r-
841B97001
Green Development:
Literature Summary and Benefits
Associated with Alternative Development Approaches
Prepared by:
TetraTech, Inc.
Under EPA Contract #68-C3-0303
Work Assignment #3-112
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
Table of Contents
I. Executive Summary page I
II. Literature Compilation and Tabulation page 3
III. Green Development Alternatives (Literature Summary) page 9
IV. The Benefits of Green Development page 21
Appendix A - Annotated Green Development Literature page A-1
Appendix B - Additional Unannotated Green Development Literature page B-1
Glossary of Terms page G-1
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
I. Executive Summary
Many communities dealing with intense urban development are faced with new challenges in
implementing environmental protection and water quality-based controls while trying to meet conflicting
expectations and the multi-objective preferences of the local public, developers, and environmentalists.
To address this challenging and continuously changing issue, the United State Environmental Protection
Agency Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds is promoting green development approaches as
alternatives to practices shown to adversely impact surface waters. These green approaches make use
of existing environmental resources to control erosion, sediment, and flow from construction and new
development. The green development approaches are considered as a part of zoning, site planning,
clearing and grading, protection of sensitive resources, and runoff management.
Through literature compilation, review, and analysis, EPA's Oceans and Coastal Protection Division
(OCPD) and Assessment and Watershed Protection Division (AWPD) hope to identify common
problems with urban development practices, encourage cooperation among resources managers and
integrate solutions across a variety of stakeholders and perspectives. Included are:
• problems with typical site-planning and stormwater management structural and non-structural
source control options and their importance to the overall development design
• sustainable development
• various regulations shaping site planning efforts
• federal, state, and local issues pertaining to grading, sediment control, stormwater management,
wetlands, tree conservation, waterway construction
• importance of identifying tools available to collect and process information, application of tools,
collection of data, processing and displaying data, and analysis of quantitative and qualitative results
• proposed innovative approaches for urban site-planning and design.
This document is a cumulation of examples, case studies, and issues related to implementing green
development approaches in urban areas.
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
II. Literature Compilation and Tabulation
A number of literature references have been searched to identify possible conference topics, case studies,
and potential conference attendees and presenters. Existing databases, economic valuation studies,
examples, projects, reference matenals, and telephone discussions have lead to identification of a wealth
of information on this topic. Working from the list of initial keywords provided by the Work Assignment
Manager, with several words added based on the literature discovered during the search process, a
literature search was completed on the following:
Selected Water Resources Abstracts (1989-present)
USGS Library (1989-present)
NOAA Library (1989-present)
Washington Post (CD-ROM, 1995-June 1996)
Magazine Express (January 1992 - May 1996)*
CZARA Annotated Bibliography
Chicago Tribune (1996)
In-house and personal libraries.
* Includes the New York Times, USAToday, and 140 general magazines.
Where possible, actual articles have been collected. At a minimum, a bibliography listing and abstracts
have been compiled into a database on green development approaches. Appendix A contains database-
sorted topics with literature source, title, author, and abstract, all generated by the electronic searches
mentioned above. Appendix B contains additional literature identified from in-house and personal
libraries. The review of the literature has yielded additional potential contact sources such as real estate
agents, architects, landscape architects, developers, and bankers, as well as national and local
development and real estate organizations.
The information compiled into the green development approaches database has been divided into five
major areas:
. Planning and Design
Tools for Data Analysis
Environmental Quality
Natural Resources
Economics.
A list of keywords was used for each of these five areas to sort the green development approaches
database into smaller subareas. The majority of included literature is on planning and design. A number
of the publications are design manuals, zoning documents, or comprehensive plans and designs of specific
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
development BMPs. Another large topic of interest is in natural resources protection, especially in stream
stabilization and wetland and riparian protection. Since the focus of the literature search was limited to
site development, many documents on such topics as wetland restoration and mitigation, agricultural
practices, industrial processes, and shoreline protection have not been included.
Though there may be a significant number of sources in a topic area, these sources are not primarily
focused on natural resource protection. For example, of the 25 sources analyzed which included
information on habitats, there were five articles discussing forests, and three addressing river/stream
protection. In addition, the economics of green development approaches, in terms of cost/benefit
analyses, etc., does not appear to have been fully demonstrated, and may be an area for additional focus.
Low numbers of publications in spedfic topic areas do not necessarily reflect a lack of information on that
topic For example, there are surely more publications in the various databases searched regarding air
quality. However, because the initial key word search did not specifically ask for air quality references,
few showed up in the final publication list.
Literature and case study examples were also identified which focus on the following topics:
• successful, environmentally sensitive infrastructure programs and projects
• case studies on "urbanizing" suburbs and areas where infill has successfully occurred
• model ordinances and comprehensive plans
• intermodal transportation policies that consider environmental impacts, especially nonpoint
source pollution and habitat impacts.
These case studies are referenced in the literature as illustrating green development features and
concepts. Case studies are available for existing developments, either currently under design or fully
constructed, and for different types of tools to analyze data and determine the costs or benefits of
different development and pollution control alternatives. Case study examples for each topic (identified
from the literature only) are tabulated below. An asterisk (*) after the case study name indicates this
particular project falls under more than one topic area.
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Case Study Examples Listed in the Literature
Case Studies of Successfijl, Environmentally Sensitive Infrastructure Programs and Projects
Case Study Name Location Economic Analysis Included?
Bamberton
Haymount*
Middleton Hills
Seaside
Kcntiands
Abacoa
Haven
Village Homes
Mann Count/ Growth Management
Santa Cruz County Growth Management Agenda
Lexmgton-Fayette County Growth Management
Cannon Beach Growth Management
Montgomery County Growth Management
Medford Township Performance-based Growth Management
Hilton Head Island Growth Management
Oty of Pembroke Pines
Sustainable Communities Demonstration Project
'. Ullage of Woodsong
EcoVi/lage
Pbya Vista
Belle Hall (computer simulation)
r-armwew
Praint Crossing
Fox Property Study
Destiny Road Town Houses
Woodfield
Court/and Farms ,
Vancouver, B.C.
Caroline Co., VA
Middleton, Wl
Seaside, FL
Gaithersburg, MD
Jupiter, FL
St Augustine Beach, FL
Davis, CA
Mann County, CA
Santa Cruz, CA
Lexington-Fayette County, KY
Cannon Beach, OR
Montgomery County, MD
Medford Township, NJ
Hilton Head Island, SC
Broward County, FL
State ofFlonda
Sha/htte, NC
Ithaca, NY
Los Angeles, CA
Mt Pleasant SC
Yardley, PA
Near Chicago, IL
Palm Beach County, FL
Germantown, MD
Germantown, MD
Locketts, VA
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
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Green Development
Literature Review and Analysis
Case Studies on
Case Study Name
California Infill Development Program
Downtown Master Plan*
Florida Main Street Program
Grand Central Square
Memorial Park
MiznerPark
KverPlao:
Uptown District
Balkton
Main Street
Downtown Redlands
WMtier Boulevard
The Eastward Ho! Initiative
Feamngton
Fairview Village
Downtown area
Downtown area
Realization Plan
The Florida Avenue Pro/ect
The Jordan Tract
North Boulder*
South Martin Count/*
Master Plan
Montgomery Village
Lake Park Village
Oak Ridges Moraine
Peaks Branch
Dorse/ Woods
"Urbanizing" Suburbs and Areas Where Infill has Successfully Occurred
Location
California
City of West Palm Beach, FL
State of Florida
Los Angeles. CA
Richmond, CA
Boca Raton, FL
Portland, OR
San Diego, CA
Arlington, VA
Huntmgton Beach, CA '
Redlands, CA
East Los Angeles, CA
South Florida
Near Chapel Hill. NC
Near Portland. OR
Mashpee. Ml
Boca Raton. FL
Orlando. FL
Miami, FL
Mount Pleasant SC
Boulder, CO
Martin County, FL
PortRoval.se
Montgomery Township, NJ
Union County, NC
Toronto, Canada
Dallas. TX
Arlington, VA
Economic Analysis Included?
No
No
No
Yes
Yes •
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
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Literature Review and Analysis
Case Study Name
Case Studies of Model Ordinances and Comprehensive Plans
Location
Plan or Ordinance.'($)
Colleton County Development Standards
Count/wide Policy Element for Fairfax County
Public Facilities Manual of Fairfax County
Subdivision and Zoning Ordinance
Stormwater Management Regulations
Preliminary Master Plan
Approved Master Plan and Sectional Map Amendment
Retrofit Master Plan Study
Impact Assessment of the New Jersey Interim State
Development and Redevelopment Plan
Communities of Place, State Development and
Redevelopment Plan
Model Code for Residential Development
Transit-Supportive Land Use Planning Guidelines*
Special Area Management Plan
Model zoning regulations
Downtown Master Plan*
City of Seattle
Town ofBe/mont Forest
Transit Village Act
North Thurston UGMA*
North Boulder*
Western C-9 Basin
South Martin County*
Economic benefits of open space
Clark County
Hebron
South Central Minnesota
($) Indicates economic analysis included
Colleton County, SC
Fairfax County. VA
Fairfax County, VA
Prince George's County, MD
State of Maryland .
Glenn Dale-Seabrook-Lanham and Vianity, MD
Bladensburg-NewCarcJtton and Vicinity, MD
Austin. TX
Newjersey
Newjersey
Australia
Ontario, Canada
Virginia's Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay
Natural Lands Trust
City of West Palm Beach, FL
Seattle, WA
Loudon County, VA
California
Thurston County, WA
Boulder, CO
BrowardA Dade Counties, FL
Martin County, FL
Duchess County, NY
Clark County, NV
Hebron, CT
South Central Minnesota
ordinances
comprehensive plan
ordinance
model ordinance
model ordinance
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan using
modeling ($)
comprehensive plan
model code
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan($)
model ordinance
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan
model ordinance
model ordinance
comprehfns/ve plan
model ordinance
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan
comprehensive plan($)
model ordinance
model ordinance
comprehensive plans
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Green Development
Literature Review and Analysis
Case Studies Using Intermodal Transportation Policies that Consider Environmental Impacts
Case Study Name Location Modes Provided ($)
Effects of Interstate 95 on Breeding Birds
For Animals. It's the Poad to Safety.
Haymount*
Skinny Streets & One-sided Sidewalks: A Strategy ... Paradise
1-287 ft and They Will Drive on It
For Many. Gas Guzzler is Necessary Tool, Noti Joy
The Road Less Nosy: How Amend a Muffling the Highways
Portland's Pedestrian Master Plan
OtyofToronto
City of Seattle Bicyde Program
State of Washington Transportation Planning
Core Area Requirements to Support Non-Auto Trips, New Jersey Transit
Designing for Transit Integrating Public Transportation and Land Development
Guide to Land Use and Public Transportation
The Citizen Transportation Plan for Northeastern Illinois
Transit-Supportive Land Use Planning Guidelines*
TCEA - Transportation Concurrency Exception Area
Srrart Development Program
The Crossings*
Old Pasadena
North Thurston UGMA*
North Boulder*
South Martin County*
Revegetation along US 189
Stream Restoration in Boulder
Rail Plan on the Wrong Track
Maine A
Washington, DC A
Caroline Co., VA TA
O/ympa, WA A
Waraque, NJ A($)
Ofton Park, NY Aft)
Colorado A($)
Portland, OR P
Toronto, Canada TA
Seattle, WA B
Washington TAP
New Jersey TAP
San Diego Metropolitan Area TA P
Snohomish County, WA T
Chicago Region. IL TA($)
Ontario, Canada TAP
De/ray Beach, FL ' TAP.B
State of Oregon TA($)
Mountain View, CA TA.P($)
Pasadena, CA TAP
Thurston County, WA TAP
Boulder, CO TA
Martin County. FL TAP
Provo Canyon, Utah ' T
Colorado P, B
Maryland T($)
MSHA. Grow, Don't Mow Program Maryland T
p = Pedestrian, T=Transrt. A=Auto, B=Bicyde ($) Indicates economic analysis mduded. '
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
III. Green Development Alternatives (Literature Summary)
Introduction
Urban development has proven to greatly alter the quantity and quality of receiving water resulting in
cumulative impacts on the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of ecosystems (Galli, 1992). The
impacts on water resources is especially significant when we realize that more than half of the world's
population lives within 60 km of the shoreline (as cited in Cheema, 1994). Urbanization has been
associated with significant degradation of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial habitat, and impacts to coastal
ecosystems; loss of wildlife corridors; increases in the intensity, frequency, duration, and transport capacity
of the hydrologic regime; and increases in pollutant buildup. In many cases innovative zoning and site
planning requirements reduce impacts by preserving sensitive areas such as wetlands and flood plains.
However, developed areas continue to exhibit significant disturbances due to massive grading.
The Impacts of Uncontrolled Development
Development and land use impacts are cumulative and synergistic in nature, causing an array of
hydrologic, water quality, and natural resource impacts. The changes that occur during land development
are often unnecessarily dramatic and can cause catastrophic impacts on a watershed ecosystem.
Hydrologic, water quality, and natural resource impacts occur due to mass grading and changes in existing
site topography; reduction and eiimination of natural vegetated cover; isolation and reduction in size of
valuable habitat; and reduced ability of a site to perform the natural water quality treatment functions of
infiltration, evapotranspiration, physical settling and attachment, and biological decay. Poor site planning
can result in excess stormwater runoff, soil erosion and sedimentation, streambank instability, and
unnecessary loss of valuable natural resources and wildlife habitat. In addition, the way development is
planned on a large community or watershed scale can exaggerate development impacts. Traditional
patterns of development or growth, referred to as "urban sprawl", result in low-density, suburban growth
that expand suburban areas, fill in vacant land between neighborhoods, and rely heavily on automotive
transportation. The impacts of this "sprawl development" have been cited throughout the literature in
terms of lost agricultural land, impacts to environmentally sensitive areas, decentralized urban job centers,
economic impacts to older existing communities and increased costs of infrastructure needed to serve
these areas (Fulton, !978;Moe, 1995). Environmental impacts of traditional development patterns and
uncontrolled srte specific modifications can be grouped into hydrologic aiterations, water quality impacts,
and natural resources impacts.
Hydrologic Alterations
The natural hydrological regime can be significantly altered by landscape changes that result from urban
development. These alterations reflect the response of the site to the cumulative impacts of changes in
the topography and flow pathways (resulting from grading and man-made stormwater conveyance
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systems) and changes in infiltration, interception, and evapotranspiration capacities (resulting from reduced
vegetative cover and increased impervious surfaces).
Hydrologic responses to development can be characterized by a significant increase in the surface
component of storm runoff volume; a rapid concentration of overland flow during storm events, resulting
in higher in-stream flow velocities and peakflows; an increase in the runoff erosive and pollutant-carrying
capacities, and limited subsurface recharge, resulting in an apparent low interevent baseflow.
Development-related hydrologic impacts can adversely change channel morphology, baseflow, currents,
pods and riffles, streambed substrate, bank stability, and in-stream and riparian vegetation. These single
storm event response alterations result in long-term changes of the hydrologic regime that can be
described in terms of changes in the frequency and duration of high flows; increases in overland flow
concentration; loss of interception, infiltration, and depression storage; peak (discharge increase; peak time
reduction; increases in the frequency of discharges; and flow velocity increases. These cumulative
changes can result in secondary impacts including: increased flooding, accelerated erosion/sedimentation
rates, flashy stream flows, increased frequency of discharges, increased water temperature, and reduced
stream baseflow. Simmons and Reynolds (1982) noted a 20 to 85 percent decrease in dry-weather
flows in several urban New York watersheds after development. Similar findings were discovered during
the Belle Hall study where the storm water runoff from a "sprawl" development was compared to that
of a traditional town development. The computer model analysis showed the difference in total volume
of runoff between the two sites could be as much as 43 percent (USEPA, 1996).
Changes in these physical parameters may preclude the attainment of designated water body uses.
When values for these parameters fall outside the range of natural variability, they can be considered
physical stressors that might impair aquatic ecosystems through loss of habitat and impacts on aquatic life.
The biological integrity of streams can best be protected if development effectively reproduces the
predevelopment hydrologic regime (surface and subsurface) and maintains water quality levels, thereby
minimizing riparian, aquatic, and terrestrial habitat degradation and destruction.
Water Quality Impacts
Good water quality in streams is important to restoring and ensuring the survival of riparian areas and in-
stream systems, important for the food, water, and protective cover they offer wildlife. During the
development of a single-family residential community, surface water and groundwater quality is typically
impacted through increases in erosion and sedimentation processes; residential lawn care and car care
practices; pollutants from the deterioration of materials used in cars, roads, and buildings; and
atmospheric deposition. Through water quality modeling, Dr. Elizabeth Blood, of the Jones Ecological
Research Center, Georgia, found through the Belle Hall study that urban sprawl-type development
patterns could result in three fold increases of sediment yields, and higher nitrogen and phosphorus
loadings, and chemical oxygen demand (EPA, 1996). A large percentage of the stream systems in
urbanized watersheds exhibit medium to extremely severe channel erosion and deposition due to
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
uncontrolled or inadequately controlled stormwater runoff. This not only leads to seriously unstable and
unsafe conditions, but also results in loss of valuable in stream habitat; adds to the sedimentation problem
in downstream systems; can lead to reduced sunlight and dissolved oxygen conditions, killing fish and
other biota; can contribute totoxicity problems from heavy metal and hydrocarbon contamination; and,
most importantly, leads to further erosion and sedimentation downstream by causing a chain reaction
through increasing bedload and thus further erosion.
Urbanization and changes in land activities can lead to a number of stressors affecting a watershed
ecosystem. The impacts of these stressors affect both the human and wildlife inhabitants, as well as the
aquatic and terrestrial resources. The combined effect of stressors on a watershed ultimately leads to
ecosystem degradation.
Natural Resources Impacts
Urbanization has been associated with significant degradation of natural resources through loss of
ecosystem quality and connectivity, and loss of wildlife corridors. In spite of site planning requirements
to reduce impacts by preserving sensitive areas such as wetlands and floodplains, developed areas
continue to exhibit significant disturbances due to massive grading.
Ecosystem degradation can occur due to a number of natural and man-made changes within a
watershed. Ecosystem stability is primarily governed by five processes: habitat structure, energy or food
sources, biological interactions such as prey-predator relationships, water quality, and hydrology. Despite
extensive efforts during the past 20 years in environmental resource protection and management, the
overall condition of natural ecosystems continues to decline. The number of old-growth forested acres
has decreased, and the number of acres of wetlands—valuable ecosystems themselves and important
transition and edge zones for upland ecosystem species—has dramatically declined. The number of listed
threatened, rare, and endangered species continues to increase, and in-stream aquatic ecosystem habitat
continues to decline due to severe stream degradation.
Reductions in natural ecosystem stability and changes in ecosystem diversity will ultimately have negative
impacts on the quality of life for citizens through threats to human health and safety, aesthetics, regional
growth and infrastructure, population size, and the economy. This is because humans are an integral part
of an ecosystem. Most people and environmental programs depict an "outside" role for humans in
ecosystem processes. However, this approach has left us with a continuing and widening ecosystem
diversity crisis that threatens our ability to sustain natural resources.
Green Development Alternatives
Green Development presents new challenges in implementing environmental protection and water
quality in an effort to promote economic prosperity and a clean and safe environment in which to live and
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Literature Review and Analysis
work. Green development approaches focus on flexible zoning, preventive planning, intelligent
management of natural resources and water quality, and implementation of treatment/control
technologies at multiple scales from development sites to watershed planning.
Green development goes by many names: "new urbanism", neo-traditional, village, and cluster to name
a few. Its an alternative approach that moves away from urban sprawl-type suburbs to more traditional
towns that combine planned open space with mixed-use neighborhoods that provide housing, shopping,
employment, and recreation, all within walking distance. Figures I and 2 (Adapted from Living the
American Dream: Density and Home Ownership, SCCCL Land Development Bulletin, 1993) offer a
visual comparison between low- and high-density development.
Figure I. Low-density, traditional development.
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Figure 2. High-density, green development.
After World War II, suburbs were, and still are, designed "as if families were large and had only one
breadwinner, as if jobs were all downtown, as if land and energy were' endless, as if another lane on the
freeway would end traffic congestion" (Bookout, 1992). Green development signifies a return to pre-
World War II design conventions — townhomes that create a street wall effect, apartments above retail
stores, outbuildings, alleys, and gridded street patterns (Hamblen, 1988).
Green Development balances urban development impacts and site design features while enhancing lot
yields, redudng development costs, and encouraging development and economic growth. The overall
goal is to achieve a balance between economic growth, quality of life, and environmental protection.
Green Development achieves these objectives through:
• flexible zoning and subdivision requirements
• management of growth through agriculture and natural resources preservation
• comprehensive and integrated site planning
• reduction in site imperviousness
• restoration of the site hydrologic regime to mimic the natural or predevelopment condition
• maintenance of surface water and groundwater quality and minimization of the generation and
off-site transport of pollutants
• minimization of disturbance of riparian habitat functions
• preservation of terrestrial habitat ecological functions and maximizing conservation of woodland
and vegetative cover.
• use of compact, pedestrian-friendly development practices.
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Throughout the literature references to Green Development components that help to facilitate these
goals exist.
Flexible Zoning and Subdivision Requirements
Green Development employs alternative zoning options such as overlay districts, performance zoning,
incentive zoning, imperviousness overlay zoning, planned unit development zoning and watershed-based
zoning to allow for innovative site layout options such as duster development. For example, performance
zoning is used to allow flexibility in where or how development is designed, as long as the impact of the
development is kept within specified acceptable limits. Performance based zoning, in various degrees,
is practiced in the towns of Sanibel Island, Florida; Pine Barrens, New Jersey; Breckenridge and Fort
Collins, Colorado; and Medford, New Jersey (Einsweiler and Miness, no date).
Seaside, Florida, is a well documented example of incorporation of flexible zoning regulations to allow
alternative building designs. Although the primary objective was not increased environmental protection,
tne incorporation of flexible zoning alternatives sets the stage for further site layout and site design
flexibility that may result in increased environmental protection (Steuteville, 1996). Davidson,
Huntersville, and Cornelius Counties in North Carolina, have implemented flexible zoning ordinances
mat allow the developers to choose between old and new zoning options (Steuteville, 1996). In another
example, Maryland's Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Act incorporates a flexible zoning approach using a
"floating zone". The floating zone is a specialized use district that permits certain land uses in accordance
with an overall development plan without requiring legislative action (Kenney, 1985).
Atemative zoning options have been used to protect critical drinking water resources as well. Hebron,
Connecticut, for example, developed new zoning regulations in the form of an aquifer protection overlay
zone to protect a future water supply site (Murphy, 1990).
Management of Growth Through Agriculture and Natural Resources Preservation
Growth management systems and techniques can be used to minimize the impacts of suburban sprawl,
while preserving sensitive natural resources, agricultural lands, and maintaining a sense of community
witnin the development. Alternatives to growth management are numerous, and can take the form of
location controls, such as traditional zoning, performance based approaches to regulating growth, and
mitigation type approaches such as purchasing of development rights, conservation easements and the
jse of special districts such as farm districts. Green Development can incorporate any or all of these
options to managing growth. The option, or growth management tool selected depends on the purpose
or the growth management program, and the resources available to enforce such a program.
One example is illustrated in the Ahwahnee Principles, currently implemented by Cathedral City,
Ontario, where development is implemented based on specific plans designating where new growth,
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
infill of redevelopment will be allowed to occur (Corbett and Velasquez, 1994). According to Meeks
(1990), nine states and another seven are incorporating growth management and comprehensive
planning acts to change the nature of land use planning and the decision making processes to provide
economic development, farm and forest land preservation, natural resource conservation, affordable
housing, coordinated infrastructure and transportation development. These states include Florida,
Georgia, Hawaii, Maine, New jersey, Rhode Island, Oregon, Vermont, Washington, California,
Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Comprehensive and Integrated Site Planning
Site planning involves the determination of the specific uses for land areas and their layout and design
within a developable parcel. Green Development approaches to site planning require a comprehensive
review and understanding of a land parcel's existing features—topography, water resources, forest
resources, soils, climate, wildlife habitat, and existing land uses—which will play a major role in
determining the feasibility of the site design. Green Development incorporates the following site planning
principles: reduce hydrologic impacts; protect water quality; protect natural resources; minimize grading;
and design a mulitfunctional site layout of roads, lots and utilities. Green Development site planning
approaches set goals based on the needs of existing natural resources to measure the performance of
site planning methods.
Green Development approaches to site grading reduce excessive mass grading to minimize land
disturbance through: site fingerprinting, minimal disturbance, cluster development, fitting the site design
into the landscape and providing development incentives through credits for preservation and
minimization.
• Minimal Disturbance: The Northridge development, in Prince George's County, Maryland,
incorporated Green Development grading techniques by reducing side slopes along roadways
to minimize disturbance and save existing trees (MOP, 1995; Salant, 1996). The Village of
Woodsong, Shallote, North Carolina, uses alleys as a means of staging house construction to
minimize disturbance (Milliken, 1996).
• Clustering: The USEPA has identified clustering development as a method to concentrate
development and construction activity on a limited portion of a site, leaving the remaining portion
undisturbed (USEPA 1993). Clustering is cited as one option to minimize environmental impacts
of development by the Maryland Office of Planning (MOP, 1994). Haymount, Virginia, is one
development example of the use of clustering to minimize site impacts. In Haymount, the
developer will disturb only 32 percent of the land, setting aside the remaining area as agricultural
preservation. By comparison, in typical, large lot developments 80 percent of the site could be
disturbed to grade lots and by the infrastructure needed to serve them (Mayer, 1996).
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• Fittingthe Site Design Into the Landscape: Reduced grading approaches incorporated by Green
Development can also help reduce the costs of development. For example, the Urban Land
Institute has found that development costs rise dramatically when slopes are greater than 10
percent (ULI, 1980) due to extensive requirements for cut and fill.
• Natural Resource Preservation: Preserving a site's natural amenities such as trees, terrain, and
views may significantly reduce land development costs by using the natural landscape features
rather than requiring the construction of new, constructed features. These principles are
incorporated into the Ahwahnee Principles setting aside natural features in parkland (Corbett &
Velasquez, 1994). San Diego, California protects the natural terrain of its hillsides through hillside
protection zoning districts. Likewise, McHenry County, Illinois, regulates unstable soils and steep
slopes using a steep soils overlay district (Mantell et al., 1990).
Reduction in Site Imperviousness
Site imperviousness refers to the area on a developed parcel that prevents infiltration. Impervious
surfaces generally take the form of paved roads, parking lots, rooftops, sidewalks, and driveways. As
development occurs, existing land areas are converted to less impervious surfaces, either through paving,
compaction or replacement with buildings. Urbanization often results in changing the use of land from
forested, open space or agricultural uses to residential, commercial or industrial uses. Thus, a reduction
in pervious surfaces is generated, almost directly proportional to this change in land use. Studies have
shown that property values may increase 5 to 32 percent with reduced impervious cover (Land Ethics,
1994). This may be due to overall improved site aesthetics or lower housing costs.
Green Development approaches attempt to reduce site imperviousness through reductions in rooftop
density, sidewalk and driveway design, and road layout. Narrow street right-of-ways, continuous street
frontages, and comfortable streetscapes, often used by neo-traditional designs to allow for pedestrian,
bicycle and automobile co-existence, can provide added benefits in reducing overall site imperviousness.
• Rooftop Density: Development plans that reduce the number of rooftops per acre of disturbed
area may reduce hydrologic impacts of development. For example, cluster options that provide
for flexibility in lot layouts can reduce road length by 50 to 70 percent (Land Ethics, 1994).
Disconnecting the rooftop runoff through infiltration practices may also reduce the impacts of
rooftop densities. The Village of Woodsong incorporated rooftop cisterns as a means of capturing
stormwater runoff for reuse, thereby hydrologically disconnecting this impervious surface
(Milliken, 1996).
• Lot Layout: Lot layout options determine the total road length required to serve each dwelling
unit through lot setback restrictions, thereby influencing road imperviousness. Lot setback
restrictions such as lot area, and front, side and back yard setbacks, lead to requirements for
USEPA owow 16
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driveway and sidewalk design. Flexibility in zoning and subdivision regulations to alter lot layout
options can therefore reduce overall site imperviousness.' Green Development options might
indude such lot layouts as "zero-lot-line" development. This approach was incorporated by the
Northridge Villas Project, to reduce house footprints and side yard requirements (Salant, 1996).
Separations between outbuildings and primary dwellings in the Village of Windsong development
helped to create less impervious surface (Milliken, 1996). The same development placed houses
closer to the street, reducing required disturbance area and driveway lengths.
• Road Layout, Sidewalks, and Driveways: Providing on-street parking on one side of the street
can decrease overall site imperviousness by 25-30 percent per dwelling unit served (Sykes,
1989). Reductions in impervious surface can reduce overall development costs. One-half of the
cost of residential construction can be attributed to roads, sidewalks, driveways, and parking
spaces (Schueler, 1995). "Neo-tradrdonal" developments incorporating cluster type site layouts,
reduce the length of roads required to serve a community, and therefore the site imperviousness.
Duany and Plater-Zyberk have suggested that this may lead to a 75 percent reduction in overall
infrastructure costs (Forgey, 1995). Varieties of road designs can reduce overall site
imperviousness. The Village of Woodsong, in Shallotte; North Carolina, incorporated narrower
street designs, reducing imperviousness and thus less stormwater runoff. Additional benefits from
this street design included reduced traffic speeds (Milliken, 1996). In addition, the use of
common driveways is encouraged to minimize development impacts.
Natural Resources Protection
Natural resources protection is part of many urban design and planning programs. Site development can
result in natural resources impacts or, if done properly and comprehensively, can contribute to natural
resources protection goals while still providing for economic growth. Green Development approaches
incorporate the following planning considerations to lessen the impacts of development on watershed
natural resources functions:
• Comprehensive planning and careful site design to avoid changes in landscape form or
topography, changes in hydrology, changes in vegetative cover, and reduction in connectivity.
• Maintenance of watershed natural resources density and protection of contiguous natural
resources areas.
• Protection of existing natural resources areas through use of buffers around disturbed areas
designed in a manner that provides a habitat edge that enhances their aesthetic, wildlife, and
potential economic value, and reduces maintenance requirements such as mowing.
• Minimization of grading and disturbance impacts from road design and layout requirements.
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
• Location of buildings and building restriction lines at the edge of woodland or natural resources
to maximize the amount of contiguous natural resources area left undisturbed.
Successful examples of achieving these planning considerations, cited throughout the literature, have
incorporated cluster development, minimum disturbance, site fingerprinting, greenbelts, greenways, and
trails, woodland conservation, transition zones, wildlife corridors, stream buffers, and streambank
stabilization techniques. Many existing state and local regulations promote Green Development natural
resources protection components. For example, the State of Maryland Economic Growth, Resource
Protection and Planning Act, Section 3.05(a)(l)(vi) of Article 66B of COMAR, promotes environmental
elements that protect sensitive areas from the adverse effects of development. These areas include
streams and their buffers, 100-year flood plains, habitats of threatened and endangered species, and steep
slopes .(State of Maryland, 1983). Conservation planning to minimize natural resources impacts is a goal
of the Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Overlay Zone program. In this Overlay Zone, cutting or clearing
of trees is generally prohibited without an approved conservation plan. Replacement and reforestation
are required for all clearing.
Wildlife habitat protection, transition zones and wildlife corridors are components of Green Development
plans to maximize natural resources and habitat protection. Protection of these areas not only is a vital
part of natural ecosystem management, it has also been found that these areas can provide hazard
mitigation for flooding, slope instability and fire damage (National Park Service, 1992). And, as stated in
the Ahwahnee Principles, wildlife corridors can help establish visual community boundaries (Corbett &
Velasquez, 1994). The Town of Falmouth, Massachusetts, has enacted a wildlife corridor regulation that
protects permanent and contiguous corridors and special areas for the feeding, breeding, and normal
home range movement of wildlife (Mantell et al.,1990). Some jurisdictions, such as Kent County,
Maryland, have used incentive zoning options, such as density bonuses, to promote the use of clustering
(MOP, 1994). Calvert County, Maryland, uses overlay zoning to designate areas required for cluster
development. The original zoning density limits act as a baseline for computing lot densities on allowed
developed areas, after special protection areas or natural resources are defined and "set aside" (MOP,
1994).
Greenways and greenbelts, often incorporated for recreation and aesthetic purposes'into development
planning, can provide an open space buffer protecting sensitive natural areas. One popular alternative
development approach, known as a greenway, is a corridor of open space that is managed for
conservation and/or recreation (Florida Greenways Commission, 1995). Greenways provide habitat
protection and serve as filters for air, noise, and water pollution. They also promote walking, jogging,
bicycling, canoeing, and cross-country skiing.
Green Development designs incorporate greenbelts to protect such resources as rivers and streams,
wildlife refuges and endangered wildlife habitat, flood plains, farms, wildlife corridors, and scenic roads.
Examples of such greenbelts indude the Bay Circuit Program in Boston Massachusetts, Nantucket Island,
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Massachusetts, and the San Francisco Bay Area, California (Mantell et al.,1990). The Woodlands, a
development in Houston Texas, successfully incorporated open space into a network of greenways,
preserving natural drainage as flood control, as well as wildlife habitat, recreation, and a natural wood
setting (Smith, !993;Sykes, 1989).
Alternative Site Layout Options
Green development alternative site layout options incorporate changes in lot frontage, lot setbacks, and
reduced lot sizes in return for increased environmental protection. Lot frontage is the required length
of a lot that follows along a road. Lot setbacks are the distances required for the rear and side yards
providing buffers from adjacent yards. Reduced yard setbacks can impact overall site imperviousness,
road requirements and development costs. For example, Sykes (1989) cites a situation where a front
yard setback of 20 feet, as compared to a conventional 30 foot requirement, is more than sufficient to
allow a car to be parked in the driveway without encroaching into the public right-of-way. This scenario
reduces the driveway and walk pavement by 30 percent or more.
Clustering development is one option incorporated by many Green Development examples to
implement alternative site layout options. Clustering development can reduce lot setback requirements
and lot width frontage requirements. Zero-lot-line development practices also incorporate Green
Development lot layout goals through reductions in side yard restrictions and increases in overall unit-lot
densities. Northridge Villas Project, in Prince George's County, Maryland, have incorporate the zero-lot-
line site layout to save existing woodland area as common area for use by the community (Salant, 1996).
Other Green Development options include flag lot developments, currently incorporated in the Fairfax
County, Virginia Site Planning Manual (Fairfax County, 1995), lot imperviousness ratios, shared driveways,
reduction of on-street parking, alternative use of slopes, and flexible road right-of-ways and road widths.
Many of these options impact development costs, resulting in substantial savings to developers. For
example, at an estimated cost of $500.00 per driveway apron, implementing shared driveways can lead
to substantial reductions in development costs (Schueler, 1995). Alternative road layout options using
road plans that designate length of cul-de-sacs and the number of branches of side streets off collector.
roads can reduce road pavement length, and associated cost, by as much as 25 percent (ULI, 1980).
Green Development Stormwater Management
Green Development plans incorporate mulitfunctional site design elements into a stormwater
management plan. Such alternative stormwater management practices as on lot micro-storage, functional
landscaping, open drainage swales, reduced imperviousness, flatter grades, increased runoff travel time,
and depression storage can be used to reduce hydrologic impacts of most developments. In the
development of Somerset, Prince George's County, Maryland, stormwater impacts are addressed by
maximizing the opportunities for treating runoff through infiltration or filtration and using active public
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participation in pollution prevention practices. For this development, water quality and quantity control
measures are integrated into every aspect of the development's landscape site design using on lot
bioretention facilities (Coffman et al., 1996).
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
IV. The Benefits of Green Development
Introduction
Economic analysis is often difficult because the costs and benefits of Green Development are intangible
in many cases (i.e., environmental, social). Depending upon multiple factors in any given situation, the
outcome of a cost/benefit analysis will vary. Several developments based on green approaches are
already under construction. The following discussion highlights the economic benefits and costs
connected to green development. The discussion is organized by issue (development costs, property
values, etc.), however, many of these overlap. Each section describes the economics of green
development and includes examples to further characterize specific issues. The following analysis is
designed to identify potential costs and benefits for consideration on an individual project basis.
Modes of Transportation/Traffic
Greenways can serve as alternative transportation routes for commuting to work or school, bicycling or
walking to local businesses or restaurants, visiting parks and recreation sites, or sightseeing. Trails can
often be designed in conjunction with utility corridors and pipelines, thereby reducing site preparation
costs to the developer (Florida Greenways Commission, 1995). A Maryland Greenways Commission
survey found that 21 percent of those interviewed would use such a trail system for commuting two or
three times a week (Maryland Greenways Commission, 1995). As a result of decreasing road
congestion, greenways can also decrease the cost of pollution.
Low-density development, as opposed to green, more compact development patterns, is "best suited
to meet the needs of the automobile, not the needs of the city or the citizen" (Gersh, 1996). According
to information compiled by the $mart Growth Network, the average household trip increased from 7.9
to 9.0 miles from 1983 to 1990 (ICMA et al., n.d.). At the same time average vehicle miles traveled per
household rose 29 percent with each household generating an average I I car trips per day. This can
be attributed to urban sprawl. People are moving to the suburbs and commuting longer distances to
their workplace. Not only does this increase air pollution and the costs to combat it, but it also takes a
toll on personal time. Time spent commuting is time that could be spent elsewhere.
Because of their gridded street pattern, neo-traditional designs typically require an investment in 20 to
25 percent more streets than conventional development (Bookout, 1992). However, because neo-
traditional development focuses on streets designed "to move people, not cars," streets in these designs
are narrower. In addition, by comparison, low-density designs require more access roads (i.e.
impervious surface) to connect residents with commercial and employment centers.
In addition to reducing impervious area and related stormwater flows, narrow streets, combined with
a gridded road pattern are designed to reduce vehicle speeds, improving safety and making the streets
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more accessible to pedestrians and cyclists. A 1996 national home buyer's survey revealed that nearly
three-fourths of ail buyers would pay more to live in a community "where I can walk or bicycle
everywhere" (Harney, n.d.).
In California, local fire departments expressed concern that neo-traditional streets are too narrow
("Neighborhoods Reborn," 1996). However, a test run in Laguna West, a neo-traditional development
south of Sacramento, proved that the streets are easily accessible to firefighters and their equipment.
Project:
Location:
Green Design:
Benefits:
Source:
CASE STUDY
Village of Woodsong
Shallotte, NC
Cluster development as opposed to sprawl and use of a
wetland stormwater BMP.
Cluster development translates into less automobile
dependency and exhaust emissions, narrower roads, time
savings due to mixed-use design, infrastructure cost savings,
variation in type of housing supplied to meet the demands of
more home buyers, and passive recreation associated with
cluster development.
Wetland BMP provides aesthetic benefits such as bird and
wildlife watching and passive recreation, increased habitat,
and runoff filtration.
("Preventing Urban," 1995)
Green development approaches also suit pedestrian needs by better integrating employment, residential,
and commercial activities so that walking distances are measured as opposed to car miles. For example,
developer Buddy Milliken is designing Woodsong, in Shallotte, North Carolina to include a shopfront
distnct, assisted care facility, and a restaurant in the community, all within a four minute walking distance
(Milliken, 1996). These facilities will provide services and jobs to the community, while decreasing air
pollution from vehide emissions. In addition, a school and a golf/pool club will be located within a 5-10
minute walk from the community.
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A March 1994 study conducted by the Transportation Management Association Group/City of
Brentwood for the Federal Transit Administration found that the presence of on-site amenities (e.g., food
and bank services) located at two corporate headquarters reduced dependence on personal vehicles
(Federal Transit Administration, 1994). The study showed that the mean weekly miles traveled
decreased by up to 3,161 total miles, or approximately 14 miles per person. Based on the patterns
evidenced by the 179 study respondents, in a 220 day work year, on-site amenities' could reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by 25 tons. Drawing from the study's results, a green development approach
can avoid the monetary and environmental costs associated with vehicle travel.
Green development approaches can incorporate mass transit. For example, San Francisco-based
Calthorpe Associates promotes what they call the "pedestrian pocket" concept which clusters housing,
retail space, and offices within a quarter-mile walking radius of a transit system (Bookout, 1992).
Displaced Agricultural Land
Green development approaches that concentrate development in urban centers avoid the costs
associated with displacing agricultural land. Low-density development reduces revenues from agricultural
crop production and destroys wildlife habitat. Between 1982 and 1992, 532,000 acres of Colorado's
farmland was developed commerdal or residential (Gersh, 1996). Similarly, in Utah, where the amount
of developed land increased by 25 percent during the same time frame, Defenders of Wildlife reports
that 200 plants are now considered to be imperiled.
In addition to the loss of farmland and habitat, there is an added cost to the developer. A recent New
Jersey study comparing two development plans, one compact and one sprawl, showed that the sprawl
option would require the developer to purchase an additional 90,000 acres of prime farmland (Ewing,
1994).
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Project:
Location:
Green Design:
Benefits:
Source:
CASE STUDY
Haymount
Caroline County, VA (on the
Rappahannock River)
Neo-traditional, mixed-use development designed to provide
for residents' daily needs (home, work, and shopping).
Ratio of jobs to household will be 2:1.
Wide selection of price ranges for home buyers.
Will leave 70 percent of land in its natural state of forest and
wildlife habitat. The landscape will provide more trees after
development than before.
Provides civic buildings such as a post office, town hall, fire
and rescue building, and Sheriff's office.
(Haymount marketing brochure)
Taxes
A study of nine counties in northern Virginia showed that residential development in rural areas costs
more to serve than rt generates in tax revenue ('Two Possible Futures," 1992). More specifically, farms
generate $1 in revenue for every $0.21 of services needed while rural development costs $1.20 in
services for every $ I they generate. Revenue shortfalls resulting from the conversion of agricultural land
to development must be compensated by reducing existing public services, raising taxes, or by attracting
additional commercial revenues (American Farmland Trust, 1986).
Typically, in conventional development patterns, infrastructure costs are not fully passed on to the
consumer in the purchase price (Frank, 1989). Because low-density developments require more services
to be extended into rural areas, localities are primed to face revenue shortfalls. In contrast, green
development approaches concentrate development near downtown areas, requiring far less public
spending because they can rely on existing water and sewer lines, roads, and other municipal facilities.
In Loudoun County, Virginia, an American Farmland Trust study determined that the average annual
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revenue shortfall would be roughly three times as large ($2200 per dwelling) for a low-density
development as compared to that of a high-density development ($700 per dwelling) (American
Farmland Trust, 1986).
