VIRUSES IN WASTE,
RENOVATED,
AND OTHER WATERS
Editor: Gerald Berg, Ph.D.
Editorial Assistant: F. Dianne White
1972
VIROLOGY SECTION
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO
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1972
VIRUSES IN WASTE, RENOVATED, AND OTHER WATERS
Ahmed, T. M. A. (1972). Effect of Ultraviolet Irradiation on Chlorine
Residuals in Polluted Waters. BIOCHEM J, 128(1):39.
More than 50 samples of river water, polluted with sewage and industrial
wastes containing high concentrations of suspended solids and dissolved
impurities, were chlorinated and exposed to ultraviolet irradiation for six
hours. About 60% of the chlorine dissipated in the first two hours. Less
chlorine was lost at the greater depths. A reduction in pH level accompanied
the chlorine loss.
Andriashvili, I. A., Tikhonenko, T. I., Gushchin, B. V. (1971). Isolation,
Concentration, Purification and Biological Properties of Enteric Phages. VOPR
VIRUSOL, 16(9-10):532-4. Russian.
Five phages of the Fl series were recovered from sewage on Escherichia
coli K12F+. The phages were serologically unrelated to phages of the T and DD
series. A method was developed for concentrating and purifying the phages.
Babov, D. M., Gubenko, L. T., Muromtseva, A. A., Yarotskaya, N. E. (1971).
Enterovirus Grculation in the Environment and Among the Population of
Odessa. HYG & SANIT, 36(3):388-91.
Summary appeared in 1971 edition of these abstracts. The paper was
published originally in GIG SANIT, 36:54-7(1971).
Bagdasaryan, G. A., Abieva, R. M. (1971). Survival of Enteroviruses and
Adenoviruses in Water. HYG & SANIT, 36(3):333-8.
Summary appeared in 1971 edition of these abstracts. The paper was
published originally in GIG SANIT, 36: 10-14(1971).
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Bell, J. A. (1972). Viruses and Water Quality. J AMER MED ASSOC,
219(121:1628.
The hazard presented by viruses in sewage and water, the effectiveness of
treatment processes in removing them, and the development of detection
methodology are discussed.
Bricout, F. (1972). Viral Infections: Dissemination and Epidemiology. NOUV
PRESSEMED,!: 1643-7. French.
The roles of water, food, and contact are discussed in a general review of
viral epidemiology.
Calabro, J. F., Cosenza, B. J., Kolega, J. J. (1972). Bacteriophages Recovered
From Septage. J WATER POLLUT CONTRL FED, 44(12):2355-8.
Two morphological phage forms were recovered from septage, one a
short-tailed variety that infected Gtrobacter freundii, Escherichia coli, and
cell-wall mutants of Salmonella typhimurium, and the other a long-tailed
variety specific for Shigella flexneri. Only rough host strains were susceptible.
Concentrations of linear alkyl sulfonate normally occurring in septage
did not effect the phage noticeably.
Cerkinskij, S. N., Trahtman, IM. (1972). The Present Status of Research on the
Disinfection of Drinking Water in the USSR. BULL WHO, 46(2): 277-83.
Recent research in the USSR aimed at evaluating methods for
disinfecting drinking water and at determining the mechanisms of microbial
inactivation are reviewed. The advantages and disadvantages of chlorine, ozone,
and gamma irradiation are discussed, as are their effects on Enterobacteriaceae
and on enteroviruses.
Cherkinsky, S. N., Lovtsevich, E. L., Ryabchenko, V. A. (1971). The Sanitary
Significance of Escherichia coli in Various Conditions of Water
Decontamination in Respect to Enteroviruses. HYG & SANIT, 36(3):329-33.
Summary appeared in 1971 edition of these abstracts. The paper was
published originally in GIG SANIT, 36: 7-10(1971).
Cliver, D. O., Herrmann, J. E. (1972). Proteolytic and Microbial Inactivation of
Enteroviruses. WATER RES, 6(6):797-805.
Some enteroviruses are sensitive to proteolytic enzymes. Coxsackievirus
A9 was inactivated by proteolytic bacteria, notably by Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. This inactivation could be distinguished from adsorption or
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aggregation of the virus particles. 14C label from the viral coat protein, but not
32P from the viral nucleic acid, was taken up by the bacterial cells.
Dardanoni, L. (1971). Circulation of Wild Polioviruses. ANN SCLAVO,
13(5-6):353-6l. Italian.
Circulation of wild polioviruses in Italy was greatly leduced by the mass
vaccination programs with attenuated poliovaccines which began in 1964.
Besides the dramatic reduction in reported cases of paralytic
poliomyelitis, a great reduction in poliovirus recovery from man and sewage
occurred.
DiGirolamo, R., Liston, J., Matches, J. (1972). Effects of Irradiation on the
Survival of Virus in West Coast Oysters. APPL MICROBIOL, 24(6): 1005-6.
Poliovirus 1 survived 400 krads of gamma radiation from a cobalt source
in whole and shucked oysters. From 7 to 13% of the virus survived this dose.
Taste tests with shellfish that had undergone 400 krads of irradiation
revealed that the oysters had undergone organoleptic changes that had
rendered them unpalatable.
DiGirolamo, R., Wiczynski, L., Daley, M., Miranda, F. (1972). Preliminary
Observations on the Uptake of Poliovirus by West Coast Shore Crabs. APPL
MICROBIOL, 23(1): 170-1.
West Coast shore crabs (Pachygrapsus sp. and Hemigrapsus sp.), when in
seawater contaminated with poliovirus 1 or when allowed to feed on
virus-contaminated mussels (Mytilus californianus), accumulated large amounts
of the virus.
DiGirolamo, R., Wiczynski, L., Daley, M., Miranda, F., Viehweger, C. (1972).
Uptake of Bacteriophage and Their Subsequent Survival in Edible West Coast
Crabs After Processing. APPL MICROBIOL, 23(6): 1073-6.
Edible West Coast crabs (Cancer magister and Cancer antennarius), when
in seawater contaminated with coliphage T4, accumulated large amounts of the
virus.
From 2.5 to 20% of coliphage T4 survived boiling for varying periods in
contaminated crabs.
Heat penetration studies showed that, although internal temperature in
the crabs was sufficient to inactivate the virus, the processing times normally
used to cook crabs were not. These results suggest that processed crabs may
serve as vectors for the dissemination of virus diseases if the crabs are harvested
from a polluted area.
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Dragan, L. P., Goregliad, IM. I. (1972). Distribution of Adenoviruses Among the
Population of Kiev in 1967-70, Based on Studies of Sewage. MIKROBIAL
ZH, 34(1-21:49-50. Translation presently not available. Ukrainian.
Ellender, R. D., Morton, F., Whelan, J., Sweet, B. H. (1972). Concentration of
Virus from Water by Electro-Osmosis and Forced-Flow Electrophoresis. H.
Improvement of Methodology and Application to Tap Water. PREP BIOCHEM,
2(3): 215-28.
A modified electroosmosis (EO) method was devised for concentrating
viruses from distilled and tap waters. Selective membranes, which allow high
rate water transport, demonstrated the importance of membrane technology to
the EO procedure. The other modifications added were only secondary
contributory factors.
With the technic as developed thus far, poliovirus 1, seeded into distilled
or tap water at levels as low as 0.01 PFU/ml, was recovered. Reovirus, seeded at
a level of 0.1 PFU/ml, was recovered. Physical concentration of diluent in all
experiments averaged 40-fold. Problems were encountered when
virus-containing tap water was concentrated, most likely, because of the high
content of dissolved impurities which may increase viral inactivation or
aggregation.
