EPA-600/8-76-001-b
                                     ENVIRONMENTAL
                                      .-PROTECTION
                                       AGENCY
  EROSION  AND  SEDIMENT
  AUDIOVISUAL  TRAINING  PROGRAM
           WORKBOOK
I
I
    .^
    \ ^
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 UJ
 c
                JUNE  1976
                             SOU CONSERVATION SERVICE
                            V	'
         U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
         OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
             WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460

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                                EPA-600/8-76-001b
                                June 1976
EROSION  AND  SEDIMENT  CONTROL
        AUDIOVISUAL  TRAINING
           WORKBOOK
                 Prepared by

             The State of Maryland
        Water Resources Administration

                    and

    The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       Office of Research and Development

                Contr ibutory

         Department of Transportation
       The Federal Highway Administration
             Office of Development

                    and

       The U.S. Department of Agriculture
           Soil Conservation Service

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            DISCLAIMER

Publication of this Workbook does
not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency nor the U.S.
Department of Transportation Federal
Highway Administration.  Mention of
tradenames or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement nor
recommendation for use.
                11

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                             CONTENTS



LESSON                                            PAGE

                                            Looseleaf Style


      1   Goals,  Objectives and Principles of  Erosion and
          Sediment Control

      2   Soils

      3   Rainfall-Runoff Relationships

      4   Erosion and Sedimentation

      5   Plant Materials

      6   Control of Runoff During Construction

      7   Vegetative Soil Stabilization

      8   Stream Erosion Control

      9   Temporary Soil Stabilization

     10   Control of Sediment Generated on Construction  Sites

     11   Erosion and Sediment Control Planning

     12   Wooded Site Development

     13   Foreman-Inspector Responsibilities
                              111

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                    ACKNOWLE DGMENT S
This workbook was prepared under the joint sponsorship of
the Water Resources Administration, State of Maryland and
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by Hittman Associ-
ates, Inc.

Publication and distribution is sponsored by the State of
Maryland, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Admini-
stration and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conser-
vation Service.

Many participated in the technical guidance and editorial
efforts in preparing this workbook.  Messrs. Marshall T.
Augustine, Roger A. Kanerva, Roy E. Benner and Albert E.
Sanderson of the State of Maryland; Messrs. Mark Boyson,
Harold Scholl, and Harold Stephens of the Soil Conservation
Service; Messrs. Daniel O'Connor and Eric Munley of the
Federal Highway Administration; and Messrs. Hugh Masters
and Francis Condon of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency deserve special thanks.

The contributions provided to this program by the use of 35
millimeter photographic slides from the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, the Maryland Water Resources Administration,
the Maryland State Roads Commission, the Soil Conservation
Service, the soil and water conservation districts of
Howard, Montgomery, and Prince Georges counties in
Maryland, the Baltimore Public Works Commission, and Rummel,
Klepper, and Kahl, Consulting Engineers in Baltimore are
also acknowledged with sincere appreciation.

Acknowledgment is also given to the perseverance of
Ms. Shirley Simpler of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency in preparing tne copy for printing.
                           IV

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                                   r
                                   n
                                   o
                                   c
                                   c
     EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
   THE GOAL, OBJECTIVES AND

         PRINCIPLES OF

EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
            WORKBOOK

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CONTENT








I.   INTRODUCTION




     A.  Definitions




         1.  Erosion




         2.  Sediment




         3.  Waterway




     B.  Background






II.  THE GOAL OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL




     A.  Achieving effective and reasonable control




     B.  Caused by man's activities




     C.  Using the best practical combination of procedures,




         practices, and people.






III. THE OBJECTIVES OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL




     A.  Establish and maintain a sediment control program




     B.  Protect vital land resources from erosion




     C.  Protect vital water resources and aquatic wildlife




         from sediment pollution




     D.  Provide high quality water for human use






IV.  THE PRINCIPLES OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL




     A.  Plan the development to fit the particular topo-




         graphy,  soils,  waterways and natural vegetation



         at a site
                         1-1

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     B.  Expose the smallest practical area of land for




         the shortest possible time



     C.  Apply "soil erosion" control practices as a first



         line of defense against on-site damage -




     D.  Apply "sediment control" practices as a



         perimeter to prevent off-site damage



     E.  Implement a thorough maintenance and follow-up



         operation






V    REVIEW



     A.  Definitions



     B.  Goal



     C.  Objectives



     D.  Principles
                            1-2

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I.     INTRODUCTION



      A.   Definitions



          1.   Erosion  - the process by which the land sur-



                         face is worn away by the action of



                         wind, water, ice or gravity.



          2.   Sediment  - soils or other surfical materials



                          transported or deposited by the



                          action of wind, water, ice or



                          gravity as a product of erosion.



          3.   Waterway  - any natural or artificial drain-



                          age way in which waters flow in



                          a definite direction or course,



                          either continuously or intermit-



                          tently, and includes any area



                          adjacent thereto which is subject



                          to flooding.



      B.   Background



              The problem of erosion and sediment control



              has plagued society and land and water re-



              sources since colonial times.  Many streams



              and rivers were severely damaged by early



              agricultural activities.






              The early 1930"s saw the start of a nationwide



              soil conservation movement which has greatly
                              1-3

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 reduced  the agricultural erosion problem.

 The application of a typical farm conservation plan

 can  reduce soil loss from fifteen tons  /acre/
 year or  greater to  only five tons/acre/year.

 In recent years, however, the problem of ero-
 sion and sediment has again been increased.
 This time by the trend of greater urbaniza-
 tion.  IVodern equipment and technology  have
 been used to create vast networks of high-
 ways,  sprawling subdivisions, large industrial
 parks, and massive  shopping centers.  In
 many cases these activities have resulted in
 severe damage to our land and water resources.

 It is  estimated that from all sources over
 four billion tons of sediment pollute the

 rivers of this country each year.

 In 1972 it cost $2.00 to $3.00 per cubic yard to re-
move  sediment from waterways.

 In summary,  erosion and sediment damages
 affect nearly every citizen.  Sediment  pol-
 lution results in:
   1.  clogged ditches, culverts, and storm
       sewers.

                1-4

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2.  Muddied streams, reduced channel



    capacities, and increased flood flows.



3.  Damaged plant and animal life,



4.  Filled-in ponds, lakes,  and reservoirs



5.  Damaged vital aquatic habitats.
          1-5

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II.   THE GOAL OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL




      "To achieve effective and reasonable control over




      erosion and sediment caused by man's activities




      using the best practical combination of procedures,




      practices, and people."




      A.  Achieving effective and reasonable control.




            As responsible persons we should try to




            achieve the greatest control without putting




            unreasonable demands on the other activities




            of the construction project.




      B.  Caused by man's activities.




            We are talking about working with people, and




            how they affect the quality of their natural




            surroundings - land, air, water, and plant




            and animal life.  Certain of man's activities



            must be controlled.




      C.  Using the best practical combination of proce-




          dures, practices, and people.




            To control erosion and sediment we need work-




            able laws, regulations, and procedures; up-to-




            date practices and techniques; and responsible




            people working together.
                         1-6

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III. THE OBJECTIVES OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL



     A.  Protect vital land resources from erosion



         1.  control erosion at its source



         2.  maximum practical extent - reasonable




             control



     B.  Establish a sediment control program



         1.  cooperation and involvement



         2.  prevention



         3.  flexibility



     C.  Protect vital water resources and aquatic



         wildlife from sediment pollution



         1.  prevent damage from occuring



         2.  damaged resources are difficult to restore



     D.  Provide high quality water for human use



         1.  vital to man's welfare in the long run
                         1-7

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IV.   THE PRINCIPLES OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL



      A.   Plan the development to fit the particular top-



          ography, soils,  waterways, and natural vegeta-



          tion at a site.



          1.  "Think ahead and don't fight nature"



          2.  Less problems and damage occur when struc-



              tures and grading are designed to fit the



              site



          3.  Careful planning can result in both reduced



              damage and savings in project costs



      B.   Expose the smallest practical area of land for



          the shortest possible time.



          1.  The way in which operations are scheduled



              and staged can greatly reduce damage due to



              'erosion and sediment



          2.  Sediment control is another part of the coordin-



              ation of a job.



      C.   Apply "soil erosion" control practices as a



          first line of defense against on-site damage.



          1.  Use practices that control erosion on a



              site to prevent excessive sediment from



              being produced



          2.  Examples of erosion control:
                         1-5

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        a.  special grading methods

        b.  runoff control structures

        c.  temporary and permanent vegetation
        d.  mulches
D.  Apply "sediment control" practices as a perimeter


    protection to prevent off-site damage.

    1.  Use practices that control sediment once it

        is produced, and prevent it from getting


        off-site .

    2.  Examples of sediment control:




        a.  sediment traps

        b.  vegetative filters


        c.  sediment basins

E.  Implement a thorough maintenance and follow-up

    operation.

    1.  A site cannot be effectively controlled with-

        out thorough, periodic checks of erosion and

        sediment control practices.

    2.  An example of applying this principle would

        be a routine "end-of-day" check to be sure

        all control practices are working properly •
                      1-9

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       QUESTIONS  1
                                    Fill  in  the answers








1.   	 is the process by  which the



     land surface is worn away by the action  of wind,



     water,  ice or gravity.






2.   A flowing stream  and a storm drain ditch enter-



     ing it  are two examples of 	.
3.    implication of a typical farm conservation plan can result in




     a reduction  of soil loss from 	/tons/acre/




     year to only 	/tons/acre/year.






4.    It is estimated that areas undergoing construc-




     tion produce as much as 	times as




     much sediment excellent forested areas.






5.    The problem  of erosion and sediment has been in-




     creased recently by 	.
                        1-10

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   QUESTIONS   2
                                    True  or False

1.  One can expect to achieve 100% control over ero-
    sion and sediment all the time.
2.  Given experience and a sincere attitude, you can
    do an effective and reasonable job of  protecting
    the land and water resources.
3.  Certain of man's activities when carried to ex-
    tremes cause severe damage.
4.  When we are talking about the job of erosion and
    sediment control we are really talking about
    controlling nature.
5.  "On-the-ground" field personnel are not very  im-
    portant in erosion and sediment control.

_6.   "To achieve effective and reasonable  control over
    erosion and sediment caused by man's activities
    using the best practical combination of procedures,
    practices and people" is the goal of erosion and
    sediment control.
                   1-11

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    QUESTIONS   3
REVIEW QUESTIONS                               Multiple Choice
                                        (circle  the correct answer)

1.  To establish  a  sediment control program we  need

    a.  cooperation and involvement
    b.  prevention
    c.  flexibility
    d.  all  the above
2.   In order  to best protect vital land resources we should

    a.  stop  sediment
    b •  control erosion
    c.  prevent construction
3.  In our third  objective, we want to protect the water by

    a.  controlling sediment that gets past our first
        line of defense
    b.  preventing erosion
    c.  fluoridation
4.  The human use  of water is listed after the protection
    of the land  and water because

    a.  land and water are more important
    b.  land and water are vital to man's welfare  in  the
        long run
    c.  all of the above
                               1-12

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       QUESTIONS  4
                                          Fill in the blanks








1.   Less damage and problems occur when structures and



    grading are 	 to fit the site.



2.   Careful 	 can result in both reduced damage



    and savings in project costs.



3.   Sediment 	 is another part of coordination



    of a job.



4.   Special grading methods and runoff control structures



    are examples of 	 control.



5.   Examples of __  	 control are sediment traps,



    vegetative filters  and	..



6.   An example of the fifth principle of erosion and sedi-



    ment control would  be to start a routine "	



    of 	" check to be sure all control practices



    are working properly.
                      1-13

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POST TEST
1.  The process by which the land surface is worn away by
    the action of wind, water, ice or gravity is known as:

    a.  sedimentation
    b.  pollution
    c.  weathering
    d.  erosion
2.  A flowing stream and a drainage ditch are examples of
3.  A typical farm conservation plan can reduce soil loss
    from 15 tons per acre per year to only 	 tons per
    acre per year.

4.  It is estimated that from all sources, the amount of
    sediment that pollutes rivers in this country each
    year is:

    a.  one (1) ton
    b.  one (1) million tons
    c.  five (5) billion tons
    d-  four (4) billion tons
5.  The problem of erosion and sediment control has
    increased due to:

    a.  pollution
    b.  urbanization
    c.  diversification
    d.  more leisure time
6.  Sediment pollution results in:

    a.  clogged ditches
    b.  damaged plant and animal  life
    c.  filled-in ponds, lakes, and reservoirs
    d.  a and b
    e.  all of the above.


7.  Those people considered very  important  in any  erosion
    and sediment control program  are:

    a.  field personel
    b.  scientists
    c.  draftsmen
                       1-14

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 8.  When talking about the job of erosion and sediment
     control we are really talking about:

     a.  controlling wildlife
     b.  working with people
     c.  controlling technology


 9.  The three elements needed to establish a sediment
     control program are cooperation and involvement,
     prevention and 	.

10.  The best way to protect vital land resources is by
     establishing a 	 control program.

11.  Careful planning can result in:

     a.  reduced damage
     b.  savings
     c.  a & b
12.  An example of erosion control:

     a.  gravel inlet filter
     b.  runoff control structure
     c.  sediment trap
13.   A site cannot be effectively controlled without
     thorough, periodic checks, of 	 and
     	 control practices.
                          1-15

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EROSION AND  SEDIMENT CONTROL
          SOILS
         WORKBOOK

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CONTENT








I    SOIL FORMATION




     A.  Weathering of Bedrock




         1.  Physical




         2.  Chemical




         3.  Biological



     B.  Residual and Transported Soils




         1.  Residual Soil




         2.  Transported Soil




     C.  Soil Horizons




II   SOIL COMPOSITION




     A.  Solids and Voids




     B.  Classification




         1.  Texture




         2.  Volume of Soil Constituents




         3.  Textural Triangle




         4.  Unified Soil Classification System




             and A.A.S.H.T.O.




         5.  Size Distribution




III  IMPORTANCE OF SOIL PROPERTIES IN EROSION CONTROL



     A.  Size and Weight




     B.  Soil Structure




     C.  Cohesion




     D.  Friction




     E.  Density
                           2-1

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F.  Porosity



G.  Permeability



H.  Infiltration Rate



I.  Water-holding Capacity



J.  Chemical Composition
                     2-2

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I    SOIL FORMATION



     A.   The solid rock lying beneath the soil is called



         "bedrock."  It is made up of a variety of types



         of rock,  including sandstone, limestone, granite,



         shale,  marble, schist, and slate.   The depth to



         the bedrock varies;  in some cases  it even extends



         above the surface, as an outcrop.   The composition



         of the  bedrock is one of the dominant factors which



         influence the configuration of the surface



         topography.  Soil forms as a result of the



         disintegration of the bedrock underneath it.



         This process of disintegration is  called



         "weathering."



         1.  Physical weathering is caused  by gravity,




             extreme temperature variations,  the pressure



             of  freezing water in cracks and crevices, the



             movement of rocks carried by glaciers and



             the action of wind and waves.



         2.  Chemical weathering



             a.   The principal agent of chemical weathering



                 is a weak acid which forms when rainwater



                 combines with carbon dioxide.   The acid



                 that results slowly dissolves soluble



                 rocks, like  limestone.



             b.   Processes involving oxidation,  that is,



                 processes similar to the rusting of
                           2-3

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            iron, are also important types of



            chemical weathering.



    3.  In addition to chemical and physical weather-



        ing, biological weathering occurs.  Biological



        weathering is actually a combination of



        chemical and physical weathering, that



        results from the activities of plants and



        animals.



B.  Residual and Transported Soils



    1.  Soil that forms immediately above the bedrock



        from which it is derived is called residual



        soil.



    2.  Transported soil is soil which has been moved



        from the area where it originated, by wind,



        water, ice, glaciers, or gravity.



C.  Soil Horizons



    1.  The uppermost layer of a soil is the "A"



        horizon.  It is commonly called "topsoil."



        Topsoil is generally high in nutrients and



        organic material, and it has a high moisture-



        holding capacity.




    2.  The next lower horizon is the "B" horizon.



        a.  The "B" horizon contains much less organic



            material than topsoil, but it does contain



            materials that have been leached out of the



            "A" horizon by water percolating downward.
                         2-4

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            b.  The leached materials that collect in



                the "B" horizon often result in the



                formation of a "hardpan," that is, a



                dense layer that makes it difficult for



                water to pass through it.



        3.  The soil material beneath the "A" horizon is




            commonly referred to as "subsoil."  When it is



            exposed by grading operations it is usually easily



            eroded and difficult to stabilize with vegetation.



        4.  The lowest horizon is the "C" horizon.  This



            horizon lies just above, and gradually grades



            into,  bedrock.








II   SOIL COMPOSITION



     A.   Soil is made up of solids and voids.  The size,



         shape, and arrangement of the soil components will



         determine what part of the soil is solids and what



         percent is voids.



         1.-  The solids are the individual soil particles,



             together with any organic material that may



             be present.



         2.   The voids are the spaces between the  particles.



             These voids are filled with air and/or water.
                             2-5

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B.  Classification



    1.  One of the simplest ways of classifying a



        soil is by texture.  The texture of a soil



        is the relative distribution of the various



        sizes of particles.  Common textural clas-



        sifications include gravel, sand, silt, and



        clay.




        a.  Particles from one-quarter inch in



            diameter to three inches may be considered



            as gravel.  Larger pieces are either



            cobbles or boulders.



        b.  Sand ranges in size from about one-



            quarter inch down to grains that can



            hardly be detected without some mag-



            nification.



        c.  Soil particles smaller than sand are



            generally called "fines."  These include



            both silt and clay sized fractions.



            Silt particles are larger than



            clay particles.



        d.  Soils seldom contain pure gravel, sand,



            silt, or clay.  Instead, a number of



            major gradations of sizes are present.



            Terms such as "sandy loam," "loamy sand,"



            and "silty clay" are often used to des-



            cribe mixed soils.
                        2-6

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2.   A more descriptive scheme of classification



    provides an estimate of the percentage  by



    volume of each of the soil constituents.



    a.  In one such scheme, "and" means 35 to



        50%; "some" means 20 to 35%;  "little,"



        10 to 20%; and "trace," less  than 10%.




3.   Soil scientists use another method of class-



    ification, involving the textural triangle.



    This triangle is included as the last page of




    the workbook.



    a.  If  a given sample of soil contains  30%



        clay and  60% silt, to determine the



        classification of the sample, you would



        read across the 30% line  from  the  left



        side of the triangle, which corresponds



        to  clay,  and read down the 60% line  from



        the right side of the triangle, which



        corresponds to silt.  Where these two



        lines cross, the soil is classified as



        silty-clay loam.  It would also contain



        10% sand, as you can see by finding the



        line on the bottom of the triangle,



        which corresponds to 10% sand,  and read-



        ing up to the point where the silt and



        clay lines cross.



4.   Two other popular classification systems



    are the Unified Soil Classification System,



    and the A.A.S.H.T.O. Soil Classification




                  2-7

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             System,  which stands for the American Assoc-



             iation of State Highway and Transportation



             Officials.



             a.   Both of these systems of classification



                 use textural properties of the soil as



                 well as engineering properties.



             b.   They are used extensively by engineers



                 and earth scientists for classifying



                 soil for construction use.



         5.   Size distribution means the percentages



             by  weight,  of sand,  silt, and clay as well



             as  larger constituents  in the soil.



             a.   This is accomplished by sieving  the



                 soil, through the use of a number of



                 sieve  or screens of various mesh sizes,



                 to separate the  various sizes of part-



                 icles in the soil.



             b.   By dividing the  weight of the material



                 in each sieve by the weight of the



                 total soil sample,  the percent of each



                 size fraction can be determined.  From



                 the percentages  of the various size



                 fractions, the texture can be determined,








III  SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN EROSION CONTROL



     A.  The size and weight of the particles influence



         the susceptibility of a given soil to erosion.





                            2-8

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    1.  Larger, heavier particles are less likely



        to be detached and carried away by splashing



        or flowing water than smaller or lighter



        particles.



    2.  When a particle  is detached and carried



        away by runoff, size, shape, and weight



        also determine the distance the particle



        is transported.



        a.  As runoff slows, the larger, heavier



            particles are deposited first.



        b.  Most sand-size sediment particles will



            settle out of calm water in a matter of



            seconds, but some of the small, light



            clay particles will take days, weeks,



            or even longer to settle to the bottom.



B.  The arrangement of the soil particles, that is,



    the soil structure, is also an important factor



    in the resistance of a soil to erosion.



    1.  A soil in which the individual particles do



        not stick together is "structureless."  Sand



        is an example of material devoid of structure.



    2.  When the particles cling together to form a



        larger, distinct unit, the soil has structure,



        Different types of structure occur in natural



        soil.  The type of structure depends on the



        way the particles are bound together.
                       2-9

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    3.  Common types of soil structure include



        platey structure, prismatic structure,



        blocky structure, and granular structure.



C.  The binding force that clay provides in a soil



    is called "cohesion."



    1.  The shape and arrangement of the clay part-



        icles, the moisture in the soil, and other



        factors, influence the cohesiveness of the



        soil.



    2.  As a general rule, the greater percentage



        of fines, the more cohesive a soil will be.



    3.  The plasticity of a soil tells a great deal



        about its cohesiveness.  Usually, the more



        plastic a soil is, that is, the more it can



        be molded, the more cohesive it is.  High



        plasticity indicates a high clay content.



        a.  Provided that the clay does not expand



            too much when it is moist, a small amount



            of it in a granular soil will improve the



            resistance of the soil to erosion.



        b.  If a soil contains clays such as bentonite,



            that expand a great deal when they are wet,



            the presence of these types of clay in



            granular soil may actually decrease the



            ability of the soil to resist erosion.
                        2-10

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D.  Friction is the resistance created when two



    surfaces are rubbed together.



    1.  Soil particles rubbed together produce



        friction.



    2.  The "shear strength" of a soil is a mea-



        surement that combines the frictional re-



        sistance between the soil particles and



        the cohesion.



        a.  The measurement of shear strength is



            used a great deal by soil and geological



            engineers, in designing earthen struc-



            tures and foundations, and in predicting




            potential landslides and slumps.



            1.  Slumping or landslides can occur



                when excessively steep cut slopes



                or filled slopes are constructed,



                or when a steep cut slope is under-



                cut by moving water.  Undercutting



                often occurs along waterways and



                shorelines.



E.  In addition to the shear strength of a soil,



    the density of a particular soil has a major



    effect on its strength and its erodibility.



    1.  Density is the measurement of the unit-
                     2-11

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        weight of a soil, and it is usually



        expressed in pounds per cubic foot.



    2.  The lower percentage of voids in the soil,



        the greater the density of the soil.



    3.  Compaction  not only increases the density



        of the soil, by eliminating many of the



        voids, it also increases the internal



        strength of the soil, thus reducing



        erosion.



F.  The porosity of a soil is the percentage of the



    soil occupied by voids, that is, space filled



    with air or water.



    1.  You need a certain amount of soil moisture



        in order to achieve a high degree of soil



        compaction.



    2.  The amount of water filling the voids in



        soil is expressed as the "degree of



        saturation."  This effects the resistance



        of the soil to erosion.



        a.  At 100% saturation, all of the void



            space is filled with water.  The soil



            is then said to be "saturated."



G.  Another important factor in the ability of the



    soil to resist erosion is the permeability of the



    soil.  Permeability is a measurement of how fast



    water flows through a soil.
                     2-12

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1.  It is usually expressed as the number of
    inches of water passing through the soil in
    an hour.
2.  Permeability is an important property of a
    soil, because it has a major influence on
    how much rainfall moves into  the
    soil, and how much remains on the surface,
    becoming runoff.
3.  The greater the runoff, the greater the
    possibility of erosion.
4.  Permeability is not always related to
    porosity.  In fine-textured soils such as
    clay, the permeability may be very low, even
    though the porosity is high.
    a.   This difference between the permeability
        and the porosity occurs partly because
        of the small size of the pores between
        the individual particles.  The small
        pore spaces make it difficult for water
        to pass from one pore to another.
    b.   Also, there are few connections between
        pores, thus making it difficult for
        water to penetrate.
5.  On  the other  hand,  in coarse,  granular soils,
    the  voids are relatively  large,  and connected
    with each other;  thus the permeability is  high.
                    2-13

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H.  Another factor effecting the erodibility of



    a soil is the infiltration rate.



    1.  The infiltration rate is the rate at which



        water enters the soil.  It differs from



        permeability in that permeability is the



        measure of the rate at which water moves



        through the soil.



    2.  Infiltration rate is expressed as inches



        of water entering the soil per hour.



    3.  The infiltration rate is affected by the



        permeability of the soil and the condition



        of the soil surface as well as the



        permeability of the various soil layers



        beneath the surface layer.  The permeability



        of a soil can only be as great as the



        permeability of its least permeable layer.



        You should never guess the infiltration



        rate of a soil from surface observations



        or shallow test cores.



    4.  Soils that remain saturated for long periods



        of time because there is a layer of low



        permeability in the profile, or because of



        a high level of ground water, are called



        "poorly drained" soils.



        a.  This type of soil is difficult to manage



            and presents drainage problems when



            buildings are placed on it.
                       2-14

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I.   The ability of a topsoil to retain water is



    known as its "water-holding capacity."  The



    water-holding capacity of a soil affects the



    ability of the soil to support vegetation, and



    therefore affects is erodibility.



    1.  The texture of the soils and the presence



        of organic material are the primary factors



        in determining the water-holding capacity.



        a.  Soils containing over 25 to 30% silt



            and clay-size particles are usually



            able to hold enough water within the



            voids of the soil to sustain a vigorous




            vegetative cover.



        b.  Soils that contain less than 30% fines



            are "droughty" soils, and usually require



            more management to attain a healthy stand



            of vegetation.



        c.  Other factors, such as the location of the



            groundwater table, the temperature, the



            precipitation, and the ground slope also



            effect the availability of moisture and



            the ability of the soil to support vege-



            tation.



    2.  When soils are saturated with moisture, frost




        heaving sometimes occurs, during periods of



        freezing weather.  The moisture in the soil



        freezes.  Ice crystals expand and lift up a
                        2-15

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        layer of soil.  Under extreme conditions,

        well-rooted vegetation may be uprooted and

        large chunks of material may tumble downhill.

        a.  It is almost impossible to prevent erosion

            in these areas until the problem of water

            saturation is solved.  This problem may

            be solved by installing tile under the

            ground to drain the soil.

J.  Another important characteristic of the soil that

    affects the growth of vegetation, and hence, the

    ability of the surface to resist erosion, is the

    chemical composition of the soil. Surface drainage
    may also be needed.
    1.  The materials most important to the growth

        of plants are often those which are relatively

        scarce in soils.  In some cases they are absent

        altogether.

    2.  The three major nutrients required by plants

        are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

        a.  Very little nitrogen is present in sub-

            soils.  The main source of the nitrogen

            used by plants are the decayed plant and

            animal remains present in the topsoil,

            and the nitrogen which has been removed

            from the air and converted into usable

            forms by certain bacteria in conjunction

            with plants known as legumes.
                        2-16

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    b.  Phosphorus and potassium are present in



        bedrock minerals,  and become part of the



        soil as the bedrock weathers.



3.  The presence of these materials can be determined



    by testing.  Your local agricultural agent can



    either do the testing or tell you where it can



    be done.



4.  If a soil is deficient in any of these



    materials, you should add the proper type



    of fertilizer before planting.  Most soils,



    topsoil included, will require the addition



    of fertilizers.



5. Plants need many other nutrients in very small



    amounts.  These nutrients are often called



    "trace elements."  Examples include iron,



    sulfur, magnesium, zinc, and copper.



    Ordinarily these chemicals are present in



    great enough quantities that you do not



    have to add them before planting.



6.  Another very important factor that effects



    plant growth is pH.   This term describes how



    acidic or alkaline a soil is.



    a.  A pH of 7 is neutral.  A pH between 7



        and 14 is alkaline, or basic.  A pH



        below 7 is acidic.
                  2-17

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b.  If the pH is lower than 4, most



    plants can not survive.  When the



    pH ranges from 4 to 5,  many ever-



    greens ,  some legumes, and a few



    other plants will survive.



c.  As the pH increases above 5, many



    more species will flourish.  Soil



    pH above 8.5 is too alkaline for



    most plants.



d.  You can handle the problem of acid



    soil by selecting plant materials



    that are compatible with the acidity,



    by raising the pH by adding lime or



    by covering the acid soil with soil



    that is not too acid.  Very alkaline



    soils can be treated with sulfur,



    sulfuric acid or gypsum depending



    upon the soil chemistry.



e.  As with the minerals, you must



    perform certain tests to determine



    tne pH.   Your local agricultural



    agent should be able to provide



    help in getting a soil tested.
               2-18

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           Questions  1
Fill in the blanks.
1.   The massive area of rock lying below soil is
    called 	.

2.   Soil is formed by the process of rock disintegration
    called 	.

3.   	 and	are causes of
    physical weathering.

4.   Oxidation is an important type of 	
    weathering.

5.   Biological weathering is  a combination of chemical and
    physical weathering resulting from the activities of
    	s_ and 	s.

6.   Tree roots growing in the crack in a rock, not only
    exert a pressure that forces the rock apart, they also
    produce 	 which slowly 	
    the rock.
                      2-19

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           Questions   2
Circle the correct answer or answers.
1.   Soil  that forms immediately above the bedrock from
    which it is derived is  called

    a.  topsoil
    b.  residual soil
    c.  "D" horizon
    d.  sandstone

2.   When  quartz or other materials resistant to weathering
    occur within the bedrock,

    a.  the resulting soil  is  fairly uniform in appearance.
    b.  an acid formed by rainwater and carbon dioxide
       slowly dissolves the rock
    c.  the soil is transported from the area by water,
       wind, ice, or gravity.
    d.  boulders and outcrops  result in the soil

3.   Transported soil (by water)

    a.  particles often have rounded edges
    b.  is fairly uniform in appearance
    c.  usually continues much the same all the way down
       to the bedrock
    d.  should be stockpiled during construction activities
       for later use as topdressing
                        2-20

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4.  Good examples of transported soils include

    a.  gravel and slate
    b.  marble and granite
    c.  clay and silt
    d.  sand and gravel

5.  The "A" horizon of a soil is

    a.  usually called "subsoil"
    b.  rich in organic material
    c.  able to support a vigorous vegetative cover
    d.  difficult to stabilize with vegetation

6.  Topsoil

    a.  often has a high moisture-holding capacity
    b.  contains little organic material
    c.  is another name for the "C" horizon
    d.  gradually grades into bedrock

7.  Leached materials in the "B" horizon

    a.  are rich in nutrients and organic matter
    b.  have a doughy or plastic consistancy
    c.  expand many times their original volume during
        heavy rainfall
    d.  may result in the formation of a "hardpan"
                       2-21

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           Questions  3
True or False


1.	 Soil is made up of solids and voids.

2.	 The texture of a soil is determined from the
          size of the individual soil particles,  together
          with any organic material that may be present.

3.	 Soil particles from one-quarter inch in dia-
          meter to three inches can be considered as
          cobbles or boulders.

4.	 Soil particles smaller than sand are generally
          called "fines."

5.	 Clay particles are generally coarser than
          silt particles.

6.	 Silt has some plasticity, but not as much as
          clay.

7.	 Soils seldom contain pure gravel, sand, silt,
          or clay; instead, a number of major gradations
          of sizes are present.
                        2-22

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           Questions   4
Fill in the blanks.


1.   When soil particles cling together to form a larger,
    distinct unit,  the soil has 	.

2.   G	 structure is easily eroded.

3.   The binding force of clay in soil is called 	
4.   The greater the percentage  of f	,  the more
    cohesive the soil will be.

5.   	 is more cohesive than silt or sand.

6.   The 	 	 of a soil is a measurement  that
    combines the frictional resistance between the soil
    particles and the cohesion.

7.   The measurement of shear strength is used by soil  and
    geological engineers in predicting potential 1	s_
    and s         s.
                      2-23

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           Questions   5
Each of the following  sentences contains one error.  Write
the letter that corresponds to the incorrect word or phrase
in the blank provided.
         Density is  the measurement  of the unit-weight of
                                 A
         a soil, and it is usually expressed in pounds per
           A                        B
         cubic foot.  The higher the percentage of  voids
            B
         in the soil, the greater the density.
                              C
         Compaction not only increases the density of the
                                  A
         soil, by increasing many of the voids, it also
         _                _

         increases the internal strength of the soil.
                      C

         The porosity of a soil is the percentage of the
                                      A
         soil occupied by voids, that is, spaces filled
               A                             B
         with air or water, which is important in order
                B                               C
         to determine its texture.
                       2-24

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_Soils become more resistant to erosion when
                   A
 the soil is saturated, because the particles
         B                             C
 are partially supported by the water and be-
                 C
 cause the bonding strength between the particles
                     D
 is less when the particles are completely sur-
   D                         E
 rounded by_wa. ter.
       E

 A soil  that is  rapidly permeable  has many connected
                        A
 void  spaces;  most clay soils  are  quite  permeable.
                            B
               2-25

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           Questions   6
Circle the correct answer or answers.


1.   The amount of water present in a soil  is known
    as the

    a.  moisture content
    b.  water-holding capacity
    c.  rate of infiltration
    d.  porosity

2.   The primary factors in determining the water-holding
    capacity are the

    a.  percentage of fines
    b.  presence of organic materials
    c.  shear strength
    d.  chemical composition

3.   The materials most important to the growth of plants
    are

    a.  water
    b.  plant foods
    c.  oxygen
    d.  C02

4.   The main scources of nitrogen used by  plants are

    a.  legumes
                      2-26

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    b.   lime
    c.   decayed plant and animal remains
    d.   zinc and copper

5.   Trace elements include

    a.   phosphorous and potassium
    b.   copper
    c.   sericea lespedeza
    (j.   silicon

6.   The pH of a soil describes

    a.   The required fertilization
    b.   the presence of trace elements
    c.   how acidic or alkaline a soil is
    d.   the conversion of nitrogen into forms which plants
        can use

7.   A pH of 7 is

    a.   alkaline
    b.   acidic
    c.   basic
    d.   neutral

8.   Most soils are

    a.   slightly acidic
    b.   slightly alkaline
    c.   unable to support most plant species
    d.   able to support only evergreens and legumes
                         2-27

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           Questions    7
True or  false


1.	  One way a soil forms  is from the breakdown of
            bedrock, a process  called weathering.

2.	 Residual soils  form some distance away from
           the area where  their parent materials first
           originated.

3.	 Transported  soils usually show  layering.

4.	  The relative distribution of the various soil
            particles is known  as layering.

5.	  Soil textures range from gravel, which  is the
            largest, down to sand, which is the  finest.

6.	  Soils are usually made up of various mixtures
            of sizes.

7.	  Eroded particles of medium sand quickly settle
            back to the bottom  of a stream or pond.

8.	  Cohesion is the binding force in a clay

            soil.
9.	  A soil containing large amounts of fine
            sand is highly resistant to erosion.
                        2-28

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10.	 The measurement of how fast water can flow
             through the soil is called the "rate of
             saturation."