According to Rick Rybeck, staff attorney to a D.C. Councilmember at Large, taxes can be used as an
incentive to develop land in the neo-traditional, high-density style (Rybeck, 1996). A property tax reform
that reduces tax rates applied to building values while increasing the tax rate applied to land values will
encourage development as a means to generate money to pay land taxes. Because land values are
highest adjacent to existing infrastructure, these lands will offer the greatest economic incentives for
development. The City of Pittsburgh demonstrates the effects of such a tax reform. Until the late 1970's,
Pittsburgh taxed buildings at half the rate it taxed land values. This led to greater development within city
limits than in suburbs. Today, Pittsburgh has revised the tax on buildings to one-sixth that of land. Other
Pennsylvania cities using a similar tax split have experienced the same results. Using this type of tax
incentive helps to avoid the costs of extending infrastructure to more rural, low-density developments.
Infrastructure and Public Services
Green development approaches concentrate development, reducing the need for additional
infrastructure. In his comparison of alternative development patterns, James E. Frank focuses on the costs
of streets, sewers, water systems, storm drainage, and schools at the neighborhood level, while
associating the costs of providing highway, sewer, and water links at the regional level. Based on this
approach, he concluded that the total cost to serve low-density sprawl development (three dwelling units
per acre) would be more than $39,600 (1992 dollars) per unit (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1993). This
cost would increase with distance. For example, if the unit was 10 miles from facilities or major
employment centers, the cost would increase an additional $ 16,500. In addition, decreasing density also
increases cost. At a density of one dwelling unit per 4 acres, capital cost per unit increases to $87,700
contiguous and $ 104,000 if located at the 10 mile distance.
Upon examination of infrastructure issues related
to neo-traditional development in Loudoun
County, Virginia, the American Farmland Trust
notes that locating'residences and schools in
closer proximity greatly reduces school
transportation costs (American Farmland Trust,
1986). For similar reasons, Buddy Milliken,
developer of the neo-traditional Village of
Woodsong in Shallotte, North Carolina notes that
compact, high-density developments will provide
a savings in law enforcement costs (Milliken, 1996).
The City of Boulder, Colorado, Real
Estate/Open Space program estimates that it
costs approximately $2,500-$3,000 to provide
public services to an acre of developed land.
The costs of providing public services to open
space are $75 per acre (James Crain, Director
RE/35, City of Boulder, 1988 died in U.S.
EPA 1995).
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Green Development • Literature Review and Analysis
The American Farmland Trust study adds that "If a county government seeks to estimate more accurately
the net public costs of residential development in the future, it should consider compiling data for some
of the major cost and revenue categories..." (American Farmland Trust, 1986). The study specifically
notes the need for density-related data on law enforcement, fire and rescue services, and health and
welfare costs.
Milliken also observes that although impact fees are structured according to what it costs localities to
administer programs, it is common that the impact fees assigned to commercial endeavors tend to
support residential plan review, project inspection, and other types of administrative services. Because
neo-traditional designs tend to have lower infrastructure demands, the need for administrative review
and the associated impact fees decrease, making it more likely that the fees will reflect true costs (Milliken,
1996).
Development Costs and Savings
Residential
Green, high-density developments are more cost effective to develop. In terms of investment, a 1974
estimate found high-density investment fell 44 percent below that needed for low-density, sprawl
development (Real Estate Research Corp., 1974). More recently, an analysis completed by Robert
Burchell and others at Rutgers University for the State of New jersey compared typical development with
a "planned development" alternative that would include a range of densities and housing types similar to
green development patterns (Gersh, 1996). Projecting from 1990 to 2010, the analysis concluded that
planned development could save taxpayers $9.3 billion in avoided capital, operation, and maintenance
costs for roads, schools, and utilities. Meanwhile, 175,000 acres of land would also be saved.
Many studies have compared the costs associated with various development patterns. The South
Carolina Coastal Conservation League (SCCCL), assisted by the Westvaco Development Corporation,
compared the costs of developing a 96-acre parcel in a conventional .pattern to the cost of developing
the parcel using a high-density development pattern. The conventional development consisted of 242
single family homes on quarter-acre lots, a density of four units per acre, the highest density allowed in
most residential zones ("Living," 1993). The high-density plan consisted of 333 homes with a mix of single
family, duplex, quadriplex, and single-family homes built on third-acre lots, creating an average density
of 6.5 units per acre. In the high-density development, 240 residences were placed within walking
distance of a bus line, thoughtful planning considering that bus service is considered workable when
density reaches 6 or 7 units per acre.
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Project:
Location:
Green Design:
Benefits:
Source:
CASE STUDY
Somerset
Prince George's County, MD
Use "Rain Gardens" to filter stormwater runoff as opposed to
conventional stormwater BMP ponds.
Cost savings of $300,000: $100,000 for "Rain Gardens"
versus $400,000 for stormwater management.
Above average sales.
Aesthetic, filtration, and habitat benefits associated with
gardens.
("Maryland Developer," 1995)
ne study found that the costs of developing the conventional plan would be $26,000 per lot, compared
to S 6,000 per lot for the high-density plan. The cost savings in the high-density development are
unmanly attributed to savings in per-lot land costs and site preparation costs such as excavating,
'andscaping, grading, and paving. These cost-savings would be passed on to buyers. A homebuyer
ooKing to purchase a 1 ,500 square-foot home in the conventional development would pay $95,000,
wine a home of the same size and quality would cost $82,000 in the high-density plan, a savings of 1 4
~ general, there are three main components of residential development infrastructure: ) road building;
2) storm drainage; and 3) water and sewer service (Schueler, 1995). This infrastructure constitutes
approximately half the cost of residential -subdivision construction. High-density development typically
rea'jces infrastructure demands. For example, road length can be cut by 50 to 75 percent. In addition,
as previously mentioned, narrower road widths reduce road surface area by 25 to 35 percent.
Corsidenng that each linear foot of road constructed costs an average of $ 1 00, high-density development
salterns can produce significant cost savings. Table I provides examples of the unit cost for development
infrastructure (Schueler, 1995).
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Table I. Unit costs of subdivision development
Subdivision Improvement
Roads, Grading
Roads, Paving (26-foot width)
Roads, Curb, and Gutter
Sidewalks (4 feet wide)
Storm Sewer (24-inch)
Driveway Aprons
Parking Spaces
Clearing (forest)
Sediment Control
Stormwater Management
Water/Sewer
Well/Septic
Street Lights'
Street Trees
Unit Cost
$22. 00 per linear foot
$71.50 per linear foot
$12.50 per linear foot
$ 1 0.00 per linear foot
$23.50 per linear foot
$500 per apron
$ 1 , 1 00 per parking space ($2.75/sf)
$4,000 per acre
$800 per acre
$300 per lot (variable)
.$5, 000 per lot (variable)
$5, 000 per lot (variable)
$2. 00 per linear foot
$2.50 per linear foot
Adapted from Site Planning for Urban Stream Protection, December 1995, prepared by Tom Schueler of the Center for
Watershed Protection for the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments.
Commercial Development
Green development practices are cost-effective for commercial businesses developing or redeveloping
office space. Environmental watchdog group INFORM showed that incorporating green practices such
as motion sensing light fixtures and recessed lighting can save energy and money. INFORM worked with
architects from Croxton Collaborative to renovate its new 9,127 square-foot office space in New York
City using green practices. In addition to creative lighting, the renovation relied on green practices such
as solution-dyed carpet that conserves water in the manufacturing process and exterior-grade plywood
to reduce formaldehyde emissions. All told, by redeveloping the office space using a green design,
INFORM paid only $38 a square foot to renovate — 27 percent less than the $52 per square foot
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
renovation cost common for office construction in the city (Building Design, 1995).
Planning
States have already begun to incorporate green development principles into their statewide development
plans. In 1986 the New Jersey Office of State Planning (OSP) was formed to create a State Development
and Redevelopment Plan for New Jersey (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1993). Local municipalities revised
their zoning ordinances and master plans to reflect the OSP plan, while OSP made changes to the plan
to help make it compatible with local ordinances.
The result of this effort was the Interim State Development and Redevelopment Plan known as the
I PLAN Communities of Place. Issued in July 1991, the IPLAN supports development of population
centers, noting that "centers are compact forms of development that, compared to sprawl development,
consume less land, deplete fewer natural resources and are more efficient in the delivery of public
services" (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1993). The IPLAN encourages development of five types of
population centers: urban centers, towns, regional centers, villages, and hamlets.
To address questions regarding the ability of the IPLAN to produce its desired economic, social, and
environmental benefits, OSP conducted a comprehensive impact assessment that compared the results
of IPLAN development with those of the current development plan, known as TREND. Table 2
summarizes the major impacts forecast by the study for IPLAN and TREND development. The table
shows that land consumption and water, sewer, road, and education infrastructure demands are reduced
under IPLAN development.
Social Factors
Neo-traditional communities have sidewalks, town squares, front porches, parks, and other public
meeting places that encourage socialization. People run errands on bicycle or on foot, thus increasing
interaction with other members of their community.
The green approach also provides a variety of housing, including apartments, townhomes, and single
family homes, offering choices for all income brackets. This is beneficial for the buyer who has the
opportunity to be part of a more-refined development and for the seller, who opens the door for more
potential buyers. Some have criticized that neo-traditional developments have a tendency to become
endaves for the wealthy (Millman, 1994). However, this is primarily a short-lived response to the high
demand for such communities. As these communities become more common, they will also become
more affordable.
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Table 1. Impact differences between IPLAN vs. TREND from 1990-2010 (1992 dollars where
applicable)
Category/Units
Population Growth (persons)
Employment Growth (employees)
Land Consumption (acres)
Number of Housing Units
Water ($ millions)
Sewer ($ millions)
Roads ($ millions)
Education ($ millions)
Total Capital Cost of Water, Sewer,
Roads, and Schools ($ millions)
TREND
520,000
654.000
292,000
430,447
$634
$6,790
$2,924
$5,296
$15,644
IPLAN
520,000
654,000
165,000
' 431,105
$573
$6,411
$2,185
$5,115
$14,284
Diff.
0
0
+ 127.000
-658
+$61
+$379
+$739
+$181
+$1,360
%
0
0
43.5
0.15
9.6
5.6
25.2
3.4
8.7
Adapted from Cost of Providing Government Services to Alternative ResidentialPatterns, May 1993, Chesapeake Bay Program.
Government Obstacles
In Subdivide and Conquer, Concrete, Condos, and the Second Conquest of the American West( 1996),
Jeff Gersh asserts that "Sprawl is not the result of free-market choices" (Gersh, 1996). He goes on to
explain that, since World War II, low-density has dominated American residential development,
institutionalized, in part, by government subsidies and investments. For example, Gersh notes that the
public treasury pays for highway extensions, new interchanges, and roads; the government guarantees
mortgages for single-family housing, but not for multi-family or mixed-use development; the government
also pays farmers not to raise crops in some cases priming land for development; and more. Gersh
argues that low-density development is at least partly driven by government subsidies that counter high-
density, compact development typical of green approaches.
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CASE STUDY
Project:
Location:
Green Design:
Benefits:
Source:
Seaside
Seaside, FL (coastal location)
Neo-traditional, mixed-use development.
Seaside was an early neo-traditional development. First
proposed in the early 1980's, it did not have to overcome
much skepticism because of the lack of established
development codes and the rural nature of the area.
Because no point in the town is more than a 10-15 minute
walk away, residents can reduce then" dependence on
automobiles, which leads to reductions in auto emissions.
Common spaces and design with a sense of containment give
the development the feeling of an "outdoor room" which
encourages interaction among residents.
[(Bookout, 1992) & (Patton)]
At the state and local level, zoning ordinances often preclude green approaches. For example, North
Carolina state law does not require stormwater management on properties where impervious surface
accounts for 30 percent or less of the land area being developed (Milliken, 1996). This has resulted in
large lot subdivisions. The goal behind such legislation is to minimize impervious surface, but the result
is the need for more roads that often make up for any savings realized. Such forces favoring low-density
development are costly for green developers to overcome. The time an alternative'design developer
" spends lobbying his case among local planning officials can more than offset the economic gam from
developing the design. This is another cost that will likely be borne by the ground breakers that, over
time, will likely pass.
Financing
Because higher density, green development designs house enough people to make mass transit feasible,
families that buy homes in these neighborhoods may be able to forgo the purchase of a second car
("Living," 1993). By reducing transportation costs, families can afford to devote a larger percentage of
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their income toward a home mortgage. Thus, high-density designs translate into the opportunity to own
a home similar in quality, but lower in cost to finance as compared to residences in low-density
neighborhoods.
Unfortunately, there is a downside to financing green development. A major stumbling block is that the
banks and insurance companies that Jend developers money tend to specialize in one-of-a- kind projects
("Neighborhoods Reborn," 1996). If a proposed development doesn't fit the standard pattern, it can be
difficult to finance it. This is likely to become less burdensome over time, as green development
approaches become more common.
Market Response/Property Values
Robert Engstrom, president of Robert Engstrom Companies, a Minneapolis-based planning and
development firm voices the question near and dear to those who are skeptical of green development
approaches: "Neo-traditional planning has great intentions, but I'm concerned that the market just will not
be there to support it" (Bookout, 1992). As told in basic economic theory, one thing is certain — if green
development is to have a chance, if has to be in demand.
CASE STUDY
Project: Farmview
Location: Yardley, PA
Green Design: Reduced lot sizes and increased open space.
Benefits: Fastest-selling development by price range in Bucks County.
Aesthetic, filtration, and habitat benefits of open space.
Source: (Arendt, 1993)
A 1996 national homebuyer's survey showed that, by a margin of 4 to I, home buyers are in fact
attracted to some of the design concepts of neo-traditional development, but they are not willing to give
up cul-de-sacs, big yards and privacy, and other more traditional design benefits (Harney, n.d.). Other
national surveys tend to have similar results. However, these findings contradict with observations at the
project level. For example, Theresa Brinker, president of TABCO land development company has
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observed an overwhelmingly positive response. Located in Prince George's County, Maryland, Brinker's
Somerset incorporates on-site stormwater treatment systems, known as "Rain Gardens." As Brinker
observes, "Sales are above average for that general market corridor. Buyers perceive the gardens as an
added value to their home" (Maryland Developer, 1 995).
Similarly, in Yardley, Pennsylvania, strategic placement of clustered homes around open space helped
sales in Farmview. Farmview earned distinction as the fastest-selling development in its price range in
Bucks County (Arendt, 1 993). In fact, demand was so high that two developers who had been skeptical
of such a design have since filed applications for similar subdivisions. The story reads the same for other
developers who have maximized their gain by planning development around environmental features such
as open space. A 1995 EPA report, Economic Benefits of Runoff Controls, summarizes the economic
benefits of designing developments around runoff management controls, such as ponds and wetlands.
Aesthetically landscaped runoff controls can increase property values as much as 50 percent by appealing
to buyers interested in hiking around wetlands and lakes, boating, bird-watching, and more. Table 3
summarizes many cases in which both residential and commercial property values increased as a result
of runoff controls.
Corporate reai estate executives say quality of life is a very important factor when deciding where to
locate a new factory or office. Recreational opportunities provided by greenways or open space are an
important part of the quality of life that firms and workers seek (National Park Service, 1992). This
translates into increased property values and an increased tax base for state and local governments.
Environmental Benefits and Avoided Costs
Pollution Control
Some of the most significant benefits and avoided costs associated with green development approaches
ca° be gained by the environment. For example, the compact, mixed-use design common in green
cevelopment patterns mean less travel by car and significant savings in automobile emissions. This
rec'jction in automobile emissions, combined with a reduced energy requirement for heating in high-
censity communities can reduce air pollution by 45 percent (Real Estate Research Corp., 1974). In
accition, water consumed by watering lawns is reduced by 35 percent under green development
schemes (Real Estate Research Corp., 1974).
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Table 3. Examples of real estate premiums charged for property fronting urban runoff controls
Location
Chancery on the Lake, Alexandna, Virginia
Centex Homes at Barkley, Fairfax, Virginia
Townhomes at Lake Barton, Burke, Virginia
Lake of the Woods.Orange County, Virginia
Dodson Homes, Layton, Fauquier County,
Virginia
Ashbum Village, Loudoun County, Virginia
Weston Development, Broward County,
Florida
Silver Lakes Development, Broward County,
Flonda
Highland Parks, Hybemia. Illinois
Waterside Apartments, Reston,' Virginia
Village Lake Apartments, Waldorf, Maryland
Lake Arbors Towers, Mrtchellville. Maryland
Marymount at Laurel Lakes Apartments, Laurel
Lakes, Maryland
Lynne Lake Arms, St. Petersburg, Flonda
Sale Lake, Boulder, Colorado
The Landing, Wichita, Kansas
Fairfax County, Virginia
Laurel Lakes Executive Park, Laurel, Maryland
Base Costs of Lots/Homes
Condominium: $ 1 29.990 - $ 1 39,990
Home with lot: $330,000 - $368,000
Townhome with lot: $ i 30,000 -
$160,000
Vanes
Home with lot: $289,000 - $305,000
Vanes
Home with lot: $ 1 1 0,000 - $ 1 ,000,000
Vanes
Waterfront lot: $299,900 - $374,900
Apartment Rental
Apartment Rental
Apartment Rental
Apartment Rental
Apartment Rental: $336 - $566/morrth
Waterfront lot. $134.000
Waterfront lot: $35,000 - $40,000
Commercial Office
Space Rental
Commercial Office
Space Rental
Estimated Water Premium
Up to $7,500
Up to $10,000
Up to $10,000
Up to $49,000
Up to $10,000
$7,500 -$10,000'
$6,000 - $60.000 depending on
lake size, location, and the
percent of lakefront property in
the neighborhood.
$200 - $400 per linear foot of
waterfront, depending on lake
size and view
$30,000 -$37,500
Up to $ 1 0/month
$5 - $ 1 0/month depending on
apartment floor plan
$ 1 0/month
$ 1 0/month
$5 - $35/month depending on
lake size
Up to $35.000
Up to $20,000
Up to $ 1 /square foot
$1 -$!. 50/square foot
Adapted from Economic Benefits of Runoff Controls, September 1995 EPA's Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, Washington, DC.
In the Fall of 1995, the Charleston Harbor Project, funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and administered by the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental
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Control, began a study that compared the water quality impacts of low-density, sprawl as opposed to
high-density, traditional town development ("Sprawl versus," 1996). Traditional towns are compact,
mixed-use, pedestrian-oriented developments typical of green development patterns.
Project:
Location:
Green Design:
Benefits:
Source:
CASE STUDY
Northridge
Prince George's County, MD
Cluster development combining traditional single-family
homes, detached homes located as close together as four feet
with one side on the property line, and townhomes. Also,
characterized by a notable effort to preserve clusters of mature
trees.
The design is high-density freeing up open space.
Detached homes and townhomes offer variety for a diverse
group of home buyers.
In 1987, Northridge developers sought waivers to save large
areas of trees. Since that time, Prince Georges' County has
developed a tree ordinance, which requires builders to save
trees. Clusters of mature trees are aesthetically pleasing and
provide habitat for wildlife. At the time, the tree ordinance
was the first of its kind in the United States.
[(Salant, 1996) & (Maryland Office of Planning, 1995)]
The design team produced mock developments in both sprawl and traditional town patterns for Belle
Hall, a 583-acre ate in Mt. Pleasant bordered by the Mark Clark Expressway and the Wando River. As
the model developments took shape, comparisons could be made between the two design patterns.
For instance, the land area consumed by the traditional town scenario was one order of magnitude less
than the sprawl scenario. In addition, while the sprawl scenario provided 30 acres of open space, the
traditional town scenario provided 400 acres of open space and greens.
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Dr. Elizabeth Blood, of the Jones Ecological Research Center in Newton, Georgia, then analyzed the
runoff implications of the two development options. She and her team of graduate students used a
computer model based on a modification of the Universal Soil Loss Equation to compare the two designs.
Their study found that the traditional town scenario performed better than the sprawl scenario across the
board. The volume of runoff from sprawl was 43 percent higher than that from the traditional town.
In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus .loadings, as well as chemical oxygen demand were higher in sprawl.
Because the study did not include reductions in the amount of lawn fertilizers and motor vehicle use in
the traditional town scenario, these results are likely to fall even more in favor of the town design. These
results are significant because they reveal the ability of green development approaches to avoid the costs
associated with water pollution. At the same time, these approaches also provide aesthetic and habitat
benefits associated with increased-amounts of open space.
At a more discrete level, green development BMPs also prove to be cost-effective approaches to
improving and protecting water quality. Maine's Casco Bay Estuary Project studied the cost-effectiveness
of several BMPs used to protect the state's water quality, concluding:
• The BMP cost was low compared to the costs of conventional construction practices;
• The BMP cost was small when compared to the overall project cost; and
• The BMP provided additional aesthetic benefits that cannot easily be assigned a dollar value
(Casco Bay Estuary Project, 1995).
Tne Casco Bay report compares green development BMPs to conventional construction practices on a
case-by-case basis. For example, there were two options to combating concentrated runoff from
ca°-ymg soil and phosphorus into Taylor Pond. One was providing additional pipe drainage, the other,
construction of a level lip spreader and vegetated buffer. As Figure 3 shows, the level green BMP
soreader option was $ 12 more, but provided the additional benefits of improved water quality, passive
-ecreanon, and aesthetics. Based on these benefits, the lip spreader and buffer were installed at Taylor
2ond. Of the benefits of this decision, resident Anne Stocker proclaimed, "I love the idea that it [the level
':3 SDreader and wildflower buffer] is low maintenance and property enhancing, since wildflowers dont
nave to be mowed" (Casco Bay Estuary Project, 1995).
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Figure 3. Cost comparison between a traditional and a green approach at Taylor Pond.
Cost Analysis:
Additional
Benefits
• Water Quality
• Passive recreation
• Aesthetics
Leva) Lip
Spreader and
Vegetated
Buffer
Cost-effectiveness:
The costs for the two solutions wens
essentially the same. Each included
the cost of catch basins, storm drain
pipe and a stone outlet. The level lip
spreader required rto additional labor
and materials. However, the spreader
in combination with the buffer
improves stormwater quality.
Adapted from BMPs: Cost-Effective Solutions to Protect Maine's Water Quality, July 1995, the Casco Bay Estuary Project.
In another case cited by the Casco Bay report, the owners of a year-round residence on China Lake
wanted to build an addition towards the shoreline. Because the addition of impervious surface could
increase phosphorus loadings to the lake, the residents compared two measures that would protect
water quality: I) extension of gutter, a traditional construction practice and 2) an infiltration trench
combined with a wildflower buffer, a green approach. A cost comparison between the two options,
depicted in Figure 4, showed the trench and buffer to be $50 less (Casco Bay Estuary Project, 1995).
Not only was this option more cost effective, but it removed the burden of maintaining gutters that an
extension would have required, while providing the aesthetic benefits associated with the wildflower
buffer.
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Figure 4. Cost comparison of a green BMP and its alternative for protecting China Lake.
Cost Analysis:
BMP:
Alternative:
$750
WiWflower
Buffer
Cost-effectiveness:
$750 for infiltration .trench and buffer vs. $6OO for 200 linear
feet of traditional gutters and downspouts at $4/linear foot.
The BMP solution avoids the annual maintenance associated with
gutters — cleaning leaves, removing snow and ice, and replacing
downed gutters from ice damage.
Adapted from BMPs: Cost-Effective Solutions to Protect Maine's Water Quality, July 1995, the Casco Bay Estuary Project.
Green development that incorporates open space can provide critical flood control during peak flow
events and can protect surface and ground water resources by filtering trash, debris, and chemical
pollutants before they can enter the water system. The capacity of open space to absorb stormwater
and provide natural drainage means that a preserved system of natural streams, or greenway, can
substitute for or supplement extended sewer systems (Neighborhood Open Space, 1987).
Studies made in cooperation with electric utility
companies show that when the costs of planting,
watering, and maintaining trees are considered,
tree planting is a more cost-effective energy
conservation and carbon dioxide reduction
strategy than many other conservation measures.
A Chicago study found that in one day 120 acres
of canopy cover can absorb up to 5.5 pounds of
carbon monoxide, 127 pounds of sulfur dioxide,
Johnson County, Kansas, expected to spend
$120 million on stormwater control projects
but voters passed a $600,000 tax levy to
develop a county-wide streamwaypark system.
The park addresses flood concerns while
providing the community with a valuable
recreation resource (National Park Service,
1992).
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24 pounds of nitrogen dioxide and 170 pounds of particulates. Trees in a 525-acre area of Lincoln Park
had an annual air pollution mitigation value equivalent to $25,000 of conventional air pollution controls
(Nowak and McPherson, 1993). In addition, trees function in the noise pollution reduction process by
modifying humidity and climate, by absorbing sound, and by deflection and refraction (USEPA, 1995).
Hazard Mitigation
Use of environmentally sensitive areas for open space can reduce potential property damage costs and
loss of life. Hazards that can be mitigated through green conservation of open space include flooding,
slope instability, structural fire damage, and earthquake losses. This translates into significant annual
savings to the public.
In Summary
Green development approaches have the potential to improve quality of life, increase property values,
expand local businesses, encourage alternative transportation, reduce costs to the developer, reduce
costs to the public, and more. Although nonmonetary values of alternative green development
approaches continue to be the fundamental emphasis of conservation efforts, clear communication of
potential economic benefits will help decision-makers to recognize innovative development as vital to the
well-being of a community.
There is a need for further study of the costs and benefits of green development. It is necessary to
compare green versus traditional development of the exact same parcel of land in order to obtain
meaningful results. There is also a need to promote existing incentives to developers and financers to
implement green development approaches.
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Appendix A - Annotated Green Development Literature
A better row to hoe: The economic, environmental, and social impact of sustainable agriculture. 1994.
Northwest Area Foundation, St. Paul, MN (USA). 1994. 40 pp.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Sustainable agriculture involves substituting renewable resources generated on the farm for
nonrenewable, 'purchased resources. It also makes use of ecological practices such as crop rotation,
landscape management, and livestock waste management. This report evaluates the impact of a shift
toward sustainable agriculture on the economy, environment, and rural communities in the eight-state
northwest region of the U.S. The research findings show that some of the measurable environmental
benefits of sustainable agriculture are reduced toxins in soil and water, less erosion, enhanced wildlife
habitat, and lower energy use.
Aldrich, J.; Walker, M. 1993. Promoting Consistent Stormwater.Management. Water Environment &
Technology, Vol. 5, No. 7, p 38-39, August 1993.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
The California Stormwater Quality Task Force recently released a best management practices (BMP)
handbook to help the regulated community select control measures to reduce stormwater pollutant
discharges. The handbook provides general guidance for municipalities, industries, and construction sites
to develop and implement BMPs in stormwater management programs. The handbook consists of three
volumes, each directed towards a specific audience: municipal stormwater quality management as
required under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) municipal permit program;
stormwater quality management for facilities that currently are covered, that eventually will be covered,
or that are similar to facilities covered by an NPDES general permit for construction activities; and erosion
control and other stormwater quality management plans required under an NPDES general permit for
construction activities. Each volume of the handbook includes chapters on: pertinent regulations regarding
the NPDES permit; how to develop a stormwater management program; guidance on the selection of
BMPs for the plan; details of source control BMPs; details of treatment control BMPs; and guidelines for
measunng BMP performance. The handbook incorporates the following user-friendly concepts: volumes
directed towards a particular audience, standard format, fact sheets, and a three-ring notebook format
to allow for changes and expansion.
Alexander, M.P. 1993. Use of a Current Deflector Wall for Eddy Generated Shoaling in Kohlfleet
Harbor, Germany. The REMR Bulletin (Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS), Vol. 10, No.
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2, p 1-4,June.
Subject Areas: Design
A low training structure called a current deflector wall (CDW) has been developed to eliminate eddy
currents which may result in channel shoaling. The use of the CDW can lower shoaling rates and extend
dredging intervals. A CDW is a fixed vertical-walled training structure with a curved deflector wall that
extends through the full depth of water. The structure modifies flow patterns, breaking down or
preventing the formation of eddies. A prototype CDW was constructed at Kohlfleet Harbor, Port of
Hamburg on the Elbe River, Germany and successfully eliminated formation of the large, stable eddy in
the harbor entrance. Navigation through the harbor entrance was improved, even though the width of
the harbor had been reduced slightly by the construction. The Kohlfleet CDW design and construction
cost $1.65 million; the cost of dredging contaminated sediments at Kohlfleet would have been $7.8
million. A site investigation should be made to determine the application and feasibility of the CDW as
a navigation maintenance alternative. The hydraulic processes studied should include: (I) the magnitude
and direction of ambient currents; (2) annual shoaling volumes and distributions; (3) site bathymetry; and
(4) supporting information, such as salinity, suspended load distribution, and sediment type.
Alicata, P.; De, Pietro R. 1994. Sicily: Inland water management at the southern margin of Europe: Call
for an intersectoral dialogue. AMBIO 1994, vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 455-457.
Subject Areas: Cost/Benefit
Tne pnncipal aim of our paper is to call attention to recent developments in the Mediterranean region.
We also hope to encourage public financiers as well as private investors to facilitate access to their basic
aata on project costs and benefits. Otherwise, the limits set by this notorious lack of information and
communication may result in a "no" attitude in the ecological movement. As an example we selected the
Italian island of Sicily for our study. In Sicily, the public administration tends to avoid cooperation, or does
°ot possess the most fundamental data, and the scarce information published by administrative bodies
is often contradictory. A constructive debate between naturalists and investors would mean enormous
advantages for the people concerned.
Allen, H.H.; Lazor, R.L. 1989. Reservoir Shoreline Erosion and Revegetation Workshops. Army Corps
of Engineers Water Operations Technical Support Information Exchange Bulletin Volume E-89-1,
October 1989. 5p.
SuDiect Areas: Habitat- Planning
in 1987, the US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station began organizing and conducting a series
of annual workshops for Corps of Engineer (CE) personnel. The objectives were to illustrate amd explain
impacts of shoreline erosion in CE reservoirs; identify probable causes of erosion; demonstrate means
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of measuring and analyzing bank erosion and recession; review traditional means of protecting shorelines;
and describe alternative methods of controlling erosion using vegetation or a combination of vegetative
and structural solutions. With proper planning, site preparation, appropriate plant establishment methods
used at the right time, and postplanting monitoring and maintenance, reservoir shorelines can be
vegetated to satisfy several objectives including shoreline erosion control. Revegetating reservoir
shorelines can help prevent and-control erosion, reduce turbidity and improve water quality, establish
fisheries and wildlife habitat, and enhance reservoir esthetic values. Workshops on reservoir erosion
control and revegetation will continue to provide innovative techniques to field personnel and draw upon
others' experiences in controlling reservoir shoreline erosion.
Alper, J. 1993. Protectingthe environment with the power of the market. Science, Vol: 260 Iss: 5116
Date:Jun25, 1993 p: 1884-1885.
Subject Areas: Cost/Benefit - Economics - Market
The common ground that can be reached between sound economics and sound environmental practices
is discussed. A market-based approach can show consumers the hidden costs entailed in their actions.
Amory, W. 1993. Master Water Plan: A Useful Management Tool. Journal of the New England Water
Works Association, Vol. 107, No. 2, p 127-131, June 1993.
Subject Areas: Regulations
Water-utility managers are faced with many challenges; growing consumer demands must be met from
limited supply sources, watershed and aquifer contamination is a constant threat, upgrading of water
quality is mandated by the Federal government, and conservation and efficient use of water resources
have become water-industry requirements. The Master Water Plan is intended to serve as a guideline
to assist water-utility managers in dealing with these challenges. The Plan should address water-supply
requirements, source protection, conservation, water quality, system adequacy (including maintenance
procedures), public relations, and required improvements (including assessment of cost). Evaluation of
water-supply requirements should include consideration of average-day demand, maximum-day demand,
peak-hour demand, and fire-flow requirements. Source protection can include a combination of utility
land ownership and appropriate land-use zoning. Conservation not only reduces water use but also
reduces the generation of wastewater, which in turn helps reduce the threat of polluting community
water supplies. Evaluation of water quality is generally based on two considerations: (a) health
aspects-the safety of the water for drinking purposes-and (b) aesthetics. The Master Plan should include
an evaluation of water-system adequacy, identification of system deficiencies, and recommended
improvements. To convince utility customers that their water bills are reasonable requires an effective
public-relations program; the Plan should address requirements for dealing with the media, educational
programs for elementary and high-school students, speaker bureaus, video presentations, and public
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tours of water-system facilities. A carefully prepared improvement program serves as a useful tool in
assisting utility managers to achieve and maintain an up-to-date system. To update management on the
most cost-effective procedures for meeting current water-service requirements, the Master Water Plan
should be re-evaluated every 5-10 years.
Andrews, A.S.; Fraser, G.W.; Leak, A.J. 1990. Drainage Manual for Clark County, Nevada. In
Hydraulics/Hydrology of Arid Lands (H2AL). American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. p. 90-95.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
The development of a flood control district and its associated capital improvement and regulatory
programs does not by itself address drainage standards for a community. While the capital improvement
and regulatory programs go a long way in solving existing flooding problems and minimizing future
flooding problems, a common denominator is missing. This common denominator is drainage standards
that are laid out in a drainage manual. Such a drainage manual covers all aspects of drainage planning
including policy, design criteria, applicable laws, and guidelines for development of private and public
stormwater management facilities. The preparation of a drainage manual in an arid region that is
experiencing rapid growth warrants the inclusion of special features that attempt to address the concerns
of all affected individuals.
Anonymous. 1992. The Price of Green. Economist, Vol: 323 Iss: 7758 Date: May 9, 1992 p: 87.
Subject Areas: Cost/Benefit- Economics
In the green frenzy that is preceding the upcoming Earth Summit, the phrase 'sustainable development'
keeps popping up in unexpected places. Usually it is simply shorthand for anything environmental, but
some see it as a better basis for making environmental decisions than balancing costs and benefits.
Anonymous. 1993. Basquing in future glories. Economist, Vol: 328 Iss: 7829 Date: Sep 18, 1993 p:
95-96.
Subject Areas: Planning
Bilbao Spain's present griminess is an emblem of the Basque region's domination by the Spanish
government. Bilbao-Ria 2000 is an ambitious attempt at urban revitalization, including a civic spending
spree for a new concert hall, conference center and museum of modern art.
Anonymous. 1994. Resurrecting the rain barrel. Environment, Vol: 36 Iss: 2 Date: Mar 1994 p: 23.
Subject Areas: Design
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Water-poor regions of the US are relying more upon cisterns as a source of water storage. They are
particularly popular in Hawaii.
Anonymous. 1994. Inviting Bambi into the backyard. Environment, Vol: 36 Iss: 8 Date:Octl994 p:
22.
Subject Areas: Habitat - Natural Resources
Wildlife can exist in cities, and it is actually the biological monitor of the health of cities. Wildlife
conservationists are working on the creation of urban habitats for wildlife.
Anonymous. 1995. Making cities safer: Good fences... Economist, Vol: 334 Iss: 7907 Date: Mar 25,
1995 p: 30-31.
SubjectAreas: Design - Planning
Architect and consultant Oscar Newman lent ideas to the Five Oaks area of Dayton OH on the use of
physical planning for urban revitalization. Installing gates to cut through traffic and creating
minineighborhoods, Dayton's crime rate dropped by a quarter and violent crime by a half.
Anonymous. 1995. Citadels of power. Economist, Vol: 336 Iss: 7925 Date: Jul 29, 1995 p:
SSI4-SSI7.
Subject Areas: Economics - Regulations
Discovering what policies affect cities' productivity and how to improve them is becoming more
important. Policies that are concerned with transport, policing, zoning and the environment matter most
to urban businesses.
Argue, J.R. 1994. 17 Biennial Conference Of The International Association, On Water. A new
streetscape for stormwater management in Mediterranean climate cities: The concept explored. WATER
QUALITY INTERNATIONAL 94. PART I: COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS AND URBAN STORM
DRAINAGE: Ballay.-D.; Asano,-T.; Bhamidimarri,-R.; Chin,-K.K.; Dahlberg,-A.G.; Grabow,-W.O.K.;
Ohgaki,-S.; Zotter.-K.; Milburn,-A.; lzod,-E.J.; Nagle,-P.T. (eds.) 1994 pp. 23-32.
WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 30, no. I.
SubjectAreas: Design- Water Quality
The water resources crisis facing countries of the Mediterranean Basin is reflected, in diminished form,
in the semi-arid, "Mediterranean-climate" zone of Australia. Some creative solutions involving the
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collection, treatment, storage, retrieval and use of storm runoff to replace the component of
mains-supplied water presently used for "second quality" purposes, are emerging in Adelaide, capital city
of South /Australia. The paper describes one initiative being taken to achieve source control of stormwater
- quantity and quality - in mixed-density residential streets. The resulting streetscape is suitable for use
in both "greenfields" and re-development projects. The paper explores the hydrological/hydraulic
performance of the system and shows that it satisfies all theoretical requirements for safety in the full range
of flooding up to and including the "once in 100-years" event. The new streetscape holds the following
advantages over conventional streetscapes: reduced peak outflows, greatly improved effluent water
quality, aids "greening" of the landscape, potential for aquifer recharge where appropriate,
aquifer-retrieved groundwater can replace mains water used for irrigation, "nuisance" flows are fully
contained (no surface appearance), major flows only occupy the swale, street residences are less flood
prone and the streetscape fits more harmoniously into undulating terrain.
Arnold, J. A; Nevils, F. M.; Smolen, M. D. 1991. North Carolina's Sediment Control Program. Public
Works, Vol. 122, No. 13, p 48-50, December 1991.
Subject Areas: Regulations
The background and operation of North Carolina's erosion and sediment control program, which have
been in operation for over a decade, are reviewed. The North Carolina Sediment Control Program is
based on legislation referred to as the Sedimentation Pollution Control Act of 1973. The legislation
established a framework stating the intent of the law and a means by which it could be carried out. The
act deals only with land-disturbing activities associated with construction or land development; forestry
activities that follow best management practices and agriculture are specifically exempted from the act.
The act is directed to those who are financially responsible for the land disturbing activities and/or
landowners. Thus, the full weight of the law bears on those who benefit financially from the disturbance.
The act established the North Carolina Sedimentation Control Commission to carry out the law. The
Commission is composed of appointed representatives from academia, industry, state and local
government, and various environmental groups. The Commission's duties include oversight of the act and
its administration, and amending administrative rules. Day-to-day activities are carried out by a permanent
state staff. Two additional duties of the Commission are (I) to help encourage local governments develop
their own erosion and sedimentation control ordinances; and (2) to recommend practices and develop
educational materials to improve compliance with the law. Specific requirements of the act such as plan
submittal, performance requirements, inspections and administrative rules, are also reviewed. A
weakness of the program is that the regulatory agency lacks sufficient means to force
compliance with the act.
Austin, L.H.; Tullis, R.L.; Stauffer, N.E. 1988. Virgin River: Planning for Development While Meeting
Flow Requirements for Endangered Species. Water Use Data for Water Resources Management.
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Proceedings of a Symposium. American Water Resources Association, Bethesda, Maryland. 1988. p
523-535.
Subject Areas: Model - Recreation - Planning
The Virgin River Basin in southern Utah, particularly the St. George area, has experienced rapid growth
as a recreation and retirement location during the last 15 to 20 years. This has created new water
demands in a water short, semiarid area that has a long history of difficulty in water development.
Meeting these demands is complicated by the many national and state parks as well as the forest, Bureau
of Land Management (BLM), and Indian lands that are in close proximity to the Virgin River. Further
complicating the issue is the listing of the Woundfin as an endangered species and the proposed listing of
the Virgin River Chub as an endangered spedes. A widespread effort is underway to address these issues
using techniques such as: a river basin study pertaining to water, soil, and related resources; a biological
study of the native fish; and computer modeling offish habitat and water development. The modeling
effort includes simulating existing and potential reservoir sites for evaluating the effects of water
development on endangered fish habitats with minimum flow constraints.
Bakker, J.F.; Colin, F. 1992. A Target Ecosystem for the Wadden Sea A Time for Concerted Action.
Netherlands Journal of Sea Research, Vol. S20, p 79-82, 1992.
Subject Areas: Model
In recent years government policy on water management has shifted from a unilateral to an integrated
approach. The Dutch government, in terms of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works, formulated
its policy for the coming four-year period in the Third Water Management Plan: Water in the
Netherlands: A Time for Action. The ecological target of a water system was introduced as a guidance
for the elaboration of administrative measures and legislation, briefly referred to as the AMOEBA
approach. The ecological target is an ecosystem in which sustainable use and development are likely to
be present/and can be divided into three ecological units: sublittoral, littoral, and salt marshes. To use
the AMOEBA approach, a number of steps have to be completed: (I) choose a cross-section of
organisms of the examined ecosystem, preferably those that have suffered severe changes during recent
times; (2) indicate an ecological state of reference for the Wadden Sea, which represents a sustainable
development and use of the ecosystem; (3) try to locate causal relations with changes in one or more
control species; (4) formulate measures which redirect primary processes to the level at which they were
during the state of reference; and (5) design a monitoring program that has the primary objective to
follow the developments in the ecosystem and the effects of the managerial measures on control species
and cardinal processes. The results indicate that: (I) algae have increased; (2) eelgrass is nearly extinct;
(3) oysters are extinct; (4) anadromous fish species are nearly extinct; (5) natural beds of mussels and
shells, anchovy, sandwich tern, seal and porpoise populations are severely reduced: (6) mussel cultures,
oystercatchers, eiderducks, cockles and worms have expanded; and (7) fish diseases and the number of
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oil spillage victims have escalated. The application of the AMOEBA approach will help to structure
thoughts about ecosystems and help to visualize clear, quantifiable objectives for the Wadden Sea.
Balco, j.J. 1992. Site Planning for Aquifer Protection. Environmental Protection, Vol. 3, No. 5, p 39-42,
June 1992.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources - Planning -Regulations
Zoning ordinances designed to protect groundwater sources sometimes can hinder industrial
development when unreasonable restrictions are imposed. However, totally prohibiting development
is not necessarily beneficial to communities or the economy upon which their residents depend. Rather
a resource protection program designed to manage as opposed to prohibit development has been
demonstrated in recent experience to permit relatively safe industrial and commercial activities in
protected areas. In the area of wellhead zones, the regulatory focus is on point sources such as
underground storage tanks or industrial septic tanks. A well-established and successful approach to a
wellhead protection program is being implemented by the State of Massachusetts and its local
communities. With appropriate planning, financial commitment, and sensitivity to resource protection,
industries have demonstrated that responsible development can continue in these areas while still
protecting precious natural resources. The key is to determine early in the planning process whether a
site is within a protection zone, and incorporate that reality into the site design.