EO was more efficient than forced-flow electrophoresis as a dehydration
procedure. However, the turbulent anode back-fractionation method did allow
for an increase in the concentration of virus. Lower virus inputs may have
accounted for the decrease in virus recovery compared with that in our
previous studies where higher inputs were used.
Ellender, R. D., Sweet, B. H. (1972). Newer Membrane Concentration
Processes and Their Application to the Detection of Viral Pollution of Waters.
WATER RES, 6(6):741-6.
New classes of ultrafilter membranes (both cellulosic and synthetic
polymeric varieties) for concentrating viruses from distilled water were tested
in a model rapid flow, recirculating, thin channelized system under a positive
pressure gradient (osmotic or compressed gas). In contrast to the
adsorption-elution systems (membranes and polyelectrolytes), the method
depends upon rapid transport of water and low molecular weight substances
through the membrane and rejection of viruses and other high molecular
weight materials. Because of flow rates, turbulence factors, and membrane
properties, virus adsorption is minimized.
Polymeric membranes offer greater fluxes (dehydration rates) than
cellulosic membranes. In tests with up to 20 liters of distilled water, greater
than 50% recoveries of poliovirus 1 were obtained when virus inputs were 0.01
to 1 PFU/ml. Dehydration factors were 400X or greater. The reasons for virus
loss are not understood, but may involve adsorption factors associated with the
mechanical portions of the system.
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England, B. (1972). Concentration of Reovirus and Adenovirus from Sewage
and Effluents by Protamine Sulfate (Salmine) Treatment. APPL MICROBIOL.
24(3):510-12.
Protamine sulfate precipitated adenoviruses and reoviruses from sewage
and effluents. Bovine albumin increased the efficiency of recovery of these
viruses. The viruses were efficiently eluted from the precipitate with IN NaOH.
Eighty to 100% of exogenously added virus was recovered with this technic.
Most enteroviruses were recovered inefficiently or not at all by this method.
The protamine precipitation method was at best as effective as the
A1(OH)3 technic for recovering naturally occurring reoviruses from sewage and
effluents, but superior to the insoluble polyelectrolyte (PE60) and CaHPO4
adsorption methods.
Adenoviruses and reoviruses, frequently overgrown in plaque assays, were
more readily recovered by tube assay methods.
Ergasheva, L. E., Artykov, M. S., Hyinsky, I. I. (1972). Sanitary-Virologic
Features of Sewage in Certain Urban Sewerage Systems of Uzbek SSR. GIG
SANIT, 37(9):90-1. Translation presently not available. Russian.
Farley, C. A., Banfield, W. G., Kasnic, G., Jr., Foster, W. S. (1972). Oyster
Herpes-Type Virus. SCIENCE, 178(11):759-60.
A herpes-type virus infection, the first to be found in an invertebrate
animal, is reported in the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Intranuclear herpes-type
viral inclusions were more prevalent in the oyster at elevated water
temperatures of 28 to 30 C than at normal ambient temperatures of 18 to 20
C. The inclusions were associated with a lethal disease at the elevated
temperatures.
Foliguet, J.-M., Doncoeur, F. (1972). Inactivation of Enteroviruses and
Salmonella in Fresh and Digested Wastewater Sludges by Pasteurization.
WATER RES, 6(11): 1399-1407.
In laboratory studies with seeded viruses and bacteria, thermal treatment
of fresh and digested sewage sludges resulted in pasteurization. Reductions of
more than 99.99% of poliovirus 1 and more than 99% of coxsackievirus B3
were obtained at 80 C in 10 minutes. The heat-up time was less than 10
minutes. Even greater reductions of Salmonella paratyphi B were demonstrated
under these test conditions.
Francis, T. I., Wright, S. G., Onukogu, A. I., Okafor, E. E. (1972). Clinical and
Epidemiological Studies of an Epidemic of Jaundice in Aba and Onitsha, 1970.
W AFRICAN MED J, 21(4):43-6.
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Eighty-four cases of jaundice occurred in two towns in the East Central
State of Nigeria. Most of the cases were clinically compatible with infectious
hepatitis, but a small group of patients had symptoms suggestive of mild yellow
fever or other group B arbovirus infections, and a smaller group had hepatoma.
These clinical findings were confirmed by serological data.
Epidemiological data suggested that the infectious hepatitis outbreak was
waterborne.
Furuse, K., Watanabe, I. (1971). Effects of Ultraviolet Light (UV) Irradiation
on RNA Phage in H2 O and in D20.\l\ROLOGY, 46( 10): 171 -2.
The UV sensitivities of MS2 and Q/3 phages were slightly different in
H20 than in D2O. There was little difference between the UV sensitivities of
the whole phages and those of their RNA freed from coat proteins. Thus, the
coat proteins apparently did not protect the nucleic acids of these phages
against absorption of UV energy.
The inactivation of RNA phages by UV irradiation may be the result of
pyrimidine hydration and pyrimidine dimerization or to changes in RNA
configurations resulting from the secondary effects induced by hydration or
dimerization.
Garibaldi, R. A., Murphy, G. D. Ill, Wood, B. T. (1972). Infectious Hepatitis
Outbreak Associated with Cafe Water. HSMHA HEALTH REP, 87(2): 164-71.
In May, June, and July 1970, 95 cases of infectious hepatitis occurred
among residents of Polk County, Arkansas, and in surrounding counties in the
State and in Oklahoma. Of the 95 patients, about 80% had patronized a cafe in
Hatfield, Arkansas between mid-April and the end of July 1970. In a group of
470 area residents who had not been ill, only 19% had patronized the same
cafe.
Epidemiologic and laboratory evidence incriminated cafe water as the
most likely source of the epidemic. Of 78 hepatitis patients who had
patronized the cafe, 97% had drunk water as compared with 55% of 53 non-ill
patrons questioned. Although sanitary conditions inside the cafe appeared to be
excellent, the tap water was contaminated with coliform bacteria. Fluorescein
dye flushed down the toilet in the cafe appeared in the tap water 20 days later.
Lateral seepage of effluent from a septic tank through underground shale
fissures appeared to be the most likely route in contamination of the cafe
water.
The cafe was closed voluntarily by the proprietress in June, and
household contacts were treated with immune serum globulin. An
immunization campaign for area residents was carried out in July to reduce the
extent and severity of secondary spread.
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Gentry, R. F., Braune, M. O. (1972). Prevention of Virus Inactivation During
Drinking Water Vaccination of Poultry. POULTRY SCI, 51(41:1450-56.
Newcastle disease (ND) and infectious bronchitis (IB) drinking water
type vaccines secured at the time of field application had sufficient viable virus
to produce an immune response. IB vaccine with only 0.7 BID at the final
drinking water concentration stimulated an immune response in 4-week old
chickens.
IB virus titers were reduced in filtered tap water, both at room
temperature and in an ice water bath. ND virus titers were also markedly
reduced in filtered tap water at room temperature. Powdered skim milk
protected against inactivation.
One mg/liter of chlorine or quaternary ammonium sanitizer inactivated
ND, IB, and avian encephalomyelitis viruses. Skim milk neutralized the chlorine
and the quaternary ammonium salt.
Virus neutralization tests on serums from 34 field flocks vaccinated
against ND and IB without skim milk in the drinking water showed that 32%
had not responded to the ND vaccine and 44% were still susceptible to IB.
When skim milk had been added to the drinking water, all birds in 42 flocks
had an immune response to the ND vaccine and only 2 (4.8%) failed to respond
to IB vaccine.