11.	 Sandy soils are more permeable than those
             containing large amounts of clay.

12.	 The rate of infiltration is the rate at
             which surface water enters the soil.

13,	 Soils which contain less than 25 to 30%
             silt and clay, or "fines," usually cannot
             hold enough water to support a good growth
             of vegetation.

14.	 Most subsoils generally contain sufficient
             nutrients and do not require the addition
             of fertilizers.
                        2-29

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                  Textural  Triangle  U.S.D.A,
                             100% clay
                                    10
100% sand
          90    80    70   60    50
    40    30
Percent sand
20   10
          100% silt
                                  2-30

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EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
   RAINFALL - RUNOFF

    RELATIONSHIPS
                                r
                                r
                                c
                                c
                                c
        WORKBOOK

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CONTENT






I.     BASICS OF PRECIPITATION




       A.  Rain, Snow, Sleet, and Hail




       B.  Climatology, Hydrology, and Hydraulics






II.    THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE




       A.  Definition




       B.  Precipitation




       C.  Infiltration




       D.  Runoff




       E.  Surface Water




       F.  Groundwater




       G.  Evaporation






III.   PRECIPITATION




       A.  Four Basic Forms of Precipitation




       B.  Orographic




       C.  Frontal




       D.  Convective




       E.  Cyclonic



       F.  Local Factors




       G.  Average Yearly Hydrologic Cycle for the United States




       H.  Precipitation and Runoff






IV.    FLOODS,  FLOODPLAINS, AND WATERSHEDS




       A.  Floods and Floodplains




       B.  Watersheds
                            3-1

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V.     RUNNING WATER AS AN AGENT OF EROSION

       A.  Factors Effecting Velocity of Running Water and
           Resultant Erosive Force
VI.    FACTORS EFFECTING AMOUNT OF SURFACE RUNOFF

       A.  Need to Understand How Factors Work

       B.  Precipitation

       C.  Soil Type

       D.  Topographic Factors

       E.  Vegetative Factors


VII.   MAN'S ACTIVITIES WHICH EFFECT AMOUNT OF SURFACE RUNOFF

       A.  Removal of Vegetation

       B.  Creation of Impervious Areas

       C.  Excessive Runoff can be Prevented
                                 3-2

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I.      BASICS OF PRECIPITATION





       A.   Precipitation includes rain,  snow,  sleet, and hail.



           1.  Rain falling, accumulating,  and flowing over



               poorly protected soil,  causes the majority of



               soil erosion and sediment pollution.





       B.   Climatology, Hydrology, and Hydraulics



           1.  Climatology is the science that deals with



               climates, their phenomena, and  the causes



               involved.



               a.   It includes the study of temperature,



                   wind velocity and direction,  and



                   precipitation.



           2.  Hydrology is the science  that deals with the



               waters of the earth.



               a.   It is the study of  the occurence  of the



                   earth's waters, their circulation,  and



                   their distribution.



               b.   Hydrology is the  study of the reactions



                   of the earth's  waters with  their  environ-



                   ment,  and the relations  between these



                   waters and living things.



               c.   It also deals with  the full life  history



                   of water on the earth and includes  rainfall



                   amounts and intensities.
                             3-3

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           3.  Hydraulics is the field that deals with
               practical applications of water, as well
               as other liquids, in motion.  As erosion
               and sediment control specialists, we are
               concerned with the practical applications
               of water in motion, our main concern is the
               energy of water moving over bare soil.

           4.  These three fields are closely related
               and embrace  a number of sciences and
               engineering disciplines.

II.    THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

       A.  Rainfall is part of a cycle,  the "hydrologic cycle."
           This  cycle is the continuous circulation of water,
           from the earth to the atmosphere,  and back again.
       B.  Masses of air carry clouds through the atmosphere.
           These clouds are actually composed of billions
           of small droplets of water.
       C.  Eventually, when the conditions are right, the
           water vapor condenses enough, so that precipitation
           forms.
       D.  The precipitation falls.
                           3-4

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E.  Most of the precipitation reaches the surface

    of the earth.  Here, much of it soaks into the

    soil.  This process is called "infiltration."

F.  The part of the precipitation which does not

    soak into the soil eventually runs into the

    ocean by way of streams and rivers. It is

    called runoff.

G.  These rivers and streams, along with the lakes,

    ponds, and oceans, belong to the surface water

    portion of the hydrologic cycle.  Any water on

    the surface of the ground is surface water.

    1.  We are most interested in surface waters,

        because flowing surface water acts as the

        crimary agent of erosion, in most areas of
        country, and it transports sediment to its
        point of deposition.
H.  Another major part of the hydrologic cycle is

    the groundwater portion.   This includes all

    water below the surface of the ground.

    1.  Some of the water that soaks into the soil

        is used by plants.  These plants, in turn,

        give off water vapor, through leaves, back

        into the atomsphere.   This process is known

        as "transpiration."

    2.  Part of the water that soaks into the

        ground percolates   beyond the reach of

        the plant roots.  This water then joins
                     3-5

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               the vast amount of water which is stored
               underground.
           3.   A portion of  this underground water
               reappears as  surface water,  in the form
               of seeps or springs.
           4.   Eventually, part of the groundwater returns
               to the ocean.
       I.   The water in the  ocean evaporates at roughly
           the same rate as  the rate at which water flows
           into the ocean.
       J.   It  is from this evaporation,  as  well as the water
           transpired by plants and the  water evaporated from
           plants and the surface of the land,  that clouds
           form.   This completes the hydrologic cycle.

III.   PRECIPITATION

       A.   There are four basic processes by which moist air
           releases rainfall and other forms of precipitation:
           orographic, frontal, convective, and cyclonic.
           Some of these processes are more active than
           others, depending upon the part of the country.
       B.   Orographic precipitation is caused by the inter-
           action of moist air with mountains.  It occurs
           when the prevailing winds carry moist air,
           usually from an ocean, over a mountain range.
                             3-6

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    1.  As warm air rises, it becomes cooler, and



        as cold air falls, it becomes warmer.



    2.  The cooling of moisture-laden air  may



        cause  it to drop its water on the side



        of the mountains toward which the wind



        is blowing.  This side is called the



        "windward" side.  The air is now colder



        and dryer.



    3.  As the air that is now colder and dryer



        crosses the mountains, it begins to fall



        on the sheltered side of the range.  This



        is the "lee" side.



    4.  As these air masses fall, they become



        warmer.



    5.  Because of the dryness and the warmth,



        little precipitation occurs on the lee



        side of the range.  These conditions can



        create a desert.  This type of desert



        is called a topographic desert, because



        it is the topography which is responsible



        for its formation.



C.  Frontal  precipitation is  that which occurs when  a



    warm  air mass  and  a cold  air mass  collide.   The  warm



    air mass is  otten  referred  to as  a "warm front,"



    and the  cold air mass as  a  "cold  front."  As



    the warm air mixes  with the  cold  air,  it is
                     3-7

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    cooled and the moisture condenses to form



    rain or other forms of precipitation.



D.  Convective precipitation is caused by the



    upward flow of warm air into the cooler air



    above.  As the warm air rises, it "piles up"



    the water vapor into gigantic clouds, commonly



    called thunderheads, which produce thunder-




    storms.



E.  Cyclonic storms include hurricanes and



    typhoons.  These storms are characterized



    by winds which rotate about a center of



    low atmospheric pressure.  Very heavy



    rains usually accompany these storms.



F.  Local factors have an enormous effect on



    the amount of rainfall or other forms of



    precipitation which fall on the area.



    1.  As with anything in nature, the amount



        of rain that reaches the earth varies



        widely from place to place.



    2.  The average rainfall for Maryland is



        about 40 inches per year.




    3.  Other factors, besides mountains, which



        affect the chance of precipitation include



        winds, temperatures, and the location of



        the area relative to bodies of water,
                      3-8

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          such as oceans and large lakes.  Large



          bodies of water may provide additional



          moisture for precipitation in downwind



          areas.  They may also cool air masses



          sufficiently so that they drop their



          precipitation over the water rather than



          on the surrounding land.



     4.   By "intensity of rainfall" we mean



          how hard it rains.  The intensity of



          rainfall is usually measured in inches



          of water falling in an hour of time.



          A rain which produces two inches in



          a one-hour period is a much "harder"



          rain that one which measures only



          one-half inch in the same one-hour



          period.



G.   Average Yearly Hydrologic Cycle



     1.   In a normal year enough precipitation



          falls to cover the United States with



          30 inches of water.



     2.   Of the water that falls, two-thirds,



          or 21 inches, return to the atmosphere



          by evaporation and transpiration, 30



          percent, or 8.9 inches, returns to



          the ocean through surface runoff,
                       3-9

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          and the remaining one-tenth of an inch



          infiltrates and becomes groundwater,



          which ultimately returns to the ocean.



H.   Precipitation and Runoff



     1.   The primary aspects of the hydrologic



          cycle that erosion and sediment control



          specialists deal with are precipitation



          and runoff.



          a.   Precipitation falling as rain



               exerts tremendous amounts of energy on



               exposed soil.  The impact of



               the raindrops dislodge and



               displace  soil particles.



               Ensuing runoff displaces



               and carries away additional



               soil particles.



          b.   Runoff begins as overland or



               sheet flow.  This is the



               relatively thin layer of



               water which begins flowing



               over the surface of the



               ground when all of the



               rain that reaches the sur-



               face of the ground does not



               infiltrate into the soil.
                       3-10

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                    c.   When sheet flow begins to
                         concentrate in small channels, these
                         are called rills.  These rills join
                         other surface runoff and the
                         water concentrates in contin-
                         uously larger channels.  All too
                         often, these channels turn into
                         large, destructive gullies.  Our streams
                         were formed through this process.
IV.   FLOODING AND WATERSHEDS

     A.   For adequate erosion control and stormwater manage-
          ment planning, we need to know how much of the
          total precipitation will become surface runoff,
          and the rate and speed this water will flow off
          the land surface.  These factors affect the
          frequency and severity of flooding.
     B.   Floods and Floodplains
          1.   Flooding occurs when flow is greater than
               the capacity of the channel.
          2.   The flat area on one or both sides of the
               channel where the water flows and spreads
               out is known as a "floodplain."  (Soils  in a
               floodplain  are alluvial  soils.)
                                 3-11

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3.   Floods are more frequent in some parts
    of the country than in others.
    a.  We can estimate the average frequency and
        severity of flooding by observing the flows
        in a waterway over a period of many years.
    b.  The normal amount of water in a channel
        is known as "base flow."
    c.  When a stream receives a large amount of
        water from the surrounding area, the water
        may overflow the channel banks and begin
        to cover the floodplain.  The extent of
        flooding is described by the frequency
        with which a particular water level is
        reached.
    d.  A "two year flood" occurs, on the average,
        once every two years.  Such a flood has
        a fifty percent chance of occurring in any
        year.
    e.  Heavier floods may occur, on the average,
        once every 10 years.  A flood of this size
        would have a ten percent chance of being
        equaled or exceeded in any year and
        would be known as a "ten year flood."
        This does not mean that if one flood of
        this size has occurred, the next one will
        not come for another 10 years.  Such floods
        can come at any time - whenever there is
                    3-12

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            a rainfall or melting snow event great
            enough to cause a 10 year flood.  But
            on the average, they occur once in 10
            years, twice in twenty years, and so
            forth.
    4.  To allow unrestricted flow of floodwater,
        and to prevent damage to life and property,
        all restrictive structural and inhabited develop-
        ment should be kept out of the 100 year floodplain,
    5.  If extensive areas in a given watershed have
        been made impermeable through construction
        activities or other measures, and steps are
        not taken to detain runoff, the frequency
        and severity of flooding downstream may be
        greatly increased.
C.  To evaluate the liklihood of floods, we have to
    examine the whole watershed.  A watershed, or
    "drainage basin," is the total ground area which
    contributes surface water runoff to a given point.
    1.  A given watershed is separated from all
        adjacent watersheds by a ridge, or "divide."
    2.  In a given watershed,  all the surface
        runoff will eventually run to the
        lowest point through which the main
        stream passes.
                      3-13

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         3.  The shape and area of any watershed will depend




             upon what point you are interested in.  As a



             result,, any large watershed can be broken down



             into a number of smaller watersheds.  These



             smaller watersheds are often called "subwatersheds."



             a.  Whether you choose, to consider a major



                 watershed, or a subwatershed, depends on the



                 purpose of your investigation.






V.     RUNNING WATER AS AN AGENT OF EROSION



       A.  There are a number of factors which increase the



           speed of water and therefore its erosive force.



           1.  One factor which increases the rate of flow



               is the slope.  The steeper the slope, the



               faster the water will flow.



               a.  One way to measure slope is by finding



                   the ratio of the horizontal distance



                   to the vertical distance.



               b.  It is customary to reduce the numbers



                   to the lowest possible ratio, such as



                   1 to 1, 2 to 1, 3 to 1, and so on.



                   Therefore, if a slope goes for 100 feet



                   horizontally, with a 50 foot change



                   in vertical distance, it would have a



                   slope of 2 to 1.



               c.  Slope can also be expressed as a per-



                   centage.  The percentage represents



                   the amount of vertical distance that
                            3-14

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        would be covered, if the slope

        continued for a horizontal distance


        of 100 feet.  For a 50 foot rise,

        over 100 feet of horizontal distance,

        the slope is 50 percent.

2.  Another factor that affects the speed of

    running water is the roughness or smoothness

    of the surface over which the water flows.

    a.  Water flows faster over a smooth

        surface, than over a rough one.

    b.  This principle is very useful for con-

        trolling erosion.  For example, if a

        slope has been properly "tracked"

        with a dozer, the horizontal grooves

        will slow the flow of water down the

        slope. More of the water will tend to soak
        into the soil.
3.  The total length of the slope also affects

    the speed of water flowing over it.

    a.  This is primarily because the longer

        the slope,  the greater the total volume

        of precipitation falling on the slope.

    b.  The increased volume causes an increased

        depth of flow and an increased depth of

        flow and an increased velocity.

    c.  We can shorten the effective length of
                  3-15

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                   the slope, by using diversion




                   structures.






VI.    FACTORS AFFECTING AMOUNTS OF SURFACE RUNOFF





       A.  In any given watershed, the amount of surface



           runoff depends on a number of factors.



           We need to understand these factors,



           because in many cases we can reduce



           the amount of surface runoff, and



           hence, erosion, if we understand how



           these factors work.




       B.  One factor influencing the amount of



           runoff is precipitation, especially rainfall.




           1.  We can make measurements and predict, with




               some accuracy, the amount of runoff we can



               expect during any given rainfall.








           2.  We can also predict the amount of rainfall in




               a particular place and season, with respect to



               the frequency of a runoff event.








               a.  Rainfall is measured in inches.  If



                   the rain that falls at a certain point



                   is collected in a container with a



                   flat bottom and vertical sides, the



                   total depth of the water in the con-



                   tainer is equal to the amount of rainfall.






                              3-16

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    b.  All rain gauges  work  on  this  principle.
        More sophisticated raingauges include
        mechanisms for automatically recording
        the rain with  respect to the  time  it  falls.
4.  Using these more sophisticated devices, you
    can measure the intensity of the rainfall,
    as well as the total amount.  The intensity
    is particularly important, because a rain-
    storm with a heavy intensity will generally produce
    more runoff than one with low intensity.
    a.  The reason for this is that the amount
        of water the soil can take in is
        relatively constant,  after  an initial
        rainfall  period that soaks the  soil  surface.
    b.  During low intensity rainfalls, most
        of the water may soak in, or "infil-
        trate."  But during high intensity  rain-
        falls,  if  the infiltration rate remains
        the same,  a greater  portion  of  the rainfall
        runs  off.

5.  The soil can only allow a certain amount of
    water to infiltrate, at a fixed rate,  because
    it is composed of a large number of soil
    aggregates, with open spaces, or "pores,"
    within and between the aggregates.
                 3-17

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    a.   Water,  pulled by the force of  gravity



        and  by  other forces, can infiltrate and



        seep downward not exceeding some maximum rate,



        This rate depends on the permeability



        of the  soil.



    b.   If the  rain falls faster than  the water



        can  seep downward through the  soil, the



        water begins to accumulate on  the surface



        of the  ground and eventually begins to



        flow over the ground as surface runoff.



    c.   At the  beginning of a low-intensity



        rainfall, the water has plenty of time



        to infiltrate.  If the rain is light



        enough, no overland flow will  occur,



        until all the pores in the soil are



        filled  with water, that is, until the



        soil is "saturated."  When the soil is



        saturated, the infiltration rate is con-



        trolled by the soil permeability.  It then



        accumulates, becoming surface  runoff.



6.   The total quantity of rain which falls is one



    of the factors that determine the  amount of



    runoff.   Even a light rainstorm may produce



    a large amount of runoff if it rains for a



    long period of time.



    a.   The duration of the rainfall,  as well as



        the intensity, has an effect on the



        amount  of surface runoff.




                  3-18

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C.  The type of soil present is another factor



    influencing the amount of surface runoff.



    1.  The permeability of the soil limits the



        rate at which water can infiltrate; beyond



        this rate, rainfall becomes runoff.



        Different soils have different permeabilities.



        a.  Increased soil permeability decreases



            surface runoff.  A highly permeable



            soil(sands) permit water to seep downward



            at a rapid rate.  This rapid seepage



            prevents water from accumulating on



            the ground surface as runoff.



    2.  During construction activity, much of the



        soil is altered from its natural state.



        Construction traffic constantly moving over



        the surface of the ground compacts the soil,



        thus making it less permeable.



        a.  Increased compaction causes more of the



            rain to become runoff.



    3.  The texture of the soil also effects the



        amount of runoff generated by rainstorm.



        a.  Clay soils are usually much less permeable



            than sandy soils.   This is because the



            structure and arrangement of the clay



            particles do not allow water to pass



            through as rapidly as it can through




            the more permeable sandy materials.
                        3-19

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D.  Another factor that influences the amount of

    surface runoff is the topography.

    1.  The steepness of the slope and the total

        length of the slope influence the amount

        of surface runoff.

    2.  More surface runoff occurs on steep

        slopes than on more gentle ones.

    3.  The roughness of the surface also effects

        the amount of runoff, by effecting the

        speed at which the water flows down the

        slope.  A roughened slope will slow the

        flow of water, allowing more time for

        it to soak into the ground.  The opposite

        is true for a smooth slope.
                                              *
    4.  Another topographic factor which effects

        the amount of runoff within a watershed,

        is the total distance over which the water

        flows.

        a.  The more direct the route overland

            runoff takes, as it flows to the

            major drainage channel, the less

            time the water has to infiltrate

            into the ground.



        b.  If the overland flow takes more

            circuitous routes to the major

            drainage channel, the overall
                     3-20

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E.  In addition to topographic factors, vegetative



    factors have an enormous influence over the amount



    and speed of surface runoff.



    1.  Vegetation acts as a natural buffer, that



        slows the flow of runoff and increases the



        infiltration.



    2.  Vegetation improves the ability of the soil



        to absorb water by providing organic matter



        on the surface and in the soil.



    3.  Vegetation also improves the ability of the



        soil to absorb water, by loosening the soil,



        and thus increasing infiltration.



    4.  Plants also remove water from the soil, thus



        enabling the soil to accommodate more in-



        filtrating surface water.



    5.  Furthermore, vegetation shields the surface



        of the soil from the direct impact of falling



        rain, thus preventing compaction detachment and



        sealing of the soil  surface.
                      3-21

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VII.   FACTORS RESULTING FROM MAN'S ACTIVITIES






       A.  With modern technology, we can remove the



           vegetation from vast areas.  But by so doing,



           we may greatly increase the amount of runoff



           and the resultant erosion.



       B.  Making areas of the soil impervious to water



           by constructing pavements, buildings, and



           storm drainage systems also increases the



           amount of runoff.



           1.  Instead of a major portion of stormwater



               infiltrating into the soil, most of it




               becomes runoff.



               a.  The massive inflow that results in



                   the natural waterways, causes



                   erosion and flooding.



               b.  The result is'sediment pollution,



                   aesthetic damage, and danger to



                   property and  lives.



       C.  This damage is avoidable.  Man can control it



           without banning all development.



           1.  Through far-sighted planning, and use



               of proper designs and construction practices,



               we can develop an area and, at the same time,



               manage it in a way that will protect the



               environment.



           2.  Stormwater management is one very important
                             3-22

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means of  controlling  the amount  and  speed
of runoff.
a.  Stormwater management is a program
    designed to slow  the runoff, and,
    in some cases, actually decrease
    the amount.
b.  A number of structures are useful
    for managing stormwaters.  These
    include gravel filled infiltration
    structures, retention basins, and
    man-made ponds.
             3-23

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              Questions  1
Fill in the blanks.
1.   Rain, falling,  accumulating,  and flowing over  poorly
    protected soil,  causes the majority of 	'
    	 and 	.

2.   __^	 is the science that deals  with
    climates, their phenomena, and  the causes involved.

3.   	 is the science that deals  with the
    waters of the earth.

4.   	 is the field that deals with practical
    applications of water in motion.

5.   It  is surface waters which we are interested in, because
    flowing surface waters act as the primary agents of
    	 and still surface waters are the
    most subject to 	.
6.   The  four basic processes of precipitation are 	
                       ,                        ,  and
                           J-24

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              Questions   2
True or  false.
    	 Local factors such as mountains effect  the amount
    and intensity of rainfall in a given area.

    	 In a normal year, enough precipitation  falls to
    cover the United States with approximately 40 inches of
    water.

    	 The energy exerted by raindrops  striking exposed
    soil surfaces is relatively insignificant as an  erosive
    factor.

            Runoff over bare soil detaches   and carries away
    soil particles.

5.   	 To allow  an unrestricted flow of floodwater, and
    to prevent damage  to life and property, all development
    should be kept out of the 100 year floodplain.

6.           Watersheds are separated by  a ridge or "divide."
                          3-25

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               Questions   3
Circle  the correct answer or answers.


1.  If  a slope has a horizontal distance of 100 feet and a 50
    foot change in vertical height, the slope would be  a:

    a.   2 to 1 slope
    b.   1 to 2 slope
    c.   50% slope
    d.   200% slope
2.  While in motion, water carries soil particles,  but  as water
    loses its motion,
    a.   it is more likely to cause serious erosion
    b.   it tends to deposit these transported materials
    c.   neither of the above

3.  Factors affecting the speed of flowing water include

    a.   the slope
    b.   the type of diversion structures present
    c.   the roughness or smoothness of the surface  which the
        water flows over
    d.   the total length of the slope
                           3-26

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              Questions   4
True or false.


1.         We have little control over the amount of rainfall,
    its frequency, or its  intensity.

2.  	 We cannot predict with any accuracy, the amount
    of runoff we can expect during a rainfall of a particular
    frequency.
3.  	 We can predict,  with some accuracy,  the amount of
    rainfall in a particular place for a particular frequency.

4.  	 The rate of infiltration of rainfall into the soil
    depends primarily on the intensity of the  rainfall.

5.  	 A moderate rainstorm will produce  little runoff,
    even if it rains for a long period of time.

6.  	 As soil permeability decreases, surface
    runoff increases.

7.  	 Clay soils are usually less permeable than sandy
    soils.

8.  	 Increased compaction, resulting from construction
    activities, is likely  to increase soil permeability.
                           3-27

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              Questions   5
True or  false.
1.  	 The steepness of the slope and the total length
    of  the slope influence the speed of the runoff.
2.  	 The roughness of the surface affects the rate
    of  runoff.
3   _ Vegetation slows the flow of runoff and increases
    the  infiltration.

            Vegetation improves the ability of the soil to
    _
    absorb water by  providing organic matter on the surface
    and  in the soil.

5>   _ Vegetation decreases  the ability of the soil to
    absorb water, by loosening the soil.

6.   _ Plants  remove water from the soil, thus de-
    creasing infiltration.
                           3-28

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              Questions   6
Fill in the blanks.
1.   With modern equipment we can remove the vegetation from
    vast areas, but by  so doing, we may greatly increase the
    amount of                  and resultant
2.   Making areas of the soil impervious to water,  by con-
    structing pavements, buildings,  and storm drainage
    systems, increases the amount of 	.

3.   	 management is one very  important
    means of controlling the amount  and speed of runoff.

4.   The speed of water influences its 	 force.

5.   A 	 is the total ground area which
    contributes surface water runoff to a given point.

6.   The factors which affect the amount of precipitation
    which will become runoff are intensity and total quantity
    of rainfall, the 	  of the soil, and its
    surface                  ,  as well as the
    of  the area
                       velocity increases as slopes become
    longer, steeper and smoother,  and as drainage  patterns
    become straighter.
                         3-29

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   EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION
           WORKBOOK

-------
CONTENT
I     INTRODUCTION




II    EROSION DEFINED




III   NATURAL OR GEOLOGIC




IV    ACCELERATED EROSION




      A.  Causes




      B.  Contributing Factors




      C.  Major Categories




          1.  Overland




          2.  Stream Channel




          3.  Shore




          4.  Wind




V     OVERLAND EROSION




      A.  Sheet




      B.  Rill



      C.  Gully




VI    PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING EROSION




      A.  Climate




      B.  Vegetation




      C.  Soil




      D.  Length and Steepness of Slope
                               4-1

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VII   SEDIMENTATION



      A.  Sedimentation Defined



      B.  Sediment Pollution




      C.  The Process



          1.   Transport of Sediment



          2.   Deposition of Sediment




      D.  Physical Factors



          1.   Characteristics of Flow



          2.   Nature of Particles



          3.   Nature of Fluid



VIII  SOIL LOSS MEASUREMENTS



      A.  Universal Soil Loss Equation



      B.  -Stream Gaging



      C.  Sediment Sampling



IX    REVIEW QUIZ
                              4-2

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I     INTRODUCTION
      A.  Erosion and Sedimentation is the  process whereby
          soil particles are detached from the ground surface,
          transported,    and deposited.
          1.  This is a combination of two problems: erosion and
              sedimentation.
          2.  These processes are interrelated, but  they  cause
              different types of environmental damage-

II    EROSION
      A.  Definition.  Erosion is the process by which the  land
          surface is worn away by the action of wind, water, ice
          or gravity.

Ill   NATURAL OR GEOLOGIC EROSION
      A.  It is the action of the wind, water, ice and gravity
          in wearing away rock to form soil and shape the ground
          surface.
      B.  Except for some stream and shore erosion,  it is a rela-
          tively slow process, continually taking place.
      C.  This type of erosion is reported to produce about 30
          percent of all sediment in the United States.

IV    ACCELERATED EROSION
          By accelerated, we mean a speeding up of erosion.
          Whenever we destroy the natural vegetation or alter
          the contour of the ground without providing some  sort
          of compensation, we increase the rate of erosion.
                             4-3

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    This type of erosion is reported to account for about



    70 percent of all sediment generated in this country.



A.  Causes of Accelerated Erosion



    1.  Farming and construction are the principal causes



        of accelerated erosion.  These activities radi-



        cally upset the delicate balance that nature has




        developed between rainfall and runoff.
B.  Contributing Factors to Erosion in Urbanizing Areas



    1.  The destruction of natural vegetation.



    2.  The removal of organic matter from the ground



        surface.



    3.  Reshaping of the ground contour.



    4.  Exposure of subsoils during construction.



    5.  The placement of impermeable features like



        paving and rooftops on the soil.



    All of these factors increase runoff and in turn



    increase



    - the rate of erosion from the land surface.



    - the rate of stream channel erosion.



    - the amount of sediment that enters the waterways.
                          4-4

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C.  Major Categories  of  Erosion

    1.  Overland Erosion

        a.  It occurs on denuded slopes above the natural

            waterways  as  a result  of  raindrop splash and runoff.

        b.  It is  the largest source  of sediment during

           construction  operations.

        c.  It includes  such types of erosion as sheet,

            rill and  gully.

    2.  Stream Channel Erosion

        a.  It occurs in intermittent or permanent waterways.

        b.  It is  brought on by

               increased runoff from  urbanizing areas

               the removal of natural vegetation along


                the waterway

                channel  alterations as a result of construction

                activities.

        c.  It includes  both streambank and streambed erosion.
        di  Clear water may increase this kind of erosion.
    3.  Shore Erosion

        a.  It occurs  along  bodies of water as a result

            of the impact of waves against  a shore line

            and  is one shore erosion  process.

        b.  Erosion by littoral currents, the movement of water along

            the shore  line  is another process.

        c.  Accelerated  shore erosion is brought on by man's

            activities.  They include:

            (1) the destruction of natural  vegetation along the

                shoreline.


                         4-5

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                   (2)   construction encroachment onto the shoreline.

                   (3)   the  generation of waves as a result of boating

                        activity.

              d.   It  is severe in highly-developed areas found

                   in  the coastal  regions of the country and along

                   the Great Lakes.

          4.  Wind Erosion

              a.   In  most urbanizing areas, because of obstructions to wine

                  abundant soil moisture, and vegetation, wind erosion does not

                   constitite as serious an environmental threat as

                   water erosion.

              b.   In  an urbanizing  area, the most damaging aspect

                   of  wind erosion is dust.  It causes a traffic

                   hazard, adds to cleaning costs, and equipment

                  maintenance  and blights  the  appearance of the
                  structures.
V     OVERLAND EROSION

      A.  Sheet Erosion --  It is  the removal of a fairly uniform

          layer of soil from the  land surface as a result of

          raindrop splash and runoff.

          1.  Raindrop splash is  the impact of raindrops on the soil

              surface.   The splash  detaches soil particles and

              forms a muddy slick on the soil surface, which

              is often referred to  as "puddling."  The magni-

              tude of soil  loss resulting from raindrop  splash can

              best be seen  on a gravelly or stoney soil.
                                   4-6

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    2-  Runoff carries away soil particles detached by
        raindrop splash, and the flowing water detaches
        additional soil.
B.  Rill Erosion.  It is caused when runoff is heavy and
    water concentrates in rivulets.
    1.  It is evidenced by the development of small grooves
        spaced fairly uniformly along the slope.
    2.  Individual rills range in depth and width up to
        about one foot and reflect a tremendous loss of
        soil.
    3.  If rilling is not corrected immediately, it may
        develop into gully erosion.
    4.  It can be obliterated by normal tillage practices,
        that is, plowing or discing and harrowing.
C.  Gully Erosion.
    1.  Like rills, gullies are also grooves washed into
        the soil.
    2.  The greater depth of erosion makes the distinction between
        rills and gullies.
    3.  A gully can not be covered over by normal tillage
        practices.
    4.  All gullies do not represent the culmination of
        unchecked rill erosion.  Improperly designed, con-
        structed, or protected diversion structures, in
        which runoff is concentrated, may cause gullying
        first rain.    The improper disposal of concen-
        trated runoff from a development may also
        cause serious gully erosion.
                        4-7

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         c.   Temperature influences the type of precipitation

             that occurs.

             (1)  Falling snow does not erode.

             (2)  Heavy snow melts in the spring can cause

                 considerable runoff damage.

         d.   It is related to the amount of organic matter

             which collects on the ground surface

             (1)  The warmer the climate the thinner the

                 organic cover.

             (2)  Organic matter protects the soil by

                 shielding it from the impact of falling

                 rain forming more stable soil aggregates and by soaking

                 up rainfall that would otherwise become runoff.

 B.   Vegetation is one of the more important factors

     influencing soil erosion.

     1.   A good cover of vegetation

         a.   shields the soil from the impact of raindrops.

         b.   binds the soil together to protect against

             runoff.

         c.   provides organic matter.
        d.   slows runoff velocities.
     2.   On a graded slope, the condition of the installed

         vegetation will determine whether or not erosion

         will be stopped or only slightly halted.

     3.   A dense, robust, cover of vegetation is one  of the

         best protections against soil erosion.

.C.   Soil properties have a major bearing on erodibility.
                          4-8

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VI    PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING EROSION
      A.  Climate - The  amount,  intensity,  and frequency of rain-
          fall, as well  as  temperature,  have a major influence on
          erosion.
          1.  Rainfall Factors
              a.   Intensity - the rate at which the rain falls.
                   It  is  measured in inches of water falling in an
                   hour of time.
              b.   Infiltration Rate -  the rate that water is
                   absorbed  into  the soil.  It is also measured
                   in  inches  per  hour.
              c.  Frequency  of Rainfa.ll  - the number of separate
                  rainfall  events occurring during a period of
                   time.   During  periods  of  frequent rainfalls a
                  greater percentage of  the rainfall will become
                  runoff.  This  is  the result of soil moisture.
                  As  the moisture content of the soil increases,
                  its ability  to absorb  water decreases.
          2.  Temperature is another part of climate influencing
              erosion.
              a.   Frozen soil  is  highly  resistant to erosion.
              b.   Rapid thawing  brought  on  by warm rains  can lead
                  to serious erosion.
              c.   Freezing and thawing action during winter weather lessens
                  the  soil surface  and increases the susceptibility to
                  erosion.

                               4-9

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1.   Soil Properties influencing Erodibility.

    b.  Texture


           It refers  to the size of the  soil particles.

           Soils  having high concentrations of silt

           and fine sand, as well as  those containing

           highly expansive clay materials are most

           susceptible to erosion from  raindrop splash

           and runoff.
         -  coarse  sands resist erosion.
    c.  Structure

           influences a soil's credibility

           refers to the arrangement  of  the soil parti-

           cles .

           influences both the ability of the soil to

           absorb water and its physical resistance to

           erosion.

         (1) Cohesion

            - has a significant effect on the structure

              of  a soil.

            - refers to the binding force between  soil

              particles.

            - When moist, the individual soil particles

              in a cohesive soil cling together to form

              a doughy consistency.  Clay  soils fall in

              this category.

            - A sandy soil with a clay binder is usually
                       4-10

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               relatively resistant to erosion, as are



               most other soils containing significant



               amounts of clay.



               EXCEPTIONS -- soils containing highly ex-



               pansive clays like bentonite.  These soils



               can be highly erodible.



               When rapid expansion occurs on a natural




               clay soil surface, a soft and soupy film



               develops that is highly susceptible to erosion.



           (2)  Topsoil -- The presence of organic material



               in a soil also has an effect on soil struc-



               ture.



             - In clay soils, it loosens the structure



               and allows more water to infiltrate.



             - In granular-structured sand or silt soils,



               it tends to bind the soil into a mass that



               is more resistant to erosion.



             - In all cases, it absorbs water and thus



               stores more water for plant use.



D.  Length and Steepness of Slope is another major



    factor affecting soil erosion.



    1.  Length of Slope



        - when runoff occurs on long slopes the soil lying



          at the base of the slope, over which all of the



          runoff must pass,  is subjected to severe erosion.



