AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF EMISSION SOURCES:
BOILERS-
A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS
Air Pollution Technical Information Center
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air Programs
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
May 1972
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The AP series of reports is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report the results of
scientific and engineering studies, and information of general interest in the field of air pollution.
Information presented in this series includes coverage of intramural activities involving air pollution
research and control technology and of cooperative programs and studies conducted in conjunction with
state and local agencies, research institutes, and industrial organizations. Copies of AP reports are
available free of charge - as supplies permit - from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center,
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711.
Publication Number AP-105
ii
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION v
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Emission Sources 1
B. Control Methods 22
C. Measurement Methods 68
D. Air Quality Measurements 78
E. Atmospheric Interaction 81
F. Basic Science and Technology 83
G. Effects - Human Health 87
H. Effects - Plants and Livestock 88
I. Effects - Materials 89
J. Effects - Economic 93
K. Standards and Criteria 95
L. Legal and Administrative . 97
M. Social Aspects 102
N. General .......... ...................... 103
AUTHOR INDEX 105
SUBJECT INDEX 109
111
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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF EMISSION SOURCES:
BOILERS-
A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS
INTRODUCTION
Boilers contribute significantly to the overall air pollution level in the United States. To aid efforts
to improve air quality, the Air Pollution Technical Information Center (APTIC) of the Office of Air
Programs has compiled this bibliography relevant to the problem and its solution.
Approximately 490 abstracts have been selectively screened from the contents of APTIC's informa-
tion storage and retrieval system to cover the 14 categories set forth in the table of contents. The
compilation is intended to be representative of available literature, and no claim is made to all-
inclusiveness.
Subject and author indexes refer to the abstracts by category letter and APTIC accession number.
Generally, higher accession numbers, representing the latest acquisitions, cover the most recent
material.
All documents abstracted herein are currently on file at the Air Pollution Technical Information
Center, Office of Air Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina 27711. Readers outside the Environmental Protection Agency may seek duplicates of docu-
ments directly from libraries, publishers, or authors.
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
01788
R.P. Hangebrauck, D.J. Von Lehmden, J.E. Meeker
EMISSIONS OF POLYNUCLEAR HYDROCARBONS AND
POLLUTANTS FROM HEAT-GENERATION AND IN-
CINERATION PROCESSES. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.
14, (7) 267-78, July 1964. (Presented at the 56th Annual Meet-
ing, Air Pollution Control Association, Detroit, Mich., June 11,
1963.)
This paper presents emission data from a series of tests, for
which the sources tested included typical combustion
processes involving the burning of conventional fuels (coal,
oil, and gas) and of certain commercial and municipal solid
wastes. In addition to obtaining over-all emission data from
different sizes and types of combustion units, a primary objec-
tive of the study was to establish the relative importance of
various combustion processes as contributors of
benzo(a)pyrene (3,4 benzpyrene) and other polynuclear
hydrocarbons with demonstrated or potential carcinogenic pro-
perties. The other pollutants measured included particulate
matter, carbon monoxide, total gaseous hydrocarbons, oxides
of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, and formaldehyde. Two catego-
ries of c/mbustion sources were tested. Those burning conven-
tional fuels were designated as heat-generation processes, and
those burning waste materials were classed as incineration
processes. Design and operation data for the units studied are
given in tables.
02148
T. Taga
(NO2 GAS GENERATED IN THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
OF COAL BURNING BOILERS.) Clean Air Heat Management
(Tokyo) 15 (4), 5-9 (Apr. 1966). Jap. (Translated as JPRS-R-
8588-D.)
The author emphasizes the importance of NO2 in air pollution
and urges that as much effort should be exerted in abating pol-
lution due to this gas as to SO2 or SO3 which are currently
under extensive study. The paper describes the experimental
study done by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, and discusses the
results of a similar study by the author.
02287
F. Glaubitz
THE ECONOMIC COMBUSTION OF SULFUR-CONTAINING
HEATING OIL. (A MEANS OF AVOIDING DEW POINT DIF-
FICULTIES IN BOILER OPERATION). Combustion 31-5,
Jan. 1963. (Presented at the Meeting of the Work Group 'Oil
Furnaces', VGB, Graz, Austria, May 2, 1960.)
In order to control corrosion by avoiding dew point difficulties
in a boiler fueled with oil, the burners were redesigned and
fuel meters were installed. Low excess air and flue gas oxygen
content were then attainable. Measurements are reported.
02629
Wagner, R. J.
FIRESIDE DEPOSITS IN LIGNITE-FIRED BOILERS. In:
Technology and Use of Lignite. Proceedings: Bureau of
Mines-University of North Dakota Symposium, Bismarck, N.
Dak., April 29-30, 1965. James L. Elder and Wayne R. Kube
(compilers), Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., IC-8304, p.
20-27, 1966.
Fire side deposits in lignite fired boilers are discussed with
emphasis on these deposits as they relate to cost ((initial,
availability, performance)), the nature of the deposits, and
methods of control. With fireside deposits in lignite-fired
boilers special design features are needed. These features will
increase the initial cost of a lignite-fired boiler approximately
25 to 50 percent over that of a boiler of similar capacity using
a high-rank coal. Fireside deposits are a major cause of
unavailable time in lignite-fired boilers. Of the 8.6 percent
unavailable time, in a power plant 19.5 percent was directly as-
sociated with fireside deposits in the boilers. This 'unavailable'
time was spent in cleaning out a fouled boiler. Boiler per-
formance depends on soot blowing. Additional soot blowers
are needed in a lignite-fired boiler. These extra blowers are a
double expense to operations in that more steam is used and
maintenance costs are increased. The fireside deposits occur-
ring in a lignite-fired boiler vary greatly in appearance, in
physical and mechanical structure, and in chemical composi-
tion from one boiler to another and from day to day in the
same boiler. A mineralogical analysis shows that the bulk of
the deposit is calcium sulfate. Proper combustion in the fur-
nace should be the first consideration for reduction of fireside
deposits. The correct fuel-to-air ratio must be maintained and
good mixing during combustion should be achieved. Correct
location of an adequate number of soot blowers is the second
consideration in holding down gas temperatures and, con-
sequently, deposition. Cleanup is accomplished in three ways:
(1) dry removal of the deposits with bars and hammers (some-
times pneumatic equipment is used); (2) water washing of the
deposit; and (3) sandblasting of stubborn deposits. All method
are successful to varying degrees, but each unit requires dif-
ferent handling.
02630
Duzy, A. F., and J. B. Walker, Jr.
UTILIZATION OF SOLID FUEL HAVING LIGNITE TYPE
ASH. (In: Proceedings on Technology and Use of Lignite).
Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Presented at the Bureau of
Mines, North Dakota Univ. Symposium, Bismark, Apr. 29-30,
1965). (Information Circular No. 8304). p. 27-39, 1966.
The impurities in low-rank coals are considered. Although low-
rank coals have a high volatile matter content and a low igni-
tion temperature and are relatively easy to burn, their impuri-
ties may be quite variable or troublesome in boiler design and
operation. Included are sections on types of ash; lignite-type-
ash fuels; mining and preparation of lignite-type-ash coals; ash
fusibility; fouling and slagging characteristics; abrasiveness
and erosiveness of raw coal; upgrading coal; and standards
required.
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BOILERS
02631
Sondreal, E. A., W. R. Kube, and J. L. Elder
CHARACTERISTICS AND VARIABILITY OF LIGNITE ASH
FROM THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS PROVINCE. (In:
Proceedings on Technology and Use of Lignite). Bureau of
Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Presented at the Bureau of Mines-
North Dakota Univ. Symposium, Bismark, Apr. 29-30, 1965.)
(Information Circular No. 8304). p. 39-50, 1966.
The aim was to present current results of the Bureau of Mines
investigation of lignite ash at Grand Forks Coal Research
Laboratory. The program is described. Included are sections
on the survey of ash characteristics; lignite sampling for the
ash survey; analytical procedures, composition of coal ash;
critical properties of lignite ash; behavior of sulfur in lignite;
and trace elements in lignite ash.
02634
Scott, D.
UTILIZATION OF LOW-RANK FOSSIL FUEL: REPORT OF
SUBSECTION COMMITTEE OF THE CANADIAN ELEC-
TRIC ASSOCIATION (IN: PROCEEDINGS ON TECHNOLO-
GY AND USE OF LIGNITE). Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh,
Pa. (Presented at the Bureau of Mines- North Dakota Univ.
Symposium, Bismarck, Apr. 29-30, 1965.) Information Circular
No. 8304) p. 89-99, 1966.
A questionnaire was prepared and circulated to major coal
users, including utilities in the Northern United States, where
considerable research and development is being done on coal
burning and associated work with low-rank fuels. Most users
have run and are running into difficulties (of one form or
another) due in general to the equipment not being complete
enought in its design to cope with the special characteristics of
the fuel used and nature of the environment. The problem
areas are sectionalized, with emphasis on the most prominent
problem, that of boiler fouling. Sections are included on fuel
handling and storage; stoker firing; pulverized firing; slag-tap
firing; fouling of furnaces; ash handling; centrifugal mechani-
cal dust collectors; ash and dust removal; and instrumentation
and controls.
02667
W. Thieme
EMISSION MEASUREMENTS OF HEAVY-DUTY BOILERS
FOR SOLID FUELS. STAUB (ENGLISH TRANSLATION)
25, (6) 14-20, JUNE 1965. CFSTI TT 66-51040/6
Emission measurements carried out on heavy-duty boilers for
solid fuel are discussed. After a description of dust measuring
methods and of test conditions, the boiler design and the mode
of operation during the tests are considered. The results show
that the dust emission is a function of boiler load, and that it
increases with increasing output. The emitted dust mainly con-
sisted of fly ash and small amounts of coke. Measurements
with the Bacharach instrument have been unsuccessful. The
dust emission in the case of automatic boilers never exceeds a
value of 0.5 kg/hr. (Author summary)
03154
N. E. Flynn and W. R. Grouse
REPORT ON NITROGEN OXIDES IN THE BAY AREA AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL DISTRICT. Preprint. 1964.
Total oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions in the Bay Area Air
Pollution Control District for 1963 are estimated at 515
tons/day. A summation of emissions of oxides of nitrogen by
general source categories is presented. Transportation at 323
tons/day is the major source category of nitrogen oxides emis-
sions and accounts for 63% of all oxides of nitrogen emissions
for the Bay Area. Combustion operations at 150 tons/day are
the second largest source category and contribute 29% of the
nitrogen oxides emissions. Emissions from small, medium, and
large stationary sources with incinerations, agriculture, and
transpotation sources grouped separately, are presented.
(Author summary modified)
03870
C. A. Hescheles
INDUSTRIAL WASTE ANALYSIS AND BOILER PER-
FORMANCE TEST BURNING WASTES. Preprint. (Presented
at the Winter Annual Meeting and Energy Systems Exposition,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City,
Nov. 27-Dec. 1, 1966.)
Detailed analyses are presented of industrical process wastes
from the normal manufacturing process in the rubber goods in-
dustry. Test results are presented from a boiler burning indus-
trial process wastes, manually batch fed to a reciprocating
stoker. The boiler is equipped with a water- cooled furnace
specially designed for high furnace temperatures. (Author ab-
stract modified)
04082
F. F. Lamport
PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION IN GAS EQUIPPED
APARTMENTS (WITH REFERENCE TO THE PROPOSED
SANITARY REGULATIONS FOR GAS EQUIPPED RE-
SIDENCES). Gigiena i Sanit. 28, (4) 60-2, Apr. 1963. Russ.
(Tr.) (Transkated by B. S. Levine in U. S. S. R. Literature on
Air Pollution and Related Occupational R. Literature on Air
Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases, Vol. 12.)
Gas is gradually replacing hard fuel in the USSR, which af-
fects favorably the population's living conditions. Lack of
development or improvement in gas burners has resulted in
frequent air pollution in houses and apartments which have
been equipped with gas. Gas burning generates such air pollut-
ing products as carbon monoxide, carbonic acid, hydrocar-
bons, etc; it also raises the surrounding air temperature and
humidity, easily detected even after the gas has been used for
1 hour. Comparative studies conducted in differently planned
gas-equipped living quarters indicated that where living rooms
were connected directly with the kitchen, intensity of air pol-
lution with carbon monoxide and other products of gas com-
bustion, was greater than in apartments in which kitchen was
isolated from the living room. These facts clearly point to the
channels along which modern engineers, planners, architects,
and hygienists must direct their attention for the rational solu-
tion of the air pollution problem in future construction of gas
equipped residential houses and apartments. Therefore, it is
urged that construction and planning engineers in sanitary or-
ganizations should make proper use of the available home gas
equipment. It is also suggested that for the purposes of proper
sanitary safety gas burning utilities, particularly those used for
water heating, should be equipped with automatic safety
devices which would stop the gas flow as soon as unfavorable
conditions developed in the exhaust flue.
04342
R. C. Attig and P. Sedor
A PILOT-PLANT INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS AFFECT-
ING LOW-TEMPERATURE CORROSIONS IN OIL-FIRED
BOILERS. Proc. Am. Power Conf. (Presented at the 26th An-
nual Meeting, American Power Conference, Chicago, 111., Apr.
14-16, 1964.) 26, 553-66, Apr. 1964.
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
The aim was to find methods of controlling or eliminating cor-
rosion. Tests were run on a pilot unit to study the effect of
metal temperature, sulfur content of the fuel oil, excess air,
flue gas recirculation, and two-stage combustion on (1) low-
temperature corrosion rates at various metal temperatures
below the acid dewpoint, and (2) sulfur trioxide formation.
The constant-temperature probe is the best method of integrat-
ing the many factors affecting low-temperature corrosion.
Operating at very low excess air while firing a high-sulfur oil
produces sulfuric acid corrosion rates comparable to those ob-
tained when firing a low-sulfur distillate oil or natural gas.
Also, a major factor affecting the corrosion rate of carbon
steel below the acid dewpoint is the surface temperature of the
exposed steel, and above the water dewpoint, flue gas recircu-
lation has the potential of reducing the rate of acid attack by
at least 30 percent.
04799
L. Alliot, M. Auclair, A. Labardin, F. Mauss, R. Four, and F.
lehle
EMISSION OF SOLID PARTICLES BY COMBUSTION OF
FUEL OILS CENTRAL HOT WATER HEATING. Emission
de Particules Solides par la Combustion d'huiles Combustibles
Fluides (Chauffage Central a Chaude). Rev. Inst. Franc.
Petrole Ann. Combust. Liquides (Paris) 20, (11) 1755-92, Nov.
1965. Fr.
In conjunction with its combustion research, and, in particu-
lar, research on the emission of solid particles by various heat
sour- ces, the Centre Interprofessionnel Technique d'Etudes
de la Pollution Atmospheriques (C.I.T.E.P.A.) requested three
laboratories to investigate certain parameters relating to the
output and operation of liquid fuel boilers. The laboratories
were Esso Standard, the Institut Francais du Petrole, and
Shell Berre. This article described the different tests and stu-
dies which were made. The results provide guidelines for en-
gineering problem relating to the construction and installation
of a boiler and its components, and for its good performance.
In the case of continuous combustion, an optimal operating
value for a boiler unit was observed to coincide with optimal
reduction of particulate emission (at about 80% nominal opera-
tive power.) Operation exceeding the optimal level caused an
increase in particulate emission. On the other hand, reduction
from the nominal optimum of operation to one fifth of this
resulted in an increase in particulate emission on the order of
60 to 100%. For a given installation, depenuiiig on the boiler
and burner capacities respectively, there exists an optimal out-
put in regard to emission control.
05005
R. P. Hangebrauck, D. J. von Lehmden, and J. E. Meeker
SOURCES OF POLYNUCLEAR HYDROCARBONS IN THE
ATMOSPHERE. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Na-
tional Center for Air Pollution Control. (PHS Publ. No. 999-
AP-33.) 1967. 48 pp.
Rates of emissions of polynuclear hydrocarbons were mea-
sured at several sources considered likely to produce such
emissions. The sources included heat generation by com-
bustion of coal, oil, and gas; refuse burning; industrial
processes; and motor vehicles. The annual emissions of
benzo(a)pyrene in the United States were estimated for each
of the sources surveyed, to provide a rough gauge of the im-
portance of each source. Small, inefficient residential coal-
fired furnaces appear to be a prime source of polynuclear
hydrocarbons; other sources may be of local importance.
Production of polynuclear hydrocarbons was generally as-
sociated with conditions of incomplete combustion. (Author
abstract)
05011
A. A. Orning, C. H. Schwartz, and J. F. Smith
MINOR PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION IN LARGE COAL-
FIRED STEAM GENERATORS . American Society Mechani-
cal Engineers New York Paper 64- wA/FU-2. (Presented at the
Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, New York City, Nov. 29-Dec. 4, 1964 .)
An analysis is given of the minor products of combustion from
large coal-fired steam generators in relation to thermodynamic
equilibria, unit design and operating conditions. Concentrations
of nitrogen oxides and the ratios of sulfur trioxide to total sul-
fur oxides are nea>- equilibrium values at the furnace outlet.
Significant amounts of low molecular weight organic acids and
comparatively small amounts of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons are found under good combustion conditions.
(Author abstract)
05157
Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District, Calif.
(Sept. 1960). 83 pp.
EMISSIONS OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN FROM STATIONA-
RY SOURCES IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY (REPORT 2: OX-
IDES OF NITROGEN EMITTED BY SMALL SOURCES).
This program was organized to study source groupings clas-
sified according to the discharge of oxides of nitrogen per unit
of equipment, as follows: (1) large (those emitting over 100
lbs/hr.); (2) medium (those emitting 5 to 100 lbs/hr.); and (3)
small (those emitting less than 5 lbs/hr.). This report discusses
the evaluation of data obtained from tests made on small
sources. It was calculated that the total weight of NO2 and
NO emitted into the atmosphere in Los Angeles County from
all small stationary sources averages 59 tons/calendar day dur-
ing the 6 months' heating season (November through April)
and 32 tons/ calendar day during the remainder of the year.
The weighted average of these amounts is 46 tons/calendar
day. Of this weighted average daily discharge of NO2 and NO
from all small stationary sources, slightly over half (27 tons)
originates from gas-fired commercial and domestic appliances
and the remainder (19 tons) from small industrial sources.
Most of the NO2 and NO discharged from small industrial
sources (approximately 16 tons/calendar day, weighted
average) is produced by boilers of less than 500 horsepower
rating. Most of the seasonal variations in the total weight of
NO2 and NO discharged from small stationary sources are as-
cribable to the nearly two million residential space heaters,
which vent 19 tons/calendar day during the heating season and
none during the remainder of the year. A summary of NO2
and NO emissions for all small stationary sources is presented.
Investigations of the sampling and analytical techniques em-
ployed showed that the chosen procedures and techniques
produce reliable analytical results.
05160
J. L. Mills, K. D. Leudtke, P. F. Woolrich, and L. B. Perry
EMISSIONS OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN FROM STATIONA-
RY SOURCES IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY (REPORT 3: OX-
IDES OF NITROGEN EMITTED BY MEDIUM AND LARGE
SOURCES). Los aAngeles County Air Pollution Control Dis-
trict, Calif. (Apr. 1961). 61 pp.
The total weight of oxides of nitrogen discharged into the at-
mosphere each day in Los Angeles County from stationary
sources was determined. The sources are divided into medium
and large sources. Medium sources includes those emitting
five to one hundred Ibs. NOx per hr. and the large sources in-
cludes those emitting over 100 Ibs. per hr. The total emissions
of NOx from all medium sources amounts to 70 tons per day
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BOILERS
during the winter and 54 tons per day during the summer. The
total emissions of NOx from all large sources amounts to 160
tons per day during the winter and 93 tons per day during the
summer.
05264
W. L. Spindler
DEVELOPMENT OF A WIDE-RANGE TRIPLE STAGE
ATOMIZER FOR RESIDUAL FUEL OIL. Naval Boiler and
Turbine Lab., Philadelphia, Pa. (Aug. 18, 1965.) 40 pp.
Triple stage atomizers were developed for naval use in wide
range burner application. Todd 4M, B&W Iowa registers and
Navy Special Fuel Oil were used during this development.
Tests were conducted on a spray and particle analysis test
stand and on full scale DLG-6 and DLG-9 Class test boilers. A
sprayer plate combination of sufficient capacity was selected
for thorough performance testing and comparison, with Todd
return flow atomizers. The triple stage atomizers were found
unsuitable for use on naval boilers because of (1) lack of good
flow continuity throughout the firing range, (2) coking of idle
stages, and (3) plugging of sprayer plates. (Author abstract
modified)
05387
CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL BOILERS BY OXYGEN ANAL-
YSIS OF FLUE GASES. Power Works Eng. 61 (723), 57-61
(Sept. 1966).
Oxygen measurement can only be affected by one other gas,
nitric oxide, which is not found in the products of combustion
of coal or oil. An oxygen analyser is some ten times more sen-
sitive than a CO2 analyser, and much more rapid in response,
five to eight seconds as compared with one to five minutes for
a CO2 analyser, and the sampling and operation is continuous
so that in certain applications oxygen analysis can be used as a
basis for automatic control. Most oxygen analysers utilse the
paramagnetic property of oxygen; thus, when it comes under
the influence of a magnetic field it tends to move to the point
of greatest intensity, whereas most other gases are diamag-
netic, i.e., they are repelled from a magnetic field. Also the
degree of paramagnetism is affected by temperature, cold ox-
ygen being more strongly attracted than hot oxygen. The latter
property is utilised in one type of oxygen analyser which
operates on the 'magnetic wind' principle. The magnetic wind,
hot-wire or filament, and dumb-bell types are reviewed. Sam-
pling methods and applications are discussed. Oxygen mea-
surement is direct and not inferential, and depends on no other
factor than the percentage of oxygen present. It is because the
sampling system is continuous and the analyser fast in
response that in some applications the system is used as a
basis for automatic combsution control. In spite of being much
more sensitive than a CO2 analyser, the oxygen analyser is
robust and little routine skilled maintenance is necessary.
05563
Turner, D. B.
THE DIURNAL AND DAY-TO-DAY VARIATIONS OF FUEL
USAGE FOR SPACE HEATING IN ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.
Atmos. Environ., Vol. 2, pp. 339-351, July 1968. ((7)) refs.
Data on the wintertime emission of SO2 residential and com-
mercial spaceheating sources by 2-hour periods were need for
use in a diagnostic dispersion model. Analyses were made of
hourly gas-sendout data for December 1964 at St. Louis, Mo.,
to determine dependence upon temperature and other factors.
Methods were then developed to determine the rate of fuel use
from residential and commercial space-heating sources for
each hour of the day from values for the hourly temperature,
the hour of the day, and the day of the week. Relations
developed from December 1964 data were tested on data for
January and February 1965.
05800
R. D. MacPhee, J. R. Taylor, and A. L. Chaney
SOME DATA ON PARTICULATES FROM FUEL OIL BURN-
ING. Proc. Air Pollution Control Assoc., Semi-Ann. Tech.
Conf., San Francisco, Calif., 1957. pp. 118-32.
This paper describes the nuisance effects and presents some
data regarding the nature of paniculate emissions from fuel oil
burning. A brief examination of particulates from the com-
bustion of heavy fuels oils was made. The coke-like ceno-
spheres have been the cause of sporadic complaints in re-
sidential areas near large consumers of fuel oil. The ash and
sulfur contents of the fuel as well as paniculate loadings for
both PS 400 and 4 degree API oils were quite similar. In large
boilers of the type tested the ash content of the fuel (barring
deposition in the boiler) can account for about one-tenth to
one-quarter of the total particulates. The appearance under the
microscope of the so-called ash portion of the particulates col-
lected at 700 F. in an electrical precipitator was similar to
sand. This material contained no free sulfuric acid. Limited
tests indicated that the quantity cenospheres varied widely in
different sources, and comprised from one-quarter to one-half
of the total particulates. Sulfates (calculated as SO3), which
includes sulfuric acid, amounted to 17 and 25% of the total
particulates in two power plant boilers. On the basis of com-
parable power outputs, gas produces about one tenth the total
particulates that result from the combustion of heavy oils.
05846
P. J. Adams
DEVELOPMENT AND INITIAL OPERATION OF OCR
PACKAGED COAL-FIRED BOILER 20,000 TO 50,000
LBS./HR. Preprint. (Presented at the Industrial Coal Con-
ference, Lafayette, Ind., Oct. 8, 1964.)
Design criteria for capacity, pressure, temperature, rail trans-
portability, efficiency, coal, load range, and stack discharge
with dust collectors are stated. Design limitations of size,
stoker size, furnace volume, gas pass areas, reinjection, stack
discharge collector are outlined. Specifications for the final
design are tabulated. The most notable achievement was the
operation of an entirely new product to burn coal with almost
no start-up difficulties whatever.
06111
T. Takakuwa
EFFECT OF CENTRALIZED HEATING SYSTEM. Kuki
Seijo (Clean Air-J. Japan Air Cleaning Assoc. Tokyo) 3, (5) 15-
20, 1966. Jap.
Methods of central heating are by thermal-electric system,
nuclear energy district heating system, and by use of large
boiler houses. The thermal-electric system has the highest effi-
ciency and is the most economical. The conversion rate of
steam into electricity is less than 30%, but if the lost steam is
used for heat, the percentage rises to 75 to 80. Large boiler
houses use coal, heavy oil, and natural gas as fuel. However
soot and SO2 are emitted from the combustion of the fuels.
Dust fall for particles 100 microns, 10 microns, 1 micron, and
0.1 micron in size is tabulated per square meter of area. While
dust collectors may cut down on the amount of soot, the SO2
produced by burning heavy oil is not so easily eliminated. One
counter measure against SO2 is to build high chimneys (for ex-
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
ample, at least 390 ft high as in West Germany). The use of
district heating in Germany, United States, Russia, France,
and Sweden are described. The fact that almost all Japanese
houses are only one or two stories high makes district heating
difficult. The benefits will first be felt in new apartment
buildings and commercial structures of many stories.
06578
RESTRICTING EMISSION OF DUST FROM MANUALLY-
OPERATED CENTRAL- HEATING BOILERS, CAPACITY
600,000 CAL/HR. AND LESS, FIRED WITH SOLID FUELS.
(Staubauswurfbegrenzung Handbediente Zentralheizungskessel
fur feste Brennstoffe mil Leistungen bis etwa 600 000 kcal/h.)
VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Kommission Reinhaltung
der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany. (VDI No. 2115.) 13 pp. (June
1961). Ger. (Tr.)
This specification is applicable to warm-water and low-pres-
sure central-heating boilers with furnaces for solid fuels,
capacity 600,000 kcal/hr and less, operated manually under
natural draft (no blower). The aims are to characterize the
causes leading to the formation of dust (fly-ash, cinders, and
eventually together with soot and other non-gaseous and com-
bustible components) from central-heating boilers for solid
fuels; to recommend measures for the reduction of dust emis-
sio(; and to establish guide lines for the restriction of permissi-
ble immission.
06687
FLY ASH SYMPOSIUM BRINGS 550 TO PITTSBURGH.
Elec. World 167 (16), 97-100 (Apr. 17, 1967).
International collection rates and beneficial disposal of the
boiler by-product are discussed. The problems of disposal by
dumping and by marketing are explained. The practical appli-
cations of ash are cited, stressing its addition to concrete as a
pozzolan and as sintered aggregates. As an additive, it lightens
the mass weight, strengthens the mixture, results in low water
content and heat generation and finally, cuts costs.
07975
Byers, R. E.
COMBUSTION AIRFLOW: ITS MEASUREMENT AND CON-
TROL. TAPPI, 50(4):52A-58A, April 1967. 8 refs.
Investments in new boilers and auxiliary equipment show a
poor return if they do not perform as an integrated unit, and
frequently poor performance is synonymous with unreliable
airflow measurement. Equally common is the conversion of a
unit for multifuels which has intricate operating procedures
and unsafe fuel air ratios. Very few plants escape the symp-
toms and complications of inaccurate airflow, indicating that
the importance of this measurement is not appreciated, nor
has the responsibility been clearly defined. Air flow primary
element devices that have been used on the clean air side are
evaluated. While some of these are adaptable to gas passes,
their effectiveness would be greatly reduced by fly ash and
maintenance problems. There is no perfect primary airflow
element or universally accepted location, and the configura-
tions of ducts and dampers may not be conducive to a good
installation.
08200
Gurinov, B. P.
THE EFFECT OF COMBUSTION METHOD AND OF FUEL
TYPE ON THE CONTENT OF 3.4-BENZPYRENE IN SMOKE
GLASS. Gigiena i Sank., 23(12):6-9, 1958. 5 refs. Translated
from Russian by B. S. Levine, U. S. S. R. Literature on Air Pol-
lution and Related Occupational Diseases, Vol. 4, p. 260-264,
Aug. 1960. CFSTI: TT 60-21913
A study was made to determine the effect of different
methods of fuel burning on the content of 3,4-benzpyrene in
smoke gases. Methods of burning hard fuel differ in different
plants; the pulverized and layer bed methods are examples of
fuel burning methods most commonly in practice. Both
methods of fuel burning were investigated. Dust samples were
collected from boiler room smoke flues by an appropriate
aspiration method. Two of the boilers burned coal from the
vicinity of Moscow, one burned anthracite, and one burned
peat. Analogous investigations in boiler rooms using oil as fuel
showed that the process of oil burning liberated the greatest
amount of carcinogenic substances, the method of layer or bed
burning in non-mechanized furnaces produced considerably
greater quantities of 3,4-benzpyrene than in mechanized fur-
naces; chamber burning of powdered fuel did not produce any
carcinogenic substances in smoke discharges. It is recom-
mended that boiler rooms using the bed or layer coal burning
method should be equipped with mechanized furnaces; boiler
rooms with non-mechanized furnaces should be replaced by
central regional boiler rooms and heating centers.