The results indicated the value of adding skim milk to drinking water
used for vaccinating chickens.
Globa, L. I., Lastovets, L. M., Rotmistrov, M. N., Golub, N. F., Radolits'ka, L.
S. (1971). Adsorbing Materials for Virus Removal from Water. DOPOV AKAD
NAUK UKR SSR, Ser. B, 33:1036-8. Ukrainian.
Polygoskite, bentonite, aglaporite, vermiculite, permutite, pyrophillite,
gypsum, and silica gel adsorb viruses from water, and may be used for that
purpose prior to coagulation in water purification.
Globa, L. I., Lastovets, L. M., Rotmistrov, M. M. (1972). Ability of Minerals to
Adsorb Viruses from Water. MIKROBIOL ZH, 34(1-2):64-5. Translation
presently not available. Ukrainian.
Gloyna, E. F. Disease Transmission Control as a Factor in Pond Design. In
"Waste Stabilization Ponds," Chapter 5, WHO MONOGRAPH SER, 60 (1971),
93-108.
Treatment facilities are not yet designed specifically for removing viruses
and other pathogens, but more engineers and scientists are beginning to
recognize that there is a problem.
The removal of BOD without regard to the destruction of disease-causing
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agents is not enough. Pathogens must be destroyed in the wastewater treatment
plant or diluted to a negligible risk level in the environment.
Grabow, W. O. K., Nupen, E. M. (1972). The Load of Infectious
Micro-Organisms in The Waste Water of Two South African Hospitals. WATER
RES, 6(12): 1557-63.
Counts of microorganisms including pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and
parasite ova in the sewage of two hospitals were compared with those in city
sewage.
One of these hospitals is an isolation facility with stringent disinfection
procedures. Counts of all the organisms tested, except Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, were lower in the sewage of this hospital than in the sewage
effluent of the town in which it is located. The other hospital is a general
hospital with less stringent disinfection procedures. Counts of some organisms
were slightly higher in the sewage of this hospital than in the sewage effluent of
the city in which it is located.
Under normal conditions the wastewater of hospitals may need no
treatment before disposal into city sewers. The discharge of primary hospital
effluents into streams or their use for irrigation, however, should be considered
with care.
Gromashevsky, L. V. (1972). Evolution of Viruses and Viral Diseases. ZH
MIKROBIOL EPIDEM IMMUN, 12(12):48. Translation presently not
available. Ukrainian.
Grushko, Y. M. (1971). Non-Soviet Journals on Water Pollution. HYG &
SANIT, 36(2):251-3. (Same asProblems ofSanitary^Protection of Water Bodies
in the Pages of Foreign Journals, GIG SANIT, 36:73-5. Russian.)
This paper is a brief review of water pollution control literature,
including some dealing with the viral problem, published in non-Russian
journals.
Hall, M. W., Sproul, O. J. (1971). Water Quality and Recreational Land Use.
PUBLIC WORKS, 102(3):52-6.
The increased demand for water-based recreation creates problems for
water pollution control authorities. Degradation of surface waters by
water-borne pollutants originating in shore-side camps and homes has received
little attention. Disposal of treated wastewater which contains viruses and
soluble plant nutrients that may be transported farther through the soil than
organic materials and bacteria creates pollution problems for lakes and streams.
These problems are reviewed in some detail.
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Hill, W. F., Jr., Akin, E. W., Benton, W. H., Metcalf, T. G. (1972). Virus in
Water. II. Evaluation of Membrane Cartridge Filters for Recovering Low
Multiplicities of Poliovirus from Water. APPL MICROBIOL, 23(5):880-8.
Poliovinis 1, added in large numbers to 100 gallons of tap or estuafine
water containing 1,200 Mg Mg++/ml, were recovered completely in aMillitube
MF cartridge membrane filter. Four elutions of 250 ml each with 5 X nutrient
broth in 0.05 M carbonate-bicarbonate buffer at pH 9.0 recovered the virus
from the cartridge. When 20 to 40 PFU of virus were added to 100 gallons of
tap or estuarine waters, a two-step concentration procedure was used for virus
recovery. Concentration first by the Millitube MF cartridge procedure followed
by secondary concentration of the eluate by the two-phase polymer procedure
resulted in virus recoveries of up to 67%.
Jordan, F. T. W., Massar, T. J. (1971). The Influence of Copper on the Survival
of Infectious Bronchitis Vaccine Virus in Water. VET REC, 89(12): 609-10.
Infectious bronchitis virus (chickens) survived longer in waters that did
not have prolonged contact with copper pipes than in waters that did.
In laboratory experiments, the virus survived for more than six hours in
water that contained less than 0.02 mg/liter of Cu++ (as CuSO/O.but only for
two hours in similar water containing 0.2 mg/liter of Cu++. The addition of
iron filings (to displace the Cu++) to the water, or the addition of powdered
skim milk to a concentration of 0.1% increased virus survival time to at least
six hours.
Kiseleva, L. F. (1971). Survival of Polioviruses, Echoviruses, and
Coxsackieviruses in Food Products. VOPR PITAN, 30(11-12):58-61. Russian.
Enteroviruses survived for a long time in large numbers in tap water, milk,
sour milk products, and bread. Hence, food products contaminated with
enteroviruses may facilitate their spread among the population.
Konowalchuk, J., Speirs, J. I. (1972). Enterovirus Recovery from
Laboratory-Contaminated Samples of Shellfish. CAN J MICROBIOL,
18(7): 1023-9.
A sensitive reproducible method for recovering enteroviruses from the
supernatant fluids of centrifuged homogenates of laboratory-contaminated
shellfish meats is described. The supernatant fluids contained varying amounts
of toxic materials that interfered with coxsackievirus B5 recovery in HEP-2
cells.
Most of the cytotoxicity was removed by precipitation with hydrochloric
acid at pH 3.0 to 3.5. The acid-treated samples were diluted 1:4 in fetal bovine
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serum and then mixed with cell suspensions to adsorb the viruses which were
subsequently enumerated as plaques.
The method is applicable to oysters and especially to mussels and clams
because of the high cytotoxicity of these shellfish. Other methods for
concentrating sample fluids were also examined as a means for detecting
enteroviruses in naturally contaminated shellfish.
Korsh, L. E., Bagdasaryan, G. A., Vlodavets, V. V. (1972).
Sanitary-Microbiological Studies in the Prevention of Bacterial and Viral
Infection. VESTN AKAD MED NAUK SSR, 27(4):71-8. Translation presently
not available. Russian.
Kostenbader, K. D., Jr., diver, D. O. (1972). Poly electrolyte Flocculation as
an Aid to Recovery of Enteroviruses from Oysters. APPL MICROBIOL,
24(4): 540-3.
A simple, rapid method for recovering enteroviruses from oysters is
described. A polycation sewage flocculant promoted cohesion of oyster solids
and thereby aided separation of these from the viruses. The suspension or
extract obtained was inoculated directly into cell cultures or concentrated first
for greater sensitivity.
Recovery of 80 to 100% of experimentally inoculated virus was achieved.
Lautier, F., Lavillaureix, J. (1972). Recovery of Viruses From Polluted Waters,
Gty Sewage, and from Urban and Rural Sewage Treatment Plants. PATH
MICROBIOL, 38(1):64-5. French.
Sixty-four samples of sewage, seven of river water (111 River), and nine of
treated effluents, all from the city of Strasbourg, were tested for viruses by the
A1(OH)3 adsorption procedure. Enteroviruses were recovered from eleven of
the samples.