          To avoid this problem, long slopes are often
                       4-11

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              broken  up  so  that they function as a series of



              short slopes  rather than one long slope.  This is



              accomplished  by using various runoff control



              structures including diversions, diversion



              dikes,  and benches.  (these structures function



              to  intercept  runoff and thereby prevent it from



              flowing over  the lower slope.)




         2. Steepness of Slope may be expressed in percent.



             (a) a 10% slope would indicate a IG-foot vertical



                change for  every 100 feet of horizontal distance.



             (b) Slope steepness, surface roughness, and the



                amount and  intensity of rainfall are all factors



                affecting  the  speed  at which runoff flows



                down  a slope.  The steeper the slope, the faster



                the water will flow,  and the faster it flows,




                the greater will be its ability to remove soil



                particles from the slope.



VII   SEDIMENTATION



      A.  Definition  - Sedimentation is the deposition of detached




          soil particles.
      B.  Sed.iment  Pollution causes damage to natural waters



          by reducing  the quality of water itself and reducing




          the quality  of  the organism or wildlife habitat the water




          flows through.
                               4-12

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     It affects man be increasing flooding, damaging water supplies,



     destroying recreational facilities, and increasing maintenance



     costs.  Some sediment may benefit organisms & nourish beaches



     & other shorelines.



C.   Minor changes in stream flow alter whether transport of sediment



     and deposition of sediment occurs.  These parts are so closely



     interrelated that the same set of physical factors determine



     whether sediment is transported or deposited.



     1.  Transport of Sediment is divided into two parts.



         a.  Suspended Sediment is the smaller particles that are



             actually carried and supported by the water itself.



         b.  Bedload Sediment  is the larger soil particles that



             slide, roll, or bounce along the channel bottom.



D.   Physical Factors Affecting Sedimentation - The interactions



     of. these factors will determine how sediment is transported and




     deposited.



     1,  Characteristics of Flow  relates mainly to the velocity



         and turbulence of the moving water.



         a.  The greater the velocity and turbulence of flow, the



             greater will be the ability to carry sediment transported



             in suspension and as bedload.



         b.  The lesser the velocity and turbulence of flow, the



             greater will be the chances of sediment deposited.
                                    4-13

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             2.  Nature of  the  Particles  relates to the




                 size, shape  and  density  of  the particles in the




                 water.




                 a.   Smaller, lighter  particles are more easily




                      transported.




                 b.   Larger,  heavier particles  are harder to trans-




                      port and thus  are more  easily deposited.




             3.  Nature of  the  Fluid relates to the density of




                 the  fluid  the  particles  are located in.  Due to




                 its  density, water has a certain ability to




                 "hold" particles and  keep them from neing deposited.






VIII     SOIL LOSS MEASUREMENTS




         A.  Universal Soil Loss  Equation (A=RKLSCP)  is a tool that




             provides an approximate measurement of the po-




             tential  erosion  that may  occur  at  the site during




             development.   This equation  is  based on experiment




             and observation  and  takes a  number of factors into




             consideration  in arriving at a  measurement of the



             average  annual soil  loss  from sheet and rill erosion.



             1.  "R"  is the rainfall erosion factor and takes into




                 account the  characteristics of rainfall in the




                 area of the  site.



             2.  "K"  is a measure of the  erodibility of the soil




                 at the site.



             3.  "L"  takes  into account the  influence of slope




                 length on  erosion  potential.




             4.  "S"  is the slope steepness factor and accounts




                                    4-14

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            for the influence  of  slope  steepness on

            er edibility .

        5.  "C" the cropping-management and cover factor takes
            into account soil  cover  and vegetative
            erosion control
        6.  "P" is the  erosion  control  practice factor

            that accounts  for the  structural  erosion con-

            trol practice  used  on  the site.

        The product of  multiplying all  the factors toget-

        her (A = R x K  x LS     x C x P)  is the average

        amount of potential  soil loss in tons of sediment

        per acre per year  caused by sheet and rill ero-

        sion.

B.  Stream Gaging

    1 . - Ihis is used to measure the rate of flow of a stream.



    2 . - The device frequently used is a standard weir.

    3. - For more detailed hydrologic information, a

         rain gage is installed to measure the amount

         of rainfall in the  watershed.

C .  Sediment Sampling

    1. - It is used to  measure  the amount of  sediment

         moving in a stream.

    2. - Sediment samples  are often collected by hand

         to measure the sediment load in the  stream.

    3 . - Automatic samplers  are used to collect samples

         at staggered time intervals throughout a

         significant rainfall event, whether  it occurs

         during the day or night.
                        4-15

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              QUESTIONS  1
                                         Fill in the blanks








1.  	 is  the process by which the land surface



    is worn away by the action of wind, water, ice or gravity.



2.  Natural or 	 erosion is a relatively slow



    process, continually taking  place.



3.  	 erosion is  reported to account for about



    70 percent of all sediment generated in this country.



4.  Farming and 	  are  the principal causes of



    	 erosion.



5.  The destruction of natural v	 and the reshaping



    of the ground are contributing factors to erosion in urban-




    izing areas.
                               4-16

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                                     True or False








1.  Overland erosion occurs on denuded slopes above



    the natural drainageways as a result of rain



    splash and runoff.



2.  Wind erosion is the largest source of sediment



    during construction operations.



3.  Stream Channel erosion includes  both streambank



    and streambed erosion.



4.  Littoral currents play a part in shore erosion.



5.  Dust from wind erosion concentrates in waterways,
                  4-17

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              QUESTIONS  3
                                               Multiple Choice








1.  Which of the following are types of overland erosion?



    (a)  sheet erosion               (d) shore erosion



    (b)  rill erosion                (e) a + b + c



    (c)  gully erosion               (f) a + b + d



2.  Sheet erosion is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of



    soil from the land surface as a result of 	.



    (a)  rill and gully              (d) rill and rainsplash



    (b)  rainsplash and rill         (e) gully and runoff



    (c)  rainsplash and runoff



3.  If rilling is not corrected immediately, it may  develop



    into 	 erosion.



    (a)  sheet          (c) shore             (e) all of the above



    (b)  gully          (d) stream channel



4.  The distinguishing difference between rills and gullies is



    (a)  depth          (c) weight            (e) none of the above



    (b)  length         (d) volume
                              4-18

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                QUESTIONS  4
                                               Fill in the Blanks








1.  T	 can be  related  to erosion in several ways.



2.  The amount, intensity and  frequency of r	 have



    a major influence on erosion.



3.  During periods of frequent rainfalls a greater percentage



    of the rainfall will become r	.



4.  As the m	 c	 of the soil increases,




    its ability to absorb water decreases if other conditions are constant.



5 .  0	 m	 on the soil surface protects




    the soil bv shielding it from the impact of falling rain.
                             4-19

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                                              True  or  False

_1.  On a graded  slope,  the  condition  of  the  installed
    vegetation will determine whether or not erosion  will
    be stopped or only  reduced.
_2.  Soil type has a major bearing  on  erodibility.
 3.  Cohesion refers to  the  binding force between soil particles
 4.  Typical beach sand  has  cohesion.
 5.  The presence of organic material  in  a soil  has no
    effect on soil structure.
                          4-20

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                                               Multiple Choice

1.  In our discussion of length of slope we saw that long
    slopes were converted to a series of short slopes by
    using various runoff control structures like
    (a)  diversions               (d) both a & b
    (b)  diversion dikes          (e) both a & c
    (c)  benches                  (f) a & b & c
2.  A 10% slope would indicate
    (a)  a 10-foot horizontal change for every 100 feet of
        vertical distance.
    (b)  a 10-foot vertical change for every 10 feet of hor-
        izontal distance.
    (c)  a 100-foot vertical change for every 10 feet of
        horizontal distance.
    (d)  a  5-foot  vertical change for every  ^° feet of
        horizontal distance.
3.  Slope steepness, surface roughness, and the amount and
    intensity of rainfall are factors controlling
    (a)  amount of water falling on a slope .
    (b)  speed at which a rill erodes.
    (c)  amount of rain in a watershed .
    (d) soil  erosion.
                             4-21

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            QUESTIONS   7
                                           Fill in the blanks
1-  §	 is the deposition of detached soil particles.
                    r>	 causes damages to natural
    waters by reducing the quality of water itself and by




    reducing the quality of the habitat the water flows through.




3.  While being t	 sediment is divided into two types:



    suspended sediment and bedload sediment.




4.  The factors affecting sedimentation are so closely interrelated



    that the same set of p	 f	 determine




    whether sediment is t    	    or d	•
                             4-22

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                                           True or False








_1.   The interaction of  the  physical factors affecting



     sedimentation will determine whether sediment is trans-




     ported or  deposited.



_2.   Characteristics of  flow relates mainly to the



     velocity and turbulence of  the moving water.



_3.   Small light particles are harder to transport than



     larger heavier particles.



_4 .   Nature of the fluid relates mainly to the density of the



     fluid the particles are located in.
                       4-23

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                                             Fill in the blanks

           The Universal Soil Loss Equation
                       A = RKLSCP

1.  "	" is the measure of credibility of the soil at the site

2.  "	" is the rainfall erosion factor.

3.  "	" takes into account the influence of slope length on

    erosion potential.

4.  "	" is the erosion control practice factor.

5.  This equation is used to measure the soil loss caused by

    s                and r             erosion.
                              4-24

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       QUESTIONS   1O
                                         True or False
1.  Stream gaging is used to  measure  the  amount of sediment
    entering a waterway.

2.  A standard weir may be used in stream gaging.

3.  Hand methods are often employed to  collect sediment

    samples.

4.  Automatic samplers are used to collect  samples at

    staggered time intervals.
                      4-2b

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             QUESTIONS  11
REVIEW QUIZ
1.  E	 is the process by which the land sur-
    face is worn away by the action of wind, water, ice
    or gravity.

2.  N	^	 or g	 erosion is the natural action
    of the" wind, water, ice and gravity in wearing away
    rock to form soil and shape the ground surface.

3.  Except for some stream and shore erosion, g
    erosion is a relatively slow process, continually
    taking place.

4 •   By a	 , we mean erosion in excess of geologic erosion.

5.   Whenever we destroy the natural vegetation or alter
    the contour of the ground without providing some sort
    of compensation, we greatly i	 the rate of
    erosion.

6.   About 70% of all the sediment generated in this coun-
    try is caused by a	 erosion.

7.   The principal causes of accelerated erosion are
    f	 and c	.  These activities
    radically upset the delicate balance that nature has
    developed between r	 and r	.

8.   U	 areas are least able to accept the
    damages resulting from soil erosion.
                           4-26

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 9.  The destruction of natural vegetation, reshaping of the
     ground contour, and the exposure of subsoils during con-
     struction are c	 factors to erosion in urban areas.
10.  _S	 erosion occurs on denuded slopes above the
     natural   streams  as a result of  raindrop splash  and  runoff.
11.  Accelerated s	c	erosion occurs in intermittent
     or permanent streams.      It is brought on  by increased
     	 from urbanizing areas, the r	 of
     natural vegetation along the waterway, and c	
     alterations as a result of c _ activities.
12.  S _ erosion occurs along  large  bodies  of water
     as a result of the impact of waves against a shore  line
     i _ currents, the movement of water along
     the shoreline, also may cause shore erosion.
13 .   In many urbanizing areas w _ erosion does not con-
     stitute as serious an environmental threat as water erosion.
14 .   S _ erosion is the removal of a fairly uniform
     layer of soil from the land surface as a result of rain
     splash and runoff.
15.   R _ is caused when runoff is heavy and water
     concentrates in rivulets.
16.   D _ is the distinction between rills and gullies.
17.   I _ is the rate at which the rain falls.
18.   I _ is the rate at which water is absorbed into
     the soil.
                            4-27

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19.  0 _ m _ _ protects  the  soil  by  shield-



     ing it from the impact of falling rain  and also by



     soaking up rainfall that would otherwise  become run-



     off.



20.  A dense, robust cover of v _ is  one of the




     best protections against soil erosion.



21.  TWO soil properties influencing  erodibility  are



     t
22.  C _ _ refers  to  the binding  force  between



     soil particles.



23.  A 15i-foot vertical change for  every  75  feet of hor-



     izontal distance would be called  a _ percent



     slope.




24.  S _ is the -deposition of transported soil particles.
25.  S	 p	 affects man by in-



     creasing maintenance  costs.



26.  While in transport  sediment  is divided into two



     types s	  sediment and b	 sedi-



     ment.



27.  The	  soil  loss equation is a tool




     that      provides an  approximation of the



     potential erosion that may occur  at the site during



     construction.
                             4-28

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28.   The letter 	 is a measure  of soil erodibility




     of the soil at the site.




29,   The letter 	 takes  into  account the influence




     of slope length on erosion  potential.




30.   The letter C is the c               and m
     factor that takes  into  account vegetative and other soil




     cover control practices.



31.  G	 refers  to  the measurement of the



     flow of water in a stream  channel.



32.  To measure the sediment load in a streamf



     s            are taken.
                              4-29

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EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
  PLANT MATERIALS
        WORKBOOK

-------
CONTENT








I    INTRODUCTION TO PLANT MATERIALS




     A.  Usefulness of "Standards and Specifications"




     B.  Importance of Plant Materials







II   CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIALS



     A.  Desirable characteristics of plants.




     B.  Terms used to Classify Plants




         1.  Annuals and Perennials




         2.  Evergreen and Deciduous Plant Materials






III  BASIC STRUCTURE OF PLANTS




     A.  Root, Stem,  and Crown




     B.  Structure and Function of Roots




         1.  Functions




         2.  Spread of Root System




         3.  Tap vs Fibrous Roots




     C.  Stem




     D.  Crown






IV   GRASSES AND LEGUMES




     A.  Grass Family




         1.  Variations in characteristics.




         2.  Methods  of Establishment




         3.  Grasses as Ground Cover




         4.  Use with MONOslabs




         5.  Use in Waterways




         6.  Rhizominous,  Stoloniferous, and Bunch




                          5-1

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     B.  Legumes


V    PLANNING  FOR THE USE OF PLANT MATERIALS

     A.  Site  Investigation

     B.  Environmental Factors Affect  Different Types Differenl

         1.  Need for Determination of Environmental Factors

         2.  Climatic Conditions

         3.  Condition of Soil

         4.  Seasonal High Water Tables

         5.  pH

         6.  Tidal Banks and Shorelines

         7.  Literature to Consult


VI   MAINTENANCE

     A.  Usually  Required

     B.  Selection of Plant Materials

     C.  Control  of Insect Damage

     D.  Prevention of Plant Starvation

         1.  Causes of Plant Starvation

         2.  Plant Nutrients

         3.  Fertilization

Note:  The plant materials discussed in this and following chapters
      are the better plants for the Mid-Atlantic region.  They are
      intended as example and not nationwide application.
                           5-2

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INTRODUCTION TO PLANT MATERIALS






A.  An erosion and sediment control specialist has to




    know how to use plant materials to control soil




    erosion.  Certain publications can help guide you




    in their use.  The publication "Standards and




    Specifications for Soil Erosion and Sediment




    Control in Developing Areas" is particularly




    useful.




    1.  To use a publication of this sort, you have




        to know about the common categories and




        types of plant materials, their physical




        characteristics in relation to erosion and




        sediment control, the factors you must con-




        sider in selecting plant materials, and the




        essential requirements you must meet, to




        insure that the plants grow vigorously.




B.  Importance of Plant Materials




    1.  Plant materials help control soil erosion,



        sedimentation, and stormwater runoff in at




        least four important ways.




        a.  First, they form a protective cover which




            shields the surface of the soil from the




            impact of raindrops.




        b.  The second beneficial effect of a good plant




            cover is that the stems, foliage, and debris
                      5-3

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                 slow the flow of water along the surface

                 of the soil.

             c.  The third important way in which a good

                 plant cover protects against soil erosion

                 is by holding soil in place with its roots.

             d.  Fourth, plants provide organic materials

                 for the soil as the surface litter and root

                 material decays, through the action of soil

                 builders, such as microorganisms and

                 earthworms.  This organic material con-

                 serves moisture and provides a better

                 environment for plant growth,  it usually speeds
                 up soil infiltration rates.

II   CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIALS

     A.  All plants are useful in erosion control, but some

         plants, because of their physical structure and

         their adaptability to the physical and climatic

         conditions at a given site, are more desirable

         than others.  The best plant is the one that will

         provide the necessary control, and will need the

         least maintenance.

     B.  In order to choose the proper plants, you must under-

         stand some of the terms used to describe them.

         1.  Plants used for erosion

             control are grouped into annuals and

             perennials.
                           5-4

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    a.  An annual completes  its  entire life



        cycle in one growing season.  For



        this  reason, some annuals are useful for



        providing quick,  temporary  soil



        stabilization.



    b.  Perennials,  in   contrast to annuals,



        live for many seasons.




        1.  Examples of  perennials  include trees,



            shrubs,  vines and many grasses.



        2.  Perennials used  in stabilizing soil



            include  long-lived legumes such as




            birdsfoot trefoil,  bermudagrass,



            vines,  such  as honeysuckle, and ground



            covers,  including  ivy,  and lily turf.



        3.  Because  of their ability to control



            soil erosion year-round,  and because



            of their long lifespan,  perennials are



            used for long-term or permanent soil



            stabilization.



2.   There are both evergreen and deciduous plant



    materials.



    a.  Evergreens keep  their  foliage alive through-



        out the year, despite  normal seasonal changes



        in the climate.




        1.  Evergreens include ground covers,  vines,



            shrubs,  and  trees.
                   5-5

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                 2.   Periwinkle is an example of an evergreen




                     ground cover.




                 3.   Ivy is an evergreen vine.




                 4.   Creeping juniper is an evergreen shrub




                     which is often used as a ground cover.




                 5.   Evergreen trees include those with




                     needle-like leaves, such as white pine,




                     and those with broad leaves, such as



                     holly.




             b.   In contrast to evergreens, deciduous plants




                 shed their foliage at a given season, usually




                 fall.




                 1.   Examples of deciduous plants include




                     crownvetch, which is used as a




                     ground cover, kudzu, a vine, forsythia,




                     a shrub, and black locust, a deciduous




                     tree.






Ill  BASIC STRUCTURE OF PLANTS



     A.   The basic structure of a plant consists of the roots,




         the stem, and the crown.




     B.   The roots,  in addition to serving the plant, hold soil




         in place and aid the infiltration of water into the




         soil.




         1.  Depending on the type of plant, roots vary con-




             siderably in size, physical makeup, and density.




         2.  The spread of a tree's root system is normally




             equivalent to the spread of its crown.





                             5-6

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    3.  Roots are grouped as either tap or fibrous.
        a.  A tap root grows vertically, downward.
            Secondary roots branch out from the tap
            root.
        b.  A fibrous root system, on the other hand,
            does not have a main root.  Instead, many
            roots radiate downward and outward from
            the base of the stem.
            1.  Fibrous root systems control soil
                erosion and runoff better than tap
                root systems because these roots bind
                the soil tightly in place and form a
                spongy layer beneath the ground
                surface, which resists compaction
                and absorbs water.
C.  Stems vary considerably in physical appearance,
    strength, and 'ability to aid in controlling soil
    erosion.
    1.  Plant stems can be classified as either herbaceous
        or woody.
        a.  Herbaceous stems are soft and green.  They
            have virtually no tough, woody tissue.
        b.  Woody stems, on the other hand,  are thicker,
            harder, and stronger.
            1.  Plants may have either single or
                multistems.  The multistems  are most
                beneficial for erosion and sediment
                control purposes.
                       5-7

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            2.  Multistemmed plants provide a dense



                canopy of foliage that protects the



                surface of the soil from the impact



                of falling raindrops.  Examples in-



                clude the bristly locust and sumac.



            3.  Still other plants have stems that



                emerge from along the trunk roots;




                the roots run under the surface of the ground.








            4.  An example of a plant with stems that



                emerge from the roots is the black



                locust.



D.  The branches and foliage of plants such as trees and



    shrubs are referred to as the "crown."  The "crown"



    can also refer to the branching foliage of many



    herbaceous plants.



    1.  The crown is the manufacturing center of the



        plant.  Here minerals and water, brought up



        from the roots, along with carbon dioxide from



        the atmosphere, utilizing energy from sunlight,



        are converted into food and energy needed for




        the growth and maintenance of the plant.



    2.  In addition to supplying nourishment for the



        plants, the crowns of plants  such as trees



        and shrubs aid in controlling soil erosion.



        Crowns protect the soil from  the full impact
                       5-8

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             of raindrops, especially  when the crowns form



             a thick canopy.



         3.  The crowns of trees,  shrubs,  and other plants



             help control wind  erosion and moderate extreme



             changes in temperature.



         4 .  Crowns produce leaves which  form  a mulch; this protects



             the surface of  the soil from  erosion,  provides



             soil nutrients,  and  assists in the development



             of desirable tilth of the soil, that is,  its structure.






IV   GRASSES AND LEGUMES



     A.  One of the most important families of plants,  for



         stabilization, is the  grass family.   Grasses are by



         far the most widely  used materials for vegetating



         critical areas.




         1.  There are many  varieties  of grasses,  each



             differing in physical structure  and



             adaptability to  climatic  conditions.



         2.  The varieties differ,  as  well,  in the  way they



             should be established:  some  are established



             by seeding, some by  sprigging,  some by sodding,



             and some as clumps,  or culms.



         3.  Properly managed, selected  grasses will form a close,



             dense ground cover.   Many grasses are  able to



             bear fairly heavy  traffic and continuous



             close mowing.  They  are therefore useful for



             vegetating roadway shoulders  and medians.
                            5-9

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4.   Where some light traffic is expected, such as in parking



     lots used only for overflow parking, grasses can be used



     alone or in conjunction with a reinforcement, such as MONOslabs



     or checker blocks.



5.   Certain grasses are also widely used for stabilizing waterways.



6.   According to the way they grow, grasses commonly used for soil



     stabilization can be classified in the following three



     categories:  rhizomitous, stoloniferous, and bunch grasses.



     a.  Rhizonitous and stoloniferous grasses spread by producing



         "runners" that extend out from the main plant.



         1.  Rhizomes are runners below the surface, which spread



             out and produce new runners.  American beachgrass



             spreads in this way.  Stolons are runners on top of



             the ground which roots at many points along its



             length.  Bermudagrass spreads this way.



          2. When properly maintained, these rhizonitous and



             stoloniferous grasses spread rapidly to form a



             dense cover.  For this reason, they are normally used




             on lawns, recreational areas, and waterways.




             Examples  include bermudagrass and Kentucky bluegrass.



           3.  Many of  the grasses used to stabilize shores



              and waterways  spread by producing  runners or



              rhizomes.  Examples
                                   5-10

-------
                 include  reed canarygrass, beachgrass,




                 and  smooth cordgrass.




        b.  As opposed to  rhizomitous and stoloniferous



            grasses,  bunch grasses do not spread by




            means of  runners.   Instead, the blades




            radiate  upward and outward from the surface




            of the ground,  thus forming a bunch.




            1.   Because  Kentucky 31 tall fescue adapts




                 to a  wide  range of climatic conditions,




                 it is an example of a popular bunch grass for



                 stabilizing critical areas.




            2.   When  an  area has been heavily seeded




                 with  selected bunch grasses, a dense cover




                 will  form,  but it will need some




                 maintenance.




B.  Legumes are  primarily  used to stabilize slopes that




    are hard to  maintain,  because legumes require little




    maintenance.




    1.  Legumes  not  only provide an excellent cover,




        they also help maintain grasses, when the two




        materials are planted together.  The legumes




        help the grass by  converting atmospheric




        nitrogen, which  cannot be used by grasses,




        into forms of nitrogen, which are available




        for plant  use.




    2.  Legumes  include  a  wide variety of plants, from




        large trees,  such  as  the locust, to crown vetch
                       5-11

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             a small herbaceous plant.

         3.  A common characteristic  of all legumes is that

             their seeds develop  in pods.

         4.  Crownvetch is  a  legume that is widely used to

             form a low-iraintenance ground cover on slopes

             that may be mostly subsoil.

         5.  Sericea lespedeza is another  legume widely

             used for stabilizing critical slopes.  It

             holds the soil on  highly critical slopes

             because it has deep  roots, and it can

             survive on droughty  poor, acid soils.

         6.  On mass-graded developments,  where areas

             may not be developed for one or more

             growing seasons,  Kentucky 31 tall fescue

             and a legume  are often used as a semi-

              permanent cover.

          7.   It is becoming more common to  seed  legumes  and

              grasses  which provide fast cover with  slow-
              growing  native herbaceous and  woody plants,
              such  as  shrubs,  vines,  and trees, to stabilize

             critical areas.   This mixture provides a long-term

             cover that requires  little maintenance.  As

             some  species  of  plants lose their vigor, other

             longer-lived  types succeed them.


V    PLANNING  FOR  THE USE  OF  PLANT MATERIALS

     A.  A site  investigation is  required to provide a long-

         term,  low-maintenance  cover, that will  adequately
                          5-12

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    stabilize the soil. Developing an adequate plan



    for revegetation includes selecting the proper



    materials and developing a maintenance program.



B.  At a given site, not all types of vegetation commonly



    used for stabilization will perform satisfactorily.



    Each type of plant differs in its ability to adapt



    to a given set of environmental factors.




    1.  You must determine what the environmental



        factors are for each site, and utilize these



        findings in developing a plan for revegetating



        a site.



    2.  Climatic conditions are a major factor to be



        considered at each site before selecting the



        plant materials to be used for stabilization.








        a.   In considering temperature and precipita-



            tion, you must determine in which climatic



            zone the site occurs, and then select those



            types of plants which are known to grow



            successfully in this zone.





        b.   Temperate regions have marked seasonal



            changes in temperature and precipitation.



            1.  In such areas you must consider  the



                time of year during which you will be



                planting.
                      5-13

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        2.   Plants such as weeping lovegrass and bermuda-



            grass grow best during the summer




            months,  while Kentucky bluegrass



            grows better during the cool and



            moist fall and spring months.



     c.  Another climatic condition to consider is



        exposure.  On a highway running east and



        west,  for example, the two sides,  if they



        are both cuts or both fills, will differ



        widely in the kinds of vegetation they can



        support.



        1.   During most of the day, slopes facing



            northward will be shaded, and therefore



            more moist.



        2.   Slopes facing southward, on the other



            hand, will be exposed to direct sunlight,



            and will therefore tend to be more



            droughty.



        3.   Sericea lespedeza and lovegrass would do



            well on the slope facing southward.



        4.   On the slope that is shaded most of the



            day, a grass that tolerates the  shade,




            such as creeping red  fescue  or  Kentucky  31



            tall fescue, will perform well.



3.   You should also consider the condition of the




    soil.
                   5-14

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    a.  Is the soil naturally fertile?  Does  it

        contain an adequate supply of organic

        material and essential nutrients?  For

        a reliable evaluation, have the soil  tested.

    b.  Examine the soil to see if it may be  droughty

        at certain times of the year.  Also check climatic
        records for temperature and rainfall data.
    c.  Generally, droughty soils contain less than

        30% fines, that is, the very small silt  -

        and clay-size particles which hold moisture.

        Many sandy soils are droughty.

    d.  If you encounter a droughty soil, use plants

        that are drought-resistant, such as weeping

        lovegrass.

    e.  Excessively droughty soils may be improved

        by adding organic mulches or topsoil.  These

        materials are commonly called "soil conditioners."

4.   Seasonal  high water tables may also present a

    problem.  Where the water table occurs near  the

    soil surface, the soil at the surface may be

    wet during much of the year.

    a.  When this condition exists, you will have

        to choose plant materials, such as reed

        canarygrass,  which tolerate wet soils.

5.   Test the pH of the soil.  The pH is a measure

    of the alkalinity or acidity of a soil.

    a.  Soils with a pH of 7 are neutral;

        those with a pH above 7 are


                  5-15

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                 alkaline, or basic,  and  those  with a pH



                 below 7 are acidic.



         6.  Tidal banks and shorelines present special



             problems.  These include soil  conditions,  salt



             spray, and strong winds.



             a.  Among the plant materials  which  may be used



                 in these areas are smooth  cordgrass, American



                 beachgrass, and Tufcote  bermudagrass.



             b.  The use of various plant materials depends



                 on the vegetative  zone to  be  stabilized.



         7.  Before consulting the  literature  for the final



             selection of plant materials,  determine the



             physical factors limiting the  selection, and



             the intended use of the  site.   One publication



             you should definitely  consult is "Standards and



             Specifications for Soil  Erosion and  Sediment



             Control in Developing  Areas,"  Written by the Soil



             Conservation Service for the  Maryland Water Resources



             Administration.






VI   MAINTENANCE



     A.  Plant materials usually require  maintenance.



     B.  Selection of Plant Materials.



         1.  Selecting good materials is  a  form of preventive



             maintenance.  To protect against  plant disease,



             you must insure that the seeds or  vegetative



             materials are free of  diseases.
                            5-16

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    2.  See that seed and sod materials are properly



        certified; only purchase them from approved



        sources.  Make sure other plant materials are



        free from major diseases and insect infestation.



        a.  State certification is the best guarantee



            of the purity of a variety.  The State



            Board of Agriculture analyzes and carefully



            controls the weed-seed content, the inert



             matter,  and the contaminants.



C.  Another important kind of maintenance is the control



    of insect damage.  The control of insect damage,



    using approved pesticides and other means, is some-



    times   vital to the maintenance of vegetation used for




    stabilization.



D.  Another vital form of maintenance is the prevention



    of plant starvation.



    1.  Plant starvation results either from excessive



        competition for moisture and nutrients   by



        weeds  or a nurse crop, or from a deficiency



        of plant nutrients in the soil.



        a.  As with plant disease, the best defense



            against a problem involving weeds  is to



            select   good-quality seed or vegetative



            material.



        b.  Be aware, when you use topsoil, that it



            may contain noxious weed seed.






                        5-17 ,

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     c.   In some areas, herbicides may be an effective means



          controlling weeds.  Check with local weed control



          specialists.



     d.   Mowing is another way to control weeds.   Try to mow weeds



          above the tops of desirable plants.



2.   Plant Nutrients



     a.   Even the desirable plant materials will eventually deplete



          the available supply of plant nutrients.



     b.   Plant materials established on subsoils rather than topsoil



          will usually require more frequent applications of fertilizer



          and lime if required.



     c.   The three major nutrients are nitrogen,  potassium, and



          phosphorus.  All of these major plant nutrients have an



          important influence on the development of a plant.



     d.   Nitrogen tends to encourage the above ground growth of plants.



          1.   Nitrogen also helps the plant regulate its use of



               potassium and phosphorus.



          2.   A deficiency of nitrogen will cause stunted growth



               and restricted root development.



          3.   Nitrogen deficiency will also make the plant more



               susceptivle to attack by diseases and insects.  If



               the foliage of the plant yellows, it often means that



               the plant is deficient in nitrogen.



          4.   Inoculated legumes will not usually show nitrogen



               deficiency after plants are old enough to fix nitrogen.
                                  5-18

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e.  Phosphorus plays an important role in the



    ability of a plant to assimilate other




    nutrients.



    1.  It is also essential for the full de-



        velopment of sturdy, healthy roots and



        crown.



    2.  A purplish color that develops on the



        leaves and the new growth of a plant



        often indicates a phosphorus deficiency.



f.  Potassium is also essential for the growth



    of a plant.



    1.  Potassium is furnished by potash.



    2.  Potassium, along with phosphorus, has



        an important role in the development



        of the root system of a plant.




    3.  Potassium is essential for



        manufacturing and storing plant



        food.



    4.  In addition, potassium increases the



        resistance of a plant to disease.



    5.  A dry, scorched appearance in the



        leaves of a plant may indicate a



        potassium deficiency.



Fertilization



a.  To determine whether a soil will support a



    particular vegetative cover, you must have



    certain chemical tests made.  State universities,
             5-19

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    in cooperation with  local county



    agricultural  extension agents, make low



    cost  laboratory  testing available.



b.  Fertilizers are  marketed in a variety of



    combinations  of  available nitrogen,



    phosphorus, and  potassium.   The per-




    centages of these  available nutrients



    are labeled on the container.  For



    example, an 80-pound bag of fertilizer



    labeled 10-6-4 would contain 10 percent,



    or 8 pounds of available nitrogen, 6



    percent, or 4.8  pounds, of available



    phosphorus, and  4  percent,  or 3.2 pounds,



    of available  potassium.




c.  For acid Soils, lime  is also essential for



     maintaining  vigorous growth.



    1.  Lime  (calcium carbonate) is primarily used to



        neutralize acid  soil,  and to make many



        of the essential nutrients more available



        to plants.   Legumes require more lime than grasses.



    2.  The lime  also  provides nutrients essential



        for plants,  such as calcium and magnesium.



        Dolomitic lime is preferred, because it



        supplies  magnesium as well as calcium.



    3.  In addition, lime increases the ability



        of certain tight, clayey soils to hold




        moisture, by improving the structure.
                5-20

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              Questions  1
True or  False.
1.	 Plant materials of fer excellent protection against
         the ravages of soil  erosion.

2.	 Plant materials generally allow falling raindrops
         to strike the surface of the earth,  with their full
         impact.

3.	 The impact of a raindrop striking the  bare surface
         of the soil can dislodge soil particles.  These
         particles are thrown into suspension,  and carried
         away by the runoff.

4.	 Sediment, in suspension, passes as easily through
         grass as the water itself.

5.       Plants also protect against soil  erosion by
         holding soil in place with  their roots.

6.	 Roots help prevent water from infiltrating into
         the ground.

7.	 Roots benefit the  soil  by aerating it.
                        5-21

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               Questions   2
Circle the  correct answer or answers.
1.  All  plants are useful in erosion control, but some  plants
    are  more desirable than others because of

    a.   their physical structure
    b.   their weed-seed content
    c.   their adaptability to the physical and climatic
        conditions at a site
    d.   their ability to grow on  soils low in nitrogen

2.  The  best plant is
    a.   the one that requires  the most nutrients
    b.   the one that will provide the necessary erosion control
    c.   the one that will need the least maintenance
    d.   the one that is most susceptible to damage by insects

3.  The  most common ways of grouping plants are

    a.   by the color of their flowers
    b.   by cost
    c.   by their lifespans
    d.   by their physical characteristics

4.  As  for lifespans, plants used for erosion control are
    grouped into

    a.   annuals and perennials
    b.   deciduous and evergreen
    c.   rhizominous, stoloniferous, and bunch
    d.   tap root and fibrous root


                           5-22

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5.  An annual completes  its growing  season  in

    a.  more than two years
    b.  two years
    c.  one growing season

6.  Annuals used for permanent  stabilization,  because of their
    ability to reseed themselves year  after year,  include

    a.  Korean lespedeza
    b.  millet and sudangrass
    c.  cereal grains
    d.  Kentucky 31 tall fescue
    e.  corn

7.  Perennials used in stabilizing soil  include

    a.  cereal grains
    b.  birdsfoot trefoil
    c.  long-lived grasses
    d.  millet and sudangrass
    e.  vines, such as honeysuckle
    f.  Korean lespedeza
    g.  ivy and lily turf

8.  Evergreens

    a.  lose their leaves once  a year, usually in  the fall
    b.  keep their foliage alive throughout the  year,  despite normal
        seasonal changes in climate
    c.  include cereal grains
    d.  include periwinkle and  ivy
    e.  include creeping juniper, white  pine,  and  holly

9.  Deciduous plants

    a.  lose their leaves once  a year, usually in  the fall
    b.  keep their foliage alive throughout the  year,  despite normal
        seasonal changes in the climate
    c.  include  sericea lespedeza and kudzu
    d.  include periwinkle and  ivy
    e.  include forsythia and black  locust
                            5-23

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              Questions   3
Fill in the blanks.
1.  The spread  of  a tree's root system is normally  equivalent
    to the spread  of its 	.