Bamett, J.L.; Windell, j.T. 1992. 10 High Altitude Revegetation Workshop, Fort Collins, CO (USA) 4.
6. Mar 1992. Stream restoration in Boulder, Colorado. PROCEEDINGS: HIGH ALTITUDE
REVEGETATION WORKSHOP NO. 10. Hassell,-W.G.;Nordstrom,-S.K.; Keammerer,-W.R.; Todd,-J.
(eds.) COLORADO STATE UNIV., FORTCOLLINS, CO 80523 (USA) COLORADO WATER
RESOUR. RES. INST. 1992 p. 171.
Subject Areas: Habitat - Recreation - Water Quality
Urbanization, gravel mining, and channelization cause major impacts to stream corridors. Flooding
characteristics, water quality, aquatic and terrestrial habitat values, and stream channel stability are
adversely affected by these activities. Like other cities, the City of Boulder, Colorado contains many
reaches of altered stream channels. Numerous stream reaches pass through the city's busiest commercial
areas and most densely developed residential neighborhoods, while other reaches remain relatively
pristine. The City of Boulder has recognized that these streams provide unique opportunities for creating
a comprehensive greenway system for the community. They can be creatively developed to function as
storm drainage and flood channels, efficient bicycle and pedestrian transportation systems, open space
and wildlife corridors, and attractive recreation areas. Sensitivity designed improvements enhance the
value of each stream corridor as wildlife habitat, as a place for in-town opportunities for both active and
passive recreation, as major links in both existing and proposed trails and bikeways, a,nd as improved
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flood carrying channels. This paper describes the rationale, approach, and progress by the City of Boulder
in restoring its stream corridors.
Barrow, C.j. 1994. Land degradation. Development and breakdown of terrestrial environments. NEW
YORK, NY (USA). CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1994.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Land degradation is fast becoming recognized as a key issue for world conservation as the end of the
twentieth century approaches. The complex relationship, between human development and the
environment is explored, with a particular emphasis on the causes of land degradation processes. Having
given a broad overview of what land degradation is and why it is occurring, the author goes on to
illustrate the problem in the context of different habitat types such as forest, woodland, and drylands. The
impact of human activities through global pollution, and industrial and urban development, as well as
conservation efforts are discussed. Written as an introduction to the topic, the book provides a synthesis
of our current understanding of the phenomenon of land degradation.
Bauereis, E.I. 1992. Chesapeake Experience: NFS Chesapeake Challenge for Sustainable Development.
Water Science and Technology, Vol. 26, No. 12, p 2723-2725.
Subject Areas: Design
Without quantification of compliance concepts as applied to non-point sources (NFS) in areas such as the
Chesapeake Bay (Maryland), it is impossible to design control strategies that are effective, implementable,
attainable, measurable, and flexible. The quantities required for each watershed are the existing loadings
and the loading standard (or carrying capacity) of that watershed. The Chesapeake Experience has been
reasonably successful with measurable reductions in phosphate and some other contaminants but recent
analyses have identified NFS pollution as the culprit in potential failure to attain nitrogen reductions. The
NPS loading could also be implicated as a major source for some heavy metals, organics, and sediments
to the Chesapeake Bay. These NPS loadings may become a major impediment to attaining designated
uses of water bodies, and there is a need for focus on the loading quantification of NPS. There are three
areas which will impact the Chesapeake NPS program positively in the future: the Toxics Research
Program, the Clean Air Act of 1990, and the implementation of a cultural change embracing a philosophy
of total quality management. The need for cost- effective controls and innovative methods to accomplish
NPS goals is obvious. Land use issues are local jurisdiction issues as well as state and federal issues, which
leads to confusion and even conflict over program objectives and overlapping authority. There is a need
to provide understanding, greater choice, and more individual responsibility to attain better environmental
stewardship.
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Beard, D. P. 1994. Bureau of Reclamation revamps efforts to help fish. FISHERIES 1994 vol. 19, no.
7, pp. 6-7.
Subject Areas: Habitat
In its 92-year history, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has been instrumental to the development of water
resources in the arid western United States. Now the bureau's mission is changing to better suit today's
water needs. Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt and I are committed to transforming the Bureau of
Reclamation from a civil works construction agency into a premier water resources manager. The
bureau's increased emphasis on improved management and protection of natural resources is reflective
of greater environmental knowledge, changing societal values and needs, and the natural evolution from
a resource development focus. Our program will focus on operating existing projects with greater
environmental sensitivity, implementing environmental restoration efforts, and undertaking activities with
more concern for environmental values. While we still have much to do, the bureau has taken some
important steps to implement its new mission. The following are examples of bureau activities that
illustrate our commitment to endangered species recovery, fish habitat restoration, and sustainable
management of healthy fisheries.
Benes, M.E. 1989. Boards of Health Protection for Private Wells and Groundwater. Protecting Ground
Water from the Bottom Up: Local Responses to Wellhead Protection. Proceedings of the Conference,
October 2-3, 1989, Danvers, Massachusetts. Underground Injection Practices Councii, Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma. 1989. p 303-308.
Subject Areas: Planning - Regulations
In Massachusetts, people depending upon private wells are unprotected against improper siting, poor
installation, and contamination, except where local health boards have adopted regulations. Effective
private well protection depends upon the local board of health adopting a well protection policy which
is consistent with local needs and conditions. In addition to specific private well regulations, there are
other actions which local boards can take as part of an overall groundwater protection program. These
include hazardous waste pickups, underground storage tank regulations, subdivision review, regulation
of pesticides and septic tank cleaners, local emergency response planning committees, solid waste
disposal regulations, and others.
Bennett, D.B.; Heaney, J.P. 1991. Retrofitting for Watershed Drainage. Water Environment &
Technology, Vol. 3, No. 9, p 63-68, September.
Subject Areas: Model
Over the past 8 years, degradation in Florida's Indian River Lagoon has taken the form of fish kills,
reduced viable recreational and commercial fisheries, and loss of seagrass beds. Stormwater drainage
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practices in the watershed have been identified as the primary culprit in the slow demise of the lagoon.
A project was implemented to create a watershed control system for the Indian River Lagoon and to
develop pragmatic management strategies to relieve stresses resulting from runoff to the lagoon. Using
site-specific hydrologic data, the cause and effect relationships of the catchment hydrology, channel
hydraulics, and pollutant loads were documented and summarized using the Storm Water Management
Model. The calibrated model was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed watershed control
system under existing land use and under maximum buildout. The simulation clearly illustrated that the
system would have great difficulty meeting the groundwater discharge and water level fluctuation criteria
for all development scenarios, Without periodic drawdown, water levels in the system would be nearly
static. Groundwater discharge was estimated to be reduced by only 9%. Under maximum buildout,
sedimentation in the wetland may be a problem. It is concluded that stormwater management on the
watershed must take a muttiobjective analysis approach. Not all criteria may be optimally achieved, raising
interesting tradeoff questions.
Bequette, France. 1994. Inventingthe urban future. UNESCO Courier, Iss: 5 Date: May 1994 p:
25-27.
Subject Areas: Design - Natural Resources - Planning
The next millenium will see immense, sprawling megacities with huge populations and even huger
environmental problems. Creative solutions to the problems of urban ecology must be sought and
implemented soon.
Berg, V.H.; Clement, P.P. 1993. Stormwater Park Controls Runoff. Public Works, Vol. 124, No. I, p
46-49, January.
Subject Areas: Design
Maryland's Fairland Regional Park is a 434-acre park in Prince George's and Montgomery Counties, just
northeast of Washington, DC. In the early 1980s, federal EPA studies of Chesapeake Bay pollution
implicated the major tributaries flowing into the bay as pollution carriers, including the Potomac and
Anacostia Rivers to which Fairland Park drainage flows. By the mid-1980s, expansion of the park had
outstripped the park's two existing small temporary (dry) detention basins. In 1987, a series of
stormwater management techniques were employed, creating a demonstration stormwater management
system that has attracted much attention. The control techniques fall into three major areas: (I) sediment
and erosion control; (2) stormwater management facilities to control runoff; and (3) natural or soft erosion
control and stormwater pollution control methods. Induded in the park are simple earth berms, sediment
traps, vegetated areas, a bio-retention basin which uses vegetative filters, a shallow manmade marsh or
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wetland (29 acres), extended wet detention basin, infiltration trenches, stone dry wells, and porous
pavement.
Berger, J. J. 1991. The federal mandate to restore: Laws and policies on environmental restoration.
ENVIRON. PROF. 1991 vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 195-206. 1991.
Subject Areas: Regulations
Specific laws and policies discussed include the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts; the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (Superfund and amendments); the Endangered
Species Act; the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act;
the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act; the Water Resources Development Act; and the
President's "No Net Loss of Wetlands" policy and various executive orders. Statuatory and policy
authorizations for the conduct of environmentaJ restoration by the federal government are so widespread
throughout the framework of the nation's federal natural resource and environmental law that a sound
legal foundation exists for the conduct of major environmental, restoration programs affecting virtually
every basic type of natural resource in the nation.
Bewers, J.M.; Wells, P.G. 1992. Challenges for Improved Marine Environmental Protection. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 25, No. 1-4, p I 12-1 17.
Subject Areas: Model
A review of the progress made in the protection of the marine environment during the last 40 years
shows that the prevailing sectoral approach to marine policy and management has limited effectiveness
and is overdue for replacement by a comprehensive overall strategy for social development and
environmental protection. The prevention and control of marine pollution requires partnerships among
scientific, management, local and political spheres. Two categories of scientific challenge, relating to
marine pollution prevention in its broadest sense, are identified. The first involves science directed
towards improvements in the reliability of assessments and predictions for current practices and
chemicals. Where the properties of a marine pollutant are adequately known, there is seldom any need
to consider application of the precautionary approach beyond the common-sense minimization of
releases to the environment. Where there are major deficiencies in the knowledge of the properties of
a substance, or in the character of complex emissions, there will be strong reasons for advocating
additional measures of precaution in management. The second category of scientific challenge comprises
areas of fundamental sdence that are crucial to developing knowledge required for long-term protection
of the marine environment. The confidence with which scientists can constrain known relationships
among variables needs to be improved so that model simulations for assessment and prediction become
more realistic. Biological indicators are also needed for assessment purposes along with evaluations of the
properties of substances in the marine environment through long-term monitoring.
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Biswas, A. K. 1994. Sustainable water resources development: Some personal thoughts. INT. J. WATER
RESOUR. DEV. 1994 vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 109-1 16.
Subject Areas: Planning
Sustainable development has now become a popular term, but it often means different things to different
people. Operationalization of this concept is still not possible. This paper examines some of the major
issues associated with sustainability. The opportunities and constraints of the current environmental
assessment approaches for water development are objectively discussed.
Blyth, RS. 1994. The Limehouse Link Tunnel: The planning and route of the Link. PROC. INST. CIV.
ENG. TRANSPORT 1994 vol. 105, no. I, pp. 9-19.
Subject Areas: Planning
This paper outlines the history and planning of the Limehouse Link, the major link in the Docklands
highways network, designed to improve access to and from the City of London to the Isle of Dogs. It
opened to traffic ahead of schedule on 17 May 1993. This road is an urban development by the London
Docklands Development Corporation, a Government agency set up by statute to bring about the social
and economic regeneration of a neglected part of London. The purpose of the scheme is described,
together with some of the options considered, including the early ones proposed by the Greater London
Council. The paper also outlines the agreement between the London Docklands Development
Corporation and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets which enabled the scheme to proceed and
secured significant benefits for local residents.
Bolger, D. 1992. Ecologcal Linkages - Nature Conservation 2. The Role of Corridors. Edited by Denis
A. Saunders'and Richard j. Hobbs. Science, Vol: 256 Iss: 5060 Date: May 22, 1992 p: 1224-1225.
Subject Areas: Habitat- Natural Resources
Mixed book review.
Borden, R.T. 1992. The Greening of Greens. Civil Engineering (ASCE), Vol. 62, No. 10, p 55-57,
October.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
The construction of new golf courses may be delayed while environmental issues are satisfied. It takes
careful planning and design to keep fertilizers and pesticides from wreaking havoc on an established
ecosystem, or to prevent migrating sediment and bulldozed soil from filling wetlands. When the Lowes1
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Island Golf Course was developed on an island in the Potomac River northwest of Washington, DC,
engineering services were sought. The site required significant r'egrading to protect the course from
low-level floods and yet allow conveyance of a 100-year storm event and a wetland mitigation program
designed with attention to storm-water runoff quality. Golf-course architects provided the layout with
conceptual grading, landscaping and construction specifications for the greens and tees; engineers knowing
local conditions were able to judge the impact on the environment. An environmental services firm was
called in to delineate any wetland areas, based on soil, plant and water characteristics. A marsh was
created at the downstream end of the island as the mitigation site, together with a seasonal marsh and
a lake. These marshes and ponds will also help control the quality of storm-water runoff. Mitigation areas
were planned to filter out much of the chemicals used to maintain the course. A firm was hired to
develop a program of pesticide and fertilizer application, to select chemicals that would have limited
persistence, toxicity and mobility, to suggest biological and mechanical pest controls to reduce the need
for chemicals and to develop chemical handling guidelines. Since the site had to be regraded to increase
the level of flood protection, historical data and flood profiles were obtained, and the approximate
probability of flooding for various elevations were derived. A berm was constructed around the outside
of the island with a flap valve to let water out but not in, and to ensure that no sediment, chemicals, grass
clippings, or lost golf balls pollute the river. A clay liner was placed around the lakes to limit percolation
of water or waterbome contaminants into the groundwater. The lakes and marshes were interconnected
to discharge downstream of the water intake. The course is environmentally sound, as well as beautiful
and playable.
Bowen, R. 1995. 39 Annual New Mexico Water Conference, Albuqu. Federal initiatives on the Rio
Grande. THE FUTURE OF ALBUQUERQUE AND MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN. PROCEEDINGS
OF THE 39TH ANNUAL NEW MEXICO WATER CONFERENCE. NEW MEXICO STATE
UNIVERSITY, BOX 30001, DEPT. 3167, LAS CRUCES. NM 88003 (USA) NEW MEXICO WATER
RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE. 1995 pp. 97-99. TECH.-REP.-NEW-MEX.-WATER-RESOUR.
-RES.-INST. vol. 290.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Ecosystem protection is at the core of EPA's reorientation goal of moving the agency toward a more
holistic approach to environmental protection. Currently, a multitude of terms are being used to describe
the new orientation. There is the watershed protection approach, whole basin planning, ecoregion
protection, geographic focused approach, ecosystem management and place-based protection. Other
federal agencies also have their own terms. What do they all have in common? In my opinion, their
common theme is to bring us back to focusing on natural resources as a system and not separate
components. In the past we have chosen to focus on certain components because of the agency's
organizational structure or specific programmatic goals. The Office of Water's approach to ecosystem
protection is being called the watershed approach. We will attempt to deliver the services we are
responsible for, in a manner that recognizes and respects the complexity and interrelationships within
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ecosystems. A few key principles underlie EPA's watershed approach. Geographic focus is the first.
Management activities need to be directed within specific areas, typically watersheds or basins or
groundwater recharge zones. Next, actions need to be driven by environmental objectives and
supported by strong science and data. Next is partnerships. Those parties most affected by the
management decisions must be involved throughout and help shape key decisions. Management teams
must include local, state, tribal, all appropriate federal agencies and public interest groups. The last key
principles are coordinated priority setting and integrated solutions. Through coordinated efforts,
appropriate parties can establish priorities and take integrated actions based on consideration of all
environmental issues, induding threats to public health, and surface and groundwater as well as the need
to protect critical habitat and biological integrity.
Box, J.D.; Walker, G.j. 1994. Conservation of the Blythe, a high quality river in a major urban area in
England. AQUAT. CONSERV. MAR. FRESHWAT. ECOSYST. 1994 vol. 4, no. I, pp. 75-85.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
The Blyth River lies between the cities of Birmingham and Coventry. It has been notified recently as a
statutory Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and is one of the few whole-river SSSIs in Britain. It
possesses a combination of natural course and structure which is a rare feature of lowland rivers in
England. There is a clear succession of plant communities from its source to its confluence with the River
~ame. Botanically it is one of the richest rivers in England. A study in 1982 recorded 159
macroinvertebrate taxa from the river. A notable feature is the species richness of the molluscs,
ohgochaetes and caddis-flies. The Blyth is subject to a range of pressures including land drainage,
recreation and development (buildings and infrastructure). The appropriate option for its conservation
^anagement is limitation of catchment development. In order that this nationally important resource is
conserved for future generations, a strategic approach to catchment management is needed combined
win urban and infrastructure developments which are environmentally sustainable. The preparation of
a catchment management strategy needs to be given a priority. The success of such a strategy will be
ceoendent on cooperation between English Nature, the National Rivers Authority, the local planning
ajnonties and the many riparian owners and occupiers. English Nature is cooperating with the National
^vers Authonty to produce a 'special ecosystem1 classification so that statutory Water Quality Objectives
can be set to protect river SSSIs like the Blyth. The goodwill of the riparian owners and occupiers is
needed for the protection and enhancement of wildlife habitats along the river.
Braden, J.B.; Larson, R.S.; Herricks, E.E. 1991. Impact Targets versus Discharge Standards in
Agricultural Pollution Management. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 73, No. 2, p
388-397, May 1991.
Subject Areas: Model
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The economic losses from the use of soil movement rather than water quality criteria for the attainment
of habitat protection for high-valued fish species were examined using a version of the Sediment
Economics (SEDEC) model. The SEDEC model was extended to include: (I) seasonality of sediment
loads;(2) pesticide losses, toxicity, and concentrations; and (3) effects of sediment and pesticides on the
habitat requirements of selected fish species. Estimates were based on a case study of Lake Michigan
tributaries. The study showed that when attempting to protect fish in streams, sediment or erosion targets
are inefficient. Use of a habitat suitability target reveals lower cost abatement measures because it
accounts for pesticides as well as soil particles. In the Lake Michigan case studies the lower cost measures
involve more crop diversity, less use of no-till, and changes on more acres than the solutions based on
sediment discharges or erosion rates.
Briggs, M.K.; Roundy, B.A.; Shaw, W.W. 1994. Trial and error: Assessing the effectiveness of riparian
revegetation in Arizona. RESTOR. MANAGE. NOTES 1994 vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 160- 167.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Many riparian ecosystems in the Southwest are in trouble. The effects of agriculture, dam construction,
groundwater pumping, livestock grazing, urbanization, and other human activities have led to the rapid
dedine of many southwestern riparian vegetation communities. Hall and Bammon observed that 22 of
Arizona's 27 native fish are federally classified as being in danger of extinction; this is probably as good an
indicator as any of the decline of Arizona's riparian areas. Concern over the plight of riparian ecosystems
in the Southwest has resulted in the development of various conservation strategies specifically designed
to reclaim these valuable ecosystems. One such strategy, coined "riparian revegetation," involves planting
trees, shrubs, forbs, and grasses in degraded riparian ecosystems. Once established, such plantings can
help to replace lost riparian vegetation.
Brown, D'. J. 1990. Michigan Groundwater Survey: A Cooperative Venture of Local Governments.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 45, No. 2, p 268-269, 1990.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
The Michigan grouridwater survey focused on the design and implementation of a computerized
groundwater and geologic information management system. Thousands of well logs stored as paper copy
in local health departments were converted into accessible electronic data files. County-wide baseline
groundwater quality studies focusing on wells carefully chosen to characterize the aquifers in each county
were designed and executed. Having computer accessible information available has allowed state and
local agencies to better discharge their traditional responsibilities and to undertake new management
activities. These range from well and septic system permitting and inspection to land use planning, zoning
and groundwater management and protection. Baseline water quality can now be compared to new
analyses to assess the degree of degradation in cases of possible contamination and preliminary site
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assessments can be performed with relative ease. Proposed new land uses can be evaluated more readily
for their potential impact on groundwater quality.
Browne, F.X. 1990. Stormwater Management. Standard Handbook of Environmental Engineering.
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York New York. 1990. p 759-893.
Subject Areas: Planning
The study of stormwater management includes all elements of the hydrologic cycle but focuses on how
humans affect the production, movement, and control or surface runoff. In a natural system, the rate of
surface runoff is controlled by the rainfall rate, soil conditions, vegetation, and subsurface geology. Most
pollutants found in rainfall and stormwater runoff are removed from water as it soaks into the ground or
flows through the organic litter at the soil surface. As urbanization occurs, large areas are covered by
pavement and buildings. This results in large increases in the total quantity and peak rate of runoff.
Pollutants deposited on pavements are washed directly into stream channels. Increases in surface runoff
often result in more frequent flooding of near-channel areas and erosion of the streambanks. Modern
stormwater management practices attempt to use natural and manmade systems to minimize
environmental damage and provide the facilities necessary for modern society. A complete stormwater
management program contains many elements including on-site infiltration and detention, collection and
transport systems, regional flood control, and major stream channel improvements. It also includes a
legal, financial, and institutional structure to implement the program.
Carlisle, T.; Mulamoottil, G.; Mitchell, B. 1991. Attitudes Towards Artificial Wetlands in Ontario for
Stormwater Control and Waterfowl Habitat. Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 3, p 419-427, June
1991. '
Subject Areas: Return
Individuals from several interest groups in Ontario were surveyed to ascertain attitudes towards the use
of artificial wetlands for stormwater management and to provide waterfowl habitat. In total, 166
questionnaires were distributed and 124 completed returns were received. The results of the survey
show that the provision of wetlands as waterfowl habitats in the context of stormwater impoundments
is severely limited and is not considered an important management option. The overwhelming rejection
of this integrated approach seems to be due to a lack of understanding and its comparative newness.
Some of the perceived problems and concerns could be addressed by improvements in the design of
the artificial wetlands. The design and implementation of an artificial wetland prototype as part of an
educational program in Ontario is recommended.
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Caswell, B. 1990. PJver Recharge. Water Well Journal WWJOA9, Vol. 44, No. I I, p 34-37, November
1990. 4 fig.
Subject Areas: Regulations
Important municipal groundwater supply issues today include delineation of Wellhead Protection Areas
(WHPAs) and differentiation between 'true' groundwater and groundwater that is influenced by surface
water. A Vermont community found itself facing these two issues when it decided to replace its existing
municipal well. State regulations required that the community undertake a geohydrologic investigation
of its aquifer as an integral part of the proposed new well construction. Delineation of a Wellhead
Protection Area using test boring and test pumping information clearly showed that this groundwater
source induces significant recharge from the nearby Connecticut River. Using the same information, the
brook that is also adjacent to the well site was shown not to be an important source of induced recharge.
This brook watershed was not recommended to be included within the Wellhead Protection Area.
Because of the high transmissivity of this glacial stream aquifer and its close hydraulic coupling with the
Connecticut River, the two zones of the Wellhead Protection Area are small, and thereby, require
relatively little land purchase or land-use zoning by the community. Maintenance of good quality river
water, however, should be addressed at state and federal levels of government. Even if the upstream
Connecticut River basin is included in the Wellhead Protection Area, there is little that one town can do
to control development of the large watershed and possible cumulative degradation of river water quality
over time. Under current conditions, this riverside aquifer can provide a large volume of high quality
groundwater. These conditions should be preserved.
Charlier, R H.; Charlier, C. C. P. 1995. Sustainable multiple use and management of the coastal zone.
ENVIRON. MANAGE. HEALTH 1995 vol. 6, no. I, pp. 14-24.
Subject Areas: Planning
Population migration to the coastal zone has increased by 50 to 70 per cent. Conflicts of inhabitation and
use are escalating rapidly. Single use is economically risky if not unsound. In traditional societies
multiple-use has been exercised successfully. Concentration among todays users should lead to an
acceptable balance and to sustainable situations. Physical, biological and geological equilibria and
conservation should be maintained. For this to happen communication approaches should be fine-tuned.
A Citizen's guide to planning and zoning in Virginia. Chesapeake, Bay Foundation.
Cheema, G.S. 1994. UN DP statement. MAR. POLICY 1994 vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 104-106. 1994.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development represented the largest ever
gathering of heads of state, international specialized agencies, United Nations bodies, non-governmental
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organizations and intergovernmental organizations. One of the main products of the Conference was
Agenda 21. Chapter 17, related to the marine environment, states that more than half the world's
population lives within 60 km of the shoreline and many of the world's poor are crowded in these areas.
Although coastal resources are vital for many local communities and indigenous people, urban populations
gradually cause the direct or indirect contamination of the very marine environment on which they so
much depend. Inland communities are also affected through the contamination of rivers, streams and
other bodies of water that follow the cycles of nature and eventually reach the open seas. A
comprehensive solution will demand specific regional strategies aimed at not merely alleviating effects but
combating causes. This coincides with the United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP's)
commitment to regionalizing its Urban Development Cooperation Activities.
Chilibeck, B.; Chislett, G.; Morris, G. 1992. Land development guidelines for the protection of aquatic
habitat. Department, Of Fisheries And Oceans, Ottawa, ON (Canada) Habitat Management, Div. 1992.
131 pp.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Guidelines to protect Pacific salmon, trout, char and other freshwater species and their habitat from the
damaging effects of land development activities. The guidelines cover leave strips, erosion and sediment
control, stormwater management, instream work, fish passage and culverts, and implementation. An
example is also included.
Christiansen, R. A.; Frahm, R. W. Regional Water Management Agency Involvement in Local
Government Comprehensive Planning. Water: Laws and Management. American Water Resources
Association, Bethesda, Maryland, 1989. p I B-1 --1 B-10, 2 fig, 3 ref.
Subject Areas: Planning
The Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD) has broad responsibilities for the
management of water resources over a region that includes all or part of 16 counties. In response to the
growth management legislation adopted by the state of Florida in 1984 and 1985, each of the 97 local
governments within the SWFWMD is required to prepare a comprehensive plan. These local planning
efforts represent a unique opportunity to enhance water resources protection through the coordination
of land and water management. Local land use and planning decisions impact water resources
significantly, especially in the context of the rapid growth currently taking place in the SWFWMD to
strengthen intergovernmental coordination and improve water resource management. The four primary
elements of this program include information and technical assistance, policy guidance, comprehensive
plan review and comment, and follow-up assistance to aid in the implementation of local plans.
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Cidn, Sain B. 1993. Sustainable development and integrated coastal management. OCEAN COAST.
MANAGE. 1993 vol. 21, no. I-3, pp. 11-43.
Subject Areas: Model
Agenda 21, the 40-chapter action plan, agreed to by all nations participating in the 1992 Earth Summit
represents an ambitious effort to provide policy guidance across the entire spectrum of environment,
development, and social issues confronting mankind. In the area of oceans and coasts (Chapter 17 of
Agenda 21), the Earth Summit underscored that the management of oceans and coasts should be
'integrated in content and anticipatory in ambit.' To assist those responsible for implementing the Earth
Summit guidelines on ocean and coastal management, this article first reviews the fundamental shift in
paradigm reflected in the Earth Summit agreements as well as the specific recommendations contained
in Chapter 17. Next, the article examines the central concept of 'integrated management,1 noting both
its importance and its limits. A general or 'synthesis' model of 'integrated coastal management' is then
presented, addressing such, questions as management goals, what is being managed, where, how, and
by whom. In a concluding section, methods are proposed whereby the general or 'synthesis model1 can
be tailored to diverse national contexts, involving varying physical, socio-economic, and political
conditions.
Cicin, Sain B. 1994. CF, CONFERENCE INFORMATION: Ocean Governance Study Group
Conference, Berkeley, CA, (USA) 10 13 Jan 1993. Essay: A national ocean governance strategy for the
United States is needed now. COAST. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 171-176.
Subject Areas: Regulations
Although the United States has one of the most complex bodies of ocean law and policy in place, it has
yet to develop a national ocean governance strategy to achieve sustainable development of the U.S.
ocean. The commentary reviews the need for, goals, and critical elements of such a strategy, outlines the
steps involved in creating the strategy, and reviews various options for beginning the work on the
National Ocean Governance Strategy.
Clayshurte, R. N. 1994 South Plate Forum, Greeley, CO (USA) 26 27 Oct.. Application of a watershed
management approach. Integrated Watershed Management in the South Platte Basin: Status and Practical
Implementation. Proceedings of the 1994 South Platte Forum, October 26-27, 1994, Greeley,
Colorado. Klein,-K.C; Williams.-D.J. (eds.) Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 (USA)
Colorado Water Resources Research Institute. 1994 pp. 13-14. FORM.-SER.-
COLORADO-WATER-RESOUR.-RES.-INST. no. 77.
Subject Areas: Planning
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Green Development • Literature Review and Analysis
The regional Clean Water Plan developed and maintained by the Denver Regional Council of
Governments (DRCOG) recognizes 18 hydrologic planning basins in the eight county region. These
basins have been used to define water quality management planning areas. Designated management
agencies in these basins have developed water quality management plans and implementation programs.
These plans are summarized in the regional Clean Water Plan and they provide specific
recommendations on wastewater facility siting, service areas, levels of treatment, nonpoint source
control, stormwater management, stream standards, best management practices, as well as characterizing
water quality within each basin. Hydrologic features, geographical considerations and political designations
were used to establish basin boundaries. Some basins define actual discrete hydrologic drainage areas or
stream/river watersheds, while others are more complex hydrologic systems based on political realities.
From a regional perspective, the water quality of each basin has some effect on downstream or
contiguous basins. Although a general watershed protection approach has been used in the DRCOG
region for water quality planning and management programs, the process has not always applied an
integrated, holistic strategy.'Efforts are underway at DRCOG to revise the system of hydrologic basins
and designate new water quality planning and management watersheds for the region. This change
requires an extensive evaluation of existing management programs and could lead to a new water quality
management system for the DRCOG region. The goal of the DRCOG watershed protection approach
is to apply an integrated, holistic strategy to protect or attain established beneficial uses of waters within
regional watersheds, including protection of human health and aquatic ecosystems. The first level of
watershed designation was based on geographic areas where activities have significantly affected a
waterbody or stream segment and control.
CLOSE TO HOME - COMMONS' CAUSE FOR FAIRFAX. 1995, December 31. Washington Post,
cmal Edition. Sec: C OP/ED p: 8.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources - Planning
"ne famous story of the Tragedy of the Commons' might apply to Fairfax County.
Coastal systems studies and sustainable development. 1991. Proceedings of the COMAR Interregional
Scientific Conference, Unesco, Paris, 21 25 May 1991. United, Nations Environment Programme
international, Council Of Scientific Unions Scientific Committee On Oceanic Re Search; International,
.Association For Biological Oceanography. COMAR Interregional Scientific Conference (1991 :. Paris).
!99 Jul.
Coates, R.; Swanson, M.; Williams, P. 1989. Hydrologic Analysis for Coastal Wetland Restoration.
Environmental Management, Vol. 13, No. 6, p 715-727, November/December 1989.
Subject Areas: Model
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Increasing recognition of the value of tidal wetlands has led to interest in how to restore and enhance
areas that have been modified by human activity. The policy of recognizing restoration or enhancement
as mrtigation for destruction of other wetlands is controversial. Once policy questions are separated'from
technical questions, the steps in a successful project are straightforward. Restoration projects at two sites
in California (the Hayward Area Recreation District and the Tijuana Estuary) used a combination of
empirical geomorphic relationships, numerical modeling, and verification with field observations. The
objectives at the Hayward area were to: restore habitat, and maintain healthy pickleweed on levees as
habitat for the endangered salt marsh harvest mouse. The objective at the Tijuana Estuary was to protect
and restore a productive cordgrass tidal salt marsh. Experience with these and other projects indicate that
successful projects include the following elements: (I) clear definition of biological objectives that can be
translated to hydroiogic objectives; (2) good definition of site topography and tidal regime; (3) analysis of
physical and biological constraints and opportunities; (4)- development of design alternatives using
numerical computer models and empirical geomorphic relationships along with calibration and verification
of models with field data; (5) selection and review of the preferred alternative; (6) field inspections by the
design team during construction; and (7) postconstruction monitoring of biological and hydrological
parameters.
Cocks, K. D.; Walker, B. H. 1994. Symposium On Land Use And Land Cover In Australia: Living, With
Global Change,. Contribution of'sustainability1 criteria to social perceptions of land use options. LAND
DEGRAD. REHAB. 1994 vol. 5, no. 2, pp. i 43-151.
Subject Areas: Planning
With relatively minor exceptions, the process of land use change is one of intensification and the
narrowing of future land use options. This has led to community concern for the gradual irrecoverable
loss of values associated with less intensive land uses; in particular, concern for the availability and
functional capacity of biodiversity, earth materials, water and air. Concern extends to the functionality of
these resources in industrial, amenity and service roles. Such losses, called, inter alia, environmental costs,
are never wholly avoidable despite the hopes behind the sustainable development concept. What is
realistically possible is conservative development, meaning that land uses with environmental costs
exceeding the economic net benefits would be proscribed as options, through the application of extant
and emerging social technologies such as land use zoning, environmental standards and environmental
impact assessment. This paper presents some general and some more specific ideas about land uses
susceptible to proscription under the conservative development criterion. Most major land uses stand to
be challenged to a degree, particularly in densely populated areas, regions of economic opportunity
and/or in regions recognized as having a high conservation value. Proposals involving a leap in
intensification or loss of remnant or old-established land uses will be more liable to assessment for
proscription. Several regions are identified where joint assessment for exclusion across members of a
suite of land uses would not be surprising (e.g. the Kimberleys); also some regions and situations where
particular land uses stand to be challenged, e.g. irrigated cotton, high country developments and
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
integrated forest harvesting. Rather than list intensification trends at length and predict which challenges
to intensification might succeed, this paper discusses the prospects for development of social technologies
which evaluate community concerns about the environmental costs of land use intensification. It is
suggested that a blending of the existing procedures of the Resource Assessment Commission for regional
resource inventory and evaluation and the existing resource allocation procedures of the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park Authority would form a highly defensible core for a new generation of option-defining
technologies. The social importance of having a rich suite of social technologies for addressing
intensification issues is emphasized.
Colby, B.C. 1990. Enhancing Instream Flow Benefits in an Era of Water Marketing. Water Resources
Research, Vol. 26, No. 6, p I I 13-1 120, June 1990.
Subject Areas: Habitat - Planning - Recreation
Growing populations in the western United States demand water not only for residential use and to
support urban development but also for recreation, water quality enhancement, improvement of fish and
wildlife habitat and to preserve the aesthetics of riparian areas. Instream flows contribute substantial
economic benefits, and emerging pressure to reserve water instream comes at a time when markets are
evolving to reallocate water among offstream uses such as agriculture, industry and municipal expansion.
Current instream flow policies in the western states were examined to determined the economic values
generated by stream flows. Instream values were argued to be high enough to compete in the market
for water rights with offstream uses when important recreation sites and wildlife species are involved.
Alterations to the western state's policies are suggested to accommodate instream flow protection within
the context of water marketing, with the objective of improving the efficiency of water allocation among
instream and consumptive users.
Comerio, J.W. 1989. Illinois Department of Conservation 's Changing Role in the Illinois River Basin.
Second Conference on the Management of the Illinois River System: The 1990s and Beyond.
Proceedings of the Conference held October 3-4, 1989 in Peoria, Illinois. University of Illinois Water
Resources Center Special Report No. 18. p 15-18.
Subject Areas: Market - Recreation
The Illinois Water Department (IWD) traditionally has been viewed as a natural resource conservation
and recreation provision agency, with little impact on the state 's economy. However, the relationship
between the Illinois tourism industry and the state 's quality of life is becoming more obvious. A $ 120
million park and conservation program, known as PCII, was appropriated to improve tourism. PCII
includes expansion of overnight accommodations at department sites with several possible new
public-private joint ventures if economically warranted; development of visitor centers and visitor
information facilities; development of swimming pools and beaches; campground expansion and the
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
addition of shower buildings; development of day use facilities and trails; and basic infrastructure
improvements. The IWD has also made some internal changes to strengthen its economic development
role. The Office of Resource Marketing and Education has been formed to better promote conservation
sites, facilities, and programs. Tourism is one of the state 's fastest growing industries and a vital part of
Illinois' economic development.
Cooper, S.R, 1995. A research plan for the Mid Atlantic Regional Marine Research Program. SECOND
ANNUAL MARINE AND ESTUARINE SHALLOW WATER SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT
CONFERENCE. PHILADELPHIA, PA (USA) U.S. EPA. p. 6.
Subject Areas: Database
The Regional Marine Research Program (RMRP) was developed to set priorities for regional marine and
coastal research in support of efforts to safeguard water quality and ecosystem health, and to carry out
such research through grants and improved coordination. The program, approved and funded by
Congress, established the following nine regions: I) Gulf of Maine; 2) Greater New York Bight; 3)
Mid-Atlantic; 4) South Atlantic and Caribbean; 5) Gulf of Mexico; 6) Southwest; 7) Pacific Northwest; 8)
Alaska; and 9) Insular Pacific. The Mid-Atlantic region extends from Cape May, Nj to Cape Fear, NC,
including the Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay and the Albemarle-Pamlico Sound system. The "Research
Ran" for the Mid-Atlantic RMRP was submitted in February 1994 to NOAA and EPA, and approved by
ooth Administrations. The Research Plan identifies priority research needs for the Mid-Atlantic region,
including I) land-use effects on living resources, 2) eutrophication, algal blooms and anoxia; 3) fishery
yields, recruitment and trophodynamics, 4) biotic and material exchanges between estuaries and the
ocean, and 5) coastal erosion and climatic effects. The Research Plan also includes a review of the
environmental quality of coastal waters and expected trends in the Mid-Atlantic, a review of research
oemg conducted with the region, and a discussion of regional management issues. A comprehensive
research inventory database for the 1992-1996 time-period was developed.
Corcoran, C; Randall, K.; Lage, K. 1993. County develops a comprehensive stormwater management
oian. PUBLIC WORKS 1993 vol. 124, no. 12, pp. 48-50.
Sjbject Areas: Planning
Developing a stormwater management plan for one community is a time-consuming and often difficult
project. When a second community is involved, the economical, environmental; political, social, and
practical complexities are greatly magnified. Now, imagine putting together one stormwater management
plan for 21 cities. A daunting task, especially when each city has a vested interest in the plan's outcome.
That was the case recently when Johnson County, Kansas developed its stormwater management
program.
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Green Development Lrterature Review and Analysis
Cortner, H.J.; Moote, MA 1994. • Trends and issues in land and water resources management: Setting
the agenda for change. ENVIRON. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 167-173.
Subject Areas: Model
The classical model of a paradigm shift is used to explore changes that are occurring in public lands and
water resources management. Recent policy developments suggest that the traditional paradigm, which
is characterized by sustained yield, is in the process of being invalidated. While no new paradigm has been
fully accepted, the emerging paradigm does appear to be based on two principles: ecosystem
management and collaborative decision making. Implementation of these two principles is likely to require
extensive revision of traditional management practices and institutions. Failure to address these issues
could result in adoption of the rhetoric of change without any lasting shift in management practices or
professional attitudes.
Costanza, R. 1993. Beyond the limits: Dealing with an uncertain future. ESTUARIES 1993 vol. 16, no.
4, pp. 919-922.
Subject Areas: Model
Couvert, B.; Lefebvre, B.; Lefort, P.; Morin, E. 1991. Research on Torrent Control Check Dams and
Detention Areas (Etude Generate sur les Seuils de Correction Torrentielle et les Plages de Depots).
Houille Blanche HOBLAB, No. 6, p 449-456. English summary.
Subject Areas: Design
The Societe Grenobloise d'Etudes et d'Appiications Hydrauliqes was entrusted by the Mountain Soil
Conservation (RTM-Restauration des Terrains en Montagne) service in the Savoy Region (France) and
the Erosion Control Division of the Centre National du Machinisme Agricole, du Genie Rural, des Eaux
et des Forets in Grenoble with the task of carrying out research on two modes of torrent control:
RTM-type check dams, and detention areas where torrents discharge into valleys. Three major studies
are being conducted: (I) A study of scouring at the downstream side of check dams, in order to optimize
the design of the dams and their foundations. (2) An analysis of discharge upstream of the dam in order
to determine peak flow rates of the torrent from measurements of water heights. (3) An investigation of
the torrents' sediment-transport potential in order to determine the appropriate dimensions for detention
areas.
Crosby, M. P.; Beck, A. D. 1995. Management oriented research in National Estuarme Research
Reserves, with examples of fisheries focused studies. NAT. AREAS J. 1995 vol. 15, no. I, pp. 12-20.
Subject Areas: Planning
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Green Development ^ ^ Literature Review and Analysis
The National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS) was established as part of the Coastal Zone
Management Act of 1972 to provide financial assistance to the states for the acquisition, development,
and operation of estuarine ecosystems as field laboratones. Twenty-two reserves have been designated
encompassing over 171,000 ha of diverse coastal habitats throughout the coastal United States (including
the Great Lakes Region). The research component of the NERRS focuses on management-related
research that will enhance understanding of estuarine environments, provide information necessary to
management decision making for these ecosystems, and improve public awareness of estuaries and
estuarine management issues. The system is administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM), in partnership
with the individual states in which the reserves are located. The NERRS also plays an important role in
protecting critical fish habitats and preserving biodiversity. From 1982 to 1992, OCRM awarded 40 grants
totaling $880,000 to support direct research on fish and fisheries-related studies. Twenty-six principal
investigators from 21 institutions conducted these studies at 16 NERRS sites. Such management-oriented
research in the NERRS provides information essential to the management of individual reserves and to
general coastal zone management and decision making.
De Freese, D. E. 1991. Threats to Biological Diversity in Marine and Estuarine Ecosystems of Florida.
Coastal Management, Vol. 19, No. 1, 73-101 p, January/March 1991.
Subject Areas: Planning
The Indian River Lagoon of east central Florida and the marine ecosystem of the Florida Keys are
important natural ecosystems with ecological, economic, esthetic, and recreational values. Both
ecosystems have high biological diversity and are threatened by a variety of anthropogenic impacts.
Although all coastal marine and estuarine ecosystems are influenced by an interplay of oceanic and
terrestrial influences, structural and functional characteristics and anthropogenic impacts are often site-
specific. This suggests that ecosystem management and research must focus on a holistic ecosystem
approach that establishes ecosystem boundaries, considers the dynamic nature of ecosystem processes,
and prioritizes issues and objectives. Although Florida has enacted a framework of coastal zone
management legislation, no specific legislation has addressed the issue of biological diversity conservation
in marine and estuanne ecosystems. Implementation of a comprehensive coastal zone management plan
is confounded by a fragmented infrastructure of governmental agencies, lack of coordination, and
inadequate funding for implementation, research, education, and enforcement. Florida's extended
coastline, diversified ecosystems, and extensive biological diversity challenges state, regional, and local
agencies to develop comprehensive research, management, and education initiatives that are adequately
funded and sufficiently focused to ensure long-term ecosystem and biological diversity protection.