Lautier. F.. Wilenski, A., Lavillaureix, J. (1971). A Method for Detecting Viral
Particles in Polluted Waters. PATH MICROB4OL, 37:99-104. French.
Viruses were recovered from 100 ml volumes of sewage effluent by
adsorption onto A1(OH)3.
Lederc, H. (1971). Marine and Freshwater Pollution. REV INTERIM
D'OCEANOGR MED, 24:155-70. French.
Pollution of marine and fresh water environments by microbes is
discussed, with emphasis on Vibrio, Clostridium, Salmonella, Mycobacteria
and viruses. The risk of infection to humans and methods for the prevention of
microbial pollution are considered.
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Legier, F. (1972). Hygienic Problems in Swimmingand Camping Areas. OEFF
GESUNDHE1TSWES, 34(6).317-37. German.
Within a discussion of the sanitary requirements for swimming and
camping facilities, the transmission of virus diseases, including the transmission
of molluscum contagiosum and plantar warts, are noted.
Liebscher, S. (1970). Enteroviruses in Swimming Pool Water. Z GESAMTE
HYG, 16(3): 198-200. German.
Coxsackievirus B3 was recovered on HEP-2 cells from 20% of samples
taken from an outdoor swimming pool. The virus caused meningitis and
encephalitis in children. Bacteriological examinations of pool water disclosed
high concentrations of coliforms.
Application of 0.3 to 0.5 mg chlorine/liter is not adequate for swimming
pool disinfection.
Lindeman, S., Kott, Y. (1972). The Effect of Chlorination on Enteroviruses in
the Effluents of the Haifa Sewage Treatment Plant. ISRAEL J MED SCI,
Two hundred and fifty ml of Haifa sewage effluent was passed through
cellulosic membrane filters (0.45 /xm) and the filtrate, in turn, through an
alginate ultrafilter (10 nm). The ultrafilter was dissolved in 3.8% sodium citrate,
and viruses concentrated by this method were recovered by plaquing in primary
Cercopithecus aethiops kidney cell cultures. About 35 to 45 PFU of
viruses/ 100 ml of effluent was detected with this method as compared with
only 3 to 5 PFU/ 100 ml with alum flocculation.
When 8 mg/liter chlorine were applied to effluents for one hour, no
decrease occurred in virus numbers. However, after two hours of contact, virus
numbers were decreased.
Long, W. IM., Bell, F. A., Jr. (1972). Health Factors and Reused Waters. J
AMER WATER WORKS ASSN. 64(4):220-5.
In a discussion of the possible health hazards associated with the reuse of
renovated sewage, the virus problem is analyzed in some detail.
Lund, E. Inactivation of Viruses. In Proceedings of the 6th International
Conference on Water Pollution Research, June 1972. Pergamon Press Ltd.
A number of chemical and physical treatments may inactivate viruses.
Viruses may also become harmless spontaneously if kept outside proper cells
for a sufficiently long period.
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For most inactivation processes, we know little about the reactions
taking place. The virus genome may not be able to take command in a cell. The
virion may gain entrance into a cell, but fail to be stripped, or it may not get
into a cell at all, or, the infectious nucleic acid may truly become inactivated.
Spontaneous inactivation of the small RNA viruses is a slow process in
water at a temperature of 20 C or below. It is not an oxidation process. If it is
the same process as thermal inactivation, it works faster on the proteins than
on the nucleic acids. Heat-inactivated virus may contain infectious nucleic acid.
Viruses are inactivated faster at basic pH values. Alkaline inactivation
may be the result of a process similar to thermal inactivation and thereby be
one of protein denaturation, the result of splitting and uncoiling of proteins.
Spontaneous inactivation is accelerated in sea water. The virus
inactivating capacity of sea water seems bound to sea water, and is not found
in fresh water. Most workers point to one or more species of the marine
microflora, as the source of this inactivation. The nature of this process remains
essentially obscure.
Viruses are sometimes more easily detected in primary sludge than in the
water.
Chemical precipitation of sewage with calcium and aluminum salts may
remove viruses from naturally contaminated waters, but the virus is essentially
not inactivated. Contrary to what might be expected, virus may be
demonstrable even when the precipitate has been obtained at pH 10.5 to 11.0.
This must be considered in the disposal of sludge.
In what seems reasonable agreement both with the laws of physical
chemistry and results empirically determined, the rate of inactivation of viruses
by oxidizing disinfectants is dependent on oxidation potential.
Mack, W. N., Lu, Y. S., Coohon, D. B. (1972). Isolation of Poliomyelitis Virus
from a Contaminated Well. HEALTH SERV REP, 87(3):271-4.
The water supply of a large restaurant was implicated as a source of
infection in the illness of several patrons. A search for bacteria in the food and
water source of the restaurant did not uncover the responsible agent.
However, poliovirus 2 was recovered from five gallons of the restaurant's
well water concentrated by flocculation and ultracentrifugation.
Malherbe, H. (1971). Viruses in Water. S AFRICAN J SCI, 67(3)124-7.
The problem of viruses in sewage and water, particularly as it applies to
the Union of South Africa, and the effectiveness of treatment technics are
reviewed.
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Markov, A. P. (1972). Experience in the Sanitary-Virological Examination of
Waste Waters. GIG SANIT, 37(2):94-5. Translation presently not available.
Russian.
Marks, H. C. Residual Chlorine Analysis in Water and Waste Water. In "Water
and Water Pollution Handbook," Chapter 22, edited by L. Ciaccio.
Marcel-Dekker, New York, New York (1972), 1213-47.
The measurement of chlorine and its compounds in water and sewage are
reviewed in an extensive and detailed treatment of the subject.
Martin, A. E. (1972). Medical Considerations in the Abstraction of Potable
Waters from Polluted Sources. WATER TREAT & EXAM, 21(3):202-12.
In a general review of the problem of pollution of water supplies, the
need to protect against virus contamination of supplies, the means for doing so,
and the standards designed for that purpose are discussed.
Morris, J. C. (1971). Chlorination and Disinfection-State of the Art. J AMER
WATER WORKS ASSN, 63(12):769-74.
The state of the art of chlorination and disinfection with ozone,
bromine, iodine, and other halogen species is assessed. The virucidal
effectiveness of chlorine and some of its compounds is discussed. The relative
value of ozone and the other halogens in different need situations is explored.
Morse, L. J., Bryan, J. A., Hurley, J. P., Murphy, J. F., O'Brien, T. F.,Wacker,
W. E. C. (1972). The Holy Cross College Football Team Hepatitis Outbreak. J
AMER MED ASSOC, 219(6):706-8.
During a 15-day period in September and October 1969, an outbreak of
infectious hepatitis affected the members of a college football team. Of 97
persons exposed, 90 were infected. Thirty-two experienced typical icteric
disease, 22 were anicteric but symptomatic, and 36 asymptomatic players had
significantly elevated serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase values (>100
units). Other athletes, using the same facilities but arriving six days after the
established date of exposure, were unaffected.
The decision to obtain blood samples from the entire team as soon as the
initial cases were recognized resulted in the demonstration of an unexpectedly
high attack rate of 93%. Epidemiologic investigation revealed that an infected
group of children in the neighborhood, an imperfect drinking water supply, a
warm August day, a football team in training, and a local fire were links in the
chain which resulted in this most unusual outbreak of infectious hepatitis.
13
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Mosley, J. W. (1972). Viral Hepatitis: A Group of Epidemiologic Entities.
CAN MED ASSOC J , 106,(2)427-34.
This paper comprises a thorough sophisticated analysis and discussion of
viral hepatitis including waterborne infectious hepatitis.