08255
Fauth, Ulrich and Walter Schule GASEOUS AND SOLID
EMISSIONS FROM OIL-FIRED STOVES. Staub (English
translation), 27(6): 1-11, June 1967. 10 refs. CFSTI: TT 67-
51408/6 (HC $2.00)
Emission from oil-fired furnaces provided with vaporization
burners, or atomizers was investigated. The emission of sulfur
dioxide, sulfur trioxide, carbon monoxide, and solids (soot and
ash) from furnaces of small and medium capacity was in-
vestigated. Three oil-fired stoves with vaporization burners,
two with atomizers, and a steel heating boiler with a fire-brick
combustion chamber were tested. Two commercial extra-light
fuel oils were used. When used within its design load range
with corresponding drafts, the vaporization burner has a suffi-
ciently low soot emission. Comparatively large soot formation
is possible when the oil viscosity is varied, and at extreme
draft. Soot formation in atomizers is determined by their suita-
bility for the respective boilers and their setting. This applies
both to the installation of the plant and to their inspection,
necessary at certain intervals. CO emission in oil heaters is
closely related to soot formation. When soot emission is suffi-
ciently small, CO formation is insignificant as regards air pol-
lution. The sulfur contained in the fuel oil is emitted in the
flue gas in the form of sulfur dioxide (70 to 80%) and sulfur
trioxide (1 to 3%). The remaining sulfur is adsorbed to the soot
as SO2 or SO3. Whether, and to what extent SO3 reaches the
atmosphere in the flue gases depends mainly upon the tem-
peratures in the furnace and the flue-gas duct (furance pipe,
stack).
08374
Strauss, Werner and I. B. Speedie
THE FORMATION OF ACID SMUTS IN OIL FIRED KILNS
AND BOILERS. Staub (English translation), 27(7):25-30, July
1967. 17 refs. CFSTI: TT 67-51408/7
A simulated flue gas containing sulphur dioxide (0.029 percent)
water vapour (6.1 percent) and air (93.8 percent) was passed
over different flame carbons which have been deposited on
the walls of a 3 in. diameter verical glass tube at simulated
chimney temperatures (110 deg. C to 190 deg. C). The total
sulphur in the carbon deposit was determined and indicated
the following. If the tube walls were of glass, then the total
sulphur fell from 0.84 percent at 110 deg. C to 0.45 percent at
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BOILERS
190 deg. C. If a trace of sulphur trioxide (9ppm) was added,
then sulphur was found to be 1.16 percent at 150 deg. C and
0.90 percent at 190 deg. C. If traces of iron oxide were
present, the sulphur content increased from 0.87 percent to 1.5
percent at 190 deg. C. These trends indicate that traces of iron
oxides tend to favor higher sulphur adsorption, particularly at
the higher temperatures.
08615
Short, W.
SOLIDS EMISSION IN RELATION TO RECENT LEGISLA-
TION. Steam Heating Eng. (London), 37(432):28-37, Nov.
1967.
A review of solids emission in relation to recent legislation is
presented. The control of solids emission both in regard to
legal requirements and equipment available is discussed. The
topics discussed are: oil firing, grit arresters, chimneys, and
additives.
08641
Sullivan, K. M.
THE OPERATION OF A VEKOS POWERMASTER COAL-
FIRED FIRETUBE PACKAGE BOILER. Clean Air (J. Clean
Air Soc. Australia New Zealand) 1(1):17, 19-23,25, 1967.
Tests using bituminous coal from New S. Wales were carried
out on a coal fired packaged boiler having a rated capacity of
3,450 Ibs/hour of saturated steam from and at 212 deg. F. (100
H.P.) and 150 psig. working pressure installed at the Fuel
Development Centre of the State Electricity Commission of
Victoria. The object of the test was to access the capabilities
of the boiler when operated with several bituminous coals of
varying characteristics. The boiler was examined for ease of
light up, response to load fluctuations, ability to maintain rated
load, degree of attention required by the boiler attendant,
ability to conform to statutory Clean Air Regulations and
operating efficiency. The boiler operated at high efficiency
over a range of loads. Correct adjustment resulted in the boiler
operating at all times within Clean Air requirements. Response
to load fluctuations and ability of the boiler to continuously
exceed rated load was better than anticipated. Attention to the
boiler during operation was negligible. Manual ash clearing
was required, but was not sufficient duration, or frequency, to
cause concern. The satisfactory results of testing, whe n com-
bined with the ease of installation of the fully packaged boiler
and its initial competitive cost, indicate that the unit should
have a wide application on the Australian market.
08642
Walker, A. B.
EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS FROM INDUSTRIAL
BOILERS. Air. Eng., 9(8):17-19, Aug. 1967.
The ability to predict emission characteristics of industrial
boilers becomes increasingly important to operators as air pol-
lution regulations become more definitive. A statistical study
by a joint technical committee of the American Boiler Manu-
facturers Association and the Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute
(ABMA-IGCI study) has resulted in an as yet unpublished
compilation of data on paniculate emissions. These data
represent estimates on the minimum efficiency requirements to
meet typical, present quantitative emission codes and clear
stacks. The results of the study for the three methods of coal
firing (stoker, cyclone and pulverized coal) in steam generators
are discussed and presented graphically.
08820
Tomczynska, Jadwiga and Janina Jurkiewicz
INDIVIDUAL BOILERS AND BOILER HOUSES AS
SOURCES OF ATMOSPHERIC CONTAMINATION IN WAR-
SAW. ((Kotlownie zakladowe i osiedlowe jako zrodlo zaniec-
zyszczenia powietrza w warszawie.)) Text in Polish. Gaz,
Woda Tech. Sanit. (Warsaw), 38(6): 196-199, 1967. 6 refs.
A study to determine the cause of atmospheric pollution in
Warsaw was undertaken. Air was aspirated at a distance of
three meters from chimneys in Warsaw, and 1 liter samples
were obtained and shaken with 250 ml. distilled H2O. This
solution was then analyzed and a determination was made of
soluble and insoluble organic and inorganic materials, and the
S-containing compounds. All values were converted to long
tons per cu. m. per month. It was found that the amounts of
dust were gradually increasing (from 25.1 long tons per cu. m.
in 1961 to 28.8 long tons per cu. m. in 1962). This increase in
values cannot be ascribed to stepped-up industrial develop-
ment because in a typical industrialized section of Warsaw in
1962, this value was only 16.7 tons. The increase of SO2 was
particularly pronounced. During the winter months the SO2
was eight times as great as during the summer months, show-
ing clearly that the boilers for apartment heating are the main
source of air pollution in Warsaw.
09016
Shagalova, S. L., M. M. Rubin, B. D. Katsnel'son, I. N.
Shnitser, D. I. Parparov, V. S. Patychenko, B. N. Barbyshev,
S. I. Zaraiskii, L. S. Foshko, A. A. Madoyan, and A. I.
Kul'chitskii
RESULTS OF TESTING 10T/H PF BURNERS OPERATING
ON ANTHRACITE. ((Rezul'taty ispytenii moshchnykh pyleu-
gol'nykh gorelok proizvoditel'nost'yu 10 t/ch po ASh.)) 4 refs.
Thermal Eng. (English translation of: Teploenergetika),
14(1):16-20, 1967.
The design of 10 ton/hr pulverized anthracite coal burners is
discussed. Both double scroll and scroll-vane burners are con-
sidered. Tests were conducted on a large steam boiler employ-
ing the burners and test results are discussed. Efficiency of
the big burners was the same as for smaller ones. The slag
removal factor was about 15% with no slag formation on the
burner. Nozzles in the internal ducts of the scroll-vane burners
burned out after 500 hours, while those in the double scroll
burners, which had a smaller angle of divergence, burned out
after 5000 hours. Data on combustion efficiency, proper ex-
cess air quantities, and operational variables are discussed.
09161
Gronhovd, G. H., R. J. Wagner, and A. J. Wittmaier
COMPARISON OF ASH FOULING TENDENCIES OF HIGH-
AND LOW-SODIUM LIGNITE FROM A NORTH DAKOTA
MINE. In: Proc. Power Conference 28th Ann. Meeting,
Chicago, 111., April 26-28, 1966, Vol. 28, p. 632-642. 4 refs.
The rate of fouling, as determined both by boiler performance
and by probe tests, is much greater when burning lignite hav-
ing 8 to 10 percent sodium oxide in the ash compared with
burning lignite having less than 2 percent sodium oxide in the
ash. The tests indicate a remarkably high ash collection effi-
ciency of the boiler tubes on the unit tested. Based on short-
time dust loading tests, only 25 and 40 percent of the input ash
can be accounted for in the flue gas for the high- and low-
sodium coals, respectively. Sulfur oxide determinations in-
dicate that the sodium level has a profound effect on the SO2
content of the flue gases. The SO2 increased from about 450
to 850 ppm when changing from high- to low-sodium coal.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
With low-sodium coal, nearly all the coal sulfur can be ex-
pected to appear as SO2. Based on the results of these tests, a
program designed to supply Hoot Lake Power Station with lig-
nite containing a predetermined level of sodium has been set
up. Using two loading shovels at the mine and adjusting the
number of trucks serving each shovel, the lignite is blended at
the tipple to provide a sodium level determined by the ex-
pected electrical load at Hoot Lake. Minor electrical load ad-
justments can then be made, if necessary, to accomodate the
expected lignite blend. Sampling and analysis at the plant have
shown a very good correlation with the expected sodium per-
centages, as predicted by the blending operation at the mine.
Plant operating results from the first three months using this
procedure look very promising.
09539
Zabroske, Tony A.
BOILER CONVERSION REDUCES COSTS AND AIR POLLU-
TION. Plant Eng., 22(6):96, 98, March 21, 1968.
The new, converted boilers at the Stewart-Warner Corp. are
described. Total cost for the conversion of three 500-hp. water
tube boilers from coal to a combination of gas and oil firing
was $79,221. A true internal nozzle-mixing type, steam-atomiz-
ing oil burner was installed as well as a 50,000-gal. oil tank.
Following the conversion, cost of operation has been reduced,
the salary of four firemen eliminated, maintenance costs
lowered, housekeeping easier, smoke control better, and coal
and ash handling eliminated.
09831
Walsh, Robert T.
GASEOUS AND LIQUID FUELS. In: Air Pollution Egineering
Manual. (Air Pollution Control District, County of Los An-
geles.) John A. Danielson (comp. and ed.), Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for Air Pollution Con-
trol, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, p. 507-514, 1967. GPO: 806-614-30
The burning of gaseous and liquid fuels is so commonplace
that it enters directly into a vast number of air-polluting
processes. The burning of any fuel under less than optimum
conditions produces some quantities of carbon, ash, and un-
burned and partially burned hydrocarbons. In addition, many
fuels contain sulfur and metallic compounds that are, even in
the oxidized state, air pollutants. Air contaminants generated
from fuel burning fall into three categories: (1) Carbon and the
unburned and partially oxidized organic materials that result
from incomplete combustion, (2) sulfur oxides and ash directly
attributable to fuel composition, and (3) oxides of nitrogen
formed at firebox temperatures from oxygen and nitrogen of
the air. Incomplete combustion products can usually be held to
tolerable minimums with proper operation of modern burner
equipment. Sulfur and ash emissions are governed by the fuel
makeup. Nitrogen. Nitrogen oxide concentrations are primarily
functions of firebox design and temperature. The causes of
such phenomena as black smoke, white smoke, sulfur and
nitrogen oxides, and particulate emissions are discussed. Com-
positions of common fuel gases, fuel oils, and their com-
bustion products (both gaseous and solid) are tabulated. Sulfur
removal from fuels and municipal regulations limiting sulfur
compound emission and sulfur content in fuels are discussed.
Combustion products of any given fuel may be determined by
the method illustrated.
09832
Walsh, Robert T.
GAS AND OIL BURNERS. In: Air Pollution Egineering
Manual. (Air Pollution Control District, County of Los An-
geles.) John A. Danielson (comp, and ed.), Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for Air Pollution Con-
trol, PHS- Pub-999-AP-40, p. 514-525, 1967. GPO: 806-614-30
A burner is essentially a triggering mechanism used to ignite
and oxidize hydrocarbon fuels. In general, burners are
designed and operated to push the oxidation reactions as close
as possible to completion with the maximum production of
carbon dioxide and water, leaving a minimum of unburned and
partially oxidized compounds in exhaust gases. General burner
principles are presented with emphasis on major design and
operation variables that affect air pollution. A burner consists
primarily of a means of metering the two reactants, oxygen
and fuel, and a means of mixing the reactants, oxygen and
fuel, and a means of mixing the reactants before and concur-
rently with ignition. Liquid fuels require vaporization before
efficient combustion can occur, and some form of atomizing
(mechanical high or low pressure air, steam) is employed. Per-
formance of liquid fuels depends heavily on viscosity; the
viscosity-temperature relationship is discussed and graphs of
the relationship are presented. Flame characteristics such as
lifting, yellow tip, and flashback are determined by the prima-
ry and secondary air rates in the burner. Air fuel mixing is ac-
complished in a venturi, orifice multiple-port or forced draft
device. The burning of combustion fuels can produce sulfur
oxides, inorganic ash, oxides of nitrogen, carbon, and un-
burned and partially oxidized hydrocarbons. Most of these
contaminants, notably sulfur oxides and inorganic ash, are at-
tributable directly to the fuel and are independent of equip-
ment design or operation. The principal air contaminants af-
fected by burner design and operation are oxidizable materials-
-carbon, carbon monoxide aldehydes, organic acids, and un-
burned hydrocarbons. To a lesser degree, burner design can
also affect oxides of nitrogen, but these emissions are depen-
dent largely upon the design of the furnace and other com-
bustion equipment. Emissions from gas-fired and oil-fired
equipment are itemized and the ash and sulfur oxide product
of oil and gas combustion are discussed.
10075
Williams, A. F.
OIL FIRING AND ODOUR PROBLEMS. (Due Olfeuerung im
Hinbhck auf Emissionsprobleme.) Text in German. Schweiz,
Arch. Angew, Wiss. Tech. 31(4):105-112, April 1965.
(presented at the S.V.M.T. Meetin Zurich, Switzerland, Sept.
11, 1964, Preprint in English.)
Smoke and smells are indicative of incomplete combustion.
We propose to deal with underlying causes and curative mea-
sures which concern mainly the design and operation of the
combustion appliance We shall discuss the various types of
burners which are being used, particularly those which are
prevalent in Switzerland for room and whole house heating.
These are mainly pressure jet burners with so pot burners
rated 15000 k cal/h. and above and operated on distillated gas
oil. We shall comment on the relative merits of ON OFF and
HIGH/LOW fire operation and quote test results for smoke an
unburnt hydrocarbons produced by various burners during
continuous firing or intermittent operation. Such unburnt
hydrocarbons can gi rise to unpleasant odours. We shall show
that a low smoke conditio is related primarily to good draught
and an optimum excess air valu inside the fire box. Various
new attempts to procude small, highly efficient atomizing bur-
ners will be mentioned. These include ultrasonic atomization
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8
BOILERS
and the Venires blue flame, atomizing with vaporising burner.
Lastly, in reference to typical Swiss oil quali and the stan-
dards set by SNV Institute, we shall give some results show-
ing the influence of aromatic content of the oil on its smoking
propensity. Some mention will also be made about sulphur in
the fu and SO2 emission from the chimney. (Author's summa-
ry, modified)
10735
J. Beighton
GRIT AND DUST. WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
THE WORKING PARTY REPORT. Smokeless Air,
38(146):266-269, Summer 1968.
Appreciating the need for more information of grit and dust,
the British Ministry of Housing and Local Government set up
in 1964 a working party on grit and dust emissions. The report
of the working party endeavors to offer good working levels
that should be obtainable from a normal plant properly
designed. Eight of the points covered in the report are
discussed.
10743
Christie, John
THE PROBLEMS OF SMOKE CONTROL. Smokeless Air,
38(146):257-262, Summer 1968.
The problem of smoke control are found in both domestic and
industrial furnaces. The household open type fire when burn-
ing bituminous coal can produce a considerable amount of
smoke and since discharge into the atmosphere is at a low
level the pollution problem is aggravated. It is the job of the
local authorities in Great Britain to deal with smoke control
violations. The problems of industrial control are more com-
plex because of the great variation in the industrial plants
under consideration. However smoke attributed to industrial
plants has been reduced by 50% since 1960. Important factors
in this improvement are the recognition of the relationship of
smoke emission to inefficient use of fuel.
12120
Duzy, A. F.
AMERICAN COAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EF-
FECTS ON THE DESIGN OF STEAM GENERATING UNITS.
Preprint, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 8p., 1959. 13 refs. (Presented at the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Annual Meeting, Atlantic City, N. J.,
Nov. 29-Dec. 4, 1959, Paper 59-A242.)
Important coal characteristics are considered with respect to
the design of steam generators, including the major com-
ponents from the coal bunker outlet through fuel equipment,
furnace, convection sections, air heaters, and dust collectors.
Size content, moisture content, volatile-matter content,
calorific value, ash content, and ash-fusion temperature are
discussed, together with sulfur content, size distribution, and
grindability. Theoretical air requirements are determined for
stoker-fired boilers, boilers fired by pulverized coal, and fur-
nace cyclones. Consideration is also given to the deteriorating
quality of coal with respect to quantity and characteristics of
the ash. The unavailability of cleaner steaming coals will
necessitate improvements in metals, methods of controlling
obnoxious flue-gas constituents, methods of ash disposal, and
steam-generator design.
12975
Yamada, Go
CORROSION ATTACK OF BOILERS BURNING HEAVY-
OIL. (Juyu boiler no fushoku shogai). Text in Japanese. Netsu
Kami (Heat Engineering, Tokyo), 21(3):2-9, March 1969. 5
refs.
Sulfur trioxide is a major cause of corrosion in boilers burning
heavy oil. Sulfur compounds in heavy oil are oxidized to SO2
and SO3 during combustion. Sulfur trioxide combines with
water vapor to form sulfuric acid, which corrodes surfaces at
temperatures below the acid dewpoint of flue gas. Maximum
corrosion occurs at 30-40 C lower than acid dewpoint.
Meanwhile, on high temperature surfaces, alkali metal
sulfates, formed from inorganic compounds, sulfur oxides, and
oxides of vanadium accumulate, impede thermal condition,
and cause corrosion. Sulfur trioxide is considered to be
formed by (1) the reaction between SO2 and O2 in the vapor
phase, (2) the oxidation of SO2 in flame, and (3) the contact
oxidation of SO2 on metallic surfaces. Calculating the conver-
sion rate of SO2 to SO3 at equilibrium in (1), the greater the
O2 and the lower the temperature, the larger the rate becomes.
However, equilibrium does not occur in boilers, so the actual
conversion rate is 1 to 4%. In (2), the greater the amount of
sulfur included in the oil and the hotter the flame, the greater
the amount of SO3 formed. These findings suggest that com-
bustion with low excess O2 can reduce corrosion. Low-tem-
perature corrosion can additionally be controlled by additives,
such as ammonia, magnesium and calcium compounds; high
temperature corrosion by carbonates, hydroxides, and oxides
of alkaline earth metals.
13794
Gallagher, John T.
COST OF DIRECT-FIRED HEATERS. Chem. Eng.,
74(15):232, July 17, 1967.
Two curves are given to help estimate the material and shop
fabrication costs of radiant-convection and all-radiant heaters.
Heater costs are normally compiled as $X/million Btu/hr of
absorbed duty. The first curve relates the approximate
purchase price of heaters to absorbed heat duty. Twenty mil-
lion Btu represents the economic boundary for shipment of the
heater to the field in one piece. Labor costs are greater when
on-site assembly must be made. All-radiant heaters cost less
initially than radiant-convection heaters of comparable size.
Quite often though, the economics may favor the higher initial
cost of the radiant-convection heater with its correspondingly
lower fuel requirements and operating costs. An illustrative ex-
ample is provided.
13807
Le Bouc, F.
AEROTHERMOCHEMICAL STUDY OF FURNACES AND
BOILERS. (Etude Aerothermochimique des Fours et
Chaudieres). Text in French. Rev. Inst. Franc. Petrole,
22(5):849-892, May 1967. 28 refs.
A synthesis was made of the results obtained on experimental
furnaces by the Fondation de Recherches Internationales sur
les Flammes which emphasized the importance of recycling
phenomena in furnaces and the major role of momentum at
the burner nozzle in combustion development. The theoretical
aspect of recycling is considered, together with experimental
results obtained both on the furnace and on the cold model.
The development of the chemical reaction of combustion was
examined in terms of the various parameters that affect the
combustion mixture. An interpretation was made of the ther-
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
mal properties of flames obtained with different types of bur-
ners. (Author abstract modified)
13832
Pope, Evans and Robbins, New York
COAL-FIRED HEATING PLANT PACKAGE: PHASE II RE-
PORT. OCR Contract 14-01-0001-242, 63p., Nov. 1, 1963. CF-
STI: PB 181-585
A complete steam generating package consisting of a bellied-in
header innovation of an 'A' type boiler with a drawer type,
single feed spreader stoker, forced draft fan, ash reinjection/
over-fire air system, and combustion feed and control has
been devised as the ideal combination for a packaged coal-
fired boiler. The design provides for a specially designed dust-
collector induced draft fan, and optional economizer, package
to be field installed as a single unit on top of the boiler drum.
Automation is achieved to the extent that only one man is
required for normal operation of the plant. Boilers, coal, and
ash handling systems operate on a fully automatic basis. The
use of a continuous dual-purpose drag chain is an integral part
of the design, the upper run of the chain delivering coal to all
boiler hoppers and the lower run removing the ashes simul-
taneously. Considerable savings in erection costs have been
achieved by extensive packaging of plant auxiliary and con-
struction components. If a comparison is made with recent
boiler plant construction costs, it can be seen that this type of
boiler plant can be erected for a fraction of the cost of a tradi-
tional field-erected plant. (Author summary modified)
13855
Violet, P., A. Aynard, and G. Dumarchey
CHECK ON THE OPERATION OF COMMUNAL CENTRAL
HEATING BOILERS IN LYONS DURING WINTER 1967-
1968. (Controle du fonctionnement de chaudieres de chauf-
fage central collectif a Lyon pendant 1'hiver 1967-1968). Text
in French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), 11(41):15-19, Jan./March
1969.
The Lyons Health Office, working in collaboration with
technicians of the Association Lyonnaise des Proprietaires de
Machines a Vapeur et Electriques and with financial assistance
of the Centre Interproffesionel et Technique d'Etudes de la
Pollution Atmospherique, carried out inspections, during the
winter of 1967/1968 on 44 boilers whose calorific capacities
ranged from 170 therm/hr to 5015 therm/hr. Thirty-nine units
burned fuel oil and five coke or coal. In 97% of the cases, the
Bacharach index was below 6 In 91% of the cases, the tem-
perature of the smoke was below 300 C, with CO2 exceeding
9% for 44% of the operations checked. Forty-seven boilers,
ranging from 50 to 1250 therm/hr, already checked in
1966/1967, were again inspected. A slight improvement was
noted with regard to combustion. (Author abstract modified)
15375
Fritsch, W. Hans
RESONANCE PHENOMENA IN FLUE STACKS. I. (Resonan-
zerscheinungen an Schornsteinen. I). Text in German. Oel
Gasfeuerung, 14(l):20-37, 1969.
The trend of ever narrower flue stacks has focused attention
on resonance phenomena in the boiler-flue stack system. The
basic physical concepts of oscillations, damping, and
resonance and their mathematical descriptions are reviewed.
While the flue stack alone has one resonance frequency, the
boiler plus flue stack system has two or more. The flame in
the boiler depends on the ambient pressure and follows the
oscillations with an in-phase and a quadrature component. The
flame is able to maintain steady state oscillations if the damp-
ing constant of the flameless system is equal to
(m/2)/(282,000/Q) - n, where Q in kcal/cu m/hr is the energy
density of the boiler furnace and m and n are the experimen-
tally determined relative values of the in-phase and the
quadrature flame fluctuations. Model experiments using 2 to 4-
long tubes with 100 mm diameter and audioacoustic measure-
ment equipment are described. In this model, typical pressure
amplitudes of 20 mm water and resonance frequencies up to
200 Hz were measured. For different geometries, a dimension-
less parameter, PI, which allows extrapolation to all stack
dimensions can be determined. The concept of the phase dia-
gram of an oscillator is discussed. A numerical example with
oscillograph photographs illustrate the usefulness of model
measurements.
16836
Siegmund, C. W.
AIR POLLUTION: WILL DESULFURIZED FUEL OILS
HELP. ASHRAE (Am. Soc. Heating, Refrig. Aircond. Engrs.)
J., ll(4):29-33, April 1969. 3 refs.
The general effect of air quality regulations which limit fuel oil
sulfur content will be a trend toward better fuel oils which will
give fewer operating problems. The changes which occur will
be similar whether the fuels are made from natural low sulfur
crude or by desulfurizing higher sulfur content components.
The fuels will be lower in viscosity, which means easier han-
dling and better atomization. They will be lower in ash content
so superheater deposit and corrosion problems will be
minimized. They will tend to make fewer stack solids. The
problems caused by SO3, cold end corrosion and acid smuts
formation, will be eased, but good combustion control will still
be required. They may have higher pour points, but simple
changes to storage facilities will overcome any flow problems.
It is expected that these fuels will be somewhat more expen-
sive than current fuels due to additional processing costs or
the cost of transporting fuel to an area not normally tributary
to the source. However, a substantial part of the increased
fuel costs may be compensated for by decreased operating
costs as a result of the improved fuel quality.
16949
Dept. of Interior, Washington, D. C., Office of Coal Research
OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH ANNUAL REPORT 1968.
56p., 1968.
This report of OCR activities for calendar year 1967 gives
detailed attention to the pilot plant program and to anti- pollu-
tion benefits expected to result from the projects under
development. The following pilot plants are described: a flyash
brick plant for determining the commercial possibilities of
flyash-based structural materials; (2) a plant for using pul-
verized coal to remove solids and dissolved organic substances
from sewage and industrial waste waters; (3) a program to
develop coal-fired boilers which use the fluidized-bed com-
bustion process; and (4) a pilot plant for converting coal to
gasoline. Various electric power projects are underway to
develop a coal-energized fuel cell, a coal-fired elec-
trogasdynamic generator, a coal-fired thermionic topper, and a
coal-fired magnetohydrodynamic generator. All have the
potential of achieving overall thermal efficiences of 55-60% or
more, which would greatly reduce emissions of combustion
products, and some of the systems have other beneficial anti-
pollution features as well. The group of projects for develop-
ing practical methods of converting coal to pipeline- quality
gas and synthetic petroleum would produce a coal-based fuel
able to meet the most stringent air-pollution regulation, since
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10
BOILERS
the products must meet the same specifications as natural gas
and petroleum for catalytic processing, and would thus have a
negligible sulfur content. A number of OCR projects underway
or planned are directed toward sulfur removal: the fluidized-
bed combustion boiler program, the low-ash coal project, one
of the liquid-fuel projects in which sulfur can be removed and
recovered from char, and a program to produce low-sulfur
boiler fuel using the Consol CO2 Acceptor Process. These are
described briefly in terms of their implications for pollution
control.
16990
Blokh, A. G.
DEGREE OF BLACKNESS OF DUST-CONTAINING GASES
IN BOILER INSTALLATIONS. (Stepen' chernoty zapylen-
nykh gazov v kotel'nykh ustanovkakh). Text in Russian. Ener-
gomashinostroenie (Moscow), no. 2:24-27, 1967. 7 refs.
The luminosity of boiler-plant combustion products, forming
an optically semitransparent diffracting and absorbing emitting
medium, depends on the concentrations and emissive proper-
ties of the triatomic gases, H2O and CO2, and on the solid
particles, preeminently, of ash, carbon, and soot suspended in
them. The degree of blackness of the tongue of semiluminous
and luminous flames that may occur in combustion chambers
of boiler plants can be computed from expressions using the
optical density of the two gases H2O and CO2, the ash con-
tent of the combustion gases, the ash content of the fuel, the
volume of the combustion gas, the temperature of the flame,
and the diameter of the ash particles.
17017
Nikolaev, S. P. and S. A. Dymshits
DISCHARGES OF BOILER OPERATED (COAL BURNING)
PLANTS CONVERTED TO GAS BURNING. U.S.S.R. Litera-
ture on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases, vol.