Deardorf, H. A 1977. Recall for Greenways. Parks and Recreation Vol. 12, No. 2, p. 39a-40a, February
1977.
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
Subject Areas: Planning - Recreation - Regulations
New opportunities for greenway development are appearing with regard to water oriented land. The
stereotype of a greenway as a wide, uninterrupted expanse of forest and meadow does not fit the
context of existing waterfronts around the country where a wide range of landscape and land-use
characteristics can be found. The water, under 201 and 208 water cleanup programs, is scheduled to
be clean by 1983 thus providing water-oriented greenway opportunities. To realize the opportunities,
it should be understood that one of the most significant values of a greenway is environmental protection.
Water-oriented greenways can provide nonstructural controls to prevent flooding and direct storm
drainage. Industries and wastewater treatment facilities need not be considered ugly intrusions on the
waterfront but should be more carefully sited and designed so that public will know they exist. In planning
a greenway, it must be realized that water is a shared resource and while more prohibitive stances are
appropriate in undeveloped areas, replacing vital industrial uses with open space is senseless.
Communities must acquire greenway water frontage now and plan for the future.
Debo, T.N.; Small, G.N. 1989. Detention Storage: Its Design and Use. Public Works, Vol. 120, No.
I, p 71-72, January.
Subject Areas: Design - Model
Urban development in many areas has resulted in downstream drainage and flooding problems. To cope
with.these problems, many municipalities are using stormwater detention storage facilities to temporarily
store runoff and release it at a controlled rate of discharge. Some important design considerations for
detention-storage facilities are discussed and a new computer model developed to aid in the design of
these facilities is presented. Several elements should be closely considered when designing detention
storage facilities. First, the inflow hydrograph should be carefully evaluated for the design storm(s) that will
be used. Second, the volume of storage available within the detention facility should be calculated to
determine how much runoff can be stored and to what extent the inflow peak can be decreased. Third,
the outflow (discharge) structure should be accurately sized to discharge at the desired rate of flow from
the facility to downstream areas. To prevent erosion problems, energy dissipators should be used at the
exit from all detention facilities where high velocities could create, downstream problems. Unless it can
be routinely and economically maintained, even the most beautiful and useful detention facility will soon
detenorate until where it is no longer effective. A computer model, developed as part of the Chapel Hill,
North Carolina, stormwater management program is called the HYDROS detention design model. This
model greatly simplifies the design of detention facilities without sacrificing accuracy or reliability.
DeGeorge, Gail. 1995. A theme park you can live in. Business Week [Industrial/Technology Edition],
lss:3443 Date:Sep25, 1995 p: 57.
Subject Areas: Planning
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
Celebration FL is a new housing development just 15 minutes away from Orlando, and it is unmistakably
a Walt Disney production. Plans for the self-contained village were unveiled by Disney in mid-August.
Degong, C. 1989. China Inst For Marine Development Strategy Beijing. Coastal Zone Development,
Utilization, Legislation, and Management in China. Coastal Management CZMJBF Vol. 17, No. I, p
55-62, 1989. I fig, I tab.
Subject Areas: Planning- Regulations
China is a coastal state with 18,000 kilometers of continental shoreline and 14,000 kilometers of island
shoreline, with over 5 ,000 islands. It has one of the longest national shorelines in the world. The coastal
zone in China spans three climate zones-tropical, subtropical, and temperate-and the coast is classified
as rocky, sandy and gravel, muddy and siHy, coral reef, and mangrove. From an administrative standpoint,
the coastal zone is situated in nine provinces, an autonomous region ,, and two municipalities. Although
it occupies only about 15 percent of the country's area, it holds about 44 percent of the population. The
coastal economy is relatively more developed than in other areas. China has given priority to the
development and management of the coastal zone with a three-stage project. The first stage is
comprehensive investigation to formulate a long-term program for development and utilization in the
coastal area. The second stage is investigation at selected locations for development measures to improve
reclaimed salty soil, strengthen marine fishing measures, develop seawater culture, establish a forest
protection system, prevent coastal erosion, regulate the transport routes, and establish natural resources
and environmental protection areas. The third stage is to draft legislation and management measures for
the coastal zone. Tentative national management regulations on the coastal zone in Jiangsu Province have
already been adopted.
DiChristina, Mariette. 1996. The village green. Popular Science, Vol: 248 Iss: I Date: Jan 1996 p:
60-64.
Subject Areas: Design - Natural Resources - Planning
Former environmental activist Liz Walker is working with Joan Bokaer to design a community that is more
environmentally conscientious than typical suburban subdivisions. The design and development of
EcoVillage is examined.
Dodd, P\andall C.; McMahon, Gerard; Stichter, Steven. 1992. Watershed planning in the Albemarle
Pamlico Estuarine System. Research Triangle Institute Center For Environmental Analysis North, Carolina
Albemarle Pamlico Estuarine Study. Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine Study, NC Dept. of Environment,
Health, and Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Agency, National Estuary Program, [1992]
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Green Development literature Review and Analysis
Report (North Carolina. Albemarle-Pamlico Estuanne Study); no. 92-10. "August 1992." "Project no.
4873-03."
Subject Areas: Planning
Dodds, A.A.; Fisher, P.J.; Paull, A.J.; Sears, J.R. 1993. Developing an Appropriate Wastewater
Management Strategy for Sydney's Future Urban Development. Water Science and Technology, Vol. 27,
No. l,p 19-29, 1993.
Subject Areas: Model - Planning - Water Quality
Over the next 20 years, Sydney Australia's population is expected to increase by about one million, with
most of this growth proposed to be within the already environmentally stressed Hawkesbury-Nepean
River catchment. The Water Board is providing infrastructure for the future urban development using a
combination of conventional and innovative structural and non-structural solutions within an integrated
river basin planning approach. For the Rouse Hill Development Area the Board has implemented a
comprehensive, coordinated pollution control package which includes: integrated management of water
supply, drainage and wastewater for the catchment; urban runoff management which aims to maintain
present river quality and quantity through the use of detention basins, sediment traps and constructed
wetlands, and advanced treatment of sewage with nutrient removal and'disinfection using the best current
technology; use of reclaimed effluent for non-potable domestic purposes; use of water efficient toilets and
domestic appliances; promotion of the use of phosphate-free detergents; and, adoption of economically
effective new technology as it is developed. The Board's servicing strategies for Rouse Hill, and similar
strategies which can be applied to South Creek Valley, Macarthur South and other developments in the
catchment, will be integrated into the broader .Strategic Water Management Plan for the
Hawkesbury-Nepean basin. The Board is developing a computer-based water quality and quantity model
of the total Hawkesbury-Nepean River system as well as a computer-based geographic information
system to store data on existing conditions such as basin and sub-basin boundaries, channel routes,
floodplains, existing and projected land uses and environmentally sensitive areas.
Donahue, M. j. 1993. 36 Conf Of The I nt Association For Great Lakes Research, De Pere, Wl (USA)
4. 10. A system of governance to promote sustainable development. OME 36TH CONFERENCE OF
THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, JUNE 4-10, 1993.
Subject Areas: Planning
Great Lakes basin governance is characterized by a complex and highly developed "institutional
ecosystem", the array of public and non-governmental agencies and organizations that develop,
implement or otherwise influence public policy. Political jurisdictions in the Great Lakes region have
increasingly recognized the merits of basin-oriented policy-making, finding that management by hydrologic
- rather than political - boundaries is essential to the future of the resource. Despite past progress,
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Green Development Lrterature Review and Analysis
however, this "institutional ecosystem" struggles to keep pace with scientific and technological
advancements, current management challenges and anticipated issues. The emergencies of "sustainable
development" as a management concept poses further challenges for a system of governance that has
historically placed little emphasis on the integration of resource management, environmental protection
and economic development goals. A system of governance is needed that will lead - not follow; a system
that will embrace the notion of sustainable development and guide it from concept to application. Toward
that end, this paper will explore the evolution and current status of Great Lakes governance; identify
institutional requirements for promoting sustainable development; and suggest means to incorporate
those requirements into the present system of basin governance.
Dowlmg, C. 1994. 14 Annu International Symposium Of The North American, Lake Management
Societ. Don River watershed regeneration strategy presentation. LAKE RESERVOIR MANAGE. 1994
vol. 9, no. 2, p. 70.
Subject Areas: Planning
The valley and stream corridors of the Don River represent a major natural heritage feature of
Metropolitan Toronto and the surrounding region. Originating in the complex Oak Ridges Moraine area,
the nver empties into Lake Ontario at the Toronto Harbour. In 1992, the Metropolitan Toronto and
Region Conservation Authority established the Don Watershed Task Force. Comprised of politicians and
citizen representatives, the Task Force shared a commitment to regeneration of the Don River
watershed. In May 1994, the Task Force released the Don River Watershed Regeneration Strategy. This
cocument presents regeneration principles for the Don and details 40 Steps To A New Don. This project
represents the most comprehensive watershed regeneration initiative undertaken in Ontario. The
D'jroose of this presentation is to share the experiences of the Task Force as it undertook this ambitious
jnoertakmg. Extensive public consultations included 20 workshops over a six month period and extensive
efforts to build partnerships which will sustain the project's momentum formed an integral part of the
D'ocess. The multidisciplinary technical work of the assignment will be presented, including application
c* an innovative framework for regeneration planning and effective GIS mapping techniques. One of the
s x detailed concept site regeneration plans, illustrating restoration techniques in an urban setting, will be
presented.
Easiey, W.S.; Barness, Walz L.E.; Neichter, P.L.; Bohannon, J.A. 1994. The Evaluation of water quality
- Taylorsville Lake, Kentucky, using the CE QUAL W2 model. LAKE RESERV. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9,
no. 2, pp. 71-72.
Subject Areas: Model
in order to more efficiently and effectively evaluate water quality and effects of watershed management
at each of our lake projects, the Louisville District pf the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is implementing
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use of the CE-QUAL-W2 water quality model, developed and supported by the Corps' Waterways
Experiment Station in Vicksburg, MS. The CE-QUAL-W2 model was designed to be used in conjunction
with actual field measurements and data collection as an aid in data interpretation. The value of the model
lies in its integrative use of physical, chemical, and biological information to describe potential changes in
water quality. Model results may simulate natural conditions as long as certain specified assumptions hold
true. Deviations of actual observations from model predicted values may indicate changing environmental
conditions. The model may then be implemented to help evaluate possible causes. We have just recently
completed initial modeling efforts at Ceasar Creek Lake, Ohio. In our current study of Taylorsville
Lake-Upper Salt River Basin, ICT, we are using the model to determine the effects of erosion and nutrient
controls and other changes on the water quality of the lake. .One question being pursued is whether a
significant reduction in nutrient loading into the system would have a significant impact on water quality
in Taylorsville Lake. We plan to test a number of nutrient reduction scenarios to determine best strategies
for future changes in agricultural practices and land use, wetland creation, or other physical changes to
the routing within the basin. We have found the CE-QUAL-W2's use of inflow, outflow, and
meteorological data, as well as detailed bathymetry obtained from digitized mapping, can closely simulate
lake behavior. As a final product, we will have a planning tool capable of evaluating the effects on water
quality of significant land use changes or lake management schemes on water quality at Taylorsville Lake.
Elkington, John; Shopley, Jonathan. 1988. The shrinking planet: U.S. information technology and
sustainable development. World Resources Institute, cl 988 WRI paper, #3 "June 1988."
Subject Areas: Design
Ellinghouse, C.D. 1994. Boulder Creek instream flow program. INTEGRATED WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN: STATUS AND PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1994 SOUTH PLATTE FORUM, OCTOBER 26-27, 1994, GREELEY,
COLORADO. Klein,-K.C; Williams.-D.J. (eds.) COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY, FORT COLLINS,
CO 80523 (USA) COLORADO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, pp. 52-53.
FORM.-SER.-COLORADO-WATER-RESOUR.-RES.-INST. no. 77
Subject Areas: Habitat
The City of Boulder, in conjunction with the Colorado Water Conservation Board, has developed an
innovative program for the maintenance of streamflow within Boulder Creek and North Boulder Creek.
The instream flow program will preserve fish habitat and enhance the aesthetics of the stream corridor.
The instream flow program is a part of the water management program adopted by the City Council
based on the September 1988 Raw Water Master Plan. Under Colorado law, the Colorado Water
Conservation Board (CWCB) is the only agency allowed to hold water rights decreed for instream flow
purposes. The joint Gty/CWCB instream flow program was carefully designed to be in compliance with
the state water administration system in order to assure that the water donated by the City would be
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used for instream flows and not diverted by other water users. In the past, the holders of senior water
rights, including agricultural interests and the City of Boulder, have had the legal right to virtually dry up
portions of the creek through diversions during low flow periods. To alter this condition, Boulder's Raw
Water Master Plan established goals for the City of achieving minimum streamflows in main Boulder
Creek and its tributaries. In July of 1990, an agreement was completed between Boulder and the CWCB
and has been amended twice since that time. This agreement and the amendments provide for the
deeding of ownership of a portion of Boulder's water rights to the CWCB. The agreement also provides
for Boulder to release water that is stored by the City in the Silver Lake Watershed or in Barker Reservoir
for fulfillment of the CWCB's junior instream flow right on Boulder Creek and the CWCB's new instream
flow filings on North Boulder Creek and Boulder Creek. The City has deeded ownership of $ 12 million
of water and water rights to the CWCB so far. Boulder had previously depended on this water to meet
municipal needs. During severe droughts or emergencies, Boulder is allowed to call the water rights back
and curtail storage releases for use within the utility system. This will protect reservoir levels in the Silver
Lake watershed to preserve the native species offish in the reservoirs. Boulder is also allowed to use the
rights if they are not needed to satisfy the minimum streamflow requirements. At the downstream
terminus of the instream flow reach, Boulder retains control of part of the water that had previously been
consumed for municipal purposes. The next step toward finalizing the instream flow program was to
obtain a decree from the Colorado Water Court allowing use of these water rights and storage releases
for instream flow. Boulder and the CWCB were joint applicants to the Water Court for a change in use
in December 1990. A decree approving the change in use to instream flow was signed on December
20, 1993. Through the joint CWCB/City of Boulder instream flow program, consisting of the City's
dedication of water and water rights and the CWCB filings for new instream flow water rights, North
Boulder and main Boulder Creeks now will rarely drop below the minimum levels needed for healthy
fish habitat. The Creeks will continue to flow at much higher than the minimum levels during the natural
high flow periods.
Ellis, J.B.; Revitt, D.M.; Shutes, R.B.E.; Langley, J.M. 1994. 4. International Symposium On Highway
Pollution, Madrid, (Spain). The performance of vegetated biofilters for highway runoff control. HIGHWAY
POLLUTION. Hamilton,-R.S.; Revitt,-D.M.; Harrison,-R.M.; Monzon-de-Caceres,-A. (eds.) pp.
543-550. SCI-TOTAL-ENVIRON. vol. 146-147.
Subject Areas: Design
The design of highway drainage in the UK traditionally has provided for the rapid removal of surface
runoff from the carriageway. The most commonly used methods are through direct and positive
discharges to the nearest watercourse (perhaps routed through a detention pond) or into a soakaway
system. Such systems pay little attention to the potential loads generated from rainfall-runoff events or
their possible impacts upon receiving waters. This paper reviews the potential use of vegetative systems
as appropnate control measures for highway discharge pollution and discusses design options. The uptake
of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), lead and zinc by five species of emergent macrophyte is
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discussed for a constructed experimental wetland receiving runoff from a large transit base and car parking
area in Washington State, USA. The data suggest that Typha latifdia and Sparganium are the most suitable
species for TPH, Pb and Zn uptake, storage and metabolism.
Environmental quality, the fourth annual report of the Council on Environmental Quality. 1973. Council,
on Environmental Quality, Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
September 1973.
Subject Areas: Model
Seven categories of environmental concern are covered: the urban environment; water quality
improvement; economics and environmental management; law and land use regulations; federal
environmental programs; international environmental programs; environmental status and trends; and
the citizen's role in environmental improvement. The topic of water resources is treated both individually
and in relation to economics, land use, law, and international and federal programs. The cleanup of the
Willamette river in Oregon is examined as a model of the process of reversing water pollution. The effect
of the dean river on land use along the river, including public access and associated recreational facilities,
is also studied. The chapter on the relationship between economics and environmental policy describes
four types of environmental costs of pollution and pollution control: abatement costs, avoidance costs,
transaction costs, and damage costs. Judicial response to restrictions on the filling or developing of
low-lying marsh and coastal lands is discussed in the context of the limitations imposed by the "taking1
clause on state and local governmental efforts to protect environmentally critical areas. The federal water
pollution control act amendments of 1972 are summarized and analyzed. Efforts to monitor water
pollution are surveyed. The pollution status of the great lakes and the oceans is examined. International
environmental protection concerns, including protection of the oceans and control of transboundary
pollution, are discussed'.
Erosion control planning tool. 1994. LAND WATER 1994 vol. 38, 43.
Subject Areas: Planning
A new erosion control planning tool on the market called Erosion Draw was developed by John McCullah
and Associates, for the engineer, architect, CPESC or other resource professional who uses computer
aided drafting (CAD) to develop erosion control plans. Erosion Draw includes a manual of accepted
industry standards for erosion and sediment control and 28 detailed construction drawings - all on
computer diskettes. Also included is a sample erosion control plan and instructions for using the software.
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Eugster, G.; Titus, E. I960, Greenway Concept Within the Heritage Conservation and Recreation
Service. Stormwater Management Alternatives. Water Resources Center, University of Delaware,
Newark DE. April I960, p 287-308.
Subject Areas: Planning
The U.S. Department of the Interior's Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, through the
Nationwide Rivers Inventory, established a comprehensive river information system which served as a
framework and a focal point for greenway conservation activities. The Inventory, being conducted under
the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, did several things. (I) It provided recognition and the option for
varying degrees of protection to significant river resource areas to avoid adverse environmental impacts
and to upgrade the public's awareness of these valuable resources. (2) It served as a focal point for the
more effective coordination and use of existing Federal activities and programs related to greenway
conservation. (3) It established a data base of objectives and descriptive river resource information for
planning and dedsion making. (4) It identified through the use of a grass-roots communication network,
opportunities for greenway conservation implementation including information about local and State issues
and conservation supporters. (5) It identified and emphasized greenway conservation implementation
options at all levels of the government and the private sector including funding programs, legislative tools
and techniques, and less-than-fee-acquisition strategies. The Heritage Conservation and Recreation
Service 's national greenway conservation effort was based on the philosophy that river conservation is
a shared.responsibility between all levels of the government and the private sector.
Ezzell, C. 1992. Wilderness Corridors May not Benefit All. Science News, Vol: 142 Iss: 9 Date: Aug
29, 1992 p: 135.
Subject Areas: Habitat- Natural Resources
A new study questions the efficacy of the corridor concept in preserving wild populations. Daniel K.
Rosenberg, who led the research group, says the study demonstrates the importance of the
environment surrounding corridors, because many animals won't find their way into greenways.
Fehr, S.C. 1996, April I. UPDATE ON THE NEWS - A PLAN FOR KENTLANDS1 TOWN CENTER.
Washington Post, Final Edition. Sec: B METRO p: 3.
Subject Areas: Commercial
Ferguson, B.K. 1987. Water Conservation Methods in Urban Landscape Irrigation: An Exploratory
Overview. Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. I, p 147-152, February.
Subject Areas: Design - Recreation
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The increasing use of irrigation for urban landscapes is causing new demands for efficient watering
systems. Conservation techniques for irrigated agricultural fields cannot be applied to urban landscapes
without amendment. This paper attempts to review methods of urban landscape water conservation in
the context of the diversity and complexity of urban landscapes and the demands upon them for quality
of the urban environment. A development's initial site layout and planting design fundamentally determine
how much irrigation water will be required; the complexity and creativity inherent in urban design open
a number of specific possibilities for reducing water demand. Irrigation hardware is then designed to
deliver the required volume of water to the specified landscape efficiently by implementing a number of
physical and operational principles. Maintenance of the finished development involves monitoring results
and making adjustments as the plantings grow and develop. The potential for conserving urban irrigation
water is large. Effective conservation need not compromise other qualities of the urban environment such
as aesthetics, screening, or shade. Urban design can address both the kinds of landscapes people need,
and minimal consumption of irrigation water.
Ferguson, B.K. 1991. Taking Advantage of Stormwater Control Basins in Urban Landscapes. Journal of
Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 46, No. 2, p 100-103, March/April 1991.
Subject Areas: Design - Habitat - Recreation - Water Quality
Flood control, base flow control, and water quality concerns frequently mandate storage and treatment
of urban runoff. Consequently, urban developers have a new line item in their construction program. In
addition to roads, houses, and parking lots, there must be some sort of runoff storage basin. It is possible
to mold stormwater basins into integrated components of the urban landscape in ways that provide
aesthetic, recreational, maintenance, economic, and ecological values. When used positively, stormwater
basins can contribute to the human and natural environment. They can be sculpted, planted, contoured,
and built of the right kinds of material on a site-specific basis. Any approach to design of stormwater basins
must be flexible and creative. The broad views, intuition, and artistic imagination of urban design must
be considered simultaneously with mathematical derivation of hydraulic and structural performance. In
setting landscape patterns, designers can take into account the type of expected user; the position of the
basin relative to roads, viewers, and houses; the need for active recreation versus passive scenery; the
amount of space and water available; existing desirable or objectionable features; and the design character
and variety of the overall site.
Ferguson, B.K. 1991. Urban Stream Reclamation. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 46, No.
5, p 324-328, September/October.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
In urban areas, streams represent potential wildlife corridors, wetland multipliers of ecosystem integrity,
scenic resources, recreational facilities close to home, and greenway links among neighborhoods and
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parks. California's Urban Stream Restoration Program was begun in 1985 to reduce damages from
streambankand watershed instability and floods while restoring streams' aesthetic, recreational, and fish
and wildlife values. The Boulder Creek Corridor Project in Colorado was adopted in 1985 to provide
off-street pedestrian and bicycle transportation, preserve and enhance fish habitat and riparian wetland,
expand recreational use, and maintain and improve flood-carrying capacity. San Antonio's Riverwalk is
an intensely urban pedestrian commercial corridor, constantly being expanded and refined through
continuing urban development. Urbanization tends to disrupt stream equilibrium in many ways. Urban
clearing and construction temporarily intensify sediment yield to streams. To enhance stream amenity and
ecology, landscape design provides options in land use designation, earth-forming, vegetation and use of
construction materials through corridor reservation, bank treatment, geomorphic restoration, or grade
control. Row management has been one of the principal motivations for designing urban stream corridors
in the past. Downstream flood peaks can be suppressed by reducing throughflow velocity; flood
evaluations laterally adjacent to the stream can be lowered by increasing throughflow velocity. Any
proposal for stream alteration or management should be investigated for its potential flow and stability
effects on upstream, downstream and laterally adjacent areas.
Ferguson, B.K.; Deak, T. 1994. Rde of urban storm flow volume in local drainage problems. J. WATER
RESOUR. PLj^N. MANAGE, vol. 120, no. 4, pp. 523-530.
Subject Areas: Design
At culvert entrances and other drainage obstructions the area upstream of the obstruction acts as a
reservoir, holding arriving runoff while earlier arriving waters are still passing through. Urban development
in a watershed increases storm-flow volume and peak rate, increasing the potential accumulation of water
and hence-rising of stage and overflowing. Storm hydrographs with different flow volumes and peak rates
were routed through a computer model of a culvert entrance, with the upstream area functioning as a
reservoir. Maximum stage rose with increasing flow volume for more than half of the modeled
combinations of conditions. Thus in an urbanizing watershed, for a wide range of conditions, the tendency
to overflow at an obstruction increases unless volume of flow is suppressed, whether or not peak rate
is suppressed by detention. Storm-water infiltration, which controls both flow volume and peak rate,
would be a more complete solution. Storm-water management policy that is aimed to prevent overflows
at drainage obstructions should consider flow volume control in addition to peak rate control.
Filho, P. P. 1992. Guanabara Bay Recovers. Water Environment & Technology WAETEJ, Vol. 4, No.
12, p 50-54, December.
Subject Areas: Air Quality
Disorderly urban development has led to the degradation of Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Since
1961, the Rio de Janeiro state government has studied the bay and has taken steps to restore it. Several
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areas are being addressed in the program: domestic, industrial, and urban wastes; oil discharges; water
and air quality; permitted discharges; dredging, drainage, and deforestation; and fish health. A current
evaluation of the bay indicates progress has been made in its recovery process. An essential part of the
environmental control strategy used has been the frequent, accurate, and full disclosure of environmental
quality data to the public. Coordinated work by other agencies has led to major results, including the
return of white sand to a stretch of Copacabana Beach. This was accomplished by pumping the dirty sand
into the wave breaker zone of the beach and decontaminating, cleaning, and returning the sand to the
beaches.
Fischer, AM. 1995. 2. Annu Marine And Estuarine Shallow Water Science And, Management
Conference, Atlantic City, NJ (USA) 3.7. Apr. Area wide jurisdictional planning: Toward comprehensive
and coordinated management typologies. SECOND ANNUAL MARINE AND ESTUARINE SHALLOW
WATER SCIENCE AND MANAGEMENT CONFERENCE. PHILADELPHIA PA (USA) U.S. EPA. 1995
p. 44.
Subject Areas: Model - Planning - Regulations
Throughout the US, complex, sectorized jurisdictional frameworks constrain estuarine watershed
planning. Planners and managers must contend with jurisdictional overlap, regulatory loopholes, lack of
agency coordination and goal conflicts. Under such conditions, private rights conflict with public trust
interests, restoration programs and urban development lack coordination, and environmental regulations
can adversely affect regional interests. These constraints, an inherent problem of such a complex,
interaction system, prevents area-wide policy coordination and joint decision-making. The Jurisdictional
Restoration Planning (JRP) model of the Liberty Bay Project is such a system. To address simplification,
the JRP model provides a medium of information sharing and clarified management roles. Centralized
information about jurisdictions in one information system can more easily alert users to the problems
associated with overlap, as well as identify goal conflicts and the other constraints. The JRP addresses
jurisdictional integration through a dynamic thematic planning process of assigning values to jurisdictional
sets of information or Jurisdictional Landscape Units. Once regional themes are established, than'greater
integration and coordination among the jurisdictions can be formulated into simpler and more
comprehensive planning strategies.
Floyd, C.F. 1982. Valuation and Acquisition ofFloodplain Lands for Stream Valley Parks. Available from
the National Technical Information Service, Springfield VA 22161. Georgia Institute of Technology,
Environmental Resources Center Report Number ERC 01 -82, Atlanta, June 1982. 75 p, 4 Maps, 5 Plats,
30 Ref. OWRT B-127-GA( I), 14-34-0001 -7100. 1982.
Subject Areas: Value/Valuation
As more and more communities have become aware of the economic and environmental benefits arising
from the protection offloodplains, interest has risen in the concept of stream valley parks. Acquisition of
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
land for these parks can take several forms, including purchase and gifts, fee simple acquisition or
easements. No matter what the method of acquisition, an appraisal of the real estate interests being
acquired will almost always be required. The appraisal of floodplain lands for recreational purposes raises
many questions and problems for appraisers. Among these are (I) basic conflicts between public and
private benefits in the appraisal concept of highest and best use; (2) a lack of comparable sales for
floodplain land and difficulties in adjusting to adequately reflect the value of floodplain lands; (3) the
necessity to consider the impact of floodplain, mandatory dedication of parkland, and other land use
controls, and; (4) the absence of data concerning the impact on value of remaining lands from the
acquisition of trail easements.
Forgey, B. 1995, June 10. CITYSCAPE - SPREADING THE WORD ON URBAN SPRAWL; EXHIBIT
OFFERS ROUGH SKETCH OF WAYS TO PRESERVE LAND. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: B
STYLE p: I.
Subject Areas: Economics- Planning- Value/Valuation
Benjamin Forgey discusses the 'Sprawl' exhibition at the District of Columbia Arts Center in Washington
DCs Adams-Morgan area, which examines the phenomenon of urban sprawl.
Galloway, R M.; Whitfield, A. A. 1995. Parkway/M602 link: Lift bridge over the Manchester ship canal
Paper I. Background to and management of project. PROC. 1NST. CIV. ENG. STRUCT. BUILD. 1995
vol. I 10, no. 2, pp. 149-160.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
Following a brief look at the history of Trafford Park and the establishment of the Urban Development
Corporation, the Paper considers the need, justification and objectives of the link, which is the
Corporation's priority highway scheme. Various route options considered during the planning stages of
the scheme are reviewed, as are the funding arrangements and other approvals necessary. The paper
then outlines the management arrangements for the project and the Corporation's procurement strategy
for its construction. Before concentrating on the most interesting aspect of the scheme-the construction
of a new low-level opening bridge across the Manchester Ship Canal-the paper briefly highlights the
significant engineering aspects of the roadworks north and south of the bridge. The paper then addresses
the engineering aspects with respect to the new bridge. Consideration is given to the technical options
constraints. The background to the method of procurement for the bridge contract is discussed together
with the particular aspects of the tender brief and contract documentation. The method of assessing the
tenders on the basis of whole life costs is also covered. The paper discusses the particular aspects of the
successful tender and then addresses the design development stage, including refinement of the
proposals, through to construction stage, including the role of the Engineer in this Design and
Construction Contract.
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Garcia, A.; James, W.P. 1988. Urban Runoff Simulation Model. Journal'of'Water Resources Planning
andManagement'(ASCE), Vol. I 14, No. 4, p 399-413, July 1988.
Subject Areas: Model - Planning
A study was conducted to determine the sensitivity of the unit hydrograph to the effects of the
urbanization process was conducted. The overland flow parameter that defines the degree of
urbanization in an urban watershed is the percentage of the total watershed area that is impervious.
Furthermore, the parameter which defines the degree of urbanization in the channelized flow portion
of a watershed is the channel roughness coefficient. Several rainfall-runoff simulations were conducted
to determine the hydrologic response of the unit hydrograph to the impact of urbanization. A hydrologic
model was formulated for an urban catchment located at Houston, Texas, using the kinematic wave
model developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEQ. The model was used to simulate various
degree of urbanization by allowing the percentage of watershed imperviousness and the channel
roughness coefficient to vary from simulation to simulation. A system of regression equations was
developed to quantify the impact of urbanization on the unit hydrograph. The equations were
incorporated into the A and M Watershed Model and verified by modeling three test watersheds. Results
of the study indicate that: (I) The percentage impervious area and average channel Manning n value are
valid parameters for estimating the effect of urbanization on the runoff characteristics of the watershed;
(2) The unit hydrograph concept can be applied to small urban watersheds; (3) The unit hydrograph
peaking factors, when applied to the two-parameter gamma function, rural unit hydrograph, gave
reasonable results for runoff simulation in urban areas; and (4) Results of the study indicate that additional
research is necessary to more accurately estimate the runoff volume more accurately.
Gardiner, J. L. 1994. Sustainable development for river catchments. J. INST. WATER ENVIRON.
MANAGE. 1994 vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 308-319.
Subject Areas: Planning
This paper deals with some of the strategic issues arising from the consideration of the sustainable
development of river catchments. Principles and best practice are discussed, both in general terms and
as challenges to professionals involved with the coordinated planning and management of river
catchments. Points are illustrated with reference to experience in the highly developed River Thames
catchment, where the many demands made on the water environment require complex multifunctional
decision-making. Sustainability offers a new paradigm and common language to support decision-making
for sustainable development. The appropriate institutional and legislative framework will be supported
by tools such as environmental appraisal, strategic environmental assessment and economic instruments.
Within this context, the implicit partnership between asset management planning, catchment management
planning and land-use planning has the potential to deliver sustainable development for the water
environment, through a process which may be called "total" catchment planning. It is suggested that
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source control will play a major role in the search for "prevention rather than cure" as a basic principle
of sustainability.
General management plan El Malpais National Conservation Area. United States Bureau Of Land
Management Rio Puerco Resource Area. 1991 May; [Albuquerque, N.M.]: The Area, [1990] Cover title:
El Malpais National Conservation Area general management plan: final. "January 1991"
Subject Areas: Planning
Gordon, W.R., Jr. 1994. 5. Int Conf On Aquatic Habitat Enhancement, Long Beach. A role for
comprehensive planning, Geographical Information System (GIS) technologies and program evaluation
in aquatic habitat development. FIFTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON AQUATIC HABITAT
ENHANCEMENT, pp. 995-1013. BULL-MAR.-SCI. vol. 55, no. 2-3.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Planning for artificial aquatic habitat development has typically occurred within the biological community.
This paper traces the evolution of planning frameworks, and proposes the use of traditional urban and
regional planning concepts in artificial aquatic habitat management. It is argued that aquatic habitat planning
in the U.S., as interpreted by states and regional fisheries commissions, exists merely at the project level
and has not suitably evolved to a holistic level as represented by either a comprehensive or systematic
approach to planning. In response, a comprehensive systems framework is proposed which considers
the role of onshore infrastructural support and offshore user and non-user considerations. The use of
Geographical Information System (GIS) technology and its overall utility in planning and evaluation
processes is discussed. The use of GIS can transcend present exclusion mapping procedures and make
them temporally and contextually dynamic. This paper contends that a traditional focus on exclusion or
negative constraints represents only an initial set of considerations, but must be followed with an inclusive
analysis which identifies intended sanctuary or human uses within marine habitat priority zones.' Finally,
as an integral element of planning, evaluation activities within habitat management are traditionally based
on biological dynamics and are executed on a site by site basis. The need exists to demonstrate intended
habitat and fishery management benefits on a state or regional basis. A role for program evaluation
techniques within the planning framework is emphasized to ensure that habitat program objectives are
either being met, or adapted, to satisfy initial program goals.
Grant, K. 1994. Oregon river restoration: A sensitive management strategy boosts natural healing.
RESTOR. MANAGE. NOTES 1994 vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 152- 159.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
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Balancing natural processes with manipulative actions is helping to restore the Middle Fork John Day
Preserve.
Gray, J.S.; Calamari, D.; Duce, R.; Portmann, J.E.; Wells, P.G. 1991. Scientifically Based Strategies for
Marine Environmental Protection and Management. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 9, p 432-440,
September 1991.
Subject Areas: Model
The Brundtland report postulated that a state of sustainable development was the ultimate goal to be
reached by development and environmental protection measures. Principles and responsibilities
proposed by the World Commission on Environment and Development include conservation and
sustainable use, environmental standards and monitoring, and prior environmental assessments. The
need for improving environmental protection on local, regional and global scales requires management
strategies that take account of all alternatives and options for waste disposal, and therefore the marine
environment must not be considered in isolation from all others. However, having evaluated the currently
applied approaches, new strategies for purely marine environmental protection and management must
also be developed. The new strategies should integrate relevant aspects of toxicity, bioaccumulation, and
persistence, improved understanding of biogeochemical cycles, mass balance and other factors related
to potential exposure. Holistic marine ecosystem modeling is an important part of marine environmental
impact assessment. Emphasis must be placed on a truly holistic approach with important physical,
chemical and biogeochemical processes are integrated in models.
Grennfelt, P.; Hov, O.; Derwent, D. 1994. Second generation abatement strategies for NO sub(x),
NH sub(3), SO sub(2) and VOCs. AMBIO 1994 vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 425-433.
Subject Areas: Air Quality
The UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) has decided on
reduction of transboundary air pollution in three protocols; one on sulphur, nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) respectively. These protocols are not sufficient to solve the air-pollution
problem in Europe. Further reductions and agreements are necessary to achieve sustainable ecosystems.
In further negotiations, which should be based on critical loads, it is important to consider that the regional
air-pollution problem consists of a complicated matrix of compounds and effects. Thus, control of one
problem will influence other problems, and control of one compound will affect the transport and effects
of others. This is certainly the case for nitrogen oxides (NO sub(x)), which play an important role in
acidification and eutrophication effects as well as in the formation of photochemical oxidants. This article
discusses the scientific rationale for considering effects and their precursors together. Variations in effects
and their causes are discussed and suggestions for a different approach to the future control of regional
air pollution are given.
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Gresswell; R.E.; Barton, BA; Kershner, J.L. 1989. Practical approaches to riparian resource
management: an educational workshop, May 811, 1989, Billings, Montana. United States Bureau Of
Land Management Billings District Office American, Fisheries Society Montana Chapter. 1989 Oct.
Support for the workshop provided by Montana Chapter of the American Fisheries Society ... [et al.].
Subject Areas: Natural Resources .
Gruntfest, Eve. 1989. Multi objective river corridor planning: proceedings of the Urban Stream Corridor
and Stormwater Management Workshop, March 1416, 1989, Colorado Springs, Colorado, and the
Multi Objective Management of River Corridors and Their Restoration Workshop, March 21 23, 1989,
Knoxville, Tennessee. United, States Environmental Protection Agency Association, Of State Floodplain
Managers. Urban Stream Corridor And Stormwater Management Workshop (1989, Colorado Springs,
Colo ). Association of State Floodplain Managers, 1991 Sponsored by the Environmental Protection
Agency-and the Association of State Floodplain Managers.
Subject Areas: Planning
Hammer, RG. 1989. Forest Headwaters Riparian Road Construction and Timber Harvest Guidelines
to Control Sediment. Proceedings of the Symposium on Headwaters Hydrology. American Water
Resources Association, Bethesda Maryland, p 127-131.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Two major principles to control forest headwaters sediment are to minimize sediment from road
construction and to maintain woody debris stream structures such as log steps which store sediment.
Guidelines for road construction in riparian areas include slash fitter windrows at the toe of road fill slopes.
Studies indicate that slash fitter windrows trap 75% or more of road sediment at low cost. Guidelines for
timber harvest in riparian areas include provision for large woody debris recruitment to headwater
streams. Forest headwater stream channels are dependent upon woody materials to form log steps
which store sediment, dissipate stream energy, and provide fish habitat.
Harney, K.R. 1996, June I. THE NATION'S HOUSING - HOME BUYERS WANT MODERN
TOWNS WITH LOTS OF OLD-FASHIONED CHARM. Washington Post, Final Edition.
Subject Areas: Commercial- Economics
Kenneth R. Harney says the 1996 national home buyers' community preference vote has just been tallied
and reveals that buyers may want a neo-tradrrjonal good-old-fashioned atmosphere at the center of their
towns, but they prefer an updated version of the good old suburbs outside the town center.
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Harowitz, S. 1992. A Garden That Will Shrink Your Water Bill. Kiplinger's Personal Finance Magazine,
Vol: 46 Iss: 5 Date: May 1992 p: 106.
Subject Areas: Design- Natural Resources
The latest idea in drought-resistant landscaping is Xeriscaping. The new form of gardening that will save
money in water bills is discussed. .
Hayes, D. 1992, Apr 17. Future Milestones. USA TODAY, p: 10 col: 4.
SuDject Areas: Air Quality - Natural Resources - Planning
Denis Hayes discusses environmental progress as the US moves to the year 2000. He examines the
impact of population growth, the greenhouse effect, and urban development on the environment.
Heimlich, R E.; Vesterby, M. 1989. Resources And Technology, Div. Conversion of Wetlands to Urban
Uses: Evidence from Southeastern Counties. Wetlands: Concerns and Successes. Proceedings of a
Symposium held September 17-22 1989, Tampa, Florida. American Water Resources Association,
Bethesda, Maryland. 1989. p 161 -173.
Subject Areas: Planning
Changes in land use on 5 million wetland acres were inventoried in a study of 68 Southeastern counties
which experienced rapid population growth during the 1970s. Conversion occurred on a gross total of
372,000 wetland acres, 7.5% of the total wetlands inventoried at the early date. Direct conversion to
Lrban uses accounted for 30% of wetland losses, but wetlands made up only 10% of the land urbanized.
FoTy-four percent of wetlands converted were used for agriculture and rangelands, while 20% were
converted to forest land. Agricultural and forest land account for 46% and 43% of land converted to
urban uses. Agriculture and forestry probably serve as intermediate land uses, but a large fraction of
wetlands converted to these uses are ultimately urbanized. It is likely that urban development occurs on
previously drained agricultural land, while displaced farmers convert wetlands located beyond the urban
fringe for new cropland. Regionally, 86% of wetlands in fast-growth counties are in the Southeast and
85% of gross wetland conversion occurs there.
Hildreth, RG. 1992. Australian Coastal Management: Some North American Perspectives on Recent
Queensland and Other Initiatives. Coastal Management, Vol. 20, No. 3, p 255-268, July/September
1992.
Subject Areas: Model
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The establishment of appropriate federal-state or provincial relationships is an important component of
any coastal management scheme. The similarities in the formidable technical, legal, and institutional
challenges faced in both Australia and the United States suggest that successful techniques developed in
one nation could be transferable at least in part to the other. Because the federal Coastal Zone
Management Act, unlike most federal environmental legislation in the United States, is quite deferential
to the states, it does serve as a useful model for national legislation that would provide financial support
for coastal management by state and local authorities in Australia. Past Australian coastal management
efforts often have been appropriate for the circumstances presented at that time. However, future
Australian state coastal management schemes should further address seaward scope, inland'scope,
regional planning and its legal status, existing ports and harbors, the balance of the Australian coast,
aboriginal and islander peoples, and state-owned coastal lands. Queensland's 1991 coastal protection
strategy, a discussion document potentially leading to legislation, addresses development priorities for
coastal locations, zero net loss/mitigation, precautionary principle, and coastal protection zoning. For
management of large marine areas, Australia and Queensland have led the way worldwide with the
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park scheme. While no other single region of the Australian coast appears to
present the large scale and unique values of the Great Barrier Reef, there are many that deserve
state-initiated regional planning carried out with combined state and federal financial support in the
framework of supportive state and national coastal management legislation.
Holdgate, S. M. 1994. ENS (Environment North Seas) '93, Stavanger (Norway), 24 27 Aug 1993. The
need for international co operation in the management of coastal environments. PROCEEDINGS OF
ENS (ENVIRONMENT NORTH SEAS) '93 CONFERENCE HELD IN STAVANGER, 24-27 AUGUST
1993. Elliott,-M.; Ducrotoy,-j.-P. (eds.) 1994 pp. 601-608. MAR.-POLLUT.-BULL 0025-326 vol. 29,
no. 6-12.