Nestor, I., Gostin, L. (1971). Dissemination of Enteric Viruses in Urban Areas.
STUD CERCET IIMFRAMICROBIOL, 22(3):209-14. Rumanian.
Surveys carried out during the 1962-1969 period on the presence of
enteroviruses in sewage, rivers, and in water supplies in towns and in other
environments are summarized. Viruses were concentrated with ion exchange
resins, and with the Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and aluminum hydroxide
adsorption methods.
Nikolaevskaya, Z. S., Aizen, M. S. (1972). Detection of Minimal
Concentrations of Viruses in Large Volumes By Ultraflltration Through
Soluble Lanthanum-Aluminum-Alginate Ultraftlters. VOP VIRUSOLOGII,
6:723. Russian.
Double filtration through bacterial asbestos filters treated with 0.05%
aqueous sodium alginate followed by concentration by ultrafiltration through
soluble La-Al-alginate ultrafilters facilitated recovery of small amounts of
viruses from large volumes of water. The concentration factor was 400 to 500.
There appeared to be no loss of viruses.
With this method, enteroviruses and other cytopathic agents were
recovered from 37% of 1-liter effluent samples taken from a plant on the
Moskva River, and from 37% of 3-liter river water samples taken at Kalinin on
the Volga River
Okun, D. A. (1972). Safe Drinking Water. AM J PUBLIC HEALTH,
62(7):903-4.
Community drinking water supplies should be developed from the best
sources available to minimize the risk of transmission of viral and other
microbial diseases and to minimize the ingestion of toxic and other hazardous
substances.
Olifson, L. E., Baltenko, E. N., Bukharin, O. V., Pozhar, V. N., Turowets, G. L.
(1970). On the Feasibility of Comprehensive Utilization of Industrial and
Domestic and Fecal Effluents in a Mining Combine. HYG & SANIT,
35(12):412-13. (Same as Utilization of Industrial and Agricultural
Wastewaters, GIG SANIT, 35(12):92-4. Russian.)
Poliovirus 2, echovirus 7, and coxsackievirus B3 survived for three to 15
14
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days in acid (pH 2.0) and alkaline pH (11.0-13.5) industrialwastewaters from
mining and ore processing operations.
Palfi, A. B. (1971). Virus Content of Sewage in Different Seasons in Hungary.
ACTA MICROBIOL ACAD SCI HUNG, 18(4):23l-7.
Three hundred and seventeen viruses were recovered from 336 sewage
samples collected in Hungary in 1969. Sixty-two were polioviruses of vaccine
origin. Of the remaining 255 strains, 43% were reovirus 1, 21% were echovirus
7, and 18% were echovirus 11. These three virus types were prevalent
throughout the year. The other strains recovered were identified as
coxsackieviruses Bl, B3, and B4, andechoviruses 1, 6,12,14,19, and 20.
The greatest number of viruses were recovered in August. Fewer
recoveries were made during October, November, and September. The number
of recoveries was lowest in February and March, following compulsory
vaccination programs.
In 1968, reovirus 1, coxsackieviruses Bl and B3, and echoviruses 6 and 7
predominated.
Pana, A. (1971). Concentration of Enterovimses from Water by Adsorption on
Insoluble Polyelectrolytes. NUOVI ANN IG MICROBIOL, 22(11-12):4l5-27.
Italian.
The insoluble polyelectrolyte method yielded better virus recoveries
from surface water than the A1(OH)3 adsorption or alginate filter methods.
Pavoni, J. L., Tittlebaum, M. E., Spencer, H. T., Fleischman, M., Nebel, C.,
Gottschling, R. (1972). Virus Removal from Wastewater Using Ozone. WATER
& SEWAGE WORKS, 119(12):59-67.
Seeded coliphage f2 was stable in secondary effluent for at least five
hours, and was unaffected by flow or mixing in an ozone reactor.
The virus was inactivated completely in five minutes by a total ozone
dosage of approximately 15 mg/liter which left a residual of 0.015 mg/liter.
The rate of inactivation was greater for f2 phage than for bacteria.
Carbonaceous material reacted with ozone more slowly than the phage, also.
The mechanism of destruction of bacteria and viruses was probably oxidative.
Ozone may be a general cytoplasmic oxidant which causes cell lysis and the
release of soluble COD.
Standards for ozone use in wastewater are needed. Current disinfection
standards are concerned only with chlorine. The contact times and dosage
levels for chlorine are not applicable to ozone. Escherichia coli, presently the
only indicator of disinfection efficiency, cannot be used always as a virus
•indicator.
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Poduska, R. A., Hershey, D. (1972). Model for Virus Inactivation by
Qilorination. J WATER POLLUT CONTR FED, 44(5): 738-45.
A mathematical model to explain the process of virus inactivation by
chlorination has been developed and is based on the principles of first-order,
irreversible chemical kinetics for the reaction between chlorine and virus
particles in solution. The viruses studied were poliovirus 1 and coliphages f2
andMS2.
Inactivation is dependent on the time of contact between viruses and
chlorine, the concentration of chlorine, and the pH of the system. The process
is complicated by the clumping of viruses which results in a heterogeneous
inactivation system. Each of these factors was included in the model in order
to quantify the kinetics of inactivation.
In the mathematical analysis, the virus clump sizes were numbered from
1 to N, beginning with clump size 1. The model consists of N independent
exponential terms that describe the inactivation of each of the clump sizes in a
system. An inactivation rate constant is associated with each term, and
characterizes the rate of inactivation of each clump size.
Powers, E. L, Gampel-Jobbagy, Z. (1972). Water-derived Radicals and
Radiation Sensitivity of Bacteriophage 77. INTJ RADIATBIOL, 21(4):353-9.
Ethanol scavenging of -OH and -H in buffered, X-irradiated suspensions
of coliphage T7 saturated with either N2, N2 0, or 02 resulted in partial sparing
of the virus. In pure suspension, therefore, some of the inactivation of T7 phage
appears to drive from -OH activity.
Radiation-induced sublethal damage to the phage may play a part in
determining sensitivity.
Rao, V. C., Chandorkar, U., Rao, N. U., Kumaran, P., Lakhe, S. B. (1972). A
Simple Method for Concentrating and Detecting Viruses in Wastewater.
WATER RES, 6(12): 1565-76.
A modified membrane filter method was developed for recovering viruses
from sewage and sewage effluents. Small amounts of enteroviruses seeded into
autoclaved sewage were adsorbed onto 0.45 /ttm, 47 mm diameter membrane
filters at pH 3 and eluted at pH 8. Clarifying the sewage first by
homogenization for four minutes in a Waring blender and centrifugation at
1,800 g and 9,230 g facilitated filtration with no loss of virus. Complete
recovery of the seeded virus was achieved.
Enteroviruses seeded into fecal suspensions (BOD = 600 mg/liter)
adjusted to pH 3 and containing 1,200 mg Mg++ (as MgCl2)/liter were
completely recovered.
During a one-year program of monitoring raw sewage from a middle
16
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income community in Nagpur, a maximum of 3,150 PFU of viruses/liter were
recovered during the monsoon season and 11,575 PFU/liter were recovered
during the winter.
Rowland, A. J., Skone, J. F. (1972). Epidemiology of Infectious Hepatitis. BR
MED BULL, 28(2): 149-55.
The epidemiology, distribution, prophylaxis, and therapy of infectious
hepatitis are discussed.
Ruschi, A. (1971). Presence and Epidemiological Significance of Polioviruses in
Sewage in Pisa (Italy). ANN SCLAVO, 13(5-6): 370-6. Italian.