8:93-96, 1963. (B. S. Levine, ed.) CFSTI: 63-11570
To evaluate the efficiency of shale gas combustion chambers,
discharge gases from six chambers were analyzed for sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, tarry substances, soot, element
composition, and caloric value. The SO2 content of the gases
ranged from 3.04 to 207.06 mg/cu Mm and the H2S content,
from 0.46 to 4.67 g/100 cu Nm of gas. Products of incomplete
combustion were CO, H2, and CH4. Tarry substances ranged
from 0 to 32.61 mg/cu Nm. The soot present in the gases was
in a high degree of dispersion. Caloric value of the gas was
3234 to 3576 cal/cu Nm in the morning and 3178 to 3632 cal/cu
m in the afternoon. A statistical study of the data gathered in
19 discharge analyses indicated that incomplete combustion
occurred frequently in the chambers. This is attributed in part
to faulty chamber construction, inappropriate chamber size,
changes in composition and pressure of the gas fuel, absence
of control devices, and shortcomings of technical personnel.
17190
Hasegawa, Toshio
ON THE OUTLINE OF FUEL CONSUMPTION, INSTALLED
BOILERS AND OTHER FURNACES IN OSAKA PREFEC-
TURE. (Osakafu ni okeru baien hassei shisetsu to nenryo
shohiryo no gaikyo). Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J.
Pollution Control), 4(4):221-226, April 15, 1968.
The general status of fuel consumption of boilers and industri-
al furnaces in Osaka is described. The number of boilers and
furnaces now in use indicates an increasing reliance on fuel oil
as an energy source. Due to current improvements, newly in-
stalled boilers and furnaces show high rates of heat efficiency
and thus high combustion rates. Classification of Osaka's 8317
boilers and 400 industrial furnaces in terms of their material
composition indicates that 1173 furnaces consist of metal heat-
ing; 662, of reverberatory furnaces; and 534, of fusion fur-
naces. Some of these present problems related to smoke dust
emission control. Specifically, the electric furnaces, iron fu-
sion furnaces, glass fusion furnaces, and lead or aluminium fu-
sion furnaces that are used by relatively minor plants, present
financial and technical difficulties. This is in contrast to large
plants which independently practice smoke dust control. Fuel
oil consumption has increased markedly in the past seven
years in Osaka, with the 1966 sale of heavy oil nearly four
times that of 1958. Data from a survey of the relationship
between fuel consumption and air pollution show that the total
quantities of coal burned and heavy oil consumed was 1586.8
ton and 921.0 kl in the first three days of 1968; the daily
average quantity used during the preceding December was
5399.8 tons and 2236.9 kl. Sulfurous gas density equivalent to
fuel consumption showed a proportional increase in the three
days when very small plants were operative.
17840
Gerlovin, L. I. and V. P. Sigachev
BOILER WITH HIGH DEGREE OF EXHAUST GAS
UTILIZATION. (Kotel s glubokoy utilizatsiyey tepla vykhlop-
nykh gazov). Text in Russian. Sudostroenie, no. 10:32-34, Oct.
1968.
The boiler installation of the tanker Velikiy Oktyabr' is
described. Some operating parameters are as follows: working
pressure in separator, 9-10 kg/sq cm; temperature of super-
heated steam, 290-295 C; steam production under intermediate
load, 3660 kg/hr; hydrodynamic drag, about 3.0 kg/sq cm; and
resistance of gas channel, about 110 mm H2O. A circulation
factor of about 3 was dictated by a tendency toward an in-
creased temperature head due to a reduction in temperature of
the circulating water to minimum (based on low-temperature
corrosion considerations). Exhaust gas temperature (180 C) is
determined by conditions designed to assure a minimum tem-
perature drop of approximately 30 C between the gas and wall
at the inlet under operating conditions.
19017
Johnstone, H. F.
REACTIONS OF SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN BOILER FUR-
NACES. Ind. Eng. Chem., 23(6):620-625, June 1931. 12 refs.
(Presented at the American Chemical Society Meeting, 81st,
Indianapolis, Ind., March 30- April 3, 1931.)
In a furnace, the sulfur in coal is converted mainly into sulfur
dioxide. Only about 2% is oxidized to the trioxide, regardless
of the temperature or oxygen content of the gases. The con-
centration of sulfur trioxide in the stack gases is no greater,
therefore, than that in the furnace gases. Flue dust has only
slight catalytic action in the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. When
the sulfur in the fuel exists as sulfuric acid, as, for instance, in
petroleum residues, about 85% of the acid is reduced in the
furnace to sulfur dioxide. The gases contain only slightly more
trioxide than those from high-sulfur coal. When coal is fired
on a stoker, about 30% of the sulfur remains in the ash, at
least a part of which exists as iron sulfide. Particles of dust
containing the sulfide adhere readily to one another and to
metal surfaces, so that hard deposits build up readily both on
boiler and economizer tubes. On boiler tubes, most of the sul-
fur in the slag is lost by oxidation of the sulfides and decom-
position of the sulfates. At lower temperatures, the sulfates
are stable and the slag contains a large proportion of sulfate
sulfur, even above the condensation temperatures of the gases.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
11
Concentrations of sulfur trioxide in the gases as low as 0.015%
raise the dew point to 80-100 C. The hygroscopic nature of
deposits containing ferric sulfate also causes moisture to con-
dense at temperatures considerably above the dew point of the
gases calculated from the partial pressure of water vapor in
the gases. As solutions containing ferric sulfate act as strong
catalysts for the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid,
the existence of these sulfates in the flue dust is responsible
for an increase in the temperature range of corrosion by flue
gases. Increased moisture content of the gases caused by leaks
or by the use of steam soot-blowers will produce the same ef-
fect. (Author abstract)
19217
Kawada, Nobu
THE SAFETY MEASURE OF BABCOCK RECOVERY
BOILER. (Babukkoku kaishu boira no anzen taisaku). Text in
Japanese. Kami-Pa Gikyoshi, (Journal of the Japanese Techni-
cal Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry), 24(7):361-366,
July 1, 1970. 2 refs. Babcock Hitachi Co. (Japan).
The safety of recovery boilers is causing very grave concern
due to explosions. In the United States, the Black Liquor
Recovery Boiler Advisory Committee has been organized by
users, insurance companies, and boiler makers. Babcock
Hitachi, in cooperation with Babcock and Wilcox Company, is
making a B and W Tomlinson Recovery Boiler. Based on the
discussions of a conference held in London, the recovery
boiler is considered to be safe. The Emergency Shutdown
Methods of B and W Tomlinson Boiler vary according to the
situation. When the furnace contains water the method is
recommended as an Emergency Shutdown Procedure by the
Committee. The fourth item of an Emergency Shutdown
Procedure is adapted only to a B. W. Recovery Boiler. An ex-
plosion by the reaction of smelting and water is very dan-
gerous. An explosion occurs when the tube of the furnace and
the screen tube are broken and water touches the smelt in the
bottom of the furnace. Therefore, corrosion of the tubes
should be avoided. A jet stem atomizer for a heavy oil burner
has been used. This is the most suitable supplementary burner
for a recovery boiler.
21166
Rutz, P.
BOILER PLANTS FOR BURNING INDUSTRIAL WASTES.
Sulzer Tech. Rev. (Switz.), no. 3:99-108, 1968.
Not only the shape and chemical composition of industrial
wastes but their calorific value and moisture content place
special requirements on an incinerator boiler and grate. The
chemical composition may dictate additional measures for pro-
tecting heating surfaces against corrosion. A high ash content
in the fuel will have to be allowed for in grate design. The size
of the grate will be decided by the hourly weight of the waste
to be burned and the calorific value of the material. Most solid
fuels in the form of pieces or chips can be burnt properly on
simple stationary step grates, provided a second grate follows
the step grate. These grates can be used in water-tube or
smoke-tube boilers. Water-tube boilers are described that are
capable of firing waste alone, waste together with oil, or oil
alone. Using special charging and burner arrangements, it is
even possible to fire solvents in combination with oil firing. A
moving burn-out grate with air cooling below provides for the
automatic ejection of ash and clinker at the bottom of the
boilers. Rubber and plastic wastes can be fired satisfactorily
only with the addition of light fuel oil burners. When large
quantities of refuse are delivered to a boilerhouse in a short
time, bunkering installations should be provided for short-term
storage. In addition, waste- fired boilers must be equipped
with efficient electrostatic precipitators, and the dust content
of the flue gas and its grain size must be determined.
21363
Kawai, Sunao, Tadahiro Machiyama, and Mutsuo Koizumi
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON A HOT-WATER BOILER
WITH FLUE-GAS RECIRCULATION. Text in Japanese.
Waseda Daigaku Rikogaku Kenkyusho Hokoku (Bull. Sci.
Eng. Res. Lab., Waseda, Univ.), no. 41:38-45, 1968. 3 refs.
Experimental studies were conducted on the applications of a
pre-combustion method with flue-gas recirculation to the re-
heating furnace. The furnace is thermally loaded by a hot-
water boiler which is set up at the end of the furnace. In the
experiments, the behavior of the boiler offered some interest-
ing information. Some considerations of the operations from
the circuit theoretic viewpoint are reported. The concept of
operating point is clarified through the considerations, in spite
of the non-linearities which exist in the boiler characteristics.
The optimum operating point to maximize the water outlet
temperature is found on the basis of the characteristics for
values of the fuel and the feed water flow-rate. This fact
shows the possibilities in an application of the optimizing con-
trol technique to the boiler.
21940
Marteney, Pierre J.
ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE KINETICS OF FORMATION
OF NITROGEN OXIDE IN HYDROCARBON-AIR COM-
BUSTION. Combust. Sci. Technol., vol. 1:461-469, 1970. 14
refs.
The kinetics of formation of nitric oxide in hydrocarbon-air
combustion were studied. Two UNIVAC 1108 computer pro-
grams were utilized to obtain time-dependent concentrations of
chemical species in a subsonic stream. Inlet conditions
specified were the temperature, pressure, and composition.
Inlet temperatures were varied from 1000 K to 2000 K at pres-
sures of 1 to 10 atm for equivalence ratios of 0.8 to 1.25. The
inlet composition was taken to be a mixture of non-reacted
gases. Equilibrium in the nitrogen oxides is very slowly at-
tained with respect to the carbon and hydrogen oxides. The
implication of this result is that observations of NO concentra-
tions well below equilibrium values in certain types of engine
exhausts may be correlated with the kinetics of formation, and
that combustion temperatures and residence times, rather than
exhaust temperatures, determine the level of NO in exhaust
gases. (Author abstract)
22800
National Academy of Sciences National Research Council,
Washington, D. C., Committee on Air Quality Management
ABATEMENT OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM STA-
TIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES. NAPCA Contract CPA
22-69-31, COPAC-2, 75p., 1970. 27 refs. CFSTI: PB 192887
In surveying the sulfur oxide problem and U. S. energy
requirements, it is estimated that the requirement for electrici-
ty will more than triple in the next 20 years and that the use of
coal will triple by the year 2000. These projections are related
to longterm environmental considerations, energy research,
factors of fuel utilization, and time phases of technical
developments. Support of technology development by the coal
industry, equipment manufacturers, utilities, and the federal
government is surveyed, and the present status of research
and technology is reviewed, including brief discussions of nu-
merous specific processes. It is concluded that commercially
-------
12
BOILERS
proven technology for control of sulfur oxides from com-
bustion processes does not exist and that a high level of
government support is needed in addition to industry commit-
ments to develop the necessary control measures. Certain con-
trol approaches are suggested for support, and a 5-year plan
for future work is presented in which complete development
of the limestone process is given high priority. Elemental sul-
fur is considered a more desirable by-product than sulfuric
acid or sulfur dioxide, and the technology and costs of this
conversion need thorough study.
22955
Ivanov, V. P. and I. I. Chudnovskaya
INVESTIGATING SOME OF THE PROPERTIES OF OIL
ASH DEPOSITS. Teploenergetika, 16(2):62-66, 1969. 3 refs.
Intensive fouling of convective superheater heating surfaces
for a large-capacity gas/oil fired boiler was investigated by ex-
amining the ash deposits formed on the heating surfaces. The
device used for this purpose was a specially designed sampler-
calorimeter which simulates the heating surfaces. The sampler
was installed near the pendent superheater at a point where
the gas temperature was 1100 - 900 C, and the test lasted 1 -10
hrs. The intensity of fouling and the structure of the deposits
depended largely on wall temperature, and the amount of ash
deposits increased perceptively over the period of 5 to 10 hrs.
Thermal conductivity coefficients were calculated for
specimens of deposits, and the graphical analyses of the data
showed that the differences in the structure of the layers con-
tribute to the different coefficients of thermal conductivity.
Porosity, crystal structure and size, and volumetric density
were some of the factors causing the difference in the coeffi-
cients.
23313
Alkire, H. L.
AIR POLLUTION IN CAROLINE COUNTY MARYLAND.
Maryland State Department of Health, Baltimore, Div. of Air
Quality Control and Caroline County Dept. of Health, Denton,
Md., 19p., Jan. 1970. 15 refs.
The present survey emanated from the need of the Division of
Air Quality Control of the Maryland State Department of
Health to have a county by county statement, based on availa-
ble information, on the status of air contamination in the vari-
ous areas. The survey was made in accordance with authority
granted under the Maryland Air Quality Control Act (Article
43, Annotated Code of Maryland, 1957 Edition and Supple-
ment). Regulations have been adopted by the county governing
the control and prohibition of open fires, the control and
prohibition of visible emissions, and the control and prohibi-
tion of particulate emissions from fuel combustion. Amend-
ments to these regulations which became effective on January
29, 1969 govern the sulfur content of all heating oils and of oil
used in very large installations after July 1, 1970; prohibit
removing air pollution control devices from motor vehicles as
well as requiring that the devices be kept in operating condi-
tion; provide for the control of the discharge of gases, vapors
or odors; and, in addition, are concerned with control of visi-
ble and particulate emissions from industrial and incineration
operations. Plants at Denton and Ridgely fortunately have
been located so that those communities are upwind of the
prevailing west and northwest winds. Two poultry processing
plants create the types of odors usually associated therewith
but they are rurally located. There are no plants for the
rendering of inedible portions of chickens in the county. Five
dumps are used for the disposition of about 8500 tons of
refuse annually. The burning of material is on an irregular
schedule and is somewhat controlled. However, material is not
covered frequently and the dumps are odorous. Investigations
are under way with the aim of substituting sanitary landfills
for the dumps. The disposal of home-generated trash and
leaves in smaller communities and by burning is a general
practice. The processing of clams near Ridgely produces some
odors which escape into the town and may lead to objectiona-
ble conditions. However, some residents of the area reported
that they were not of an objectionable nature. Smoke has been
emanating periodically from the stack of milk plant in Green-
sboro, but this is resulting from improper operation of new
equipment which was installed to correct previously un-
satisfactory smoke emissions.
23314
Alkire, H. L.
AIR POLLUTION IN TALBOT COUNTY MARYLAND.
Maryland State Department of Health, Baltimore, Div. of Air
Quality Control and Talbot County Dept. of Health, Easton,
Md., 19p., Jan. 1970. 14 refs.
The present survey emanated from the need of the Division of
Air Quality Control of the Maryland State Department of
Health to have a county by county statement, based on availa-
ble information, on the status of air contamination in the vari-
ous areas. The survey was made in accordance with authority
for the Secretary of Health and Mental Hygiene to adopt regu-
lations governing the control of air pollution in the State.
Regulations applicable in Talbot County have been adopted
governing the control and prohibition of open fires, the control
and prohibition of visible emissions, and the control and
prohibition of particulate emissions from fuel combustion.
Amendments to these regulations which became effective on
January 29, 1969 govern the sulfur content of all heating oils
and of coal used in very large installations after July 1, 1970;
prohibit removing air pollution control devices from motor
vehicles as well as requiring that the devices be kept in operat-
ing conditions; provide for the control of the discharge of
gases, vapors or odors; and, in addition, are concerned with
control of visible and particulate emissions from industrial and
incineration operations. Most sources of air pollution in Talbot
County, although relatively small and few in number, are
clustered in the Easton area. Pollution generally is associated
with the processing of vegetables, the shelling and drying of
corn which create 'beeswing' chaff, and the processing of
seafood. Other than in the Easton area, these are widely scat-
tered and objectionable levels of pollution are localized. Al-
most all refuse material is disposed of in landfills. However,
burning sometimes occurs at the Tilghman-Sherwood dump
and occasionally at the St. Michaels dump.
23443
Wikstrom, O.
EXPERIENCE IN COMBUSTION OF HEAVY OIL WITH
LOW SULFUR CONTENT. (Erf arenheter vid eldning med lag-
svavlig tjockolja). Text in Swedish. Konf. Energi Och Miljo,
Kungalv, Sweden, 1969, no. 4:1-5, 1969.
Advantages from burning natural low-sulfur oil include better
combustion, lower consumption, and less boiler corrosion; dis-
advantages include higher cost and a higher pure point. The in-
vestment costs for a boiler with a running time of 300 hr/year
and an annual repayment of 8% with a depreciation period of
10 years are one Swedish kronor(20 cents) per cu m. The
profit, according to higher effect, is between 0.5 -1.0 Swedish
kroner /cu m. From environmental aspects, the natural low-
sulfur oil is preferable not only because of lower sulfur con-
tent but also because of lower particulate emissions.
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
13
23561
Morgan, George B. and Guntis Ozolins
THE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE ENVIRON-
MENT. Preprint, National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion, Cincinnati, Ohio, Div. of Air Quality and Emission Data,
12p., 1970.
The population of a large part of the world has been exposed
to polluted air for many decades and, in some cases, centuries.
Significant increases are forecast for the future. If control ac-
tions are not intensified, air pollution may increase by a factor
of six to ten by the year 2000. Before any meaningful control
efforts can be carried out, we must know what the ambient
levels of pollution are and how they relate to levels established
as causing health or economic effects. Many pollutants have
always been a part of the natural atmosphere. They are now
called pollutants because, with man's help, they are now ex-
cessive in quantity. Particulate pollution is the most recognized
and pervasive. Its health effects are functions of both particle
size and composition. Another significant effect is that,
suspended in the atmosphere, particulates reflect away part of
the sun's energy and could result in an over-all lowering of the
earth's temperature. Gases, 90% of all pollutants, are the
second class of pollutant. Examples are sulfur dioxide, nitric
oxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen
fluoride. A third major pollutant class is the family of
hydrocarbons. These participate in photochemical reactions
which result in the formation of secondary pollutants such as
peroxyacyl nitrates, ozone, formaldehyde, other aldehydes,
and ketones. It is from these secondary pollutants that the pri-
mary danger to both animal (including the human animal) and
vegetable life arises. Numerous industrial processes and the
ubiquitous automobile emit these assorted products that are a
serious problem in the environment surrounding their source.
Almost all human activity results in some form of air pollu-
tion, direct or indirect, particulate or gaseous. High-tempera-
ture combustion, automotive, industrial, and domestic, is the
principal offender. Parameters that must be considered when
evaluating effects of pollution include quantity, distribution,
and environmental tolerance for pollutants, individually and in
concert. Locally, micrometeorology and topography also
require consideration. Of all identified pollutants, suspended
particulates and sulfur dioxide have been the most extensively
measured and studied. As analytical techniques become availa-
ble, other pollutants will come under programmed surveillance.
Among these are asbestos, mercury, lead, pesticides,
fluorides, and biologically active metals. International assess-
ment of these problems is necessary for the preservation of
the biosphere.
23726
Land, George W.
COAL AND CLEAN AIR. Preprint, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc., New York, 7p., 1970. (Presented at the
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., New York, (Presented
at the Society of Automotive Engineers, Earthmoving Industry
Conference, Peoria, 111., April 14-15, 1970, Paper 700552.)
Data on fossil fuel energy (coal, petroleum, natural gas) con-
sumed in the U. S. since 1920 are presented to show that the
increase in air pollution in recent years is not from coal, which
has remained relatively constant on the average in quantities
used. Evidence is also presented showing that less than 20% of
the pollutants emitted into the air in a typical year arises from
generation of electricit and space heating, the principal uses
for coal. The combustion of coal produces solid and gaseous
pollutants; almost complete control of particulates is techni-
cally and economically feasible, while control of gases, mainly
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, is much less advanced. Thus,
low-sulfur fuels must be used; however, because of the
shortage of low-sulfur coal in some areas (mainly the Mid-
west), gas or low sulfur oils are substituted. Increases in gase-
ous pollutants in the last 50 years are attributed to increased
use of natural gas and petroleum, and it is concluded tha the
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons together deserve much more
control effort and research funds than they have received in
comparison to sulfur dioxide, especially in view of their role in
smog formation.
23745
Devorkin, Howard and Bernard J. Steigerwald
EMISSIONS OF AIR CONTAMINANTS FROM BOILERS
AND PROCESS HEATERS. Los Angeles County Air Pollution
Control District, Calif., California Dept. of Public Health,
Berkeley, Public Health Services Washington, D. C., Commu-
nity Air Pollution Program, Western Oil and Gas Assoc., Los
Angeles, Calif., Air Pollution Control Committee, Kept. 7,
29p., June 1958. 9 refs.
Combustion of fuel oil and gas is a source of emissions to the
atmosphere. The techniques and results of a stack sampling
study to determine the extent of these emissions from com-
bustion in oil refinery boilers and heaters in Los Angeles
County are presented. A total of 21 stacks were sampled,
using standard sampling procedures and methods. The results
were evaluated in the form of total emissions and average
emission factors. The average emission factors per unit of fuel
used were calculated for each contaminant for combustion of
both oil and gas. The contaminants measured include
hydrocarbons, as hexane; sulfur dioxide; oxides of nitrogen,
as nitrogen dioxide; particulate matter; sulfur trioxide; am-
monia; aldehydes; and organic acids, as ascetic acid. Emis-
sions of sulfur oxides are a direct function of the composition
of the fuel, while the emission of the other contaminants are
primarily influenced by combustion temperature, heater
design, or air-fuel ratio rather than fuel composition. Com-
parison of the analysis of stack gases for SOB with the mea-
sured SO2 emissions from these units gave an average ratio of
SO3 to total sulfur as SO2 of 0.03. Of the 20 tests made for
CO 14 were negative, five showed a trace less than 0.001%,
and one showed a concentration of 0.003%; the emission of
CO from boilers and process heaters was negligible.
24005
Cave, G. A.
DUSTS AND SMOKES IN FLUE GASES. Brit. Coal. Util.
Res. Assoc. Monthly Bull., 10(3):61-70, March 1946. 98 refs.
Dusts carried by flue gases are considered with respect to
their composition, mode of formation, and chemical and physi-
cal properties. The materials from which flue dust is formed
derive in part from unburned carbon and in part from inor-
ganic mineral constituents of coal. They consist of inherent as
well as adventitious ash, and their composition may include
most of the elements in the periodic table. With regard to
boiler corrosion and deposits, the constituents of most interest
are those that influence the fusability of the ash and those that
determine the proportion of ash escaping as volatile material.
Dust-producing materials are released and formed by decom-
position, reaction, volatilization, and mechanical pickup. Pro-
perties of flue dust determining its accumulation on heating
surfaces are density, size, thermal motion, reactivity towards
gaseous flue-gas constituents, and electrical characteristics.
Concentrations of dust in boiler gases depend on local condi-
tions of gas movement; thermal gradient; the particular rela-
tionship between particle size, velocity, and direction of the
gas stream; and on factors connected with the release of dust
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14
BOILERS
from the fuel bed. Size and basicity of ash particles or ag-
gregates in a coal-dust firing system diminishes from the com-
bustion chamber toward the chimney; solids emitted by the
chimney may consist of highly siliceous and refractory single
particles. Smoke-density meters are quite efficient for measur-
ing smokes and suspended particles in flue gases at stack
levels, and a variety of devices are available for separating
dusts from flue gases. In general, the most effective
meteorological element in controlling the concentration of
smoke is turbulence.
24076
Sakai, Takeshi and Sachio Sugiyama
RESIDUAL CARBON PARTICLES YIELDED BY COM-
BUSTION OF ATOMIZED HEAVY- FUEL-OIL DROPLETS.
J. Inst. Fuel, vol. 43:295-300, Aug. 1970. 18 refs.
The distribution and the mean diameter of coke particles
discharged with flue gas from the combustion of atomized
heavy-fuel-oil droplets in a furnace was studied in relation to
the distribution of the atomized heavy-fuel-oil droplets. An
analytical method of determining the coefficients of the
Gamma distribution function was developed that is easier and
more exact than the semilog method. The critical coke generat-
ing droplet diameter was derived from the combustion history
of a single heavy-fuel-oil droplet, and the relationship between
the initial droplet diameter and the diameter of the discharged
droplet was parabolic. This conclusion was applied to the com-
bustion of a cloud of fuel-oil droplets. Thus, theoretical equa-
tions defining the mean diameters and distribution of the coke
particles with respect to the distribution of initial droplets
were obtained. Data from these equations were compared with
data from work on a pilot furnace. The distribution and mean
diameter of the coke particles discharged from the furnace
were determined mainly by the distribution of the initial
heavy-fuel-oil spray and the properties of the fuel oil, but not
by the fuel:air ratio. (Author abstract modified)
24219
Ancona, Giuseppe and Giancarlo Scavizzi
MODERN DIRECTIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL COM-
BUSTION OF FLUIDS. (Moderni orientamenti della com-
bustione industnale di fluide). Text in Italian. Termotechnica
(Milan), 24(8):364-370, Aug. 1970. (Presented at the ATI Na-
tional Congress, 24th, Bari, Oct. 1969.)
Some modern types of industrial burners for liquid or gaseous
fuels are described. The methods for the liquid fuels atomiza-
tion most widely accepted in the industrial practice-direct or
return pressure, and auxiliary fluid impingement-are briefly
examined and compared. The ranges are defined where the
physical quantities involved in the process (pressure, viscosity,
temperature) must lie in order to guarantee the best jet forma-
tion. A versatile and simple type of gas burner is described. It
consists of a series of gas spuds directly fed from a ring
manifold and projecting into the burner throat. This burner is
in industrial operation with natural or refinery gas. The heat
transfer problems are examined which can arise in the steam
generators from the difference in emissive capacity between
the flames from gas and from oil. The gas flame is usually
non-luminous, and consequently the furnace absorption in gas
operation is much lower than when burning oil. This causes a
higher heat absorption of the convective parts downstream of
the furance, with possible difficulties in keeping the steam
temperatures below the tolerated limits during the gas opera-
tion at high boiler loads. These problems can be attenuated by
creating a zone in the gas flame where the combustion is artifi-
call poor. This causes a highly emissive soot particles cloud to
be formed, increasing the heat transferred in the furnace by
radiation. The other components of the burner—impellers and
registers—are briefly described. Their combined effect in the
air swirl and the flame shape are examined, together with the
reasons which have led to their current design. (Author ab-
stract modified)
24732
Spaite, Paul W. and Robert P. Hangebrauck
POLLUTION FROM COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS. In:
Air Pollution-1970 Part I. 91st Congress (Senate), Second Ses-
sion on S.3229, S.3466, S.3546, p. 172-181, 1970. 3 refs.
(Hearings before the Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollu-
tion of the Committee on Public Works, March 16, 17, 18,
1970.)
Currently, emissions of fly ash, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen ox-
ides by fossil fuel burning sources come to about 45 million
tons per year in the United States, and consumption of fossil
fuels is doubling every 25 years. These emissions originate in
power plants industrial boilers, and smaller installations used
for commercial and residential heating. Power production,
which accounts for 70% of the present total sulfur oxide emis-
sions from combustion and over 90% of the total anticipated in
30 years, is by far the most important source judged on the
basis of total contribution from all combustion sources. Even
when consideration of the nature of the control problem is
limited to coal burning power plants, the problem of non-
uniformity in the processes which must be controlled still is
apparent. Factors such as plant size, plant age, and a host of
considerations associated with location make each power plant
a unique control problem. Oxides of nitrogen range from an
estimated 9 million tons at present to about 25 million tons by
the year 2000. Presently available equipment for fly-ash con-
trol does not efficiently collect particles less than approximate-
ly 1.0 micron in diameter. Fine particulates tend to remain in
suspension in the upper atmosphere, where continued build-up
of such materials could produce unacceptable worldwide cli-
mate changes. From the control point of view, combustion
source can be divided into three classes with distinctly dif-
ferent characteristics as far as the nature of the control
problem is concerned: boilers under 500 million Btu/hr capaci-
ty, existing boilers larger than 70 mw, and large new boilers
that will be built in the future and for the most part will be
500-1000 mw in size.
24854
Feldkircher, James J.
REBIRTH OF A BOILERHOUSE. Preprint, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 5p., 1970. (Presented at
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Maintenance
Conference, Fort Worth, Tex., 1970, Paper 70-PEM-5.)
The factors instrumental in the decision to convert the 27-yr
old coal boilerhouse of a Midwestern industrial plant to natural
gas are discussed. Existing equipment, steam loads, and de-
mands, and operational and equipment problems of the old
unit are described. After analysis of 10 different systems, one
was chosen in which the boilers are converted to gas, an exist-
ing gas-fired boiler is relocated, and all new feed water equip-
ment is installed. With this system, the life of the boilers are
increased to a minimum of 20 yrs, all future all pollution
problems are eliminated, peak steam demands for the next five
years can be met, and capital and operating costs are reduced.