2.  Roots are grouped as either 	 or  fibrous.

3.  A 	 root grows vertically,  downward.  Secondary
    roots branch out from the 	 root.

                  root systems control soil  erosion and runoff
    better than  	 root systems.

5.  An example of  a plant with stems that emerge  from  the roots
    is the 	  	.

6.  The branches and foliage of plants such as trees and shrubs
    are referred to as the 	.

7.  The crowns of  trees, shrubs, and other plants help control
    wind erosion and moderate changes in 	.

8.  Crowns also  provide a	i  which  protect the_
    surface of the soil from erosion, provides soil nutrients, and assists in
    the development of the til*h of the soil, that is, its structure.
                          5-24

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               Questions   4
True or False.
1.	 Grasses play a relatively minor role in vegetating
           stabilized areas.

2.	 There are many varieties of  grasses, each differing
           in  physical structure and adaptability to climatic
           conditions.

3.	 Some varieties of grasses are established by
           seeding, some by sprigging,  and some by clumps, or
           culms.

4.	 Grasses are classified as bunch grasses and legumes,

5.	 Rhizomitous and stoloniferous grasses spread by
           producing "runners" that extend out from the main
           plant.

6.	 Kentucky bluegrass spreads by rhizomes.

7.	 Bunch grasses also spread by producing "runners,"
           that extend out from the main plant.

8.	 Selected legumes can be used to stabilize slopes that
           are hard to maintain ; some legumes require little
           maintenance.
                           5-25

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               Questions   5
Each of the  following sentences contains one error.  Write the
letter that  corresponds to the incorrect word or  phrase in the
blank provided.
          Developing an adequate plan for revegetation includes
          a site investigation, selecting the proper materials,
                    A                         B
          little or no planning for a long-term,  low-maintenance
                                C
          cover, and developing a maintenance program.
            C                    D
           One of the major environmental factors which you must
           investigate at each  site before selecting plant
           materials is climatic conditions;  these  include
           temperature, pH, precipitation, and exposure to
               ABC               D
           sunlight and wind.
                 D

           Plants such as bermudagrass and weeping lovegrass grow best
           during the hot summer months, and  in the late fall,
                      A                          B
           while Kentucky bluegrass grows better during the cool
                                                        C
           and moist spring months and in the fall.
                     C                  D
                            5-26

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During most of the day, slopes facing northward
will be shaded and therefore more moist;  slopes
          AB
facing southward will be exposed to direct  sunlight
                               C
and will therefore tend to be unlikely to support
                                       D
vegetation.
    D

Soil conditions you should consider before  selecting
a plant material include fertility, the moisture content,
                             A                 B
and the exposure.   (Exposure is important but it is a site
            C       condition.)

Generally droughty soils contain more than  25 to 30%
                                      A
fines; many sandy soils are droughty, while most
  A                  B                        C
clayey soils are not, but the best way to tell if  a
        C
soil is potentially droughty is to determine the
                                        D
distribution of the various grain sizes in  the
                     D
laboratory.
    D

If you encounter a droughty soil, use plants that  are
                                                 A
highly susceptible to drought, such as weeping lovegrass;
              A                              B
these plants are able to regulate their consumption of
                                 C
water, and they have deep roots, which penetrate below
  C                               D
the droughty zone.
          D
                 5-27

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             Questions   6
Fill  in  the blanks.
    Where the water table occurs near  the soil surface, the
    soil at the surface may be 	 during much of
    the year.

    When this condition exists, you will have to choose plant
    materials, such as 	, which tolerate 	
    soils.

    Test the 	 of the soil.  The 	 is
    a measure of the alkalinity or acidity of a soil.

                 is an example of a plant that tolerates
    fairly acidic soil.

    Among the plants  which may be used on tidal banks  and
    along shorelines  are	and 	
    Before consulting  	 for  the final
    selection of plant materials, determine the physical
    factors limiting the  selection,  and the intended use of
    the  site.
                       5-28

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                Questions   7
Circle the  correct answer  or answers.


1.  To protect against plant disease, you must

    a.  spray the plants with DDT
    b.  insure that the seeds or vegetative materials are free
        of  diseases
    c.  use applicable pesticides according to label instructions.

2.  One way of protecting against plant diseases is

    a.  to  see that seed and sod materials are properly certified
    b.  to  make sure that the seed  or sod materials contain a
        sufficient percentage of inert filler
    c.  to  make sure the soil does  not contain any noxious sub-
        stances, such as nitrogen

3.  The control of insect damage can be  legally achieved by

    a.  the use of DDT
    b.  planting a nurse crop, together  with legumes
    c.  the use of approved pesticides and other means

4.  Plant starvation results from

    a.  excessive competition for moisture and nutrients, by
        weeds or a nurse crop
    b.  the use of certified turfgrass sod
    c.  a deficiency of plant nutrients, or soil moisture in the soil
                           5-29

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5.   Weeds can usually be controlled  by
    a.  the use of topsoil
    b.  the selection of a good  quality seed or vegetative
        material
    c.  herbicides
    d.  the use of disease free plant materials
    e.  mowing

6.   The time required for desirable  materials to deplete the
    soil nutrients will vary depending on
    a.  the type of plant material
    b.  the certification of  the seed and sod materials
    c.  the physical structure of the soil
    d.  the natural level of  the nutrients in the soil
    e.  the intensity of precipitation
    f.  pH
                              5-30

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             Questions  8
Each of  the following statements contains  one mistake.   Write
the letter that corresponds to the incorrect phrase in the
blank provided.
1.	 Plants, in order  to grow well,  require sixteen
                                           A
         elements, or nutrients.  However,  the three major
                 A
         nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium.
                         B         ' C             D

2.	 Nitrogen tends to moderate the  growth of plants
                                  A
         above the ground; it gives the  foliage a deep-green
               A                         B
         color.   If the foliage of the plant yellows, it often
          B                                           C
         means the plant is deficient in nitrogen.
                         C

3.	 Phosphorus plays  an important role in the ability of
                                      A
         a plant to assimilate other nutrients.  It is essential
                       A
         for the full development of sturdy, healthy roots and
                                  B
         crown.   A dry, scorched appearance in the leaves  may
          B                         C
         indicate a deficiency of phosphorus.
                          5-31

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Potassium is furnished by legumes.  Potassium has
                           A
an important role in the development of the root
                    B
system.  Potassium is also essential for manufacturing
  B                                     C
and storing plant food.  A dry, scorched appearance
         C                             D
in the leaves may indicate a potassium deficiency.
     D

An 80 pound bag of fertilizer labeled 1O-6-4 would
contain 10 percent, or 8 pounds of available nitrogen,
                           A
6 percent, or 4.8 pounds of available potassium, and
                   B
4 percent or 3.2 pounds of available potassium.
                      C

Lime is primarily used to supply magnesium, but it
                    A
also neutralizes acid soil,  makes many of
                  B              p
the essential nutrients more available to plants,
                     C
provides nutrients such as calcium, and increases the
             D                               E
ability of certain tight, clayey soils to hold moisture.
                        E
                  5-32

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                Questions   9
True or False.
 1.	 Plants  aid in controlling erosion by  protecting
            the  soil from the direct impact of the  falling
            rain, by slowing the flow of water over the sur-
            face of the ground, by holding the soil,  and by
            adding  organic matter to the soil.

 2.	 Annuals live for several years; they  often flower
            and  produce seeds each year.

 3.	 Plants  with tap roots are more beneficial in con-
            trolling soil erosion than those with fibrous roots.

 4.	 Bunchgrasses are useful in controlling  soil erosion,
            while grasses with stolons or rhizomes  are not.
 5.	 Legumes are useful because selected legumes require little main-
            tenance;  some legumes can be used in areas which are hard
            to maintain.

 6.	 Legumes add nitrogen to the soil.   Because  of this
            they are often used along with other plants.

 7.	 In order to develop an adequate plan for revegetating
            a graded area, it is usually sufficient to  select the
            proper plant materials.
                            5-33

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 8.	 Environmental  factors you should investigate
              include  temperature,  precipitation, and exposure
              to sun and wind.

 9.	 It is usually  unnecessary to investigate the
              soil's pH.

10.	 Once plants  have  been established, they will
              usually  need no further attention.

11.	 The main plant nutrients present in fertilizers
              are nitrogen,  phosphorus, and potassium.

12.	  For soils  too acid for plants being planted you should add
              lime to the soil, before  planting.

13.	 Legumes,  when  planted with grasses, help the grass
              by converting  atmospheric nitrogen into a form
              useable by the plants.

14.	 Legumes  include crown vetch, Korean lespedeza,
              locust trees,  and Sericea lespedeza.

15.	 It would be  a  serious error to seed legumes and
              grasses,  together with native herbaceous and
              woody plants,  such as shrubs, vines, and trees,
              to stabilize veritical areas.

16.	 Soils with a pH of 7  are neutral.

17.           Soils with a pH below 7 are basic.
                             5-34

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EROSION AND  SEDIMENT  CONTROL
 CONTROL  OF RUNOFF
DURING CONSTRUCTION
        WORKBOOK

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I.      INTRODUCTION




       A.   Definitions



           1.   Stormwater Runoff - rain that is not ab-



               sorbed when it comes in contact with the



               soil.   This runoff may carry soil with it



               The faster it travels,  the  more soil it can




               erode and carry.



           2•   Sediment - soil that is transported by



               runoff and deposited on the ground



               surface or in waterways.



       B.   Factors that Increase Runoff



           1.   Grading during construction that destroys



               natural vegetation - which  is nature's



               greatest runoff protection.



           2.   Construction changes the  natural balance



               of  the land.   Grading practices during



               construction may turn gentle slopes into



               steep  slopes.



           3.   Construction covers large portions of  soil



               surface with roof and concrete or asphalt



               pavement.   (A 20% loss  of soil area will



               cause  runoff  to more than double during



               heavy  rainfall.)
                          6-1

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II.    CONTROL OF RUNOFF - OVERVIEW

       There are two ways to control runoff:

       A.  Decrease the amount of runoff by using special

           grading ^practices that increase the detention and intake
           of water into the soil.
       B.  Diversion is another method used to control

           runoff.  With a diversion structure, runoff

           is intercepted and diverted to an area where

           it will be absorbed or safely discharged.


III.   SPECIAL GRADING PRACTICES

       A.  Preserving Vegetated Buffer Areas.  Preserv-

           ing a buffer zone above and below a graded

           area will trap much of the rainfall before

           it has a chance to erode and will filter run-

           off from the graded area.

       B.  Staging - dividing a construction site into

           different areas.  With staging, grading and

           stabilization are finished in one area be-

           fore proceeding to the next.  This limits the

           amount of soil exposed to erosion at any

           given time.

       c-  Surface Roughening - is an easy and economi-

           cal method that simply creates an uneven or

           bumpy condition on the soil surface.  Horizon-

           tal grooves  tend to spread runoff over the

           slope, slowing it down and allowing more of it
                            6-2

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           to be absorbed by the soil.   Scarification is one




           way to roughen the soil  surface.   It  is  often



           performed by back blading  along a  slope  with the



           teeth of a loading bucket  mounted  on  a crawler



           tractor.  Roughening produces a soil  surface



           very suitable for the growth  of vegetation.






IV.    DIVERSION STRUCTURES



       A.  Temporary and Permanent



           Diversion structures are built to  intercept



           and divert runoff at a safe or non-erosive



           velocity. Temporary structures are designed only



           for the construction period,  while permanent



           structures are built to  remain both during



           and after construction.



       B.  Interceptor Dikes



           1.  Interceptor Dikes are built across a



               roadway to intercept runoff flowing  down



               the graded right of  way.   Runoff  can be



               directed into any safe disposal area such



               as a vegetated area  or completed  storm



               sewer.  Because the  soil  dike  slows  down



               runoff, sediment may be deposited on the uphill



               side of the dike.  This sediment  must be checked



               after every storm and  removed  before it impairs



               the efficiency of the  dike.
                             6-3

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    2•  Gravel Interceptor Dikes



        are used when the weight of construction



        traffic would be too much for a wet soil



        interceptor dike to withstand.  It is sim-



        ilar to a soil dike, except that it is



        made from gravel or crushed rock.  A gravel



        dike is less likely to be damaged or



        washed out during a heavy storm.  It must



        be checked and properly maintained.



C.  Diversion Dikes collect runoff and channel it



    safely away from an erodible soil surface to




    a safe disposal area.  It is made of compacted



    soil and is commonly used along the top of a



    slope.







    When the channel along the diversion dike is



    steep,  soil reinforcement measures such as



    netting,  mulching,  and chemical stabilizers



    are helpful.   The diversion dike also requires



    maintenance.   It should be inspected after



    each storm, and any damage repaired.




D-  Diversions are often used on hillsides
                      6-4

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         The soil excavated fron the channel of the diversion  is



         used to build a dike down hill from the channel.   This



         cornbination of channel and dike will create a larger flow



         capacity.






         A standard diversion dike with side slopes of two to one



         and a two-foot wide top and 1.5 feet high will have good




         flow capacity  for drainage areas less than 5 acres.






         A "top of cut" diversion is widely used in building



         highways.






         CAUTION:   If a diversion structure is used, be careful when




         working on a steep slope - a SLIDE could occur.  The major



         cause of sliding is the saturation of the soil by water



         concentrated behind and within the diversion.






V.  DISPOSAL OF DIVERTED FLOW



    A.  Onto Vegetation



        The best way to dispose of diverted runoff is directly



        onto a well vegetated ground surface.  When the



        amount of concentrated runoff is not too great,



        the vegetation will filter the runoff, and the soil will



        absorb sane of the water.  Grass is the best vegetative filter.
                                 6-5

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B.  The Level Spreader



    A level spreader is often  required when the amount



    of runoff is too great  to  be  disposed of direct-



    ly onto a vegetated area.   The level spreader



    changes a concentrated  flow into non-erosive



    sheet flow.



C.  Downdrain Structures are used to carry runoff



    from one level to another.



    1.  Flexible Downdrains



        A flexible downdrain consists of a metal



        inlet or end section  (the front  lip is very



        important.  It anchors the device and pre-



        vents the seepage of water b'eneath the drain.)



        A metal extension collar, normally about




        six feet long, and a collapsible drain



        tube made of heavy  duty fabric are the other



        components of a flexible  downdrain.





        If the flexible downdrain is to  perform



        properly, the inlet section must be tilted



        downward.  The soil should be tightly com-



        pacted around the inlet.   This measure




        is taken to prevent piping -  the



        flow of water along the outside  rather than




        the inside of the inlet,   it is necessary also to




        have adequate fill over the pipe entrance - at least




        12 inches over the top  of the  pipe.





                       6-6

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2.  Sectional Downdrains



    A sectional downdrain is a half-round or



    third round pipe made from bituminized fiber,



    galvanized steel or other material.  A formal



    design is needed to determine what size



    sectional downdrain you need to carry your



    flow without water spilling out of the pipe.






    When used as a temporary downdrain, the pipe can



    be placed directly on the finished ground and



    secured in place with wooden stakes.  Where two



    pieces of sectional downdrain are joined



    together, the uphill section overlaps the down-



    hill by about three inches.  The sectional



    downdrain can also experience piping.



3.  Flumes



    A flume is a flat bottomed ditch lined



    with either concrete or asphalt.  A formal



    design is required to properly size a flume



    for the expected water flow.  Piping can be a



    problem unless a good bond is maintained be-



    tween the diversion structure and the flume



    inlet.



4.   Energy Dissipators



    Energy dissipators are used to slow down the
                  6-7

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flow of water at the drain outlet to lessen




the chance of erosion.  On temporary con-



crete flumes, stones or concrete blocks are



sometimes set into the concrete so they



protrude up into the flume.  This



slows the water.  Placing a blanket of large



crushed stone or concrete at the outlet will



accomplish the same thing.
              6-8

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                   STORMWATER RUNOFF
           Review Questions - Fill in the bitnks
1.  During construction, grading often causes
2.  The 	 runoff travels,  the more soil it



    disrupts and carries.



3.  Soil deposited into our waterways where runoff concen-



    trates is called 	.



4.  	 is nature's greatest runoff reducer.



5.  During a heavy rainfall, runoff will more than double when



    just 20% of a 	 area is made impervious
                           6-9

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                     CONTROL OF RUNOFF
Review Questions                            True or False
      1.  There  are  two ways to control runoff on an area
          struction;  decreasing the amount of runoff and use of a
          diversion.
      2.  By  staging, we mean getting all grading accom-

          plished at one specific time during construction.

      3.  In  using  scarification as a form of surface

          roughening,  we simply loosen the soil to  a

          shallow depth without turning it over.

      4.  To  be most effective, surface roughening must be

          vertical  or up and down a slope.
                            6-10

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                  DIVERSION STRUCTURES
Review Questions - Pick the best answer for the following
                   and fill-in the answer space with the
                   correct letter.
1.  An example of a permanent diversion structure would be

    a.  a flexible downdrain
    b.  a top of cut ditch
    c.  a soil interceptor dike
    d.  a level spreader

                               ANSWER
2.  To prevent excess buildup, sediment must be removed
    from soil interceptor dikes
    a.  after every storm
    b.  after every other storm
    c.  at least once per month
    d.  daily
                               ANSWER
                           6-11

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     TYPICAL DESIGN  CRITERIA FOR A SOIL  INTERCEPTOR DIKE
                                                           Graded
                                                         Right-of-Way
                               CROSS SECTION
 2:1 or
Flatter
Slopes
                                                   Fl
Upslope Toe
                                      Outlet onto  Stabilized Area
                             ISOMETRIC VIEW
GENERAL NOTES:
     a.  Drawings  not to scale
     b.  Top width may be widened,  slopes may be flattened
     c.  Outlet should function with minimal erosion
                                  6-12

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TYPICAL DESIGN  CRITERIA FOR A GRAVEL INTERCEPTOR  DIKE
     Graded Right-of-Way
                              3:1 Slope or Flatter

                            CROSS SECTION
                         TOP ISOMETRIC VIEW
       GENERAL NOTES
           a.  Drawing not to scale
           b.  Top width may be widened;  Slopes may be flattened
           c.  Outlet should function with minimal erosion
                              6-13

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         TYPICAL DESIGN CRITERIA  FOR  A  DIVERSION  DIKE
        Cut or
       Fill Slope
h                                      _~
                                    in.
                                    2:1 Slope or Flatter
                              CROSS SECTION
                                        Positive Grade
            Upslope Toe
                                           Cut or Fill

                                             Slope
GENERAL NOTES:
     a.  Drawings not to scale.
     b.  Outlet  to stabilized area,
                                     6-14

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               DIVERSION  STRUCTURES
       Review Questions  -  Fill  in the blanks
1.  Another name  for  the  dike is
2.  The main function of  the gravel interceptor dike



    is- not to filter but  to                runoff.
3.  The diversion dike   is  usually a dike of



    soil built along  the top  of a cut or fill.
4.  One place where a diversion dike may not be com-



    pacted is a 	 area.





5.  On hillsides,  a 	 is  constructed by excavating




    from the channel and constructing the  dike on the downhill side.






6.  In building any kind of  diversion structure, you must



    be careful to  avoid the  possibility of a	^__



    on the lower lying slope.
                           6-15

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                      LEVEL SPREADER
Review Questions                           True or False
      1 •   The best way to dispose of diverted runoff
          is directly onto a well vegetated area.
      2.   The level spreader is very similar to a diver-
          sion ditch.
      3.   The length of the level spreader will vary
          with the amount of water to be disposed of.
      4.   Being well stabilized with vegetation is help-
          ful but not a must for a level spreader.
      5.   The most important feature of a level spreader
          is its depth.
                            6-16

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      TYPICAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE LEVEL  SPREADER
                                                        2:1 or Flatter
                                                       0.5' Min.
Jndisturbed Soil
Stabilized by
Existing Vegetation
SECTION A - A
                       ISOMETRIC VIEW
GENERAL NOTES:

    Drawing not to scale
                               6-17

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                    FLEXIBLE DOWNDRAINS
Review Questions - Pick the best ans'wer for the following
                   and fill-in the answer space with  the
                   correct letter.
1.  The metal inlet of a flexible downdrain has a  front  lip,
    Its function is to:

    a. anchor the device
    b. prevent the seepage of the water beneath the drain
    c. filter sediment
    d. both a and b

                           ANSWER
2.  The flexible downdrain is subject  to  the  piping  effect,
    This is:

    a. too much flow                        ,
    b. flow alongside the inlet
    c. a tear in the tube
    d. none of the  above

                           ANSWER
                            6-18

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                    DOWNDRAIN  STRUCTURES
           Review Questions  -  Fill in the blanks










1.  When used as a temporary  downdrain structure,  the



    sectional downdrain is  secured in place with 	



    stakes.



2.  To avoid  	, the  soil must be tightly com-



    pacted around the entrance to a sectional downdrain.



3.  A	is a  flat  bottomed ditch



    lined  with either concrete or asphalt.



4.  Whatever  your downdrain structure, severe 	



    at the outlet is often  a  problem.



5.  The role  of the energy dissipator is to 	
    down  the  flow of water before it flows onto the soil surface.




6.   Probably the most frequent cause of failure of the flexible drain is



    inadequate fill over the entrance end of the pipe - this should be



    at least	inches over the top of the pipe.
                             6-19

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           FINAL REVIEW QUESTIONS



            Answer the Following








1.  R	 that is not a	 when it comes



    in contact with the soil becomes s	



    r	.






2.  Three basic causes of runoff during construction



    are:



    a.  G	 during construction that



        destroys v	.



    b.  Construction that changes the n	
        b	 of the land, turning



        g	 slopes into s	
        slopes.



    c.  Construction that covers large portions of soil



        surface with r	 and c	 or



        a	 pavement.





3.  Runoff can be controlled by:



    a.  D	 amount of runoff by using



        s	 treatment  p	



    b.  D	 diverting runoff to a safe outlet.
                         6-20

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4.   Three special grading practices used to con-
    trol runoff are:
    a.   s	
    b.   s	 r	
    c.   preserving v	 b	
5.  True or False - A permanent diversion structure
    can be defined as one that will serve both dur-
    ing and after the construction period.  	

6.  The two basic kinds of interceptor dikes are:
    a.  	
    b.  	

7 .  A d	d	 is a run-
    off control structure formed with c
    soil and usually built along the t	 of
    a slope or around the perimeter of a
    c	 site.

8.  On natural hillsides where fill soil for a dike
    is not available we often use a d	
    d	.

9.  The best way to dispose ot diverted runoff is
    directly onto  a w	 v	
    ground surface.
                        6-21

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10.  A 1	 s	 is a bench



     cut into an undisturbed area which changes



     concentrated flow into sheet flow.





11.  Three downdrain structures used to carry



     runoff from one level to another are:



     a.  f	 d	



     b.  s	 d	



     c.  f	





12.  	 is the flow of runoff



     alongside rather than through a downdrain



     structure.





13.  When large amounts of runoff must be disposed



     of at a downdrain outlet, we often use an



     e	 d	to slow down



     the r	  as it flows onto the



     ground surface.
                        6-22

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                                     1
      EROSION AND  SEDIMENT CONTROL
VEGETATIVE  SOIL  STABILIZATION
              WORKBOOK

-------
  CONTENT






  I.  CRITICAL AREAS



 II.  VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION- MID ATLANTIC REGION EXAMPLES




      A.  Temporary




      B.  Permanent




III.  PERMANENT PLANT MATERIALS




      A.  Grass




      B.  Legumes




      C.  Herbaceous Plants




      D.  Ground Cover




      E.  Vines




      F.  Shrubs




      G.  Trees




 IV.  SELECTING PROPER PLANT MATERIALS




      A.  Climatic Conditions




          1.  Temperature




          2.  Rainfall




          3.  Exposure




      B.  Soil Conditions




          1.  Fertility




          2.  Acidity




          3.  Droughty Soil




          4.  Wet Soil




      C.  Site Usage




      D.  Site Maintenance
                            7-1

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   V.  METHODS OF ESTABLISHING VEGETATION




       A.  Seeding




       B.  Sprigging




       C.  Sodding




  VI.  TIME OF PLANTING




       A.  Cool Season Plants




       B.  Warm Season Plants




 VII.  SOIL ADDITIVES




       A.  Fertilizer




       B.  Lime




VIII.  MULCHING




  IX.  TOPSOILING




   X.  ESTABLISHING VEGETATION ON CRITICAL SOIL SURFACES




       A.  Soil Preparation




           1.  Adding Lime and Fertilizer




           2.  Tilling




       B.  Seeding




       C.  Mulching




       D.  Sodding




  XI.  MAINTENANCE OF CRITICAL AREAS




       A.  Follow-up




       B.  Periodic




 XII.  REVIEW QUIZ
                              7-2

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 I.  CRITICAL VS. NONCRITICAL AREAS



     A.   Critical area - a sediment producing or highly



         erodable area.   It may be an area where grading



         operations have stripped away the fertile top-



         soil to expose  subsoil or an area bare of vege-



         tation due to too much foot traffic.
II.  VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION



     A.  Temporary vegetative stabilization is the use of



         certain fast growing,  robust plant materials to



         stabilize a site for a temporary period of time



         (less than one year).   Both annual and perennial




         plants are used.



         1.  Temporary stabilization becomes necessary



             when grading leaves an area exposed for a



             prolonged period of time.



         2.  The type of temporary vegetation used will



             depend on



               a.  time of year



               b.  site location



               c.  soil type and condition
                            7-3

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B.  Permanent vegetative stabilization is performed



    when it is necessary to stabilize an area for



    more than one year.  Perennial plants must be



    used ; temporary annuals may be used in mixtures



    with permanent plants.



    1.  The life of this type of cover will depend



        on



          a.  type of vegetation



          b.  maintenance



          c.  type of use received
                      7-4

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III.  PERMANENT AND SEMIPERMANENT PLANT MATERIALS



      A.   Grasses



          1.  Grasses are the most widely used plant



              material for stabilizing critical areas.



          2.  Grasses commonly used for critical



              stabilization in Maryland include:



              a.  Kentucky 31 tall fescue



              b.  Creeping Red fescue



              c.  Tufcote Bermudagrass



              d.  Red Top



              e.  Weeping Lovegrass



      B.   Legumes



          1.  Legumes are also very popular for stabiliz-



              ing critical areas.



          2.  They are long-lived and some require less main-



              tenance than grasses.



          3.  Commonly used legumes include:



              a.  Crownvetch



              b.  Sericia lespedeza



              c.  Korean lespedeza



              d.  Sweet clover



              e.  Birdsfoot trefoil
                           7-5

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C.  Herbaceous Plants



    1.  They play an important role when an area is



        to be returned to natural cover.



    2.  In residential areas they may be considered



        weeds.



    3.  Along major highways these materials play



        an important role in protecting soil from



        erosion.
                        7-6

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D.  Ground Covers

    1.  Because of their high cost as compared to

        grasses and legumes, these materials are

        not extensively used for critical area
        stabilization.  However, on terrain with

        very severe problems, where less durable

        grasses and legumes  are not able to perform

        properly, these plant  materials are of great value,

    2.  "Ground covers" refers not to grasses or

        legumes specifically, but to such plant

        types as vines and low growing plants.  Crown-

        vetch is a legume which is considered a very

        good ground cover plant in some areas.
E.  Vines

    1.  some do well  on poor soil  and  steep slopes.

    2.  are used for area beautification as well

        as soil stabilization.

    3.  examples are:

        (a)  Kudzu

        (b)  Honeysuckle


F.  Shrubs

    1.  are used for area beautification as well as

        soil stabilization.

    2.  are used to reduce maintenance costs.

    3.  may  serve  as  screens and barriers.
                        7-7

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     G.  Trees are planted for erosion control,  area
         beautification,  shade,  privacy,  and seund abatement,

IV.  SELECTING PROPER PLANT MATERIALS
     A.  Climatic Conditions
         1.   Temperature
         2.   Rainfall
         3.   Exposure
             a.  wind
             b.  sunlight - an important consideration

         4.   The first two conditions, and to a certain
             extent exposure, are related to the geo-
             graphic area in which the site is located.
         5.   The most critical exposure problems are found
             in wooded areas where tall trees provide ad-
             ditional shade.
     B.  Soil Conditions
         1.   Fertility - subsoils are usually low in fer-
             tility and may be acid - fertility refers to
             the supply of plant nutrients in the soil.
         2.   Acidity - acid soils are those having pH
             values of less than 7.  A value of 7 is
             neutral.  A value above 7 is basic or
             alkaline.
                               7-8

-------
      (a)   Plant nutrients are furnished by
           adding fertilizers and the acid-
           ity is usually reduced or con-
           trolled by adding lime.
      (b)   Maintenance can be minimized by
           selecting plant materials that are
           adaptable, as nearly as possible,
           to the natural condition of the
           soil.
      (c)   Some plant materials do better in
           poor soils than others.  Likewise,
           some plants prefer or tolerate an
           acid soil, while others require a
           basic or alkaline soil.
      (d)   On low fertility soil, plant mater-
           ials like grasses can be made more
           effective by mixing with a legume,
           like clover,.which can furnish ni-
           trogen, an important plant nutrient.
3.   Droughty Soil
      (a)   Unable to retain an adequate supply
           of water
      (b)   To prevent this problem the soil
           should contain at least 25  to 30%  silt
           and  clay size  particles  (fines).
                 7-9

-------
  (c)   The problem can be taken care of in



       three ways:



       (1)   by selecting drought-resistant



            plant material.



       (2)   by top-dressing with 4 to 6



            inches of non-droughty subsoil



            or good topsoil.



       (3)   by soil conditioning - mixing



            silt and clay soil or organic



            material into the upper 3-4



            inches of droughty soil.



Wet Soil



a.  Soils that stay saturated for pro-



    longed periods of time.



b.  Seepage areas become difficult to sta-



    bilize with vegetation and can cause



    considerable erosion.



c.  The problem of wet soil can be handled



    by



       (1)  using plant materials tolerant



            of wet soil.



       (2)  installing gravel and pipe under-



            drains.
              7-10

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    C,  Site Usage refers to the type of usage plant
        materials receive at a site.  Must be consid-
        ered when selecting plant materials.
    D.  Site Maintenance will also influence the type
        of plant materials being used.  Some sites are
        easy to maintain, while others are nearly im-
        possible because of physical barriers.

V.  METHODS OF ESTABLISHING VEGETATION
    A.  Seeding
        1.  Most grasses and legumes are established
            by seeding.
        2.  The quantity of seed required to vegetate
            an area will depend upon what type or types
            of plant materials are being used.
        3.  Check application rate in "The Standards and
            Specifications for Soil  Erosion and Sedi-
            ment Control".
        4.  Use a small test plot to observe performance
            prior to planting any large areas.
        5.  Common bermudagrass can be established satisfac-
            torily by seeding.  Other bermudagrasses may only
            only be established by sprigging.
    B.  Sprigging
        1.  This involves the planting of sprigs of live
            vegetation rather than seed.
        2.  Many ground covers and vines are established
            by sprigging.
                          7-11

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      C.   Sodding



          1.   This method uses live vegetation to quickly



              stabilize a site.



          2.   Completely covers the surface.



          3.   Often the most desirable and effective means



              of quickly stabilizing highly critical



              areas such as  waterways.






 VI.  TIME OF PLANTING



      The success of a vegetative stabilization program will



      depend to a large degree on the weather occuring dur-



      ing the critical period immediately following plant-



      ing.  This is especially true for seeding.



      A.   Cool Season Plants



          1.   require cool,  moist conditions to germinate



          2.   best planted during early fall  and  early  spring,



      B.   Warm Season Plants



          1.   best planted during late spring or summer



          2.   some moisture essential





VII.  SOIL ADDITIVES



      Critical area planting requires the addition of fer-



      tilizers and may need lime to the soil.  The amount



      of these additives needed will depend upon the type of



      plant materials used and the condition of the soil.
                             7-12

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Soil testing should be performed to determine the



additive requirements.






When testing cannot be performed, use the standard



application rates, found in the Standards and Spec-



ification for Erosion and Sediment Control.



A.  Fertilizer



    1.  contains important plant nutrients



        a.  Nitrogen  (N)



        b.  Phosphorus  (P)



        c.  Potash (K)



    2.  "10-10-10" is a "well balanced" fertilizer and is



        the percentage ot "N-P-K" in the  fertilizer.



    3.  Quick release fertilizer acts quickly.




    4.  Slow release fertilizer acts at a controlled



        rate.



B.  Lime



    1.  Neutralizes acid soil conditions



    2.  Crushed dolomitic limestone may be used rather



        than regular limestone.



    3.  Avoid using too mucn lime around plants that



        require acid soil.
                      7-13

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VIII.  MULCHING
       A.  very essential after preparation of a seedbed,


           as well as for the establishment of ground


           covers, vines, shrubs, and trees.


       B.  involves the placing of material on the soil to


           protect it from erosion and to provide a proper


           environment for the growth of vegetation.


       C.  shields the soil from the impact of rainfall and


           from the scouring effect of runoff.


       D.  insulates the soil from intense heat and cold.


       E.  conserves moisture.


       F.  Mulch Materials


           1.  straw - most commonly used

                         ,<•
           2.  wood chips


           3.  wood fiber  (poor)


           4.  chemical emulsions


           5.  fiberglass products


       G.  Application Rates


           1.  straw - 1 to 2 tons per acre


           2.  wood fiber mulch - 1000 to 1500 Ibs. per acre


           3.  wood chips - 40 to 60 cubic yards per acre


               a. The heavier application rates should be


                  used on steep slopes and along waterways


                  where the potential for soil erosion is
                             7-14

-------
                greatest.  Lighter application rate applies



                to relatively tlat areas that do not carry



                concentrated runoff.
IX.  TOPSOILING
     A.  Involves the placing of 4 to 6 inches of good



         quality topsoil on the final graded subsoil



         surface prior to preparing a seedbed.



     B.  Usually topsoil is acquired by salvaging and



         stockpiling the surface material at the begin-




         ning of grading operations.