The frequency of poliovirus recovery from the sewage of Pisa in 1962
and 1963, prior to mass live-poliovirus vaccination programs, peaked during the
summer months.
In 1965 and 1966, subsequent to the initiation of vaccination programs,
poliovirus recovery from sewage peaked during the winter months.
Other enteroviruses were recovered with about equal frequency during
both sampling periods, with peak recoveries occurring during the summer
months.
Scarpino, P. V., Berg, G., Chang, S. L., Dahling, D., Lucas, M. (1972). A
Comparative Study of the Inactivation of Viruses in Water by Chlorine. WATER
RES, 6(8): 959-65.
The inactivation rates of poliovirus 1 and Escherichia coli by
hypochlorous acid (HOC1) in phosphate buffer (pH 6), and by hypochlorite
ion (OC1~) in borate buffer (pH 10) were determined at 5 C.
Hypochlorite ion inactivated poliovirus 1 about seven times more rapidly
than HOC1, whereas HOC1 inactivated E. coli about 50 times more rapidly
than OC1~. Thus, poliovirus 1 was inactivated more rapidly at pH levels where
the free chlorine was in the form of OC1~ rather than in the form HOC1.
Alkalinity at pH 10 did not inactivate poliovirus 1 during the test period.
A reassessment of the chemistry of HOC1 ionization may be in order to
determine whether borate buffer alters the equilibrium of the reaction
suppressing ionization, or whether it brings about the formation of virucidal
forms heretofore undescribed.
Shah, P. C., McCamish, J. (1972). Relative Chlorine Resistance of Poliovirus 1
and Coliphages f2 and T2in Water. APPL MICROBIOL, 24(4):658-9.
A mixture of ammonia chloramines inactivated poliovirus 1 and
coliphage T2 more rapidly than they inactivated coliphage f2.
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Shane, M. S.f Cannon, R. E., DeMichele, E. (1972). Pollution Effects on
Phycovirus and Host Algae Ecology. J WATER POLLUT CONTROL FED,
44(12): 2294-2302.
Algal viruses of Plectonema boryanum were recovered from polluted
stretches of the Christina River, but not from the unpolluted headwaters.
Recovery of the viruses correlated well with chemical, physical, and biological
pollution indicators.
Shelton, S. P., Drewry, W. A. (1971). Virus Removal by Chemical Coagulation.
Water Resources Research Center No. 15, Department of Civil Engineering
Research Series No. 12, University of Tennessee, 121 pages.
In waste and river waters, aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride, and ferric
sulfate were effective coagulants, removing more than 99% of seeded coliphage
f2 in at least one of the two waters. Cationic polyelectrolytes were
unsatisfactory as primary coagulants because they did not form good floes.
Cationic, nonionic, and anionic polyelectrolytes improved coagulation with
aluminum sulfate; however, the value of the polyelectrolytes is doubtful
because of their cost. Sodium aluminate, in conjunction with aluminum
sulfate, was effective for virus removal. Optimum dosages of the two for
turbidity and COD reduction, however, did not correspond to optimum
dosages for virus removal.
A simple mathematical relationship may exist between raw water COD
and the optimum dosage of primary coagulants for virus and turbidity removal.
The colloidal titration technic and the Zeta-Meter methods for locating
isoelectric points did not always produce the same results, and the optimum
dosages for all parameters often did not correlate well with either method for
isoelectric point location.
Shitskova, A. P. (1971). Hygienic Aspects of Preventing Digestive Tract
Diseases. GIG SAN IT, 36(12): 71-7. Translation presently not available.
Russian.
Shuval, H. I., Katzenelson, E. The Detection of Enteric Viruses in the Water
Environment. In "Water Pollution Microbiology," Chapter 15, edited by R.
Michael, Wiley-lnterscience, New York, New York (1972), 347-61.
Enteric virus diseases, especially infectious hepatitis, may be waterborne.
Outbreaks may be epidemic or sporadic. Methods for evaluating the virological
safety of water supplies need to be developed.
Many enteroviruses survive longer than coliforms in rivers and in sea
water. These viruses are also more difficult to remove or inactivate by sewage
and water treatment methods than coliforms.
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Thus, efficient methods for detecting viruses in water need to be
developed. For this purpose, adsorption to particulates, adsorption onto
membrane filters, and phase separation are the most promising methods at this
time.
Singh, K, V., Bohl, E. H. (1972). The Pattern of Enteroviral Infections in a
Herd of Swine. CAN J COMP MED, 36(7): 243-8.
Viruses were recovered in porcine kidney cell cultures from the feces of
26 pigs, 34 to 64 days old, in a healthy herd of swine. The pigs within each of
four litters infected began shedding viruses in their feces at about the same
time. The type of virus initially recovered was usually the same.
Subsequently, waves of infection with different enteroviruses occurred
during the following six months. At least six antigenically different viruses
were recovered from the herd over a 26-month period. Most, and perhaps all,
of these viruses apparently belonged to the enterovirus group. No disease was
associated with the infections.
The colostrum and milk of sows contained significant amounts of
enteroviral antibodies. Prior to nursing, the serums of new-born pigs contained
no enteroviral antibodies, but shortly after nursing high titers of such
antibodies developed. Antibodies were detected also in the feces of suckling
pigs.
Slack, J. G. (1972). Water Reclamation from Sewage Effluent: Experimental
Studies in Essex. WATER TREATS EXAM, 21(3):239-58.
Full-scale plant tests in a standard inverted pyramidal upflow tank,
at a particle-settling velocity of 0.5 mm/sec, showed that about 99 to 99.9%
of the viruses in sewage and about 95 to 99% of the Escherichia coli
and other coliforms present were removed by treatment with 150 mg/liter
of aluminum sulfate and 250 mg/liter of powdered carbon.
Sorter, C. A., Malina, J. F., Jr., Sagik, B. P. (1972). Quantitative Procedure for
Evaluating the Performance of Water and Waste Water Treatment Processes at
Naturally Occurring Virus Levels. ENVIRON SCI & TECHN, 6(5):438-41.
A modified, standardized insoluble polyelectrolyte technic was used to
evaluate the removal of coliphage T2 from water and wastewater at levels down
to 1 x 10~4 PFU/ml. Extrapolation of the results below this level is possible if
sufficient quantities of water are available.
The efficiency of the method for concentrating the virus is
pH-dependent. At the optimal pH, a constant virus recovery of 25% was
achieved at phage concentrations of 103 to 10~4 PFU/ml.
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Sorber, C. A., Malina, J. F., Jr., Sagik, B. P. (1972). Virus Refection by the
Reverse Osmosis-Ultrafiltration Processes. WATER RES, 6(11): 1377-88.
Asymmetrical cellulose acetate membranes of the type used in
ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis rejected from 99.2% to over 99.999%
coliphage T2 and a poliovirus present in feed solutions of PBS or lake water.
A relatively constant 0 to 7.6 PFU/liter penetrated the membranes used
at average feed water virus concentrations of 9.6 x 10'to 6.8 x 108 PFU/liter.
Penetration of the membranes by viruses appeared to be a random
phenomenon.
Sproul, O. J. (1972). Virus Inactivation by Water Treatment. J AMER WATER
WORKS ASSN, 64(1):3l-5.
Nearly all water treatment processes in present use are under
investigation to define better their virus-removal capacity. Recent efforts have
defined some basic mechanisms of virus removal.