A brief description of the new gas burner is included.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
15
25142
Ehrenfeld, John R., Josette C. Goldish, Ronald Orner, and
Ralph H. Bernstein
POLLUTION FROM STATIONARY FOSSIL-FUEL BURNING
COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT TO 1990. A SYSTEMS STUDY
OF EMISSIONS AND CONTROL. Preprint, International
Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, 32p., 1970. 18
refs. (Presented at the International Clean Air Congress, 2nd,
Washington, D. C., 1970, Paper EN-16G.)
The methodology used to determine present and future air pol-
lution resulting from boilers is discussed. Unlike other studies,
the approach used here does not try to determine emissions
from fuel consumption data, but starts out with an equipment
inventory. The inventory for 1967 was obtained from a variety
of sources, includin equipment manufacturers and trade as-
sociations, government publications, NAPCA studies, state
and local boiler inspection agencies, and air pollution control
departments and trade journals. A computer program (STRAT)
was developed to process this inventory which was reduced to
a matrix of 5376 elements. The program calculates emissions
from the capacity data and allows for a man-machine selection
of subsets of equipment on which to apply control strategies.
It will execute each strategy and recalculate emissions, annual
costs of control, and initial capital outlay for equipment con-
versions. Projections of sales up to 1990 were obtained by
using multiple regression models with economic data as the in-
dependent variables. Boiler inventories were subsequently ob-
tained for 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990 by adding the sales for
the relevant time period to the 1967 inventory and subtracting
the estimated retirements. The computer programs, STRAT
was used to analyze these projections. Results of the sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates emissions for 1967
and the projected emissions for 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990 are
summarized. Control strategies are being applied to these in-
ventories by means of STRAT, by region, types of equipment,
fuel types, and other variables. It is expected that the cost ef-
fectiveness of control strategies can be determined in a much
more realistic way by means of the techniques described.
(Author abstract)
25169
Johnson, G. M., C. J. Matthews, M. Y. Smith, and D. J.
Williams
DISTRIBUTION OF SULFUR SPECIES IN THE BURNT GAS
OF FUEL-RICH PROPANE-AIR FLAMES. Combust. Flame,
15(2):211-214, Oct. 1970. 11 refs.
The computed equilibrium distributions of 20 sulfur species in
the burnt gas of fuel-rich propane flames as a function of fuel-
air ratio are compared with the measured relative concentra-
tions of three sulfur-containing species: sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and carbon monosulfide. Measured concen-
tration profiles (along the vertical axis of the flame) of these
three species are also compared with the calculated profiles
based on measured reversal-temperature profiles.
25196
Shannon, Larry J., A. Eugene Vandegrift, Paul G. Gorman,
Eugene E. Sallee, and M. Reichel
EMISSION AND EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS OF STA-
TIONARY PARTICULATE POLLUTION SOURCES.
Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution Prevention As-
sociations, 36p., 1970. 2 refs. (Presented at the International
Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970,
Paper EN-22F.)
A particulate pollutant system study was undertaken to over-
come deficiencies in our knowledge regarding the nature and
magnitude of particulate pollutant emissions from stationary
sources in the United States. The objective of the study was
to identify, characterize, and quantify the particulate air pollu-
tion burden resulting from stationary sources. A quantitative
ranking is presented of staionary sources, projections of then-
potential emission levels up to the year 2000, and information
on the effluent characteristics (particulate and carrier gas) of
the major particulate pollutant sources. A ranking of sources
on the basis of total tonnage of emissions per year was
developed. Total tonnage emitted by a given source or indus-
try was determined from four quantities: an emission factor
for the uncontrolled source; the total tonnage processed per
year by the source; the efficiency of control equipment used;
and the percentage of production capacity equipped with con-
trol devices. In some cases computation procedures based on
outlet grain loadings or material balances were also employed.
The major stationary sources of particulates are electric power
generation plants, the crushed stone industry, agriculture and
related operations, the iron and steel industry, and the cement
industry. Forecasts of the level of particulate pollutants
emitted from stationary sources up to the year 2000 were
developed by taking into account: changes in production
capacity; improvements in control devices; and legislative or
regulatory action to enforce installation of control equipment.
These forecasts indicate that particulate emissions can be
reduced to about one-sixth of the current level by 1980
through the installation of currently available control devices
on all sources. The projections also suggest that reduction of
particulate matter will most likely occur by installation of con-
tro equipment on uncontrolled sources and by shifts to more
efficient types of collection equipment rather than by any
major improvements in the efficiency of a specific type of
control device. A matrix of effluent properties for the major
particulate sources is presented. Particulate characteristics
discussed include particle size, solids loading, and chemical
composition. Carrier-gas properties tabulated include flow rate
and chemical composition. (Author abstract modified)
25638
PROTECTION AGAINST IMMISSION. (Immissionsschutz).
Text in German. Rheinisch-Westfaelischer Technischer
Uberwach.- Verein E.V., Jahresbericht, 1969:38-41, 1969.
The five principles promulgated in the framework of an inten-
sified air pollution control campaign by the state of Nordrhein-
Westfalen and adopted also by the other West German states
postulate that all polluters be identified and included in the
pollution control program, that the atmosphere be kept as
clean as possible and not as dirty as just about tolerable; that
the costs of the program be born equally by all polluters so
that no competitive advantages arise; that the polluters bear
the cost of their pollution control measures and public funds
be used only in special situations; and that air pollution control
as a community responsibility requires the cooperation of all
concerned. Thus, all polluters are subject to certification and
must meet all prescribed maximal emission regulations pertain-
ing to dust emission, SO2 emission, and other applicable regu-
lations. Fluorine is emitted by brick factories in quantities
between 30 and 300 mg/N cu m, by cupola furnaces in quanti-
ties between 4 and 280 mg N/cu m, by Siemens-Martin fur-
naces in quantities between 7 and 70 mg N/cu m, by fertilizer
plants in quantities between 6 and 80 mg N/cu m and by plants
manufacturing insulating wool in quantities between 0.4 to 3
mg N/cu m. Guidelines regarding the required height of smoke
stacks, emissions by refuse incineration plants, supervision of
pollutant concentration and emission of pollutants, control of
-------
16
BOILERS
emission by boiler plants, control of olfactory pollutants and
of noise pollution are outlined.
25868
Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. (Japan), Special Demand Section
EXAMPLES OF CITY-GAS COMBUSTION IN BOILERS.
(Boira ni okeru toshigasu no nenshorei). Text in Japanese.
Netsu Kanri (Heat Management: Energy and Pollution Con-
trol), 22(10):23-29, Oct. 30, 1970.
A 15 t/h boiler was revamped to compare the thermal efficien-
cy and the automatic combustion control (ACC) operation for
cases when heavy oil and natural gas are used for fuel. A
complete description of the gas burner (dual fuel burner) in-
cluding the tabulation of specifications, schematic diagrams,
flowcharts, and operational data are presented. The opera-
tional data are given for combustion period, steam flow, vapor
pressure, water supply flo rate, water supply temperature, gas
flow rate, gas pressure, temperature of air entering and exiting
the heat exchanger, temperature of exhaust gas entering and
exiting the heat exchanger, percentage composition of exhaust
gas (02 and CO2), and the outdoor temperature. The boiler ef-
ficiency is increased by a few percent using gas, and high effi-
ciency lasts longer. Within the load variation range of 20 t/h to
5 t/h, ACC is applicable. The use of gas contributes to en-
durance under over-loading; at low loads, the efficiency of the
boiler is much higher than when heavy oil is used There is no
pollution by soot and dust and little damage to the boiler itself,
water pipes, and other parts.
26277
Newton, David F.
ROLE OF THE DAIRY AND FOOD INDUSTRY IN EN-
VIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL. Milk Food
Technol., 33(12):568-570. 4 refs. (Presente at the New York
State Association of Milk and Food Sanitarians, Annual Meet-
ing, Syracuse, N. Y., Sept. 23, 1970.)
Roles of the dairy and food industry in environmental pollu-
tion are examined in terms of a potential or actual polluter, an
educator, and a community leader. Wastewater from milk
houses and milking parlors and sanitary sewage from farm
houses constitute potential pollutants on dairy farms, as does
wastewater from milk and food processing plants in rural and
urban areas. Boilers and heating facilities in milk and food
processing plants are potential sources for air pollutants.
Diesel trucks used to haul milk and other foods of processing
plants and to retail stores are another important source of pol-
lutants. Most supermarkets and many food warehouses have
incinerators to burn combustible refuse, while dairy and
poultry farms produce enormous tonnages of manure. Dairies
could print statements and suggestions about pollution control
on milk cartons; restaurants could have messages about pollu-
tion control printed on their place mats. Plant managers and
laboratory technicians, many of whom are college graduates,
possess a knowledge of science and, hence, can be very help-
ful to civic and conservation groups in studying and evaluating
local environmental problems.
26278
NEW BOILERS MAY KEEP COAL COMPETITIVE. Chem.
Eng. News, 49(3): 32-33, Jan. 11, 1971.
To keep coal competitive with other energy sources, the
power industry is developing a new technology for producing
steam from coal. Today's advanced conventional boilers, par-
ticularly those used to generate electric power, are very large,
require field erection, and are somewhat limited in the types
and forms of coal they can use. Fluidized systems offer the
potential for factory fabrication of highly efficient modular
units that can operate with less expensive coals. The prelimi-
nary design concept for a 300,000 pound-per-hour unit calls for
the modules or cells to run parallel to the steam drum and to
connect with a single carbon burn-up cell. Eight fuel injection
points are called for, each serving two locations. Coal and
limestone feed will be combined where sulfur dioxide controls
must be employed. The primary superheaters may be arranged
as baffle screens above the bed, providing an automatic con-
trol. Fly ash from the modules will be collected and fed to the
carbon burn-up cell through four separate feeders. The additio
of 27% pulverized limestone to the combustion zone of the
fluid bed boiler permits coal with 4.5% sulfur to be burned
with the effects normally experienced with coal having only
1% sulfur. A unique feature of the prototype fluid bed boiler is
simultaneous total combustion of the residual carbon of the fly
ash and regeneration of the limestone in an internal cell
operating in parallel with the primary combustion zone. From
an economic viewpoint, a factory- assembled, 250,000 pound-
per-hour fluid bed boiler could be made available for about
$600,000.
26538
Suzuki, Jiro
INFLUENCE OF DUST ON SO3 MEASUREMENT IN FLUE
GASES. (Endo gasuchu ni okeru SO3 sokutei ni oyobosu
baijin no eikyo). Text in Japanese Denryoku Chuo Kenkyusho
Gijutsu Kenkyusho Hokoku (Kept. Tech. Lab. Central Res.
Inst. Elec. Power Ind.), no. 69043:1-24, Oct. 1969. 17 refs.
Sulfur trioxide was measured in a heavy oil boiler in order to
understand more clearly the effects of low-oxygen combustion
and th injection of additives. Sulfur dioxide and SO3 were
measured by traditional methods such as JIS-K-0103. The
values of SO3 showed some deviation due to the lack of stan-
dard procedures for filling u the filter. A new method of calcu-
lating SO3 quantity was based on measurements obtained by
changing the packing densities and the packing length of the
filter. The drawing velocity of flue gas fro an oil-fired boiler
confirmed that the traditional method analyzed SO3 in the ex-
cess of 1.0 to 3.0 ppm. Thus the filling density of 0.39 g/cu cm
and length over 8 cm for a dust tube filled with non-alkaline
glass wool treated with HC1 or quartz wool, would be ap-
propriate. With this new sampling apparatus, the SO3 values
showed a standard deviation of plus or minus 0.5 ppm.
26693
National Air Pollution Control Administration, Raleigh, N. C.,
Div. of Air Quality and Emission Data
NATIONWIDE INVENTORY OF AIR POLLUTANT EMIS-
SIONS. Pub AP-73, 36p., Aug. 1970. 13 refs. NTIS: PB 196304
Nationwide emission estimates for the year 1968 are
presented. Carbon monoxide, particulates, sulfur oxides,
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides are indicated from trans-
portation sources, industrial processes, solid waste disposal,
and fuel combustion in stationary sources. Projections of
motor vehicle emissions to the year 1990 are included for HC,
CO, and NOx. Presented also are the methodology and basic
data used to make the emission estimates, such as fuel usage,
vehicle miles of travel, and methods of solid waste disposal.
Separate travel data were developed for urban and rural driv-
ing for automobiles and light- and heavy-duty trucks. Diesel
fuel is indicated as well as gasoline. Aircraft, railroads, and
ships are mentioned, including the non-highway consumption
of motor fuels. Fuel consumption by stationary sources com-
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
17
prises coal, fuel oil, natural gas, and wood. Miscellaneous
sources include forest fires, structural fires, coal refuse burn-
ing, organic solvent evaporation, gasoline marketing, and
agricultural burning.
27471
Govan, Francis A.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT NOT ALWAYS THE ANSWER TO
POLLUTION CONTROL. Bldg. Systems Design, 68(2): 16, 17,
37, Feb. 1971.
In the past, the decision of whether a boiler was polluting the
atmosphere was based primarily of the visible plume. Most
new or proposed regulations, although still specifying visible
smoke as a criterion, also incorporate particulate emission
levels based on source sampling. The trend is toward more
stringent levels and an accepted value of 0.2 pounds/million
Btuh input appears likely. However, these new regulations do
not necessarily mean that it is necessary to install air pollution
control equipment. Proper adjustment, integration, operation,
and maintenance of a boiler plant should keep particulate
emissions within the acceptable limits.
28137
Matsumura, Yoshimi
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HEAVY OIL SOOT. (Juyu
nenshobai no kagakuteki seishitsu). Text in Japanese. Taiki
Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 5(1):190, 1970.
(Proceedings of the Japan Society of Air Pollution, Annual
Meeting, 10th, 1970.)
Soot in exhaust gas from a heavy-oil boiler was analyzed for
acidity, water-soluble components, degree of crystallization of
the carbon structure, and free-radical content. Two types of
soot that were used: collected by a filter in the stack when B-
heavy oil was combusted for a low-pressure sectional boiler,
and that collected from the conductor surface of the boiler.
Soot from heavy-oil combustion had low levels of carboniza-
tion and contained a large amount of water-soluble organic
components that were very acidic. In addition, free radicals
were contained in the structure of the soot.
28158
Norda, H
SUPPLYING A POWER PLANT OF THE CHEMICAL IN-
DUSTRY WITH LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUELS. (Versor-
gung eines Kraftwerkes der chemischen Industrie mil flues-
sigen und gasfoermigen Brennstoffen). Text in German. Mitt.
Ver Grosskesselbesitzer, 51(l):23-26, Feb. 1971.
A power plant is described which comprises of two boilers
with a maximum steam production of 64 tons/hr. The steam
exits at 500 C. The boilers are designed for 100% gas opera-
tion, 100% oil operation, or for mixed fuels. Each boiler has
four oil burners and four gas burners. The stack for the waste
gas is 115 m high. Increasingly, chemical-process waste
products including carbonic acid, cyan, and gas mixtures from
waste-water treatment are burned in the boiler furnaces. Large
quantities of hydrogen sulfide gas from a sulfuric acid plant
are similarly burned. Further, waste gas which may not reach
the atmosphere is burned in the boiler furnaces. Because of
the variety of fuels fired in the furnaces, combustion is not al-
ways homogeneous. High fluctuations of the heating value oc-
cur. These disturbances could be eliminated.
28388
Baum, F., W. Brocke, and W. Block
DEVELOPMENT OF MEASUREMENT METHODS AND
EMISSION MEASUREMENTS ON BOILER PLANTS FOR
SOLID FUEL WITH NOMINAL CAPACITIES BETWEEN
18,000 AND 800,000 KCAL/HR. (Entwicklung von Mess-
methoden und Emissions messungen an Kesselanlagen fuer
feste Brennstoffe mit Nennleistungen zwishen 18,000 kcal/hr.
Text in German. Gesundh. Ingr., 92(1):12-20, Jan. 1971. 18
refs.
Measurements were made of dust emissions from 69 solid-
fuel, central-heating boilers which had nominal capacities
between 18,000 and 800,000 kcal/hr with the exception of six
having nominal capacities of 18,500 and 20,000 kcal/hr. The
measuring unit consisted of a sampling probe, a filter holding
mechanism, a connection hose, and suction pump. The air
sample (90 1) was drawn into the probe through an opening
9.72 mm diameter, and the dust carried by the air sample was
deposited in a thimble filter. Sampling speed was 4m/sec,
referred to a waste gas temperature of 320 C, and a barometric
pressure of 753 mm mercury. A piston membrane pump with
four entrance and four exit valves was used for drawing in the
air samples. The motor of the pump switched off automatically
after 10 min to maintain a constant volume intake. Boilers
where the entire fuel bed burns were found emitted less dust
than systems where only the bottom layer burns. The latter
type emits less volatile matter, however.
28515
Ihle, Claus
WHY EXCESS PRESSURE IN THE COMBUSTION
CHAMBER? (Wozu Ueberdruck im Feuerraum)? Text in Ger-
man. Oel Gasfeuerung, 16(3):326-332, March 1971.
The principle of excess pressure is comming increasingly into
use. A large number of boiler furnaces are now designed for
the so-called excess pressure firing system, i.e., flue gas-side
excess pressures of 20 to 50 mm water for cast-iron boilers
and 30 to 100 mm water for steel boilers. Excess pressure
boilers are more compact, require less space, and have a
higher specific capacity. However, the high flue-gas speeds
and the higher circumferential speed of the ventilator make
them noisier than conventional boilers. In addition, the small
flue-gas ducts which are necessary to obtain a high flue-gas
speed make flue-gas cleaning more difficult. Finally, boiler and
burner are not always tuned to each other satisfactorily.
28544
Matuo, M.
ON GAS BURNERS FOR BOILERS. (Boira gasu baana ni
tsuite). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Management;
Energy and Pollution Control), 23(2):20-26, Feb. 1971.
Several kinds of gas burners, automatic combustion control
devices for gas-burning boilers, and safety devices for boilers
are discussed. Brief descriptions of their basic mechanism are
given. Two classifications of gas burners are used: the forced
draft external-mix type, and the natural draft pre-mix type.
The former classification is more widely used today and in-
cludes the ring-type gas burner, center-fire type, multi-lance
type, center-fire type for low-pressure low-calorie gas, and
scroll type. The ring type can be applied to practically all
kinds of fuel gases including hydrogen city gas, and natural
gas whose caloric value ranges from 2000-10,000 kcal/cu nm
and gas pressure from about 0.1 to 0.5 kg/sq cm g. Like the
ring type, the center-fire type finds a wide application and is
used for liquid propane gas (LPG), refinery gas, natural gas,
-------
18
BOILERS
city gas, and hydrogen sulfide. A high carbon hydrogen fuel
such as LPG or petroleum refinery gas is burned, mist con-
tained in the gas is pyrolized and carbonized at the burner tip,
thus damaging the burner if it is a ring-type. The multi-lance
type in which the gas is jetted into the vortex air current in the
burner throat through the gas ring header provided outside of
the resistor is designed to avoi/ such a defect. The center-fire
type for low-pressure low calorie gas, designed for combustion
of blast furnace gas, formalin gas, or other waste gas contain-
ing a good deal of incombustible gases, it has a burner tip pro-
vided with several small compartments, through which gas and
air are jetted alternately for speedy mixing of air with gas. The
scroll type is also designed for combustion of low- calorie,
low-pressure gas like blast furnace gas. Automatic combustion
control devices for gas-burning boilers are introduced and
safety devices are discussed, including a prepurge, pressure
switch, shutoff valve, and supervisory cock.
28800
Korn, Joseph
SONIC FUEL ATOMIZATION. Heating, Piping, Air Condi-
tioning, 43(4):84-86, April 1971.
Burners with sonic fuel atomizing nozzles are increasingly
being used to reduce fuel costs while conforming to air pollu-
tion codes. Essentially, a sonic atomizing nozzle is a whistle.
Gas expands through a convergent/divergent section and into a
resonator cap, where it is reflected back to complement and
amplify the primary shock wave. The result is an intense field
of sonic energy, focused between the nozzle body and the
resonator cap. By creating smaller, more uniform drops of oil
and delivering them to a combustion chamber in the form of a
soft mist, a sonic nozzle permits combustion conditions ap-
proaching stoichiometric to be achieved. With the basic com-
bustion process improved, fuel consumption is reduced an
average of 20%, smoke is minimized, and solid paniculate
emissions are cut by 80%. Combustion efficiencies of 83-87%
and carbon dioxide levels of 14-16% are common even with
heavy fuel oils.
29308
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS: HEATING BOILERS OF STEEL
AND CAST IRON. (Entwicklungstendenzen: Heizkessel aus
Stahl und Gusseisen). Text in German. Oel Gasfeuerung,
16(3).278-286, 1971.
In large cities there is a tendency to use natural gas for firing
boilers in order to keep emissions low. Since this gas is dif-
ficult to ignite, ventilating burners are used which have a
higher noise level. Atmospheric burners with capacities of
200,000 kcal/h are used. In small boilers of 70 meal, the heat
quantity transferred through radiation in the combustion
chamber is relatively high (up to 70%), so that only small heat-
ing surfaces are needed for the transfer of heat from the flue
gases after they leave the combustion chamber. Cast iron fur-
naces are also heated with natural gas instead of oil to curb air
pollution. An increase of the waste gas temperature of 10 to 15
C was observed at boilers fired with natural gas, compared to
oil-fired units.
29534
Tahara, Takeshi
COMBUSTION OF WASTE OIL FROM COAL. (Sekitankei
haiyu no nensho). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat
Management: Energy and Pollution Control), 23(4):19-26, April
1971.
A supplemental fuel of waste oil or residual oil is used for
boilers in a coal tar processing plant. Such use of the waste oil
aims at fuel economy and the reduction of sulfur oxide emis-
sions. The properties of the waste oil and how it can be effec-
tively utilized as a fuel oil are discussed. Distillate oils from
coal tar include 1% light oil, 3% carbolic oil, 13% naphthalene
oil, 6% treated oil, 21% anthracene oil, and 56% pitch. The
residual oils obtained after extracting the useful contents from
these distillate oils are properly blended and used as the fuel
oil. Characteristic of this fuel oil include a practically neutral
reaction, a wide range of flashing points from 40-140 C and a
varying point of fluidization. Elementary analysis reveals that
the fuel oil contains more carbon but less hydrogen than
petroleum heavy oil, thus giving a C/H ratio of 16 as com-
pared to 8 for petroleum heavy oil, 0.5% or less sulfur con-
tent, and up to 5% water content. The calorific value is 10%
lower than that of petroleum heavy oil. The specific gravity
varies; some are heavier than water and others are lighter. The
pre-combustion heating temperature depends on the viscosity,
point of fluidization, and flashing point and ranges from 80 to
135 C for the oil containing a lot of pitch. Gum resins are
formed and become separated when mixed with carbon in
heavy oil, sometimes resulting in operational trouble. The
burner tip ca be eroded or corroded with powder coke and tar
acid. The blended oil from such pitch-free and highly dissolv-
ing oils produced from coal tar such as anthracene oil, treated
oil, and carbolic oil blend well with carbon heavy oils at any
mixing ratio. However, mixed with medium or soft pitch oil,
sludge or gum resin are produced. The mixing ratios of carbon
heavy oil, medium pitch, and pitch-free oil extracted from tar
were studied to find the allowabl range for the blended com-
bustion. Various aspects of combustion were also examined.
Favorable results were obtained from the injection of an addi-
tive into the boiler furnace.
29538
Tada, Osamu
NITROGEN OXIDES ANALYSIS. (Chisso sankabutsu bunseki
no igi). Text in Japanese. Preprint, Japan Society of Analytical
Chemistry, Tokyo, 2p., 1971. (Presented at the Nitrogen Ox-
ides Conference, 3rd, Tokyo, Japan, Jan. 22, 1971.)
A memorandum of a lecture on the significance of the analysis
of nitrogen oxides is presented. It includes substances con-
tained in the nitrogen oxides group, the generation and the
source of nitroge oxides, the influence of nitrogen oxides on
the human body, and the permissible concentration of nitrogen
oxides and their environmenta standard. Compounds contained
in the nitrogen oxides group are dinitrogen monoxide, nitrogen
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen sesquioxide, and
dinitrogen pentoxide (nitric acid). The ratio of nitrogen monox-
ide to nitrogen dioxide generated from the source is important.
The nitrogen monoxide/nitrogen dioxide ratio is: oxyacetylene
flame (0.92), carbon arc (0.91), combustion of celluloid (0.10),
exhaust fume of Diesel engine (0.65), dynamite gas (0.48), and
the gas generated from metals treated by nitric acid (0.22). The
concentration of nitrogen oxides from several sources was re-
ported (1961-1962): smoke from firewood stove (nitrogen diox-
ide; 2-9 ppm and nitrogen monoxide; 10-130 ppm), coal stove
smoke (1-16 and 2-670), oil stove (0-1 and 1-7), bath gas boiler
fume (1-7 and 36-118), auto exhaust gas at the outlet port (1-3
and 28-124, fume of diesel engine (420-500 and 0-35) and
tobacco smoke (20-187 and 15-300). Nitrogen monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, and dinitrogen pentoxide are the objects of
an argument on physical influences.
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
19
29781
Gils, Walter
MARKET DEVELOPMENT IN GAS ECONOMY. (Die Mark-
tentwicklung in der Gaswirtschaft). Text in German. Gas Was-
serfach Gas Erdgas (Munich), 112(5):215-219, May 1971.
(Presented at the Gasfachlichen Aussprachetagung, Wuerz-
burg, West Germany, 1970.)
The natural gas consumption in West Germany in 1969 was
22.7 billion cu m/4300 kcal/cu m, an increase over the previous
year of 42%. The gas supply from coking plants, remote gas
supply companies, and local gas works has doubled over the
past ten years. Natural gas is widely used in households and
industry. Since gas heating does not contribute to air pollution,
it is gaining popularity rapidly. Natural gas is also used in
remote heating plants, houses, and industry (boiler plants,
production plants in the cement and potassium industry, and
power plants). Another further application is the total energy
obtained when power is produced with the aid of a gas turbine
or gas motor and where the waste heat is used for the drying
processes.
30017
Joensuu, Oiva, I.
FOSSIL FUELS AS A SOURCE OF MERCURY POLLUTION.
Science, 172(3987): 1027-1028, June 4, 1971. 10 refs.
One suspected source of environmental mercury pollution is
mercury-containing fungicides used in treatment of grain
seeds. However, the amounts used are much too small to ex-
plain high mercury contents in wildlife. A large part of the
mercury found in the environment is derived from industrially
produced mercury, approximately 10,000 tons/yr, most of
which is discarded in waste streams. Another possible source
could be fossil fuels and ores. Although the concentration of
mercury in fuels is small, they are consumed at an enormous
rate and must be considered as a possibly significant source of
mercury release. The amount of mercury in coal is not well
known. To obtain a preliminary value, 36 American coals were
analyzed by a mercury vapor detector. It was concluded that
3000 tons of mercury/yr are released to the environment by
the burning of coal. The upper limit of mercury released by
weathering is 230 tons/yr. Detailed studies are needed to deter-
mine the distribution of mercury near power plants and other
users of coal.
30021
Buenz, P.
CAUSES, MEASUREMENT AND LIMITATION OF PAR-
TICULATE EMISSION FROM OIL-FIRED STEAM BOILERS.
(Ursachen, Messung und Begrenzung des Feststoffauswurfes
aus oelgefeuerten Dampfkesseln). Text in German. Energie
(Munich), 23(5): 165-166, May 1971. 2 refs.
Three types of particulates can be determined in waste gases
from oil-fired furnaces: fly ash, which is a reaction product of
the non-combustible ash-forming components in the fuel; soot,
which is formed through liberation of carbon during com-
bustion in the gaseous phase; and coke from cracking
processes in the liquid phase of the fuel droplets. Fly ash is
produced only with heavy fuel oil. After emission, soot parti-
cles remain suspended in the atmosphere and reach the ground
through a slow diffusion process. Coke particles develop
through incomplete combustion. Soot flakes develop through
adsorption of the particles emitted from the combustion
chamber on wet surfaces. A prerequisite to these processes is
a surface temperature below the dew point and the condensa-
tion of sulfuric acid from the flue gases on these surfaces. Ad-
sorbed particulates, which form flakes having diameters of up
to 5 mm, contain iron sulfate and free sulfuric acid.
30132
Chory, J. P.
THE SE-DUCT--AN IDEAL SOLUTION FOR GAS HEATERS.
(Der Luft- Abgas-Schornstein - eine ideale Loesung fuer
Gasfeuerstaetten). Text in German. Sanit. Heizungstech.,
36(5):405-411, 1971. 4 refs.
The SE-duct is a vertical duct beginning in the basement and
jutting out over the roof. In the basement, one or two horizon-
tal ducts connect the SE-duct with the atmosphere. Through
the horizontal ducts, fresh air enters the vertical duct. The gas
heaters which are connected to the vertical duct have an open-
ing in the lower section for primary air supply and another in
the upper section for exit of the waste gas. The burner suitable
for connection to the SE-duct must have an optimum primary
air supply so that a carbon dioxide concentration of 1.5% by
volume, the combustion process remains stable and clean. The
burner must have excellent distribution of secondary air to
reduce carbon monoxide formation and for flame control.