     C.  Tests should be performed to insure that the



         topsoil is of adequate quality.




     D,  Topsoiling Slippage becomes a possibility when



         topsoiling steep slopes.  There are three fac-



         tors that combine to cause this problem.



         1.  High moisture content.  Because it contains



             organic material, a topsoil is able to ab-



             sorb and retain a large amount of water.



             By absorbing the water, the weight of the



             topsoil increases, and at the same time it



             becomes more fluid.
                           7-15

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        2.   Slope steepness.   The steeper a slope,  the



            easier it is for  a heavy,  wet topsoil to



            slip down the slope.



        3.   Poor Bond.  Lack  of a good bond between the



            topsoil and the underlying subsoil.  The un-



            derlying soil should  be  roughened to a  depth




            of 2 - 3 inches prior to spreading the



            topsoil.  After it is spread, the topsoil



            should be firmed.






X.  ESTABLISHING VEGETATION ON CRITICAL SOIL SURFACES



    A.  Soil Preparation



        1.   The first step in the preparation of a seed-



            bed involves the  placing of lime and fertil-



            izer on the soil.



        2.   Tilling to a depth of at least 3 inches with



            a disc.



            a.  mixes the lime} and fertilizer into the



                soil.



            b.  allows more air and moisture to penetrate



                the root zone.



            c.  breaks up clods of soil.



            d.  should tie performed along the con-



                tour of the ground surface,  if  feasible.
                          7-16

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B.   Seeding



    1,   Seeding is usually done after the lime and



        fertilizer have been worked into the soil.



    2.   Rolling or cultipacking should follow the appli-



        cation of seed - where conditions permit.



    3.   Inaccessible areas can be limed, fertilized



        and seeded with a hydroseeder.



*~ •   Mulching is done immediately after the seeding



    operation.  There are several methods for apply-



    ing and securing mulch.



    1.   Mulch Blower is a labor saving device used



        when mulching large seedbeds.



    2.   Emulsified Asphalt is sprayed on straw mulch



        to prevent it from being blown or washed



        away.  Upon curing the asphalt binds the in-



        dividual straw fibers together to form a mat



        that is more resistant to erosion.  It is



        often undesirable in residential areas be-



        cause of its sticky nature.



    3.   Chemical Binders are used to avoid the sticky



        problem of asphalt.  These chemicals are



        mixed with water and sprayed on the straw.



        Upon curing, the chemical binds the straw



        fibers together.
                     7-17

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4.  Peg and String method is used in small



    areas where spraying cannot be performed.



    Wooden stakes or metal pins are driven



    into the ground and a strong twine is



    strung in a criss-cross manner between



    them.




5.  Netting is used to secure straw mulch



    where heavy flow is expected.  Either a



    plastic, fiberglass, or jute netting is



    used.  The netting is firmly secured to



    the ground with metal pins.  Jute netting



    also acts as a mulch.



6.  Mulch anchoring tool is often used to anchor




    straw on accessible areas.  It consists



    of a gang of notched coulters, resembling



    a disc used for tilling except they are blunt.



    When pulled over the mulch, the revolving discs



    punch some of the straw into the soil.



7.  Hydroseeder is used to apply seed, fertilizer,



    lime and wood fiber to inaccessible areas.  The



    materials are mixed with water to form a slurry



    and  are then sprayed onto  the seeded area.
                   7-18

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         8.   Excelsior Blanket is made up of coarse
             wood fibers reinforced oy netting.   Mattings
             of this type are used on drainageways and
             otner critical areas exposed to a concentrated
             flow of water during storms.  A slow-release
             nitrogen should be used with excelsior
             blanket.
         9.   Glassroot consists of long strands of
             fiberglass which are sprayed onto the
             ground surface with a special apparatus
             powered by compressed air.  This mater-
             ial is used on highly critical areas
             where long-lasting mulch protection is desired.
     D.   Sodding
         1.   The soil must be conditioned by applying needed
             lime and fertilizer and disking it into the top
             4" of soil.
         2.   Large stones or debris must be removed from the
             surface
         3.   The surface is graded to remove irregularities.
         4.   Strips of sod  must be tightly butted together on
             the contour with staagered joints.
         5.   After placing,  the  sod  is watered and  then  rolled.
XI.  MAINTENANCE OF CRITICAL AREAS
     A.   Follow-up
         1.   Required when seeding, sodding, or other
             vegetative practices do not achieve the
             desired degree of stabilization.
                          7-19

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    2.   Materials planted in the spring should be



        inspected during the summer or early fall



        so that corrective action can be taken



        during the fall planting season.



    3.   Areas stabilized in the fall should be



        inspected early in the spring so that




        maintenance can be performed during the



        spring planting season.



    4.   If the cover did not develop properly, the



        area should be seeded and fertilized with



        half the rates originally applied.



    5.   If stand is over 60% damaged, complete



        seedbed preparation and seeding must be per-



        formed - before doing this, check plant ma-



        terial and soil condition.



B.  Periodic Maintenance



    1.   Performed after the vegetation has been



        established.



    2.   Periodically inspect plant cover to see if



        a top dressing of fertilizer or lime is



        required.



    3.   Spray if insect damage is severe.



    4.   Spot seed areas damaged by traffic or by



        other means.



    5.   Mowing is a periodic maintenance practice.
                      7-20

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          QUESTIONS  1
                                 Fill in the blanks

1.   A 	 area is a  sediment-producing or

     highly e	 area.

2.   Utility easements, waterways, and building sites
     are common                  areas.
3.    	 stabilization uses certain
     fast growing  plant materials to stabilize a  site
     for 	 than one year.
4.    	  stabilization uses per-
     ennial plants.
5.    The type of  temporary vegetation to be used on a
     site will depend upon:

     a.    t	 of y_	
     b.    site 1
     c .    s	 type and c
                       7-21

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          QUESTIONS  2
                                 Multiple Choice - circle
                                      the correct answer

1.   Which of the following  is not a permanent plant?
     a.    grass  (Perennial)  d.   mulch
     b.    shrub             e.   legume  (Perennial)
     c.    tree              f.   Crownvetch

                                   answer  (s)
2.   Grasses commonly used for  critical area stabiliza-
     tion include:

     a.   Crownvetch
     b.   Weeping lovegrass
     c.   Kentucky 31 tall fescue
     d.   both a. and c.
     e.   both b. and c.
     f.   all of the above

                                   answer  (s)
3.   The chief reason for the durability  of  legumes is:

     a.   they are able to add phosphorus to the soil
     b.   they are able to withstand freezing temperatures
     c.   they are able to remove  nitrogen from the air,
          utilize it, and add it to  the soil
     d.   they are able to remove  nitrogen from the soil
          and release it into the  air

                                  answer (s)
                                 (Go on to  next page)
                        7-22

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4.    During the winter, the foliage of legumes

     a.   stays green
     b.   grows back            (Applies to certain areas
     c.   dies                  of U.S. only)
     d.   does none of the above

                                   answer (s)
5.    Where mowing must be performed, the preferred plant
     material to use is

     a.    legume
     b.    grass
     c.    shrubs
     d.    herbaceous plants

                                   answer (s)
6.    In residential areas, what material may be con-
     sidered weeds?

     a.   mulch
     b.   shrubs
     c.   turf grass
     d.   trees
     e.   herbaceous plants

                                   answer (s)
                        7-23

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                             True or False

_1.   The term "ground covers" refers to grasses
     and legumes specifically.



_2.   Trees,  vines,  and shrubs are not used ex-
     tensively to reduce maintenance costs.


_3,   The primary reason for  planting trees is
     noise abatement.
_4.   Periwinkle  is  a  ground  cover.
                   7-24

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           QUESTIONS 4
                                Fill in the blanks
1.  Climatic conditions  include
    and
2.  Wind and sunlight are  two  types of
3.   	 exposure  is a very important con-
    sideration.
4.  The most critical exposure  problems are found in
    	 areas, due to shading.
5.  Subsoils are generally  low  in 	 and may be
6.  A pH value of 7  is
                                True or False

     7.   We would usually  plant  a  tall legume or shrub
         in the channel  of a waterway.
    _8.   Legumes are more  suitable than grasses in areas
         receiving  a great deal of foot traffic.
    _9.   Not all  plant materials require the same degree
         of maintenance.
                         7-25

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                            Multiple Choice

 Some  grasses  and  legumes may  be  established  by
a.   sodding
b.   sprigging
c.    seeding
d.    all of the above
                              answer  (s)

Bermudagrass is usually established by
a.   sodding
b.   sprigging
c.   fertilizing
d.   seeding

       answer (s)
English ivy is usually established by
a.   sodding
b.   sprigging
c.   seeding
d.   fertilizing

       answer (s)
The most desirable and effective means of quickly
stabilizing certain highly critical areas, such as
waterways is
a.   seeding
b.   sodding
c.   sprigging
d.   none of the above

       answer (s)
                   7-26

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           QUESTIONS 6
                                Fill in the blanks

    The success  of a vegetative  stabilization program
    will depend  to a large  degree on the 	
    occuring during the critical period immediately
    following planting.
2.  Critical area planting  involves the addition of
    	 and possioly lime to the soil.
3.   Fertilizer contains nitrogen, p_	 and
    p	    , N-P-K.
    The addition of dolomitic limestone 	 thi
    of acid soils.
5.  Dolomitic Limestone adds calcium and m  	^_^_
    the soil and helps correct            soil  conditio
                        7^27

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                                 Multiple Choice

1.   	 is the most commonly used mulch
     material.

     a.   wood chips              c.   chemical emulsions
     b.   wood fiber              d.   straw
2.   Which of the following is a characteristic of
     mulch?

     a.   protects the soil       c.   conserves moisture
     b.   insulates the soil      d.   all of the above

                                         answer  (s)
3.   	 is usually acquired by salvaging
     and stockpiling the native material at the begin-
     ning of grading operations.

     a.   mulch                   c.   topsoil
     b.   lime                    d.   sod
4.   Which of the following is not a contributing
     factor to soil slippage?

     a.   high moisture content
     b.   poor shear strencrth
     c.   slope steepness
     d.   high acid content

                                         answer  (s)
                         7-28

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                                   True or False

_1.    The  first  step in  the preparation of a seed-
      bed  is  sodding.
 2.    Cyclone  spreaders can be used to apply fer-
      tilizers .
 3.    Palletized fertilizer can be applied with a
      truck  mounted spreader bar.
 4.    After  applying (lime  and)fertilizer,  the
      area is  tilled to a  depth of at least twelve
      inches.
 5.    Tilling should be performed along the contour
      of  the ground surface, if feasible
_6.    On  steep slopes  where rolling cannot be per-
      formed,  a cleated dozer is  often used to
      produce  the  desired surface texture by moving
      up  and down the slope.
                    7-29

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                                       Fill in the blanks

1.   Immediately after seeding operations are completed,
     the area should be              	.
2.   In residential areas receiving heavy foot traffic
     a	 t	     is often undesira-
     ble because of its sticky nature.
3.   E	 b              is a mulch mater-
     ial that is sometimes used in the revegetation of wat-
     erways.
4.   On accessible areas, a m
     t           is often used to anchor straw mulch.
5.   W	mulch is applied with
     a hydroseeder.
6.   Before placing sod, the soil must be c
                        7-30

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     QUESTIONS 1O
                            True  or False

1.  Follow-up maintenance is required when seed-
    ing,  sodding, or other vegetative practices do
    not  achieve  the desired degree of stabilization,
2.  Areas stabilized in the  fall  should be in-
    spected early in the spring.
3.   When inspection reveals  that  the cover did
    not develop completely the area should be
    seeded and fertilized with the  same amounts
    originally applied.
4.   Spot seeding is  required  when  inspection re-
    veals that sixty percent  of  the cover  is
    damaged.
5.  Mowing is another  follow-up maintenance
    practice.
                   7-31

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        QUESTIONS   11
1.    A critical  area is any 2	 surtace that is
     s	 producing or severely e	.
2.    Some common  critical areas are u
     e	 	   , w            and b
     Temporary vegetative stabilization is used to sta-
     bilize a site  for  a time period of   	than
     one year.  By reseeding an annual may be effective for
     several years.

     The type of temporary vegetation will depend on:

     a.    	 of  year that seeding is done
     b.    site 	
     c.    soil         and
5.   Permanent vegetative  stabilization is performed
     when an area has  to be  stabilized for 	
     than one year.
6.   The most widely  used plant materials for stabili-
     zation are
7.   Two grasses commonly  used for stabilizing criti-
     cal areas in Maryland include k   	 and
     w                or creeping red fescue,Eufcote
     bermudagrass or  red top.

8.   	 are  also very popular for sta-
     bilizing critical areas with low fertility soils,
9.   The chief reason for the  durability of the legume
     is that it is able to remove 	 from
     the air and utilize it.
                       7-32

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10.   c	 is a close-growing, legume that may
      be established on subsoils.
11.   When an area is returned to a natural cover of
      vegetation	play an
      important role.


12.   in                           any plants out of place
      may be considered 	.
13.   Canada thistle is a n	 herbaceous
      plant that must be controlled, while the black-
      eyed Susan is a non-	 one.
14.   Deciduous plants are those on which the f_
      dies in the
15.   In residential areas vines, shrubs and trees are
      used for a	 b	 as well as
      n            a
16.   Lily turf, English ivy, and periwinkle are exam-
      ples of 	 	.
17.   Three reasons for planting trees are:

      (1)                b
      (2)   p_
      (3)   n
18.   The four factors governing the proper selection of
      plant materials are:

      (1)  C            c
      (2)   S
      (3)   S            u
      (4)   S            m
19.   	 conditions include temperature,
      rainfall and exposure.
                       7-33

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20.   The  two  types  of  exposure  are  	 and
21.   The most  critical  exposure  problems  are  found  in
      w	 areas, if heavily shaded.
22.   Subsoils  are  generally  low in  f	 and
      are frequently 	.
23.   A pH  value  of more  than  7  is
24.   The  acidity  of  the  soil  is  neutralized by adding
25.   On  low fertility soil we can benefit plant materials
      like  grasses by mixing in a 1	.
26.   Droughty  soil  is  not able  to  retain  an  adequate
      supply of w	 for p	 use.
27.   What  are two ways  the problem of droughty soil can
      be  taken care of?

      a.    Select a plant m	 that is drought
           r	.
      b.    T	 the droughty soil  with
           	 to	 inches of
           non-droughty  subsoil or good topsoil.
28.   In seepage areas where vegetation is difficult to
      maintain,  it may be necessary to cover the seepage
      area with a protective cover of c	
      s              . Better yet, drain it.
29.   Three methods used to establish ground covers,
      grasses and legumes on critical areas are:

      (1)               (2)               (3)
      Notall plants are suitable for each method.

30.   Almost all grasses and legumes are established by
                       7-34

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31.  	  involves the planting of  sprigs of
     live vegetation rather than 	.	.
32.  	 is often the most desirable  and
     effective means of Q	 stabilizing
     highly critical areas.
33.  Plant materials may be categorized as either
     	 season plants or
     	 season plants.
34.  Critical area planting requires the addition of
     	and possibly 	 to the soil.
35.  Fertilizers contain three  important plant nutri-
     ents :

     (1)               (2)               (3)
36.  Lime performs  several very  important  functions.
     Its most important  function is in correcting
     a          s         conditions.
37.  Three ways that mulching helps the establishment  of
     vegetation are:

     a.   P	 the  soil from the impact of
          r	 and  from the scouring effect
          of r
     b.   I	 the  soil  from  intense
          and 	.
     c.   Conserves m
38.  Name three types of mulch materials:

      (1)               (2)               (3)
39.  T	 is usually acquired by  salvaging
     and stockpiling the surface material at the begin-
     ning of grading operations.
                       7-35

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40.   Two of the three  causes of  soil  slippage  are:

      (1)                     (2)
41.   Soil preparation  involves wording 1_
      and f           into the soil.
42.   Straw mulch must be 	 to  keep  it  from
      blowing  away.
43.   Three materials  for  securing  straw mulch  are:

       (1)  E	 a	
       (2)  N
       (3)  C	 b	  tor peg & string)


44.    Before placing  sod,  the  soil must  be  c	   	  	  .
45.   There  are two  types  of maintenance;
      and
46.   	 maintenance  is  performed after the
      vegetation  has  been  successfully established.
47.   	 maintenance  is  required when seed-
      ing,  sodding,  or other vegetative practices do not
      achieve  the  desired coverage.
48.   Mowing is  a 	 maintenance practice.
                        7-36

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  EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
STREAM EROSION  CONTROL
          WORKBOOK

-------
CONTENT








I    INTRODUCTION TO STREAM EROSION CONTROL




     A.  Channel Protection




     B.  Stormwater Runoff Management








II   CAUSES OF EROSION




     A.  Hydraulic Force




     B.  Solution




     C.  Corrasion








III  FACTORS AFFECTING THE AMOUNT AND RATE OF EROSION




     A.  Amount of Turbulence




     B.  Meandering of Stream




     C.  Obstructions




     D.  Velocity




     E.  Streambed and Streambank Materials




     F.  Soil Makeup and Texture




     G.  Gradient of Channel



     H.  Vegetation




     I.  Man's Activities








IV   USE OF VEGETATION IN STABILIZING STREAMS




     A.  Advantages- Effective and Economical




     B.  Choosing Plant Materials




     C.  Procedures for Establishing Vegetation




     D.  Necessity  of  Secondary  Reinforcements






                           8-1

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 V   STRUCTURAL STABILIZATION




     A.   Necessity of Structural Stabilization



     B.   Critical Areas



     C.   Revetments



     D.   Grade-Control Structures








 VI  STORMWATER MANAGEMENT



     A.   Effects



         1.   Reduces Runoff



         2.   Controls Release of Runoff



     B.   Methods



     C.   Storage on Recreation Areas




     D.   Detention Basins



     E.   Holding Tanks



     F.   Infiltration Systems



     G.   Stream Channel Control and Floodplain Storage








VII  MAINTENANCE - ESSENTIAL IN GOOD STREAM EROSION  CONTROL
                           8-2

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I    INTRODUCTION TO STREAM EROSION CONTROL

     A.   There are two basic ways to control waterway erosion.
         The first is by protecting the channel against
         erosion.  The second is by managing the water that runs
         off after a storm, so that it is less likely to cause
         erosion.
     B.   Most of the damage done to streams and other
         waterways occurs during heavy rains, or jus.t
         after them, when the water is flowing at its
         maximum or "peak."
         1-  Proper control of this stormwater, before it
             enters the streams, and while it flows along
             them, will do a great deal to solve this problem.
         2.  Proper vegetative practices and good structures
             built to control erosion, will help as well.


II   CAUSES OF STREAM EROSION

     A.   Water exerts a force against the soil, as it flows
         along.  The force of flowing water is called
         "hydraulic" force.  Hydraulic  force  is responsible
         for a major portion of waterway erosion.
    B.   Another way in which water can erode is by solution.
         Water can slowly dissolve rock materials.  The sol-
         ution of  limestone to form caves or  sinkholes  is a
         good example  of this form of  degradation.
                          8-3

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     C.   A third way in which water can remove material
         from a waterway is through corrasion.  Corrasion
         occurs, when materials such as bits of soil or  rock
         being carried by the water strike the bottom or
         sides of the waterway,  and dislodge or displace
         other materials.

Ill  FACTORS EFFECTING THE AMOUNT AND RATE OF EROSION

     A.   The amount and rate of erosion you can expect in a
         given  stream  depends on several factors.   One of
         these factors is the turbulence of the flow of
         water.  In any channel,  smoothly flowing water
         causes less erosion than turbulent water.
     B.   Another factor that effects the rate of erosion
         is the meandering of the stream, that is,  how much
         it deviates from a straight course.  Where the
         stream bends, the water erodes the outside of the
         channel more than it does the straight stretches,
         because the force of the water is directed at the
         outside bank at this point.
     C.   Obstructions also have  an effect.   Obstructions  in
         the channel,  such as brush or  boulders,  may deflect
         the flow toward the bank,  and  cause additional  ero-
         sion.
     D.   During periods of high  water the velocity  usually
         increases,  thereby accelerating the rate of erosion.
         Not only does the water flow faster,  during periods
         of high water flow, the turbulence increases.   The
                          8-4

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    flowing water, with its increased turbulence and
    velocity, scours the bed and erodes the banks of
    the stream.
E.  The amount and rate of erosion also varies depend-
    ing on the materials in the bed and bank.   Many bank
    materials are likely to slide or slough off into the
    channel when the base of the bank is saturated or
    when the stream has undercut the bank.
F.  The texture or makeup of the soils  in the channel
    and banks will have an important effect on the rate
    the stream erodes.
    1.  Those soils in which the particles are strongly
        bound together will erode less easily than soils
        made up of loose grains.  Larger materials, such
        as gravel, cobbles, and boulders will erode very
        slowly.
    2.  Sand, silt, and clay particles will erode much
        more rapidly,  because they are lighter and more
        easily carried away.
    3.  Water flowing over soils which contain a mix-
        ture of materials,  including gravel or larger
        stones,  will sort the particles by size until
        the bottom is covered or "armored"  with only
        the larger materials.
G.  Another factor that effects the rate of erosion
    is the slope or "gradient" of the channel.
    1.  The gradient is the change in elevation of a
        stream, over a certain horizontal distance.
                   8-5

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    2.  Gradients are measured in feet of vertical

        change per mile of horizontal distance, feet

        per hundred feet, expressed as percent, or feet
        per foot.
    3.  The steeper the gradient, the more rapid the

        erosion of the streambed, other factors being

        equal.

H.  Another factor that effects erosion is the presence

    and condition of vegetation in the channel and on

    the banks of the  stream.    The roots of trees,

    shrubs, vines, grasses, and other plants help hold

    the soil in place.

I.  Wherever man's activities have altered the natural

    watershed there are a number of new factors that

    will have an effect on the rate and amount of run-

    off and resultant erosion.

    1.  These factors include the removal of natural

        vegetation, the compaction of the soil, any

        change in the topography, and the use of imper-

        vious coverings :such as pavements or roofs.

    2.  Increased erosion may also be caused by alter-

        ing the natural channel of a stream.  This

        process is called "channel realignment."

        a.  It is often performed to make more room for

            development.  Although channel realignment

            may make more land available for develop-

            ment, it also has some drawbacks.

            1.  Since the change in elevation remains

                the same, and the distance the stream
                     6-6

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                     travels  is  less, the gradient becomes
                     steeper.  As  a  result, the water in the
                     new  channel flows  faster.  The increased
                     velocity will increase the erosion.
                 2.   Channel  realignment  also  exposes bare
                     soil along  the  banks to the  severe  ero-
                     sive action of  concentrated  flow.
                 3.   Before developing  any watershed, you should
                     carefully study the natural  streams to make
                     sure they can handle the  higher rate of flow,
                     without  causing increased erosion or flooding

IV   USE OF VEGETATION IN STABILIZING  STREAMS

     A.   Along natural streams,    an effective and econom-
         ical way to  help reduce  erosion from
         surface runoff,  is to preserve a buffer  strip  of
         natural vegetation.
         1.   In intermittent streams,  you can  often stabilize
             the waterway by planting a cover  of  grass  over
             the entire channel.
         2.   Even when the bed of  a  channel cannot be vegeta-
             ted,  you can usually  stabilize the banks and
             floodplain with  vegetation.
     B.   Before  choosing  a plant material, you must consider
         several  factors.   These include the erosive forces,
         the  soil and soil moisture, the exposure to sun-
         light,  and  the steepness  of the slope to be planted.
                         8-7

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    1.   To find out what type of vegetation is most



        suitable for a given site,  consult the Standards



        and Specifications,  or the local soil and water



        conservation district, or a university extension



        service.



C.  Once you have selected suitable plant materials,



    there are certain procedures you should follow to



    establish the vegetation.



    1.   Along ditches, swales, and other intermittant



        streams,   you should usually plant vegetation



        in strips.  Plant moisture-tolerant vegetation,



        that  resists  erosion  extremely well,  in the



        critical area near the water  line,  and in  the



        bottom  of the channel.



    2.   Plant conventional,  robust  grasses  and legumes



        above the critical zone.



    3.   For added protection,  in  critical  locations



        where the soil  is very wet, you  can plant  bushes



        and trees such  as alder  and willow, along  the



        banks.



    4.   Before  planting a channel,  check the  slope of



        the bank.



        a.  It  is usually not  recommended  to  grade



           banks to  greater  than  50% or  2:1, if  they



           are to be stabilized vegetatively.



        b.  If  the area to be  planted is steeper than
                     8-8

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        50%  (2:1), the banks should be graded back.
        will greatly facilitate necessary maintenance
        later.
    c.  Vegetated waterways should be constructed
        with gently graded sides that slope smoothly
        into a wide bottom.
    d.  With this type of construction, it is easy
        to vegetate the channel, the waterway blends
        into the surrounding area, and you can mow
        and maintain the grass without any unusual
        problems.
    e.  Not only are grass waterways pleasant to
        look at,  they slow the flow of runoff and
        allow the water to infiltrate more easily
        into the soil.
5.  Usually,  you would seed streambeds in streams
    which carry water only during and immediately
    after runoff from a rainfall.   These channels
    generally should not be seeded,  if the flow of
    water exceeds four feet per second.
6.  Where the waterways are designed to handle a
    flow of water greater than four feet per  second,
    but less than seven,  you should apply sod instead
    of seeding.
    a.  Seasonal requirements also make it necessary
        to apply sod.
    b.  However,  if  the soils erode at these  veloci-
                  8-9

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                 ties,  you will have to take certain structural
                 measures to prevent erosion,  as well as using
                 seeding or sodding.

V    SECONDARY REINFORCEMENTS

     A.  Whether you establish vegetation by seeding, sodding,
         or sprigging,  it will take some time before the
         vegetation will provide its best protection.  Until
         that time, you will have to provide some secondary
         reinforcement, such as mulches, nettings, or blankets.
         1.  Some of these materials are intended to provide
             maximum protection at the time of planting and
             degrade as the vegetative cover matures.
             These materials include straw and other
             organic mulches, jute netting, and excelsior
             blanket.
         2.  When you need a reinforcement that lasts longer,
             you can use more permanent materials.  Examples
             include fiberglass mulches, plastic netting, or
             any of several types of mattings.
         3.  When the flow of water is expected to be severe,
             you will have to secure the mulch with nettings.
             These include fiberglass and plastic nettings.
             A common problem in the use of netting in
             waterways is the movement of water beneath the
             protective material, and the
             subsequent loss of soil by erosion.  Permeable,
                          8-10

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             granular soils are particularly susceptible.
             To prevent this,  establish erosion
             checks across the waterway and beneath the netting
             at intervals along the  channel.
VI   STRUCTURAL STABILIZATION

     A.   In certain places in streams,   vegetative practices
         alone are not enough to prevent erosion;  you will have
         to use structural devices to protect the stream from
         scour or erosion.
     B.   Critical area along streambeds which may need struc-
         tural stabilization include: the outside of bends
         where the flow impinges or impacts against the stream-
         bank, restrictions in the channel, junctions
         where tributaries enter the main channel, and
         places where the channel gradient is excessive.
     C.   Revetments are useful in areas where you need
         to protect the streambanks.
         1.  The most popular material used in constructing
             revetments is stone riprap.  Stone riprap is
             durable, heavy, and flexible.
             a.  By "flexible," we mean that the stone rip-
                 rap adjusts to changes in foundations that
                 result fromerosion beneath the stone, and
                 adjusts to scouring along the lower edge,
                 or "toe."
                          8-11

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    b.   In addition,  the rough surface dissipates
        some of the energy present in the flowing
        water.
2.   Other popular materials used in constructing
    revetments are gabions and revet mattresses.
    a.   Gabions are wire baskets filled with stone.
        Like riprap,  they are usually used in areas
        requiring heavy duty materials.
        1.  They are cubic, generally 3 feet by 3
            feet by 3 feet.
        2.  Gabions are often used to hold very
            steep slopes, and construct check dams.
    b.   Revet mattresses are similar in principle;
        however, they are not as thick.  They vary
        in thickness from 6 to 12 inches, and usu-
        ally cover an area 3 feet by 9 feet.
        1.  The advantage of this type of structure
            over loose riprap or gabions is that you
            can use a thinner layer of stone; you
            can also use smaller stone.  And, they
            are more flexible than gabions or con-
            crete.
        2.  Revet mattresses provide protection for
            slopes, under bridges, and along streams.


        3.  Once the revet mattress is installed,
            you can spread lime, fertilizer, and seed
            over the revet mattress.    Within  a

                 8-12

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            short time,  if conditions permit,  plants
            will grow through the mattress,  anchoring
            it to the soil underneath, as well as
            making the area more visually pleasing.
3.   MONOslabs or checkerblocks or "grass pavers"  are
    also useful in stablizing critical areas.   MONO-
    slabs and checkerblocks are concrete grids,  approx-
    imately 2 feet by 1  1/3 feet by 4 1/2 inches.  Each
    grid contains several open spaces.
    a.  Laid side by side, they can be used to pave
        parking areas as well as to stabilize
        streambeds and atreambanks with slopes up
        to 2:1.  MONOslabs are relatively flexible,
        because the individual blocks are not
        rigidly attached to each other.
    b.  The open spaces in the grids can be filled
        with soil and seeded.  This provides an
        attractive appearance.
    c.  In addition to stabilizing vulnerable
        areas, riprap, revet mattresses, gabions,
        and MONOslabs or, checkerblocks also allow more
        runoff to infiltrate into the soil than most
        other types of pavings or bank revetments  would,
        this reduces the runoff which would other-
        wise increase the flow in the stream.

4.   Fabriform is another good armor material to
    use in constructing revetments, as well as other
    structures for protecting the channel.

                 8-13

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        a.   Fabriform consists  of  a  double  layer  of
            heavy  nylon  fabric;  a  slurry  of sand-cement
            is  pumped into the  nylon fabric and allowed
            to  harden.
        b.   The finished product takes  on a rough,
            tufted look.   At  each  depression in the
            fabric surface there is  a filter point.
            This filter  allows  the water  underneath
            the Fabriform revetment  to  escape,  while
            retaining soil particles in place.
    5.   Other popular materials used to stabilize water-
        ways are concrete, concrete  block,  and
        sandbags filled  with  a  sand-cement  mixture.
    6.   For all revetments, to  prevent seepage  from be-
        neath the revetment from undermining it,  place
        a filter between the  soil  and the revetment.
        Use a cloth filter or a properly  designed sand-
        gravel filter for this  purpose.
D.  In certain areas, you will  need to provide  extra
    protection for the streambed,  as well as for  the
    streambank.  To prevent erosion of the  streambed,
    use a grade-control  structure.  Grade-control
    structures physically prevent  the streambeds  from
    being eroded, and reduce  the gradient,  thus slowing
    the flow of water.
    1.   A grade-control  structure  consists  of some
        durable material placed across the  bottom of the
        channel.  It can be a narrow strip  of large

                     8-14

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             stone, placed across tne channel, or it can



             be a complete lining across the channel.  The



             structure causes the water to drop abruptly onto



             a stabilized pad, thereby reducing tne effective



             gradient.



         2.  The same materials used to construct revetments



             are also used to build grade-control structures.



         3.  Common examples of grade-control structures



             include riprap energy-dissipators, placed at



             the outfall of stormdrains; riprap check dams,



             which are placed at regular intervals along a



             waterway; and ditches or other waterways lined



             with some material such as riprap, concrete,



             gabions, or Fabriform.





VII  STORMWATER MANAGEMENT



     A.  The first basic principle of stormwater management



         is:  assure that the peak rate of runoff after



         development is no greater than it was prior



         to development.



     B.  In order to accomplish this, it will often be



         necessary to hold back surface runoff, as close



         as possible to the place where it originates, and



         then release this water slowly enough so that it



         will not damage streams.



         1.   Rooftop detention is often practical on



             large commercial and industrial buildings.



             The flat roofs are equipped with



                       8-15

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        detention drains to store the water temporarily.

    2.  Parking lots can be constructed so as to detain

        a large amount of water, temporarily.

    3.  Another method of reducing stormwater runoff

        from parking lots and other paved areas, is to

        use porous asphalt paving or surface the area with
        crushed stone.
C.   Recreation areas, such as parks and ball fields, can

    temporarily store large amounts of runoff from ad-

    jacent areas.

    1.  Creating permanent ponds, designed to store

        stormwater, not only helps control the  flow

        of streams,during peak periods, but also adds

        to the beauty of an urban environment.

    2.  Such ponds are equipped with devices that re-

        lease water at a controlled rate.

 D.  One of the most popular structures for controlling

    stormwater is the detention basin.

    1.  Detention basins store runoff when the  flow is

        at its peak, and release the stored water through

        an outlet, at a controlled rate.  These basins  can

        impound the water either temporarily or perman-

        ently.

    2.  When the volume of water exceeds the storage

        capacity of the basin, the excess runoff exits

        through an emergency spillway located on the

        edge of the basin.

    3.  After a storm, temporary basins slowly  drain dry.
                    8-16

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E.   Holding tanks are structures similar to detention

    basins.  They are built of concrete or metal, and

    are located underground;  these structures tempor-

    arily detain runoff from parking lots or rooftops.

 F.  Infiltration systems have been used for years, to

    control  runoff.  Infiltration systems consist of

    holes in the ground, filled with coarse, clean

    stone, or lined with bricks or perforated concrete

    blocks.
    1.  These structures store stormwater and allow it

        to infiltrate into the soil.  The water,  as it

        slowly percolates,  replenishes the groundwater.

    2.  The usefulness of infiltration systems depends

        largely on the type of soils and the topography

        at the site, as well as the location of the

        groundwater table.   A permeable subsoil is nec-

        essary, to dispose of the water at an adequate

        rate. Maintenance is very important.
 G.  Several types of stormwater controls involve the

    stream channel or the stream channel and its flood-

    plain.  These controls detain the water or slow its

    rate of flow, in order to reduce the peak rates of

    runoff.

    1.  Some of these controls function within the

        channel.  One example of in-channel storage
        and control is the exaggeration of a meandering

        stream.  By making a winding stream even more

        winding, you increase the distance the water
                     8-17

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              flows and reduce the rate at which it flows.
          2.   Another example of in-channel storage and control
              is the use of check dams or wiers.   These prevent
              excessive erosion by reducing the rate of flow.
          3.   Another kind of stream channel storage is side-
              channel storage.  Side-channel storage is the use
              of the flood plain on the sides of the stream
              channel to store water temporarily during heavy
              rains.
VIII  MAINTENANCE
      A.  For stormwater management and other waterway ero-
          sion control practices, maintenance is essential
          if they are to continue to function over a long
          period of time.
          1.  Check controls periodically, for evidence of
              deterioration.
          2.  You should examine the plantings and structures
              periodically.  Any sign of weakness will require
              corrective measures.  Remove accumulated sedi-
              ment and debris periodically, so that the struc-
              tures for controlling stormwater will function
              properly.
          3.  Fertilize the vegetated area regularly,so that
              the plants in the waterways and around them will
              continue to grow vigorously.
                           8-18

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              Questions  1
Fill  in the blanks.
1.   The first basic method of controlling  stream  erosion
    is to protect the 	;  and the second is by
    	 the 	 after a storm.

