73, 155, 159, 161, 166, 169-171, 176, 179,
      180-180c, 187, 189-190, 194, 210, 226, 229-234, 258, 262, 266, 273,
      277, 282-283, 289

forest, 54, 290

grass flat, 27, 59, 70, 73, 239, 283

grassland, 54, 69, 290

impoundment (see reservoir)

lagoon, 25-26, 59, 175

lake, 59, 68, 80, 125, 143, 149, 151, 153-154, 166, 200-202, 237, 258,
      262, 273

marsh

   general, 55, 68, 107, 161, 163, 179, 180-180c, 196, 199, 257-258, 279,
         282-283

   coastal, 26-27, 54, 59, 70-73, 157, 162, 169, 171-173, 179, 189, 210,
         226-228, 230, 266-267, 271, 279, 282-283

   inland, 20-21, 59, 64-68, 151, 153-154, 169, 189, 200, 202


mud flat, 59, 72

ocean, 55

oyster reef, 59

pond, 68, 151, 153-154, 199, 236, 243, 259, 262, 282

reservoir, 111, 149-155, 157, 168, 203-204, 206, 209-210, 212, 214, 219,
      222, 256, 259, 271,  273, 283

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                                383
riparian environment

   general, 68-69, 76-100, 125-126, 135, 138, 140, 152, 179, 180-180c,
         184-185, 187-188, 196, 198-200, 203, 206-207, 210, 217, 221-223,
         234, 255, 272, 275, 280, 284

   bank, 209-211, 217, 247, 283

   floodplain, 20-21, 54, 68-69, 77, 86, 130, 134, 143, 154, 158, 161,
         166, 168, 180, 182-186, 188, 196, 199-200, 202, 204-205, 207,
         213, 264, 271-272, 279-280, 282


sound, 25-26

spring, 59, 130, 147, 180, 282

stream

   general, 15-20, 29, 54-55, 57, 59, 62, 64, 80, 86, 102, 104, 125, 130,
         132, 135, 137, 142-143, 149, 151-154, 156, 158-159, 171, 180-180c,
         181, 183, 185-187, 190, 194-196, 198-199, 201, 206, 213, 215-216,
         218, 220-223, 229, 232, 236-237, 240, 243, 255-261, 264, 271,
         273-276, 279, 282-283, 289

   bayou, 64, 171

   continuous flow section, 19, 62, 64, 245

   pool, 19, 62-64, 132, 166, 179, 180b, 216, 222, 224, 245, 247, 249,
         266, 271

   riffle, 19, 29, 62-64, 132, 157-158, 164, 179, 180b, 213, 216, 222-224,
         245, 247, 249, 266, 271, 282-283


submarine meadow (see grass flat)

swamp

   general, 55, 68, 161, 163, 166, 168, 179, 180b, 188, 199, 202, 258,
         279

   coastal, 26-27, 54, 59, 70, 71, 73, 157, 179, 282-283

   inland, 20-21, 59, 64-68, 151, 153-154, 200


tundra, 177-178

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                                384
                      D. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR
acidity, 29, 142, 145, 147-148, 197, 204, 207, 225, 229, 241, 257-260,
      265, 267, 269, 272, 283

alkalinity, 130, 257, 260, 265

carbonate, 130, 145, 148, 184, 235, 241, 265, 269

carbon dioxide, 12, 14, 52, 145, 241, 244-245, 247, 257-258, 261, 263,
      265-266, 269

energy, 222, 237, 240

erosion, 8-9, 69, 73, 126, 128-129, 131-138, 141, 143-144, 149, 151-154,
      156-157, 162, 164, 166-168, 171, 173-174, 177, 179-180, 183-185,
      188-189, 197, 199-200, 202, 207, 209, 211-212, 214-215, 217, 222,
      229, 237, 253, 259, 268, 272, 275, 279, 283

evaporation, 151-153, 155, 177, 185

flooding, 69, 126, 129, 132, 135-136, 152, 154-155, 158-159, 164, 166-168,
      171, 179, 180-180a, 185, 187-188, 190, 197-199, 203-204, 206, 209,
      215-217, 219, 222, 226, 279, 284

flow rate

   general, 18, 126, 129, 131-132, 135-136, 150, 152, 155, 158, 160,
         162-163, 166, 170, 179, 180a, 186, 188, 208-210, 215-217,
         222-224, 233-234, 247-249, 261, 271-273, 275, 279-280, 282, 292

   decrease, 131-132, 137, 156-159, 166, 180, 183, 187, 216-217, 223-224,
         230-232, 254, 262, 264, 266-267, 275, 277

   increase, 131-132, 134, 164, 167, 183, 214-216, 222, 245, 254, 283


flushing rate, 22, 72, 155-156, 158-159, 169-170, 172, 186-187, 189, 226,
      269