30829
Brown, T. D. and V. I. Hanby
HIGH INTENSITY COMBUSTION. Preprint, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Fuels Div.; Inst.
of Fuel, London (England); Inst. of Combustion and Fuel
Technology of Canada, Ottawa (Ontario), p. 13.1-13.25, 1970.
33 refs. (Presented at the North American Fuel Technology
Conference, Ottawa, Ontario, May 31-June 3, 1970, Paper F-
NAFTC-2.)
Published research on homo- and heterogeneous combustion
systems indicates the importance of oxygen enrichment and
temperature on combustion intensity. In the absence of those
factors, the recirculation ratio is a dominant influence, in
several cases, an optimum recirculation ratio exists for max-
imum combustion intensity. Combustion rates in heterogene-
ous oscillating combustion systems increase for all particle
sizes as the pressure amplitude increases. Increases in com-
bustion intensity will always lead to an increase in emissions
of sulfur trioxide and oxides of nitrogen. (Author abstract)
31252
Niepenberg, H. P.
DIMENSIONS AND DESIGN FEATURES OF GAS BURNERS.
(Auslegung und Konstruktionsmerkmale von Gasbrennern).
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 50(l):38-44, Feb. 1970. 5 refs.
Translated from German. Sanzare Assoc., Inc., Philadelphia,
Pa., 22p. (Presented at the VGB Technical Convention, Gas
Heating 1969, Weinburg, Germany, Nov. 14, 1969, Arnheim,
Netherlands, Nov. 28, 1969, and Luebeck, Germany, Dec. 12,
1969.)
The dimensions and design features of gas burners were sur-
veyed. For the exact layout of a gas burner, the following
must be known: the gas type with respect to the gas analysis,
the amount of gas to be used, the gas pressure at the burner
entrance, the gas temperature, the gas moisture content, and
impurities in the gas. The specific weight and the stoichiomet-
ric air requirement must be determined from the gas analysis.
The common fuels for steam boilers are blast-furnace gas,
coke gas, refinery gas, and natural gas. The use of the Wobbe
index number to change the fuel for a given burner was
described. Exhaust gases include hydrogen sulfide.
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20
BOILERS
31299
Coates, N. H., P. S. Lewis, and J. W. Eckerd
COMBUSTION OF COAL IN FLUIDIZED BEDS. Trans.
AIME (Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical and Petroleum Engrs.),
247(3):208-210, Sept. 1970. (Presented at the AIME Annual
Meeting, Denver, Colo., Feb. 1970.)
An eight foot fluidized combustor was operated successfully
with a variety of coals, including highly caking types. The
latter agglomerated when coal was fed through the side by a
screw feeder, preventing satisfactory combustion. This dif-
ficulty was overcome by feeding the coal pneumatically at the
bottom of the bed. Sized mullite worked well as bed material.
Highest carbon utilization was about 99%. Overall heat
transfer coefficients from bed to a water cooled tube were
about 75 Btu/hr sq ft F. The fluidized-bed combustion system
includes two centrifugal separators for removal of most of the
entrained solids and a water scrubber and bag filter for further
cleaning. The fluidized bed should produce less corrosion and
nitrogen oxides, and permit the use of additives to control sul-
fur dioxide. (Author conclusions modified)
31657
Tully, R. E. and S. P. Clementson
DISTRICT HEATING CONTRIBUTES TO CLEAN AIR.
Smokeless Air (London), 40(151):37-40, Autumn 1969.
A redevelopment district in London is described. District heat-
ing, with oil-fired boilers, was chosen for the entire area. The
scheme provides for the installation of four packaged type
boilers in the basement of a tower building. The boiler plant is
designed to be fired by pressure jet oil firing units, burning
fuel of 200 seconds viscosity, the draught conditions being
controlled by motorized regulators. The chimney stack incor-
porates two flues, one for continuous use and the other for
winter operation. Tapered terminals on top of the flues are
designed to increase the efflux velocity to over 40 ft/sec for
maximum load conditions to eliminate downwash. Smoke den-
sity indicator units are provided in the stack to work in con-
junction with percentage indicators installed in the boilerhouse
control panel. The application of district heating will eliminate
1500 chimney flues with their widespread air pollution. District
heating will emit 40 Ibs of sulfur dioxide/hr as compared to
150 Ibs/hr with the existing flues. It will emit one pound of
smoke/hr as compared to 3.3 Ibs/hr for household grates burn-
ing smokeless fuel, or 16.6 Ibs/hr if coal is burned.
32165
Gerstle, Richard W. and Timothy W. Devitt
CHLORINE AND HYDROGEN CHLORIDE EMISSIONS AND
THEIR CONTROL. Preprint, Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
Pittsburgh, Pa., 23p., 1971. 12 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollu-
tion Control Association, Annual Meeting, 64th, Atlantic City,
N. J., June 27-July 2, 1971, Paper 71-25.)
Chlorine and hydrogen chloride are emitted to the atmosphere
by production processes and by various chemical and metallur-
gical processes. Hydrogen chloride is also emitted by many
combustion processes using coal or fuel oil. The major uses
for both chlorine and HC1 are in the organic chlorination in-
dustry, which consumes almost 7.5 million tons of the chlorine
and 0.9 million tons of the HC1. Economical operation of these
processes requires the recovery and reuse of both chlorine and
HC1 whenever possible. Chlorine is emitted mainly from its
manufacturing and associated handling and liquefaction
processes, and in pulp bleaching. Hydrogen chloride is emitted
mainly from coal and refuse combustion processes and, to a
much smaller extent, from its manufacture and use. Control
techniques for chlorine and HC1 are well established for
chemical processes and use various types of scrubbers with
water or caustic as the absorbing solution. Counter-current
packed towers are most commonly used to reduce emissions.
The disposal of waste liquor from these scrubbers is a problem
when in-plant uses cannot be found. Hydrogen chloride emis-
sions from combustion processes are largely uncontrolled.
(Author abstract modified)
32351
Lemke, Eric E., George Thomas, and Wayne E. Zwiacher
PROFILE OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN LOS AN-
GELES COUNTY. Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control
District, Cahf., 66p., Jan. 1969.
A profile of air pollution sources, the effectiveness of the con-
trol program, and a projection for the future in Los Angeles
are presented. The Federal Clean Air Act of 1967 figures
prominently in the future projections, because it is assumed
that California will set motor vehicle emission standards more
stringently than the Federal standards. About 13,500 tons of
air contaminants are still being emitted daily, primarily
because of automobile emissions which comprise approximate-
ly 90% of the uncontrolled emissions. Major sources are listed
with data on type and amounts of particulates emitted, and the
amounts prevented. Motor vehicle sources include exhaust,
bio why, and evaporation in gasoline-powered engines and
diesel-powered engines; the prevention methods for motor
vehicle emissions include crankcase and exhaust control.
Other sources include organic solvents (surface coating, dry
cleaning, and degreasing), chemicals (sulfur and sulfuric acid
plants), incineration, non-ferrous metal production, cupolas,
electric steel furnaces, open hearths, mineral production (in-
cluding asphalt), and petroleum (refining, marketing, and
production). Rule 62 prevents contamination from power
plants and other fuel combustion processes. Jet and piston
driven aircraft, ships, and railroads are also sources. Contami-
nants include nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monox-
ide, hydrocarbons, and particulates. The distribution of chemi-
cal processing equipment, boilers, heaters, paint bake ovens,
incinerators, metal melting equipment, concrete batch plants,
petroleum processing equipment, rendering equipment, and
power plant boilers are shown. Daily emissions from fuel oil,
natural gas, and refinery make gas are shown. Also, steam and
electric power plants are discussed. When motor vehicle ex-
haust reacts with the air, photochemical smog can be formed
which causes eye irritation; the California Pure Air Act has set
standards which should eliminate this. Stationary and mobile
sources, air monitoring stations, seasonal changes, ozone con-
centrations, wind effects, daily concentration levels, oxidant
levels, and alerts are also discussed.
33087
Sticksel, Philip R. and Richard B. Engdahl
DERIVATION OF THE EMISSION DATA AND PROJEC-
TIONS USED IN PLANNING. In: The Federal R and D Plan
for Air Pollution Control by Process Modification. Battelle
Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Labs., APCO
Contract CPA 22-69-147, Rept. APTD-0643, p. B-l to B-19,
Jan. 11, 1971. 11 refs. NTIS: PB 198066
The derivation of the emissions data and projections used in
the five-year research and development plan for the reduction
of emissions from energy-conversion combustion sources by
combustion process modification are presented. The emissions
include particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, lead, sulfur oxides, ash, and polynuclear aromatics.
Sources include power plants, industry, steam generation, gas
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
21
turbines, internal combustion engines, residential heating, air-
craft, trucks, diesel engine, natural gas engines, and automo-
biles.
33640
ANNUAL REPORT 1970 BY THE ORGANIZATION OF GAS
AND HEAT SUPPLY COMPANIES. (Jahresbericht 1970 des
Fachverbandes der Gas- und Waermeversorgungesunterneh-
mungen). Text in German. Gas Waerme, 25(9):157-160, Sept.
1970.
Air pollution sources, with respect to the gas and heat supply
companies, are reviewed. Home heaters, contributing up to
50%, industrial combustion processes, and vehicles were the
major sources. Controls for emissions from home heaters in-
cluded gas as a fuel and remote heat. Natural gas combustion
is smoke-free and emits no sulfur dioxide and minimum dust
and soot. Boilers with remote heat usually have highly effi-
cient filters to retain pollutant waste gas components.
33697
Wahneschaffe, E.
A STUDY OF THE CONVERSION OF SO2 TO SO3. (Ein
Beitrag zur Umwandlung von SO2 zu SO3). Text in German.
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbetr., 51(5):385-390, Oct. 1971. 11 refs.
(Presented at the Vereinigung der Grosskesselbetreiber,
Fachtagung, Emissionen 1971, Hannover, West Germany, Feb.
19, 1971, Munich, West Germany, March 5, 1971, and Essen,
West Germany, March 19, 1971.)
The conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide during the
combustion of sulfur-containing fuels and subsequent reactions
with other components of waste gases in the boiler are ex-
amined. The combustion of fuel oils and other fuels produces
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, SO3, SO2, nitrogen, ox-
ygen, and nitrogen oxides. The nitrogen oxide (nitrogen diox-
ide and nitric oxide) concentration increases with increasing
boiler load. Between 600 and 900 C, the 10% increase of the
SO3 content is due to a direct reaction between SO2 and NO2.
Between 300 and 600 C, volatile nitrogen-sulfur compounds
develop, liberating SO2 from SO3; the compounds leave with
the other waste gas components without condensation. The
temperature range below 300 C is characterized by an increase
in SO3 concentration, directly correlated with the NO2 content
of the flue gas. The conversion of SO2 outside the stacks is
largely dependent on the presence and concentration of NOx
in the waste gases; the conversion of NO to NO2 determines
the speed of the reactions.
34303
Macey, H. H.
THE MEMORANDUM ON CHIMNEY HEIGHTS AND
MODERN OIL-FIRED BOILERS. Clean Air (J. Clean Air
Soc. Australia New Zealand), 5(3):49-52, Aug. 1971. 5 refs.
A simple correction is suggested to heights determined from
the Memorandum on Chimney Heights, first published by the
United Kingdom Ministry of Housing and Local Government
in 1963 and revised in 1967. Application of the correction will
give the original acceptable ground level sulfur dioxide con-
centration for modern boilers, which require less excess air
than those for which the Memorandum was designed, and for
which the plume rises are smaller. After obtaining a height
from the Memorandum in the usual way, thy height should be
further increased by a percentage which is numerically equal
to that height in feet divided by ten.
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22
B. CONTROL METHODS
00107
S. S. Griswold
CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES (TECHNICAL
PROGRESS REPT. VOLUME 1). Los Angeles County Air
Pollution Control District, Calif. Apr. 1960. 191 pp.
As a result of the intensive source control measures ad-
ministered in Los Angeles County, Virtually all industrial
operations have been brought within the scope of the air pollu-
tion control program. From the melting of metal to the paint-
ing of manufactured goods, specific industrial processes and
equipment have been subject to air pollution control measures.
This volume provides individual discussion of control
techniques applied to the most significant stationary sources of
air contamination. Certain source emission problems, such as
those traceable to the operation of railroad locomotives and
ships, are not discussed in this volume in view of the current
unimportance of the source. The material reported in this
volume generally contains only those developments occurring
subsequent to the publication of the Second Technical and Ad-
ministrative Report on Air Pollution Control in Los Angeles
County, 1950-51. (Author)
00140
J. H. Fernandes, J. D. Sensenbaugh, and D. G. Peterson
BOILER EMISSIONS AND THEIR CONTROL. Combustion
Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn., and Air Preheater Co.,
Wellsville, N.Y. (Presented at Conference on Air Pollution
Control, Mexico City, Apr. 28, 1966.)
Emissions from combustion sources that are significant from
the standpoint of air pollution include (1) particulate matter,
(2) sulfur oxides, and (3) nitrogen oxides. Particulate matter is
objectionable on esthetic grounds. The technology for its con-
trol well developed, although effort is constantly being made
to improve collection equipment and reduce the cost of a non-
productive operation. Techniques have been developed for
control of SO3 in oil-fired units by means of low-excess air
and additives. Methods for control of SO3 in coal-fired boilers
have not been as well developed as for oil-fired units, but
there is less SO3 present with coal firing. A great deal of work
has been done on control of SO2, both by fuel desulfurization
and by removing the SO2 from the stack gas. Oxides of
nitrogen are important as air pollutants because of their par-
ticipation in the reactions leading to photochemical smog.
Since the localities most subject to photochemical smog are in
oil and gas burning areas, most of the work has been done on
these fuels. The emission of oxides of nitrogen can be signifi-
cantly reduced by using gas fuel or by use of a suitable firing
method and low-excess air with oil fuel.
00272
N. Glensy
MECHANICAL HANDLING OF COAL AND ASH. Eng.
Boiler House Rev. (London), 81(6): 170-177, June 1966.
Principal systems now available for coal and ash handling in
small and medium-sized boiler houses are reviewed. Handling
systems for the solid fuel and arrangements for extraction and
disposal of ash are vital elements in the automatic operation of
coal-fired industrial process boilers. Equipment suitable for
removing ash are submerged conveyors, vibratory conveyors
and pnnimatic handling plants. Submerged conveyors or
draglink conveyors are widely used in large installations
because they require little maintenance and have the ad-
vantage of being completely dust free. Systems can be
designed to handle loads within the range from three-quarters
of a ton to 20 ton/hr.
00287
R. E. Barrett, J. D. Hummell, and W. T. Reid
FORMATION OF SO3 IN A NONCATALYTIC COMBUSTOR.
J. Eng. Power. 1965. 7 pp. (Presented at the Winter Annual
Meeting, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Chicago,
111., Nov. 7-11, 1965.)
The major contributor to corrosion and deposits in boilers and
gas turbines has been recognized as the reaction of sulfur ox-
ides, especially SO3, in the combustion gas with furnace ele-
ments. One way to minimize these reactions is to reduce the
quantity of SO3 formed. Factors affecting SOS formation have
been studied in a noncatalytic laboratory combustor, and
results of the investigation show that SO3 in the combustion
gas can be reduced by: (a) Reducing excess air, (b) burning
fuel with a lower sulfur content, (c) preventing air leakage into
the combustion system, and (d) covering catalytic surfaces,
such as superheater tubes, with less catalytic protective
coatings. Some experiments showed that iwon-oxide coatings,
which built up on iron surfaces, were highly catalytic for the
production of SO3 under boiler-furnace-simulated conditions.
(Authors' abstract)
00406
S.A. Burke K.E. Collins
THE PERFORMANCE OF THE B.C.U.R.A. FULLY-AUTO-
MATIC SMOKELESS STOKER FOR CENTRAL HEATING.
J. Inst. Heating Ventilating Engrs. (London) Vol. 34:114-28,
July 1966.
Performance of a new type of chain grate stoker is described.
The boiler heating efficiency (combustion and heat transfer to
water in the boiler) was 73% at full firing rate and 81% at 1/20
of full rating. Development of a new air-cooled ignition arch
raised these efficiencies to 78% and 85% respectively. Smoke
emission is extremely low: the optical density is less than 0.01.
The high degree of smokelessness is maintained despite
changes in coal characteristics. Total grit and dust emission
was 0.19% of the weight of the coal fired, nearly half of which
is recovered from a cyclone.
00716
L. Alliot M. Auclair
EXPERIMENTS ON COMBUSTION OF DOMESTIC FUEL IN
AN EXPERIMENTAL BOILER. (Essais de Combustion de Fuel
Domestique eur Chaudiere Experimental.) Rev. Inst. Franc.
Petrole Ann. Combust. Liquides (Paris) 20(11):1757-1772, Nov.
1965.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
23
The influence of the flow of combustible on the quantity of
solid incombustible particles was studied using standard equip-
ment and a light domestic fuel oil with an average composition
of 50% paraffins, 20% olefins and 30% aromatics. A mechani-
cal smoke extractor was installed one meter from the spray
nozzle for sampling of the gases. Rates of fuel consumption
were varied, and continous fuel flow was compared with inter-
mittent fuel flow. When the supply of combustible fuel ex-
ceeded the capacity of the burner, proper combustion was not
obtained and the solid particles increased. If the flow of air
was decreased, the Bacharach index (measuring the opacity of
the effluent gas) rose, and the yield of utilizable heat increased
only 3-4%. When fuel flow was properly adjusted to the
capacity of the boiler, no smoke at all was noticed. 00716 L.
Alliot M. Auclair
00717
A. Labardin F. Mauss
INFLUENCE OF BURNER FUNCTION ON THE EMISSION
OF SOLID PARTICLES. (Influence du Fonctionnement des
Bruleurs sur les Emissions de Particules Solides.) Rev. Inst.
Franc. Petrole Ann. Combust. Liquides (Paris) 20(11):1771-
1783, Nov. 1965.
Two methods of measuring solid particles were employed, first
the impinger method, and second the cyclone plus filter
method (the so-called 'B.P' apparatus). The second method
consistently gave higher results. The index of solid particles
was expressed as a weight, or grams per therm. In these ex-
periments, three different types of air regulators were used in
standard equipment at a constant fuel supply of 10.4 kg per
hour in a boiler of 140 therms/hour capacity. The weight of
solid particles and smoke emitted did not depend on the type
of flame or air regulator, but on whether air was supplied in
excess, particulary when the excess of air was over 70%.
When discontinuous operation was tried (10 minutes on and 10
minutes off), emission of solid particles under conditions
equivalent to continuous operation was slightly higher.
01459
G. Nonhebel
BRITISH CHARTS FOR HEIGHTS OF INDUSTRIAL CHIM-
NEYS. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution, Vol. 10:183-189, 1966.
A precis is given of the Memorandum on Chimney Heights is-
sued by the British Ministry of Housing and Local Govern-
ment in 1963. The purpose of the Memorandum is to assist
local authorities to determine the minimum acceptable height
for new chimneys for industrial plant not coming under the ju-
risdiction of the Alkali Instpecorate, and for SO2 emissions
from 3 to 1800 Ib/hr. Examples are given of charts relating
height of chimney with SO2 emission rate and for additional
height required when downdraught from adjacent buildings is
to be expected. The basic height of chimneys for oil-fired
plant is 10 per cent higher than for coal-fired plant. Minimum
effluent velocities are stated. Ootes are given of the technical
work leading to the Memorandum. The average maximum
ground-level concentration of SO2 from the recommended
heights is 16 pphm by volume (0.45 mg/N cum) for 3-min sam-
pling time when calculated from the Bosanquet-Sutton equa-
tions. Some account is taken of contaminants other than SO2.
The assistance given by the Memorandum has been widely
praised by local authorities after two years' experience.
(Author abstract)
01496
M. Beaumont
MULTIPLE FLUE CHIMNEYS.
39(301):78-83, Feb. 1966.
J. Inst. Fuel (London)
This paper deals with the progress made in the development of
the design of industrial chimneys over the past ten years. It
explains that, because aluminum insulating cladding, which
was first used in 1956, does not always prove effective in
preventing smuts from forming other methods had to be
found. The great problem is that when more than one boiler is
connected to a common chimney, the chimney has to be
designed to accommodate the flue gases of all the boilers on
full load at the same time. Consequently when some of the
boilers are off-load or on turndown, the flue-gas velocity is
reduced and smuts may be formed. Various ways of overcom-
ing this problem were tried; plain dividing plates, insulating
dividing plates, concentric chimneys, chimneys supported in
concrete or steel structures, insulated chimneys and finally the
multi-flue insulated chimney. The latter, by providing each
boiler with its own correctly sized flue, appears to have over-
come the difficulties of fluctuating boiler load and flue-gas
velocity. (Author abstract)
01626
C. H. Pesterfield
LITERATURE AND RESEARCH SURVEY TO DETERMINE
NECESSITY AND FEASIBILITY OF AIR POLLUTION
RESEARCH PROJECT ON COMBUSTION OF COMMER-
CIALLY AVAILABLE FUEL OILS. J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc. 14, (6) 203-7, June 1964. (TA-4 Committee, Oil Burner
Equipment.)
The basic purpose of this preliminary survey was to deter-
mine: (a) whether the combustion of fuel oil presented a seri-
ous air pollution problem by nature of its being a serious pol-
lutant contributor; (b) what work has been done to evaluate its
pollution contribution; (c) what work is being done; (d) what
needs to be done; (e) if there is need and justification for a
fuel oil combustion study.
02030
S. Maartman
COLLECTION OF DUST FROM OIL-FIRED BOILERS IN
MULTI-CYCLONES AND ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITA-
TORS. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966.
(Paper V/6). pp. 131-3.
Since the Second World War and particularly since 1955 oil
has become the predominant fuel in Sweden. Most boilers are
equipped with mechanical dust collectors of multi-cyclone
type, although in normal operation the outgoing dust concen-
tration is only approximately 200 mg/cu.mN. However, this
dust has properties that make a reduction to less than 40
mg/cu.mN desirable. Paraclone multi-cyclones have a collect-
ing efficiency of 85 per cent in normal operation and 90 per
cent during soot blowing. Some 200 installations handling a
total gas volume of about 15 million cu.m/hr. are in service in
various countries. Very favourable experience has been gained
with electrostatic precipitators installed in conjunction with
oil-fired boilers at the Hasselby Power Station near
Stockholm. A new 490-ton boiler at this station will be
equipped with a precipitator designed for a released dust con-
centration of 30 mg/cu.m.N during normal operation and soot
blowing. Demands for cleaner air are expected to result in in-
creasing use of dust collectors in conjunction with oil-fired
boilers. (Author abstract)
02032
K. Schwarz
(DUST EMISSIONS FROM COAL-FIRED BOILERS IN THE
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY.) Die Staubemissionen
Kohlegefeuerte Dampfkesselgrossanlagen in Der Bundcsrepublik
-------
24
BOILERS
Deutschland. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London,
1966. (Paper V/8). pp. 136-41.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, rigorous scales were
evolved for the supervision of emissions from industrial plants
by the Federal Regulations issued in 1959 in the interests of
clean air, and by the technical regulations of 1964, which set
limits for these ('Technical Directions for Clean Air, TAL').
This applies in particular for the requirements which were
placed on the emission of dust from large coal-fired boilers
particularly when the fuel has a high ash content. Results of
numerous experiments on large, electric dust removers for
bituminous coal and brown coal-fired boilers - carried out by
the Technical Supervisor Groups in Essen and the Rheinland,
show the developments over the past few years towards ever
higher separating achievements. Effects of various factors, in
particular the properties of the fuel and the combustion condi-
tions , were visible on dust properties and separating results.
The limits reached today in this sector are indicated. (Author
abstract) 02032 K. Schwarz
02973
G. Schiemann
REDUCING THE EMISSION OF SMALL OIL-FIRING UNITS
WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON CONTROL METHODS.
Staub (English Transl.) 25, (11) 2-10, NOV. 1965. CFSTI TT
66-51040/11
In the case of small oil firing installations the type and concen-
tration of emissions depend on the combustion process. Nox-
ious effects are mainly caused by soot and aromatic hydrocar-
bons. Investigations into the possibility of reducing these emis-
sions show that the most convenient solution of the problem is
as complete a combustion of all combustible emission com-
ponents as possible. Practical experience indicates that the
present technical methods permit improvements to be
achieved. Control methods used in heating operations are here
of particular importance because of their effects on com-
bustion. (Author summary)
03045
H. Mori
HANSHIN WET TYPE DUST COLLECTORS. Clean Air Heat
Management (Tokyo) 15, (5) 5-11, May 1966
There are three models of Hanshin Wet Type Dust Collectors
for collecting different kinds of dust and they all operate on
the same principles. Contaminated exhaust gas is forced into a
water tank equipped with turbulance control plates through
nozzles at a high speed. The gas is cleaned while in contact
with the water. The HJ model is for collecting fine particles
from such materials as sand, cement, activated carbon and
brick. The typical collection efficiency for various particle size
distributions is approximately 99%. The HJS model is designed
for use with oil and coal burners. The mechanics of this model
are the same for the HJ models, but the HJS model requires
the addition of a sludge tank. The concentration of soot in the
exhaust gas is reduced by a factor of two. Appropriate sizes of
HJS models for different boiler sizes are tabulated. HJG
models are designed for the treatment of gaseous contamina-
tion in exhaust gas. They have the same structure as HJ and
HJS models except that a de-mister is added at the top of the
tank. The absorption efficiencies for H2S, C12, SO2 and NO2
are tabulated. The efficiency of 98.5% is obtained for H2S by
addition of NaOH to the tank water.
03053
G. A. W. Van Doornum.
SMOKELESS COMBUSTION OF BITUMINOUS COAL.
Coal, Gold, and Base Minerals of S. Africa 14, (7) 32-3, 37,
Sept. 1966.
Smokeless combustion of bituminous coal is possible in small
industrial furnaces, boilers and domestic installations. In order
to burn the tar fumes resulting from the primary decomposi-
tion of coal, a secondary source of oxygen must be mixed
thoroughly with the fumes and the combustion temperature
must be at least 700C. Two examples of methods for achieving
this are discussed. One consists of a combustion chamber
which can be incorporated into a variety of appliances; the
other involves the use of a nozzle to produce a tangential air-
jet in a hand-fired vertical boiler.
03121
K. Lenhart, K. Schwarz
METHODS OF REDUCING POLLUTION CAUSED BY COM-
BUSTION. (Domestic & Industrial). European Conf. on Air
Pollution, Strasbourg, 1964. p. 165-190.
The report refers to the problems of air pollution by flue gases
resulting from the combustion of solid, liquid, and gaseous
fuels. Domestic fireplaces as well as industrial furnaces are in-
cluded. The latter are considered only in so far as their flue
gases consist of the products or residues of the combustion of
fuel. Industrial furnaces, the flue gases of which come into
direct contact with manufacturer products and may be con-
taminated by them - e.g. cement kilns, shaft lime kilns, cu-
polas and others - are, therefore, not included in the study. In
spite of this limitation the subject is still so comprehensive as
to make it seem desirable to evaluate the reports received
from eleven countries with carying economic structures in two
separate sections - one referring to domestic and the other to
industrial consumption.
03153
P. F. Drake and E. H. Hubbard
COMBUSTION SYSTEM AERODYNAMICS AND THEIR EF-
FECT ON THE BURNING OF HEAVY FUEL OIL. J. Inst.
Fuel (London) (Presented at the Meeting of The Institute,
London, Jan. 26, 1966.) Mar. 1966. pp. 98-109.
An investigation has been made into the reasons for the large
variations in quantity and type of gas-borne solid carbon
emitted from an oil-fired water-tube boiler at varying levels of
rotational energy in the combustion air. The changes in fuel-air
mixing both in the air register and in the combustion chamber
have been related to the gas-borne solids burden and the inter-
relation between fuel-air mixing and spatial distribution of the
fuel has also been studied. It is shown that a pronounced op-
timum occurs in carbon burn-out at an intermediate level of
rotational energy. This optimum appears to be achieved when
the position of maximum recirculation is nearest to the burner
and is followed by a region approximating to plug flow. The
character of the solids produced at either side of the optimum
condition differs considerably. Variation of oil spray angle ap-
pears to be of secondary importance if the air conditions are
at the optimum. (Author abstract)
03223
ADDITIVES FOR FUELS USED IN FIXED COMBUSTION
CHAMBERS. Les additif s pour combustibles Utilises dans les
foyer fixes. Text in French. Pollut. Atmos (Paris) 8, 931) 295-
318, Sept. 1966
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
25
Studies by the Center for Interdisciplinary Technical Study of
Atmospheric Pollution concerning additives used for improving
combustion or having a beneficial effect on the discharge of
undesirable compounds into the atmosphere, or both, are
reviewed. The paper summarizes the study of some additives,
starting with those of known chemical composition, the ac-
tions claimed for the additives, the results that can be ex-
pected from their use, and the test methods and results using
small and medium size boilers with liquid fuels and the addi-
tives ammonia and magnesium oxide. The following additives
are covered in the study: ammonia, dolamite (Calcium mag-
nesium carbonate), magnesium oxide, metallic magnesium, and
zinc powder. Seven graphs pertinent to the experimental
procedures also are given. (Atuhor summary)
03790
W. H. Axtman
HEAVY OILBURNERS AND AIR POLLUTION. Fuel Oil, Oil
Heat 26, (1) 61-4, Jan. 1967.