Subject Areas: Planning
The coastal zones are areas of high biological productivity and intense human pressure. Environmental
challenges arise from pollution and from urban and industrial development. Administrative, social and legal
challenges centre upon the need for sound management of coastal zone resources, as an important
component of national strategies for sustainability. A number of specific actions have been set out in
Agenda 21, the principal product of the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. But these need to
be earned forward within cross-sectoral, integrated coastal area management procedures. International
action is also needed because marine ecosystems rarely coincide with national boundaries, and are
affected by international economic, social and legal decisions. International scientific co-operation on
marine issues is already well established, and many regional action plans and Conventions have been
adopted. Technological co-operation is less advanced. Such efforts need to be intensified, and
continuously adapted. Sound plans for the future must be based on good science, critical economic
evaluation of resources, sensitive evaluation of social and cultural factors and of the needs of local
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communities, evaluation of the risks of climate change, sea- level rise and other changes, and monitoring
as a basis for continuing adaptation.
Hopen, R. M. 1994. Wetlands mitigation banking: Giving entrepreneurs a chance to build better
wetlands. ENVIRON. LAW 1994 .vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 32-37. ISSN: 1070-0757.
Subject Areas: Regulations
As policymakers struggle to find an acceptable wetland definition and to decide whether or not to
compensate landowners for regulatory takings, a new crop of wetland entrepreneurs, known as wetland
mitigation bankers, are building high quality wetlands. The future is unclear for wetland bankers until the
regulatory agencies determine how to impose adequate safeguards to ensure ecological success of
wetland banks without discouraging private sector investment.
Hosmer, P. 1995, July 13. RAIL PLAN ON THE WRONG TRACK, SAY DEVOTEES OF THE B&A
TRAIL. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: M WEEKLY - MARYLAND p: I.
Subject Areas: Economics
Houlahan, J.; Marcus, W.A.; Shirmohammadi, A. 1992. Estimating Maryland Critical Area Act's Impact
on Future Nonpoint Pollution Along the Rhode River Estuary. Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 28, No.
3, p 553-567, May/)une 1992.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
A significant and continuous decline in Chesapeake Bay water quality, fish and wildlife habitat, and
commercial fisheries and waterfowl has occurred over the last 35 yrs. Nutrient over-enrichment,
excessive sediment loadings, and toxic pollutants from increased urbanization and changing agricultural
practices are responsible for many of the Bay's problems. The Maryland Critical Area Act was passed in
1984 in order to improve Chesapeake Bay water quality and natural resources while still accommodating
population growth. Modeling methods were utilized to evaluate the effects of the Maryland Critical Area
Act on generation of nonpoint source loads of P, N, and sediment to the Rhode River estuary. Results
indicate that the Critical Area Act can reduce the present generation of nonpoint nutrient and sediment
loadings 20-30% from the regulated area. These reductions can occur while preserving agricultural lands
and allowing limited residential and urban development. The decrease in nutrient loadings is primarily
dependent upon implementation and enforcement of agricultural best management practices (BMPs). The
BMPs could reduce present agricultural nutrient loadings by 90% to a level comparable to loadings from
residential areas. The estimated effectiveness of the Critical Area Act is even greater when compared to
potential future nutrient loadings if development in the area remains unregulated. Unrestricted residential
and urban development could increase nutrient loadings by 200% to 1000% as compared to controlled
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development under Critical Area Act guidelines. The Critical Area Act primarily prevents these future
increases by severely limiting wood land cutting, with lesser results obtained by requiring urban BMPs.
House, MA; Ellis, J.B.; Herricks, E.E.; Hvitved, Jacobsen T. Seager, j.; Lijklema, L; Aalderink, H.;
Clifforde, IT. 1993. INTERURBA '92, The IAWPRC Workshop On Interactions B. Urban drainage
impacts on receiving water quality. INTERURBA -- INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SEWERS,
TREATMENT PLANTS AND RECEIVING WATERS IN URBAN AREAS. Lijklema,-L; Tyson,-J.M.;
LeSouef,-A.; Harremoees,-P.; House.-MA; Marsalek,-J. (eds.) 1993 pp. I 17-158. Jolliffe, I. P. Royal
Holloway And Bedford New Coll Egham (England) Dept Of Geography. Recreation and Conservation
along the Metropolitan Toronto Waterfront, Lake Ontario, Canada. Ocean & Shoreline Management
Vol. II, Nos. 4&5, p341-351.
Subject Areas: Water Qua/ft/
Toronto, the most rapidly growing city in North America, is an excellent example of dynamic changes
in its waterfront, involving both urban renewal and revitalization. Two key authorities are the Toronto
Harbour Commissioners and the Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority. Both have
made a basic assumption that recreation and conservation go hand-in-hand. One powerful constraint on
early recreational development along the waterfront was the high level of pollution of both air and water
that inevitably accompanied port growth and industrialization along the central waterfront and in close
proximity to the downtown business district. Industrial relocation has helped, but the problem of water
quality still remains, exacerbated by sluggish circulation. In spite of a range of physical and other
constraints, much of the Metro Waterfront is now publicly accessible, in particular a series of lake fills that
have involved both public and private participation; and a range of cultural, scientific, wildlife conservation
and recreational opportunities are now available. Some key problems still needing to be resolved are:
severely eroding shorelines sectors, water quality and associated beach contamination, sedimentation
problems, and shore and island land use management decisions. Overall, there has been a fairly successful
wedding between recreational and conservation interests.
Howard, R.C.; Conner, R.W. 1994. 14 Annu International Symposium Of The North American, Lake
Management Society, Orland. Developing the next generation of lake managers. LAKE RESERVOIR
MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 2, p. 83.
Subject Areas: Model
The Teaching Resource for Environmental Education (TREE) Center in Graysville, Georgia was
developed in 1994 under a Title II Eisenhower Demonstration and Exemplary Program Grant as a model
environmental teaching center for the state. The goal of the TREE Center is to establish an appreciation
of natural resource management and protection in the next generation. The project demonstrates
effective" partnerships by bringing together students, teachers, local industries, and governmental agencies
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
in an atmosphere of cooperation.- It is an example of ways professionals can be linked to local schools,
The procedure for exporting this project to other schools in the southeast will be described in the
presentation. Guidelines for establishing partnerships among scientists, professionals, schools, and
businesses will be given. The presentation will describe the physical facilities of the TREE Center, the
involvement of local partners in developing the center, curriculum guides for using the center, and ways
the results can be used by NALMS.members and transferred to other locations.
Hruby, T.; Scuderi, M. 1995. Integrated planning for wetland restoration and mitigation. RESTOR.
MANAGE. NOTES 1995 vol. 13, no. I, pp. 45-46.'
Subject Areas: Planning
Outlining a scheme to coordinate restoration planning for 1,000 hectares under development pressure.
Huang, S.L.; Chen, C.S. 1990. System Model to Analyse Environmental Carrying Capacity for Managing
Urban Growth of the Taipei Metropolitan Region. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 31, No.
I, p 47-60, July 1990. National Science Coundl of the Republic of China Grant NSC75-0301-H0005-03.
Subject Areas: Model - Planning
An urban environmental system model, comprising subsystems of urban development, urban water use,
and streams, is developed for analyzing the human carrying capacity of the Taipei metropolitan region.
In this study, availability of land, capacities of water related infra-structures and water quality standards are
used as limiting factors; variables of population and urbanized areas are used as indicators of carrying
capacity. The allowable increase of population and urbanized area for each administrative district by the
year 2000 are simulated. Results of the analysis indicate that urban growth in the Taipei metropolitan
region will be significantly constrained by the environmentally sensitive characteristics of land, and the
availability and capacity of water supply systems and waste treatment facilities. Resource management
strategies based on the results of sensitivity analysis are proposed and used as model inputs to
demonstrate that such constraints can be alleviated through better management of man and his
environment.
Hubbard, R.K.; Lowrance, R.R. 1994. Southern Appalachian Man And The Biosphere (SAMAB)
Conference, On. Riparian forest buffer system research at the Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton,
GA. WETl^NDS OF THE INTERIOR SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. Trettin,-C.C; Aust,-W.M.;
Wisniewski.-j. (eds.) 1994 pp. 409-432. WATER,-AIR.-SOIL-POLLUT. vol. 77, no. 3-4.
Subject Areas: Model
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Recent attention has focused on riparian forest buffer systems for filtering sediment, nutrients, and
pesticides entering from upslope agricultural fields. Studies in a variety of physiographic areas have shown
that concentrations of sediment and agrichemicals are reduced after passage through a riparian forest. The
mechanisms involved are both physical and biological, including deposition, uptake by vegetation, and loss
by microbiological processes such as denitrification. Current research by USDA-ARS and University of
Georgia scientists at Tifton, GA is focusing on managing riparian forest buffer systems to alleviate
agricultural impacts on the environment. The underlying concept for this research is that agricultural
impact on streams is best protected by a riparian forest buffer system consisting of three zones, in
consecutive upslope order from the stream these zones are (I) a narrow band of permanent trees (5-10
m wide) immediately adjacent to the stream channel which provides streambank stabilization, organic
debris input to streams, and shading of streams, (2) a forest management zone where maximum biomass
production is stressed and trees can be harvested, and (3) a grass buffer strip up to 10 m wide to provide
control of coarse sediment and to spread overland flow. Several ongoing projects at Tifton, GA are
focusing on using riparian forest buffer systems as fitters. A forest management project is testing the effects
of different management practices on surface and ground water quality. This project includes three
different forest management practices: mature forest, selectively thinned forest, and clearcut. In a different
study a natural wetland is being restored by planting trees. The effectiveness of this wetland on filtering
nutrients from dairy wastes which are being applied upslope is being evaluated. At this same site, a
pesticide study is being conducted on the side opposite to where dairy wastes are applied. An overland
flow-riparian buffer system using swine lagoon waste is evaluating the effectiveness of different vegetative
treatments and lengths of buffer zones on filtering of nutrients. In this study three vegetative treatments
are compared: (I) 10 m grass buffer and 20 m riparian forest, (2) 20 m grass buffer and 10 m riparian
forest, (3) 10 m grass buffer and 20 m of the recommended wetland species maidencane. Waste is
applied at the upper end of each plot at either a high or low rate, and then allowed to flow downslope.
The three zone riparian forest buffer system is being used for the Riparian Ecosystem Management Model
(REMM). This model, which is currently under development at Tifton, GA, is a computer simulation
model designed to reduce soil and water degradation by aiding farmers and land use managers in decision
making regarding how best to utilize their riparian buffer system. Both information currently being
collected in field studies and development of the REMM are innovative farm-level and forestry
technologies to protect soil and water resources.
Hydrology of Mountainous Regions II: Artificial Reservoirs, Water and Slopes. 1990. Proceedings of the
Symposium on the Impact of Artificial Reservoirs on Hydrological Equilibrium and the Symposium on the
Role of Water in the Morphological Evolution of Slopes held at Lausanne, Switzerland, 27 August-1
September 1990. IAHS Publication No. 194. International Association of Hydrological Sciences,
Washington, DC. 1990. 446p. Edited by Richard O. Sinniger and Michel Monbaron.
Subject Areas: Planning
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This volume contains the papers from two symposia. The first covers flood control by artificial reservoirs,
sediment transport prediction, sediment deposit formation and problems related to flushing,
consequences of modified flow regime downstream of reservoirs, and ecological effects and fishery
problems related to reservoirs. The second symposium covers runoff processes and slope development,
extreme floods and their geomorphologicai effects, influence of anthropogenic hydrological modifications,
and assessment and mapping of flood and landslide hazards with regard to land-use planning. Both
symposia point out the necessity for good watershed management to avoid floods, debris flows,
catchment erosion, and other environmental and ecological hazards.
Inman, B. 1995, March 25. ON 2 COASTS, A SEARCH FOR LIMITS TO THE SPRAWL THAT
APPALLS; IN GROWTH-SICK CALIF., A WAKE-UP CALL TO END ENDLESS SUBDIVIDING.
Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: E REAL ESTATE p: I.
Subject Areas: Planning
Isberg, G. 1991. Strategic Planning for a Comprehensive Water Plan. Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation, Vol. 46, No. 3, p 178-183, May/June 1991. 18 ref.
Subject Areas: Planning
"he public is becoming more alarmed about reports of toxins and pesticides in water wells, especially
in environmentally sensitive areas. In response to this concern, governmental agencies at all levels are
Beginning to develop plans and programs to protect groundwater supplies. The Olmsted County
(Minnesota) Comprehensive Water Management Plan and the process used to develop the plan are
jmque in several respects. First, a strategic planning approach was used by analyzing the existing
Background data, developing a mission statement with specific goals and policies, developing a valid
system of priorities among many .competing programs, focusing efforts on the most critical issues, and
Dicing major emphasis on implementation strategies matched with existing and potential resources.
Second , the planning process involved a truly intergovernmental and interdisciplinary approach which
Deluded federal, state and local agencies. Third, the plan was developed by an 'inhouse' staff and policy
committee composed of local officials. Fourth, the planning process used specific and identifiable standards
ana cntena in establishing the system of priorities among competing programs. Fifth, the process strongly
encouraged public input and participation through various public information meetings, surveys,
newspaper articles, and public hearings. A number of valuable lessons were learned in the planning
orocess: (I) There is a general lack of specific data related to the extent and sources of water pollution.
(2) There is a critical need for intergovernmental cooperation, especially among different levels of
government. (3) Water flow and water issues rarely correspond to political boundaries. And (4)
recommended action programs may not fit neatly into existing county organizational structures, but cross
several departmental lines. Olmsted County has made a good start in implementing a groundwater
protection strategy and, it is hoped, will remain committed to this goal in the future.
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jaakson, R. 1974. A mosaic pattern of balanced land water pinning for cottage development and lake
planning. PLAN CANADA(JOURNAL OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE OF PLANNERS), Vol. 14, no.
I, pp. 40-45, October 1974.
Subject Areas: Planning- Recreation - Regulations
Lakes on the pre-cambrian shield in Ontario have come under increasing pressure for development for
lake cottages and recreational uses. Past solutions of either ribbon development around the lake or
development in depth receding from the lake side have proved inefficient and unacceptable in maintaining
a high level of environmental quality. A new concept for planning of lakes and development of cottage
subdivisions is outlined. By removing pressures for private development and subsequent environmental
deterioration, the subdivisions cluster cottages in the intervening land between lakes, thereby reserving
the shorelines for public ownership and use. Under public management, the environmental quality of the
lakes is further enhanced by determining specific uses for the lakes, reducing number of road accesses
(disrupting the ecosystem), locating a central efficient disposal system, and enforcement of other general
regulations. The plan is already operative atTemagami Lake in Ontario, and the social opportunities it has
opened to lower income groups are evident. This phase monitored development allows for continued
planning so as to further enhance and anticipate changes.
Jacobs, Peter; Sadler, Barry. 1990. Sustainable development and environmental assessment :
perspectives on planning for a common future : a background paper prepared for the Canadian
Environmental Assessment Research Council. Canadian, Environmental Assessment Research Council.
Subject Areas: Planning
jaeggi, M.N.R. 1989. Channel Engineering and Erosion Control. Alternatives in Regulated River
Management. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. 1989. p 163-183.
Subject Areas: Design
For many years, there has been a conflict between maximizing flood protection and keeping rivers in a
comparatively natural state. However, a number of attempts have been made to establish design rules
that take into account both safety measures and environmental arguments. Rehabilitation has become a
new activity involving returning a technically perfect but sterile'river channel into something more natural.
Recent projects described here that show how safety and environmental aspects of channel engineering
can be combined in a complementary fashion; regulation of the Alpine Rhine in Switzerland is
emphasized. Projects on the Emme River, Ova de Bernina, and at the mouth of the Reuss River also are
considered. Traditional river training schemes followed Tulla 's rule (circa 1820) that' no river needs
more than one channel.' Consequences of this type of training could include aggradation or erosion. In
regulation of the Alpine Rhine, erosion was a problem. Alternative approaches utilize bank vegetatio'n,
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
drop structures, and nonconventional channel engineering (channel elongation (i.e., meandering courses)
or channel widening). Regulating rivers is an ongoing task because of the inevitable repetition of flood
events. Concepts that worked well for decades, because they were designed for the conditions
immediately after the first regulation, may fail when long-term effects become predominant. Such
long-term effects may be the cessation of sediment supply from the river bed, which must happen if
equilibrium conditions are to be reached, or the advancement of a delta. Straightening and narrowing of
rivers has proved an extremely effective method for flood-proofing channels. However, if bed armoring
does not occur, drop structures must be built to prevent overdeepening. A realistic alternative to building
an extreme nurnber of drop structures is to provide a certain number of wide braided reaches. This
alternative has clear ecological advantages.
jager, Jill. 1991. The Challenge of sustainable development in a greenhouse world: some visions of the
future : report of a policy exercise held in Bad Bleiberg, Austria, September 2 7, 1990. Stockholm,
Environment Institute. 1991 .Report of a policy exercise held in Bad Bleiberg, Austria, September 2-7,
1990. Stockholm, Sweden : Stockholm Environment Institute, c!99l.
Subject Areas: Planning
Johnson, AW. 1993. Delaware Estuary Program Goes Public. Water Environment & Technology, Vol.
5, No. 4, p 25-27, April 1993.
Subject Areas: Planning - Recreation
Citizens of the Delaware River and Bay areas are being encouraged to participate in a plan to preserve
and protect the Delaware Estuary. The plan was produced by the Delaware Estuary Program, a joint
effort of New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania, to develop solutions to environmental problems in the
area. The Delaware estuary is a transitional area where the freshwater of the Delaware River and its
tributaries mixes with salt water from the Atlantic Ocean. It stretches about 133 miles from the falls at
Trenton, NJ., south to the mouth of Delaware bay between Cape May, Nj,. and Cape Henlopen, DE.
The Program's report, titled 'Preliminary Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan', includes
specific actions in six categories: habitat conservation, point source compliance, nonpoint source pollution,
sustainable development, estuarine education, and public access. A large segment of the population places
a high value on estuary access for recreation and livelihood, so the public access issue has been given a
high priority. The preliminary plan calls for an inventory of public access points within the estuary so that
management issues, such as rezoning and land acquisition, can be clearly identified.
Johnson, R.R. 1985. Riparian ecosystems and their management: reconciling conflicting uses. United,
States Forest Service North American Riparian Conference (\ St:. 1985 :. Tucson, Ariz). 1985 Aug.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
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Johnson, PA; McCuen, R.H.; Hromadka, T.V. 1991. Debris Basin Policy and Design. Journal of
Hydrology, Vol. 123, No. 1/2, p 83-95, February.
Subject Areas: Design
Debris flows cause considerable property damage and loss of life. The debris basin is a widely used
control alternative, for which accurate design methods are not available. Thus, there is a need for a
systematic design procedure, as well as a practical basis for establishing policy elements. A design
procedure that accounts for seasonal volumes of debris has been developed. The choice of the design
return period and bum interval, both of which are important policy elements, is a function of the hazard
level associated with failure. The monitoring and maintenance of debris basins are also important policy
elements. The frequency of monitoring a basin to ensure adequate storage is a function of the potential
hazard presented by a debris .flow to the area downstream of the basin, as well as the precipitation, the
frequency of burning in the watershed, and the drainage area. A procedure for estimating the temporal
accumulation of debris was developed so that public agencies will know when to monitor and dredge
each debris basin in their jurisdiction. The adoption of rational design methods and policy elements
relating to debris basins should minimize the risk of failure of the basins.
jolhffe, I. P. n.d. Recreation and Conservation along the Metropolitan Toronto Waterfront, Lake Ontario,
Canada. Ocean & Shoreline Management, Vol. II, Nos. 4 & 5, p 341 -351.
Subject Areas: Recreation
"Toronto, the most rapidly growing city in North America, is an excellent example of dynamic changes
in its waterfront, involving both urban renewal and revitalization. Two key authorities are the Toronto
"-tarbour Commissioners and the Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority. Both have
~iaae a basic assumption that recreation and conservation go hand-in-hand. One powerful constraint on
early recreational development along the waterfront was the high level of pollution of both air and water
tnat inevitably accompanied port growth and industrialization along the central waterfront and in close
proximity to the downtown business district. Industrial relocation has helped, but the problem of water
quality still remains, exacerbated by sluggish circulation. In spite of a range of physical and other
constraints, much of the Metro Waterfront is now publicly accessible, in particular a series of lake fills that
~,ave involved both public and private participation; and a range of cultural, scientific, wildlife conservation
and recreational opportunities are now available. Some key problems still needing to be resolved are:
severely eroding shorelines sectors, water quality and associated beach contamination, sedimentation
problems, and shore and island land use management decisions. Overall, there has been a fairly successful
wedding between recreational and conservation interests.
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Jones, J.E. 1990. Multipurpose Stormwater Detention Ponds. Public Works, Vol. 121, No. 13, p 52-53,
December.
Subject Areas: Design - Habitat - Water Quality
Multipurpose detention pond concepts for both ' wet' ponds (those that maintain water permanently)
and' dry' ponds (those that retain stormwater briefly during and after floods) are summarized. Regardless
of the specific functions that the designer attempts to fulfill, the pond must be: (I) safe, from the standpoint
of public visitors or users of the facility; (2) hydrologically and hydraulically sound; (3) maintainable at low
cost; (4) structurally sound if a severe flood occurs, possibly up to the probable maximum flood; and (5)
pleasant to view; considered an asset rather than a nuisance. Specific purposes for stormwater detention
ponds other than runoff containment include: (a) water quality enhancement; (b) enhanced property
values and community focal points; (c) wildlife habitat enhancement; and (d) active recreational potential.
Unfortunately, many ponds are built because a developer had to demonstrate that' post- development
discharges will not exceed pre-development discharges.' Detention pond design needs to be for more
than this. It is incumbent upon the drainage designer to evaluate multiple purpose objectives for wet and
dry stormwater detention ponds.
Jordaan, J.; Plate, E. J.; Prins, E.; Veltrop, J. 1993. Water in Our Common Future: A Research Agenda
for Sustainable Development of Water Resources. /RUE MIOLLIS, F-75732 PARIS (FRANCE).
-UNESCO, DIVISION OF WATER SCIENCES.
Subject Areas: Planning
Can development be sustained? "Development" implies change, hopefully for the better, and "sustainable"
implies forever, or at least for the long term. Can change, for the better, continue forever? At some point
we may have to be willing to settle for the long term maintenance of a given level of water resources
development, changing only as our technology permits. These issues do not appear to be the subject of
this report. The report takes the more conventional view that sustainable development requires a broad,
comprehensive interdisciplinary approach to water resources planning, design, operation and
management, and an increased emphasis on preserving and enhancing the environment, for us and for
our descendants. The report is divided into five chapters. The first chapter reviews the recent history that
has reintroduced the term sustainable development and made it a household word among resource and
economic development organizations and professionals. It argues for a less sectorial approach to how one
addresses water resources problems, and even how one organizes academic and professional bodies.
Jordaan, j. Water in our common future : a research agenda for sustainable development of water
resources. Committee, On Water Research; International, Hydrological Programme. 1993; Unesco,
1993 "International Hydrological Programme"—Cover.
Subject Areas: Planning
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Jungwirth, M.; Muhar, S.; Schmutz, S. 1995. Mid Term Meeting Of FLJWE (Fish And Land/Inland Water,
Ecotones) Lunz (Austri. The effects of recreated instream and ecotone structures on the fish fauna of an
epipotamal river. PROCEEDINGS OF THE MID-TERM MEETING OF FLIWE (FISH AND
LAND/INLAND WATER ECOTONES) HELD IN LUNZ, 31 AUG-2 SEP 1992. Schiemer,-F.;
Zalewski,-M.; Thorpe.-J. (eds.) pp. 195-206. HYDROBIOLOGIAvol.303.no. 1-3.
Subject Areas: Habitat
Investigations of fifteen sections of seven Austrian epipotamal (barbel region) streams between 1981 and
1984 demonstrate the impact of instream river bed structures on fish communities. Reduced spatial
heterogeneity due to river straightening resulted in decreasing species number, diversity, stock density
and biomass. Reincreased variability of the river bed in the frame of a subsequent restructuring project
improved all community-specific values significantly within a 3-year investigation period (1988-1990).
Besides the regained habitat variability in form of riffle pool sequences and other instream structures, the
newly created riparian zones obviously provided important niches, e.g. as refuge areas during flooding
and as nursery grounds for fish fry. The positive effects of the recreated landA/vater ecotone are discussed
with respect to river restoration projects.
Kadlec, R. H; Hey, D. L. 1994. IAWQ 3. Int Specialist Conf On Wetland Systems In Water, Pollution
Con. Constructed wetlands for river water quality improvement. WETLAND SYSTEMS IN WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL Bavor.-H.J.; Mtehell.-D.S. (eds.) 1994 pp. 159-168.
WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 29, no. 4.
Subject Areas: Return
The Des Raines River Wetlands Demonstration Project has reconstructed four wetlands in Wadsworth,
Illinois, USA. The river drains an agricultural and urban watershed, and carries a non-point source
contaminant load of sediment, nutrients and agricultural chemicals. Up to 40% of the average stream flow
is pumped to the wetlands, and allowed to return from the wetlands to the river through control
structures followed by vegetated channels. Native wetland plant species,have been established, ranging
from cattail, bulrushes, water lilies, and arrowhead to duckweed and algae. Pumping began in the
summer of 1989, and has continued during the ensuing spring, summer and fall periods. The
experimental design provides for different hydraulic loading rates, ranging from 5 to 60 cmAveek.
Intensive wetland research began in late summer 1989, and continues to present. Detailed hydrology
is measured for each wetland. Sediment removal efficiencies ranged from 86-100% for the four cells
during summer, and from 38-95% during winter. Phosphorus removal efficiencies ranged from 60-100%
in summer and 27-100% in winter. The river contains both old, persistent and modern, degradable
agricultural chemicals. The principal modern pollutant is atrazine, of which the wetlands remove
approximately half. The project is successfully illustrating the potential of constructed wetlands for
controlling non-point source pollution at an intermediate position in the watershed.
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Kansas urban conservation handbook. 1990. Kansas Soil Conservation Service. 1990 May; Urban
conservation.
Subject Areas: Planning- Water Quality
Kellner, R.; Hackl, A. (Eds) 1994. I. Interdisciplinary PEGS Conf Of The Federation Of, European
Chemical Societies On Environmental Issues (EURO ENVIRONMENT '92) Budapest, (Hungary) 1014
May 1992. Chemistry for the protection of the environment. SCI. TOTAL ENVIRON. 1994 vol. 143,
no. 1, 156 pp.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
The Federation of European Chemical Societies (FECS) invited for the first time top experts in the fields
of environmental relevance to the interdisciplinary broad spectrum conference Euroenvironment '92 to
Budapest. This event was organised by the Hungarian Chemical Society on behalf of 4 Working Parties
of the FECS under the auspices of the Hungarian Minister of Environmental and Regional Policy, Sandor
Keresztes and supported by the Austrian Ministry for Environment Youth and Family and by Rotary
International, District 1910. In 7 sessions (Air and Climate Water, Soil, Food, Cultural Heritage,
Environmental Technology and General Themes) the audience and the speakers contributed to the
solution of the World Problematique1 by analysing the present situation of unlimited and wasteful
exploitation of natural resources and providing information about the role of chemistry and chemical
technology to secure a sustainable development of our civilisation also in the future.
Kenney, J A III. 1985. Problem of People: Critical Areas and Floating Zones in the Chesapeake. Virginia
Journal of Natural Resources Law, Vol. 4, No. 2, p 209-218, 1985.
Subject Areas: Habitat- Natural Resources - Recreation
Maryland 's Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Act authorizes local jurisdictions to develop and implement
programs to control the use and development of sensitive shoreline areas, designated by the act as'
Critical Areas.' The traditional approach to zoning involves a constant war for land use flexibility. The '
floating zone ' concept was developed to permit certain land uses in accordance with an overall
development plan for a designated area of land, without requiring a legislative determination of' change
or mistake' at the time of a comprehensive rezoning. A floating zone is a specialized use district created
by ordinance that' floats ' over an entire jurisdiction until it attaches to a specific property upon the
petition of the property owner. A site plan, which typically includes restrictions on maximum building
area, minimum green area, and, in some cases, requires off-site improvements, must be approved by
the local governing body. Plan approval can be revoked if the plan 's provisions, including restrictions, are
not complied with, or if there is no meaningful development within a reasonable period of time. In one
case, a 200-acre development on the Patuxent River was approved under a floating zone. The project
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included a central marina, habitat preservation areas, community beach areas with restricted access areas,
and central sewage; the density was increased from 1.0 units per acre to 2.83 units per acre as a result
of rezoning. Numerous conditions were imposed, covering such areas as street design, parking, sediment
and stormwater control, and limitations on pleasure boat mooring and use. The cost of development in
this instance were borne by the private sector, and the costs of maintaining wildlife habitats were borne
by the people with access to them. The floating zone and planned unit development concept can be an
effect means to meet increasing development pressure in a creative, positive way.
King, L. A.; Harris, G. R. 1990. Local Land Use Planning for Rural Groundwater Protection in Vermont
and Northern New York. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation JSWCA3, Vol. 45, No. 2, p 310-314,
1990. 29ref. 1990.
Subject Areas: Planning - Regulations
An exploratory survey was conducted of land use planning for rural ground-water protection in 41 towns
in Vermont and northern New York. Most communities have experienced contamination and/or supply
problems but lack the information necessary to take action to prevent problems in the future. Federal and
state governments should improve communication with local governments in rural areas and provide
more usable groundwater information. Planning officials perceive existing regulations to be ineffective for
protecting groundwater. In view of local resistance to state intervention and new regulations, an
incremental approach is recommended, incorporating groundwater protection provisions into existing
zoning or site plan review ordinances.
Klessig, L.L. 1994. 14 Annu International Symposium Of T. Integrated planning by local lake
management organizations: A model. LAKE RESERVOIR MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 2, p. 87.
Subject Areas: Model'- Planning
In many states, local governments or riparian organizations are primarily responsible for the management
of lakes. This model is designed for such communities. The model assumes that state government
provides some financial assistance and technical back-up but is not performing day to day management
functions. The model also assumes that the lake community has limited capacity to hire its own full time
planners and managers. The example community relies on a combination of consultants, state technical
experts, natural resources professionals employed by county government, and its own volunteers. The
model could be adapted to communities with their own professional staff. A classical eight step planning
sequence unfolds over a period of about 20 years. The process begins with community clarifying its goals
for the lake and ends with the next generation starting the same process over again. In between these
points the model leads a community through inventory/needs assessment, conceptualization of
alternatives, formal decision, quantifiable objectives, implementation, and evaluation. By careful choice
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of concrete examples, the model provides an integrated plan which includes water quality management,
protection of aesthetic values, resolution of water use conflicts, and development of local leadership.
Konvitz, Josef, W. 1996. Mexico City: Metaphor for the world's urban future. Jrni Group:
Socio/Environmental; Sci/Tech Vol: 38. Iss: 2 Date: Mar 1996 p:3-4
Subject Areas: Regulations
Konvitz comments on Mexico City, which is considered a megacity. It is uncertain whether political
reform and social solidarity can provide the basis for an environmental agenda that is equal to the
challenges Mexico City faces.
Kuo, Chin Y. 1987. Effectiveness of BMPs for stormwater management in urbanized watersheds.
Virginia, Water Resources Research Center. 1987; Blacksburg : Virginia Water Resources Research
Center, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1987 Bulletin (Virginia Water Resources
Research Center).
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Lancaster, T. 1993. Erosion and Sediment Control on a Light Railway System. Public Works, Vol. 124,
No. 7, p 60, June.
Subject Areas: Design
A light rail system was recently constructed between East St. Louis, Illinois, and the St. Louis International
Airport. Spatial limitations for right-of-way construction through downtown St. Louis proposed special
challenges for both the design engineering firm and the general contractor. Over 14 miles of existing
right-of-ways would be excavated into large depressions to allow the light rail cars to pass. The 2:1, 80-ft
side slopes required in the design needed immediate slope stabilization with a double net straw fiber
erosion blanket, as calculated by special computer software. Easy installation and durable yet lightweight
construction of the straw fiber blanket enabled the exceptional 333-sq-yd per man hour application rate.
The blankets eliminated any need for regrading eroded areas, reseeding and fertilizing, and removing
sediment from the gravel track beds on the light rail project. The erosion blankets continued to function
beneath the establishing stands of grass through the fell and winter months, promoting permanent stability
and preventing sediment runoff into the rail beds.
Land Reclamation: Advances in Research & Technology. 1992. Proceedings of an International
Symposium held in Nashville, Tennessee, 14-15 December 1992. ASAE Publication 14-92. American
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Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Michigan. 1992. 381 p. Edited byT. Younos, P. Diplas, and
S. Mostaghimi.
Subject Areas: Planning
Land reclamation encompasses remediation of industrial wasteland, improvement of infertile land for
agricultural production, preservation of wetlands, and restoration of disturbed areas. This international
symposium served as a forum to review current research and state-of-the-art technology dealing with
vanous aspects of land reclamation, and provide an opportunity for professional interaction and exchange
of information in a multi-disciplinary setting. Topics included salinity problems; surface and groundwater
monitoring; reclamation of mined areas; waste treatment, disposal, and utilization; soil-amendment
methods and impacts; water-pollution sources and control; water-quality monitoring; wetland-restoration
techniques; erosion, runoff, and sediment control; irrigation practices; soil conservation; land-use planning
for resource protection; development and applications of computer models; geographic information
systems; and remote-sensing.technology.
Landner, L. 1993. ENS (Environment North Seas) '93, Stavanger (Norway), 24 27 Aug 199. How do
we know when we have done enough to protect the environment? PROCEEDINGS OF ENS
(ENVIRONMENT NORTH SEAS) '93 CONFERENCE HELD IN STAVANGER, 24-27 AUGUST 1993.
Eliiott.-M.; Ducrotoy,-J.-P. (eds.) 1994 pp. 593-598. MAR.-POLLUT.-BULL. 0025-326 vol. 29, no.
6-12.
Subject Areas: Recycling
The changing concepts and challenges that the process industry has to face in relation to environmental
protection are discussed. The original requirements on industry to reduce emissions of contaminants
through the installation of filters and waste water treatment facilities or through process modifications and
•ntroauction of'dean production' strategies were mainly based on economic and technical considerations
ratner than on an effort to avoid environmental impacts. The introduction of concepts such as 'assimilative
caoaaty of the environment' and 'critical load' provided useful instruments for setting effect-related
emission standards, resulting in acceptable environmental protection. However, the actual requirement
for 'sustainability1 has forced industry to focus not only on controlling emissions of contaminants and
pollutants, but to take a global environmental approach, including the choice of raw materials and energy
sources, recycling and re-utilization of wastes and to take responsibility for the fate of their products,
a jnng their whole lifecycle.
_ee. G. 1995, January 8. THE GREEN SCENE; ECOTRAVEL IS ONE OF THE TRENDIEST
BUZZWORDS OF THE '90S - BUT WHAT EXACTLY DOES IT MEAN? Washington Post, Final
Edition, Sec: E TRAVEL p: I.
Subject Areas: Economics
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Gary Lee discusses the concept behind ecotravel, which means practicing good environmentalism
whatever one's destination. [By the estimate of the nonprofit Ecotourism Society, a kind of travelers'
clearinghouse, 8 million U.S. residents have taken an ecotour at some point. By the end of 1995, the
society projects, that number will have climbed by as much as 25 percent.]
Lelen, K. 1996, June 22. ELEMENTS OF STYLE: BUILDERS FIND NEC-TRADITIONAL DESIGNS
HAVE THEIR LIMITS. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: E REAL ESTATE p: I.
Subject Areas: Design - Economics - Planning
Despite the limited buyer appeal of neo-traditional towns that embody the latest ideas in suburban
development, Washington DC-area builders are giving picket fences, front porches and other
neighbor-friendly amenities fresh scrutiny for their more traditional projects elsewhere.
Leuschner, C; Scherer, B. 1989. Fundamentals of an Applied Ecosystem Research Project in the
Wadden Sea of Schleswlg Holstein. HelgdaenderMeeresuntersuchungen, Vol. 43, No. 3/4, p 565-574.
Subject Areas: Design
The aims, content and organizational structure of a proposed interdisciplinary ecosystem research project
in the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein (West Germany) are briefly presented. The project will include
research on both fundamental as well as applied aspects of the Wadden Sea ecosystems and their
interaction with local human activities. In contrast to most of the other completed or currently running
ecosystem research projects on tidal coasts, a considerable part of the scientific work will also deal with
aspects of ecosystem management and protection of the various marine and semiterrestrial habitats of
the Wadden Sea. Considerable attention is paid to theoretical and methodological aspects of research
on ecosystems and landscape units. In particular, the adoption of a hierarchical view of complex biological
and environmental systems is recommended.
Lewis, Roger K. 1996, June 15. SHAPING THE CITY - NEW URBANIST CHARTER RETURNS TO
OLD-FASHIONED ARCHITECTURAL IDEALS. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: F REAL ESTATE
p: I.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
Roger K. Lewis comments on the Congress for New Urbanism's new charter, which was signed by
several hundred architects and urban designers in 1996 at a meeting in Charleston SC.
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Lewis, R.K. 1995, March 4. SHAPING THE CITY - PLANNERS TAKE NOTE: THERE'S A FUTURE
IN HISTORIC PRESERVATION FOR CITIES. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: F REAL ESTATE p:
I.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
Roger K. Lewis discusses a presentation by Richard Moe, president of the National Trust for Historic
Preservation, to the US Conference of Mayors, commenting on the premise that historic preservation
can play a significant role as a framework for public policy and a tool for implementation.
Liebmann, G.W. 199 i. The Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Law: The Evolution of a Statute. Coastal
Management, Vol. 19, No. 4, p 451 -468, October/December.
Subject Areas: Habitat - Planning - Water Quality
By Chapter 794 of the Acts of 1984, the Maryland General Assembly enacted the Chesapeake Bay
Critical Area Act (Act), a far-reaching effort to control future land use development pressure in a portion
of the Chesapeake Bay watershed. The state decided to regulate local zoning and subdivision approval
powers, in preference to other approaches that would have mandated elaborate planning exercises or
directly involved the state government in approving particular development applications. In the initial
stages of drafting the Act, a review was conducted of prior legislative activity in Maryland, including the
1974 Maryland Land Use Bill, the Patuxet River Plan, and the Coastal Zone Management Plan, which
relate to state government regulation of land use. Also, legislation made in a number of other states,
including the San Francisco Bay Commission Legislation, the California Coastal Zone Act, the Adirondack
Park Agency, and North Carolina Legislation, were reviewed to evaluate state controls upon local land
use planning for specialized purposes. The purposes of the Act are to: (I) minimize adverse impacts on
water quality; (2) conserve fish, wildlife, and plant habitat; and (3) promote sensitive land use policies for
development in the Chesapeake Bay Critical Area which accommodate growth in recognition of the fact
that even if pollution is controlled, the number, movement and activities of persons in that area can create
adverse impacts. The progress of the statute toward enactment includes a description of the definition
of the comdor, plan amendments, grandfather rights, transitional provisions, and procedural provisions.
The primary aim of the Act is to guard against piecemeal erosion of local plans in local government's quest
for economic development by providing for: (I) review of proposals for piecemeal amendments; (2)
intervention power with respect to project approvals; and (3) power of approval over state and local
public projects within the Critical Area. Since enactment of the Act, counties and municipalities have been
required to divide their critical areas into: intensely developed, limited development, and resource
conservation areas, mainly to restrict density on resource conservation areas to one unit per 20 acres.
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Lindsey, G.; Roberts, L; Page, W. 1992. Maintenance of Stormwater BMPs in Four Maryland Counties:
A Status .Report. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 47, No. 5, p 417-422,
September/October.
Subject Areas: Design
In Maryland, the 1982 Stormwater Management Act and supporting regulations mandate that all local
jurisdictions establish regulatory Stormwater programs that require developers to provide structural best
management practices (BMPs) on essentially all new development sites, to control the two-year and
10-year, 24-hour storms. However, previous studies in Maryland and elsewhere have shown that
maintenance of Stormwater structures often is deferred or inadequate. Field inspections were made of
more than 250 Stormwater facilities in four counties in Maryland. The types of facilities inspected included
dry basins, wet and extended detention basins, infiltration basins and trenches, dry wells, underground
storage facilities, and vegetated swales. Four trained inspectors evaluated performance (inappropriate
ponding of water, slow infiltration, incorrect flow patterns, clogging of facility, excessive sediment or
debris, water bypassing facility, design shortcomings, structural failures, erosion at intake or outfall) and
maintenance criteria (facility functioning as designed, quantity controlled as designed, quality benefits
produced by ability, enforcement action needed, maintenance action needed) for each facility. While
most (64%) of the facilities were found to be functioning as designed, many needed maintenance,
especially to correct excessive sediment and debris problems. Inspectors believed that enforcement
action was warranted at many sites. The condition of different types of facilities varied significantly. Several
models were used to explain results, induding a series of chi-square tests to determine the independence
of facility status and objective and subjective variables. Overall, the investigations documented the need
for improved inspection and maintenance by Stormwater management regulatory authorities.
Ling, J.T. 1988. 3P Program: An Effective Approach to Industrial Pollution. Toxic Contamination in Large
Lakes. Volume IV: Prevention of Toxic Contamination in Large Lakes. Managing a Large Ecosystem for
Sustainable Development. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan, p I I I -1 18.
Subject Areas: Planning- Recycling
The best way to control toxic substances from industry is at the source. Since industrial pollution is a
visible sign of inefficient use of resources, 3M developed a program to fight pollution by not creating it.
Industry's traditional approach has been the use of add-on control equipment that changes the form of
pollution but does not eliminate it. The 3M Pollution Prevention Pays (3P) program eliminates or reduces
pollutants, conserves resources, and encourages innovative technology through product reformulation,
process changes, equipment redesign, and recycling or reuse of process waste. Started in 1975, the 3P
program, involving 3M operations in the United States and 22 other countries and annually prevents
more than 40 ,000 tons of pollutants and 1.6 billion gallons of wastewater. 3P savings to date total $300
million. 3M 's prevention approach has had national and international impact. The program has received
awards from the U.S. EPA and other organizations. Some states have adopted pollution prevention as
environmental policy. Several world organizations, including the United Nations Environmental
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Programme and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, have endorsed and
promoted the concept. Pollution prevention has become government policy in several countries,
induding France and Britain. A number of major industrial companies also started prevention programs.
Industry, however, is only one source of pollution. Other sources also must be effectively addressed.