 2.  Most  of  the damage done to streams and other waterways
    occurs during 	.

    Proper	practices and good
    built to control erosion, will help as well.

 4.  Streams where the water only flows after  a heavy rain
    are called	.

 5.  The force of running water is called 	 force.

 6.  	 and 	 are ways in  which
    water causes waterway erosion.
                         8-19

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               Questions  2
Each of the  following sentences  contains one error.   Write
the letter that corresponds to the  incorrect word or phrase
in the blank provided.
           The amount and rate of  erosion you can expect  in

           a  given waterway depends  on several factors,  in-
           cluding obstructions in  the channel; the turbulence
                            A                       B
           of  the flow of water;  intermittent streams;  the
                  B                    C
           meandering of the stream;  and bank materials.
                   D                        E

           During periods of high water the velocity usually
                                                      A
           increases.  The water flows faster, the turbulence
              A                 B                    C
           decreases, and the flowing water scours the bed
              C                                  D
           and erodes the banks of  the stream.
                 D

           Soils in which the particles are strongly bound  to-

           gether will erode more easily than soils made up of
                             A
           loose grains.  Larger materials, such as gravel,
                                                    B
           cobbles or boulders will erode  more slowly.  Sand,
                 B                       C
           silt, and clay particles will erode more rapidly
                                              D
           because they are lighter and more easily carried away
                                         E

           Water flowing over soils which  contain a mixture of

           materials, will sort the particles by size,  until
                                   A
           the bottom is covered or "armored" with only the
                                    B
                          8-20

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          smaller materials.   The water carries the small part-
                C                               D
          ides downstream, until the energy of the flow
                D
          decreases enough to allow them to settle out.
              E

5.	 The gradient is the change in elevation of a stream,
                                      A
          frequently measured in feet of vertical change per mile of
                                                 B
          horizontal distance.  Generally the steeper the grad-
                  B
          lent, the less rapid the erosion of the streambed.
                          8-21

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               Questions   3
Circle the correct answer or answers.
1.  Where man's  activities have altered the  natural watershed,
    a number  of  factors will have an effect  on the rate and
    amount of erosion, including:

    a.   removal  of natural vegetation
    b.   compaction of the soil
    c.   bank  and bed materials
    d.   use of impervious materials

2.  Channel realignment

    a.   is the process of installing water-holding tanks
    b.   increases the gradient
    c.   helps to control floodplain spillage

3.  Before developing in a watershed, you should

    a.   consult  the Standards  and Specifications
    b.   study the streams   to make sure they  can handle the
        higher rate of flow without causing  erosion.
    c.   make  as  much room as necessary available for develop-
        ment
    d.   construct revetments to control erosion


4.  Effective and economical ways to protect streams against
    excessive erosion from surface runoff include

    a.   reinforcements such as mulches and netting
    b.   check dams
    c.   clearing the area of vegetation
    d.   preserving a buffer strip of natural vegetation

5.  Intermittent streams

    a.   require  the planting of willows and  alders along the
        banks
    b.   are often planted with a cover of grass over the
        entire flow area
    c.   need  only a mulching of the soil with  straw or hay
    d.   do not maintain a continuous flow
                          8-22

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           Questions   4
Circle the  correct answer or answers.
1.   Before  choosing a plant material for stabilizing a
    stream    you should consider  several factors,  includ-
    ing:

    a.   the soil and soil moisture
    b.   exposure to sunlight
    c.   steepness of slope
2.  Along ditches, swales,  and other  intermittent streams
    plant vegetation

    a.   that  is drought-resistant
    b.   that  is attractive in the  surroundings
    c.   in patches
    d.   that  is moisture-tolerant

3.  On  bank slopes greater than 50%

    a.   vegetation should be planted  profusely
    b.   slopes should be graded back
    c.   plant conventional grasses and legumes
    d.   plant alders and willows for  extra protection

4.  Grass waterways

    a.   are difficult to vegetate
    b.   need  periodic maintenance
    c.   help  prevent water from infiltrating  into the soil
    d.   blend into the surrounding areas

5.  Seeding

    a.   should be done only in permanently flowing streams
    b.   sometimes requires the use of mulches
    c.   is best employed in intermittent streams
    d.   can be employed almost any time of year
                      8-23

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               Questions   6
Each of the  following sentences  contains one error.   Write
the letter that corresponds to the  incorrect word or phrase
in the blank provided.
            Critical areas along  streambeds which may  need
            structural stabilization include the outside  of
                                                  A
            bends, where the flow  impacts against the  stream-
                                  A
            bank; restrictions in  the channel;  junctions
            ~A              B                   C
            where tributaries enter the main channel;  and
                          C
            places where the channel gradient is excessively
                                      D
            low.
             D

            Stone riprap is used in constructing revetments
                 A
            because its rough surface dissipates the energy
                                   B
            in the flowing water;  it adjusts to changes in
                                            C
            the foundation  resulting from erosion;  and it aids

            scouring along the lower edge or "toe."
                D

            Gabions are wire baskets filled with stone, used
                A                                       B
            to hojxi back steep slopes and construct  check
                        B                      C
            dams.  They are more flexible than revet mattresses
             C                                     D
            or concrete.
             Revet mattresses are  concrete grids containing
                   A
             several open spaces,  which, when laid side by side,
             can be used to pave parking areas as well  as
                                  B
                          8-25

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             provide slope protection.   They also allow more
                       C                              D
             runoff to_infiltrate the soil,  and can be filled
                         D                           E
             with soil and seeded.
                     E

5. 	  Grade control structures help control erosion of
                                                       A
             the streambed by eliminating the hydraulic force
                  A                       B
             of the water, by slowing the flow of the water,
                  B                      C
             and by reducing the gradient.
                            D
                           8-26

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               Questions   7
Fill in the blanks.
1.  The first basic principle of  stormwater management  is:
    assure that the peak rate of  flow 	 development
    is no greater than it was 	 development.
2.   One  method ot accomplishing  stormwater management  is to
     	surface runoff as close as possible  to the
    place where it 	•

3.   Effective management of stormwater prevents the  	 of
    the  amount of water flowing  downstream.  The rate  at
    which  the water flows is also
4.  Holding  stormwater back also  helps to control
    downstream.
                                   is often practiced  on  large
    commercial and industrial buildings, as a means of  storm-
    water management.

6.   To  achieve control of stormwater on parking lots, 	
    the size of the stormwater inlet and provide for
    	   of stormwater on a part or the  lot.
7.   Another method of reducing  stormwater runoff from parking
    lots  and other paved areas,  is to use p	
    a	  paving.

8.   Detention basins	runoff when the  flow  is
    at  its peak, and release  the water through an outlet,  at
    a c              r
9.  Holding tanks temporarily  d_
    from p	 1	  or rooftops.
                         8-27

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               Questions   8
True or false.
1. 	  Infiltration systems consist of holes in the
             ground, filled with stone or brick; they store
             stormwater and allow it  to slowly infiltrate
             the soil.

2. 	  The usefulness of infiltration systems depends
             largely on the type of soils, the topography,
             and the groundwater table.

3. 	  Infiltration systems are most useful at sites
             where the groundwater table is consistently high,
             and there is a large amount of water to be detained.

4. 	  By making a winding stream even more winding,  you
             increase the distance the water flows and increase
             the rate at which it flows.

5. 	  Side-channel storage is  the use of check dams
             placed at intervals along the channel to reduce the
             peak flow from the watershed.

6. 	  When floodplain storage  is used, you must construct
             an emergency spillway to release flows that exceed
             the amount of water the  structure was designed to
             hold.

7. 	  Remove accumulated sediment and debris periodically
             from stormwater control  structures, so that they
             will function properly.

8. 	  Vegetated waterways do not require regular maintenance
             once the vegetation has  become well established.
                          8-28

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               Questions   9
True or false.
1. 	 Among the factors that  effect the rate of
             erosion in streams   are turbulence, the degree
             of meandering, the obstructions, and the vege-
             tation present.

2. 	 Improper channelization can result in flooding
             further downstream.

3. 	 Where conditions permit, new  streams   should be
             stabilized with vegetation.

4. 	 Stormwater management consists of the preser-
             vation of a buffer strip of vegetation, along
             natural waterways.

5. 	 In intermittent streams   it is generally suf-
             ficient to plant only along the channel banks.
             Sodding, sprigging,  or  seeding can be employed
             in any  streams   provided that the plant mate-
             rials are native to  the area.

             To prevent erosion under the netting, you can
             secure  straw much by anchoring at intervals along
             the channel.
             A grade-control structure consists of some durable
             material placed on the  bottom of the channel,
             either  in a strip across the channel, or in a com-
             plete lining to reduce  the effective channel gradient,

             The same materials used to construct revetments
             are also used to build  grade-control structures.
                          8-29

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    EROSION  AND SEDIMENT  CONTROL
TEMPORARY  SOIL STABILIZATION
            WORKBOOK

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CONTENT



I      GENERAL INTRODUCTION

       A.  Definition of Temporary Stabilization

       B.  Temporary vs. Permanent Stabilization

       C.  Necessity of Temporary Stabilization in Certain
           Situations

       D.  Factors Determining Allowable Delays between
           Grading and Stabilization

II     PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES

       A.  Compaction

       B.  Use of Plant Materials

           1.  Grasses

           2.  Legumes

           3.  Soil Conditions Necessary

       C.  Mulches

           1.  Straw, Hay, and Woodchips

           2.  Tacking with Asphalt

           3.  Use with Chemical Binders

           4.  Anchoring

           5.  Tracking

           6.  Netting

           7.  Woodchips

           8.  Other Materials

       D.  Chemical Soil Stabilizers
                          9-1

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Ill    CHOICE OF PROPER STABILIZERS




       A.  Cost, How Long, How Well




       B.  Vegetative




       C.  Non-vegetative
                          9-2

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       GENERAL INTRODUCTION
       A.   Temporary soil stabilization means protecting
           the soil from excessive erosion,  for a short
           time.   Usually, temporary stabilization is
           designed to last for less than a  year.

       B.   Permanent stabilization is done for long-time
           use.   For permanent stabilization, you establish
           a ground cover with long-lived vegetation, or
           cover  the soil with concrete,  asphalt, stone,
           or some other durable material.
       C.   Temporary stabilization is often necessary
           because grading operations frequently last
           several months or more - sometimes for an
           entire construction season.

           1.  During this period, the bare soil is
               exposed to damage by wind and water.

           2.  And when the developer has finished
               final grading, there is often a
               period of time before the season is
               right for permanent stabilization.

       D.   Of course, you have to consider how much temporary
           stabilization will cost, and how much damage from
           erosion and sedimentation will result, if you don't
           stabilize the soil.

           1.  Factors determining how long a delay
               may be allowed, before the soil must
               be stabilized include the climate, the
               topography, the erodibility of the soils,
               and the sorts of protections against
               erosion that exist, at the border of the
               area being developed.

           2.  Because of all the factors involved,
               determining how long a graded area may
               be exposed is highly variable; usually
               local or state agencies evaluate the
               conditions, and decide how long graded
               areas may be left uncovered.
II     PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES
       A.   All fill material should be compacted,  as a first
           step in achieving temporary stabilization.


                          9-3

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B.  Use of Plant Materials

    1.  For temporary soil stabilization, fast-
        growing and hardy annual and perennial
        plants, such as grasses, will provide
        adequate  protection.

        a.  Contour roughening improves the growth
            of grasses and legumes, as well as
            helping to slow the overland sheet
            flow.

        b.  Annual grasses that are widely used
            for temporary stabilization include
            oats,  sudangrass, wheat, and rye.
             (millet, ryegrass)

    2.  Legumes such as clover are also useful for
        temporary cover.

        a.  Not only do they provide temporary
            cover, they also take nitrogen from
            the air and add it to the soil, in
            a form which can be used by other
            plants.

        b.  Once homes have been built on a site,
            the clover can be plowed under; plowing
            this clover under enriches the soil
            by adding organic matter.  This helps
            the growth of permanent vegetation.

    3.  Soil Conditions Necessary

        a.  On subsoil and even on some topsoils,
            you will have to add fertilizers and
            sometimes  lime to  the  soil, before
            plants will  grow well.

        b.  For temporary stabilization, in such
            cases, you need less fertilizer than
            you do for permanent stabilization,
            but it is still necessary.

        c.  For standard application rates, con-
            sult  the Soil  Conservation Service
            office,  or the University
            Agricultural Extension Agency.

        d.  Pay attention to the way you apply
            lime  and fertilizer.  To get the
            most  out of  the lime and fertilizer,
            mix it with  the soil to a depth of
            3  to  4 inches.

                    9-4

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        e.  To  reduce erosion,  perform tilling
            operations  along the ground contour,
            if  needed and feasible.

        f.  The roughened surface will also
            provide a better environment for seed
            germination and plant establishment.

        g.  On slopes, you may also need to use
            mulch on the seedbed, to reduce
            erosion until the plant materials are
            adequately established.

        h.  For further information, consult the
            publication "Standards and Specifica-
            tions for Soil Erosion and Sediment
            Control in Developing Areas."  This
            publication, prepared by the  Maryland
            Soil  Conservation Service, is invaluable
            for  anyone who wants information
            about  temporary vegetative stabili-
            zation.
C.  Mulches
    1.  Mulches shield the soil from water and wind.
        The most popular mulches for temporary
        stabilization are straw  and woodchips,
        especially straw.

        a.  When hay is substituted for straw,
            remember that it may contain noxious
            weed seeds.

        b.  The application rates for mulches used
            for temporary stabilization are the same
            as those for mulches used on seed beds.

            1.  As a rule of thumb the application
                rate for straw or hay is about  3000 to
                40UO pounds per acre.

            2.  For woodchips, 6O cubic yards per
                acre.

        c.  On large areas, the usual way to apply
            straw is to use a mulch blower.  The
            operator feeds straw bales into the
            blower, which shreds the bales and
            blows the straw onto the ground.
            Correctly used, it covers a large
            area evenly and rapidly.
                   9-5

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2.   Liquid emulsified asphalt can be used
    to bind the individual straws into a
    resistant mat.

3.   In areas where  you don't  want to use
    asphalt, because it becomes sticky when
    it is warm, use a chemical tack.

    a.  Various chemicals are available for
        this purpose.  For a  partial list,
        consult "Guidelines for Erosion and
        Sediment Control Planning and
        Implementation" or "Standards and
        Specifications for Soil Erosion and
        Sediment Control in Developing Areas."

    b.  These chemicals are binders, which are
        diluted with water and sprayed onto the
        straw with  standard spraying equipment.
        A hydroseeder can be  used.

    c.  To aid the  operator in judging whether
        or not he has sprayed enough chemical
        tack, a coloring agent may be added to
        the solution.

4.   Another method  of anchoring straw is to use a
    mulch-anchoring  tool.

    a.  The mulch-anchoring tool  is a special  piece
        of equipment, with a series of notched,
        flat-sided  circular blades.

    b.  When pulled over straw mulch, the blades
        punch some  of the straw into the ground,
        leaving straw  stems protruding from
        the soil.

    c.  This technique of anchoring straw provides
        even more protection against erosion, when
        the crimping follows the contour of the
        land.

    d.  The grooves and straw aid in controlling
        runoff, by slowing the flow of the water
        over the soil, and by increasing the rate
        at which the water soaks into the soil.
               9-6

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e.  When anchoring follows seeding,  it
    improves seed germination and plant
    establishment.  The grooves conserve
    moisture and nutrients and provide
    depressions, which trap the seed
    until it germinates.

f.  However, the anchoring tool can  only operate
    on slopes up to three-to-one.

Tracking is a method of securing straw mulch
on slopes steeper than 3 to 1.  This is
accomplished by running a cleated dozer up
and down the slope.  In addition to anchoring
the mulch, this compacts the soil  and pro-
vides horizontal depressions in the surface,
where rainfall and seed can collect; in this
manner the roughened surface helps prevent
erosion.

In highly critical areas, such as waterways,
nettings may be required to anchor the straw.

Woodchips are another mulch material used for
temporary stabilization.

a.  They are also very effective as well as
    economical/  but not cheap.

b.  As you clear woodland areas, you can
    salvage woodchips, or stockpile them
    for later use.

c.  Woodchips are an excellent material for
    restoring the essential ground litter
    in forested areas that have been damaged
    by construction activity.

d.  Sometimes  woodfiber mulch, mixed with a
    chemical binder, is used  as a short-term
    stabilizer.  The mulch and the chemical,
    together with water, are mixed in a
    hydroseeder, and sprayed onto the soil.

Other Materials Used for Temporary Stabilization
in Highly Critical Areas.

a.  Jute netting  which is often used for
    waterways.
           9-7

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        b.   Excelsior blankets,  which are often
            used in areas exposed to concentrated
            flows of water.

        c.   Ground-up corn cobs.

        d.   Gravel, or crushed rock.

            Experts are taking a hard look at our
            present techniques for controlling
            erosion and sediment, and they are
            continually coming up with new methods
            and products that will work better and
            cost less.  We have to be constantly
            on the alert for new developments  in
            the field of erosion and sediment con-
            trol.

D.  Chemical Soil Stabilizers

    1.  A partial list of these would include
        AEIrospray 52 binder®, Curasol AE® and
        AH® and Terratack®

    2.  These products are all water emulsions, and
        are supplied as liquids or concentrates.

    3.  These chemicals are relatively easy to use.
        They are simply mixed in a hydroseeder and
        sprayed onto the soil.  Other standard
        sprayers can also be used.

    4.  The chemical stabilizers coat the soil
        surface temporarily, shielding it from
        damage by water and wind; they may also
        penetrate the soil to bind the particles
        into a mass that resists erosion.

    5.  The effectiveness of chemical stabilizers,
        however, will vary from site to site, de-
        pending on the soil conditions, the
        climate, and the slope steepness.

    6.  The texture and moisture content of the
        soil will determine how far into the soil
        the diluted chemical will penetrate, and
        how effectively it will bind the soil.
                      9-8

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           7.   Proper dilution rates and application
               rates will vary, depending upon the soil
               texture,  the climate, the way the site
               is used, and the topography.

           8.   To avoid expensive mistakes,  when you
               use chemical soil stabilizers,  spray a
               test plot with a recommended mixture
               and application rate, and examine the
               results,  before you spray the entire
               site.  If the soil and slope conditions
               vary from place to place on one large
               site, use several test plots.

           9.   You should keep an open mind about
               chemical soil stabilizers.  Although
               one of the chemical stabilizers may
               fail miserably, another may work very
               well.  Also, remember that many of the
               products are being continually improved,
               and that new products are being developed,
III    CHOICE OF PROPER STABILIZERS

       A.   Cost will be a major consideration,  but you also
           have to consider how well the materials work,  and
           how long they will have to keep working.

       B.   Vegetative

           1.  Properly established, vegetation is an
               effective and durable soil stabilizer.

           2.  The type of vegetation to be used will
               depend on the season when planting will
               occur, and the length of time that pro-
               tection will be required.

               a.   For example, winter wheat and rye
                   will provide excellent protection
                   if they are planted in the fall.

               b.   Other grasses will be better suited
                   for spring and summer.

               c.   Most annual plants provide protection
                   for only one growing season.  If pro-
                   tection must extend into another
                   growing season, a perennial  plant
                   material is usually needed.
                              9-y

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        Some temporary plant materials, such as
        weeping lovegrass, are also used
        for permanent stabilization.  If an
        adequate cover of such a grass can be
        established in an area which has been
        final-graded, even though the planting
        may take place during a season when
        regulations do not permit permanent
        planting, there is no reason to plow
        the cover under and reseed.

        a.  Top dressing with additional
            quantities of fertilizers and
            lime may be the only operation
            necessary before final acceptance
            of the work.
C.  Non-vegetative
        If you decide against plants, the kind of
        non-vegetative temporary soil stabilization
        you use will depend on the effectiveness,
        the cost, and the length of time the
        temporary stabilization must last.

        Straw vs. Woodchips

        a.  Straw and woodchips work equally well,
            but one may be less expensive than the
            other, or more readily available.

        b.  Woodchips last longer than straw, as
            a temporary stabilizer.  As a general
            rule, straw will function up to six
            months or more, whereas woodchips
            will function for a year or longer.

        Some applications of chemical stabilizers will
        only be effective for a few weeks; others may
        last for months.  There is not enough informa-
        tion about chemical stabilizers to be more
        specific.  This is especially true, because
        soils and terrains are so different.
                      9-10

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             Questions  1
Mark the  statements true or  false.
1.  	 Temporary soil stabilization means protecting the
   soil  from excessive erosion, for a short time.

2.  	 Temporary stabilization is designed  to last for
   several years.

3.  	 Temporary stabilization is often necessary, because
   grading operations rarely leave bare soil exposed for more
   than  a week.

4.  	 Factors that determine how long a delay may be allowed,
   before the soil must be  stabilized include  climate, topography,
   the erodibility of the soils, and the protections that exist.

5.  	 When a developer  has finished final  grading, there is
   often a long period of time before the season is right for
   permanent vegetative stabilization,  or before paving can be
   laid.
                          9-11

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              Questions  2
Fill in  the blanks.
1.   All  fill material should be 	 as a first step
    in achieving temporary  stabilization.

2.   For  temporary stabilization, fast-growing and hardy
    annual and perennial 	,  such as grasses, will
    provide additional protection.

3.   	 	  improves  the growth of grasses
    and  legumes, as well as helping to  slow overland sheet
    flow.

4.   Annual grasses that are widely used for temporary stabiliza-
    tion include 	, 	, and 	.

5.   	 such as clover are also useful for temporary
    cover.

6.   Not  only do they provide temporary  cover, legumes also take
    	 from the air  and add it to the soil, in a form
    which can be used by other plants.   	 is an
    essential plant nutrient.

7.   Once homes have been built on a site,  the clover can be
    plowed under; plowing this clover under 	 the
    soil by adding 	 matter.
                           9-12

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 Questions 2 Continued
 8.   On subsoil and even on some topsoils,  you will have to
     add 	 and 	 to the soil, before
     plants will grow well.

 9.   For temporary stabilization, in some cases, you will
     need less 	 than you do for permanent
     stabilization.

10.   To reduce erosion perform tilling operations along the
     ground 	 as needed and feasible.

11.   On slopes, you may also need to use 	 on the
     seedbed, to reduce erosion until the plant materials are
     adequately established.

12.   The most popular mulches for temporary stabilization are
       .	and 	.

13.   As a rule of thumb, the application rate for straw or
     hay is about 	 pounds per acre.  For woodchips
     	 cubic yards per acre.

14.   On large areas, the usual way to apply straw is to use
     a
                             9-13

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             Questions   3
Circle  the correct answer or answers.
1.   For  tacking mulches, you can use

    a.   liquid emulsified asphalt
    b.   polyvinyl chloride
    c.   various chemical binders

2.   To aid the operator in judging whether or not he has
    sprayed enough chemical tack a coloring agent may be
    added to the solution.  (T or F)
3.   Another way to secure straw mulch  is

    a.   to apply a thin  layer of topdressing
    b.   to anchor it with a mulch-
        anchoring tool
    c.   to compact it with a sheep's foot roller

4.   Anchoring

    a.   should run up and down the  slope
    b.   should follow the contour of the ground
    c.   creates grooves  that aid in controlling runoff
    d.   improves seed germination
    e.   can be performed on any slope
                         9-14

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Questions 3 Continued
5.   Tracking

    a.  is a recommended method of securing straw on
        slopes  flatter  than  3  to  1
    b.  is an approved method of  securing straw on
        slopes  steeper  than  3  to  1
    c.  is accomplished by running a cleated dozer
        along the contour of the  slope
    d.  is accomplished by running a cleated dozer up
        and down the slope

6.   In highly critical areas, such as waterways, to
    anchor straw mulch, use

    a.  chemical binders
    b.  nettings
    c.  liquid  emulsified asphalt
    d.  anchoring

7.   Woodchips

    a.  are effective and economical mulch materials used
        for temporary stabilization
    b.  should  only be used on wooded sites
    c.  are excellent for restoring the essential ground
        litter

8.   Other mulch materials include

    a.  crimping
    b.  jute netting
    c.  top soil
    d.  excelsior blankets
    e.  ground  up corncobs
    f.  fill
    g.  gravel  or crushed rock
                           9-15

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             Questions   4
Fill in the blanks.
1.   Chemical stabilizers have come  into major use  in the last
    few years.  Chemical stabilizers coat the soil surface
    temporarily, 	 it from damage by water and wind;
    they may also penetrate the soil to 	  the particles
    into a mass that resists erosion.

2.   The effectiveness of chemical stabilizers will vary from
    site to site, depending on the  	                       ,
    the 	 and the slope
    To  avoid expensive mistakes,  when you use chemical soil
    stabilizers, spray a 	 	 with
    the recommended mixture and application rate,and examine
    the result, before you spray  the 	 	
    If  the soil and slope conditions vary from place to place
    on  one large site, use 	 	
                          9-16

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            Questions   5
Mark the  statements true or  false.
1. _ Cost will be a major  factor in determining which
          form of temporary stabilization to use.

2. _ You don't need to consider how well the materials
          work, or how long they will have to keep working.

3. _ Properly established, vegetation is the most
          effective and durable soil stabilizer.

4. _ Any plant can be used, during the spring, summer,
          and fall.

5. _ Winter wheat and rye  will normally provide excellent
          protection if they are planted in the fall in areas  of
          adaptation.
6. _ Most annual plants provide protection  for several
          growing seasons.

7. _ No plants used in temporary stabilization are used
          for permanent stabilization.
          If you decide against plants, the kind  of non-
          vegetative temporary soil stabilization you use
          will depend on the  effectiveness, the cost, and
          the length of time  the temporary stabilization
          must last.
                         9-17

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 Questions 5 Continued
 9. 	 Straw and woodchips work equally well,  but one
           may be less expensive than the other,  or more
           readily available.

10. 	 Straw lasts longer than woodchips.

11. 	 Some applications of chemical stabilizers will
           only be effective for a few weeks;  others may
           last for months.
                           9-18

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             Questions   6
Circle the correct answer or answers.
1.   Temporary stabilization is designed to last

    a.   for more than  a year
    b.   for less than  a year

2.   Usually, the maximum  length of time a graded area may be
    exposed
    a.   is six months
    b.   can be determined by the contractor
    c.   is determined  by state bureaus or local agencies

3.   One  of the best ways to stabilize areas temporarily is
    to use fast-growing annual or perennial plants,  such as
    grasses; these grasses include
    a.  Kentucky 31 tall fescue
    b.  oats
    c.  clover
    d.  wheat
    e.  Sericea lespedeza
    f.  Sudangrass
    g.  rye
4.   Legumes

    a.  are sometimes useful for  temporary cover
    b.  add nutrients to the soil
h.   rye  grass
i.   weeping lovegrass
                        9-19

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Questions 6 Continued
5.  The most popular mulches are

    a.  corncobs
    b.  straw
    c.  hay
    d.  Kentucky 31 tall fescue
    e.  woodchips

6.  On large areas, the usual way to apply straw is

    a.  with a mulch blower
    b.  with a rake

7.  Mulches require tacking  on large areas.  This can be
    done with

    a.  seeding
    b.  liquid emulsified asphalt
    c.  chemical binders
    d.  fertilizer and lime

8.  The choice of methods will depend on

    a.  cost alone
    b.  effectiveness, cost, and length of time
    c.  state regulations
                          9-20

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EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
CONTROL OF SEDIMENT
    GENERATED ON
 CONSTRUCTION SITES
       WORKBOOK

-------
  CONTENT






  I.  BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING SEDIMENT




 II.  VEGETATIVE PRACTICES




      A.  Natural Vegetative Buffers




      B.  Graded Buffers




      C.  Contour Stripping




      D.  Woodland Areas




      E.  Sod Inlet Filters




III.  STRUCTURAL PRACTICES




      A.  Filters and Dikes




          1.  Gravel Inlet Filter




          2.  Interceptor Dike




      B.  Sediment Traps




          1.  Sandbag Trap




          2.  Straw Bale Trap




          3.  Straw Bale Barrier




      C.  Sediment Basins




          1.  Dry




          2.  Wet




 IV.  REVIEW QUIZ
                              10-1

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I.  BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CONTROLLING SEDIMENT



    A.  Erosion control is the first line of defense.



        It reduces the amount of sediment that will be



        generated.



    B.  Sediment control is the second line of defense.



        It prevents much of the sediment from uncontrolled



        soil erosion from leaving the construc-



        tion site.



    C.  Sediment traps are designed to slow the flow



        of water.  This reduces the ability of the water



        to transport sediment, and the sediment settles



        out of suspension.



    D.  The amount of sediment removed from the runoff



        is dependent upon these three factors:



        1.  Speed that the water flows through the trap.



        2.  Length of time the water is detained.



        3.  Size and weight of the sediment particle car-



            ried into the trap.



        The slower the flow of water and the longer it



        is detained, the greater will be the quantity of



        sediment deposited.  The size and weight of the



        sediment particles determine the speed at which



        they settle out of suspension.  The larger and



        heavier a particle, the faster it settles out.
                           10-2

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     E.  Efficiency of sediment trapping is expressed as

         the percent of sediment removed from the runoff,
                       Amount trapped
         % Ef f'iciency=	  x 100
                       Total Load
II.  VEGETATIVE PRACTICES

     A.  Natural Vegetative Buffers

         1.   A vegetative buffer at the base of a steep

             slope is an effective means of trapping sed-

             iment .

         2.   This involves maintaining a strip of natural

             vegetation along the sides of a stream   to

             slow and filter overland flow coming from

             higher-lying graded areas.

         3.   This is one of the more effective and eco-

             nomical methods of removing small amounts of

             sediment  from overland  flow.

         4.   Except  for essential roadway crossings, no

             construction should be allowed within the

             buffer  area.

     B.  Graded Buffers

         1.   Provisions for construction must be made dur-

             ing early design stages of development.

         2.   The flatter and longer it is,  the more sedi-

             ment it will retain.
                            10-3

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    3.  A positive grade of at least two percent



        should be provided to prevent ponding.



    4.  Timely establishment of vegetation on the



        buffer is a must in order to provide eff-



        ective sediment trapping.



C.  Contour Stripping



    1.  A method borrowed from the farmer.



    2.  It is used to break the flow of runoff on



        long hillsides.



    3.  It involves the establishment of strips of



        vegetation, usually grass sod, along the



        ground contour at regular intervals on the



        slope.



    4.  These strips slow the flow and reduce the



        amount of runoff, thus reducing erosion and



        trapping much of the sediment generated



        from erosion occurring between the strips.



D.  Woodland Areas



    1.  Woodland litter can provide a high degree



        of filtering action as well as aiding in



        the absorption of runoff, but care must be



        exercised because the deposition of a few



        inches of sediment around a tree can cause



        it to die.
                        10-4

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          2.   Use woodland areas only for the filtering

              of overland flow.

      E.   Sod Inlet Filter

          1.   Made up of strips  of  sod placed around  the

              storm drain inlet.

          2.   The grass slows the flow of water into

              the inlet and filters out some  of  the

              sediment.

          3.   The size of the sodded area is  varied

              depending upon the amount of runoff and sediment ex-

              pected at the inlet.    The  larger  the sodded area,
              the more  effective it  is.
          4.   This practice should  only be used to

              handle light concentrations of  sediment and low
              rates of runoff.
          5.   Best used after final grading is complete

              and during the establishment of a vegeta-

              tive cover.


III.  STRUCTURAL PRACTICES
      A.  Filters and Dikes

          1.   Gravel Inlet Filter

              a. Used at storm drain inlets.

              b. Made of coarse gravel or crushed stone.

              c. Will temporarily impound runoff.
                             10-5

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d.  Provides a negligible amount of filter-



    ing action.



e.  Is highly resistant to erosion.



f.  Standard concrete building blocks



    are placed on the inside of the gravel



    filter to keep stones from being washed



    into the storm drain inlet.



g.  The configuration of the filter will



    depend upon the type of inlet being




    protected.



h.  Prompt maintenance is very essential.
               10-6

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B.  Sediment Traps



    1.   Sandbag Sediment Trap



        a.  A quick and economical method of tempor-



            arily disrupting flow and trapping the



            coarser sediment particles.



        b.  A small  degree of  sediment control can



            be achieved by positioning these barri-



            ers at regular intervals along the ditch.



        c.  Bags are filled  with soil or sand   and



            stacked in an overlapping  fashion which



            provides additional strength for resist-



            ing the force of the flowing water.




        d.  Undercutting is  a  major cause of the failure



            of many  sandbag   sediment traps.



        e.  The sandbags should be set in a trench



            at least six inches in depth.  This will



            greatly reduce the chance of undercutting



            failure.



        f.  Inspection and prompt maintenance is required,



    2.   Straw Bale Sediment  Trap



        a.  Fast and economical temporary trap.



        b.  Made of bales of  straw or hay.



        c.  Deteriorates rapidly.



        d.  Can slightly increase durability by  using



            wire-tied bales.
                        10-7

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    e.   When constructing the  trap  the bales  are  laid



        on their sides and staked into place.



    d.   Undercutting  can  render  the trap  ineffective.



    f.   Straw bale trap should be entrenched



        at least six  inches and excavated soil should  be



        compacted along the upstream face.



    g.   Inspection and prompt maintenance is  re-



        quired ,



3.   Straw Bale Perimeter  Barrier



    a.   Used to provide a sediment barrier



        along the downhill perimeters of small



        graded sites   where area restrictions



        or other factors prevent the use of



        other practices.



    b.   Close inspection is required.



4.   Excavated Sediment Trap



    a.   Its function is to temporarily detain



        the runoff and thereby allow some sed-



        iment to settle out.



    b.   Costs little to construct.



    c.   Once the sediment-yielding area  is sta-



        bilized, the pit area can, in some instances,




        be filled in with soil and covered with sod.
                    10-8

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C.  Sediment Basins



    1.  Sediment basins are the most effective



        structures for trapping sediment.



    2.  Used on construction  sites where



        concentrations  of both  runoff and




        sediment are anticipated.



    3.  Dry Sediment Basin



        a.  Designed to only temporarily impound



            runoff during rainfalls.



        b.  It is drained by a standard metal



            riser pipe with 1/2" perforations  which



            allow the water to be  released at a



            controlled rate.




        c.  It requires a formal design for size



            and safety reasons.



        d.  Only suitable soils must be used to



            construct the dam.



        e.  A high degree of compaction must be



            achieved.



        f.  Proper positioning of  the riser pipe



            is essential to proper performance.



        g.  Piping failures are too common in tempor-




            ary dry sediment basins.
                       10-9

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h.  Consult state and local regulations



    governing their design and construction



    prior to starting to build one.



i.  Periodic cleaning is essential if the basin




    is to do its job.