Smoke is a suspension of solid particles and these particles
result from incomplete combustion. Unburned fuel is going up
the stack; going up in smoke in fact. All installations, domestic
as well as commercial industrial, should be set with com-
bustion testing instruments. Combustion and smoke tests can
prove the smoke source. For cleaner oilheating, the following
must be considered: 1. Combustion chamber condition and
design. 2. Oil temperature and preheating. 3. Grade of oil vs.
firing rate and type of operation. 4. Condition of burner and
atmoizing system. 5. Draft and draft controls. 6. Combustion
control systems. 7. Burner modulation and low fire start con-
trols. 8. Fuel storage and pump sets. 9. Condition of boiler. 10.
Boiler design for oil firing. Present methods of removing
sulphur from fuel oils are expensive. In some instances, a
change can be made to a lighter grade oil, particularly in
smaller firing rates where No. 5 or No. 6 should not have been
used, or provision can be made for a switch to alternate
grades during times of possible air pollution emergencies.
Much of our oil comes from areas outside the United States,
and a loss in the heavy oil gallonage could have world wide
implications.
04304
W. Reid
NEW HORIZONS IN DOMESTIC HEATING - SOLID FUEL.
Proc. Clean Air Conf., 32nd, Eastbourne, Engl., 1965. pp. 125-
34.
The paper shows the direction in which the solid fuel industry
is meeting the modern requirements of greater comfort at low
cost, more efficient combustion and, therefore, a cleaner at-
mosphere. In this context the industry has developed smoke-
less fuels and is increasing productivity of these to meet the
rising demand. It has collaborated with the appliance manufac-
turers to produce new attractive, efficient and as near as
possible automatic appliances. Perhaps the most recent impor-
tant development is in the direction of district heating. The
paper describes in some detail the first comprehensive district
heating scheme to serve multi-storey residential flats, the
town's centre and cultural and educational facilities as well as
adjacent light industry. (Author abstract)
04336
B. C. Severs
THE ABC'S OF FIRESIDE CORROSION. Proc. Am. Power
Conf. 27, 864-7, Apr. 1965. (Presented at the 27th Annual
Meeting, American Power Conference, Chicago, 111., Apr. 27-
29, 1965.)
The ABC' of fireside corrosion are recognition of the charac-
teristics of gas side corrosion, the acceptance of certain
defined corrosion limits and the knowledge that boilers can be
designed with controlled gas temperatures, proper disposition
of surfaces and good distribution of both gas and steam to
produce a dependable, efficient and economical product. Dur-
ing combustion, most of the sulfur in the fuel burns to sulfur
dioxide (SO2) with a small part forming sulfur trioxide (SO3).
The SO3 combines with water to form sulfuric acid vapor. Sul-
furic acid vapor has a dew point above that of water and
causes condensation to occur at a higher level. If the tempera-
ture of the metals in contact with the gases falls below the
dew point, sulfuric acid condenses and acid corrosion results.
Low-temperature corrosion on coalfired boilers is accom-
panied by ash deposition and plugging. Flyash and cinder par-
ticles act as condensation nuclei for sulfuric acid vapor,
become wet, and stick to economizer and airheater surfaces.
Acid will react with flyash in the cooler areas of gas flues and
casing to form hygroscopic salts, such as ferrous sulfate, alu-
minum sulfate and bisulfates of sodium and promote corro-
sion. In oil-fired boilers the corrosion resulting from the for-
mation and condensation of sulfuric acid from flue gas is
similar to that of coal-fired boilers. However, oilfired boilers
are more suceptible to low-temperature corrosion than are
coal-fired units for two reasons: (1) Vanadium in the oil ash is
a catalyst for the conversion of SO2 to SO3, and (2) The
smaller quantity of ash in the gas stream is a factor contribut-
ing to the difference. Ash particles in the gas stream can ab-
sorb SO3 and reduce the amount of free SO3 vapor in the flue
gas, and the basic nature of coal ash tends to neutralize a por-
tion of the acid deposited. Additives such as magnesium oxide
and dolomite have been used on oil and coal-fired units to in-
hibit high-temperature corrosion. These additives are injected
with the fuel, directly into the furnace, or into the combustion
air stream.
04358
S. Student
(CORRECT USE OF RECORDINGS IN SMALL BOILER-
HOUSES'/2) Registrieren auch im kleinen Kesselhaus, aber
richtigM; Brennstoif-Waerme-Kraft (Duesseldorf) 17, (5) 248-9,
May 1965. Ger.
Steam generators of low capacity, about 2.5 to 25 t/h are con-
structed in great numbers. They hardly ever pose technical
problems and are rarely mentioned in the literature. These
generators are equipped with control devices and the majority
register measurement values. Some of these recorders are
rendered useless because of the arrangement of the recording
scale. For the control of operation of boilers these recordings
can be of great value. A measurement and control device is
suggested for smaller operations. A single recording instrument
of a boiler which records continuously besides the steam flow
also steam pressure, carbon dioxide and unburned carbon
monoxide is discussed. These values are very sensitive to
changes occurring in the operation and the attention of the
operator will be called by its registration on the well organized
scale. Author describes operation of a recording instrument
using different colors to facilitate readings for steam flow,
steam pressure, carbon dioxide and unburned smoke gases.
04372
SIMPLER CONTROL OF LOW EXCESS AIR. Power 109, (5)
65, May 1965.
A Hartman and Braun CO recording machine was installed. Its
operation is based on the difference in absorption of light from
an infrared source by CO in a sample of flue gas and by
nitrogen contained in similar chambers which are separated by
-------
26
BOILERS
a membrane. Temperature difference on two sides of the
membrane causes it to deflect. This motion translated into
electric impulse in a capacitor, indicates the CO content. An
opacity smoke meter detects a dense white mist of SO3 when-
ever excess air goes above the 1% limit. Three years of low
excess air operation resulted in cleaner boilers and air heaters,
and less corrosion.
04394
K. Darby and D. O. Heinrich
CONDITIONING OF BOILER FLUE GASES FOR IMPROV-
ING EFFICIENCY OF ELECTROFILTERS. STAUB (English
Transl.) (Duesseldorf) 26, (11) 12-7, Nov. 1966. Ger. (Tr.)
Several operating conditions of electrofilters which operate
with a reduced effective power input can be substantially im-
proved by the injection of small quantities of SO3 into the
fluegas. Measurements on full scale plants have shown that
the effective migration velocities have increased by up to 85%.
An SO3 conditioning plant, now working for more than two
years, has proved that there is no increase in sulphur emission
and no additional corrosion problem. (Author summary)
04516
R. E. George and R. L. Chass
CONTROL OF CONTAMINANT EMISSION FROM FOSSIL
FUEL-FIRED BOILERS. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 17,
(6) 392-5, June 1967. (Presented at the 151st National Meeting,
American Chemical Society, Symposium on Fossil Fuels and
Environmental Pol- lution, Pittsburgh, Pa., Mar. 22-25, 1966.)
The topics covered include: air pollution from combustion
sources control of combustion; a case study of Los Angeles
County vs. New York City; and power plant control in Los
Angeles County.
04856
E. Z. Finfer
FUEL OIL ADDITIVES FOR CONTROLLING AIR CON-
TAMINANT EMISSIONS. J Air Pollution Control Assoc. 17,
(1)43-5, Jan. 1967.
An addition of additives to fuel oils prior to combustion is one
way of reducing combustible contaminant emissions to the
outer air. Reported test results show that some additives im-
prove, moderately, the combustive properties of fuel oils.
Combustion is also improved but to a lesser degree, in boiler
systems that are deficient in operation and design. Being com-
bustible, polynuclear hydrocarbons emissions would be
reduced by use of additives. Other types of additives to reduce
slagging and inhibit corrosion from combustion of fuel oils are
also available. The cost of using additives is low. Improved ad-
ditives are required, especially ones to better combustion in
the deficient boiler systems. These can be found by research
and literature surveys. Their effectiveness and nontoxicity
would be confirmed by laboratory and field testing. (Author
abstract)
04862
F. Petersen
AGGRESSIVE SOOT -- A SERIOUS CORROSION
PROBLEM. VVS (J. Assoc. Heating, Ventilation, Sanit.
Engrs.) (Stockholm (1) 19-23, 1968. Translated from Swedish.
A review is presented of the corrosiveness of soot particles,
conventional protection methods, the process of soot forma-
tion, the formation of sulfuric acid, adsorption by soot parti-
cles, suppression of floe cormation, and practical tests con-
ducted at Tekniska Hogskolan in Stockholm. An improvement
is advanced: an increase of the boiler water temperature when
heating with heavy oils appears to be justified. The increase
should be up to 150 degrees C for the adsorption of aggressive
substances on soot particles to be adequately suppressed. The
proposed increase should result in reduced damage to protec-
tive coatings, automobile lacquers, ladies' stockings, and
clothing were aggressive soot floes easily produce point at-
tacks. In addition the corrosion on the fireside surfaces of the
heating boilers will be substantially reduced.
05137
F. Johnswich
DESULFURIZATION OF FLUE GASES. VIK Berichte (155)
20-43, Aug. 1964. Ger. (Tr.)
The method for the desulfurization of flue gases according to
the dolomite procedure was investigated with the help of a 175
t/hr oil boiler. The factor that was decisive for desulfurization
was the temperature that prevailed in the boiler at the place
where the desulfurization material is inserted. The effect of
the distribution, the duration of time (in the boiler), the effect
of the catalyst and of the volume of the material to be used
were of secondary importance. It is understood on the basis of
the description of the experimental results, that these results
for the time being apply only to the experimental boiler. Some
of the basic problems could not be resolved and new basic
problems arose; these problems must be answered for the pur-
pose of planning and giving a guarantee in connection with the
erection of a desulfurization installation. Additional series of
experiments are necessary before the method is ready for ac-
tual operation. (Author summary modified)
05347
Campbell, O. F. and Fennels, N. E.
CO BOILER AND FLUIDIZED-BED STEAM SUPERHEATER
ON SINCLAIR REFINING COMPANY'S NEW FLUID UNIT
AT THE HOUSTON REFINERY. American Soc- iety of
Mechanical Engineers, New York 77, 927-38 (Aug. 1955).
(Presented at the Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechan- ical Engineers, New York City, Nov. 28-Dec. 3,
1954, Paper No. 54-A-20.)
Approximately 400,000 Ib per hr of 550-psig, 750 F total tem-
perature steam production is a unique feature of Sinclair
Refining Company's new fluid catalytic-cracking unit at its
Houston, Texas, Refinery. Over 300,000 Ib per hr of 700-psig
saturated steam are produced on the oil industry's first direct-
fired unit to recover both the sensible heat and the heat of
combustion from the high-temperature regenerator-exit flue
gas. The heat of combustion of the regenerator-exit flue gas is
derived from its CO content. Saturated steam produced on the
boiler is superheated to 750 F total temperature in industry's
first fluidized-bed respray steam superheater. The superheater-
respray feature produces approximately 100,000 Ib per hr of
additional steam and allows simultaneous control of both the
regenerator-bed temperature and the steam superheat. Other
advantages are: prevents the CO gas from escaping and possi-
ble pollution of the atmosphere; precludes the possibility of
unburned hydrocarbons or malodorous gases, or other gases
that may cause air pollution, from escaping to the atmosphere;
and conditions the flue gases for subsequent removal of par-
ticulate matter.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
27
05393
W. Strewe
HEAT PRODUCTION FROM SOLID FUELS. Waermeerzeu-
gung mil festen Brennstoffen. Gesundh. Ingr. (Munich) 86 (4),
111-6 (Apr. 1965). Ger.
Problems associated with air pollution by solid particles and
combustion gases generated in various types of solid fuel fur-
naces examined. Means of dust elimination that can be applied
to the fuel itself as well as to the fuel charger, fire box, boiler
construction and firing technique are critically reviewed. Vari-
ous types of dust arresting installations are described.
05429
H. Anders
COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF BOILER FLUE GASES.
(Uber die Zusammensetzung und Untersuchung der Kesselab-
gase.) Zucker, 20(3):68-70, Feb. 1, 1967. Ger.
In order to ensure most economical operation of a boiler, the
air supply must be closely controlled. Sampling the flue gases
and measuring their contents of CO2, CO, and O2 gives infor-
mation on the efficiency of the boiler operation. The conven-
tional method of gas analysis by absorption in potassium
hydroxide, pyrogallic acid, and cuprous chloride solution (Or-
sat Apparatus) is described as well as the method of resistance
measurement of a heated wire.
05517
I. McC. Stewart
SOLID FUEL FIRING OF SMALL INDUSTRIAL BOILERS IN
THE 'CLEAN AIR' AGE. Proc. Clean Air Conf., Univ. New
South Wales, 1962, Paper 23, Vol. 2, 16 p.
The paper outlines the properties of fuels available in New
South Wales Metropolitan areas for industrial steam raising
showing that an adequate range of properties and sizings is
available to provide satisfactory fuel for all commercial equip-
ment. The importance of adequate draft control is stressed by
analysis of fuel bed performance under changing lead condi-
tions. Instruments and simple automatic controllers are briefly
reviewed and also the particular characteristics of common
types of firing equipment with regard to prevention of pollu-
tion. A brief note on impressions of stoker development in Eu-
rope is included. (Author abstract)
05853
C. R. Flodin and H. H. Haaland
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING FLY-ASH COLLECTOR PER-
FORMANCE ON LARGE PULVERIZED FUEL-FIRED
BOILERS. Air Repair 5(1), 27-32 (May 1955). (Presented at
the Annual Meeting, American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, New York City, Nov. 28-Dec. 3, 1954.) 05857 D. H.
Barnhart and E. K. Diehl CONTROL OF NITROGEN OX-
IDES IN BOILER FLUE GASES BY TWO-STAGE COM-
BUSTION. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 10 (5), 397-406
(Oct. 1960). (Presente at the 52nd Annual Meeting, Air Pollu-
tion Control Association, Los Angeles, Calif., June 21-26,
1959.)
Two-Stage Combustion with auxiliary-air ports above the bur-
ners is an effective method for controlling the nitric oxide con-
centration in boiler flue gases while still maintaining accepta-
ble boiler performance. While utilizing this method of opera-
tion, with 95% of the combustion air through the burners, the
nitric oxide level was reduced nearly 30% with both oil and
gas firing. A reduction of 47% occurred during full-load oil fir-
ing when the air flow through the burners was 90%. The prin-
cipal gains made in bringing nitric oxide under control are
summarized. Two-Stage Combustion together with monor
changes to the burner (approach-cone vanes out and air re-
gisters wide open) has given a total nitric oxide reduction of
56% when firing oil at full load. As mentioned previously,
similar results can be expected in gas firing. It appears that ad-
ditional reductions in nitric oxide would be possible if the air
flow through the burners were reduced another 5 or 10%. The
limit would be reached when combustibles (carbon, CO, etc.)
were detected at the furnace outlet, or when the burners
became unstable. The Southern California Edison Company
put the Two-Stage Combustion Method into extended test
operation at their El Segundo Steam Station. Although the
fuel-air mixing process requires careful balance between rapid
mixing for best combustion, and delayed mixing for nitric
oxide reduction, the change has not required expensive equip-
ment nor has it involved any extensive alterations to the
boiler. This method of burning has also been incorporated in
the design of two new boilers for Edison's Mandalay Station
and two for their Huntington Beach Station. Two-Stage Com-
bustion is believed to be a practical operating method for the
control of nitric oxide emission from large gas- or oil-fired
boilers. (Author summary modified)
05868
H. J. White
EFFECT OF FLYASH CHARACTERISTICS ON COLLEC-
TOR PERFORMANCE. Air Repair 5 (1), 37-50, 62 (May
1955). (Presented at the Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York City, Nov. 28-Dec. 3, 1954.)
The primary objectives were to describe the important proper-
ties of fly ash; to indicate the dependence of these properties
on such factors as coal burned and furnace design and opera-
tion; to show the intimate relationship between fly ash charac-
teristics and collector performance; to bring out the principles
and methods used in precipitator design and operation to over-
come adverse characteristics of fly ash; and to indicate future
trends and advances which may be expected in this field. Col-
lector performance is greatly influenced by the diverse physi-
cal and chemical characteristics of fly ash encountered in
practice. The ash characteristics are measurable, but for pro-
jected boilers (which form the large majority of collector in-
stallations) are not in most cases accurately predictable. This
complicates collector design and in some cases necessitates
extensive changes in collector equipment after construction in
order to meet unusually adverse ash characteristics. In
general, conservative design is indicated, since collectors are
expected to perform satisfactorily for whatever type of ash
may happen to occur.
06548
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Pretoria (South
Africa) Air Pollution Research Group.
HOW TO OBTAIN HIGH STEAMING RATES FROM VERTI-
CAL BOILERS FIRED WITH ANTHRACITE. (Rept. CSIR
249.) (1966). 11 pp.
Simple modifications are described, which were made to a ver-
tical boiler installation in an effort to find whether a high
steaming rate was possible using anthracite instead of bitu-
minous coal with the object of reducing smoke production. A
complete energy balance for the boiler was obtained in the ex-
periments. The three most important parameters involved are
considered and discussed: the velocity of the stack gas, the
overall efficiency of the boiler, and the steam-raising capacity
of the boiler. Recommendations for the adaptation of industri-
-------
28
BOILERS
al vertical boilers so that they can be used with anthracite, are
made. Small vertical boilers can be operated successfully on
anthracite if the draught is increased so as to make the stack-
gas flow rate approximately the same as when bituminous coal
is used. This increase in draught can be obtained by: (a) in-
stalling a forced-draught fan, or (b) increasing the height of the
stack.
06562
RESTRICTING DUST EMISSION FROM FORCED-DRAFT
BOILER INSTALLATIONS, CAPACITY 10 TON/HR AND
OVER, HARD-COAL FIRED WITH MECHANICAL GRATES.
(Staubauswurfbegrenzung Dampfkessel uber 10 t/h Leistung
Steinkohlenfeuerungen mit Unterwind-Zonenwanderrost.) VDI
(Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Kommission Reinhaltung der
Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany. (Nov. 1961). Ger. (Tr.) 27 pp.
(VDI 2091.)
The purposes of these specifications are to describe the parts
of the installation in which dust occurs; to characterize the in-
fluences leading to the formation of dust; to point out mea-
sures for the selection of suitable dust-removal installations
and their maintenance; and to establsih guide stacks are con-
sidered as means to minimize the ground level lines for the
restriction of dust emission by new installations. Centrifugal
separators, electrostatic precipitators, and concentration of
particulates.
06563
RESTRICTING DUST EMISSION FROM FORCED-DRAFT
BOILER INSTALLATIONS, CAPACITY 30 TON/HR AND
OVER, HARD COAL-DUST FIRED WITH DRY ASH
REMOVAL. (Staubauswurfbegrenzung Dampferzeuger uber
10 t/h Leistung Steinkohlen-Staubfeuerungen mit trockenem
Ascheabzug.) VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Kommission
Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, Germany. (VDI 2092.)
(Nov. 1961). 27 pp. Ger. (Tr.)
The occurrence and reduction of dust in steam-generating in-
stallations with a capacity of over 30 ton/hr. are reviewed. The
purpose is: to describe parts of the installation in which dust
occurs; to characterize the influences leading to the formation
of dust; to point out measures for the selection of suitable
dust-removal installations and their maintenance; and to
establish guide lines for the restriction of dust emission by
new installations. Centrifugal separators, electrostatic
precipitators, and stacks are considered as means to minimize
the ground level concentration of particulates.
06781
(PRESERVATION OF AIR PURITY AND THE PRODUCTION
OF POWER.) Maintien de la Purete de 1'Air et Production
d'Energie. Centre Interprofessionnel Technique d'Etudes de la
Pollution Atmospherique, Paris, France. (1967.) 4 pp. Fr. (Rept.
No. CI 306.) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Document No. 24.)
After a joint meeting of three German and three American ex-
perts on air pollution from large boilers and other sources, the
problem of pollution was discussed with representatives of the
Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and the owners of large
boilers in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, in West Ger-
many. The differences in approach, the climatic conditions,
the size of the country, and the type of regulatory authority
were explored. Various controls were investigated such as the
use of high stacks, low-sulfur fuels, sulfur dioxide removal,
and electrostatic precipitators. There is a short discussion of
smog formation in California by photochemical action. In Ger-
many, federal law governs the regulation of air pollution. Also
in Germany, federal law governs the regulation of air pollu-
tion. Also in Germany the regulations cover individual parts of
the installations, while in the United States the main con-
sideration is the concentration of the pollutant in the ambient
air produced by the installation. While investigations into the
elimination of pollution continue, reliance on high stacks is
suggested.
07430
W. A. Pollock, J. P. Tomany, G. G. Frieling
FLUE-GAS SCRUBBER. Mech. Eng., 89(8):21-25, Aug. 1968.
The Turbulent Contact Absorber (TAC), utilizes turbulent mo-
tion of ntobile packing to maintain high mass-transfer rates
and efficient paniculate collection over a wide range of flows
with low pressure drop in the presence of a dense low pH
slurry. This wet scrubber was tested for sulfur dioxide
removal without sulfur recovery. Limestone injection directly
into a coal-burning furnace to reduce SO2 emission was evalu-
ated separately. From the data developed on the two systems
it appears probable that limestone injection together with wet
scrubber would result in effective simultaneous removal fo fly
ash and sulfur dioxide. Flyash collection efficiencies in the
order of 98% and SO2 removal of 91% can be expected at wet
scrubber pressure drops of about 4.5 in. wg.
07527
I. Hagiwara
PREVENTION OF SMOKE AND SOOT BY ADDING ADDI-
TIVES TO HEAVY OIL. Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri
(Tokyo) 19(4):31-35, April 1967.
Two experiments were performed to investigate the effect of
additives on the prevention of soot and on the efficiency of
the boiler. The specifications of the boiler used were: heat
conductivity area, 537 sq. m., maximum pressure used, 10
kg/sq. cm., and maximum steam production 20 tons/hr. One
experiment was to determine the effect of a liquid additive to
prevent sludge formation. In the other, powder was added to
prevent soot formation and the effect of the soot decrease on
the low-temperature section of the boiler was also determined.
Results showed that the efficiency of the boiler was not af-
fected and that the additive caused a remarkable soot
decrease. The life span of the low-temperature part of the
boiler was lengthened by use of the additive. Data on efficien-
cy change and soot reduction due to additives are tabulated.
07535
W. Leithe
CLEAN AIR MAINTENANCE - AN IMPORTANT TASK FOR
CHEMISTRY AND ECONOMY. (Reinhaltung der Luft - ein
dringendes Anliegen fur Chemie und Wirtschaft.) Text in Ger-
man. Allgem. Prakt. Chem. (Vienna), 18(8):239-241, Sept. 10-
17, 1967. 4 refs.
This article is a summary of two lectures given at meetings of
chemical societies. The problem of air pollution and some con-
trol methods are outlined. Typical examples of well-known air
pollution problems are mentioned: London's smog chiefly
caused by domestic heating, the smog of Los Angeles due to
automobiles, the sun, and temperature inversions, and the in-
dustrial air pollution of the Ruhr Valley. Some characteristic
data for all three examples are quoted. The techniques for the
control of dust emissions are farthest advanced. This is
verified by the fact that in Germany, emission of cement dusts
decreased to one third while the production of cement tripled
in the last 17 years. Far less satisfactory is the control of SO2
emissions. About twice as much sulfur is blown into the air
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
29
than is used for the production of sulfuric acid. Some wet and
dry processes for the elimination of SO2 from smoke are men-
tioned, but no method is known today which is both effective
and economical. The chemical industry tackled its problems
mostly by reducing the emission of air polluting substances by
increasing the efficiencies of the relevant chemical processes.
Examples are the production of sulfuric acid and nitric acid.
Organic compounds can be recovered by either absorption on
activated charcoal or oxidation by catalytic afterburners.
07537
A. E. Lock
REDUCTION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION BY EFFI-
CIENT COMBUSTION CONTROL. Plant Eng. (London),
11(5):305-309, May 1967.
Emissions from the combustion of coal and oil by industrial
plants are discussed. While individual industrial steam plants
are much smaller than the smallest of the modern power
plants, they pose a problem because of the concentration in in-
dustrial areas and the lack of efficient operation and supervi-
sion as compared to the modern electric power plant. It is not
uncommon in an industrial plant to have the heating load dou-
ble that of the process load which leads to difficulties during
the summer. During light loads, with low-volume discharge
and low velocity in the stack, there may be flow downward in-
side the stack with the cold air causing condensation in the
stack leading to corrosion and eventually to smut emission. A
case is described in which various additives were added to the
fuel to control the SO2 while an effort was made to increase
the stack velocity by installing a chimney cowl and increasing
the volume of the powerhouse fan which resulted in a
decrease from 2 high of 36.9 parts per hundred million to 7.2
at ground level from the combined effects. New turf which
replaced the badly affected grassland showed continued
growth and denuded trees showed recovery of foliage. In an
instance where a proprietary powdered additive was injected
into the combustion chamber, there was no reduction in SO2
but the conversion to SO3 was decreased from 3 to 0.6%.
Using a minimum of excess air undoubtedly prevents many of
the problems, but careful control is required since the border-
line between a minimum excess and insufficient air for
complete combustion is narrow and easily crossed under fluc-
tuating load conditions typical of industrial operations.
07557
Electrostatic Precipitation Sub-Committee
SPECIFICATIONS REQUIRED FOR DESIGN OF ELECTRO-
STATIC OR COMBINATION MECHANICAL-ELECTRO-
STATIC COLLECTORS FOR FLY ASH COLLECTION
FROM BOILER GASES. J Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
8(3):249-254, Nov. 1958.
The specification or request for bids which covers the essen-
tial data required by the manufacturers of fly ash collectors to
intelligently analyze ezch problem are discussed. Additional
data which the purchaser can supply are helpful to bidders. A
list of questions, the answers to which the purchaser would
like to have to properly analyze the bids, should be attached
to the request for bids. The appendices establish standard
methods of chemical analysis of fly ash and methods of deter-
mining resistivity and particle size.
07752
Kopita, R. and T. G. Gleason
WET SCRUBBING OF BOILER FLUE GAS. Chem. Eng.
Progr., 64(l):74-78, Jan. 1968. 5 refs. (Presented at the 62nd
National Meeting, American Institute of Chemcial Engineers,
Salt Lake City, Utah, May 21-24, 1967.)
A wet scrubbing system that can be designed to remove 99
plus percent of the fly ash from the pulverized coal and stoker
fired boilers is described. The same type of system can be util-
ized to remove 70 to 99.5 percent of the sulphur dioxide in the
flue gas depending on the amount and type of absorbing liquid
used. The cost of such a system is such that an early pay-out
could result as compared to the extra cost of low sulphur fuel.
The text and tables illustrate the effeciciencies that may be ex-
pected with respect to both SO2 and particulate matter
removal, suitable materials of construction and various flow
cycles including low-level heat recovery.
07839
Etoc, Pierre
THE USE OF AMMONIA TO ELIMINATE ACID SMUTS
FROM OIL-FIRED PLANT. J. Inst. Fuel, 40(317): 249-251,
June 1967. 11 refs.
The process of injecting ammonia into the flue gases from oil-
fired boilers was developed initially to reduce the corrosion of
low- temperature heat exchange surfaces by condensed
sulphuric acid. It has been shown that sulphuric acid conden-
sation is also a necessary precursor to the formation of acid
smuts on these and other cold surfaces, such as chimney and
duct walls. This paper describes the successful elimination of
these smuts by injecting gaseous ammonia or ammonia solu-
tion into the flue ways of industrial and central heating boilers.
(AuthorOs abstract)
07881
Grumer, J., M. E. Harris, V. R. Rowe, and E. B. Cook
EFFECT OF RECYCLING COMBUSTION PRODUCTS ON
PRODUCTION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN, CARBON
MONOXIDE AND HYDROCARBONS BY GAS BURNER
FLAMES. Preprint, Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa., 42p.,
1967. refs. (Presented at the Symposium on Air Pollution Con-
trol Through Applied Combustion Science, 16th Annual Meet-
ing, American Inst. of Chemical Engineers, New York City,
Nov. 26-30, 1967)
Gas appliances designed to lessen the emission of oxides of
nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons, are desired.
The formation and decay of oxides of nitrogen and carbon
monoxide in the secondary combustion zone of gas-burner
flames were investigated as functions of temperature, cooling
rate (temperature gradient), and degree of recycling of com-
bustion products into the primary combustion zone of the
flame; preliminary measurements were made on hydrocarbons
from flames. Recycling, though effective in reducing nitrogen
oxides concentrations in effluent from gas appliances, makes
the flames longer and less stable. Nitrogen oxides may be
reduced by keeping the primary combustion temperature as
low as possible, preferably no higher than about 3,000 deg. F.,
and by starting to cool the combustion gases as soon as possi-
ble to about 2,300 deg. F at which temperature concentrations
of nitrogen oxides do not increase within the residence time in
most gas appliances. Concentrations of carbon monoxide are
lowered by recycling of flue gases. The oxidation rate of car-
bon monoxide is strongly increased by increasing the oxygen
concentration. Although the point has yet to be proven by fu-
ture research, it appears that carbon monoxide concentrations
may best be lowered by appliance designs that allow rapid in-
duction of secondary air into the secondary combustion zones.