Since many environmental concerns are international in scope, meaningful government incentives and
expanded international cooperation are vital to the development and implementation of innovative
solutions to environmental problems, including those of the large lakes.
Livingston, E. H. 1989. Use of Wetlands for Urban Stormwater Management. In Constructed Wetlands
for Wastewater Treatment: Municipal, Industrial and Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea Michigan.
1989. p 253-262.
Subject Areas: Design
Use of wetlands for urban stormwater management should not be considered a panacea. Little scientific
information is available concerning the short-term or long-term effects on wetlands, their natural
functions, or associated fauna from the addition of stormwater. Most water quality effects of stormwater
result from' first flush.' In Florida, this corresponds to the first 2.5 cm of rainfall, which carries 90% of the
pollution load from a storm event. Pretreatment removes heavy sediment loads and other pollutants such
as hydrocarbons that can damage the wetland. Pretreatment also attenuates stormwater volumes and
peak discharge rates to maintain the wetland hydroperiod and reduce scour and erosion. Wetland plants
have specific tolerances to levels and types of pollutants. Polluted stormwater contains increased nutrients,
which may change the plant community. Since new dominants reflect more efficient use of added
nutrients or are more tolerant to pollutants, the plant changes should benefit pollutant removal. In 1982,
Maryland legislation required development of stormwater management regulations to ensure that
stormwater from new developments was treated to reduce the pollutant discharged to receiving water.
The same year, the Florida Stormwater Rule was implemented, requiring all newly constructed
stormwater discharges to use appropriate best management practices (BMPs) to treat the first flush of
runoff. Vegetated systems, wet detention, or wetlands are commonly used BMPs. Wetlands have great
potential to help solve stormwater management problems. However, more information is needed to
ascertain possible effects on wetlands and their fauna from addition of untreated stormwater. Little is
known about the potential for bioaccumufation of heavy metals or other toxics typical of stormwater.
Monitoring of wetland stormwater systems also is essential to determine relations between design
variables and pollutant removal efficiency.
Lower/, Mark. 1994. Cleveland: A model for urban revitalization. Black Enterprise, Vol: 24 Iss: 10
Date: May 1994 p: 50-51.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
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Cleveland has become a model for urban revitalization, and political battles have ensured that
African-American businesses share in the prosperity. The city's growth is discussed. Mayor Michael R.
White is profiled.
Ludwa, K.A. 1994. International Symposium Of The North American Lake Management, Society,
Seattle, W. Wetland water quality impacts in developing watersheds: Empirical models and biological
indicators. LAKE RESERVOIR MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. I, pp. 75-79.
Subject Areas: Model
In the past decade, a significant amount of attention was given to the function of natural and constructed
wetlands as buffering systems against hydrologic and water quality impacts caused by urban runoff.
Wetlands are well regarded for their ability to reduce peak flows and to trap pollutants, thus protecting
downstream systems. Seemingly little attention has been given to the effects of urban stormwater on the
wetland ecosystem itself. The Puget Sound Wetlands and Stormwater Management Research Program
(PSWSMRP) has monitored twenty wetlands in the Puget Sound (Washington) region since 1988 to
examine the effect of watershed development on wetland and hydrology and water quality, and the
resulting effects on wetland biota. The research reported here has a twofold objective. The first is to
relate water quality parameters to morphological characteristics of the wetlands and their watersheds,
particularly with regard to urban development. The second part of the objective is to develop a biotic
index based on wetland emergent aquatic insect communities, and to demonstrate that this biotic index
is correlated to anthropogenic impacts on wetland water quality, hydrology, and plant communities.
Luiten, J.P. 1995. International Conference On Integrated Water. The water system explorations A
new Dutch project (the aquatic outlook) for combining monitoring, research and policy analysis for
integrated water management. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. Hosper,-S.H.;
Gulati,-R.D.; Van-Liere,-L; Rooijackers,-R.M.M. (eds.) 1995 pp. 329-344. WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL
vol. 3 I, no. 8.
Subject Areas: Model
Sustained development is the target of almost every modern policy dealing with the aquatic environment.
Sustainability is focused on human life, but also on the ecological quality of our environment. Both aspects
are essential for life on earth. The ecological quality of aquatic systems can be expressed by biotic and
abiotic parameters. Monitoring and research give information about these parameters and a comparison
with the targets "brings us to the necessity of supplementary policy-measures. Human activities are
considered to be the cause of the environmental problems. All kinds of social and economical activities
influence the water bodies. Reaching the goals is only possible if human influence on environment is
changed or reduced. Within a catchment area, relations could be laid between human activities and
ecological problems in the reception areas, Policy analysis is especially looking for the most efficient way
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to remove the bottlenecks. For an effective policy analysis in river catchment areas the following elements
are essential: quantitative data; monitoring programs have to consider more than ever the ecological
aspects of policy analysis; the determination of target values (probably by means of laboratory
experiments); knowledge about the factors causing violation of the targets; an inventory of measures for
influencing the existing or future situation; sufficient knowledge about the relation between the measures
and (i) the ecological parameters and (ii) the social and economical activities in society; and a policy
analysis for defining future policies; All of these studies will generate many data; to present these in a clear
and succinct manner is one of the goals of the project 'The Aquatic Outlook".
Mann, CC; Rummer, M.L 1993. The high cost of biodiversity. Science, Vol: 260 lss:5M6 Date:
Jun25, 1993 p: 1868-1871.
Subject Areas: Habitat- Natural Resources - Planning
A controversial plan to protect North American biodiversity by creating a network of wilderness reserves,
human buffer zones and wildlife corridors stretching across as much as half the continent is discussed.
The plan may be asking too much of the people who already live in the proposed zones.
Mann, C.C.; Rummer, M.L. 1995. Are wildlife corridors the right path? Science, Vol: 270 Iss: 5241
Date: Dec I, 1995 p: 1428-1430.
Subject Areas: Habitat- Natural Resources
The strategy of using corridors to link patches of isolated habitat to save endangered species is examined.
Some feel this could save numerous species, while others feel it would be an expensive failure.
Marchand, M.; Marteijn, E.C.L.; Bakonyi, P. 1995. International Conference On Integrated Water
Resources, Management, Amsterdam (Nether). Policy analysis as a tool for habitat restoration: A case
study of a Danube River floodplain, Hungary. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT.
Hosper,-S.H; Gulati,-R.D.; Van-Liere,-L; Rooijackers,-R.M.M. (eds.) pp. 179-186.
WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 31, no. 8.
Subject Areas: Design
This paper will elaborate a policy analysis approach especially designed for habitat restoration. It will be
illustrated by a case study example of a floodplain area along the Danube river, Hungary. The case study
used hydrodynamic and water quality models and expertise from a range of disciplines. This made it
possible to unravel the complex relations between the environment and human interventions. Crucial
was the participation of local experts in the design and screening of measures, as well as the feedback
from local interest groups at several occasions during the project. This resulted in the formulation of
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rehabilitation ideas, most of which have hitherto not been discussed. The combination of creative thinking
with practical possibilities and limitations has been worked out in a cyclic process from which three
different alternatives emerged. These have been analyzed for their feasibility with regard to the goals to
be achieved, their costs and their impacts on other interests.
Marcus, J. S. 1996. Berlin: Into the Future. The New York Times Magazine, Part 2. Date:Octl8,
1992 Sec: 6 p: 16 col: I.
Subject Areas: Planning
The revitalization of the Potsdamer Platz in Berlin is discussed. The area is the planned site of a huge
urban development project aimed at regaining Potsdamer Platz's claim as a historical symbol and financial
hub in Germany.
Maristany, A.E.; Bartel, R.L. 1989. Wetlands and Stormwater Management: A'Case Study of Lake
Munson. Part I: Long Term Treatment Efficiencies. Wetlands: Concerns and Successes. Proceedings of
a Symposium held September 17-22 1989, Tampa, Florida. American Water Resources Association,
Bethesda, Maryland. 1989. p 215-229.
Subject Areas: Design
The use of wetlands or wet detention ponds for stormwater management represents a relatively new.
approach that has been successfully applied in recent years to address water quality problems in urban
areas. Since most systems have been in operation for only a few years, questions have been raised
concerning their long-term performance. It has been speculated that once these systems reach a state
of dynamic equilibrium, nutrient removal may decline due to the reduced nutrient uptake of a mature
ecosystem. A recent study was conducted by the Northwest Florida Management District of a 255 acre
wetland/lake system which has received wastewater effluent and storm water discharges for over 30
years. Nutrient and pollutant removal rates were estimated for a wide range of parameters based on
concurrent sampling of stormwater inflows, outflows and lake water quality. Long-term removal rates
for Lake Munson, Florida, compared favorably with rates reported for relatively new facilities. An
important conclusion from this study is that wet detention systems designed for minimum treatment
storage capacity and which are not properly maintained, will expenence significant water quality problems
due to eutrophication. It would be advisable to increase storage capacity beyond the point of diminishing
returns by either deepening the pond or expanding its surface area to prevent the pond from being
overwhelmed by typical storm events as is the case with Lake Munson. The average storm event replaces
the entire wet detention volume in the lake. A better design criteria would be to provide twice the
volume if the average storm event in order to reduce the impact of any one storm on pond water quality.
Drawdowns should also be implemented on a periodic basis as part of the over all maintenance program
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in order to stabilize bottom sediments and reduce the amount of orthophosphorous released from the
sediments to the water column.
Mauro.Tony. 1992. Court Gives Some Property Rights. USA TODAY [USA] ISSN: 0734-7456 Jrnl
Group: News Date: Jun 30, 1992 Sec: A p: 3 col: 6
Subject Areas: Regulations
The Supreme Court has ruled that property owners deserve to be paid when zoning and environmental
regulations leave them without any use for their land.
Mayer, C.E. 1995, April 29. THE SHRINKING OF THE AMERICAN LAWN; FOR REASONS OF
BUSINESS AND PLEASURE, A LOT OF THE GREEN IS GONE. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec:
A SECTION p: I.
Subject Areas: Economics
The lawn, that unique status symbol of suburbia and homeownership is slowly but steadily shrinking. If
it is not harried homeowners cutting back to minimize maintenance, it is the nation's homebuilders
erecting larger houses on ever smaller lots, leaving little, if any room, for grass.
Mayer, C.E. 1995, April 29. IN OLD NEIGHBORHOODS, LOTS OF CONTENTION; SOME
BUILDERS' RUSH TO PACK BIG NEW HOMES INTO CLOSE-IN SUBDIVISIONS LEADS TO
RESIDENTIAL UPROAR. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: E REAL ESTATE p: I.
Subject Areas: Design - Economics - Planning
Mayer, Caroline E. Jun 22. 1996. IN VA., A DREAM OF DEVELOPMENT; PLANS FOR A CLASSIC
SMALL TOWN DRAW PRAISE - AND CRITICISM. Washington Post, Final Edition Saturday Sec: E
REAL ESTATE p: I
Subject Areas: Planning
Mazich, j. P.; Pysher, T. R.; Mather, M. N.; Kibler, D. F. 1990. Municipal Stormwater Management
Ordinance Development and Implementation in Pennsylvania. IN: Hydraulic Engineering: Proceedings
of the 1990 National Conference. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. 1990. p 500-505, 3
ref.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning - Regulations
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Successful implementation of a basin-wide stormwater management strategy can only be accomplished
by paying careful attention to the content of a new basin-wide stormwater management ordinance, and
by uniformly and rigorously enforcing the regulations contained in that ordinance. The
elements/provisions that should be induded in the ordinance are: applicability and compatibility with other
municipal regulations; statement of purpose; definitions; general drainage plan requirements; performance
standards; design criteria; acceptable,calculation methodology; drainage plan contents; plan submission,
review, and approval processes; inspection and as-built survey requirements; municipal fees; and
maintenance requirements. The developers of an ordinance must be specific enough in defining allowable
approaches to preparing drainage plans that there is no question over the intent of the regulations or the
means used to implement them. The relationship between the requirements of the ordinance and those
of outside approving agencies must be delineated. Three major problems can develop during
implementation of a basin-wide stormwater management ordinance: non-uniformity of application, role
of authority in issuing approvals, and non-uniformity of release rates. It is important that these problems
be foreseen and addressed within the ordinance. While basin-wide stormwater management can bring
new administrative headaches, it is critical to insuring sound water resources management.
McArthur, B,H. 1989. Use of Isolated Wetlands in Florida for Stormwater Treatment. Wetlands:
Concerns and Successes. Proceedings of a Symposium held September 17-22 1989, Tampa, Florida.
American Water Resources Association, Bethesda, Maryland. 1989. p 185-193.
Subject Areas: Design
The Florida Department of Regulation (FDER) under Chapter 84-79, Laws or Florida, the Warren S.
Henderson Wetland Protection Act of 1984 and Chapters 40D-4 and 17-25 of the Florida Administration
Code (FAC) provide for the use of isolated wetlands for the treatment of stormwater runoff. Wetlands
in the past have been used for disposal of treated effluent but prior to October 1, 1984 wetlands have
not been permitted through the state agencies to receive direct discharge of untreated stormwater runoff
from developments. This concept allows for the incorporation of isolated wetlands into stormwater
management plans and has provided incentive for the preservation of wetlands within a development.
It is the intent of this concept to show that wrth proper design, a wetland can be used to treat stormwater
runoff by natural means without damaging or significantly altering the existing ecosystems. Research ha
shown that the addition of stormwater can help ensure the maintenance of existing hydroperiods and
provide additional nutrients which could increase the productivity of the wetland. Stabilizing the
ecosystem can improve wildlife habitat and provide an enhancement of the aesthetic value of the wetland
and the development. This paper discusses stormwater treatment in isolated wetlands with emphasis on
the continuing research in Florida, and includes: (I) the rules and regulations set forth by the State of
Florida, (2) detention times and the benefits to water quality, (3) sampling procedures to insure water
quality standards, and (4) the design of a pilot project to be used by the state to set and check compliance
with standards.
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McCann, K.; Olson, L. 1994. 14 Annu international Symposium Of The North American, Lake M.
Pollutant removal efficiencies of the Greenwood Urban Wetland stormwater treatment system. LAKE
RESERV. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 2, p. 97.
Subject Areas: Design
The Greenwood Urban Wetland treats stormwater runoff from a 522 acre sub-basin in downtown
Orlando. Thirteen acres of ponds with a 25 to 30 ft. wide littoral shelf, a sediment control basin, pond
aeration and an irrigation system reusing stormwater were incorporated into the design for pollutant
removal efficiencies. The City conducted a study on the Greenwood Urban Wetland to determine the
pollutant removal efficiency of the sediment trap and overall treatment system in removing pollutants
associated with stormwater runoff. Results of the study indicated that the sediment trap removed total
phosphorus and orthophosphate at a removal efficiency of I 1.4% and 7.4% respectively. The sediment
trap removal total nitrogen and nitrate at removal efficiencies of 4% and 16% but exported ammonia and
nitrite with removals of -109% and -76%. Cadmium, copper and lead were removed in the sediment
trap at removal efficiencies of 26%, 19% and 10% respectively. Zinc was exported with a removal
efficiency of -5%. The overall removal efficiency of the wetland system was reduced due to high
groundwater inflows, total phosphorus and orthophosphate had removal efficiencies of 70% and 81 %
respectively. Nitrogen was removed a efficiency with data indicating removal of total nitrogen, ammonia,
nitrate and nitrite at removal efficiencies of 13%, 16%, 6% and 10% respectively. Cadmium, lead and
zinc were removed in the wetland at removal efficiencies of 33%, 60% and 35%. Copper was exported
at a rate of -4%.
McKenzie, Donald J.;lrwin,G.A. 1988. Effects of two stormwater management methods on the quality
of water in the upper Biscayne aquifer at two commercial areas in Dade County, Florida. Prepared in
cooperation with the South Florida Water Management District. South, Florida Water Management
District; Geological, Survey U. S. ). 1988 Mar 22; Tallahassee, Fla : U.S. Geological Survey, 1988
Water-resources investigations report, 88-4069 Bibliography: p. 21 -22.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Mediterranean Action Plan: Which futures? OCEAN COAST. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 23, no. 3, pp.
271-279.
Subject Areas: Planning
The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), launched in 1975 as an initiative of the Regional Seas Programme
and agreed by the Mediterranean countries through the Barcelona Convention, has played a leading role
in stimulating coastal and ocean protection against pollution at the regional level. It is presently facing the
prospect of playing a new driving role based on the adoption of the sustainable development paradigm.
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Meeks, G. 1990. Growth Management: A Renewed Agenda for States, journal of Soil and Water
Conservation, Vol. 45, No. 6, p. 600-604, November/December.
Subject Areas: Open Space - Planning- Recreation
Natural resource managers have long been active in formulating and administering government policies
for environmental conservation. Typically, states regulate activities through such authorities as forest
practice, wetlands preservation, and groundwater management acts. Local governments traditionally have
used their police powers, such as zoning, to regulate land use. A new approach being formulated by
some states and regional authorities may involve a much more extensive and comprehensive means of
managing resources. Growth management and comprehensive planning acts are being enacted that may
change not only the nature of land use but also the decision-making processes that affect our social and
economic geography. Nine states (Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maine, New jersey, Rhode Island, Oregon,
Vermont, and Washington) have been identified as having statewide growth management or
comprehensive planning programs. Another seven states (California, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia) have gubernatorial growth strategies commissions or have held
conferences focusing on land use issues with the objective of developing growth management legislation.
Goals include economic development, farm and forest (open space) land preservation, natural resource
conservation, affordable housing, coordinated infrastructure and transportation development, air and
water quality, historic and special areas preservation, natural hazards mitigation, recreation resource
enhancement, and energy conservation. Autonomy of local land use authority has been the crucial issue
in most debates overstate growth management programs. The negotiation process becomes critical to
success or failure of the programs. The tone of many officials involved in developing these new planning
programs may sound like political frustration in trying to cope with conflicting demands. But to hear state
officials refer to carrying capacity is a dramatic change from previous years, when the land use debate was
on an ideological level that failed to recognize economic problems imposed by lack of planning.
Merrill, Dave. 1995. A picture-perfect town, but will it work? USATODAY, Date: Oct I 8, 1995 Sec:
B p: 5 col: I.
Subject Areas: Planning
Celebration FL, a regulated community of 20,000 that is supposed to recall a late 19th century village,
is examined. The Walt Disney Co expects phase one to open jul 4, 1996.
Mertes, J. D. 1989. Trends in Government Control of Erosion and Sedimentation in Urban
Development. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation JSWCA3 Vol. 44, No. 6, p 550-554,
November/December 1989.
Subject Areas: Planning - Regulations
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Soil erosion from land clearing and development, as well as stream channel erosion, contributes an
estimated'600 million tons of sediment to streams annually. The visual and ecological results of this
pollution, along with the social and economic costs, have resulted in the enactment of many stringent
regulations governing land-disturbing activities. Through a variety of statutory requirements, persons
engaged in land clearing must, with few exceptions, secure a development permit and/or prepare and
have approved an erosion and sediment control plan before work begins. A range of exemplary federal,
state, and local statutory models and implementation manuals now exist for those seeking new
approaches to erosion and sedimentation control affecting urban land development. The statutes
emphasize site planning, installation of erosion control structures, and site restoration. Many provide for
stop-work orders and criminal penalties, including fines, along with bond forfeiture for violating code
provisions. However, it appears that enforcement of stringent local rules to some extent depends upon
the linkage of those rules to a strong state water quality statute, as well as the extent to which the local
governing body provides the staff and backing to enforce these rules.
Miller, ML 1993. The rise of coastal and marine tourism. OCEAN COAST. MANAGE. 1993 vol.20,
no. 3, pp. 181-199.
Subject Areas: Recreation
Marine tourism has surfaced as a pressing topic in the field of ocean and coastal management. Neither
necessarily good, nor bad, this tourism is inherently controversial. Today, demand for travel exhibits
greater variation and magnitude than ever in history. In response, the tourism industry has become the
largest business on earth. This, coupled with the respect people profess for marine environments and
local peoples, creates feelings of ambivalence for the tourist. Sociologically, the activity of tourism may be
• studied as a symbolic interaction fostering social solidarity. Ecotourism, a recent phenomenon attuned to
the ideal of sustainable'development, is suggested to emerge through the social construction processes
of restoration and enhancement. The papers in this theme volume add fuel to the proposition that the
resolution of tourism problems in the coastal zone will require the scientific study of environmental and
social conditions, policy analyses, planning, and public education.
Moglen, G.E.; McCuen, R.H. 1990. Economic Framework for Flood and Sediment Control with
Detention Basins. Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 26, No. I, p 145-156, February.
Subject Areas: Design - Value/Valuation
A framework for combining economic factors and the hydrology of detention basins is provided. The
general development of economic production functions for water quality (sediment) and flood control
is examined. Example production functions are generated to compare water quality (sediment control
only) and flood control. For the given example, the design of a detention basin for downstream sediment
control is economically unwarranted. When compared to onsite detention facilities, regional detention
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structures appear to be more practical from an economic standpoint for water quality control. Since
sediment was the only water quality parameter assessed, it is entirely possible that the design of a
detention basin for water quality control would be justified if the effects of all pollutants of concern could
be quantified. The benefits that result from trapping pollutants, including sediment, are one of the most
difficult elements of the water quality production function to assess. The estimation of benefits of instream
flow is a relatively new area of investigation. Public goods, or non-marketed resources, are difficult to
assess, in part, because of the many beneficiaries involved and because many of the benefits are
value-based. The benefits are also a function of the flow level, with greater water quality benefits accruing
during low flows, which compounds the problem of estimation.
Mohorjy, A. M. 1989. Dept Of Civil, Engineering. Multidisciplinary Planning and Managing of Water
Reuse. Water Resources Bulletin Vol. 25, No. 2, p 433-442. April 1989. 4 fig, 10 ref.
Subject Areas: Planning- Water Quality
Water reclamation and reuse are rapidly expanding areas of water supplies. A comprehensive planning
methodology for developing and evaluating water reuse alternatives uses five phases: (I) goal setting, (2)
identification of reuse opportunities, (3)development and evaluation of planning alternatives, (4)
assessment of water reuse linkages, and (5) making decisions and recommendations. A tool called '
input-output modeling ' is used in the third phase to present numerical data and choices. The
methodology seeks to integrate the hydrologic and socio-economic aspects of water resources planning
n the area of study. Water reuse may satisfy some of the increasing demands for water, but water quality,
economics, public attitudes, and legal and institutional constraints may impose limits on the extent to
which it can be employed. An analysis of proposed and existing water reuse practices worldwide indicates
tnat reused water, if it is prepared using appropriate technology, can be as safe as, or safer than, other
conventional systems for providing the water needed for municipal, agricultural, industrial, and
"ecreational uses. As in any other system, failure is possible, and safeguards to protect the public must be
~ jilt in from the start. Since technically proven processes exist to prepare water of almost any quality
cesired, reuse has a rightful place in planning the optimal use of water. The cost of treatment may make
: difficult for small communities or small cities to reuse water. However, large communities, especially
•" a program is adopted nationwide, may be able to increase their water supply by 50% or more by
"eusmg wastewater.
^ontgomery, D. R.; Grant, G. E.; Sullivan, K. 1995. Watershed analysis as a framework for implementing
ecosystem management. WATER RESOUR. BULL. 1995 vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 369-386.
Subject Areas: Planning
implementing ecosystem approaches to land use decision making and land management requires new
methods for linking science and planning. Greater integration is crucial because under ecosystem
management sustainable levels of resource use are determined by coupling management objectives to
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landscape capabilities and capacities. Recent proposals for implementing ecosystem management employ
analyses organized at a hierarchy of scales for analysis and planning. Within this hierarchy, watershed
analysis provides a framework for delineating the spatial distribution and linkages between physical
processes and biological communities in an appropriate physical context: the watershed. Several such
methods are currently in use in the western United States, and although there is no universal procedure
for either implementing watershed analysis or linking the results to planning, there are a number of
essential elements. A series of questions on landscape-level ecological processes, history, condition, and
response potential guide watershed analysis. Individual analysis modules are structured around answering
these questions through a spatially-distributed, process-based approach. The planning framework linked
to watershed analysis uses this information to either manage environmental impacts or to identify desired
conditions and develop land management prescriptions to achieve these conditions. Watershed analysis
offers a number of distinct advantages over contemporary environmental analyses for designing land
management scenarios compatible with balancing environmental and economic objectives.
Muir, T. 1993. Canada Cent Inland Wat,. P. O. Box 5050, Burlington, ON L7R4A6, Canada CF,
CONFERENCE INFORMATION: 36 Conf Of The Int Association For Great. Economic development
capacity benefits of RAPS. OME 36TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, JUNE 4-10, 1993. PROGRAM AND ABSTRACTS, p. 72.
Subject Areas: Cost/Benefit- Model'- Planning
The socioeconomic component of Stage II Remedial Action Plans can explore innovative solutions to the
long-term structural changes being imposed on the economy of the Great Lakes basin. A major challenge
is to invent and apply new patterns of development, and forms of growth that integrate and conserve the
living resources essential to human survival and well-being. Another challenge is to overcome the inherent
antithetical view of environment-economy that still dominates the conventional cost-benefit model of
mainstream environmental economics. To meet these challenges, we are exploring the conceptual and
empirical linkages between economic development capacity, and the restoration, enhancement and
protection of watershed ecosystems, using RAP areas as case studies. A user-friendly framework is being
developed that identifies and evaluates the beneficial possibilities created by an intelligent combination of
public and private investment in the natural capital of watersheds as ecosystems, and the synergies and
follow-on development capacity created. Results indicate that the "environment" in RAP areas is an
integral factor of economic development. It is concluded, that integrated planning on a watershed
ecosystem basis, can yield substantial synergies, which form the basis of a new economy.
Mullard, S. 1995. Towards as EU strategy for integrated coastal zone management. EUR. ENVIRON.
LAW REV. 1995 vol. 4, no. I, pp. 16-20.
Subject Areas: Planning
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Absence of coordinated policy for coastal zone management (CZM); pressure on coastal resources;
management problems; absence of integrated EU policy; potential under the Fifth Environmental Action
Programme, current EU policy measures and EU funding facilities; reasons for more EU involvement;
possible features of an EU strategy.
Murphy, J. 1990. Coordinated Groundwater Protection in Hebron, Connecticut. Journal of Soil and
Water ConservationJSWCA3, Vol. 45, No. 2, p 272-273, 1990.
Subject Areas: Planning - Regulations
In the early 1980's, Hebron was undergoing rapid and unanticipated expansion of residential and
commercial development. The Planning and Zoning Commission recognized the potential water supply
and waste disposal impacts of this growth and initiated a review of the town's zoning and subdivision
regulations, zoning districts and plan of development. In response, new zoning regulations and zoning
distncts were adopted including addition of an aquifer protection overlay zone to protect a future water
supply site, performance standards for high risk land uses, rezoning sensitive areas to lower risk categories
and adoption of minimum buildable land criteria for new residential lots in unsewered areas. The Water
Pollution Authority developed a sewer service plan that incorporates'the minimum buildable land criteria
for areas that will not be sewered and directed sewer service to the community's existing and potential
commercial and industrial districts. A conservation plan is being prepared that will be incorporated by
reference into the zoning commission's plan of development. A household hazardous waste collection
day and a hazardous material storage ordinance is in the process of development.
Mutunayagam, N. Brito; Bahrami, AIL 1987. Cartography and site analysis with microcomputers : a
programming guide for physical planning, urban design, and landscape architecture. 1987 Aug Van
Nostrand Reinhold, c!987.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
Myers, P. C. 1994. CF, CONFERENCE INFORMATION: 14 Annu International Symposium Of The
North American, Lake Management Society, Orlando, FL (USA) 31 O. Using what we know. LAKE
RESERVOIR MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 100-101.
Subject Areas: Planning
Using what we know to make decisions on herbicide control strategies. The complexity of the aquatic
ecosystem, the philosophies, attitudes and polides of the regulating agencies, public perception and many
other factors must be contemplated before herbicide treatments are conducted. Lake managers, more
specifically aquatic plan managers, may want to consider using the basic check list to be presented. The
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check list will include considerations for enviro-political correctness, to herbicide efficacy,
good-weed/bad-weed and socioeconomic considerations. The presentation will include video.
Norrena, E.J. 1994. Stewardship of coastal waters and protected spaces. Canada's approach. MAR.
POLICY 1994 vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 153-160.
Subject Areas: Recreation
With a coastline of 244,000 km that fronts on three oceans and the Great Lakes, Canada has a rich
diversity of coastal landforms and habitats. Canada fully appreciates the importance of its stewardship
responsibilities for this magnificent natural resource and recognizes that the rich biological diversity of
these coastal systems must be protected and conserved for now and the future. Canada is also very
aware that, in addition to forming the basis of many subsistence and recreation-based economies for
millions of Canadians, Canada's coastal resources represent an important part of the world's marine
biodiversity. To protect the integrity of this resource, we must act decisively in a manner which effectively
balances economic and ecological needs. The traditional approach to protecting coastal resources in
Canada has primarily involved compliance and enforcement action taken by sectoral departments.
However, Canada has recently adopted a broader, integrated resource management approach to coastal
resource stewardship which is based on addressing issues at the ecosystem level; this strategy is pursued
as a cooperative effort involving all levels of government, the private sector and the public. Canada's most
recent experience has shown that cooperative approaches ensure that social, economic, environmental
and resource management objectives are best met in ways which facilitate the sustainable management
of coastal resources. Our experience is that such approaches are effective when delivered at the
community level in partnership with government, the private sector and the public. This paper explains
how Canada is putting this cooperative approach into action. Specifically, the paper describes Canada's
Green Plan, explains how the plan positions Canada to respond to its UNCED obligations, details some
of Canada's key programmes for protecting and conserving coastal resources, and explains how various
domestic and international strategies for coastal area management are being integrated on a broad scale.
Novoa, J. I.; Halff, A. H. 1977. Management of Flooding in a Fully Developed Low Cost Housing
Neighborhood. Water Resources Bulletin'Vol. 13, No. 6, p 1237-1252, December 1977.
Subject Areas: Planning
Within the flood plain of the lower reach of Peaks Branch, a stream in east Dallas, Texas, 500 buildings
would be partially inundated by the 100-year flood. The fully-developed watershed and flood plain mainly
accomodate low-cost housing. Eight alternative flooding remedies, ranging from no action to stream
channelization to complete redevelopment, are considered. The alternates are evaluated in terms of their
relative safety, effects on neighborhoods, required relocations of families and businesses, initial costs, and
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maintenance costs. Creation of a stream-side greenway, offering lakes and parks, is recommended. This
plan best balances costs and required relocations with community benefits, including flood protection.
Odgaard, A.J.; Wang, Y. 1990. Sediment Management with Submerged Vanes. IN: Hydraulic
Engineering: Proceedings of the 199.0 National Conference. American Society of Civil Engineers, New
York. 1990. p 963-968. National Science Foundation Grant No. CTS-861 I 147; Highway Research
Board of the Iowa Department of Transportation Grant Nos. HR-255, HR-274, and HR-307; United
States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, through the Iowa State Water Resources Research
Institute Project No. G-1017-03.
Subject Areas: Design
Submerged vanes are small river training structures used for protection of streambanks against erosion
and for amelioration of shoaling problems in navigation channels, at water intakes, in bridge crossings, and
at diversions. The submerged vanes are installed on the streambed at an angle of attack of 15-25 degrees
with the flow. Their initial height is 0.2-0.4 times local water depth at design stage, and their length is 3-4
times their height. By generating secondary circulation in the flow, the vanes alter the distribution of bed
shear stresses across the river channel and cause a redistribution of flow velocity and depth. The theory
relates this redistribution to the parameters of the vane system. To facilitate design, a number of graphs
have been prepared showing calculated changes in flow depth at the bank as a function of the basic vane
parameters (vane height, aspect ratio, angle of incidence, vane submergence, lateral and longitudinal vane
spacings, and vane-to-bank distance) and flow and sediment parameters (pre-vane cross-sectional
acreage flow depth, velocity, resistance, channel width-depth ratio and radius-width ratio, and sediment
Froude number). The design procedure is as follows: (I) determine bankfull-flow variables; (2) calculate
the resistance parameter, Froude number, depth-width ratio, and width-radius ratio; (3) define desired
maximum change of depth to be achieved by the vane system; (4) select vane dimensions and angle of
attack, and calculate vane submergence-depth ratio and aspect ratio; (5) enter appropriate graph and
determine (read) the number of vanes per array required to obtain the desired value of the maximum
change of depth; and (6) select other vane dimensions and enter the appropriate graphs to determine
if the objective can be met with more favorable designs and layouts. Both laboratory and field experience
show that these relationships, and hence the design procedure established, are valid/
Olem, H; Duda, A M. 1995. International Conference On Integrated Water Resources, Management,
Amsterdam. International watercourses: The World Bank looks toward a more comprehensive approach
to management. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. Hosper,-S.H.; Gulati,-R.D.;
Van-Liere,-L; Rooijackers,-R.M.M. (eds.) 1995 pp. 345-352. WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 31, no.
8.
Subject Areas: Planning
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This paper examines transboundary water resources management challenges currently being faced across
the globe. Lessons learned from Europe, Africa, Asia and North America are outlined on the need for
more integrated, ecosystem-based management of these international watercourses and on institutional
arrangements for improving management. The World Bank's new Water Resources Management Policy
is presented with an emphasis on elements related to a more comprehensive approach that considers
integrated land-water management, proper pricing for water service delivery, nonp'oint pollution
abatement, aquatic ecosystem restoration, and institution building. Also described is a key international
funding mechanism for more comprehensively managing international watercourses known as the Global
Environment Facility (GEF). Restructured and replenished in 1994, GEFcan play a catalytic role in building
institutions for better water resources management and in fostering cooperative actions among nations
in a basin toward the ultimate goal of making development more environmentally sustainable.
Olsen, S. B. 1993. Grad Sch Qceanogr,. Univ Rhode Island, Rl, USA Will integrated coastal management
programs be sustainable; the constituency problem. OCEAN COAST. MANAGE. 1993 vol. 21, no. 1-3,
pp. 201-225.
Subject Areas: Planning
The greatest need for coastal resource management initiatives is in tropical countries, since it is here that
the process of environmental change is most rapid and it is here that the great majority of the increase
in human population that is expected by 2040 will be concentrated. Fortunately, a body of experience
can be drawn upon in a number of low income tropical nations that have already been working to meet
the challenge and implement coastal management programs. National coastal management legislation was
enacted in Sri Lanka in 1981 and in Costa Rica in 1977. The US Agency for International Development
(USAID) had the foresight to fund two pilot projects in coastal management in 1985. The first of these
was administered through a cooperative agreement between the USAID Office of Science and
Technology and the Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode Island. This program has been
extended to a ten-year effort and has focused upon (a) initiating national coastal management programs
in three pilot countries, Ecuador, Sri Lanka, and Thailand; (b) initiating a training program in the practice
of coastal management; and (c) sponsoring a series of networking activities to promote the sharing of
experience.
Pae, P. 1996, January 25. LUCKETTS PONDERS HOW IT WILL GROW; PROPOSED RURAL
VILLAGE' DEVELOPMENT WOULD INCLUDE 334 HOUSES, REQUIRE NEW ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: V WEEKLY - VIRGINIA p: I.
Subject Areas: Planning
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Paterson, R. G.; Luger, M. I.; Burby, R.J.; Kaiser, E.J. Malcolm, H. R. 1993, Costs and Benefits of Urban
Erosion and Sediment Control: The North Carolina Experience. Environmental Management EMNGDC,
Vol. 17, No. 2, p 167-178, March/April.
Subject Areas: Planning- Value/Valuation
The Environmental Protection Agenc/s new nonpoint source pollution control requirements will soon
institutionalize urban erosion and sediment pollution control practices nationwide. The public and private
sector costs and social benefits associated with North Carolina's program were examined to provide
general policy guidance on questions relating to the likely burden the new best management practices
will have on the development industry, the likely costs and benefits of such a program, and the feasibility
of running a program on a cost recovery basis. The results of this study indicate that urban erosion and
sediment control requirements were not particularly burdensome to the development industry, only
adding approximately 4% to development costs. Public-sector program costs ranged between $2.4 and
4.8 million in fiscal year 1989. The contingent valuation survey suggests that urban households in North
Carolina are willing to spend between $7.1 and 14.2 million per year to maintain current levels of
sediment pollution control. The cost-benefit analysis determined in this study suggested that the overall
ratio is likely to be positive, although a definitive figure is elusive. Lastly, it was discovered that several
North Carolina localities have cost recovery fee systems that are at least partially self-financing.
Pathan, S. K.; Sastry, S. V. C; Dhinwa, P. S.; Rao,.M.; Majumdar, K. L. Sampat, Kumar, D.; Patkar, V.
N.; Phatak, V. N. 1993. ICORG 92: Remote Sensing Applications And Geographic, Information Systems
Recent Trends, Hyderabad. Urban growth trend analysis using CIS techniques a case study of the
Bombay metropolitan region. INT. J. REMOTE SENS. 1993 vol. 14, no. 17, pp. 3169-3179.
Subject Areas: Planning
"owns and cities in India are facing complex problems regarding the provision and maintenance of
services and infrastructure in the face of the rapid growth of population, caused both by natural increase
and migration. In order to meet such challenges a planner needs to have fairly accurate and up-to-date
^formation, especially about physical structures and related land parameters. A study of their trends
generally helps in the understanding of the emerging growth pattern and in formulating policies to guide
or redirect it. Recent advances in the field of remote sensing technology and computer based
Geographical Information Systems (CIS) provide very useful tools in undertaking such analysis. The results
•vom a study about growth trends of the urban areas in the Bombay Metropolitan Region using multi-date
remote sensing data and ARC/INFO GIS package are described here. The period'under consideration
is from 1968 to 1989. It should be noted that the major growth in the region is confined to Greater
Bombay between 1968 to 1975. After the year 1975, a distinct outward growth along the rail corridors
is visible. Growth after 1975 is mainly in the Kalyan, Bhiwandi, New Bombay and Panvel areas and in the
area around Manori creek (Charkop area). The growth rate is found to be higher after the year 1975
compared to the prior growth rate. The spatial gro\vth trends are examined in relation to the population
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and the population density has been computed for different periods. Based upon these densities, the
extent of land required for urban development for the year 2001 has been calculated. Suitability of land
for urbanisation has been carried out based upon physical characteristics of the land and environmental
parameters. The priority areas of urban development to meet the additional requirement in 2001 have
been identified on the basis of this suitability analysis. A map on a 1:250 000 scale has been prepared to
show the areas for urbanisation which will meet the demands for the year 2001. This study demonstrates
the potential offered by the integration of the tools of remote sensing and CIS for urban and regional
planning.
Pearce, J.B. 1995. Introduction to theme issue: Conservation and marine ecosystems. NAT. AREAS J.
1995 vol. 15, no. I, pp. 4-6.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
It has become ever more apparent that marine life - its reproduction, recruitment, and survival - is not
dependent on any single natural or anthropogenic variable. Rather, temperature, salinity, sediment type,
and current systems, along with a range of contaminants and physically degrading activities, cumulatively
dictate where marine life will occur and how human activities might affect the life history stages,
distribution, and survival of species. The conveners for the two special sessions on "Conservation and
Marine Ecosystems" selected papers relevant to both the east and west coasts of North America and
others describing situations that might occur in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world. Almost
all of the papers presented in the two sessions were case studies covering a range of situations but with
special emphasis on how human activities in terrestrial habitats and the coastal zone affect the overall
well-being of the oceans, especially when these are viewed as natural areas. The first papers set the
scene, and subsequent presentations provided case studies and details of management schemes to
preserve extant wild areas and to mitigate damage in heavily developed and degraded
industrial/urbanized natural areas. Collectively, the papers define many contemporary issues (and
solutions) and provide evidence that even in heavily degraded marine habitats it is possible to reverse
trends and avoid future despoliation.
Pearthree, M.S.; Wise, J.S. 1988. Living with Floodplains: Land Development in Arizona. Floodplain
Harmony. The Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center Institute of Behavioral
Science No. 6, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO. 1988. p 260-267.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning- Regulations
Flood hazards in southern Arizona, where the Phoenix and Tuscon metropolitan areas are located, occur
in two distinct riverine settings: (I) overbank inundation and channel meandering along major
watercourses; and (2) shallow sheet flooding of alluvial fan areas and of low-lying areas dominated by
braided channel systems. High population growth has necessitated rapid development of flood plain
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management regulatory policies and drainage design criteria. Flood plain encroachment, channel
stabilization, and maintenance of natural flood plain methods have been successfully employed in areas
of overbank inundation and channel meandering along major watercourses. Flood plain encroachment,
channel/parkway schemes, and maintenance of existing wildlife corridors and riparian habitats within flood
plain regions have been successfully employed in alluvial fan areas and braided channel systems. The
projects cited have been developed with the idea of managing floodwaters while enhancing existing
environmental and water resources. The coordination and interaction required between the public,
agencies, developers, and engineers throughout the planning and design phases of these projects were
of major importance.
Perkins, W.W.; Welch, E.B. 1994. 14 Annu International Symposium Of The North American, Lake
Management Society, Or. A dynamic total phosphorus model to guide residential development in the
watershed of a stratified mesotrophic lake. LAKE RESERV. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 2, p. 103.
Subject Areas: Model - Planning
Lake Sammamish, Washington is a mesotrophic, monomictic, 20 square kilometer lake with a watershed
size of 226 sq kilometers. Primary treated sewage was diverted out of the watershed in 1968 leading to
a slow but steady increase in the lake's water quality. Residential expansion into the watershed from
nearby cities will increase the phosphorus loading to the lake. This has heightened concern regarding the
future quality of the lake's water. There is a need to predict epilimnetic lake quality as development
increases in order to plan for stormwater treatment that is effective enough to maintain lake water quality.
To address this concern an update to a previous TP mass balance computer simulation model was
constructed. The present model was calibrated to five independent data sets. Input data sets included TP
loading as measured from the major influent stream and loading estimated from other watershed portions
via site specific land use yield coefficients. The model was then used to predict future TP concentrations
based upon projected land use characteristics. The predicted epilimnetic TP concentrations were used
to estimate future transparency and chla concentrations, which were compared against established goals
for transparency and chl a. The model is now serving as one of the input parameters to long term land
use planning decisions.