habitat

   general, 37

   loss, 29, 129-133, 135, 138, 140-142, 145-147, 151-153,  157-158, 162,
         164, 167, 175-177, 179, 180-180a, 181, 183-186, 188-189, 197, 199,
         202-204, 206, 211, 215, 217-220, 227, 230, 234, 244-246, 259,
         271-273, 278-281, 285

   modification, 29, 129-130, 132, 140, 157-158, 179, 180-180a, 183-189,
         197, 200, 218, 227, 271-272, 278

   restoration, 283-284

-------
                               385
heavy metals

   general, 129, 137-138, 145, 147, 152, 154-155, 165, 184, 186-189,
         197, 207, 225, 229, 235, 247, 261, 265, 268-270, 272, 275

   copper, 145, 148

   iron, 145, 147-148, 154, 189, 247

   lead, 145, 147-148,  269

   manganese, 154, 247

   mercury, 268-269

   metallic sulfides  (pyrites), 145, 148

   zinc, 145, 147, 148, 247, 257


highwall, 142-144, 149, 184

hydrogen sulfide, 13-14, 152, 154, 158, 164-165, 173, 186, 188-189, 229,
      245, 261, 266-267

landslide, 143-144

leaf litter (see organic detritus)

light

   general, 151

   penetration, 19, 24, 113, 132,  145-146,  164-165,  179, 180c, 183-184,
         188-189, 236, 238-239, 240-241

   photosynthesis,  30, 33,  53-54,  151,  164-165, 192, 236-237, 240-241,
         244,  261-264, 266,  292

   visibility, 239-240, 242


nitrogen supersaturation, 154,  159,  180c,  186, 257,  273

nutrients, 52, 54-55, 57, 69-71,  73,  126,  128, 131-132, 145,  151, 153-156,
      158-160, 166, 168, 180b,  181,  183,  185-187, 194, 197-199, 204, 210-211,
      222-223, 226, 229-230, 235,  241,  258, 272-273, 275, 280, 282, 289

organic detritus, 50, 57, 70,  72,  154,  158, 180b, 186, 204, 213, 221-222

oxygen, 12-14, 24,  27, 34,  52,  64, 129, 132, 147-148, 151, 154, 159, 163-165,
      169-170, 172, 179, 180c,  184-186, 188-189, 194, 209, 222-224,
      234-235, 237, 240-242, 244-245,  247-248, 254,  257, 261-264, 266-267,
      283, 292

-------
                                386
pH, 14, 129, 130, 147-148, 152, 154, 158, 180c, 184, 186, 235, 240-241,
      257-261, 263, 265-270, 283

radioactivity, 142, 145, 147-148, 184, 235, 268, 270, 272

runoff, 7-8, 126, 128-129, 131, 133-137, 139, 143-144, 157, 171, 173,
      179-180, 183, 189, 214, 217, 222, 226, 268-269, 272, 292

salinity, 21, 126, 155, 159

saltwater intrusion, 157, 159, 166, 168-171, 173, 179, 180c, 187-190,
      227, 229-232, 266-267, 270-272, 279-280, 283

sediment

   general, 29, 126

   load (suspended sediment), 18-19, 24, 113, 126, 128-129, 131-134,
         136-139, 143, 146, 154-155, 160, 163-164, 169-170, 172, 179,
         180b, 183-184, 186-190, 209, 211, 214, 217, 225, 234-238, 240-243,
         254, 258, 260, 262-266, 273

   sedimentation, 19, 27, 69, 126, 128-129, 132, 135-139, 145, 147, 149,
         151-153, 155-159, 163-167, 169, 172, 179, 180b, 181, 184-189,
         204, 206, 211-212, 214-215, 224, 226, 229, 234-237, 244-249, 260,
         263-267, 269, 271, 273, 279-280, 282

temperature, 19, 129-130, 132, 141, 153-154, 158, 164-165, 178-179, 180c,
      183-186, 188-189, 194, 213, 220, 223, 240, 254-257, 261-264, 267,
      292

turbidity (see light penetration, sediment load)

water level, 72, 129, 132, 135, 151-153, 158-159, 166, 168-169, 179, 180a,
      181, 185-186, 197, 201, 203, 205, 208-211, 213, 226, 228, 230, 254,
      272, 280

                        E. GEOGRAPHIC AREA
Alaska, 177-178

Allegheny River, 259

Alsea River, 255

Appalachia, 143, 260

Arizona, 132, 151

Arctic Ocean, 177-178

Atlantic coast,  157,  226-227,  231

-------
                                 387
California,  141,  156,  207, 215-216,  221, 244