Hydrocarbons can escape from gas burner flames by flowing
from the preheat zone of partially lifted flames through the
-------
30
BOILERS
dead space into the surrounding cold atmosphere. Recycling of
combustion gases, very low fuel-air ratio, and very high flow
rates tend to promote partial lifting of flames from burner
ports. It is possible that the emission of hydrocarbons by gas
appliances may largely be avoided by designing for well-seated
flames on burner ports.
07932
D. W. Ertl
ELECTROSTATIC GAS CLEANING. (DISCUSSION AND
AUTHOR'S REPLY.) S. African Mech. Engr. (Johannesburg),
17(1):13-20, Aug. 1967.
The author's paper which was published in the March issue, is
discussed. Rapping has to be adjusted to suit the particular
dust, and the moisture and temperature conditions in the plant.
Since these conditions vary with boiler load, atmospheric con-
ditions, composition and wetness of coal received, gas dew
point, etc. it is possible to adjust for optimum rapping only for
average condition rather than for particular conditions since
the latter vary from hour to hour. Good gas distribution plays
an important part in electrofilter performance in the cement in-
dustry and older units are likely to be defective in this regard.
Also, a cyclone before the precipitator has advantages in per-
mitting continuous operation for long periods at maximum
recovery. The design of a commercial electrostatic precipitator
requires not only a knowledge of the process to be controlled,
but information on metal fatigue, the vibration characteristics
of the electrodes under impact blows, corrosion resistance of
the construction materials, and the properties of the dust or
fume being trapped. The properties of highly resistant dust are
discussed with reference to fly ash from low sulfur content
coal. Dust resistivity is influenced by the dew point of the
gases and the carbon content of the dust, which is the reason
that the modern boiler with a lower carbon content in the dust
has a problem with resistive dust. The design and operation of
a steam generator have a decisive influence on precipitator ac-
tion.
eliminate SO2 from the exhaust gases. There are indications,
however, that by reducing the aerosols forming soots and par-
ticulate matter from the exit gases, the smog-forming ten-
dencies of SO2 are reduced substantially.
08155
Matsak, V. G.
THE UTILIZATION OF AIR DUST AND SMOKE PURIFICA-
TION EQUIPMENT. In: Survey of U. S. S. R. Literature on
Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases. Translated
from Russian by B. S. Levine. National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D. C, Inst. for Applied Tech., Vol. 3, p. 141-149,
May 1960 CFSTI: TT 60-21475
In purifying air and gases from dust, the following factos must
be taken into account: a)the weight of dust, which may vary
from a few milligrams to tens of grams per cu m of air or gas;
b) the size of dust particles and their weight/number ratios; c)
the chemical composition of the dust and its susceptibility to
wetting by water, oil and similar fluids. Existing means of pu-
rifying air from dust and smoke can be divided into dry and
wet methods. Settling chambers, inertia dust separators,
porous filters, electrostatic precipitators, water spray washing,
and oil filters are discussed.
08343
Walker, A. B.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CONTROL OF PARTICU-
LATE EMISSION. Proc. MECAR Symp., New Developments
in Air Pollution Control, Metropolitan Engineers Council on
Air Resources, New York City, p. 12-20, Oct. 23, 1967. 33
refs.
Some highlights of recent new developments in paniculate col-
lection equipment are presented. Progress has come about as a
result of mature technology rather than new concepts. The
control equipment discussed are: Electrostatic precipitators,
fabric filters, wet scrubbera and mechanical collectors.
07971
Kukin, Ira
CHEMICAL SUPPLEMENTS IN AIR POLLUTION CON-
TROL PROGRAMS. Apollo Chemical Corp., Clifton, N.J.,
FL-67-65, ((32))p., 1967. 12 refs. (Presented at the National
Fuels and Lubricants Meeting, New York, N. Y., Sept. 13-14,
1967.)
Several classes of chemical additives for petroleum fuels and
coals have been developed that reduce air pollutants from
smoke stacks. These are: (1) combustion catalysts, (2) smoke-
suppressants, (3) oil-ash (slag) modifiers, (4) absorptive agents,
(5) SO3 neutralizing agents. The application of these products
to specific air pollution reduction programs is shown by
several case histories involving the following power plants: (1)
4-cycle diesel trucks, (2) 2-cycle diesel buses, (3) diesel power
generating equipment, (4) gas turbine for peaking operations,
(5) school heating equipment with No. 4 oil, (6) industrial plant
boiler with Bunker C fuel, (7) refinery boiler burning No. 6 oil
and gas, (8) marine steam plant, (9) utility power plant, (10)
coal-fired utility. These specific examples cover the known
types of polluting materials from fuel and coal burning power
plants. A ready guide for specific utilization of the chemical
treatments is summarized. It has been shown that chemical
supplements are 80 to 100% effective for improving the com-
bustion of the fuels resulting in a decrease of smoke, particu-
late matter, odors and aerosols as well as acidic and acrid SO3
with a resultant reduction in stack plume. Chemical supple-
ments appear to be uneconomical generally to completely
08616
Sickles, D.
TWELVE WAYS TO INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF
YOUR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR. Power,
lll(ll):75-78, Nov. 1967.
Twelve (12) ways to improve the performance of older existing
electrostatic precipitators include the following: (1) Add
another precipitator in series, (2) add another precipitator in
parallel, (3) add mechanical collectors, (4) enlarge existing
precipitator, (5) improve flow to precipitator, (6) improve
rapping, (7) modernize electrical rectivication, (8) modernize
controls, (9) increase electrical sectioning, (10) reduce load on
the precipitator, (11) change inlet temperature and, (12) chemi-
cal conditioning.
08695
Mathur, M. L., and N.R.L. Maccalum.
SWIRLING AIR JETS ISSUING FROM VANE SWIRLERS.
PART I: FREE JETS. J. Inst. Fuel, 49(316):214-224, May 1967.
34 refs.
Designs of vane swirlers for efficient direction of the air are
discussed. A design of hubless swirler is suggested for study-
ing swirling jets. The pressure drop across swirlers and hence
the efficiency of the swirl generator is derived from theoretical
considerations and is confirmed by experimental results. It is
shown that a swirling jet experiences a sudden expansion soon
after it issues from the nozzle but after about 2 to 4 d the ex-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
31
pansion becomes nearly linear with similar spread angles for
jets having varying degrees of swirl. For vane angles of 45
degrees and higher the sub-atmospheric pressure in the central
zone of the jet near the nozzle is strong enough to induse
recirculation.
08741
DUST TECHNIQUE. ((Staubtechnik.)) Text in German. VDI
(Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Z. (ODUESSELDORF), 107(5):683-687,
OMAY 1965. 45 refs.
Emission sources, measurement methods, and control methods
are re- viewed. Most of the papers reviewed were published in
1964. Subjects include the determination of particle size, the
pneumatic atomization of small amounts of glass or quartz
powder by three methods, air purity in steam generation
plants, the dust removal in tar separator plants, description of
a new filter which utilizes polarization in an electric field, and
the purification of waste gases by the use of siliconized glass
fiber bag filters, which tolerate temperatures to 400 deg. C.
Purified gases with 1 mg./ normal cu m. dust content were ob-
tained from waste gases containing 800 mg./normal cu m. dust
after purification with the above filter. Several new centrifugal
and wet cyclone dust separators as well as wet electrostatic
and vibration filters are described. A new method for the
determination of the dust content of pure gases is described
and schematically illustrated. Several other gravi- metric mea-
surement devices as well as an aerosol spectrometer are
described. Several methods for the prevention of dust explo-
sions are outlined, and the legal questions in regard to dust
control are briefly discussed.
08825
Zentgraf, Karl-Martin
CONTRIBUTION TO SO2 MEASUREMENT IN FLUE GASES
AND TO FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION BY COMBINA-
TION WITH ALKALINE EARTH METALS. ((Beitrag zur
SO2-Messung in Rauchgasen und zur Rauchgasentschwefelung
mit Verbindungen der Erdalkalimetalle.)) Text in German. VDI
(Ver. Deut. Ingr. Ingr.) Z. (Duesseldorf), 109(35):1689, Dec.
1967.
An infrared absorption apparatus was used for the determina-
tion of the amount of SO2 in flue gases. The parts of the ap-
paratus were constructed of Teflon, quartz or polyethylene to
prevent the absorption or adsorption of SO2. The transverse
strain sensitivity of the apparatus towards CO and CO2 was
removed by a modification of the apparatus, and the water
content of the gas was reduced by means of a sulfuric acid
drip column. The apparatus proved feasible technologically,
but since its involved calibrations require the use of specially
trained personnel it presents economic difficulties. Experi-
ments for the desulfurization of flue gases were conducted in
a coal-fired wet bottom boiler with a steam capacity of 110
t./hr. A desulfurization of 26-31% was obtained with a double
stoichiometric addition of dolomite-calcium hydroxide at a flue
gas temperature of 1150 deg C. A 19-29% desulfurization ef-
fect was obtained with the 1.2 times stoichiometric addition of
limestone meal (particle size 95% less than 90 micro m at a
flue gas temperature of 1500 deg C. It is not practical to use
desulfurization with fly dust recyclization, since the sinter
products of the desulfurization compounds cause excessive
amounts of dirt. By the use of calcium hydroxide, 70% of the
SO2 is bound as the sulfate and 30% as the sulfite and the
dust discharge is smaller with the use of a desulfurization
compound without fly dust recyclization than during normal
vessel operation with fly dust recyclization. The cost of the
various desulfurization compounds is briefly discussed.
08957
Kito, Nobuo
AN EXPERIENCE OF SMOKE PREVENTION IN A SMALL
FACTORY. Text in Japanese. NetsuKanri (Heat Engineering)
(Tokyo), 19(7): 36-39, July 1967.
Following complaints from residents, a textile dyeing factory
had to find causes and remedies for air pollution and soot. Pol-
lution was found to be evinced by incomplete combustion, ex-
cessive SO2, and by meteorological inversion. Adjustment of
the boiler by the manufacturer, experiments with different fuel
oils, use of a combustion intensifier and the repair of the flue
brought no im- provement. An analysis by some experts
(results tabulated) led to an investigation of the relationship
between the quantity of the air and the gas pressure at the exit
of the boiler. The roblem was solved by controlling the quanti-
ty of air with a draft regulator attached to the flue. This regu-
lator adjusts the aperture of the air intake, regulates the quan-
tity of air, and stabilizes the pressure inside the flue. The soot
stopped re- gardless of wind velocity and burner load. Boiler
manufacturers are cautioned about determining flue gas
capacity, especially for ready-made stacks. Although boilers
come equipped with automatic ventilatory control devices,
when the load varies greatly, the device cannot adequately
compensate. The cost of a draft regulator (ca. 30,000) will be
repaid by more efficient and economical combustion capacity.
09164
Lee, G. K., E. R. Mitchell, and R. G. Grimsey
FORMATION OF OIL ASH DEPOSITS ON BOILER SUR-
FACES AND CONTROL BY AN ADDITIVE. In: Proc. Am.
Power Conference, 28th Ann. Meeting, Chicago, 111., April 26-
28, 1966. Vol. 28, p. 613-626. 5 refs.
The effectiveness of additives on superheater ash deposit
structure in naval boilers is evaluated. The physical, chemical
and mineral characteristics of the deposits are summarized and
they verify that an additive composition containing magnesium
and aluminum oxides has the most beneficial effect on deposit
structure. A study on the mechanism of ash deposition, in
which control of ash deposition is being attempted by improv-
ing the combustion process is also described. The dominant
mechanism controlling buildup of slag in naval boilers is ap-
parently one of vapor phase diffusion. This being the case, su-
perheater slagging in the present design of naval boilers can be
reduced by using an ashless fuel or a residual fuel treated with
an additive, so long as it will positively improve the thermal-
physical properties of the oil ash. However, the slagging
problem may be overcome by development of unconventional
boiler and burner design concepts. Another solution may lie in
the use of low excess combustion air, but this technique seems
to be too risky for marine boilers at the present stage of
burner development.
09191
J. L Burdock
FLY ASH COLLECTION FROM OIL-FIRED BOILERS.
Preprint, UOP Air Correction Div., Greenwich, Conn., 15p.,
1966. 4 refs. (Presented at the 10th Annual Technical Meeting
of the New England Section of APCA, Hartford, Conn., April
21, 1966.)
Centrifugal separators are generally preferred for collecting fly
ash emissions from oil-fired boilers. Selection of centrifugal
collectors depends on three things-size distribution of the par-
ticulate matter, the characteristics of the cyclone, and the
degree of clean-up required. Purchasers of new or replacement
boilers and collection equipment can be sure of getting equip-
ment suitable for the job by exerting more control over equip-
-------
32
BOILERS
ment specifications. For the best results, collection equipment
should be designed on the basis of careful ash analysis,
knowledge of additives to be used, and the use of guaranteed
rather than anticipated micron efficiency curves.
09504
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF ADDITIVES TO CON-
TROL AIR POLLUTION - FOR USE WITH PETROLEUM
FUELS. National Petroleum Refiners Association, Washing-
ton, D. C., FL-66-46(a), ((38))p., 1966. 6 refs. (Presented at the
Fuels and Lubricants Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 15-16,
1966.)
A multipurpose additive for distillate fuels was effective in
overcoming problems of floe formation caused by caustic car-
ryover in fuel oils. In addition, this anionic stabilizer provided
ex- cellent rust protection. A multipurpose gasoline additive
that imparted static rust protection to gasoline was also shown
to pro- vide tank cleanliness to gasoline storage tanks and han-
dling sys- terns. Carryover of particulate matter into the
gasoline also was eliminated. In marketing, service calls that
resulted from clogged filters, as well as vacuum cleanings to
remove soot accum- ulation, were reduced or eliminated by
the addition of a combustion catalyst-dispersant type additive
to No. 2 fuel oils. Smoking from diesel buses and trucks was
also reduced by the use of a smoke suppressing agent. In
manufacturing, fouling of super- heaters from fuels high in
vanadium was eliminated by the use of an ash modifier that
converted dense, low melting, slags to light, friable, powders
during routine furnace operations. Low tempera- ture, 'dew-
point', corrosion of air preheaters and stacks, and problems of
SO2 and SO 3 pollution were also reduced. (Au- thor's ab-
stract)
09546
Fernandes, John H., W. Burton Daily, and Robert H. Walpole,
Jr.
COAL FIRED BOILER EMISSIONS AND THEIR CONTROL
BY THE TWIN CY- CLONE. Combustion, 39(8):24-29, Feb.
1968. (Presented at the Industrial Coal Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., Oct. 11-12, 1967.)
In evaluating the standard dry dust collection equipment
available today, there is an area of performance capability
between the con- ventional high efficiency mechanical dust
collector and the perfor- mance levels of other types of collec-
tion equipment which is not fulfilled. In many instances, this
area of performance will sue- cessfully comply with air pollu-
tion control regulations to be enacted in the future. It is in this
range of 85 to 95 percent collection efficiency on dust similar
to coal fly ash that the Twin Cyclone mechanical dust collec-
tor can be most successfully applied. The performance capa-
bilities of the Twin Cyclone mechanical dust collector have
been verified through extensive laboratory and field testing
programs. The achievement of this high level of performance
in a mechanical dust collector has neces- sitated a more so-
phisticated design with many exclusive features. The per-
formance level of a mechanical dust collector in separating
particulate matter is primarily dependent on particle size and
particle density. For this reason, the results obtained in the
field tests on fly ash collection can be applied to other fuels
and materials as an effective air pollution control method or
for pro- duct recovery. To date, the company has laboratory
tested the performance of the Twin Cyclone on such materials
as bark char, phosphate dust, begasse ash, sawdust ash, and
salt cake. The sue- cess of these laboratory tests has con-
firmed the ability of the Twin Cyclone to attain exceptionally
high performance in numerous exceptionally high performance
in numerous fields of particulate fields of particulate collec-
tion. (Authors' summary)
09666
Perry, Harry and J. H. Field
COAL AND SULFUR DIOXIDE POLLUTION. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Paper 67-
WA/PID-6 9p., 1967. 19 refs. (Presented at the Winter Annual
Meeting and Annual Meeting and Energy Systems Exposition,
Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov. 12-17, 1967.)
The scope of the air pollution problem in the U. S. is briefly
reviewed. Sulfur oxides comprise less than 15 percent of total
emissionsk but are of considerable present interest because
most arise from combustion of relatively low-cost coal and
residual oil. Emission limitations for sulfur oxides in several
areas are cited. Ten general methods are enumerated to reduce
urban levels of sul- fur oxides and their applicability is
discussed. An up-to-date review is given of methods to remove
sulfur from coal prior to combustion, of injection of limestone
or dolomite into the boiler for in-process sulfur oxides
removal, and of processes to remove sulfur oxides from stack
gases. (Authors' summary)
09792
Polglase, William L.
BOILERS USED AS AFTERBURNERS. In: Air Pollution En-
gineering Manual. (Air Pollution Control District, County of
Los Angeles.) John A. Danielson (comp. and ed.), Public
Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for Air Pol-
lution Control, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, p. 187-192, 1967. GPO:
806-614-30
Fireboxes of boilers and fired heaters can be used under
proper conditions, as afterburners to incinerate combustible
contaminants. To use a boiler as an afterburner demands that
the following coditions exist: (1) The air contaminant must be
wholly combustible; (2) The volume of contaminant gases
must not be excessive; (3) The oxygen content of the contami-
nant gases when used as combustion air must be similar to
that of air; and (4) An adequate flame must be maintained con-
tinuously. The manner of venting contaminated gases, adapta-
ble types of equipment, burners, and safety precautions of
boilers as afterburners are discussed. The advantages and dis-
advantages of using a boiler as an afterburner are listed. Fac-
tors that must be determined when evaluating a control system
wherein a boiler is to be used as an afterburner are also out-
lined. An example, calculating some factors that must be con-
sidered in determining the feasibility of using a boiler to in-
cinerate exhaust gases from meat processing smokehouses, is
illustrated. Test results on several boilers used to incinerate ef-
fluents from meat smokehouses and rendering cookers are
summarized showing the apparent efficiencies of boilers con-
trolling combustion contaminants, organic acids, and al-
dehydes.
09833
Walsh, Robert T.
BOILERS, HEATERS, AND STEAM GENERATORS. In: Air
Pollution Engineering Manual. (Air Pollution Control Dis- trict,
County of Los Angeles.) John A. Danielson (comp. and ed.),
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Cen- ter for
Air Pollution Control, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, p. 525- 558, 1967.
GPO: 806-614-40
Boilers, heaters, and steam plants which burn fossil fuels (oil
or gas) produce large quantities of particulates oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen, and acid mist due to hydrolysis of SO3. Particu-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
33
late emission during normal operation and tube cleaning is
discussed. The formation, reactions, kinetics, and equilibria
for NOx and SOx are presented which form the basis for
recommendation on firebox temperatures, combustion oxygen
concentrations, and burner design for optimum performance.
Pollution control equipment, such as cyclones, filters, electri-
cal precipitators, alkaline additives, metal oxide and carbon
filled adsorbers, afterburners, and various scrubbers are
described and evaluated. Experimental data is given for
several methods of control. Lowering excess air, catalytic
decomposition of NOx, reducing flame temperatures, and
eliminating air preheat are also discussed. Consideration is
given to the economics of emission control, especially SOx,
and to thermal efficiency.
09923
HOW MUCH DUST IS IN FLUE GAS? Power, lll(S):86-87,
May 1967.
New stack-emission limits increase the importance of dust col-
lectors, but estimating dust content has been difficult. The re-
port of a statistical study is presented which shows a correla-
tion between particulate emissions and the ash content of the
coal burned. Data on emissions from steam plants were sub-
mitted. The concentration at the steam generator outlet was
measured. Size distributions were given also. The major varia-
bles were; particulate emission, size distribution and ash con-
tent. The survey focused on three types of coal-fired steam
generators: pulverized coal; cyclone furnace and stoker fired.
The results are presented.
10415
MECHANICAL DUST COLLECTOR SELECTION AND PER-
FORMANCE EVALUATION GUIDE. J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc., 18(7):475-477, July 1968
Guidelines are established which will allow the proper specifi-
cation of mechanical dust collectors. This aids the supplier in
conforming to the user requirements, and helps the user evalu-
ate the equipment once it has been delivered. The criteria for
testing, such as particle size distributions, pressures, tempera-
tures, flow rates, and many others, are mentioned.
10993
Opladen, H. B.
COMPUTER-OPTIMIZED FIRE REDUCES AIR POLLU-
TION. Instrum. Technol., 15(8):63-66, Aug. 1968.
Increasing emphasis on air pollution control dictates that any
new oil-fired plants include methods for reducing pollutants to
permissible levels. The inherent computational and logical
capabilities of digital computers can be applied to optimize
combustion in oil-fired steam power plant. The computer can
find the necessary percentage of excess air to minimize carbon
monozide without sinsible heat loss. It can also determine the
best pressure for atomizing fuel oils, achieving an oil droplet
size that gives maximum burnout and reduces smoke emission.
11056
Zentgraf, K. M.
FULL-SPACE INDUSTRIAL TESTS OF WASTE GAS DESUL-
FURIZATION. Staub (English translation), 28(3):6-14, March
1968. CFSTI: TT 68-50448/3
The state of development of three methods for flue gas desul-
furi- zation (the additive method, also called Wicker method,
Reinluft luft method and Still method) is reported. The
Wickert method has been tested on a slagtap boiler of a max-
imum steam output of HOt/h. The results are compared with
measurements carried out for oil-fired boilers. An experimen-
tal plant according to the Reinluft method, designed for a flue
gas rate of 33,000 N cu m, has been in operation since
November 1966. Tests in a full-scale industrial plant according
to the Still method (20,000 to 30,000 N cu m flue gas/h) were
undertaken in November 1967. Operating costs of the three
methods are discussed. (Author's summary)
11178
A.K. Jain, P.M. Chen, J.W. Bishop, E.B. Robinson, and S.
Ehrlich
STATUS OF THE DIRECT HEAT TRANSFERRING
FLUIDIZED BED BOILER. Preprint, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 12p., 1968. 4 refs.
(Presented at the ASME Annual Meeting and Energy System
Exposition, New York, N. Y. Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-
WA/FU-J.)
The recent fluidized bed boiler development work sponsored
by the Office of Coal Research and the Department of Interior
is des- cribed. Basically the system involves replacement of
the con- ventional boiler furnace with fluidized suspension of
intert ma- terial into which coal is injected and burned. High-
heat re- leases and heat transfer direct from bed material to
heating sur- face obtained by this process reult in very high
steaming capaci- ties from an exceptionally small boiler. From
experimental data derived in operation of a full-scale single-
module boiler, packaged railroad transportable units can be
built up to 300,000 Ib/hr capacity or larger. The envisioned
utility boilers of 2,000,000 Ib/hr and greater represent about 15
percent of the overall size of a similar capacity pulverized coal
unit. En- visioned large cost savings should make coal more
competitive as a boiler fuel. The use of limestone for sulfur-
oxide abatement in this system is far more effective than the
open furnaces or gas passes of conventional boilers. SO2
reductions of 65 percent have already been accomplished and
greater reductions are antici- pated. (Authors' abstract)
11247
Jack E. Newell
SULPHUR FROM FLUE GASES A PROCESS EVALUATION
USING ABSORPTION ON ALKALISED ALUMINA. Preprint,
Central Electricity Generating Board, London (England), 17p ,
1968. 6 refs. (Presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the
Prototype Research and Development of Sulfur Pollution Con-
trol Processes, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 54d.)
The alkalised alumina process, has been developed in Britain
using fluidised bed reactors rather than the dispersed phase
system favoured by the original American authors. The func-
tional emphasis for the process in Britain also differs in that
commercial recovery of sulphur is the primary objective, air
pollution control being secondary. Thus, the design aims at
low capital investment and economic commercial operation,
rather than at high gas cleanup efficiency, the plant recovering
sulphur at an almost constant rate regardless of actual sulphur
input and operating 24 hours per day even when the associated
boiler plant shuts down overnight. This has necessitated a new
regeneration system and a different approach to thermal
economy from that described in the author's earlier paper
which aimed at high cleanup efficiency and full thermal in-
tegration with the power station heat cycle. In addition to
discussing the design of process plant, the paper presents cost-
ing and economic evaluation. It also shows the suitability of
the plant for use at large industrial sites other than power sta-
tions. (Author's abstract)
-------
34
BOILERS
11251
Smith, M. C. and A. A. Salerno
ENGINEERING FOR LOW SULFUR FUELS. Preprint, Amer-
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 8p., 1968.
(Presented at the ASME Annual and Energy Systems Exposi-
tion, New York, N.Y., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-WA/APC-l.)
Engineering for low-sulfur fuels must recognize several things.
Electrostatic precipitators on low-sulfur coal have lowered ef-
ficiencies. The difficulty of obtaining low fusion point coal
with low-sulfur content for use in wet bottom boilers may
force conversion away from this type of boiler. Low-sulfur oil
may very well have a high pour point which makes heating of
fuel lines necessary. Viscosity limits are necessary to be as-
sured that existing system fuel oil pumps can continue to be
used.
11256
SO2 REMOVED FROM FLUE GASES. Oil and Gas J.,
66(46):102, Nov. 11, 1968.
A system now available promises a solution to sulfur dioxide
emission problems in flue gases of boilers. Called the Cat-Ox
system, it is a catalytic oxidation process. The process in-
volves taking hot flue gases from a boiler and passing them
first through a hot electrostatic precipitator then through a
converter where sulfur dioxide is catalytically oxidized to sul-
fur trioxide. From the converter the gases pass through a high-
level economizer and an air preheater to recover heat which is
sent back to the boiler cycle.
11491
Kalyuzhnyi, D. N..N.Y. Yanysheva,M. V. Kryzhanovskaya,
Z. Y. Rudchuk, A. Z. Zaks, and M. S. Burakovich
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN URBAN AND RURAL
AREAS IN THE UKRAINE. ((Opyt ozdorovleniya atmosfer-
nogo vozdukha v gorodakh i selakh Ukramskoi SSR.)) Hyg.
Sanit. (English translation of: Gigiena i Sank.), 33(4-6):261-263,
April-June 1968. CFSTI: TT 68-50449/2
Research and practical work in air pollution control in the
Ukraine, over a period of many years, has at all stages been
conducted in close collaboration with practical sanitation ser-
vices and many planning and economic organizations. The
value of planning measures, the construction of purifying in-
stallations, and the introduction of gas as a fuel for dwellings
and large industrial, communal and household boiler rooms,
have been generally recognized and widely implemented. The
government of the Ukrainian republic annually allocates large
sums for the construction of purifying installations for enter-
prises under construction, being reconstructed or in operation.
Information concerning the purifying installations and gas-
fueled boiler rooms constructed in the major industrial regions
in the Ukraine over the last three years is given. Another im-
portant achievement in the control of industrial atmospheric
pollution has been the organization in many enterprises of spe-
cial offices for the operation and monitoring of purifying in-
stallations.
11726
Green, Bobby L.
BOILER FOR BARK-BURNING. Power Eng., 72(9):52-53,
Sept. 1968
Burning bark involves special problems: incomplete com-
bustion (and resultant gum-plugging in the system), dust and
residue buildup, and multi-fuel firing caused by fluctuations in
the supplies of bark. A paper mill has been burning bark in
one of its boilers for 6 years. The boiler has a rated evapora-
tion capacity of 300,000 Ib/hr. and is provided with rotary
regenerative air preheaters. The paper mill requires a continu-
ous firing schedule of 75% to full capacity. When the bark
supply is insufficient, natural gas is used. Equipment specifica-
tions include: horizontal-flow package regenerative air pre-
heater (Ljungstrom), traveling grate stoker, large tube fly-ash
collector, and hydraulic ash-disposal system. The boiler was
designed to burn 35% and 65% natural gas, but operating logs
show that the percentage of bark has been as high as 85%. A
schematic drawing shows the arrangement of the preheating
system. A cyclone dust collector, with large size tubes, is
located in the flue gas path ahead of the air preheater. The
cyclone removes bark char, fly ash, and other light material.
The operating temperature is about 700 deg F. Features of the
dust collection system are dust valves, a sand classifier, a
cinder reinjection system, and a wet ash sluice system.
Although no significant problems have been encountered in
the 6 years of operation, initially some minor buildup did
occur in the boiler superheater section when an unusually dif-
ficult combination of hardwood bark was burned. The problem
was solved by the installation of retractable soot glowers. It
has not been necessary to wash the preheater.
12090
NEW OIL ADDITIVES CONTROL AIR POLLUTION. Chem.
In Can., 20(11):9, Nov. 1968.