    (1)  usually cleaned with a backhoe or



         dragline



    (2)  smaller basins with firm founda-



         tions are sometimes cleaned with



         front-end loaders



j.  Construction specifications for the ba-



    sin must specify the required freeboard -



    the vertical distance between the



    design high water and the top of




    the dam.



k.  Failing to provide enough freeboard may



    result in overtopping during heavy



    storms and breeching of the dam.



Wet Basin - Sediment Pond



a.  Used when it becomes necessary to dam



    permanent streams in order to trap sedi-



    ment.



b.  On large residential developments, re-



    creational impoundments also function as



    sediment traps.
               10-10

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c.  Requires a formal design and strict



    construction control for safety



    reasons.



d.  Cleaning a wet sediment basin is costly,




    (1)   dragline is used.



    (2)   portable dredges used on large



         ponds.
               10-11

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            QUESTIONS  1
                                   Fill in the blanks
1.    E	 c	 is the first




     line of defense.  It 	 the amount of



     sediment that will be generated.






2.    S	 c	 is the second



     line of defense.






3.    Sediment traps  are designed to slow the flow of
4.    The amount of 	 removed from the



     runoff is dependent  upon  three factors:



     a.   S   	 that the water flows



         through the  t	
     b.   L                 of time the water is
     c.   S__	 and w   	 of the



         sediment  particles carried into the trap.
                          10-12

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                                        Multiple Choice
1.    The best vegetative filters are
     a.   legumes                 b.   grasses
     c.   trees                   d.   periwinkle.

                                       answer(s)
2.   No construction should be allowed within a buffer
     area

     a.   at all.
     b.   except for essential roadway construction.
     c.   except for residential  construction.
     d.   except for normal roadway construction.

                                       answer(s)
                                  True or False
     1.    Leaving a buffer at the base of a steep
          slope is an effective means of trapping small amounts of
          sediment.

     2.    A buffer speeds the flow of runoff coming
          off a steeper slope.

    _3.    The flatter and longer a buffer area, the
          more sediment it will retain.

     4.    Adding vegetation to a buffer area increases
          its ability to trap sediment.

     5.    To prevent ponding, i positive grade of at
          least two percent should be provided.

    _6.    A natural vegetative buffer is one of the
          more effective and economical methods of re-
          moving amounts of small sediment from overland
          flow.
                          10-13

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1.    Contour stripping is a method borrowed from

     a.    the farmer.              b.    the contractor.
     c.    nature.                  d.    the foreman.

                                       answer(s)
2.    The use of a vegetative buffer near the base of
     a highway slope serves th2 same function as

     a.   the storm drain.
     b.   the top of cut.
     c.   the interceptor dike.
     d.   the contour strips.

                                       answer(s)
3.   The sod inlet filter

     a.   should only be used to handle light concen-
          trations of sediment.
     b.   is made up of pads of sod.
     c.   is best used after final grading is complete.
     d.   all of the above.
     e .   none of the above.

                                       answer (s)
                        10-14

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          QUESTIONS  4
                                   Fill in the blanks
1.   S	 p	 are employed  on



    construction  sites to trap sediment.





2f   The	 filter is used at



    storm drains.






3.   The gravel  inlet  filter is h	 r	



    to erosion.





4.   The configuration of the filter will depend  upon



    the t	  of i	 being protected,
                       10-15

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         QUESTIONS  5
                                  True or  False
 1. The sandbag sediment trap is a quick and



   economical method of temporarily disrup-



   ting flow and trapping the coarser sedi-



   ment particles.






 2.  Undercutting  is a major  cause  of  failure of many



   temporary sediment traps.






_3. Straw bale sediment traps last indefinitely.





 4. Close inspection  is not required of a straw



   bale perimeter barrier.






 5. The function of an excavated sediment trap



   is to temporarily detain the runoff.






 6. The most effective structures for trapping



   sediment are straw bale barriers.
                    10-16

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                                       Multiple Choice
1.   A dry sediment basin is
     a.   designed to only temporarily impound runoff,
     b.   drained by a metal riser pipe.
     c.   requires a formal design.
     d.   all of the above.
     e.   only a and c.

                                       answer(s)   	
2.   The vertical distance between the top of the dam and
     the  design  high water within the basin is  known as the
     a.   sediment valve.
     b.   freeboard.
     c.   safety factor.
     d.   ruler.
                                       answer(s)
3.   The device at the top of the riser pipe
     is called

     a.   a barrel.
     b.   an antivortex device and. trash rack.
     c.   an emergency spillway.
     d.   none of the above.

                                       answer(s)
                        10-17

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             QUESTIONS  7
 1.   Erosion control  r	 the amount of  sediment
     that will be generate?.


 2.   Sediment control is  the  s            line  of defense.
 3.   The three factors  upon which  the  amount of  sediment
     removed from the runoff is  dependent  are:

     a.   S              that the water flows throuoh  t.he
     b.   L            of time  the water was d
     c.   S	 and w	 of  the  sediment
         particles carried into  the  trap.


 4.   Leaving a v	 b	at  the base of
     a steep slope is  an effective means of  trapping
     sediment.


 5.   M ^	a natural buffer is  one of  the
     more effective and economical methods of removing
     small amounts of  sediment from  overland flow.


 6.   The ability of a  graded buffer  area to  trap sediment
     is improved by adding v 	.


 7.   The L^st vegetative filter  is 	
 8.   Woodland areas should be used  only  to  filter
     o                  flow.
 9,   £	s	is  a method
     borrowed from the farmer.
10.   It ir. used to break the f	 of  r_
     on long hillsides.
                         10-18

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11.  The use of a v	 b	 near the
     base of a highway slope serves the same function
     as 	 strips.
12.  G	 b	 are employed on
     construction sites to retain or trap sediment.
13.  The sod inlet filter should be used to handle
     1             concentrations of sediment.
14.  The 2	 i	 filter is highly
     resistant to erosion.
15.  The configuration of the filter will depend upon
     the t	 of i	 being protected.
16.  The interceptor dike is used on r
     rights'of way to divert flow onto vegetated areas.
17 .   Straw b	and s	 traps are
     quick and economical methods of temporarily dis-
     rupting flow.
18.  u	 is a major cause of the failure
     of many temporary sediment traps.


19.  Undercutting is  reduced in temporary sediment
     t	 by placing either the s
     traps or s	^__^ b           traps a minimum
     of 	        inches in the ground.
20.  A straw bale perimeter barrier is used to provide
     a s	 barrier along the downhill peri-
     meter of small graded sites, where area restric-
     tions or other factors prevent the use of other
     practices.
21.   An e	 sediment trap c_
     1              to construct.
                         10-19

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22.   S	 b	are the most effec-
     tive structures for trapping sediment.

23.
23.   A dry sediment basin is designed to only t_
     impound r	 during and  for  a  short time  after
     rainfalls.

24.  A dry sediment basin is drained by using a standard
     metal r	 p	 with p_
     which allow the water to be released at a controlled
     rate.
25.  Both wet and dry sediment ponds must be

     a.   vegetatively stabilized.
     b.   emptied.
     c.   washed.
     d.   none of the above.

                                       answer(s)
                        10-20

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EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
EROSION  AND SEDIMENT
  CONTROL PLANNING
        WORKBOOK

-------
CONTENT



I.    NECESSITY OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL PLANNING AND
        IMPLEMENTATION

      A.  Eliminates Many Potential Problems

      B.  Protects the Landscape

      C.  Protects Critical Areas


II.   RESPONSIBILITIES OF PRELIMINARY PLANNING

      A.  Specify Proper Grading Practices

      B.  Control Runoff on the Site

      C.  Minimize Grading


III.  THE PRELIMINARY STUDY

      A.  Each Lanscape is Unique and Imposes Different
            Restrictions

      B.  The Impact of Erosion and Sediment on the Site and
            Adjacent Areas must be Determined

      C.  Evaluate Critical Features


IV.   THE DESIGN STAGE

      A.  Follows Preliminary Study

      B.  Proper Siting of Structures Reduces Damage

      C.  Procedures and Responsibilites of the Owner and Developer


V.    THE COSTS OF CONTROLLED VS UNCONTROLLED DEVELOPMENT

      A.  Disposal of Sediment Generated

      B.  Cost of Setting-Up and Following Erosion and
            Sediment Control Plan

      C.  Preparation of Good Plans at Lowest Practical
            Cost of Execution
                           11-1

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VI.   SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR SITE PLANNING IN RELATION
        TO EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL

      A.  Soil Conservation Service

      B.  U.S. Geological Survey Offices

      C.  Highway Offices

      D.  County Planning Boards

      E.  Local Planning and Zoning Agencies

      F.  State Department of Natural Resources

      G.  Historical Reports

      H.  Regional Land Use Plans


VII.  TOOLS USED IN PLANNING PROCESS

      A.  Topographic or Base Map

      B.  U.S.G.S. Quadrangle Maps

      C.  Aerial Photographs


VIII. GOALS OF SITE PLANNING

      A.  Minimize Damage to Land

      B.  Five Key Requirements of Erosion and Sediment
            Control Planning


IX.   IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL PLAN

      A.  Each Plan Must Fit Individual Site

      B.  Basic Features
                            11-2

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I.     NECESSITY OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL PLANNING AND
        IMPLEMENTATION
      A.   As we reshape the land,  for urban or industrial

          uses, erosion and sedimentation problems often

          result,  which could have been avoided,  with

          proper planning and implementation.

      B.   In any erosion and sediment control  plan, you

          will try to protect the  landscape.

          1.  As the population of the United  States in-

              creases ,  landscapes  come under more and more

              pressure.  In the last 200 to 300 years, much

              of the land has been converted from its

              natural state to farms and cities,  or

              suburbs.

          2.  If we continue to transform natural landscapes

              at an ever-increasing rate, we may speed up

              the rate  of soil loss, and, as a result,

              damage our land and  water.

      C.   Certain types of landscape are more  easily damaged

          than others.

          1.  Critical  areas include forests.   We should

              make every effort to preserve as much forest

              land as possible, and to protect forest land

              that is being developed.

          2.  Another critical area  is the floodplain, an

              area of land on either side of a channel that

              is nearly level and  is subject to periodic
                           11-3

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    flooding.  Floodplains  are important



    because they store excess runoff temporarily,



    thus helping to avoid problems further



    downstream.



3.   Steep slopes are critical.  Within certain



    watersheds there often are areas where the



    soil is subject to droughts, sliding, and



    erosion.  Such soils are particularly



    susceptible to damage, but nearly all soils



    on steep slopes are likely to erode if they



    are unprotected.



4.   Wetlands occur in many parts of the country.



    These areas are extremely valuable as



    drainage basins, for flood and sediment



    control, and for the preservation of wildlife




    resources.  They are the critical link in the



    aquatic  food chain.




5.   Another critical area is the shoreline of



    bays and large inland lakes.  We must take




    care to protect these areas from wave action.







6.   Waterways and streams, whether or not they



    are navigable, are other critical areas.



    Good planning is necessary to avoid excessive



    erosion and sedimentation.




7.   Any man-made impoundment, such as a reservoir,
                  11-4

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              is a critical part of the landscape and




              must be protected from sediment.








II.    RESPONSIBILITIES OF PRELIMINARY PLANNING






      A.   One of the main principles of site planning is




          to see that there is a minimum of grading




          and that it precedes in an orderly manner.




          1.  Grading operations can greatly change the




              natural arrangement of soil particles.




              One of the major causes of this alteration




              is compaction.




              a.  Of course, there are many ways to




                  restore the structure of a soil once




                  it has been lost, but soil compaction




                  still presents a problem.  Many years




                  of diligent effort on the part of soil




                  bacteria and other living things, like




                  earthworms and grass roots, plus




                  materials such as nitrogen and oxygen




                  are required to get the soil  back to




                  its previous condition.




              b.  Clearing  and grading have other effects,




                  too.  Once the protective vegetative




                  cover has been stripped away, the soil




                  is exposed to the erosive or dispersive




                  action of water and wind.
                           11-5

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B.  In most areas of the country, heavy rainstorms
    are most frequent from May to September.  This
    is also the time when construction activity
    is most intense.  Therefore, this is the time
    when exposed soil is most likely to be badly
    eroded.
    1.  As the intensity of rainfall increases,
        water collects on the soil surface and
        flows downslope, as surface runoff.
    2.  On  steeply  sloping  areas,  large  amounts of  sand,
        silt,  and clay particles are dislodged and
        carried off in sheets of water moving
        down the newly-exposed slopes.
    3.  On slopes that are not as steep, the
        rainfall carries off smaller amounts of
        soil.
C.  One of the key strategies in erosion and sediment
    control planning is to see to it that runoff
    water is controlled on the site.
    1.  Diversion structures often can help control
        the runoff.
    2.  Water concentrated in waterways can be
        controlled with ponds, with check dams,
        and with other structures.
D.  Another key strategy is to minimize grading.
    1.  To minimize grading, develop the land
                      11-6

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              along the natural contours of the ground



              surface.



          2.   Wherever  possible, plan the grading so as



              to minimize slope length and limit the



              amount of area exposed at any time.




          3.   How much  soil  the moving water will dislodge




              and carry away depends on the resistance of the



              soil particles to dispersion,  and on the speed



              and volume of  water moving over  the soil.



          4.   We can increase the resistance of soil to dis-



              persion,  while construction takes place,  and



              also control the volume and velocity of the



              water,  as it moves over the soil and concentrates



              in waterways.
III.   THE PRELIMINARY STUDY






      A.   Each site has its own earth history and character,




          Not only do the plants,  animals,  and human beings




          vary,  from place to place,  on the surface of the




          earth,  so do the bedrock,  the soils, and the




          topography.  Each landscape,  in turn, imposes




          certain restrictions on  the way it can be




          developed.




      B.   Before development commences, the developer must




          determine the impact that  erosion and sediment,
                            11-7

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    produced during and after the work, will have




    on his own site, and on the areas lying downslope



    and downstream from the site.



    1.  This requires a preliminary study of the



        land, including its use, soils, topography,



        climate, and the general nature of the



        watershed.



    2.  The developer should evaluate the present



        uses of other upstream areas in the



        watershed, and the potential for future



        expansion in these areas.



    3.  Local zoning and planning officials must take



        considerable responsibility to insure that



        the developer knows the plans for future



        expansion in these areas.  These officials



        must set adequate standards, and enforce



        them, to protect the present and future



        conditions of the region.



    4.  Comprehensive planning, involving all of a



        given watershed, is essential to insure



        that adequate erosion and sediment control



        planning is achieved.



C.  In making a preliminary study, look for critical



    land features and evaluate them.  These include



    waterways and their floodplains, steep or long



    slopes, soils which may be highly erodible,



    droughty, or of low fertility, tree stands,
                     11-8

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          and areas with high groundwater tables.   Include



          provisions for stormwater management.








IV.   THE DESIGN STAGE



     A.   After the preliminary study has been made, the



          design stage of development begins.  Roadways,



          utilities, buildings, and other structures



          are located, designed, and shown on a site



          plan during this stage.



          1.   These plans will show what is to be con-



              structed, where it is to be constructed,



              and how it will be constructed.



          2.   As with the preliminary study, the



              developer must have the critical land



              features assessed at the outset of the



              design stage of construction, so as to



              minimize disturbance to these features.



          3.   Much of the information on erosion and



              sediment control, which was gathered during



              the preliminary study, can be used in the



              final design plans.  However, you should



              gather more detailed information, both



              from literature and field studies.
                          11-9

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B.  The proper siting of structures can reduce



    erosion and sediment damage; when it is




    possible, locate these structures in order to



    minimize grading, so as to reduce erosion.



    1.  The designer cannot totally prevent erosion



        and sedimentation.  It is necessary to



        develop an erosion and sediment control



        plan, as part of the overall site develop-



        ment plan.



    2.  This plan shows the necessary procedures



        and measures which the developer must take,



        to eliminate excessive erosion and sediment



        damage.



C.  Erosion and sediment control planning and design,



    as it relates to construction, is a relatively



    new discipline.



    1.  Therefore we must rely a great deal on



        those people who have on-the-ground



        construction experience.



    2.  It is essential that the inspector and the



        foreman be able to interpret erosion and



        sediment plans, prepared for specific sites.



D.  Procedures



    1.  The owner or site developer is responsible



        for the preparation of  the erosion and sediment



        control plan.
                      11-10

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    a.   He may call upon competent engineers,
        architects,  scientists,  and other
        qualified people,  to engage in the  prep-
        aration of the plan.
    b.   The plan  must then be approved by  an
        authorized approving office, whereupon
        a grading permit is issued to the owner.
2.   The owner must also notify the inspector's
    office, usually about two working days  in
    advance, of his intent to begin clearing
    and construction work described in the
    erosion and sediment control plan.
3.   The owner must have both the official
    grading permit and the erosion and
    sediment control plan on the site
    during grading and construction.
    a.   The developer has the responsi-
        bility to implement the plans,
        as well as to have them on hand.
                 11-11

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V    THE COSTS OF CONTROLLED VS UNCONTROLLED DEVELOPMENT






     A.  Based on 1974 prices, removal of soils from



         reservoirs can cost $2 or more per cubic yard;



         from streets, $8 per cubic yard; and from storm



         sewers, $100 per cubic yard.  Removal of clay



         particles and other materials from municiple



         water supplies can cost $25 or more per cubic



         yard.



         1.  Soils washed off building sites can damage



             structures, waterways, wildlife, and scenic



             values.  The disposal of these scenic values



             once they are removed, becomes an additional



             cost.



     B.  For a 10 acre site, experience has shown that the



         cost of setting up and following an erosion and



         sediment control plan, including the cost of build-



         ing sediment basins, stabilizing exposed soil with



         mulch and grass, and following up with maintenance,



         averages $1500 or more per acre, depending on phy-



         sical and climatic factors, as well as the size of



         the area.



         1.  This cost is minor compared with the price of



             uncontrolled development.  For example, the



             cost of removing 200 cubic yards of sediment



             from storm sewers alone will range from



             $12,000 to $30,000.  And it's
                           11-12

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              not unusual for an acre of exposed soil

              to yield 200 cubic yards per year.

      C.  The planner must prepare good plans at the

          lowest practical cost of execution.  Owners

          and developers can render real service by

          developing sites so that drainage is good,

          the slopes are moderate, and the area resists

          erosion to a maximum extent.



VI.   SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR SITE PLANNING IN RELATION
        TO EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL

      A.  Soil survey reports furnished by the Soil

          Conservation Service provide information on

          the suitability of various soil types for

          locating pipelines, roads, ponds, reservoirs,

          drainage systems, etc.

          1.  The exact location of woodlands, wetlands,

              and other critical areas can be obtained

              from aerial maps and photographs furnished

              by the Soil Conservation Service.

      B.  U.S. Geological Survey Offices in most states

          provide information on the location of important

          mineral deposits, critical underground water

          supplies, the location of rock outcrops, and

          other pertinent items.
                             11-13

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      C.   Highway offices at the county and state level



          provide information on the location of present



          and future highways.




      D-   The Soil Conservation Service and county planning



          boards can furnish information on soil engineering




          properties and areas  having drainage or flooding problems



      E.   You  can obtain information on local



          ordinances from local planning and zoning



          agencies.



      F.   You can obtain information on new regulations



          pertaining to erosion and sediment control from



          the State Department of Natural Resources or



          other agencies responsible for water pollution



          control.  These offices can also provide updates




          on technical information required by developers



          and planners.



      G.   Historical reports in county libraries provide



          other useful information.



      H.   Don't overlook regional land use plans for various



          watersheds.








VII.  TOOLS USED IN PLANNING PROCESS






      A.   One of the most important maps for site planning



          is the topographic or base map.



          1.  Most base maps prepared for site development



              have a scale in the range of 40 to 200 feet
                           11-14

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        per inch, and contour intervals of two



        to five feet.



B.  For preliminary site evaluations, the quadrangle



    maps prepared by the United States Geological



    Survey are often useful.



    1.  They generally have a scale of 1320 feet per



        inch and a contour interval of 2O feet.




C.  Often an enlarged aerial photograph or stereoscopic



    pairs of air photos giving a three-dimensional



    persepctive, are useful for locating woodlands,



    wetlands, and other critical features.



    1.  When these critical locations have been



        delineated on a base map, the planner can



        begin to design the site development plan,



        including the erosion and sediment control



        plan.



    2.  During on-site studies, you can consult with



        staff persons of the soil and water conserva-



        tion district, members of the State Natural



        Resources Department, representatives of



        City Departments of Public Works, and other



        public officials.



    3.  For problems that are particuarly difficult,



        it is often desirable to retain a professional



        consultant.   Public agencies having responsi-



        bility for erosion and sediment control can



        generally furnish names of competent consultants







                     11-15

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VIII. GOALS OF SITE PLANNING






      A.  One of the prime goals of site planning is to



          organize construction in such a way as to



          minimize damage to the land.



          1.  The best erosion and sediment control is



              one that works closely with nature.



      B.  Five Key Requirements of Erosion and Sediment



          Control Planning.



          1.  Identify and protect critical features.



              a.  Delineate critical features on the base



                  map, before construction begins.  The



                  physical factors  of the landscape,



                  soils, drainageways, woodlands, and



                  wetlands, taken together, should help



                  determine the layout and design of



                  the development.



              b.  The proposed construction and  its



                  location with respect to critical



                  areas should help determine what



                  measures must be taken to control



                  erosion and sediment.



          2.  Soil  should  be  kept on  the site by reducing



              erosion and runoff.  By keeping the soil



              on the site, we reduce  sediment pollution.




           3.  The  third requirement of  an  erosion and sediment



              control  plan is:   trap sediment.
                             11-16

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          4.   The fourth requirement of a plan is:   stabilize




              the soil.






          5.   The final requirement of any plan is  inspection




              and maintenance.




              a.   Even the best-designed erosion and sediment




                  control plan  will be a wasted effort,  if




                  the owner or  his representative fails  to




                  inspect and maintain all measures on a




                  day-to-day basis.




              b.   Where sediment control or stormwater




                  management structures are to remain on




                  the site, permanently, the  owner




                  should furnish evidence that he will




                  adhere to a long-range agreement.








IX.    IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF AN EROSION AND SEDIMENT  CONTROL PLAN






      A.   No  two erosion and sediment control plans will ever




          be  exactly alike.  Each plan must be tailored  to




          the physical and climatic conditions at the site.




      B.   Most plans are somewhat similar, however,  because




          they contain the same basic features.   Only the




          more specific information differs.




          1.   A typical  erosion and sediment control plan




              is  a drawing showing present and proposed




              grading contours  and elevations.  The scale




              should be one inch equals forty feet.




                            11-17

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2.   The plan shows proposed construction,  the



    location of erosion control measures and



    sediment control structures, typical or



    detailed designs for various structures,



    and general or specific notes regarding



    the implementation of the plan.



3.   The plan should include the owner's or



    developer's certification and statement



    that development and/or construction will



    be done according to this plan of develop-



    ment and erosion and sediment control.



4.   Where local standards exist, the plan should



    also be certified by the designer as having



    been prepared in accordance with the



    standards adopted by the approving agency.



5.   Finally, the approving officer of the



    district should affix his signature to



    the plan.



6.   Many erosion and sediment control plans



    utilize certain standard symbols.  You



    should familiarize yourself with these



    symbols, since they are used so widely.



    The meanings of all these symbols are



    explained in the legend,



7.   Erosion and sediment control plans usually



    have certain general notes containing general



    sediment and erosion control requirements which




    cannot be shown graphically on the plan.





                  11-18

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 8.  The sequence of implementation or "staging"



     is also important and should be indicated



     on the plan.



 9.  Certain specific notes concerning the approved



     methods of soil stabilization should be



     included on the plan.



     a.  The notes must include information on



         temporary stabilization practices and



         on permanent stabilization, both



         vegetative and non-vegetative.




     b.  For vegetative soil stabilization, the



         notes should cover seedbed preparation,



         seeding procedures, and/or sodding




         procedures.



     c.  Approved temporary non-vegetative



         stabilization techniques, which include



         mulching with various materials, and



         chemical stabilization techniques, should



         also be included in the notes.



     d.  In order to insure that adequate



         stabilization is achieved, especially



         with respect to vegetative techniques;



         seeding dates, and application rates,



         etcetera, should be included in the



         soil stabilization notes.



10.  Another major area which the erosion and



     sediment control plan should cover is the





                  11-19

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     maintenance of sediment control structures


     Notes on this subject can be included in

     the general notes or set out under a

     separate heading.  The portion of the

     plan dealing with maintenance must cover
                                    t
     the cleaning of all structures and the

     disposal of the sediment removed.

11.   The plan must illustrate all structures

     which call for formal designs.  These

     structures include sediment basins, ponds,

     flumes, permanent diversion structures,


     and so forth.

12.   Temporary structures which do not require

     formal designs, like diversion dikes and


     sediment traps, are often not illustrated

     on the plan.  Instead, the plan includes

     references to standard documents,

     recognized by the approving agency,

     which contain drawings and construction

     requirements of the structures.
                  11-20

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              Questions   1
Fill  in the blanks.
1.   Critical areas, where the potential for erosion is
    high, include 	  	, 	, and
2.   Most erosion and sediment problems can be  avoided by
    proper 	 and 	.

3.   In most areas of the country, most construction
    activity takes place during the same seasons as
    heavy 	 occur.

4.   One of the key strategies in erosion and sediment control
    planning is to see to it that 	 	
    is controlled on the site.

5.   Another key strategy is to minimize	.
6.   There is a great deal we can do to control the
    and 	 of water,  as it moves  over the soil  and
    concentrates  in waterways.
                         11-21

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             Questions   2
True or  false.
           All landscapes impose the same restrictions  on
   the  way in which they  can be developed.

   	 Before development commences, the developer must
   determine the impact that erosion and sediment, produced
   during and after the work, will have on his own site, and
   on the areas lying downslope and downstream from the site.

   	 The first step in an erosion and sediment control
   plan is the design stage.

   	 Measures designed for the management of stormwater
   should be an integral  part of the planning process, in any
   sediment and erosion control plan.

   	 The proper siting of structures will have no effect
   on erosion and sediment damage.

   	 When it is possible, grading should be minimized,
   so as to reduce erosion.
                          11-22

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              Questions  3
Circle the  correct answer or answers.
1.   The  owner or site developer is  responsible
    a.   for  the preparation of the  development plans only.
    b.   for  the erosion and sediment control plans only.
    c.   for  the preparation of both the development plans
          and the erosion and sediment control plans.

2.   During and after construction,  the developer

    a.   must have the plans on hand, and must implement them.
    b.   can  rely on the storm sewers, to handle runoff and
          sedimentation.
    c.   has  the responsibility to abate sediment pollution
          and comply with local ordinances.

3.   For  a  10 acre site, the cost of setting up and following
    an erosion and sediment control plan, may be $1500 or more
    per  acre; the cost of removing  200 cubic yards of  sediment
    from storm sewers alone, an amount that can easily be
    generated by an acre during a year, will range from
    a.   $1200 to $3000
    b.   $12,000 to $30,000
    c.   $120,000 to $300,000

4.   It is  crucial to

    a.   make long-range studies of  the landscape
    b.   prevent further development
    c.   allow developers to proceed as they see fit
                          11-23

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              Questions   4
Write the letter that corresponds  to  the correct source of
the information described, in the  blank provided.
     a.   County planning boards;
     b.   U.S.  Geological Survey Offices;
     c.   Aerial maps and photographs  furnished by the
           Soil Conservation Service;
     d.   Highway offices;
     e.   Soil  survey reports furnished by the Soil
            Conservation Service;
     f.   Local planning and zoning agencies;
     g.   State Department of Natural  Resources or other
           agencies responsible for water pollution control.

            Suitability of various soil types for locating
   pipelines, roads, ponds, reservoirs, drainage systems,
   and so forth.

   	 Exact location of woodlands, wetlands, and other
   critical or historical areas.

            Important mineral deposits, critical underground
   water supplies, location of rock outcrops, etc.

4. 	 Location of present and future highways.

5. 	 Soil engineering properties and areas having
   drainage or  flooding problems.

6. 	 Local ordinances.

7. 	 New regulations pertaining to erosion and sediment
   control and  updates on technical information.

                          11-24

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Write the letter that corresponds to the appropriate tool for
planning, in the blank provided.


     a.  Public agencies, such as the Soil and Water
           Conservation District;
     b.  U.S.G.S. quadrangle map;
     c.  topographic or base map;
     d.  Professional consultant;
     e.  Enlarged aerial photograph or stereoscopic pairs
           of air photos.

1. 	 For site development (scale:  40 to 200 feet per
   inch; contour interval:  2 to 5 feet).

2. 	 For preliminary site evaluations.

3. 	 For locating woodlands, wetlands, and other
   critical features.

4. 	 For consultation, during on-site studies.

5. 	 For problems that are particularly difficult.
                           11-25

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              Questions   5
Each of  the following statements contains one error; write
the letter that corresponds  to the incorrect word or phrase
in the blank provided.


1. 	 One key requirement in the design of an erosion
   and sediment control plan is:  identify and protect
                                         A
   critical features.  The physical factors of protective mulches,
          A                                          B
   soils, landscape, drainageways, woodlands, and wetlands,
         C               D          E            F
   taken together, should help determine the layout and design
   of the development.

2. 	 The second requirement is to reduce erosion and
                                             A
   runoff, in order to keep  soil on the site.  Expose the
     A                                           B
   largest practical area, for the shortest time.  Prompt
                  B                                C
   revegetation is essential to reduce runoff and erosion.
          C
   Other techniques include  surface roughening, diversion
                                   D             E
   structures, and detention structures.
                          11-26

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3. 	 The third requirement is preserve all woodland.
                                              A
   Sediment collection structures may be temporary or permanent,
                                             B            C
   depending on the needs of a specific site.  Sediment traps
   will have to be cleaned out, from time to time during
                 D
   construction.

4. 	 The fourth requirement is stabilize the soil, as
                                               A           B
   soon as possible after each grading step.  With cut or fill
                     B
   slopes, stabilization measures are normally applied in
   20-foot vertical increments.  During any type of grading
                 C
   activity, the sooner an area is stabilized, the more
                                                    D
   inspection and maintenance will be required.
                       D

5. 	 The final requirement of any plan is inspection and
                                                       A
   maintenance.  The best-designed erosion and sediment control
        A
   plans will function adequately, if the owner or his repre-
   sentative inspects and maintains all measures on a year-to-
                                  B
   year basis.  Where sediment or stormwater management
       B
   structures are to remain on the site, permanently, the
   developer should furnish evidence that he will adhere to
                                         C
   a long-range agreement:
             C

6. 	 A typical erosion and sediment control plan must
                                                        _

   be tailored to the physical and climatic conditions at the
               A                             A
   site,  and should include enlarged aerial photographs,
    A                                  B
   proposed construction,  the location of erosion control
           C                           D
   measures,  and  general  and specific notes regarding the
      D                            E
   implementation of the  plan.
             E
                           11-27

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7. 	 Specific notes included in the erosion and

   sediment control plan contain information such as "the
                                                       A~
   Order of Procedure," the temporary stabilization proced-
          A                            B
   ures, historical reports, and the maintenance of sediment
    B          C                              D
   control structures.
          D
            Temporary structures which do not require formal
   designs, like ponds,  diversion dikes, and sediment traps,
                   A         B                    C
   are often not illustrated on the plan.  Instead, the plans

   include references to standard documents, which contain

   drawings^ and construction requirements of the structures.
                D
                          11-28

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              Questions   6
Fill  in the blanks.


1.  The first step in the development of a site is  the
    After this step,  the	begins.

    An erosion and sediment control  plan is part of the
    overall 	

    The five most important requirements for an erosion and
    sediment control  plan are:  1. 	 and
                      critical features;  2.
    erosion and runoff;  3.  	 sediment;
    4.	 the soil; and 5. 	
    inspection and maintenance of all control practices.

    Each erosion and sediment control plan will  contain a
    drawing showing present and proposed 	
                   and elevations, the location of erosion
    and sediment control 	, typical  or detailed
    	 for various structures, and other
    general and specific 	 regarding implementation
    and maintenance.
                         11-29

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    EROSION AND SEDIMENT  CONTROL
WOODED - SITE   DEVELOPMENT
            WORKBOOK

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CONTENT
I    GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO TREES



     A.  Trees as Living Things




     B.  Value



     C.  Parts of Tree



         1.  Roots



         2.  Trunks



         3.  Leaves



     D.  Types of Stands



     E.  Classification of Trees by Size



         1.  Seedlings



         2.  Saplings




         3.  Pole-sized Trees



         4.  Sawtimber



         5.  Veteran Trees



II   PLANNING FOR PRESERVATION OF TREES



     A.  Important Questions to be Asked



     B.  Overall Plan Necessary



     C.  Selection of Individual Trees for Preservation



     D.  Selection of Lot



     E.  Roadways



     F.  Cleared Strips Around Buildings



     G.  Utility Spurs
                           12-1

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Ill  CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES FOR PROTECTION OF TREES




     A.  Marking




     B.  Salvage




     C.  Stump Cutters




     D.  Pole-Size Stands




     E.  Traffic Control




     F.  Cut Slopes




     G.  Roadway Filling




     H.  Correct Operating Procedures




     I.  Trenching




     J.  Construction Activity




     K.  Soil Stockpiling




     L.  Fencing




     M.  Fill




     N.  Paving




     O.  Drainage




IV   CORRECTIVE ACTION




     A.  Pruning




     B.  Treating Bark Damage




     C.  Compacted Soil




     D.  Fertilization




V    ORGANIC LITTER




VI   NECESSITY OF CORRECT PLANNING AND PROCEDURE




VII  REVIEW QUIZ
                           12-2

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INTRODUCTION

A.  Trees may appear not to be doing anything, but in

    reality they are constantly active, taking in food

    and water, giving up oxygen and taking in carbon dioxide

    and moving nutrients from one part of their systems

    to another.

B.  Not only do they provide shade, they also protect

    the soil from erosion, provide homes and food for

    wildlife, reduce the runoff after heavy rainfall,

    decrease the noise, slow down strong winds, and

    add to the beauty of an area.  They also enhance

    our  environment, by adding oxygen to the air,

    while consuming carbon dioxide during the process

    of growth.

C.  Parts of Tree

    1.  Roots anchor the tree firmly in place.  They

        take in water and minerals from the soil,

        through feeder roots, most of which are within

        18 inches of the ground surface.

        a.  Feeder roots  need oxygen to survive; they

            can easily be suffocated by fill, compaction,

            or asphalt.

        b.  The root system provides transportation routes
            for water and plant food.
        c.  Roots store food manufactured by the tree.