Petts, G. 1989. Historical Analysis of Fluvial Hydrosystems. Historical Change of Large Alluvial Rivers:
Western Europe. John Wiley & Sons New York. 1989. p 1-18.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Knowledge of environmental change resulting from our exploitation of land and water resources over
historic timescales is necessary to improve river regulation strategies; to achieve sustainable resource
development; and to advance environmental conservation. During the 1980s there have been three
major shifts in river regulation: (I) a change from river development to river management; (2) a move
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by scientists to tackle problems of large rivers; and (3) a development of multidisciplinary approaches to
both research and management. In Europe, all three themes are embodied within the ' European Large
Alluvial Rivers Network,' formed in 1986 in response to an initiative of the Council of Europe to promote
scientific and technical cooperation, and concerned with water as a natural resource and the interaction
between that resource and the environment.
Philadelphia/Camden Port environmental enhancement plan. 1983. United States Environmental
Protection Agency Region III; Wapora, Inc. 1983 May; Philadelphia, Pa.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Phillips, Angys. Dec 3, 1995. THE OUTSIDE LINE - THE OUTSIDE LINE. Washington Post, Final
Edition Sunday Sec: D SPORTS p: 13
Subject Areas: Planning
URBAN JUNGLE: The National Association of Home Builders offers a public policy forum on 'Alternatives
to Sprawl in the Washington Region' from 5:30-8 p.m. Wednesday at NAHB headquarters, 15th and M
Streets NW. Call 703-358-3694. . . . Molly Harris Olson, who heads the President's Council on
Sustainable Development, will discuss that panel's work at the Natural Resources Council of America's
monthly luncheon at 11:45 Thursday at the National -Press Club. Tickets are $30; reservations required.
Call 202-333-041 I.
Policy plan for Fairfax County: volume I (proposed), the comprehensive plan for Fairfax County, Virginia.
-airfax, County Board Of Supervisors Fairfax. County (Va ). Planning Commission. 1990; The
Comprehensive plan for Fairfax County, Virginia.: Board of Supervisors, 'This document is proposed to
replace the Introduction/Countywide volume of The Comprehensive Plan, 1986 Edition, as amended."
Subject Areas: Planning
=omeroy, W. M. 1995. The Fraser River Basin Towards sustainability. INTEGRATED WATER
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. Hosper,-S.H; Gulati,-R.D.; Van-Liere,-L; Rooijackers,-R.M.M. (eds.)
' 995 pp. 33-39. WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 31, no. 8.
Subject Areas: Economics
The Fraser River Basin occupies approximately one quarter of the area of British Columbia ranging from
undeveloped forests to heavily urbanized centres. Competing demands are continually being made on
the system with respect to preservation of the natural environment and economic development. In
response to increasing stresses, the six year Fraser River Action Plan was initiated in 1991 to reduce
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pollution, enhance environmental quality, and develop an integrated basin management program based
on sustainability. Activities addressing the first two are under way in the areas of pollution abatement,
environmental quality and research, enforcement and compliance, and habitat restoration and
conservation. Partnerships are critical to implementing a successful integrated management program. The
Fraser Basin Management Program balances current social and economic needs with environmental
conservation to achieve sustainability. Smaller scale management programs exist within the basin to
address the highly urbanized/industrialized Fraser estuary (Fraser Wver Estuary Management Program)
and the Port of Vancouver/Burrard Inlet (Burrard Inlet Environmental Action Program). Environment
Canada, in partnership with others, is cleaning up pollution and establishing effective sustainable
management programs, before the conflicts between environment and economy reach a critical point.
Results to date are encouraging.
Porter, Michael E. 1995. The rise of the urban entrepreneur. /nc,Vo\: 17 Iss: 7 Date: May 16, 1995
p: 104-119.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
The time for revitalizing the inner city is now. Porter examines the failures of existing urban policy and
lays out a blueprint for the economic revitalization of US cities.
Preston, L.A. 1989. New Horizon for Water Quality in japan. Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation, Vol. 61, No. 5, p 578-583, May 1989.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
The intense land reclamation for industry and urban development, and the use of manufacturing
processes without appropriate regulatory statutes, have caused rapid deterioration of forests, farmland,
rivers, and coastal waters in Japan. Chemical discharges to coastal areas have created serious health
problems, and changes in national land use have threatened the quality of water areas in both urban and
rural areas, so that waste treatment and disposal have become critical issues. A consequence of Japan 's
rapid economic expansion during the years 1965-1975 was the disappearance of over 90% of the
forested areas surrounding the major urban areas. The depletion of farmland has been even more
severe, with 20% of the 15% total available farmland lost to development. Another major area of
concern is the loss of inner harbors and seashores to development. The government has actively pursued
conservation programs and public education as to the cause and effects of environmental pollution, and
efforts have been made to protect plant and animal species in danger of extinction. An intensive 5-year
program to expend and improve Japan 's sewerage systems was initiated in 1986. This program has
focused mainly on promoting environmental pollution control programs, total pollutant loading controls,
and conservation of water quality in lakes and reservoirs. Specific plans have been developed in order
to ensure the quality of Japan's future water resources: (I) establish stricter limits on effluents discharged
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from industrial and small-scale plants; (2) improve and extend pollution prevention facilities; (3) promote
more treatment of household effluents; (4) establish water purification measures; (5) institute urban
development guidelines; (6) implement regulations for chemical contamination.
Probst, J. R.; Weisbrod, A R. 1993. .36 Conf Of The Int Association For Great Lakes Research, De Pere,
Wl (USA) 4. lOJun I. Implementing national and regional wildlife programs with other resources in the
Saint Croix River watershed. OME 36TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, JUNE 4-10,1993. PROGRAM AND ABSTRACTS. 1993 p. 122.
Subject Areas: Planning
Holistic ecosystem management has been hampered by reductionist approaches targeted toward single
species, isolated issues and narrow resource consideration. Of necessity, comprehensive programs
cannot be as detailed as narrower efforts. Thus, it is advantageous to stress lower resolution assessments
before adding local, detailed studies or projects. The Saint Croix Watershed is an outstanding place to
implement at least 15 regional resource programs that have been identified for the Lake States. Located
along the border between northern Wisconsin and central Minnesota, the Saint Croix Watershed
presents an opportunity for integrating resource concerns as diverse as forest products, agriculture,
industry, tourism, biodiversity, as well as recreational and residential uses.
Propson, T.P. I960. Urbanization Effects and the Control of the Surface Runoff Process in Small
Watersheds. Available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield VA 22161 as
PB80-2228I3, Price codes: A05 in paper copy, AOI in microfiche. Water Resources Institute, South
Dakota State University, Brookings, Completion Report, June I960. OWRT-B-034-SDAK (I),
14-34-0001-3842.
Subject Areas: Design
An approach to the solution of urban runoff problems that has gradually evolved and gained in popularity
dunngthe past few years is the ' greenway' or' greenbelt' approach. To facilitate the determination of
the flood-plain zone (the greenway) for small watersheds, a new urban runoff model, the Rapid City
Runoff Model (RCRM) has been developed which, while lacking the broad flexibility of the more
sophisticated models, is less wasteful in terms of computer storage, compilation time, and cost of data
preparation. We believe that RCRM is an urban runoff simulation model which provides for a greater
level of hydraulic accuracy than the less sophisticated models while remaining at a level of sophistication
compatible with established practice, and with minimum data collection and preparation time. This model
is based upon urban hydrology principals developed by the Soil Conservation Service and has been
refined to include: (I) up to 63 subbasins within a major drainage basin; (2) a sophisticated technique for
identification of each subbasin which establishes the drainage pattern of the main basin; (3) a more realistic
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and accurate method of modeling the hydrologic characteristics of natural drainage channels; and (4) the
capability to predict the extent of lateral inundation produced by the design peak discharges.
Pysher, T.R.; Kibler, D.F.; Mather, M.N.; Mazich, J.P. 1990. Basin Wide Stormwater Management in
Pennsylvania: A Case Study of Hydrologic Performance Standards. IN: Hydraulic Engineering:
Proceedings of the 1990 National Conference. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. 1990.
p 1197-1202.
Subject Areas: Design
The Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Act, passed in 1978, mandated the implementation of
basin-wide hydrologic performance standards to manage increases in Stormwater runoff caused by
development. These performance standards take the form of 'release rates' and are developed using
hydrologic computer models. This basin-wide approach to Stormwater management considers the impact
of increased runoff on downstream areas; therefore, it is more comprehensive than conventional on-site
Stormwater management that maintains post-development peak discharges at pre-development levels.
A case study of the Little Plum Run watershed in Clinton County, Pennsylvania, provides a practical
application of release rates. A sensitivity analysis was performed to examine the effect of various
hydrologic computer model input parameters on release rates for the Little Plum Run watershed. For
hydrologic analysis, the watershed was divided into ten subareas and completed using the Penn State
Runoff Model (PSRM), which developed design storm specific release rates for each subarea. The
sensitivity of seven different PSRM input parameters (overland length, overland slope, Manning's
roughness coefficient for pervious surfaces, runoff curve number, initial abstraction, ratio of in-bank to
out-of-bank velocity, and channel travel time) on subarea release rates was tested through application of
PSRM to the Little Plum watershed for existing land use conditions. It was found that channel travel time
was the most sensitive parameter for determining subarea release rates (maximum bias of -0.17 and
maximum standard error of 0.22). The results of this sensitivity analysis are not necessarily applicable to
other watersheds or other hydrologic analysis techniques; however, the significance of channel travel time
accuracy in estimating flow travel time throughout a watershed is important for establishing basin-wide
hydrologic performance standards.
Quade, H. W.; Barrett, R. A. 1989. Comprehensive County Water Planning Process in South Central
Minnesota. Journal of the Minnesota Academy of Science Vol. 55, No. I, p 149-153, Fall 1989.
Subject Areas: Planning
Development of county comprehensive water plans is underway in a majority of Minnesota counties as
a result of recent legislation. The planning process requires the fashioning of new relationships and roles
for local and state government, agency personnel, and interdisciplinary technical teams. Early water
planning efforts reveal significant problems with the adequacy and applicability of existing water resources
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data. Assessment of citizen attitudes regarding water resource issues was found necessary to link support
with policy and develop public education activities. Analysis of water resources data combined with citizen
and state agency attitudes has enabled counties in south central Minnesota to formulate goals and
objectives for their county plans. County water resources management committees are currently
formalizing strategies and implementation models to effectuate plan goals and objectives. The process of
developing county comprehensive .water plans in south central Minnesota has led to the preliminary
conclusion that the process will become ongoing after plans are first adopted and that the relationships
of local government, state agencies and technical professionals will evolve into a more constructive
partnership for the benefit of water resources.
Quick, AJ.R. 1995. Issues lacing water resource managers and scientists in a rapidly growing coastal city:
Cape Town, South Africa. S. AFR. j. SCI. S. AFR. TYDSKR. WET. 1995 vol. 91, no. 4, pp. 175-183.
Subject Areas: Planning- Water Quality
Rapid urban growth in metropolitan Cape Town is subjecting the inland and coastal waters in the region
to stress. Increasing extractive demands are being made on inland water systems to provide potable
water. Larger volumes of liquid and solid waste, and increased stormwater runoff, are influencing
negatively the nutrient and microbiological quality of inland and coastal water systems. Urban sprawl and
informal housing are detracting from the aesthetics of river catchments, and are also detrimental to river
and stormwater quality. These stresses have particularly serious implications for Cape Town because the
future economic growth of the area is dependent on a high-quality environment. Constraints to the
sustainable management of water resources are discussed under the broad themes of institutions, law
and regulation, finance and economics, and lack of information, public awareness, holism, and realism.
These can only be adequately addressed if there is a fundamental change in approach from scientists and
water resource managers. Strategies to facilitate this change of approach should be embodied in a policy
on development and the environment, and implemented using an environmental management system.
An appreciation of the key environmental and developmental issues and the severe constraints to
sustainable development in rapidly growing cities will enable scientists and water resource managers to
incorporate their expertise into the planning and development process at a metropolitan and regional
scale.
Quinlan, B.; Simmons, C. 1993. Exploring land use alternatives. WATER ENVIRON. TECHNOL. 1993
vol. 5, no. I I, pp, 44-50. ISSN: 1044-9493.
Subject Areas: Model - Planning - Regulations - Water Qua/it/
An urban catchment model was used by the Raleigh and Wake County (N.C.) Department of Public
Utilities to calculate nonpoint source (NPS) pollutant loadings for a critical watershed area. The model
also evaluated how zoning attematives and structural best management practices (BMPs) could affect the
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area as development increases. Annual loadings of total suspended solids (TSS), total phosphorus,
nitrogen, lead, copper, and zinc were estimated for existing conditions, buildout at current zoning
regulations, and three future development scenarios. Wet detention basins and grass swales, the
structural BMPs selected, were evaluated in terms of effectiveness in improving water quality, ease of
implementation, operation and maintenance requirement, and cost.
Reid, W.V.; Trexler, M.C. 1991. Drowning the National Heritage: Climate Change and Coastal
Biodiversity in the United States. World Resources Institute, Washington. 1991. 48p.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Global warming of the magnitude expected in coming decades, accompanied by changes in sea level,
rainfall, and wind and ocean currents, will significantly affect species composition, community structure,
and the function of coastal ecosystems. Understanding the current stress that these ecosystems face is
crucial to fully appreciating how climate change may affect coastal biodiversity. Coastal species, habitats,
and ecological processes; economic indicators of the status of coastal biodiversity; impacts of global
warming on coastal habitats and on coastal species diversity (and other impacts); and the status and
options of U.S. public policy in relation to the conservation of coastal biodiversity are examined in detail.
Most policies proposed for mitigating the impacts of climate change neglect the need to conserve
biodiversity. The following policy options are recommended to help conserve coastal biodiversity in the
face of climatic change: (I) slowing, where possible, the rate and magnitude of global warming; (2)
incorporating the protection of coastal ecosystems as a fundamental goal in federal and state policies; (3)
eliminating federal and state subsidies that promote coastal development, beach nourishment, and
seawalls; (4) making wider use of such regulatory measures as coastal zoning and setbacks; (5) putting
property owners on notice that sea-level rise will occur and that public- policy goals will dictate the
abandonment of large areas of dry land; (6) minimizing anthropogenic stresses on coastal ecosystems;
(7) using the distribution of key coastal ecosystems to identify where various policy options should be
pursued; and (8) experimentation, by non-governmental organizations interested in land acquisition for
conservation purposes, with various easement and leasing options, focusing on lands of particular
conservation importance. Biodiversity—the world's genes, species, and ecosystems—could be an
invaluable resource in humanity's efforts to adapt to global warming, but it may also be one of the first
victims of that change. Biodiversity conservation requires coastal development policies that promote
accommodation to sea-level rise, rather than defense against it.
Rjppey, B. 1990. Implications for the Design of Artificial Lakes of a Study of the Craigavon Lakes. Water
Research, Vol. 24, No. 9, p 1085-1089, September.
Subject Areas: Design
Two linked artificial lakes in the new town of Craigavon in Northern Ireland are used for both stormwater
management and recreation. The eutrophic lakes have not only fulfilled their engineering function of
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preventing flooding from urban runoff but the water quality has been high enough to allow recreation on
and beside them. A study of water quality has shown that phosphorus loading-trophic state models apply
to these artificial lakes. These models may be able to be used elsewhere to achieve optimum design and
acceptable water quality. The phosphorus loading-trophic state models may be used to explore how
water quality varies with lake depth and decide if the costs of excavation of deeper lakes are justified.
When dedding which areas should drain to an artificial lake, estimates of the water quality can be made
and the best solution chosen. The high cost of excavating lakes means that most of the lakes will be fairly
shallow. The growth of macrophytes in the shallow lakes can be controlled by yearly mechanical cutting.
Roesner, L. A.; Hobel, M. A. 1992. Stopping Stormwater Pollution at Its Source. Public Works
PUWOAH, Vol. 123, No. 13, p 55-56, December 1992. 6 ref.
Subject Areas: Regulations
Under the new federal stormwater regulations released by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) in late 1990, stormwater management must also address the water quality impacts of stormwater
runoff. During and immediately after a storm, stormwater runoff washes pollutants from the land and
carries them to water bodies. Source control strategies are practices that prevent or minimize contact
between pollutants and stormwater runoff. Elimination of 'inappropriate connections' to the storm
drainage system directly excludes these pollutants from the system. Commercial and industrial businesses
can control rainfall from contacting any potential pollutants used or stored at their facilities. By preventing
common household pollutants from entering the stormwater runoff that leaves their property, residents
can also help reduce stormwater pollution. Restricting soils and sediments from undeveloped land,
parkland, and construction sites from entering the stormwater system makes erosion control an important
oart, of runoff management. Appropriate zoning ordinances may be used to limit development
immediately adjacent to sensitive receiving waters. Although street sweeping is widely practiced in densely
Copulated areas, its effectiveness'as a stormwater pollution control practice is still being debated. The
source control requirement of the federal permitting program for stormwater systems should produce
some hard data of their effectiveness, although it will be five to ten years before useful information is
obtained.
Rogers, j. D.; Augustyn, J. S. 1993. Using Satellite and GIS Technologies to Manage a County's Natural
Resources. Public Works, Vol. 124, No. 9, p 44,87, August 1993.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources - Open Space - Planning
Passaic County, located in northern New Jersey and bordering on New York State, encompasses a
unique mix of natural resources and environmental beauty, diverse urban centers, and expanding
suburban developments. The communities of Passaic County with the support and encouragement of
the County Board of Freeholders have long recognized the need to identify, protect, and preserve their
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natural resources. Now through teamwork, The Passaic County Natural Resource Management project
is being prepared with participation from the county's 16 municipalities and technical assistance from
satellite imagery and geographic information system (CIS) technology. Natural Resource Management
project goals include: (I) implementation of a county-wide comprehensive natural-resource management
program that will provide an overview of priority resources with specific strategies and guidelines for land
and resource allocation, (2) incorporation of environmental education as an integral component of the
program to promote the concept of conservation at all levels of society, (3) increasing of public access to
open space in urban and rural areas, (4) identification of the framework for a county-wide open-space
plan based upon stream corridors and other significant natural and cultural resources, and (5) integration
of existing historic sites into a county open-space plan. Computer programs are being used to process
remotely-sensed satellite imagery to provide map information such as the number of acres of forest in
an area, wetlands detection and monitoring, agricultural production, water resources, and changes in land
use. Using GIS, stored land-use information is retrieved in a variety of ways to create soil-type, floodplain,
geologic, elevation, proposed land-use, and zoning maps. It is anticipated that the Passaic County Natural
Resource Management plan will become an integral part of the county's municipal master plans, land-use
plans, and zoning ordinances.
Rogers, J.W. 1992. Sustainable Development Patterns: The Chesapeake Bay Region. Water Science
and Technology, Vol. 26, No. 12, p 271 I -2721, 1992.
Subject Areas: Habitat- Water Quality
The attractive quality of the Chesapeake Bay region on the eastern seaboard of the U.S. as a place to live
is both a boon and a curse, illustrating the relationship between a de sirable environment and a good
economy; the regional economy depends to great degree on whether or not the Bay remains a natural
amenity. Those who decide how land is developed need to understand the concept of 'nodes and
corridors' for human development patterns as well as 'nodes and corridors' for sustainable biological
diversity and natural processes. Human activity has dramatically changed the landscape and has subtly
altered the balance of nature. Each land use creates a host of environmental quality issues. For each
choice of location development types, density, construction methods, or ways of conducting day-to-day
domestic and business practices, there seems to be unintended environmental consequences. Studies
have shown how land use densities and landscape patterns are fundamental to achieving sustainable
environmental quality, lifestyles, and economies. Sustainable economic vitality requires sustainable
environmental quality. By maintaining landscape patterns of large woodlan ds and wetlands (nodes) and
wooded stream valleys and drainage-ways (corridors), significant natural functions are protected. Biologists
and managers have been aware since Darwin's work on the biology of islands that a relationship exists
between habitat size and its composition. Today, forests, wetlands, and other sensitive ecosystems are
often 'islands' in a sea of disturbed land. The patterns and sizes of these island ecosystems must be
managed to prevent extinction of plants and animals and loss of functions such as those that prevent
flooding and enhance water quality.
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Rumery Betz, C; Taylor, K.R. 1994. 14 Annu International Symposium Of The North American, Lake
Manag. Managing lakes from a watershed perspective: Wisconsin's priority lakes program. LAKE
RESERVOIR MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 2, p. 57.
Subject Areas: Model
Wisconsin's priority watershed program has focused on stream and river water quality for the majority
of its 15-year history. Recently, however, several priority lake projects have been selected to receive
technical and financial support to improve water quality progressive land management. Based on its
estimated positive response to reduced phosphorus loading, a lake is selected, and county or lake district
staff are hired to collect inventory data for rural and urban land-based computer models (WINHUSLE,.
BARNY and SLAMM) and lake water quality models. The Camp/Center Lakes and Lake Mendota
watershed projects are the first-to use a geographic information system (CIS) to analyze pollutant yields
and track land management changes. CIS is a tool for data integration and input into the urban and rural
land-use models, and provides a spatial display of the watershed characteristics. The 2-to-3 year planning
process culminates in a watershed plan outlining the goals for the water resources, eligibility criteria for
participation, and the budget. The plan is implemented over 8-years with roughly $ I -6 million in state
nonpoint source funds allocated per project. The state cost-shar es up to 100% with individual
landowners and municipalities to implement best management practices. Addressing lake problems from
a watershed perspective is a cost-effective, environmentally sensible approach to improved water quality.
Salant, K. June 15, 1996. HOUSEWATCH - UNCONVENTIONAL DESIGNS YIELD UNUSUAL
PRICES, STANDARD FEATURES. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: E REAL ESTATE p: I.
Subject Areas: Design - Economics - Planning
Katherine Salant discusses back-to-back town house projects in the Germantown area of Montgomery
County MD, saying that the $ 130,000 price range and standard features have appealed to first-time
home buyers.
Sayok, A.K.; Chang, M. 1990. Hydrological Responses to Urbanization in Forested LaNana Creek
Watershed Nacogdoches, Texas. Tropical Hydrology and Caribbean Water Resources. Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Tropical Hydrology and Fourth Caribbean Islands Water Resources
Congress, San Juan, Puerto Rico, July 22-27, 1990. American Water Resources Association, Bethesda,
Maryland. (1990). p 131-140.
Subject Areas: Model
Twenty-year (1965-84) USGS streamflow records for LaNana Creek in East Texas were broken down
into 2 periods, an early period (1965-72) with little development, and a recent period (1973-84) with
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rapid urban development. A mass curve generated by plotting accumulated annual streamflow against
accumulated annual precipitation revealed a significant difference in annual streamflow between these two
periods. Simple statistics showed that the average annual streamflow of the recent period was 143 mm
higher than that of the early period and was not totally attributable to differences in precipitation and
temperature. Using a hydroclimatic calibration model for the early period, LaNana Creek streamflow was
estimated to have increased 85.2 mm/year due to urbanization. Median daily flow was 0.07 cms for the
early period versus 0.20 cms for the recent period. The recent period had a greater frequency of high
flows, a smaller frequency of low flows and the monthly and annual maximum daily streamflows were
greater. If storm characteristics were similar, peak flow is higher and direct runoff is greater in the recent
period. The effects of urbanization on streamflow regimes in LaNana Creek were influenced by the short
distance of the urbanized area to the gaging station, the sandy soils, and the destruction of forest
environment. There were no significant changes in climatic conditions during the 20-year period.
Scatena,- P.M. 1990. Selection of Riparian Buffer Zones in Humid Tropical Steeplands. IN: Research
Needs and'Applications to Reduce Erosion and Sedimentation in Tropical Steeplands. IAHS Publication
No. 192. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, Washington, DC. 1990. p 328-337.
Subject Areas: Design- Habitat
The use of riparian protection zones in forestry operations is based on the premise that the structure of
the riparian zone has a controlling influence on the environmental conditions of the aquatic habitat. In the
design of riparian protection zones, maximized environmental benefits can be met by minimizing changes
in light, temperature, sediment and channel morphology within the riparian zone; and reducing offside
exports of sediment and nutrients by providing storage sites adjacent to the stream channel. The
determination of effective buffer width and extent has typically been established by establishing and
protecting the minimum area contributing the runoff, and by determining the sediment trapping efficiency
of the vegetative strip. Both the watershed area and commercial basal areal area increases geometrically
as smaller and smaller channels are protected. Due to the relatively high stream channel densities in
tropical Steeplands, protection of intermittent channels is economically prohibitive. Furthermore, since
storm runoff is dominated by channelized flow from intermittent swales, and the steep channel margins
cannot store large volumes of sediment, the sediment trapping efficiency of these buffers is greatly
reduced. Delimiting buffers on the presence of herbaceous vegetation provides both a practical and
ecologically sound solution to buffer selection. Since herbaceous layers are a diagnostic feature of these
ripanan zones, buffers based on their presence should reduce changes to ecological characteristics of the
system.
Schor, H.J.; Gray, D.H. 1995. Landform grading and slope evolution, J. GEOTECH. ENG. vol. 121, no.
10, pp. 729-735.
Subject Areas: Design
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Transportation corridors and residential developments in steep terrain both require that some grading
be carried out to accommodate roadways and building sites. The manner in which this grading is planned
and executed and the nature of the resulting topography or landforms that are created affect not only the
visual or aesthetic impact of the development but also the long-term stability of the slopes and
effectiveness of landscaping and revegetation efforts. Conventionaiiy graded slopes can be characterized
by essentially planar slope surfaces with constant gradients. Most slopes in nature, however, consist of
complex iandforms covered by vegetation that grows in patterns that are adjusted to hillside
hydrogeology. Analysis of slope-evolution models reveals that a planar slope in many cases is not an
equilibrium configuration. Landform-graded slopes on the other hand mimic stable natural slopes and are
characterized by a variety of shapes, including convex and concave forms. Downslope drains either follow
natural drop lines in the slope or are hidden from view in swale-and-berm combinations. Landscaping
plants are placed in patterns that occur in nature as opposed to random or artificial configurations. The
relatively small increase in the costs of engineering and design for landform grading are more than offset
by improved visual and aesthetic impact, quicker regulatory approval, decreased hillside maintenance and
sediment removal costs, and increased marketability and public acceptance.
Schwartz, J. 1995, September 18. SCIENCE: ECONOMICS - WORLD BANK RETOOLS
ECONOMIC YARDSTICK TO FIND HIDDEN VALUE. Washington Post, Final Edition, Sec: A
SECTION p:3.
Subject Areas: Economics
The environment department of the World Bank has come up with a way to measure a nation's hidden
worth .in the form of a new publication, 'Monitoring Environmental Progress: A Report on Work in
Progress,' a framework that attempts to integrate economic indicators with environmental considerations.
Scodari, P.F. 1990. Wetlands Protection: The Role of Economics. ELI Monograph Series. Environmental
Law Institute, Washington. 1990. 89p.
Subject Areas: Value/Valuation
Despite the mounting evidence of their high value, wetlands in the United States continue to be lost at
the rate of 200,000 to 400,000 acres a year to agriculture, urban development, vacation homes, and
water-resource development projects. Part water, part land, wetlands nurture a rich system of plant and
animal life, recharge groundwater, and cushion rivers and lakes from flooding in heavy rainfall. At the
same time, wetlands are fragile, often located where developers most want to build, and easily disturbed
by construction projects. By law, government water-resource development projects can be funded only
after publication of economic analyses (cost/benefit studies), but current economic-assessment approaches
do not meaningfully account for the wetland values being destroyed by development. The role of
economics in wetland-development decision-making is explained, and the barriers to adequate economic
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valuation of wetlands are highlighted. Balancing wetlands preservation with economic growth is
introduced in Chapter I. Chapter 2 provides a working definition of wetlands and outlines the major
causes of wetland loss in the United States. Chapter 3 addresses the economic concepts underlying the
valuation of nonmarket wetland goods, reviews the economic methodologies currently available for
valuing wetlands, and outlines the existing barriers to broader application of those methodologies.
Chapter 4 surveys federal laws and guidelines on the use of economics in wetland-development
decision-making. Chapter 5 examines the federal system for calculating natural-resource damages.
Chapter 6 recommends actions and research projects designed to encourage more thorough accounting
of the environmental costs of federal water-resource development. If the advice presented here is
heeded, both environmental economics and wetlands protection will be advanced.
Sear, D. A; Darby, S. E.; Thorne, C. R.; Brookes, A. B. 1994. Geomorphological approach to stream
stabilization and restoration: Case study of the Mimmshall Brook, Hertfordshire, UK. REGUL. RIVERS
RES. MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 205-223.
Subject Areas: Planning
The management of unstable river systems is conventionally costly in both financial and ecological terms.
Traditional river engineering seeks to stabilize the instability through structural means rather than treating
the cause of the symptom. The geomorphological approach to stream stabilization and restoration is
considered with a view to providing practical recommendations for the long-term management of the
system. Historical and documentary evidence are coupled with field surveys and sediment modelling to
provide a comprehensive picture of fluvial processes with the Mimmshall Brook catchment. A simple
sediment budget is calculated and the results used to develop practical management options that address
the causes of the instability and associated ecological and flooding problems.
Sear, T.R.' Howard. 1989. Water Resources Management in a Small Central Florida Community:
Tavares, Florida. Water: Laws and Management. American Water Resources Association, Bethesda,
Maryland, 1989. p 12A-19-12A-26.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
The City of Tavares is a small Central Florida community of approximately 7,300 people, located in Lake
County. The city is fortunate to be located adjacent to three major lakes and contain within its borders
numerous small water bodies and wetland areas, contributing to its accelerated growth in recent years.
The City began a program of stormwater management in the Fall of 1986 with the creation of a
Stormwater Management Committee. The committee assisted the City in the creation of a Stormwater
Utility that began operation in the Fall of 1987. The utility has since funded the hiring of two full-time
maintenance workers, and the completion of a Master Stormwater Management Study. The City is now
conducting a positive program of stormwater facility maintenance, wetland purchase, water quaifty
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monitoring, and facility construction, which will allow them to better preserve their water resources in
the future'. Water resources preservation at the local level ca'n only succeed when a long- term
commitment is made to maintenance, monitoring, stormwater management, and wetland preservation.
To their credit, the City of Tavares has made this commitment to their future.
Sedell, J. R.; Reeves, G. H; Burnett, K. M. 1994. Pac Northwest Res Stn ,. Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA.
Development and evaluation of aquatic conservation strategies, j. FOR. 1994 vol. 92, no. 4, pp. 28-31.
Subject Areas: Planning
All Options Considered in the FEMAT report, with the exception of Option 7, used one of three variants
of an aquatic conservation strategy first described in Thomas et al. (1993). The conservation strategy was
designed to provide a scientific basis for protecting aquatic ecosystems and enable planning for sustainable
resource management. It sought to restore and maintain the ecological health of watersheds (Karr et al.
1986, Karr 1991, Naiman et al. 1992) throughout the region by retaining, restoring, and protecting those
processes and landforms that contribute habitat elements to streams and promote good habitat conditions
for fish and other aquatic and riparian-dependent organisms.'
Shaw.T. 1995, January 5. AN EARTH-FRIENDLY AGENDA IN THE WHITE HOUSE; UPDATING
THE MANSION'S SYSTEMS SAVES MONEY - AND THE ENVIRONMENT. Washington Post, Final
Edition, Sec: T HOME p: 5.
Subject Areas: Economics - Recycling
Simmons, B.L.; Trengove, S.L. 1989. Impact of Catchment Urbanisation on Lake Macquarie (Australia).
Water Science and Technology, Vol. 21, No. 2, p 205-210, 1989.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Increasing urbanization of coastal areas is leading to impacts on coastal lakes which decrease their amenity
for recreation and tourism. Runoff and wastewater discharge cause siltation, impact seagrass beds and
change the characteristics of open waters, affecting boating, swimming, fishing and the aesthetic quality
of the locale. Management of urban development and wastewater disposal is required to minimize
sedimentation and nutrient enrichment. This could include development restrictions, runoff controls and
a strategy for wastewater treatment and discharge. The catchment of Lake Macquarie, a marine coastal
lake, has been progressively urbanized since 1945. Urbanization, through increased stormwater runoff
and point source discharges, has caused a major impact on the lake in terms of sedimentation and
nutrient enrichment. Losses of lake area and navigable waters have occurred. Accompanying problems
include change in the distribution of seagrass beds and nuisance growths of benthic algae. Since the
1950's, dry weather nutrient concentrations have increased and mean water clarity has decreased.
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Severe problems, as observed in other New South Wales coastal lakes, e.g. benthic algae in Lake
Illawarra and Tuggerah Lakes, have not yet developed. Because of the lead time taken to implement
policies and controls, trends should be identified and policies developed now so as to avoid nutrient
buildup and development of sustained problems.
Smith, A. E.; Oshins, C. 1993. Composting wastes into resources: A rural/urban framework. J.
RESOUR. MANAGE. TECHNOL. 1993 vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 62-68.
Subject Areas: Recycling
The Rodale Institute, a non-profit research organization, has been focusing on how to convert rural and
urban wastes into sustainable agricultural resources. Farm co-composting of urban yard wastes and rural
animal wastes represents a low cost, proven technology which can significantly enhance best management
practices for rural/urban waste management, reduce non-point source water pollution, enhance the
quality of soils and crops, and create other social and economic benefits for rural and urban systems. The
article highlights a regionally focused systems approach which is beginning to influence state and national
policy towards more sustainable practices.
Smith, L G.; Carlisle, T. J.; Meek, S. N. 1993. Implementing Sustainability: the Use Of Natural Channel
Design and Artificial Wetlands for Stormwater Management. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol.
37, No. 4, p 241-257, April 1993.
Subject Areas: Design- Habitat - Planning
Sustainability is a concept that has been widely embraced both politically and intellectually but has not
been addressed in terms of practical application. In most resource sectors, the features of a sustainable
future remain unclear and there are few examples that give practical expression to Sustainability. This
deficiency has been addressed on two counts: (I) the application of the concept to the management of
water resources; and (2) how the concept can be utilized for the management and planning of urban
stormwater. Natural channel design and artificial wetlands represent an innovative approach to
stormwater management in that they provide benefits for the natural environment. Rather than thinking
of created wetlands and natural channels as techniques for the single purpose of stormwater
management, the designs are more accurately thought of as a concept. Integral features of this concept
indude its potential for maintaining or enhancing terrestrial and aquatic habitat and its use of an integrated
approach to stormwater management. The practical application of these designs is limited in the North
American context. Preliminary research indicates that some impediments include the negative attitudes
of developers and planners, the complexity of storm drainage plan approval processes, local government
skepticism, legal liability and overall inexperience with the designs.
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Smyth, A. J.; Dumanski, J.; Spendijan, G. 1993. FESLM: an International Framework for Evaluating
Sustainable Land Management: a discussion paper. Food, And Agriculture Organization Of The United
Nations Land And Water Develo Pment, Division.Rome: Land and Water Development Division, Food
and Agriculture Organizaiton of the United Nations, 1993 World soil resources reports.
Subject Areas: Planning
Somlyody, L. 1995. International Conference On Integrated Water Resources, Management,
Amsterdam (N.' Water quality management: Can we -improve integration to face future problems?
INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. Hosper,-S.H; Gulati,-R.D.; Van-Liere,-L;
Rooijackers,-R.M.M. (eds.) 1995 pp. 249-259.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Water (and its deteriorating quality) may be the most severe stress on the exponentially growing human
population in the next century. Problems are becoming increasingly complex and diverse and require
more and more specific knowledge, and efficient integration across various disciplines, sectors, countries,
and societies. The major challenge addressed is whether we are prepared to realize the desired
integration and to resolve the large amount of existing gaps and barriers. The paper analyzes major past
and desired future trends in water quality management. A number of issues are selected such as the
identification, occurrence, and perception of various problems (e.g. eutrophication, acidification, global
warming), pollution control types, wastewater treatment, modeling and monitoring, planning and
environmental impact assessment, legislation and institutions, the notion of sustainable development, and
the role of science and engineering. The past two decades showed tremendous developments in water
quality management. In spite of these, the focus of the present discussion lies mostly on pitfalls to
disseminate lessons and questions which are crucial to likely future problems and desired improvements.
Spirn, AW. 1992. Designing With the Land. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 47, No. I,
p 35-38, January/February 1992.
Subject Areas: Recreation
If cities are built in accord with nature, many urban problems of air pollution, water pollution, flooding,
increased energy demands and high construction and maintenance costs can be lessened. The Ecological
Services Laboratory has developed a soil amendment composed of leaf mold and wood chips from parks
and yards in the Washington D.C. district which are used to sustain the landscape of the city. In 1965,
the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers determined that the most effective and least expensive way to prevent
flooding in the lower basin of the Charles River of Boston was to acquire wetlands upstream. In 1974
Congress appropriated funds to buy the wetlands for flood control, and today these lands are also being
used as a recreational area. In Boston and other older American cities, combined sewer overflow often
causes pollution of nearby rivers. To combat this situation, Denver, Colorado has designed parks with
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lakes along the South Ratte Greenway to act as detention reservoirs while providing recreational areas.
Rooftops, plazas, and parking lots are used in Denver to detain stormwater while providing aesthetically
pleasing waterways in urban areas. Wet roofs are also used in many Germany cities to reduce heat load
on buildings. The temporary storage of urban stormwater in parks, plazas, or rooftops reduces the
amount of sewage reaching sewage treatment plants after a storm and makes it possible to treat the
sewage before releasing it into rivers or harbors. Since cities are already equipped with public
transportation, sewers, water and gas and electricity service, it is suggested that they be renovated and
used by those developers that would try to create new urban areas out of countryside.
Stein, E. G.,Jr. 1994. Sediment control during construction: The Maryland experience. LAND WATER
1994 vol. 38, pp. 16-17.
Subject Areas: Planning
The administration of a successful Erosion and Sediment Control program embraces one major concept
and that is teamwork. The Maryland State Highway Administration (SHA) leaned this lesson 10 years ago
when the forerunner of our current program was introduced. In plan development the planners,
designers and construction staff had to work together to develop a workable, effective set of plans. The
implementation of the plan again required the same degree of teamwork but this time with the
construction staff, the contractor and the regulatory inspectors.
Stevens, W. 1992, September 8. Sdence Times: Economists Strive to Find Environment's Bottom Line.
The New York Times, Sec: C p: I col: 5.
Subject Areas: Cost/Benefit- Economics
An analysis is made of the hotly debated issue in the 1992 presidential race of whether governmental
efforts to protect the environment help or hinder economic growth. At the root of the argument is the
growing acceptance of the idea that the world economy is merely a subsystem of the planet's ecology,
on which it depends for materials, energy and general sustenance.
Stormwater Management Alternatives. 1980. Water Resources Center, University of Delaware,
Newark DE. April 1980. Edited by J. Toby Tourbier and Richard Westmacott.
Subject Areas: Planning
Stormwater management remains a national problem. Flood losses are increasing in spite of ever-rising
expenditures for flood control. Non-point sources of stormwater pollution from urban areas are the
major source of water pollution in many areas. Most urban streams are neglected and often a.sensual
blight, even though more money has been spent (since 1972) to clean up the nation 's waters than to
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construct the nation 's highway network. Opportunities for multi-use planning are often ignored.
Blue-green technology can incorporate flood control, stormwater pollution abatement, recreation, and
comprehensive city planning and development. Stormwater management technology can be convivial
(implying conviviere—with life) resulting in a product that can be lasting, functional and beautiful. This
conference on Stormwater Management Alternatives was held in October 1979 in Wilmington,
Delaware. It was initiated because of a contract with the Office of Water Research and Technology of
the U.S. Department of the Interior, under which the editors investigated water resources protection
technology and produced a handbook of measures to protect water resources in land development. In
the current book which includes conference papers, topics are grouped under: I. A rationale for
innovative and alternative stormwater management; II. Planning, construction and operation of systems;
III. Case examples of successful programs; and IV. Institutional aspects of implementation.
Strong, A. L. 1980. Legal Tools for the Implementation of Greenway and Blue Green Technology.
Stormwater Management Alternatives. Water Resources Center, University of Delaware, Newark DE.
April 1980.
Subject Areas: Planning
Stormwater management law is not a well defined area; such laws as there are vary considerably
throughout the nation. Perhaps no aspect of stormwater management leaves as many unanswered
questions as the legal aspect. There are a fair number of state enabling acts which pertain to stormwater
management and there are many local ordinances, but there is little judicial precedent concerning either
the state acts or the local ordinances. Existing governmental structures should be used for regulating
runoff. For developing areas, the state should mandate either county or municipal stormwater
management plans, and require these plans for watersheds, rather than for government boundary units.
Innovative programs need to be followed. The courts should support programs which prove to be fair
and reasonable.
Sturm, T.W.; Kirby, R.E. 1991. Sediment Reduction in Urban Stormwater Runoff From Construction
Sites. Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA22I6I as PB92-I78243.
Price codes: A06 in paper copy, A02 in microfiche. Environmental Resources Center, Georgia Institute
of Technology, Atlanta, Report No. ERC 04-91, June 1991. USGS Contract No. 14-08-0001 -G1556.
USGS Project No. G1556-06.
Subject Areas: Design
Current design criteria and best-management practices for controlling sediment in runoff from
construction sites were evaluated in response to Georgia legislation which established an effluent limit on
turbidity. The research approach has been two-pronged with an analysis of field data collected by Georgia
EPD and of numerical data generated by a computer simulation model. The field data were collected at
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landfill sites which had a sediment basin. Regression relations between suspended solids in mg/L and
turbidity in NTU were developed for each landfill site and were found to be dependent on the soil types
at each site. The probability of meeting the turbidity discharge standard is dependent on rainfall
characteristics, the hydrologic condition and size of the watershed contributing to the receiving stream,
soil properties and soil conservation measures on the disturbed watershed, and the sediment basin
design. Computer simulation results were obtained from the model SEDCAD+ for disturbed watersheds
with sediment basins designed according to the Georgia Erosion and Sediment Control Manual. The
results showed that sediment basins can be very effective in reducing suspended sediment in
construction-site runoff. However, for a disturbed area with significant soil-conservation treatment, the
peak sediment concentration in the sediment-basin outflow e>ceeded the undisturbed peak concentration
for a meadow land use. For an undisturbed land use of 1/3 agriculture, 1/3 woods, and 1/3 pasture,
disturbed sediment concentrations in the sediment-basin outflow were less than the undisturbed values.
Sediment-basin trap efficiencies obtained from the numerical model varied from 45% for the clay loam
soil to 80% for the sandy loam soil. The trap efficiencies decreased with increases in surface loading rate.
The numerical results suggest that an improvement in the design criteria for sediment basins would be
to re-define the surface loading rate and to specify lower allowable values for soils with high percentages
of clay. The numerical resute also quantitatively demonstrate the importance of applying soil conservation
measures so as to prevent as much sediment as possible from ever reaching the sediment basin.