If the virus problem in water supplies is as large as the recent scientific
and popular literature indicates, then research needs and research efforts stand
in the same relationship as a mountain to a molehill. No research effort at all in
the past 10 years has been given to virus removal by filtration. In some plants,
over the same period, this process has become the only treatment unit,
performing the roles of flocculation chamber, sedimentation tank, and filter.
Stille, W., Kunkel, B., Nerger, K. (1972). Shellfish-Transmitted Hepatitis.
DTSCH MED WOCHENSCHR, 97(2): 145-7. German.
Within a period of three years (May 1968 to October 1971) 425 patients
with viral hepatitis were studied at the University Clinic in Frankfurt. In 34, the
disease apparently followed consumption of oysters or other shellfish during
travel outside of Germany.
Sweet, B. H., Ellender, R. D. (1972). Electro-Osmosis: A New Technique for
Concentrating Viruses From Water. WATER RES, 6(7):775-9.
Concentration of viruses by electroosmosis in a Canalco CF-3 unit was
possible only in small scale operation (5-liter quantities). The technic was
useful with poliovirus 1 inputs of 0.01 PFU/ml and reovirus inputs of 0.1
PFU/ml or greater only.
In distilled water, under optimal conditions with cellulose acetate
membranes and flux rates of 3 ml/cm^/hour, physical concentrations of
approximately 40-fold were achieved in 2.5 to 3 hours with up to 80% virus
recovery. Results with tap water were not as good.
Because of the mechanical complexity of the system—its power
requirements, need for osmotic driving solutions and pumping and refrigeration
20
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systems-the method is not economical for large scale use. The system may
serve best as a second step procedure following initial concentration of large
volumes of water by either ultrafiltration or other processes. Because it desalts
and dehydrates, the method may also be useful for concentrating viruses from
estuarine waters.
Sweet, B. H., McHale, J. S., Hardy, K. J., Klein, E. (1971). Concentration of
Virus from Water by Electro-Osmosis and Forced-Flow Electrophoresis. PREP
BIOCHEM, 1(1):77-89.
Poliovirus 1 was concentrated from water in Canalco Model CF-3
Electrophoretic Filter/Concentrator (modifed after Bier) by electroosmosis and
forced-flow electrophoresis.
Water was removed at a rate up to 0.8 ml/hr/cm2 of membrane area by
electroosmosis. With 12-14 V/cm (5-6 amps) and adjusted pumping rates,
20-fold concentration was achieved without virus loss.
During forced-flow electrophoresis, the virus, negatively charged in an
alkaline buffer, moves toward the positive pole. At 20 V/cm and with adjusted
pumping rates, the best concentration achieved was 3-fold with 10-fold
dehydration. Virus spill-over at the cathode and virus adsorption at the anode
were responsible for the poor results, but this may be overcome by adjustment
of the voltage coupled with adjustment of the pumping rates.
Voltage (30 V/cm) and current (6 amps) have no detrimental effects on
viral stability. These technics appear to be more rapid and gentle than other
methods for concentration of virus and may be scaled up for practical use.
Tarabcak, M., Kratochvil, I., Milosovicova, A. (1971). Effect of Vaccination
with Live Poliovirus Vaccine on the Circulation of Enteroviruses in the
Population. J HYG EPIDEMIOL MICROBIOL IMMUNOL, 15(7):258-66.
Stools from randomly selected healthy children in East Slovakia were
tested quarterly in 1959 (before mass vaccination) and from 1960 to 1966
(after mass vaccination) to determine alterations in the circulation of
polioviruses and other enteroviruses in the population. More than 7,300 stools
were tested.
Since 1963, monthly tests of sewage from nine localities in Kosice and in
the Saca housing estate have been done., Almost 400 sewage samples were
tested.
In 1959 (before mass vaccination), poliovirus detection in the stools of
healthy children correspond to the mean monthly incidence of poliomyelitis
from 1951 to 1959.
Since the initial mass vaccinations, no cases of poliomyelitis have been
reported in East Slovakia. Vaccination of the young is carried on routinely.
Circulation of wild polioviruses was suppressed and vaccine strains disappeared
from the population within three to four months after vaccination.
21
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Mass vaccination with live poliovaccine reduced the circulation of
non-polioviruses at the time of vaccination and for two to three months
thereafter as compared with 1959.
The same types of viruses recovered from stools were recovered from
sewage.
The circulation of enteroviruses in a population can be determined by
detection of these viruses in sewage.
Taylor, F. B. (1972). The Holy Cross Episode. J AMER WATER WORKS
ASSIM, 64(4): 230-2.
The series of events is described that led to an outbreak of infectious
hepatitis in the Holy Cross football team after they consumed water from a
contaminated line.
Venosa, A. D., Ozone as a Water and Wastewater Disinfectant: A Literature
Review. In "Ozone in Water and Wastewater Treatment", Chapter 5, edited by
F. L. Evans III. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
(1972), 83-100.
In a general review of water and wastewater disinfection by ozone, the
inactivation of viruses by this oxidant is discussed.
Victorin, K., Hellstrom, K.-G., Rylander, R. (1972). Redox Potential
Measurements for Determining the Disinfecting Power of Chlorinated Water. J
HYG, 70(61:313-23.
In chlorine demand-free water, inactivation of Escherichia coli by sodium
hypochlorite, monochloramine, dichloramine, halazone, chloramine T,
cyanuric acid+sodium hypochlorite and cyanuric acid+monochloramine
correlated better with redox potential than with the amount of available
chlorine. For individual pure chlorine compounds, available chlorine generally
correlated better than the redox potential with bacterial inactivation.
Wachs, B. Hygienic Standards For Sewage Effluents. In "Fundamental
Measurements and Effluent Conditions of Sewerages in Canal Stations,
Purification Plants, and Receiving Waters," edited by H. Liebman. Verlag R.
Oldenbourg, Munich, Germany, (1970), 50-78.
Diseases caused by viruses and other infectious agents are discussed,
along with water standards for drinking and swimming.
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Wacker, W. E. C., Riordan, J. F., Snodgrass, P. J., Chang, L. W., Morse, L. J.,
O'Brien, T. F., Reddy, W. J. (1972). The Holy Cross Hepatitis Outbreak.
Clinical and Chemical Abnormalities. ARCH INTERN MED, 130(9): 357-60.
Of 97 men exposed at the same time to infectious hepatitis virus in
drinking water, one-third developed icteric disease, 60% developed anicteric
disease, and 7% showed no evidence of disease.
An elevated serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) level was the
most frequent chemical abnormality in the anicteric group. Serial
measurements of the levels of SGPT, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase
(SCOT), ornithine carbamyl transferase (OCT), serum alkaline phosphatase,
bilirubin, and cholesterol in the icteric group demonstrated the time course and
extent of these abnormalities in this homogeneous population. The levels of
serum bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, and OCT decreased in parallel and were
normal by 70 days after exposure. The SGPT and SCOT levels remained
elevated longer.
By 145 days after exposure, some patients still had elevated SGPT and
SCOT levels. Transient hypercholesterolemia occurred in a significant number
of patients reaching a maximum 55 days after exposure. The mean value was
normal 25 days later.
Wallis, C., Henderson, M., Melnick, J. L. (1972). Enterovirus Concentration on
Cellulose Membranes. APPL MICROBIOL, 23(3):476-80.
Cellulose nitrate membranes adsorb viruses from water in the presence of
salts. Trivalent salts were more effective than divalent salts. Thus, 0.5 mM
A1C13 was as effective as 50 mM MgCl2.