    2.  The trunk is primarily composed of dead cells;

        the trunk supports the tree and transports water.
                      12-3

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        a.   The inner bark,  or "cambium,"  is composed



            of living tissue and transports nutrients.



        b.   The cambium is especially fragile and can



            easily be damaged by careless  operation or



            fire.



        c.   Girdling, the removal of a continuous strip



            of bark all the way around the trunk, will




            cause  the tree to die.



        d.   Any damage to the outer bark allows disease-



            causing organisms and destructive insects



            to enter.  This leads to rot and decay.



    3.   The leaves use the water taken in by the roots,



        in combination with air and sunlight,to manu-



        facture food for the entire tree.



        a.   If many branches are removed from a tree,



            the entire tree may die, because it does



            not have enough leaves to make food for



            the whole tree.



D.  A stand is a community of trees having the same age



    and general appearance.  Most construction occurs in



    second-growth stands, which have grown up following



    logging, fire, or some other large-scale removal.




E.  Classification of Trees by Size



    1.   Seedlings  are trees whose height does not exceed



        four feet; while they are usually too small to



        consider in planning development,  they do serve



        to hold the soil.
                     12-4

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2.   Saplings are trees that are taller than four



    feet and have diameters up to five inches.



    Almost any of them may be selected for



    preservation.



3.   Pole-size trees have diameters ranging from



    five to eleven inches.



    a.  Growing in stands, they usually have



        small crowns and restricted root systems.



    b.  A tree's root system is roughly the same



        size as its crown.



    c.  They are therefore liable to suffer "wind-



        throw" when the protection of surrounding



        trees is removed.  "Wind throw" is the



        damage that results when trees are tipped



        or blown over by the wind.



    d.  Pole-size conifers are especially vulnerable



        to wind throw.



4.   Trees whose diameters measure between 11 and 16



    inches are often called "small sawtimber."



    Trees whose diameters exceed 16 inches are



    called "large sawtimber."



    a.  When selecting these trees for preservation,



        look for a well-developed crown, strong



        crotches, and a trunk without rot or decay.
                 12-5

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          5.   Veteran trees are older trees that usually



              exceed 24 inches in diameter.  Their root



              systems are large and cannot withstand the



              stresses of construction activity as well



              as younger trees can.






II    PLANNING FOR PRESERVATION OF TREES



      A.  Questions to Consider in Planning Stage



          1.   Which trees do I want to save?



          2.   What will those trees need to survive?



          3.   How am I going to get equipment in and out of




              the site?



          4.   Where am I going to put the earth I move?



          5.   Where am I going to store my supplies?



          6.   How can I protect the trees I want to save?



          7.   Are the trees I have selected going to be



              suited to this site once construction has



              been completed?



          8.   Will the trees be in harmony with the surrounding



              site development?



      B.  The proper development of a wooded site depends



          on the completion of an overall plan for the



          preservation of the trees before clearing and



          construction begins.



          1.   First, look over the entire area to find out



              where the most valuable trees are growing and



              where the most desirable building sites are



              found.




                           12-6

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    2.   Locate floodplains and areas of highly



        erodible soil or high groundwater.



    3.   Mark desirable tree stands and valuable



        individual trees on the site map, for the



        office personnel to assess in determining



        the layout of the site.



    4.   Areas that are valuable for their beauty,



        but undesirable for building or roadway



        construction should be left as natural or



        only partially improved open space.



C.  Selection of Individual Trees for Preservation



    1.   When considering a tree for preservation,



        keep in mind its age.  If it is past its



        prime, it may be unable to survive the



        stresses imposed by construction.



    2.   Some trees, such as white oaks, beeches,



        and maples, have longer life expectancies



        and can withstand the stress of development



        better than others, such as tulip poplars.



        Short-lived trees such as willows are also



        less desirable than longer-lived ones.



    3.   It may be better to save a smaller tree of a



        desirable species than a nearby larger one;



        not only will the younger tree live longer,



        it can withstand the shock of construction



        better, and if the older tree dies, the



        landowner ends up paying the high cost of



        having it removed.




                     12-7

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    4.   Examine the tree to see if  its  health is



        satisfactory.




        a.   Look for scarring caused by fire or



            lightning.



        b.   Make sure the tree is not growing from



            an old stump. This may  result in a weak trunk.



        c.   Inspect the tree for damage by insects



            or diseases.



        d.   Check for rotted trunks or limbs.



        e.   Check the tree for stuctural defects.



        f.   Large trees with severe overhangs that



            endanger life or property need pruning



            or removal.  If your knowledge of trees



            is limited, hire an expert to evaluate



            the trees.



D.  The size of individual lots must be large enough for



    the contractor to site the house properly and con-



    duct operations efficiently.  The smallest lot size



    for wooded-site development should be one-half acre



    or one-third acre at the very least, if you desire



    to protect the trees adequately.



E.  Roadways should be located so as to do the least



    damage to the more valuable stands.  Follow the



    ground contour as much as possible, to minimize



    cuts and fills.
                     12-8

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      F.   Provide a cleared strip of at least fifteen feet



          around a structure, to prevent serious root damage



          caused by excavation and to provide storage area



          and space for working, separate from the wooded



          area.



      G.   Position utility spurs to avoid damaging the roots



          of trees.



          1.  Plan to place as many utilities in one trench



              as possible, to minimize trenching.






Ill   CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES FOR PROTECTION OF TREES



      A.   Marking




          1.  On  clearings for roadways, mark the border



              of the area to be cleared with flags, paint,



              or fencing.



              a.  Use one color for trees to be removed and



                  another for trees to be saved.



              b.  Marking with paint is more permanent



                  and less subject to tampering.



              c.  Protect the trees outside the border



                  when you fell trees inside it.



              d.  Don't allow any traffic but essential



                  equipment in the protected areas.




      B.   Salvage




          1.  Large trees that are removed should be salvaged



              for timber.  Large limbs and smaller trunks can



              be cut up for firewood and stacked on the site.
                           12-9

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    2.   Woodchippers are useful for processing



        smaller trees and branches.  The woodchips



        are useful for erosion control or for



        mulch for woody plants.



C.  Stump cutting machines are best for removing



    stumps, except where foundations are being



    excavated.




    1.  Removing stumps by blasting or dozing



        exposes more soil to erosion and does



        more damage to adjacent trees.  But for



        roadways and building foundation areas,



        the conventional techniques are still



        necessary.



D.  Pole-Size Stands



    1.  Because of their limited root systems,



        the individual trees depend upon their



        neighbors for protection.



    2.  If too many are removed, the remaining



        trees are liable to topple during heavy



        winds.



    3.  Because their bark is thin, the rapid



        changes in temperature that result from



        exposure to direct sunlight and wind may



        cause serious bark damage.



    4.  Leave clumps of trees rather than individual



        ones.  As the trees mature they can be



        thinned out, leaving the best ones room



        to grow.



                    12-10

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E.  Traffic Control



    1.  When grading begins, traffic control becomes



        vital.



    2.  When access routes are necessary, locate



        them so as to do the least amount of damage.



    3.  Careless operators damage or destroy many



        trees.  To avoid root and trunk damage,



        construction traffic must be confined to



        the right-of-way.



F.  Cut Slopes



    1.  Along major routes where cut slopes are large,



        provide a fifteen foot wide cleared zone in



        back of the slope.



    2.  For less severe cut slopes in residential




        areas, cribbings can help save valuable



        trees.



G.  Roadway Filling



    1.  Roadway gradings can alter the natural



        moisture of the soil.



        a.  A cut slope placed too close to a



            treeline may lower the moisture table.



            A drop in the moisture table of only



            six inches may kill trees.



        b.  Roots exposed on the slope can cause




            "water piping."  Water flows along the



            roots, and removes soil.

-------
        c.   The roots that are not exposed take



            up moisture that the grasses need to



            grow.



        d.   Trees  left too close to the edge of a



            cut may shade the slope,  thus preventing



            a dense ground cover from developing.



            This results in increased erosion.



        e.   Further erosion occurs when water drips



            off the leaves or branches.  To prevent



            damaging sheet erosion, provide a fifteen



            foot wide cleared zone in back of a large



            cut, or cribbing along less severe cut



            slopes.



G.  Roadway Filling



    1.  Roadway filling can cause problems.



        a.   It may impound water, preventing feeder



            roots from obtaining oxygen, thereby



            causing damage to trees.



        b.   It also causes damage when it covers



            the feeder roots of a tree.



    2.  Do not fill beneath the crown of a tree, as a



        general rule.



    3.  In all cases, provide a minimum cleared zone



        of fifteen feet, to prevent the fill from



        covering the feeder roots.
                    12-12

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    4.  Good surface drainage at the base of the



        fill will prevent excessive soil moisture.



H.  Correct Operating Procedures



    1.  Operators should stay within the right-of-




        way.



    2.  Watch where you swing backhoes and other



        high-profile equipment.



    3.  Striking the bucket against  a  tree causes



        severe damage to the bark.



I.  Trenching



    1.  Try to keep trenching outside the crown of



        the tree.  A narrow trench that cuts the



        feeder roots off from the rest of the tree



        can destroy a tree as quickly as a fifty-foot



        roadway cut.



    2.  Because the feeder roots are close to the



        ground surface, a trench only eighteen



        inches deep can inflict major damage.



    3.  When a utility spur leading to a home cannot



        be relocated to avoid major root damage from



        trenching, tunnel the utility under the feeder



        roots of the tree.  Special equipment for



        doing this is available.



J.  To avoid damage to the roots, keep all construction



    activity outside the dripline of the crown  (the



    outward extent of the major portion of the feeder



    roots).






                    12-13

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K.  Soil Stockpiling



    1.  Soil not needed for foundation backfilling



        should be removed from the site.



    2.  The remaining soil must be placed where



        it will cause the least damage.  Scattering



        the soil in small piles, away from the trunks



        of trees, minimizes damage.



L.  To provide maximum protection, place fencing at



    the dripline around the trees that you want to



    preserve.  This rule also applies to clumps of



    trees.-



    1.  Fencing can be used to mark the limit of



        clearing.



M.  Fill



    1.  Grading and excavation should be kept outside



        the dripline of any tree you wish to protect.



    2.  Most trees will tolerate up to six inches



        of fill, but additional fill will cause



        damage.  Tulip poplars are particularly



        susceptible.



    3.  When filling to a depth of more than six



        inches is necessary, construct a tile and



        porous stone well.



        a.  Place the tile and porous stone on the



            ground out to the dripline.
                     12-14

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              b.   Cover with fill,  leaving an open well



                  around the trunk.   The well will allow



                  air to circulate  to the root zone under



                  the fill.



      N.   Do not place paving underneath the crown of a



          tree.   Asphalt and concrete paving cut off the



          supply of oxygen and moisture, resulting in




          serious damage.



      0.   Failure to provide adequate surface and subsurface



          drainage is also a cause  of tree damage.  Proper



          grading practices  help, but tile drains may also



          be needed, if the  problem is below the surface.






IV    CORRECTIVE ACTION



      A.   When major root or bark damage occurs, remove some



          foliage to reduce  the demand for nutrients and



          water.   This operation is called "crown pruning."



          1.  In time, as the damage heals, more foliage



              will grow back.



      B.   To treat bark damage, remove all loosened bark



          from around the wound, provide drainage at the



          base of the wound, and apply a proper wound



          dressing to the damaged area.



      C.   If the soil has become compacted, aerate the



          ground, by punching holes with an iron bar.
                          12-15

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          1.  Drive the bar a foot deep and then move



              it back and forth until the surrounding



              soil is loosened.



          2.  Repeat this procedure every eighteen



              inches, until all the compacted soil



              beneath the crown of the .tree has been



              loosened.



      D.  Fertilization



          1.  Fertilization helps trees recover from the



              stress imposed by construction activities.



          2.  To fertilize a tree, punch holes at regular



              intervals into the ground inside the dripline



              of the tree, then fill the holes with a



              recommended fertilizer such as 16-8-8.






V     ORGANIC LITTER



      To preserve a natural setting of trees, make sure



      the cover of organic litter or mulch is adequate.



      It holds water, protects the roots, returns nutrients



      to the soil, and reduces erosion.





VI    NECESSITY OF CORRECT PLANNING AND PROCEDURE



      A.  Trees damaged by improper construction activity



          die slowly.  It may take three years or more



          for a damaged tree to die.



      B.  Severe root damage caused by improper grading



          can easily be hidden  during final grading.  The
                          12-16

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    homeowner may not discover this damage for



    several years.



C.  To a homeowner, few things are more distressing



    than paying thousands of dollars more for a



    wooded lot, only to discover a few years later



    that he will have to pay more money to have



    these cherished trees removed, or risk major



    property damage and, possibly, loss of life.
                    12-17

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                 Questions  1
Circle the correct answer or answers.
1.   Trees .  .  .

    a.  take in  food and water.
    b.  exchange nitrogen for helium.
    c.  move nutrients from one part of their system to another.

2.   Trees .  .  .

    a.  cause destructive erosion.
    b.  provide  homes and food for wildlife.
    c.  reduce the runoff after heavy  rainfall.
    d.  decrease surface water infiltration.
    e.  slow down winds.
    f.  add to the beauty of an area.

3.   Trees .  .  .

    a.  enhance  our environment.
    b.  add oxygen to the air.
    c.  consume  carbon monoxide.

4.   The root system . .  .

    a.  anchors  the tree firmly in place.
    b.  pumps water and minerals from  the tree into the soil.
    c.  is impossible to suffocate.
    d.  transports vital materials from the feeder roots to
        other parts of the tree.
    e.  stores food manufactured by the tree for later use.
                             12-18

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 5.  T or F     Trunks have little to do with the well-being

     of trees.

 6.  The wood inside the trunk.  .  .

     a.   supports the tree.
     b."  transports mostly minerals.

 7.  The inner bark, or "cambium,"

     a.   transports nutrients.
     b.   is hard to damage.

 8.  T or F    If you remove a continuous strip of bark all the
     way around the trunk the tree will continue its formal development.
 9-   Damage to the cambium

     a.   allows  diseases  and pests  to  enter.
     b.   leads to  rot .and decay.

10.  T or F    iT-e leaves consume food manufactured elsewhere in the tree.


 Complete the following sentences by filling  in  the  blanks:



 1.   Most construction occurs in	stands.

 2.   	are the youngest trees (less than 4 feet tall).

 3.   	, which are taller than four feet, have diameters
     up to five  inches.  Almost any of them may be selected for preservation,

 4.	trees have diameters ranging from five to
     eleven inches.  As a result of their small root systems, these trees
     often suffer	.

 5.   Trees whose diameters measure between 11 and 16 inches are called
 6.  Trees whose diameters measure between 16 and 24 inches are called
 7.  When selecting mature trees for preservation, look for a well developed
    	, strong	__, and a	without rot
    or decay.

 8.  	trees usually exceed 24 inches in diameter.  They
    are often over-mature.

                                12-19

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                  Questions   2
 Mark each statement True  or False.
 1.  	   Before beginning a project you should decide  which trees
                you want  to save.

 2.  	   Each different piece of equipment should use  its own
                access road.

 3.  	  You should decide ahead of time where to put  earth and
                where to  store supplies.

 4.  	  The proper development of a forested site depends on
                waiting until construction begins, to see what steps
                should be taken.

 5.  	  First the planner should look over the entire area, to
                find out  where the most valuable trees are growing and
                where the most desirable trees are found.

 6.  	  Areas that are valuable for their natural  beauty, but
                undesirable for building or roadway construction, should
                be left as natural or only partially improved open space.

 7.  	  Trees should be left to provide shade, whether or not
                they will survive construction.

 8.  	  White oaks, beeches, and maples adapt poorly  to the
                stress of development.

 9.  	  Tulip-poplars adapt poorly to the stress of development.


10.  	  In selecting a tree for preservation, a planner should
                inspect it for damage by insects or diseases, should
                check for rotted limbs or trunks, and should  look for
                structural defects.

11.  	  The smallest lot size for wooded site development is one
                acre.

12.	  It is better to rely on deep cuts and long fills than to
                follow the ground contour as much as possible.

13.  	  Providing a cleared strip of at least fifteen feet around
                a structure will  help prevent serious root damage caused
                by excavating the foundation.

 14. 	  The positioning of utility spurs does not effect trees.


                               12-20

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              Questions   3
Circle the correct answer or answers.
1.   If you're going to clear  woods for roadways,  mark
    the border of the area to be cleared

    a.  with flags, paint, or fencing.
    b.  with lime.

2.   When you fell trees inside  the border, be careful
    to protect the. trees

    a.  inside the border.
    b.  outside the border.
    c.  inside and outside the  border.

3.   When you clear selected trees mark

    a.  all the trees with the  same color
    b.  the trees to be saved with one color, and the
        the trees to be cleared with another color.

4.   Large trees that are removed should be salvaged

    a.  for timber.
    b.  for woodchips.

5.   Stump cutting machines are  best for removing  stumps

    a.  where foundations are being excavated.
    b.  where roadways will be  located.
    c.  except for roadways and building foundation  areas,

6.   T or F  Pole-size trees should be left as individuals.
                         12-21

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 7.   Access routes

     a.  can be left to the  discretion of the operators.
     b.  should be located so  as  to do the least amount
         of damage.
     c.  can be ignored,  if  the operator wants to drive
         through a wooded area you hope to protect.

 8.   T or F   Along major routes where cut slopes are larae, provide
     a fifteen-foot wide cleared zone in back of the cut.
 9.  Roadway filling

     a.  cannot harm  the  feeder roots of a tree.
     b.  should not be  allowed beneath the crown of a
         tree.

1O.  In all cases where filling is being done provide

     a.  a minimum clear  zone of fifteen feet to prevent
         the fill from  covering the feeder roots.
     b.  underground  drainage tiles
                            12-22

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              Questions  4
Mark each  statement true or false.
1. 	  Operators should stay within the right-
               of-way.

2. 	  Striking the bucket against the tree
               causes severe damage to the bark.

3. 	  You should try to keep trenching outside
               the crown of the tree.

4. 	  When a utility spur leading to a home
               cannot be relocated to avoid major root
               damage from trenching, you should tunnel
               the utility under the feeder roots of the
               tree.

5.	  All construction activity should be kept
               outside the dripline of the crown.

6. 	  Soil that is needed on the site should be
               placed where it will cause the least damage,
               preferably scattered in small piles.

7. 	  To provide maximum protection, place fencing
               at the dripline around the trees that you want
               to preserve.

8. 	  Grading and excavation should be kept outside
               the dripline of any tree you wish to protect.

9. 	  When filling to a depth of more than six
               inches is necessary, construct a tile and
               porous stone well.
                         12-23

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10.  	  Do not place paving underneath the
                 crown of a tree.

11.  	  Tile drainage may be necessary, where
                 there is a subsurface drainage problem
                 resulting in inadequate surface and
                 subsurface drainage.
 Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks:
 1.  When major root or bark damage occurs, remove some
     	 to reduce the demand for nutrients and water,

 2.  To treat bark damage, remove all loosened
     from around the wound, provide 	 at the base
     of the wound, and apply a proper 	
     to the damaged area.

 3.  If the soil becomes compacted, aerate the ground by
     	 	 with an iron bar.
     Drive the bar a foot deep and then move  it
     back and forth, until the surrounding soil is 	.
     Repeat this procedure every 	 inches, until
     all the compacted soil beneath the crown of the tree
     has been loosened.

 4.  	 is another maintenance procedure that helps
     trees recover from the stress imposed by construction
     activities.  To 	 a tree, punch holes at
     regular intervals in the ground inside the 	
     of the tree.  Then fill the holes with a recommended
 5.  To preserve a natural setting of trees, make sure the
     cover of 	 	 is adequate.

 6.  Trees damaged by improper construction activity usually die
      	.   (rapidly? slowly?)
                            12-24

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             Questions   5
Each of  the following sentences contains one  error.  Write
the letter in the blank that corresponds to  the part of
the statement that is incorrect.
         The roots absorb minerals and water  from the soil,
                                       A
   transport these nutrients to the trunk, take in carbon
                   B                           C
   dioxide  from the air,  and release oxygen,  and store
                     C                          D
   important materials.
           D

   	 The trunk supports the crown,  transports material
                      A                      B
   between  the roots and  the crown, and  manufactures food
                  B                         C
   for the  whole tree.
3.  	 The  cambium  is  difficult to damage, and it does
                                A                  B
   most of  the work of transporting material  in the trunk.

4.  	 The inner wood moves upward as the  tree grows,
                                     A
   supports the crown,  and transports water.
        B                       C

5.  	 The leaves manufacture food for the whole tree and
                                    A
   contain  little or no living tissue.
                  B

6.        Seedlings are up to four feet high  and have no
                                .A               B
   effect on the amount of erosion.
                 B
                        12-25

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 7.  	 Saplings are smaller than seedlings and
                               A
    have diameters less than 5".
               B

 8.  	 Pole-size trees have diameters greater than 5"
                                                A
    but less than 11"; during clearing, they should be left
              B                         C
    as individuals.
          Sawtimber includes trees greater than 11";
                                          A
    sawtimber cannot withstand the stress of development.
                             B
1O.  	 Veteran trees are insensitive to the stress of
                                          A
    development; their trunks usually exceed 24" in diameter.
        A                                    B

11.  	 The proper development of a forested site depends
    mainly on seasonal conditions but also on the completion
                  A                               B
    of an adequate overall plan, before clearing and construction
                 B                              C
    begins.
       C

12.  	 First, look over the entire area to see whether
                               A                 B
    soil stabilization will be necessary, and to locate the
                     B                               C
    most valuable and desirable trees.
13. 	 Areas that are valuable for their natural beauty,
    but undesirable for building and roadway construction
    should be cleared or left as natural or only partially
                 A                      B
    improved open space.
             B

14. 	 When considering a tree for preservation, consider
    its age, species, health, need for fertilizer, size, and
        ~A~~     B       C             D              E
    structural defects, if any.
                F
                           12-26

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15. 	 Trees that adapt well to the stress of construction
    include white oaks, tulip-poplars,  maples, and beeches.
                 ABC            D

16. 	 Home lots in wooded areas should be at least
    one-half acre,  or one-eighth acre,  at the very least.
         A                          B

17. 	 After construction begins locate the roadways,
                       A                           B
    utilities,  homesites, and other features so as to do
        C                   D
    the least damage to the more valuable stands.
           E
 Mark each statement true or false.


 1.  	  Before clearing  wooded areas,  trees should
                 be marked clearly to distinguish between
                 valuable trees for  preservation, and
                 undesirable trees,  for removal.

 2.  	  Trees which have been removed should be
                 promptly burned.

 3.  	  The stump-cutter should be used for removing
                 stumps  only as a last resort.

 4.  	  Badly damaged or diseased trees should be
                 left alone .
                 Generally,  trees located within fifteen feet
                 of a structure  should be removed.
                 Fencing around the dripline of trees helps
                 protect them from construction activities.

                 Pruning, root aeration,  treating wounds,  and,
                 fertilization, do little to help a tree recover
                 from injuries or the stresses  imposed by  con-
                 struction activities.

                 When trees are injured beyond  repair, you
                 should remove them promptly , rather than
                 hide the damage and leave them to die later.
                          12-27

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EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
 FOREMAN - INSPECTOR
   RESPONSIBILITIES
        WORKBOOK

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  CONTENT






  I.  ROLES OF THE FOREMAN AND INSPECTOR



      A.  The Foreman



      B.  The Inspector



 II.  FOREMAN-INSPECTOR TEAM



      A.  Responsibilities



          1.  General



          2.  Preparation



              (a)  Know the law



              (b)  Have working knowledge of current



                   practices



              (c)  Know the plans



              (d)  Organize your activities



          3.  On-site evaluation and control



              (a)  Checking the implementation of plans



              (b)  Checking the performance of plans



          4.  Follow-up Action



          5.  Working with people



III.  SOCIAL CONTROL OR ENFORCEMENT



      A.  Enforce



      B.  Implement



 IV.  PUBLIC CONTRACT



  V.  REVIEW
                            13-1

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I.  ROLES OF THE FOREMAN AND INSPECTOR






    A.  The Foreman



        1.  Is a key man in the effective control of



            erosion and sediment.



        2.  Serves "as a first line of defense".



        3.  Has the best working knowledge of the site.



        4.  Must assume much of the responsibility for



            ensuring that the public's goal of control-



            ling erosion and sediment is accomplished.



    B,  The Inspector



        1.  Serves as a "back-up or reinforcement".



        2.  Has a better overall view of erosion and



            sediment control.



        3.  Is in the best position to objectively



            evaluate the total performance of the ero-



            sion and sediment control efforts on a site,



        4.  Must share the responsibility for ensuring



            that the public's goal of controlling ero-



            sion and sediment is accomplished.
                          13-2

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II.  FOREMAN-INSPECTOR TEAM - the role of the foreman and



     inspector cannot be viewed as separate.



     A.   Responsibilities



         1.   General - Field Implementation




             a.  Responsible for the "on-site" phase of



                 the erosion and sediment control program.



             b.  Responsible for making the vital link



                 between successful planning and effective



                 on-site control of erosion and sediment.



         2.   Preparation



             a.  Know the law.



                 (1)  Specialists must have a clear under-



                      standing of the laws, ordinances,



                      regulations, and procedures affect-



                      ing their activities.



                 (2)  Effective field implementation is



                      directly related to the knowledge of



                      the provisions of the laws and regu-



                      lations.



             b.  Have working knowledge of current practices



                 (1)  needed for proper implementation of



                      sediment control plans.




                 (2)  needed to solve on-site problems.
                          13-3

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c .   Know the plans.



    (1)   Foreman and inspector must be



         thoroughly familiar with the ac-



         tual sediment control plans and



         specifications for a project.



    (2)   Pay attention to the type, sched-



         uling, staging and location of



         practices detailed in the plan.




    (3)   V7hen possible, schedule an on-



         site meeting to review the plans



         in order to establish open com-



         munication and prevent needless



         misunderstanding.



d.   Organize your activities.



    (1)   Control practices require period-



         ic checking and maintenance.



    (2)   The foreman must plan and schedule



         time for sediment and erosion con-



         trol.



    (3)   The inspector must determine how



         many inspections he can make in



         an average day, and relate this



         figure to his total workload to es-



         tablish a regular return  interval.



         He may also plan for unexpected



         visits to vary his routine.







               13-4

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3.   On-site evaluation and control



    a.  Checking the implementation of plans.



        (1)  Determine if the approved erosion



             and sediment control plans and per-



             mits are being properly carried out.



        (2)  Should be a joint operation.



        (3)  Check the entire site.



        (4)  Visualize the measures shown on the



             plans.



             (a)  Is the scheduling and staging



                  of the plans being followed?



             (b)  Are the practices shown on the



                  plan installed as per design



                  and located properly?



             (c)  Are the practices shown on the



                  plan being adequately maintained?



    b.  Checking the performance of plans.



        (1)  During and after rainstorms the fore-



             man and inspector must check to see



             if there is any significant damage



             occuring off-site.



        (2)  If obvious deposits of sediment are



             visible off-site, significant damage



             is occuring and additional or im-



             proved control is necessary.
                   13-5

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        (3)   Watch the following activities:



             (a)   utility construction








             (b)   traffic control and storage



                  areas



           •  (c)   changes in the staging of a



                  project



4.   Follow-up action



    a.  Document on standard report forms the



        findings of inspections conducted.



    b.  Decisions should be made and recorded



        regarding action to be taken to cor-



        rect problems.



        (1)   Minor modifications and corrections



             can be made directly £>Y the field



             specialists.



        (2)   Major modifications or corrections



             will usually require additional re-



             view by the consultant for the pro-



             ject and the inspector's supervisor.



    c.  Sometimes official enforcement action is



        the only way of obtaining compliance with



        approved plans and permits.
                    13-6

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          5.  Working with people



              a.  Controlling people - learning how to



                  communicate with, educate, and gain



                  the cooperation of people.



              b.  The foreman needs to inform and train



                  his men in order to achieve effective



                  erosion control.



              c.  The inspector needs to make sure that



                  the foreman adequately understands



                  and carries out an effective sediment



                  control effort.



              d.  Both field specialists are really



                  "amateur psychologists".






III.   SOCIAL CONTROL OR ENFORCEMENT is a vital activity



      needed for the health, safety, and welfare of the



      people.  It is made up of two ideas:



      A.   Enforce



          1.  Refers to laws.



          2.  Implies the exercise of police power or



              force.



      B.   Implement




          1.  Action necessary to bring into effect some



              agreed-on plan or policy.




          2.  This idea is often ignored.
                            13-7

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IV.  PUBLIC CONTACT - putting into effect what everyone



     agreed to do in the first place.






     The foreman and inspector are "regulators", they



     have taken on the responsibility of making sure



     that the goals and objectives are met in the field,
                             13-8

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           QUESTIONS 1
                                      True or False








_1. The  inspector serves "as a first line of defense".






 2. The  foreman is a key man in the effective control



   of erosion and sediment.






 3. The  inspector has the best working knowledge of a



   site.






 4. The  inspector is in the best position to objective-



   ly evaluate the total performance of the erosion



   and  sediment control efforts on a site.






 5. The  foreman has a better overall view of erosion



   and sediment control.





 6. The  foreman serves as "a back up or reinforcement".
                     13-9

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                                      Multiple Choice
1.  The effectiveness of an erosion and sediment control
    program depends upon:

    a.  planners.
    b.  consultants and technical specialists.
    c.  citizens and elected officials.
    d.  field specialists.
    e.  all of the above.
    The responsibility for preparation includes:

    a.  knowing the law.
    b.  having working knowledge of current practices.
    c.  knowing the plans.
    d.  organizing your activities.
3.  Knowing the law means that a field specialist must
    have a clear understanding of 	 affecting
    their activities.

    a.  laws
    b.  ordinances
    c.  regulations
    d.  procedures
    e.  all of the above
    Having a working knowledge of current practices is
    needed:

    a.  for proper implementation of sediment control
        plans.
    b.  to solve on-site problems.
    c.  both a and b.
    d.  none of the above.
                                      anAwe.fi (A }
                        13-10

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                QUESTIONS 3
                                        Multiple Choice








1.  Checking the implementation of plans includes:



    a.   checking the entire  site.



    b.   visualizing the'measures shown on the plans.



    c.   determining if the approved plans and permits



        are being properly carried out.



    d.   foreman and inspector working together.
2.  For effective erosion and  sediment control, practices



    must be installed:



    a.  any time.



    b.  at the proper time.



    c.  at the beginning.
3 .   In checking the performance  of plans one should



    watch:



    a.  utility construction.



    b.  traffic control.



    c.  changes in staging.
                          13-11

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                QUESTIONS 4
                                        Fill in the blanks







1.  	 modifications and corrections can



    usually be made directly by  the field specialists.





2.  Sometimes official  e	 action is the only



    way of obtaining compliance  with approved plans and



    permits.





3.  By 	 people, we really mean learning



    how to c	 with,  e	, and gain



    the cooperation of  people.





4.  The word 	 refers to laws and implies



    the exercise of police  power or force.





5.  By implementing, we mean action to bring into effect



    some agreed upon 	.





6.  A public c	 involves putting into effect



    what everyone agreed  to do in the first place.
                          13-12

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                                        Fill in the blanks








1.  The 	 serves "as the first line of defense".





2.  The 	 serves "as the back up of reinforce-



    ment" .





3.  The 	 has a better overall view of the prob-



    lems and conditions in the area.





4.  The 	 has the best working knowledge of a



    site.





5.  The responsibility of preparation includes:



    a.  Know 	



    b.  Have 	



    c.  Know 	



    d.  Organize 	
6.  The responsibility of on-site evaluation includes:



    a.  Checking the i	 of plans.



    b.  Checking the 2	 °f plans.





7.  When checking performance one should watch  out for  the



    following activities:



    a.  	 construction.



    b.  	 control.



    c.  Changes in 	.





                           13-13

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 8.  M	   modification will usually require



     additional review by the consultant for the project



     and the inspector's supervisor.





 9.  Sometimes official e	 action is the only



     way of obtaining compliance with approved plans and



     permits.





10.  By 	 people, we really mean learning



     how to communicate with, 	, and gain



     the c	 of people.





11.  In order to achieve effective erosion control, the fore-



     man needs to i •	 and t	 his



     men, and the inspector needs to make sure the 	
     understands and carries out an effective sediment control



     effort.






12.  The word enforce refers to 1	 and implies



     the exercise of p_	 p_	 or



     force.






13.  By i	 we mean action necessary to bring into



     effect some agreed upon p	.
                            13-14

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                              TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                        (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
 1 REPORT NO.

  EPA-6QQ/8-76-Q01b
                         2.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
  Erosion and Sediment  Control
  Audiovisual Training  Program Instructor's
    Workbook
                                           6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
                                                  3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION1 NO.
                                           5. REPORT DATE
                                             June 1976
7. AUTHOR(S)
  Thomas R. Mills; Michael  A.  Nawrocki; Gregg  R.
  Squire;  Homer T. Hopkins;  Michael L. Clar
                                                  8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  Hittman Associates,  Inc.
  Environmental & Geosciences Department
  9190 Red Branch Road
  Columbia, Maryland   21045
                                           10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                             1BC611  PEMP  03
                                           11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
                                              S-800854
                                              Project No. 5800854
 12. SPONSORING AGENCY MAME AND ADDRESS
 and
Office of  Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington,  D.C.   20460
Water Resources.Administration, State  of
Maryland,  Annapolis, Maryland  21401	
                                                  13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                                     Final Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE

    EPA-ORD
 15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
  Prepared in cooperation with the Water Resources  Administration,
  State of Maryland
 16. ABSTRACT & series' of technical presentations and  a certification plan  foi
  erosion and sediment control specialists are presented.   Thirteen
  lessons complete with visual aids, student handouts  and  audiovisual
  handouts consisting of  slides, vidiotape and tape narration, workbooks
  and instructor's manuals  are developed.  These materials are designed to
  provide an effective education program for qualifying construction per-
  sonnel and others to pass a certification examination.   The list of the
  lessons  is as follows:
  1.   Goals, Objectives and Principles of Erosion  and  Sediment Control
  2.   Soils
  3.   Rainfall-Runoff Relationships
  4 .   Erosion and Sedimentation
  5.   Plant Materials
  6.   Control of Runoff During Construction
  7.   Vegetative Soil Stabilization
  8.   Stream Erosion Control
  y.   Temporary Soil Stabilization
 10.   Control of Sediment Generated on Construction Sites
 11.   Erosion and Sediment  Control Planning
 12.   Wooded Site Development
 13.   Foreman-Inspector Responsibilities
 7.
                           KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
               DESCRIPTORS
                                      b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                                                      c. COSATI Field/Group
   Erosion Control
   Sediment Control
   Education
                                Sediment Control
                                Construction  Related
                                  Erosion
                                Technical Presen-
                                  tation
              05 I
              13 B
 B. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
 Release Unlimited
                                19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
                                 Unclassified
           21. NO OF PAGES
               85
                                      20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
                                        Unclassified
                                                             22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)

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