Sustainable development: a conservation and protection newsletter. Canadian, Wildlife Service. ! 988
May.
Subject Areas: Planning
Tabor, M. 1992. South Platte Research Conference, Fort Collins, CO (USA) 27 28 Oct 1992. Issues
of the urban river interface. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1992 SOUTH PLATTE RESEARCH
CONFERENCE. Woodring,-R.C.;Roberts,-j. (eds.) COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY, FORT
COLLINS, CO 80523 (USA)COLORADO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources - Planning - Water Quality
The Urban Design Forum (UDF) is a non-profit organization of planners, designers, and private citizens
that are concerned with the issues of urban design in the Denver metropolitan area. Within UDF, a
subcommittee has been formed, called the Urban Ecology Subcommittee, to explore the relationships
between urban development and a healthy, functioning and sustainable local ecology. This inquiry is
focused on the role of natural resources, their use, abuse, protection and enhancement within our 'built'
environment. The premise of this organization is that human systems in general and cities in particular,
must develop a harmonious relationship with the natural environment to remain healthy and viable over
time. Given that one of the most important and limited natural resources in the Rocky Mountain region
is water, it seems logical that we begin our inquiry of urban ecology with the role that surface water plays
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in our urban environment. Historically, the South Plate River has given form and orientation to our urban
landscape. The Urban Design Forum seeks to be a catalyst for discussion of the future of urbanized
sections of the South Platte River. We feel that all the diversified interests of our metropolitan areas as
well as the downstream neighbors in agriculture and water supply must be part of this discourse as well.
Takahashi, M. 1991. Guidelines for Environmental Enhancement in Japan. Water Science and
Technology, Vol. 24, No. 9, p 133-142.
Subject Areas: Recreation - Water Quality
New guidelines for water reuse for environmental enhancement have been established in Japan. There
are two categories of guidelines, one for esthetic settings without public access, and the other for
limited-contact use including shoreline usage, boating, and fishing. Swimming and bathing are not
considered. So-called 'basic guidelines' are not site-specific, but are based on public health and visual
appeal; this category includes guidelines for total coliforms, biological oxygen demand, turbidity, and color.
On the other hand, type of use' guidelines differ according to the purpose, climate, and other
characteristics of specific sites. Instead of expressing numerical hydraulic or biological criteria, the latter
guidelines merely explain the state of the art of each constituent. Case studies were therefore evaluated
to establish a tentative manual for reuse. For example, in the moats of Osaka castle, total phosphorus
should be maintained at 0.1 mg/L to keep the chlorophyll a concentration at 100 micrograms/L, thus
achieving a suspended solids concentration of <20 mg/L. Where nitrogen limits algal growth, nitrogen
would have to be < 1.5 mg/L to keep the chlorophyll a concentration at 100 micrograms/L. When
reclaimed water is utilized in streams with waterfalls or fountains, accumulation of foam causes an
unpleasant appearance, presumably due to such surface active substances as methylene blue active
substance (MBAS). An NBAS concentration of <0.3 mg/L and < 10 mg/L of chemical oxygen demand
of permanganate is recommended to prevent foaming. The primary impetus for the control of urban
drainage is to protect the quality and habitat of receiving waters. It is therefore the case that any specific
urban runoff control programme (and associated stormwater management planning options and
catchment plans) must be evaluated in terms of how they will reduce receiving water problems and
restore or maintain a beneficial use or a targeted Water Quality Objective.
Tessendorf, H. 1992. The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development. Aqua AQUAAA,
Vol. 41, No. 3, p 129-135, June 1992.
Subject Areas: Planning
Five hundred participants, including government-designated experts from a-hundred countries and
representatives of 80 international, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations attended the
International Conference on Water and the Environment (ICWE) in Dublin, Ireland, on 26-31 January
1992. The experts saw the emerging global water resources picture as critical. At its closing session, the
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Conference adopted the Dublin Statement and the Conference Report. The Conference Report sets out
recommendations for action at local, national, and international levels, based on four guiding principles:
(I) freshwater is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the
environment; (2) water development and management should be based on a participatory approach,
involving users, planners, and policy-makers at all levels; (3) women play a central part in the provision,
management, and safeguarding of water; and (4) water has an economic value in all its competing uses
and should be recognized as an economic good. The major benefits to come from implementation of
the Dublin recommendations will be: alleviation of poverty and disease; protection against natural
disasters; water conservation and reuse; sustainable urban development; agricultural production and rural
water supply; protecting aquatic ecosystems; and resolving water conflicts. Implementation of action
programs for Water and Sustainable Development will require a substantial investment, not only in the
capital projects concerned, but, crucially, in building the capacity of people and institutions to plan and
implement those projects. It is proposed that the first full assessment on implementation of the
recommended program should be undertaken by the year 2000. The Conference participants urge all
governments to study carefully the specific activities and means of implementation recommended in the
Conference Report, and to translate those recommendations into urgent action programs for Water and
Sustainable Development.
The Role of watershed management in sustainable development. University, Of Minnesota Working
Group On Watershed Management And Development; University, Of Minnesota Forestry For
Sustainable Development Program. 1988 Apr 22; Note: St. Paul, Minn: University of Minnesota, Dept.
of Forest Resources, Forestry for Sustainable Development Program.
Areas: Planning
'HE FEDERAL PAGE-ARMY BASE TO BECOME URBAN PARK. 1995, April 28. Washington Post,
"nai Edition, Sec: A SECTION p: 25.
SdDiect Areas: Recreation
Tne Department of Defense will spend $64 million this year to help turn the Presidio into a showplace
jroan national park, Vice President Gore said yesterday. Gore, attending a meeting of the President's
Counal on Sustainable Development, said the Presidio Army Base is unique. 'We have an unparalleled
opportunity to make it a beacon for environmental education and sustainable development, and to invest
° the future of California, the future of the United States and the future of the world. We're not going
to pass that by,1 he said. The total includes $52 million for environmental cleanup, $8.6 million for
Duiidmg repairs and seismic upgrades, and $3.7 million for operating costs. Some of the base's
environmental problems include an .estimated 200 buried fuel storage tanks and three known PCB spill
sites, as well as several landfills, their contents largely unknown. Gore said the money represents a
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fivefold increase over spending in previous years at the 1,800-acre property overlooking San Francisco's
Golden Gate Bridge.
Theisen, M.S. 1992. 10 High Altitude Revegetation Workshop, Fort Collin. The expanding role of
geosynthetics in erosion and sediment control. PROCEEDINGS: HIGH ALTITUDE REVEGETATION
WORKSHOP NO. 10. Hassell.-W.G.; Nordstrom,-S.K.; Keammerer,-W.R.; Todd.-J. (eds.)
COLORADO STATE UNIV., FORT COLLINS, CO 80523 (USA) COLORADO WATER RESOUR.
RES. INST. pp. 150-170. COLORADO-WATER-RESOUR.-RES.-INST. vol. 71.
Subject Areas: Design
The use of geosynthetic erosion and sediment materials continues to expand at a rapid pace. From their
early beginnings in the late I950's, geosynthetic materials today are the backbone of the erosion and
sediment control industry. Geosynthetic components are an integral part of erosion and sediment
materials ranging from temporary products such as hydraulic mulch geofibers, plastic erosion control
meshes and nettings, erosion control blankets and silt fences to high performance turf reinforcement mats,
geocellular confinement systems, erosion control geotextiles, fabric formed revetments and concrete
block systems. This paper provides a brief overview of these materials and concepts, and how they may
be designed and incorporated into cost effective applications.
Thompson, T. R. E.; Bullock, P. 50Th Annual Meeting Of The Soil And Water Conservation, Society,
Des Moine. The introduction of sustainable development into land resource policies in the United
Kingdom. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 50th ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION SOCIETY 7515 NORTHEAST ANKENY RD, ANKENY, IA 50021-9764 (USA)
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION SOCIETY.pp. 7-8.
Subject Areas: Planning - Water Quality
Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992, the United Kingdom
Government has published a national strategy for sustainable development and introduced the principle
into policy guidance for environmental protection agencies and local planning authorities. This, and the
imminent creation'of a single Environment agency, are having a fundamental influence on the policies
governing development planning and the control of pollution. Land use policies, set at County and District
levels through the publication of statutory Development Plans but influenced by national policy guidance,
are now beginning to address protection of the environmental and ecological functions of soil. For the first
time, factors other than agricultural quality are to influence patterns of urban and industrial development.
Polices will seek to protect vulnerable aquifers, identified on the properties of overlying strata and soils,
from potentially polluting or disturbing forms of development and land use. Catchment management plans
are being produced for all sensitive and important river basins in order to address existing quality and flow
problems and to direct land use and management in ways that seek to achieve river quality standards.
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The European Directive on Nitrate from Agriculture, with which the UK must comply, will necessitate
the identification of sensitive rivers and aquifers with high nitrate concentrations. Agricultural practices in
these catchments will have to meet the requirements of lower nitrate leaching targets. This paper will
describe the recent developments in the UK of relevance to soil and water conservation and draw
conclusions as to the future of sustainable development policy and practice in this field.
Thorp, S. J. 1993. 36 Conf Of The Int Association For Great Lakes Research, De Pere, Wl (USA) 4. 10.
Infrastructure planning and management for sustainability. OME 36TH CONFERENCE OF THE
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, JUNE 4-10, 1993. PROGRAM
AND ABSTRACTS. 1993 p. 124.
Subject Areas: Planning
Publicly-funded facilities for transportation, water supply and wastewater treatment support and sustain
most economic activity and entail significant environmental impacts and benefits. Sound investment in
public works infrastructure requires the linkage of economic and environmental goals. As a sector-specific
example, the Great Lakes region's transportation system is characterized by a well-developed multiple
mode infrastructure and strong intermodal connections. Infrastructure investment requirements are high
and system degradation is an on-going concern. Transportation is a prodigious consumer of energy and
entails substantial land use and environmental impacts. Improvements to freight and passenger
transportation infrastructure should be carefully evaluated with respect to potential environmental
consequences. Comprehensive planning involving assessment of alternative along with modal shift
potential is necessary to meet current environmental and fiscal challenges. Long-term management
strategies are needed to preserve system integrity and maintain environmental benefits.
Tourbier, J. T. 1994. Open space through stormwater management: Helping to structure growth on the
urban fringe.]. SOIL WATER CONSERV. 1994 vol. 49, no. I, pp. 14-21.
Subject Areas: Open Space - Planning
This article advocates a holistic approach that views stormwater as a vital part of the hydrologic cycle
involving management practices to insure infiltration, control runoff pollution, reduce thermal impacts and
control peak flows. Management practices for this kind of control put the landscape to work by utilizing
processes of nature such as vegetative filtering during conveyance, cooling through shade trees, detention
through depression storage, and infiltration. When implemented in settings that prior to the introduction
of impervious surfaces did not experience much runoff, such management practices can be designed to
form systems that function as an extension of the existing riparian landscape. The public is beginning to
accept that bodies of water, wetlands, and floodplains are best used as permanent open space, protected
through land use controls. These open spaces follow stream valleys and can be expanded and enhanced
through stormwater management practices on adjacent development sites.
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Tourbier, J.T.; Westmacott, R.; Goedken, C. 1980. Convivial Stormwater Management Alternatives.
Stormwater'Management Alternatives. Water Resources Center, University of Delaware, Newark DE.
April 1980. p9-21.
Subject Areas: Open Space
Stormwater and flood management and their interrelationship to water quality are problems of national
priority. The costs of urban flooding and drainage works on a nationwide scale have been estimated to
exceed $5 billion per year. There is opportunity for substantially reducing the cost of Stormwater
management by examining and, where appropriate, modifying conventional practices. Blue-Green
Stormwater technology turns a liability into an asset by integrating control measures in open space
systems. This concept recognizes the potential of streams, rivers and other natural drainage ways as
multi-use urban open space/Water systems; and it realizes the potential asset of Stormwater by
transferring some of the costs of Stormwater management to other beneficiaries. Four basic Stormwater
problems in urbanized areas that can be solved through design solutions which can result in
enhancement of a site include: (I) Increases in runoff and decreases in infiltration; (2) Flooding and
streambank erosion; (3) Erosion and sedimentation; and (4) Runoff pollution. Solving these problems
requires public involvement in the planning process. Convergence of interests, legitimacy of sponsorship,
establishment of an effectuation framework, leading to implementation of objectives are all necessary
steps.
Towards an environmentally sound and sustainable development of water resources in Asia and the
Pacific. 1992. United, Nations Economic And Social Commission For Asia And The Pacific. 1992 Aug.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Tuck, C. 1991. The New Texas Water Plan Implications for Irrigated Agriculture. IN: Proceedings of:
South Texas Irrigation Conference, January 15, 1991, Hondo, Texas. Texas Agricultural Extension
Service, College Station. 1991.
Subject Areas: Planning
The primary objective of the Texas Water Plan is to provide a continuing comprehensive assessment of
the current and future status of water-related resources within the State and to provide workable
strategies that will serve as a guide to State policy for the development, management, conservation and
protection of the State's water resources. The 1990 Water Plan identifies alternative approaches to
manage water resources, makes recommendations for policy and program formulation and
implementation, gives public and private institutions direction to: (I) provide for sufficient quantities of
water; (2) protect the quality of both surface and groundwater, and (3) safeguard human life and property
from flooding and flood damage. In a number of areas of Texas today, available yield of existing surface
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water supplies will barely be sufficient to meet water demands during a critical drought period. Total
water use requirements in Texas are projected to increase over the 50 year planning horizon. Municipal
water requirements are projected to become the major water demand category in several regions as
the population increases. For irrigation water, a projection of 20% increased water use efficiency per
acre, resulting from adoption of improved management and water conservation procedures was made
for water use scenarios studied. Five major on-farm irrigation water conservation practices which should
be implemented include: (I) low energy precision application (LEPA) sprinklers (2) surge flow furrow
irrigation valves, (3) drip irrigation, (4) soil moisture measurement, and (5) use of on-farm underground
water distribution pipelines.
United States of America national report. 1992. Council, On Environmental Quality (U S. ). 1992;
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992. Council on Environmental
Quality, 1992 "Compiled in preparation for the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), to be held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on June 1-12, I992"-P. 418. United
Nations Conference on Environment & Development.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Van, Alphen J. 1995. The voordelta integrated policy plan: Administrative aspects of coastal zone
management in the Netherlands. OCEAN COAST. MANAGE. 1995 vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 133-150.
Subject Areas: Planning
Coastal areas are densely populated and intensively used. At the same time they are highly productive
fishing grounds and have important ecological value. Coastal zone management tries to find solutions to
the conflicts characteristic to these areas. This paper presents an example from the Netherlands. As a
result of the Delta project, in which three major estuaries and inlets were closed from the North Sea,
large-scale ecosystem changes in the adjacent coastal zone or Voordelta were accompanied by
far-reaching socio-economic developments. In 1988 the national government took the initiative of
preparing a policy plan, in cooperation with regional and local authorities. The Voordelta Plan is aimed
at a sustainable development of the area, ecologically and economically. It was prepared between 1989
and 1993. The paper describes administrative aspects of coastal zone management in the Netherlands
(the process of decision-making, including public participation) and analyses the final policy and process
outcomes. It shows the 'pros and cons' of non-legal planning structures and important prerequisites for
successful interactive policy making.
Vietinghoff, U.; Puta, H.; Klapper, H; Stender, M.; Hubert, M. L. 1990. Dept Of Biology. Ecosystem
Management in Estuaries: Costs and Benefits. LimnologicaVo\. 20, No. I, p 157-163, April 1990.
Subject Areas: Planning
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The improvement of the water quality of eutrophic water bodies is generally very costly. Therefore, the
choice and timing of an adequate restoration method is a difficult task. Among the list of management
techniques for restoration methods for eutrophic estuarine waters are: control of nutrient import;
dredging; financial planning; self-purification capability; shoreland protection; biomanipulation; and biotic
harvesting. All elementary processes of restoration are expressed in monetary terms. Two computer
based models were used to assist in the difficult decision process. The ecological processes were
quantitatively described by mathematical models. The restoration method showing the best ecological
results connected with a minimum of costs can be demonstrated using applied scenario analysis and
optimization techniques (variable metric method).
Viladas, Pilar. 1992. The Urbane Village. House & Garden, Vol. 164 Iss: 7 Date:Jul 1992 p: 38-3.9.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
A different kind of community taking shape in Windsor FL, a resort village designed in the urban tradition
of the Caribbean, is profiled. The resulting village will have courtyard and garden houses resembling
those of historic Charleston NC and Saint Augustine FL.
Vivian, John. 1995. The secrets of low tech plumbing. Mother Earth News, Iss: ISO Date:Jun 1995
p: 34-38+.
Subject Areas: Design - Planning
Low-cost, low-impact, low-energy rain catchments and cisterns, water rams and solar pumps, along with
a dose of plain old-fashioned water conservation, will allow one to take control of the water supply and
wet-waste disposal systems. The secrets of low-tech plumbing are discussed.
Vollers, Maryanne. 1995. Everyone has got to breathe. Audubon, Vol: 97 Iss: 2 Date: Mar 1995 p:
64-73.
Subject Areas: Regulations
Pollution has long plagued the residents of Chester PA, a small, depressed and predominantly black
industrial city on the Delaware River. After their children began to get sick, Chester residents began a
grassroots effort that has improved their environment and resulted in the first local zoning law aimed at
controlling polluting industries.
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Vujnovic, R. 1990. Urban Development in the Danubian Basin and its Effects on Water Quality Aspects
and Trends. Water Science and Technology, Vol. 22, No. 5, p 281-286.
Subject Areas: Planning- Water Quality
The fete and future of urbanization in the Danube Basin is linked to the processes of urban agglomerations
in Europe and it can be expected that increased urban concentrations will develop along the Danube and
its mam tributaries, just as other regional urban systems develop in Europe. The natural potential of the
Danube Basin is limited from the point of view of future agglomerations. The main limitations come from
the availability of natural water resources, and further, from the limited spaces for specific uses. The
detenoration of water quality by pollution may additionally restrict the limits of urbanization; improvement
or detenoration of the situation would depend on the location and character of the sources of pollution.
The idea that urban development in the Danube Basin must be jointly planned by all Danube countries
(m the form of a water master plan or a physical plan of the basin) is becoming increasingly appreciated.
The general objective of the plans would be to make the best use of the Danube and tributaries, for the
benefit of the people living in the basin.
Wall, M.K. 1992. Ecosystem rehabilitation: preamble to sustainable development. Oct. SPB Academic
Publishing.
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Walmsley, j .J. 1995. Market forces and the management of water for the environment. WATER S.A.
1995 vol.21, no. I, pp. 43-50.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Development and the environment are no longer considered mutually exclusive, and economic and
social considerations are included in the allocation and management of resources such as water and air.
As water resources grow more scarce in South Africa, more efficient methods of water allocation for all
sectors need to be investigated. An important sector that requires consideration is the natural
environment. In 1970 the Department of Environment Affairs recognised the need for the allocation of
water for the maintenance of water ecosystems. Of particular interest in this paper is the allocation of
water to river ecosystems. At the moment much research is being done on the water requirements of
-iver ecosystems in South Africa, although there is still insufficient information to ensure good
management. Theoretically two mechanisms are available for the allocation of water resources:
government control and a free-market system. In reality there is a gradation between the two that
Deludes various levels of mixed economies. The present system relies heavily on government control,
although in the long run it may be more beneficial for the environment if water markets are set up in
South Africa. This would also promote the sustainable development of water resources. The problems
that are faced in setting up water markets include.the allocation of property rights and initial pricing of
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water so as to benefit the environment, as well as the requirements of the poor, especially those in rural
areas. All these need to be taken into consideration, and further research needs to be carried out on
various aspects of water markets and water requirements of river ecosystems. This paper discusses
aspects of water management for environmental conservation with particular reference to allocation
strategies using market forces and pricing mechanisms. Special emphasis is given to river ecosystems, due
to their value as water sources and the critical relationship between catchment processes, land use and
these systems.
Walton, S. P.; Anderson, D. E. 1994. International Symposium Of The North America. Beaver Lake:
Can lake protection work? LAKE RESERVOIR MANAGE. 1994 vol. 9, no. I, pp. 61 -65.
Subject Areas: Planning
Beaver Lake is a 31 ha mesotrophic/eutrophic lake located in King County, Washington. The lake is
comprised of three interconnected bodies of water. Land use in the lake's 416 ha watershed is dominated
by forest with about 23 percent of the watershed developed in low/medium (I -3 units per acre) density
residential use. Development proposals for nearly one-half of the forested portions of the watershed are
in the review process and/or early construction phase. A 1993 zoning update will result in much of the
remaining area converting to medium/high density residential uses in the future. Modeling current land
use suggests that existing watershed loadings are representative of baseline or forested loading conditions.
There are no known point sources of pollution to the lake and relatively few nonpoint sources entering
the lake. Future residential land use is expected to significantly increase phosphorus loading to the lake.
Through the Washington State Department of Ecology Centennial Clean Water Fund grant, a phase I
restoration/feasibility study was conducted for Beaver Lake. The purpose of the study was to characterize
the current biological, chemical, and physical quality of the lake and develop a management plan for the
long-term protection of the lake.
Wanielista, Martin P.; Yousef, Yousef A. 1993. Stormwater management. Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Subject Areas: Water Quality
Westmacott, R. I960. Blue Green Concept Some Personal Comments. Stormwater Management
Alternatives. Water Resources Center, University of Delaware, Newark DE. April I960, p 37-41.
Subject Areas: Open Space - Planning
The Blue-Green Concept is a deceptively simple one. Few examples of this idea exist, but those that have
been implemented have been extraordinarily successful. Earl Jones first coined the term Blue-Green
Development in the 1960s. When the term Blue-Green was first used, it referred to the planned
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integration of water areas in open space systems, multifunctional impoundments for both the detention
of runoff and for aesthetic benefits. From its conception, storage and detention of urban stormwater were
important features of Blue-Green development. The concept recognizes the multifunctional role of
natural drainage systems. Failure to recognize these numerous roles of streams and rivers on urban
development is probably the reason for little use of the Blue-Green concept.
Whalen, Paul J.; Cullum, Michael G. 1988. An assessment of urban land use/stormwater runoff quality
relationships and treatment efficiencies of selected stormwater management systems. South, Florida
Water Management District Resource Planning Dept. 1988 Nov; Department, South Florida Water
Management District, [1988] Technical publication (South Florida Water Management District. Resource
Planning Dept.); 88-9.
Subject Areas: Planning- Water Quality
Williams, C. 1992. Books - Ecology, Economics, Ethics: The Broken Circle. Edited by F. Herbert
Bormann and Stephen R. Kellert. Science News, Vol: 141 Iss: 8 Date:Feb22, 1992 p: 114.
Subject Areas: Economics
Subject Areas: Natural Resources
Favorable book review.
Williams, D.T.; Austin, D.N. 1995. PC based design of channel protection using permanent geosynthetic
reinforcement mattings. LAND WATER 1995 vol. 39, pp. I 1-14.
Subject Areas: Design
New erosion and sediment control legislation, coupled with enhanced public awareness toward
environmental issues, has led to a rapid increase in the use of flexible geosynthetic lining systems as lining
matenals in inland waterways. These materials are being selected as alternatives to rigid linings because
of several advantages they offer. Geosynthetic mattings: I. Allow vegetative establishment, 2. Extend
performance limits of natural vegetation, 3. Conform to uneven subgrades, 4. Are easy to install, 5.
Impede water flow/capture sediment, 6. Promote infiltration/groundwater recharge, 7. Reduce sediment
transport, and 8. Offer greater than 50% cost savings. This article describes the procedures used for the
hydraulic analyses and selection of a permanent geosynthetic matting as channel lining materials featured
in a new computer program.
Wood, D. M.; Wycoff, R. L. 1990. Development of a Watershed Management Model. IN: Transferring
Models to Users. American Water Resources'Association, Bethesda, Maryland. 1990. p 281 -291.
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Subject Areas: Model -Planning
The Mountain Island Lake watershed in Mecklenburg County is the sole water source for the Charlotte,
North Carolina metropolitan area. The watershed, largely undeveloped, is being pressured by
development interests. A project was undertaken to aid County personnel in developing a lake watershed
protection plan. A model to predict watershed yield and associated pollutant concentrations of
development alternatives was developed and transferred to the County for use by its personnel. The
procedure involved the use of yield curves derived from continuous hydrologic simulation to predict flow
yield based on future Soil Conservation Service (SCS) curve number (CN) values. In addition, regression
equations, available through the National Urban Runoff Program (NURP), were used to predict pollution
concentrations. The resulting flow yields and concentrations were then used to estimate pollutant loadings
to the Lake as a result of increasing development. A simple receiving water model was used to predict
resulting ambient concentrations. With this procedure, County personnel could quickly and efficiently
assess the impacts of different .development scenarios. As a result, Mecklenburg County could protect the
future of its water supply by issuing zoning mandates founded on sound information.
Yanggen, D. A; Bom, S. M. 1990. Protecting Groundwater Quality by Managing Local Land Use. Journal
of Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 45, No. 2, p 207-210, 1990.
Subject Areas: Planning
The dose relationship between land use and groundwater quality means that local government can play
a significant role in protecting this resource. Higher levels of government are often unable to consider
unique local characteristics in land use management because of their need to generalize across broad
geographic areas. Local governments can attempt to fashion management decisions that reflect unique
iocal characteristics. To be most effective, local protection programs generally should employ a mixture
c*' regulatory and nonregulatory techniques. Nonregulatory approaches include public education and
involvement, voluntary best management practices, land acquisition programs, facility siting procedures
ana capital facility and infrastructure planning, inspection and training programs, monitoring, emergency
SD;I! plans, community waste management and minimization programs and governmental coordination
efforts.
vates, D.; Lormand, J. 1992. 10 High Altitude Revegetation Workshop, Fort Collins, CO (USA) 4. 6.
Mar. Revegetation of highway impacts Provo Canyon, Utah US 189 Murdock Water Diversion to
Upper Falls Park. PROCEEDINGS: HIGH ALTITUDE REVEGETATION WORKSHOP NO. 10.
Hassell.-W.G.; Nordstrom,-S.K.; Keammerer,-W.R.; Todd,-J. (eds.) COLORADO STATE UNIV.,
FORT COLLINS, CO 80523 (USA) COLORADO WATER RESOUR. RES. INST. pp. 281-284.
INF.-SER.-COLORADO-WATER-RESOUR.-RES.-INST. vol. 71.
Subject Areas: Design - Recreation
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This exhibit describes the revegetation design for the areas affected by highway construction along US
189 through scenic Provo Canyon, east of the Cities of Provo and Orem, Utah. The landscape design
goal was to establish native plant materials on highway cut and fill slopes. Grading techniques, such as
slope molding and rock cut sculpting were used to provide a more natural appearance to the impacted
terrain. Wetland permitting and mitigation design for 4.5 acres of wetland was also included. A separate
recreation path was designed from two miles of an abandoned railroad right-of-way. The public
involvement in this project played a critical role in bringing the design process to a successful conclusion.
At the time Parson's De Leuw, Inc. became involved, the project was shut down under a court injunction.
Parson's De Leuw established the Provo Canyon Design Advisory Committee (PCDAC), a group of
concerned citizens to redevelop the project with a design that addressed the public's concerns.
Yazdani, N.; Ycaza, I.D. 1995. Multi agency integrated code for coastal construction. J. COAST. F\ES.
vol. I I, no. 3, pp. 899-903.
Subject Areas: Design
The population growth in the State of Florida has created an increase in development along the shoreline
in recent years. Owners have to comply with building and zoning codes, manuals, local standards, and
other guidelines to obtain coastal construction permit. These guidelines were prepared by either federal,
regional, or state agencies. Also, local governments (counties and municipalities) promulgate their own
provisions. With the proliferation of guidelines, several regulating agencies often hold jurisdiction on a
coastal construction project. Thus, several guidelines are applicable and must be satisfied. In these
situations, the designer must follow the most stringent of those standards, turning the design process into
a difficult and time-consuming task. The integrated coastal code developed in this study is a guide of
minimum standards of coastal construction developed by integrating the most stringent guidelines from
several coastal agencies in Florida. The selected counties are from around the State with coasts on the
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. General guidelines for major and minor shore protection
structures and mobile homes are part of the code which is subdivided into sections such as wind design,
wave forces design, flood protection and erosion control. A user-friendly menu-driven software was also
developed containing the developed integrated coastal construction code.
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Appendix B - Additional Unannotated Green Development Literature
AASHTO. 1991. A Guide for transportation landscape and environmental design. Prepared by the
AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Design, Task Force for Environmental Design. Published by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 444 N. Capitol St., NW, Suite 225,
Washington, DC, 20001.
Abt Associates. Bibliography on existing research on the impacts of development, prepared for EPA's
Urban and Economic Development Division.
Adams, L.W. 1994. Urban Wildlife Habitats, A Landscape Perspective. University of Minnesota Press,
2037 University Avenue Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455-3092.
Adams, R. n.d. Stormwater Infiltration As Part of an Environmentally Compatible Drainage Concept
Institute for Water Resources Research, University of Hanover, Germany.
American Institute of Architects. Compact and balanced development Video.
American Institute of Architects. How to revitalize your community. Video.
American Farmland Trust. 1986. Residential Growth in Loudoun County— Density-Related Public
Costs. American Farmland Trust, Washington, DC.
Anderson, S., and R. Masters. 1992. Riparian Forest Buffers. OSU Extension Facts, No. 5034. Oklahoma
Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Andresen, J.W., and j.E. Gruspier. 1983. Natural Regeneration Techniques to Stabilize Ontario's
Roadsides. Research and Development Branch, Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications,
1201 Wilson Avenue, Downsview, Ontario, M3M IJ8.
Angermeier, P.I. 1993. Ecological Attributes of Extinction-Prone Species: Loss of Freshwater Fishes of
Virginia. Conservation Biology, 9( I) 143-158.
ANJEC. Kentlands. Video.
Arendt, R. n.d. Designing open space subdivisions. A Practical step-by-step approach. Natural Lands
Trust.
Arendt, R. 1994. Rural by design. American Planning Association Press.
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
Arendt, R. 1993. Farmview, Yardley, Pennsylvania. The Urban Land Institute, Project Reference File.
Vol. 23, No. 7, April-June.
Arendt, R. 1996. Conservation Design for Subdivisions. Practical Guide to Creating Open Space
Networks. Natural Lands Trust, American Planning Association, American Society of Landscape
Architects, Island Press.
Armrtage, D. 1995. An Integrative methodological Framework for Sustainable Environmental Planning
and Management. Environmental Management. 19:4.469-479.
Arnold, C. andj. Gibbons. Undated. Impacts of Development on Waterways. Nemo Project Fact Sheet
No. 3. NEMO Project, c/o Chester Arnold, Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program, University of
Connecticut CES, 43 Marne Street, Hamden, CT 06514.
Arnold, C.L., H.M. Crawford, R.F. Jeffrey, C.J. Gibbons. 1993. The use of Geographic Information
System Images as a Tool to Educate Local Officials About the Land Use/Water Quality Connection.
Watershed '93 Conference Proceedings.
Assocation of Bay Area Governments. 1996. Pros and cons of low density development patterns.
Memo to the Regional Planning Committee from the Planning Director.
Association of Bay Area Governments. Shaping the future: Collaborative planning. Video.
Baldwin, J.L. 1973. Climate of the United States. U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
•»
Baltimore County Code. n.d. Article IX. Protection of water quality, streams, wetlands and floodplains.
Environmental Protection and Resource Management.
Baltimore County. 1995. Stormwater Management Code and Policy Manual. Baltimore County
Department of Environment Protection and Resource Management, Townson, Maryland.
Baltimore County Code. n.d. Article VIII. Chesapeake Bay critical area requirements. Planning, Zoning
and Subdivision Control.
Barnett, D.L, W.D. Browning. 1995; A Primer on sustainable building. Rocky Mountain Press.
Barrett, T.S. and P. Livermore. 1983. The Conservation Easement in California. Island Press, C'ovelo,
California.
Bartee, T., and J. Wrtzig. 1996. Designing with people and transit in mind. Transportation Policy Forum,
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
Vol. 3, No. 2. Summer.
Barth, CA 1995. Toward Low Input Lawn. Center for Watershed Protection. Watershed Protection
Techniques. 2:1.Fall 1995.
Barth, C.A. 1995. Nutrient Movement from the Lawn to the Stream? Center for Watershed
Protection. Watershed Protection Techniques. 2:1.Fall 1995.
BC Hydro. Footprints on our earth. Film available from Center for Livable Communities.
BCDEPRM. 1989. Environmental Guidelines for the Design and Maintenance of Golf Courses.
Baltimore County Department of Environmental Protection and Resource Management. September.
BergerJ.J. 1990. EnvironmentalRestoration, Science and Strategies for Restoring the Earth. Island Press,
Washington, D.C.
Biodiversity Executive Council. Geographic information systems: Improving local decision making.
Video.
Bissonnette, P. 1985. Perspectives on Nonpoint Source Pollution. U.S. EPA, Washington, DC.
Bockstael, N., R. Costanza, I. Strand, W. Boynton, K. Bell, L. Wainger. 1995. Ecological economic
modeling and valuation of ecosystems. Ecological Economics.
Bookout, L.W. 1992. Neotraditional town planning: Cars, pedestrians, and transit. Urban Land,
February, pp. 10-15.
Bookout, L.W. 1992. Neotradrtional town planning: The Test of the marketplace. Urban Land, June,
pp. 12-17.
Bookout, L.W, 1992. Neotraditional town planning: A New vision for the suburbs? Urban Land,
January, pp. 20-26.
Bookout, L.W. 1987. Greenbelt, Maryland. A "New" town turns 50. Urban Land, August, pp. 7-11.
Bookout, L.W. 1992. Neotraditional town planning: Bucking conventional codes and standards. Urban
Land, April, pp. 18-25.
Boon, P.J. e.d. 1992. River Conservation and Management. Wiley & Sons.
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Booth, D.B., and I.E. Reinelt. 1993. Consequences of Urbanization on Aquatic Systems - Measured
Effects, Degradation Thresholds, and Corrective Strategies. Watershed '93 Conference Proceedings.
Bormann, F.H., D. Balmori, G.T. Gebaile. 1993. Redesigning the American lawn. L. Vernegaard, Ed.-
Researcher. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
Bowers, J. K. 1994. Call for the End of Landscaping. Center for Watershed Protection. Watershed
Protection Techniques. l:2.Summer 1994.
Brabec, E. 1992. On the value of open spaces. Scenic America Technical Information Series, Volume
I, No. 2. Includes a list of additional sources.
Brach, J. 1989. Protecting Water Quality in Urban Areas. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Water
Quality Division, Nonpoint Source Section, 520 Lafayette Road N. St. Paul, Minnesota, 55155-3898.
Bradley, G.A. 1995. Urban forest landscapes - Integrating multidisdplinary perspectives. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, WA.
Braun, D.P. 1995. Addressing Hydrologic Modification and Habitat Loss. Proceedings from Water
Quality Criteria and Standards for the 21st Century, USEPA, Office of Water, Washington, D.C.
Building Design. 1995. Pollution Prevention News. (July-August):4.
Burchell, R.W., Listokin, D. 1995. Land, infrastructure, housing costs, and fiscal impacts associated with
growth. The Literature on the impacts of traditional versus managed growth. Prepared for Alternatives
:o Sprawl Conference, Washington, DC. March 22.
Burden, D. 1996. Street changes and exchanges. Transportation Policy Forum, Vol. 3, No. 2.
Summer.
Bureau of Construction Inspection. 1986. Construction Manual. State of Maryland, State Highway
Administration, Baltimore, Maryland.
Cairns, J. 1993. The Economic Basis for Partnership Between Human Society and Natural Ecosystems.
Water Resources Update. 93.
Caims, J. 1993. Ecological Restoration: Replenishing our National and Global Ecological Capital. Nature
Conservation 3: Reconstruction of Fragmented Ecosystems, ed. by DA Saunders, R.j. Hobbs, and P.E.
Ehrlich. Surrey Beatty and Sons.
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Green Development literature Review and Analysis
Catthorpe, P. 1993. The Next American metropolis - Ecology, community, and the American dream.
Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1993.
Catthorpe, P., M. Corbett, A. Duany, E. Moule, E. Plater-Zyberk, S. Polyzoides. n.d. TheAhwahnee
principles. The Center for Livable Communities, an initiative of the Local Government Commission.
Casco Bay Estuary Project. 1995. BMPs: Cost-Effective Solutions to Protect Maine's Water Quality.
Prepared by Dufresne-Henry, Inc., Timson & Peters, Inc., and Walnut Hill Graphics for the Casco Bay
Estuary Project, Portland, ME. July.
Cavacas, A., and Smith, J. et al. 1993. Public Survey and Pollutant Model for Prince George's County.
Watershed '93 Conference Proceedings.
Center for Livable Communities. Communities for all seasons. Video.
Center for Livable Communities. Livable places update. Newsletter.
Center for Livable Communities. The Community image survey. Slides and guidebook.
Center for Livable Communities. 1995. Putting our communities back on their feet: Conference
summaries. Local Government Commission's May 1995 conference, summary of all 4Q sessions.
Center for Livable Communities. Center Services. Brochure.
Center for Livable Communities. Publications brochure.
Center for Livable Communities. Suburban sprawl vs. traditional towns. Video. Andres Duany's
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Green Development Literature Review and Analysis
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Glossary of Terms
BMP: Best Management Practice. A practice or combination of practices that are the most effective and
practicable (including technological, economic, and institutional considerations) means of controlling point
or nonpoint source pollutants at levels compatible with environmental quality goals.
Cluster Development: Buildings concentrated together in specific areas to minimize infrastructure and
development costs while achieving the allowable density. Allows the preservation of natural open space
for recreation, common open space, and preservation of environmentally sensitive features.
CZARA: Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990.
Greenway: A linear open space; a corridor composed of natural vegetation. Greenways can be used
to create connected networks of open space that include traditional parks and natural areas.
Hydrdogjc Hydrology is the sdence dealing with tiie waters of the earth, their distribution on the surface
and underground, and the cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, flow to the seas, etc.
Impervious Area: A hard surface area (e.g., parking lot) that prevents or retards the entry of water into
the soil, thus causing water to run off the surface in greater quantities and at an increased rate of flow.
Imperviousness Overlay Zoning: One form of the overlay zoning process. Environmental aspects of
future imperviousness are estimated based on the future zoning build-out conditions. Estimated impacts
are compared with watershed protection goals to determine the limit for total impervious surfaces in the
watershed. Imperviousness overlay zoning areas are then used to define subdivision layout options that
conform to the total imperviousness limit.
Incentive Zoning: Provides for give and take compromise on zoning restrictions, allowing for more
flexibility to provide environmental protection. Incentive zoning allows a developer to exceed a zoning
ordinance's limitations if the developer agrees to fulfill conditions specified in the ordinance. The
developer may be allowed to exceed height limits by a specified amount in exchange for providing open
spaces or plazas adjacent to the building.
IPLAN: A term developed by the New jersey Office of State Planning to describe their strategy to support
compact development and redevelopment, and locate the most efficient use of infrastructure and other
systems. IPLAN encourages development in population centers, such as urban centers, towns, regional
centers, villages, and hamlets.
Morphology: Term used to describe form and structure.
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Neo-traditiona! Development: A traditional neighborhood, where a mix of different types of residential
and commercial developments form a tightly knit unit. Residents can walk or bike to more of the places
they need to go and munidpal services costs are lower due to the close proximity of residences. A more
compact development also reduces the amount of rural land that must be converted to serve urban
needs.
New Urbanism: A term used to describe development which focuses on the restoration of urban centers
and towns within coherent metropolitan regions, the reconfiguration of sprawling suburbs into
communities of neighborhoods and diverse districts, the conservation of natural environments, and the
preservation of our built legacy.
NOAA: United States Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Nonpoint Source Pollution: Water pollution caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving both over and
through the ground and carrying with it a variety of pollutants associated with human land uses. A
nonpoint source is any source of water pollution that does not meet the legal definition of point source
in section 502( 14) of the Clean Water Act.
Overlay Districts: Zoning districts in which additional regulatory standards are superimposed on existing
zoning. Overlay districts provide a method of placing special restrictions in addition to those required by
basic zoning ordinances.
Performance Zoning: Establishes minimum criteria to be used when assessing whether a particular
project is appropriate for a certain area; ensures that the end result adheres to an acceptable level of
performance or compatibility. This type of zoning provides flexibility with the well-defined goals and rules
found in conventional zoning.
Planned Unit Development (PUD) Zoning: Planned unit development provisions allow land to be
developed in a manner that does not fit into all the use, bulk, and open space requirements of any of the
standard zoning districts. The PUD allows greater flexibility and innovation than conventional standards
because a planned unit is regulated as one unit instead of each lot being regulated separately.
Riparian Area: Vegetated ecosystems along a waterbody through which energy, materials, and water
pass. Riparian areas characteristically have a high water table and are subject to periodic flooding.
Site Fingerprinting: Fingerprinting places development away from environmentally sensitive areas
(wetlands, steep slopes, etc.), future open spaces, tree save areas, future restoration areas, and
temporary and permanent vegetative forest buffer zones. Ground disturbance is confined to areas where
structures, roads, and rights of way will exist after construction is complete.
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TREND: A continuation of historic growth patterns, consisting of relatively unmanaged growth driven by
market forces, resulting in lower density development being extended past the suburban fringe into rural
areas.
Urbanization: Changing land use from rural characteristics to urban (city-like) characteristics.
Urban Sprawl: Current development patterns, where rural land is converted to urban uses more quickly
than needed to house new residents and support new businesses, and people become more dependent
on automobiles: Sprawl defines patterns of urban growth which includes large acreage of low-density
residential development, rigid separation between residential and commercial uses, residential and
commercial development in rural areas away from urban centers, minimal support for non-motorized
transportation methods, and a lack of integrated transportation and land use planning.
USGS: United States Geological Survey.
WAM: Work Assignment Manager.
Watershed-based Zoning: Achieves watershed protection goals by creating a watershed development
plan, using zoning as the basis (flexible density and subdivision layout specifications), that falls within the
range of density and imperviousness allowable for the watershed to prevent environmental impacts.
Watershed-based zoning usually employs a mixture of zoning practices.
Zero-lot-line Development: A development option where side yard restrictions are reduced and the
building abuts a side lot line. Overall unit-lot densities are therefore increased. Zero-lot-!ine
development can result in increased protection of natural resources, reduction in requirements for road
and sidewalk imperviousness areas, and may create larger common areas between lots.
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