For testing 500 gallons of water, only 0.24 kg of A1C13 was required in
contrast to 20 kg of MgC 12. Virus was eluted from membranes that had an area
of 486 cm2 with 250 ml of pH 11.5 buffer. Lowering the pH of the eluate and
adding A1C13 permitted the virus to be readsorbed on a 4 cm2 membrane from
which it could be eluted in 1 ml of the high pH buffer.
This procedure provided the basis for concentrating small amounts of
viruses from large volumes of water.
Wallis, C., Homma, A., Melnick, J. L. (1972). Apparatus for Concentrating
Viruses from Large Volumes. J AMER WATER WORKS ASSN, 64(3): 189-96.
An apparatus for recovering viruses from large volumes of water has been
devised which consists of a series of textile filters capable of removing debris
and certain soluble materials that interfere with virus recovery, cellulose
membranes or an insoluble polyelectrolyte to which viruses adsorb and from
which they can be eluted, pumps, and other ancillary equipment. The
apparatus is capable of filtering 300 gallons of water/hour.
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More than 60% of 100 PFU of poliovirus 1 seeded into 100 gallons of tap
water were recovered by this method.
Wallis, C., Homma, A., Melnick, J. L. (1972). A Portable Virus Concentrator
for Testing Water in the Field. WATER RES, 6(10): 1249-56.
A system is described for concentrating viruses from large volumes of
water. The system consists of a water pump, an electric generator, a series of
clarifiers, a virus adsorbent, a virus reconcentrator, a 5- and 1-gallon pressure
vessel with a small tank of nitrogen as a source of positive pressure, and
ancillary equipment, all mounted on 2-wheel carts for easy portability.
The system was standardized with small amounts of poliovirus. The virus
was added to dechlorinated city tap water in an amount so small it could not be
detected unless the virus was first concentrated.
In the system, raw tap water containing virus was serially passed through
clarifying filters with porosites of 5 to 1 pm to remove particulate matter, and
then through a 1-fim cotton textile filter to electrostatically remove
submicron ferric and other heavy metal complexes. These filters did not
detectably remove viruses. Salts were then added to the running tap water to
enhance adsorption of the viruses to a fiberglass or cellulose acetate filter. Raw
water was processed at the rate of 33 gph, with complete removal of the virus
from the water. Eighty percent of the virus was eluted from the adsorbent.
Wallis, C., Homma, A., Melnick, J. L. (1972) Concentration and Purification of
Influenza Virus on Insoluble Poly electrolytes. APPL MICROBIOL,
23(4): 740-4.
Influenza virus was concentrated and purified rapidly by adsorbing it
onto and eluting it from an insoluble poly electrolyte. The influenza virus was
first stabilized at pH 4 to 5, since viruses adsorb to the polyelectrolyte more
efficiently in this pH range. A precipitate which forms in influenza harvests
under acid conditions in the cold was removed by ammonium sulfate at a
concentration which trapped the precipitate but not the virus. Ammonium
sulfate-treated influenza virus in allantoic fluid was readily concentrated on the
polyelectrolyte. Elution yielded a virus concentrate essentially free of nonviral
proteins.
Walton, G., Becker, R. J., Champlin, R. L., Faust, S. D., McCabe, L. J.,
Pearson, H. E., Pogge, F. W., Weiser, P. W., Wolf, H. W. (1972). Community
Water Pollution R&D Needs. J AMER WATER WORKS ASSN, 64(4):211-15.
In a general report on research and development needs, the American
Water Works Association Committee on Pollution Parameters notes the current
state of knowledge on viruses in water, and recommends expanded studies on
the survival and persistance of viruses in that environment.
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Watson, J. T., Drewry, W. A. (1971). Adsorption of f2 Bacteriophage by
Activated Carbon and Ion Exchange. Water Resources Research Center Report
No. 14, Department of Civil Engineering Research Series No. 11, University of
Tennessee, 238 pages.
In batch tests and in column studies at variable flow rates, activated
carbon (Pittsburgh and West Virginia Nuchar C-190) and an anion resin
(Amberlite IRA-402) adsorbed seeded coliphage f2 from a synthetic river water
and from trickling filter effluent. A cation resin (Amberlite IR-122) was not an
effective virus adsorbent. Virus removal could be described by a first-order
equation.
On a weight basis, West Virginia Nuchar C-190 was the most effective
adsorbent in both the batch tests and in the column experiments. However, in
the columns, Amberlite IRA-402 achieved the best virus removals in both test
waters when the same depth of adsorbents was used. This removal exceeded
99.9% in both test waters when the flow rate was 0.5 gpm/sq ft. The removals
were considerably greater in the synthetic river water than in the wastewater
effluent.
Competition for adsorption sites by other organic matter was a major
factor in the wastewater effluent experiments. Diffusion seemed to play an
important role in the virus adsorption process in the synthetic river water
column studies.
Westman, W. E. (1972). Some Basic Issues in Water Pollution Control
Legislation. AM SCIENTIST, 60(11-12):767-73.
The need for more intensive attention to viruses is considered in a
discussion of water pollution control legislation.
Zarma, M. (1972). Fecal Pollution of Sea Water. MICROBIOL PARAZITOL
EPIDEMIOL, 17(5-6):203-29. Rumanian.
The survival of viruses in sea water is briefly discussed in a review dealing
primarily with other sea pollution problems.
Zikmund, V., Cech, M., Temin, K., Perman, J. (1912). Epidemic of Infectious
Hepatitis in a School Caused by a Waterbome Agent. CS EPIDEMIOL,
21(7): 197-202. Czechoslovakian.
Early in 1970, an epidemic of infectious hepatitis occurred in a Basic
Nine-Year School in Liberec. The infection appeared to have been transmitted
by water from a well supplying the school kitchen. About one-third of those
exposed became ill.
The water may have been contaminated by a cesspool from a small house
in which a case of infectious hepatitis had occurred.
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At least 23 cases of hepatitis were documented, and there may have been
as many as 44. Tests for Australia antigen on acute and convalescent serums
were negative.
Zillich, J. A. (1972). Toxicity of Combined Oilorine Residuals to Freshwater
Fish. J WATER POLLUT COIMTRL FED, 44(2):212-20.
Laboratory studies showed that quantities of chJorine below measureable
levels added to nontoxic effluents containing thiocyanate produced a toxicant.
The toxicant was probably cyanogen chloride. The threshold concentration of
this compound for rainbow trout appeared to be 0.08 mg/liter.
Chloramine concentrations of a few tenths mg/liter were lethal to
warmwater fish such as sunfish, bullheads, and minnows.
Chloramine concentrations of 0.06 to 0.08 mg/liter were lethal to trout.
Chloramine concentrations of 0.085 mg/liter nearly eliminated the
spawning of the fathead minnow, and concentrations of 0.043 mg/liter
significantly reduced their reproduction.
Chlorinated effluents were toxic after dilution to 2 to 4%. Average
concentrations of 0.16 to 0.21 mg/liter residual chlorine caused complete kills
of fathead minnows. As little as 0.07 mg/liter caused a partial kill of the test
fish, and 0.04 to 0.05 mg/liter constituted the threshold concentration in these
wastes.
An extensive field survey of fish populations in four Maryland streams
showed that chlorinated effluents significantly reduced the species diversity
and total number of fish below the outfalls. After the toxic effects had been
eliminated and the organic matter decomposed, the subsequent deoxygenation
of the receiving streams caused species shifts and many of the more sensitive
fish disappeared.
Thiosulfate rendered toxic chlorinated compounds nontoxic. This has
been proven in laboratory and field situations.
tiUSGPO: 1973 — 757-550/1302 Region 5-11
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