Chariton River, 219




Chesapeake Bay, 246




Columbia River, 212




Connecticut, 213




Delaware, 227-228




Everglades,  181, 232




Florida, 157, 163, 169,  175, 204, 206, 232




Gallatin River, 221




Great Basin, 282




Gulf coast,  226, 229,  231




Hubbard Brook, 291




Idaho, 141,  219




Illinois, 181, 200, 205, 215, 237-238




Illinois River, 181, 199-200, 203, 246




Iowa, 194, 218




Kentucky, 181




Kentucky Reservoir, 212




Keokuk Dam,  194




Lake Chautauqua, 238




Little Big Horn River, 218




Little Sioux River, 218




Louisiana, 156-157, 171, 229




Maine, 216




Massachusetts, 239




Michigan, 132, 237, 246, 250-251




Minnesota, 141, 202, 215

-------
                                388
Mississippi River, 194, 196, 203, 213-214, 245, 289, 291




Missouri, 150, 181, 219




Missouri River, 218-219




Montana, 207, 216, 218-219, 221




Nebraska, 218




New England, 198




New Hampshire, 132, 181, 291




New Jersey, 175




New York, 252




North Carolina, 175, 198, 218




Ohio, 250




Ohio River, 245, 289




Oregon, 255




Pacific coast, 255




Pennsylvania, 260




Roosevelt Lake, 212




Sacramento River, 216, 221




Salmon River, 181




Snake River, 181




Southeast, 258




Southwest, 198, 282




Tennessee, 150, 181,  200,  207




Tennessee River, 181,  212, 245




Tennessee Valley, 209




Texas, 156




Texas coast, 231-233

-------
                                389
Truckee River, 244




Utah, 141
                         F. MISCELLANEOUS
alluvium, 20, 141




antagonism, 190




aquifer, 147-148, 166




atmosphere, 2




balance of nature (see ecosystem stability)




benthos, 60-61, 70-71, 212, 218-219, 221, 223, 242, 244-246, 249-251, 267




biogenic elements, 52




biosphere, 2




channelized flow, 8




community




   general, 30, 45-51, 60, 195




   climax, 50, 207,  290




   dominance, 46, 228




   stress response,  192




   succession, 50, 55, 290




cycles




   biogeochemical, 52, 53




   geological, 1, 52, 285




   hydrological, 1,  4-7, 52, 285




decomposition, 64, 151, 178, 222, 237, 241, 247,  257,  262, 266, 292




diversity




   loss, 191, 192




   species, 46, 192, 218-219,  243,  250, 252, 273, 275, 277

-------
                                390
drift, 63, 210, 218, 222-224, 256

ecosystem

   general, 30, 51-56, 198, 220-221, 237, 273-276, 286

   closed, 54

   energy flow, 53-54

   open, 54

   stability, 54-55, 290


factor interaction, 35

factor train analysis, 182-189

food

   chains, 47, 49, 57-58

   pyramids, 50

   webs, 47, 49


genetic

   exchange, 41, 43-44

   mutations, 41

   variability, 42, 193, 208, 285-286

gradient, 70, 155, 159, 169-171, 180c, 187, 189

ground water, 9, 130-132, 142-144, 148, 154, 158, 166, 168, 180, 184, 188

hydraulic roughness, 18

hydrosphere, 2

life history, 38-39, 71, 212, 214, 230, 254, 263, 275, 293

limiting factors, 35

lithosphere, 2

metabolism, 30

mixing (of water masses), 21-27, 70, 155, 159, 165, 169-170, 189, 229-230,
      254, 262-264, 266-267, 280

-------
                                391
nekton, 60-61, 71

organic molecule, 30, 164-165, 188-189, 211, 224-225, 235, 242, 245, 247,
      257-258

orientation compound, 216-217, 224-225, 231, 242

plankton, 60-61, 70, 154, 222, 229, 237, 241, 262

pollution, 125-126, 129-131, 133, 135, 137-138, 141-143, 148, 155, 159,
      161, 164-165, 172, 174, 176-177, 179, 180c, 187-190, 192, 197, 207,
      225, 235, 253, 257, 260, 263, 265, 268-273, 275, 278-281

population, 30-40, 191, 193, 195, 208

precipitation, 7-8, 130, 134, 147, 150, 214, 232-233, 255

production

   general, 55, 64, 68-73, 212, 221-222, 253, 273, 275, 277

   primary, 54, 229, 236-237, 241-244

   secondary, 54, 233, 243

respiration, 30, 33, 53, 192, 194, 223, 242-243, 245, 262-263, 265-266, 292

sanctuary, 278, 279

selection, 40-41, 193

slope, 17-18

soil

   submerged, 12-14

   terrestrial, 10-12

species

   concept of, 43

   endangered, 29, 181, 196, 278, 281-282,  285

   exotic, 197, 208

   extinct, 29, 181, 246

   interaction, 46, 48, 192, 194, 208, 231, 243, 255

standing crop, 47, 215, 218-219,  221, 237,  250-251,  272-273

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                                392
stratification (of a water body), 21-23, 151, 153, 185, 232, 240, 254,
      256, 263-264, 283

stress, 37, 182, 191-195, 243, 256-257, 259, 261, 263, 265, 267, 272,
      274-276, 285, 290

stress response, 191-193

subsurface water (see groundwater)

succession (see community succession)

synergism, 190, 265

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