Two new products, one a paint, the other an oil additive, are
proving to be effective in control of air pollution. The first is a
water base paint to prevent low temperature corrosion in com-
mercial hot water or low pressure fire tube boilers. It must be
applied every 1 to 4 weeks and protects completely against
H2SO4 corrosion. The second formulation is a multipurpose
oil additive for industrial and power utility boilers where fire
side surfaces are not readily accessible. The results show it to
be particularly effective in alleviating high temperature
slagging and corrosion, preventing corrosion and fouling of
cold end boiler surfaces, and reducing emissions of NOx,
SO3, and acid soot to the atmosphere.
12308
Borgwardt, Robert H., Thomas A. Kittleman, and Larry G.
Turner
THE DRY-LIMESTONE PROCESS FOR SULFUR DIOXIDE
CONTROL: A FIELD STUDY OF THE ROLE OF OVER-
BURNING. Air Pollution Control Association, New York
City, 19p., 1969. 10 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Con-
trol Association Annual Meeting, 62nd, New York June 22-26,
1969.)
Two series of injection tests for desulfurization of flue gas
were made on a boiler. The boiler fired No. 6 fuel oil contain-
ing 2.3% sulfur at a rate of 10,000 pounds oil/hour at an
operating load of 150,000 Ibs steam/hour. Four different addi-
tives (2 limestone and 2 dolomites) were used. During the first
series of tests, the effect of boiler load on the degree of burn-
ing of additives injected with the fuel was investigated. During
the second series, the influence of particle size, iron content,
residence time, and injection temperature on the effectiveness
of the additives was studied. The dry-limestone process should
not be applied by injection with the fuel; additives must in-
stead be injected separately to achieve efficient utilization of
the limestone. Overburning is at least partly responsible for
the low efficiencies found when additives are fed to the bur-
ners. The lime produced by injection with the fuel is much less
reactive with SO2 than lime that is not calcined in the com-
bustion zone. Boiler load was an important variable affecting
desulfurization when additives were fed with the fuel. This
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
35
was due to the higher excess air used during low load. The
tests indicated that there is an optimum particle size as well as
an optimum injection temperature. Injection temperatures
somewhat higher than 2400 F would be best for 2-micron parti-
cles.
12446
van Doornum, G. A. W.
PROGRESS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMOKELESS AP-
PLIANCES FOR SOLID FUEL. Council for Scientific and In-
dustrial Research, Pretoria (South Africa), Conference on Air
Pollution Capetown, South Africa, 1967, 13p. (Paper no. 6.)
Appliances are described that permit the virtually smokeless
combustion of bituminous coal in domestic heaters and indus-
trial boilers. The design of the domestic appliance is charac-
terized by a separate bunker for the storage of fuel, a provi-
sion that makes it possible to replenish the fuel supply of a
stove without interfering with the combustion process. Pre-
heated secondary air, well distributed, is admitted in an insu-
lated combustion chamber. The hot combustion products can
be used for space or water heating or to heat an oven or hot-
plate. The same principle can be applied on a larger scale, and
hot water generators suitable for apartment buildings are now
being manufactured. On an industrial scale verticle boiler with
secondary air supply, smoke generation is almost completely
reduced by injecting air through a small forge blower. Another
boiler modification described facilitates ash removal from a
boiler.
12478
Tamura, Zensuke
ADSORBENT PROCESS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE REMOVAL
FROM FLUE GAS, USING ACTIVE CARBON. Taiki Osen
Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 2(1):39-40, 1967. Trans-
lated from Japanese. 7p.
The adsorption of sulfur dioxide from flue gas discharged
from a boiler by using activated carbon was described. A test
plant with a capacity of 2000 kw was built. The adsorbent
process takes place as follows: adsorption of S02, 02, and H20
from the flue gas conversion of the adsorbed S02 to S03 by
catalysis; and formation of H2S04 by hydration of the S03, so
that the original S02 is adsorbed on the activated carbon in the
form of H2S04. The H2S04 is easily extracted by washing with
water. The activated carbon is thus regenerated and can be
used repeatedly. The waste water containing the most concen-
trated sulfuric acid can be recover as dilute sulfuric acid. Ad-
vantages of the process include a high percentage of sulfur
removal, simple desorption and regeneration of the activated
carbon, and a flue gas temperature of over 100 C. Drying of
the activated carbon can be accomplished by the flue gas
discharged from the boiler. The process can also be carried
out without special conditions and is safe. Since the activated
carbon is treated with dry distillation and high temperature
steam, its firing point is higher than 400 C. Therefore, there is
no danger of its firing during the desorption process with
water-washing. In addition, the small amount of dust usually
attached to fresh activated carbon can be removed from the
apparatus by washing with water in the initial stage of the
operation, so that explosions from carbon dust are avoided.
Since the flue gas discharged from the air preheater on the
boiler is treated directly and then emitted from the stack, no
changes in the structure of the boiler are required.
12574
Baxter, W. A.
RECENT ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR EXPERIENCE
WITH AMMONIA CONDITIONING OF POWER BOILER
FLUE GASES. J. Air Pollution Assoc., 18(12):817-820, Dec.
1968. 9 ref.
Motivated by heightened recent interest, Koppers Co. has
been experimenting with ammonia conditioning of power
boiler flue gases for the purpose of improving the precipitabili-
ty of the emitted fly ash. Chemical reactions resulting from
NH3 injection are postulated. Measurements on three pul-
verized coal and two cyclone fired boilers, all os which emit
acidic ash, are described. In all five cases, considerable but
varying, increase in precipitator power input and collection ef-
ficiency resulted when gaseous NH3 in the amount of 15 ppm
was injected between the economizer and air preheater. The
conditioned fly ash showed decreased acidity and inconsistent
change in electrical resistivity. Unless air heater temperatures
were unusually high (greater than 400 deg F), tendency of the
air heater to plug was an additional, but unwanted, result. At
one station with high air heater outlet temperature NH3 injec-
tion has been adopted as a permanent solution to community
pressure for reduction of stack discharge. NH3 injection
downstream of the air heater produced no effect. Future plans
are presented to continue the program beyond present results
described in this interim report. Author's Abstract
12672
W. M. Crane, T. J. K. Rolfe
STEAM INJECTION AS A MEANS OF PREVENTING
DEPOSIT FORMATION IN ECONOMIC BOILERS. J. Inst.
Fuel, 41(334):426-432, Nov. 1968.
Some coals promote heavy formation of bonded deposits in
shell boilers and this can lead to stoppage of the plant for
cleaning. The work described here was aimed at reducing this
deposit formation. The effect of a steam jet in the furnace
tube on the formation of bonded deposits was assessed using
an Economic boiler while this boiler was being used to supply
the central heating load. A cola with a high chlorine content
was burnt. In one test, used as a control, the boiler was
operated in the normal way to provide the daily demand
without cleaning the tube bank until the combustion chamber
had become severely obstructed by bonded deposits. The
boiler was then cleaned and the run was started again, but this
time steam was supplied to a jet behind the bridge wall. This
run was still in progress at the end of the heating season
when, although slightly more coal than in the control run had
been burnt, the tube bank was comparatively free of deposits.
(Author's Abstract)
13501
AIR-POLLUTION CONTROL: THE SULFUR PROBLEM.
Coal Age, 70(8):58- 62, Aug. 1965.
Current research on sulfur dioxide elimination from coal and
flue gases is reviewed. Only a fraction of the coal reserves
meets the standards set by the Public Health Service for new
federal installations (0.7% sulfur for coal and 1.0% for fuel
oil), and there is no practical means now available for remov-
ing enough sulfur from coal to make it conform to this stan-
dard. The alternat approach to control of sulfur dioxide emis-
sion is through the application of a process for recovering sul-
fur dioxide from the flu gases after burning but prior to emis-
sion from the stack. A gas-processing device could enable the
reduction of SO2 emission to 300 ppm with a 3.4% sulfur coal,
-------
36
BOILERS
about 10% of the normal amount for such a coal. Three
processes which appear promising are the Reinluft process,
the alkalized-alumina process, and the catalytic gas-phase
process. Costs for 1965 are given.
13857
Frazier, J. H.
COAL FIRED BOILER STACK EMISSION CONTROL. Nat.
Eng., 73(8):8-10, Aug. 1969.
A large corporation, through various divisions, operates a
large number of coal-fired boilers. When emissions are mar-
ginal, or excessive, the boiler units are revised or replaced to
comply with new regulations regarding stack emissions.
Spreader stoker units are equipped with dust collectors vary-
ing in type, arrangement, and the amount of cinders returned
to the furnace for reburning. Most of these units are also
equipped with either economizers or air heaters for heat
recovery. Pulverizer units have mechanical dust collectors, ex-
cept for four plants where electrostatic units have been in-
stalled. The varying equipment, locale, coal, and new or
foreseeable applicable emission regulations combine to
required a study of emissions from each boiler. However, it is
stressed that testing should only be done to satisfy the opera-
tor or the air pollution control group, since promiscuous stack
testing serves no purpose.
13950
Thurlow, G. G.
FLUID BED COMBUSTION. Preprint, Combustion Engineer-
ing Assoc., Hayes, Great Britain, 16p. Nov. 11, 1968.
(Presented at the Combustion Engineering Assoc. Meeting,
Birmingham, Great Britain, Oct. 15, 1968, Document 8533.)
The technology of fluidized bed combustion and current
research and design efforts in its development are described;
the application of this system to steam and hot-water boilers is
considered potentially the most important advance in the burn-
ing of coal since pulverized fuel firing. The principle of the
system is to feed coal into a fluidized bed of coal and ash par-
ticles; the coal is rapidly dispersed throughout the bed, reacts
with the incoming air, and so is burned. The rapid motion of
the particles gives a high rate of turbulent mixing and
produces a reaction between the coal particles and the air
passing through the bed; also, these same rapidly moving par-
ticles lead to a high rate of heat transfer between the bed and
surfaces in contact with it. By extracting heat from the bed as
combustion proceeds, it becomes possible to keep the bed
temperature below that at which the particles sinter while
maintaining a high rate of chemical reaction and therefore heat
release rate. Consequently, unlike earlier proposals of com-
bustion units using fluidization, the ash particles do not get
sticky and coalesce, but remain as discrete particles, allowing
the heat transfer surfaces to stay clean and effective. By car-
rying out at least 50% of the heat transfer to the water or
steam tubes with the bed, it is expected that smaller, cheaper
boilers can be utilized. In addition, the fact that no surfaces
are exposed to high gas temperatures should lead to savings in
maintenance, while the low bed temperatures should reduce
problems of corrosion, deposition, and atmospheric pollution.
Other advantages, such as in the types and size of coal that
can be burned, are also foreseen. Details of the process are
given, and its application to power station water tube type
boilers and industrial shell-type boilers is described. It is
emphasized that the system is still in the developmental stage,
with many problems still to be worked out. A record of exten-
sive discussions by participants at this and two subsequent
meetings is included.
14194
Ito, F.
AN EXAMPLE OF SMOKE PREVENTION FOR COAL FIR-
ING APPARATUS OF STEAM JET TYPE. (Joki funshashiki
sekitan nensho sochi ni yoru baien boshi no jitsurei). Text in
Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Engineering) (Tokyo), 20(2):32-
36, Feb. 1968.
A steam jet coal-firing apparatus reduced dust from 2.26 to
0.27 g/cu nm, eliminated black smoke, increased heat efficien-
cy to 50%, and lowered exhaust gas temperatures from 329 to
307 C. Coal content of dust dropped from 12.2 to 8.5%. The
size of the apparatus and the number of jets depend on the in-
dividual boiler. The inner diameter of the apparatus ranges
from approximately 3 to 6 mm and nozzle height from 450 to
650 mm. Steam pressure requirements vary from 0.7 to 1.5
kg/sq cm. Preferably, boiler pressure should be above 4 kg/sq
cm. Cost of the apparatus is calculated at 300,000 yen (1968)
for pressure less than 4 kg/sq cm and a heat transfer area
greater than 15 sq m; at 250,000 yen for pressure less than 4
kg/sq cm and a heat transfer area less than 15 sq m; at 120,000
yen for pressure above 4 kg/sq cm and with a heater; and at
30,000 yen for pressure above 4 kg/sq cm but without a heater.
14221
Kopita, R. and T. G. Gleason
WET SCRUBBING OF BOILER FLUE GAS. Chem. Eng.
Progr., 64(1):74- 78, Jan. 1968. 5 refs.
Many new air pollution codes restrict the sulfur content of
fuels to 1% and that of fly ash to 0.25 lb/1000 Ibs of gas. Wet
scrubbers capable of 99% efficiency in particulate removal and
70 to 99% efficiency in SO2 removal are being constructed
from corrosion-resistant stainless steel alloys. Several are
designed so that a single unit of equipment can be utilized for
particulate removal, absorption, and cooling. Equipment and
operating costs depend largely on the complexity of the
system, but costs are low compared to those for low sulfur-
containing fuel. Representative systems include the following
cycles: (1) single- pass liquid cycle, (2) liquid recycle, (3) liquid
recycle combined with one-fluid absorption, and (4) two recy-
cle systems combined with two-fluid absorption. The first
cycle is designed for the removal of particulate matter, and ab-
sorption of SO2 or nitrogen oxides is incidental. The system is
ideally suited to water. To hold makeup water to a minimum,
cycle 2 uses a clarifier to reduce the concentration of solids in
recycled liquor. Cycle 3 uses chemical absorption with soda
ash, salt water, lime slurry, or sodium carbonate. In its sim-
plest version, the scrubbing medium is a weak soda ash solu-
tion. The chemical consumption for a 200,000-hr boiler would
be approximately 1000 Ibs/hr of soda ash. Using both calcium
carbonate slurry and soda ash, cycle 3 reduces soda ash con-
sumption to 500 Ibs/hr for a 200,000-hr boiler. The $125,000 in-
stallation cost of cycle 3 is typical of costs for these systems.
14262
Napier, D. H. and M. H. Stone
CATALYTIC OXIDATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE AT LOW
CONCENTRATIONS. J. Appl. Chem., vol. 8:781-786, Dec.
1958. 8 refs.
A suggested process for removing sulfur dioxide from boiler
flue gases requires as a first stage the oxidation of sulfur diox-
ide to sulfur trioxide, followed by the removal of sulfur triox-
ide as ammonium sulfate or sulfuric acid. The first stage of the
process was investigated by passing a synthetic flue gas mix-
ture, with a sulfur dioxide content between 0.13 and 0.17%,
through a fixed bed of vanadium catalyst containing by weight
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
37
6.7% V2O5 and 7.5% K2O. Results confirm that water vapor
and carbon monoxide in the gases have no adverse affect on
the catalyst and that the required contact time at low sulfur
dioxide concentrations is much lower than that used in the
contact process. Equilibrium was obtained for contact times of
0.09 to 0.43 sec. Fractional conversions obtained were close to
the equilibrium value of sulfur dioxide concentrations and not
dependent on oxygen concentrations. However, the values of
the fractional conversion are reproducible to only plus or
minus 4%, and the sulfur dioxide concentrations to plus or
minus 10%.
14690
Wahnschaffe, E.
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENTS OF THE SO3-CONTENT
AND THE DEW-POINT RANGE IN OIL-FIRED STEAM
GENERATORS. (Kontinuierliche SO3- und Taubereichsmes-
sungen an oelgefeurten Dampferzeugern). Text in German.
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 48(3): 193-199, June 1968. 3
refs.
In an oil-fired boiler furnace with a capacity of 175 tons/hr at
125 atm and 490 C, SO3 measurements were taken with the
Sulfotherm unit. The measurement was greatly dependent on
temperature; only between 580 and 600 C was it feasible to
measure the entire SO3 content. Between 1400 and 600 C, SO2
is converted to SO3, but the reaction is never a complete one
and some SO2 always remains. Determination of the degree of
conversion is impossible, since at 580 C, the conversion of
SO3 to H2SO4 begins. Study of dew point and dew point
range measurements showed that these methods are also tem-
perature- dependent. At 200 C, H2SO4 begins to precipitate as
a film on the probe. The rate of film formation is temperature-
independent between 120 and 135 C. Therefore, the measuring
probe can be calibrated against the true SO3 concentration.
Exact SO3 measurements are important for determining the
amount of additives such as CaO, and MgO required to
eliminate corrosive substances in the flue gas.
14716
Simonin, J. C.
FIGHTING AIR POLLUTION BY BOILER FUMES. (Lutte
centre la pollution atmospherique par les fumees des
chaudrieres). Text in French. Chaleur Ind., no. 434:251-266,
Sept. 1961. 9 refs.
A general review of air pollution control methods for com-
bustion gases and particulates is presented. Sulfur dioxide
emissions from well-regulated boilers presents the greatest
control problem. Fuel desulfurization is practical only for
natural gas, and not for heavy oils or coal. Removal of SO2
after combustion involves washing, which cools the gas and
may seriously impair dispersion of the remaining fumes. Lime,
chalk, or ammonia added to the scrubbing water yields
recoverable by-products. Over half the atmospheric SO2 is
emitted by boilers too small to practice economic extraction of
sulfur products. Properly-run gas and oil burners emit little
dust. Oil does produce carbon particles of 0.01 micron diame-
ter, which are difficult to remove. Centrifugal cyclone extrac-
tion is efficient for particles larger than 30 microns. Electro-
static precipitation can be 99% efficient and cheaply per-
formed. Water separators which trap the dust in fog nuclei are
useful for fine particles, although they cool the gas. Artificial
fiber filters are recommended for this application. Correct
chimney height and gas exit velocity are important for
adequate dispersion. Addition of an exit nozzle to an existing
chimney can increase the gas velocity without increasing pres-
sure simultaneously.
14838
Borio, Richard W., Robert P. Hensel, Richard C. Ulmer,
Hilary A. Grabowski, Edwin B. Wilson, and Joseph W.
Leonard
THE CONTROL OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE FIRE-SIDE
CORROSION IN UTILITY COAL-FIRED BOILERS. Com-
bustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn., Research and
Product Development, Contract 14-01-0001-485, OCR R&D
Rept. 41, 224p., April 25, 1969. 35 refs.
Methods by which coal can be processed to reduce corrosion
or damage to fireside surfaces of high-temperature boilers
were investigated. Methods for reducing the amount of pollu-
tants were determined. Certain relationships between coal
composition and corrosion rates were indicated. Based on the
data, the chief constituents affecting corrosion rate are alka-
lies, alkaline earth metals, iron, and sulfur. The combination
of effects of sodium, potassium, alkaline earth metals, and
iron made it possible to explain corrosion rates on most of the
coals tested. A nomograph was constructed whereby the
potential corrosiveness of a given coal can be determined.
Also, amounts of neutrality limes and limestones to be added
can be established from the nomograph. It also provides a tool
by which preparation processes can be modified to reduce the
corrosiveness of coal. These results provided the groundwork
for a corrosion-reduction study of the entire system of opera-
tions, from the seam face where mining begins to the point of
loading for shipment. Principle methods of corrosion reduction
included analysis of the mining system, coal preparation, and
coal additives and blending. To control both sulfur gas emis-
sions and boiler corrosion, it is desirable to maintain an op-
timum balance between the sulfur level of the coal and the al-
kaline earth metals retained in the coal or added to the coal.
Conventional cleaning using gravity techniques can remove
most of the pyritic sulfur and thereby reduce the total sulfur
by 50% or more. Such a reduction greatly reduces the sulfur
but increases alkaline earth percentages as well. (Author ab-
stract modified)
14844
Tamura, Zensuke, Yukio Hishinuma, and Teruo Hisamura
DESULFURIZATION PROCESS OF FLUE GAS BY ACTIVE
CARBONS. Hitachi Rev. (English translation from Japanese
of: Hitachi Hyoron), 17(9):343-349, 1968. 3 refs. (Also:
Karyoku Hatsuden (Thermal Power Generation), 18(4):361-
365, 1967.)
The active carbon adsorption process for desulfurization of
boiler flue gas and test results were described for the 6000 N
cu m/hr experimental plant built as a first stage of large- scale
research and development projects. The flue gas from the air
heater of the boiler is stripped of soot and dust, then blown
into a tower packed with active carbon. The purified gas is
discharged through the chimney. The bypass flue duct is used
when the boiler is being started or stopped, when operation of
the desulfurization unit is suspended, or during emergency
shutdown. Active carbon is contained in a number of towers
which are classified by function. In the drying tower section,
wet active carbon from the washing and desorption section is
dried with the heat of the boiler flue gas, while adsorption of
SO2 is achieved. In the adsorption section, SO2 in the flue gas
is completely removed. At the same time, water particles and
mist contained in the gas from the drying section are removed.
The washing and desorption section is designed to wash the
active carbon that has adsorbed SO2, extract sulfuric acid and
regenerate the carbon for further use. Advantages of the
process include a high desulfurization rate, easy desorption
and regeneration, flue gas temperature over 100 C, carbon suf-
ficiently dried by the boiler flue gas, a process not affected by
-------
38
BOILERS
geographical or natural conditions, safe operation, and no need
to change boiler structure. Operational results from the test
plant were given. They showed that the plant was operated
smoothly and the practical value and effectiveness of the
process were confirmed by various tests. However, in order to
industrialize the process, plant size should be expanded. By
doing so, structural problems that may arise from the opera-
tion of a larger plant, as well as operation in combination with
a boiler, should be studied.
14928
Yamamoto, Toshihiko
DUST COLLECTING AND DESULFURIZING APPARATUS
FOR COMBUSTION GAS WITH REVOLVING OBLIQUE
BARREL. (Shatokaitenshiki nenshoseiseigasu no jojin datsu-
ryu sochi). Text in Japanese. Kami-pa Gikyoshi (J. Japan.
Tech. Assoc. Pulp Paper Ind.), 23(10):423-429, Oct. 1969.
A new device, for which a patent has been applied, simultane-
ously removes dust and sulfur dioxide in a barrel cooled to 20
to 60 C. Decrease in gas diffusion at low temperatures and gas
pressure loss in the barrel are compensated for by the use of a
blower. The barrel is filled with pieces of wood, which supply
a large wet surface area. Sulfur dioxide is absorbed in circulat-
ing water with a minute amount of additive to enhance absorp-
tion. The water is either oxidized or neutralized after absorb-
ing SO2. Upon turning the barrel, a large area of cooled sur-
face for absorption is provided by the filler. Rotation of the
barrel is also effective. Sulfur dioxide in removing dust from
the filler surface and in preventing dust accumulation. The ex-
haust gas is mixed with fresh air by a blower to a harmless
concentration and is released to the atmosphere. The filler
material can be removed through openings provided in the bar-
rel. The device has a simple construction and can be easily
operated; installation cost is extremely low. The device cannot
be used without modification when the combustion gas has a
large amount of fly ash. The device is effective in cleaning
flue gas from boilers, exhaust gas from public baths or in-
cinerators, and in removal of SO2 from chemical processing
plant wastes.
14996
Johnstone, H. F.
METALLIC IONS AS CATALYSTS FOR THE REMOVAL OF
SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM BOILER FURNACE GASES. Ind.
Eng. Chem., 23(5):559-561, May 1931. 7 refs.
The preliminary results are given of attempts to increase the
solubility of sulfur dioxide in water to such an extent that the
amount of water required for the removal of SO2 would be
reduced to a point that would make the process economically
and mechanically feasible. The production of sulfuric acid
from the sulfur compounds in the gases being scrubbed was
also studied. Air containing 0.325% SO2 was passed at a con-
stant rate through 3 liters of water containing the catalyst. The
sulfates of iron, manganese, and nickel and various combina-
tions of these and with copper, zinc, and chromium were used
as catalysts. Nickel ions showed no catalytic effect in concen-
trations up to 1.5 grams/1. Manganese ions, in concentrations
as low as 0.0028%, exerted a strong catalytic action which in-
creased the capacity of the water to absorb SO2 by approxi-
mately 600%. The catalytic effect of ferric ions was somewhat
less than that of manganese. Definite promoter action was
shown when a very small concentration of manganese was
added to dilute ferric solutions. It was found that the presence
of a trace of copper ions completely inhibits the action of
manganese in any concentration. Removal of the copper by
precipitation as copper sulfide was not sufficient to prevent
the inhibition. Copper ions, however, had no effect on cataly-
sis by ferric ions. The presence of the copper ions in zinc,
nickel, chromium, and the alkali metals neither inhibited nor
promoted catalysis by manganese. The effect of the presence
of manganese ions on the capacity of the washing water for
absorbing sulfur dioxide showed that although the efficiency
of the washer operating on flue gases was a great deal lower
than that of the laboratory scrubber, it compared favorably
with the efficiency obtained by other large scale methods.
15378
PROCEDURE FOR PURIFICATION OF COMBUSTION
GASES. (Precede pour 1'epuration des gaz de combustion).
Text in French. (Societe des Forges et Chantiers de la
Mediterranee, France) French Pat. 1,399,747. 3p., May 21,
1965. (Appl. April 10, 1964, 2 claims).
The invention concerns a procedure for purification of com-
bustion gases, particularly of coal- or fuel oil-fired boilers, by
means of a heat exchanger made of granulated material and
placed in the combustion gas duct. The granulated material
may itself contain substances which react with SO2 and SO3
contained in the combustion gas. Such as red bauxite slurry
after hardening, or it may be in the form of an inert porous
substance which adsorbs SO2 and SO3, such as kieselguhr.
The surface of the grains of this material removes the film of
acid formed by the reaction of SO2 and SO3 with water when
the combustion gas temperature has been lowered sufficiently.
15432
Glaubitz, F.
THE ECONOMIC COMBUSTION OF SULFUR-CONTAINING
HEATING OIL. A MEANS OF AVOIDING DEW POINT DIF-
FICULTIES IN BOILER OPERATION. Combustion, vol.
34:31-35, Jan. 1963. (Presented at a meeting of the work group
'Oil Furnaces' of the VGB, Graz Austria, May 2, 1960.) (Also:
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, no. 68, Oct. 1960.)
Because of furnace and air heater difficulties due to tempera-
tures lower than the dew point at a refinery in Lingen, Ger-
many, the oil burner was redesigned so that sulfur dioxide
rather than sulfur trioxide was formed from the combustion
process for the purpose of preventing corrosion (since the dew
point of flue gases is raised only by sulfur trioxide; on the
other hand, sulfur dioxide causes no increase). In the
redesigned oil burner, air is added in the middle and dis-
tributed in such a way that the oil burner is not blown out. A
greater part of the air is passed into the atomized oil with a
fair velocity through the ring space. The air stream does not
rotate around the burner but is passed in parallel to the burner
axis. As a result, good combustion is obtained. However, the
feed to the oil burners in the furnace walls was nonuniform,
due to inadequate burner nozzles and differently abraded
pipes. After adjustments, regulation to at least 1:8 was ob-
tained. When the air was throttled up to 0.5% oxygen, the dew
point was approximately 110 C with the greatest deposit
velocity at 70 C. When pressure-fired oil furnaces were in-
stalled with the newly designed burners, dew points of 48 to
52 C could be determined for an air excess of 0.2% oxygen for
a flue gas temperature of 250 to 300 C.
15544
Hangebrauck, Robert P. and George D. Kittredge
THE ROLE OF COMBUSTION RESEARCH IN AIR POLLU-
TION CONTROL. Preprint, Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, National Air Pollution Control Administration, 17p.,
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
39
Sept. 1969. 10 refs. (Presented at the Combustion Institute,
Eastern States Section, Technical Meeting, Morgantown, W.
Va., 1969.)
Research and development projects aimed at developing
technology for minimizing emissions from combustion
processes are reviewed. The projects are discussed in relation
to specific pollutants and sources, which include electric
power production, industrial and residential combustion,
refuse combustion, and motor vehicle sources. For stationary
sources of pollution, fluid bed combustion may provide an
economical system of heat generation for reducing emissions
of sulfur oxides, and perhaps nitrogen oxides, from fossil-fuel
combustion by steam-electric power stations. Research is in
progress on models for predicting nitrogen fixation; these
models would be used in design of burners and boilers for low
output of NOx. Another possibility for controlling power
generating systems involves integrating new power cycles with
fuel cleaning. Improved burner and furnace designs offer op-
portunities for reducing pollution from sources other than
power generators. Current development work in incineration
could lead to both lower pollution levels and better use of
resources by heat recovery. For motor vehicle sources of pol-
lution, the possibilities of control are diverse. Industry is con-
centrating chiefly on enhancing combustion in spark-ignition
engines by improving fuel atomization, air-fuel mixing, and
distribution. Also under study are changes in fuel composition,
high-temperature exhaust system reactors, and exhaust gas
recirculation for NOx control. Elsewhere, alternative types of
low-emission propulsion system, in particular Rankine cycle
systems, are under development. Control techniques for diesel
engines are directed toward improving fuels and engine
designs to eliminate smoke and odor. Finally, projects for
reducing emissions from aircraft are underway.
15560
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria (South
Africa), Air Pollution Research Group
HOW TO OBTAIN HIGH STEAMING RATES FROM VERTI-
CAL BOILERS FIRED WITH ANTHRACITE. CSIR Res.
Rept. 249, 4p., 1966.
Simple modifications were made in a vertical boiler installation
in an effort to determine whether a high steaming rate was
possible using anthracite instead of bituminous coal with the
object of reducing smoke production. A complete energy
balance for the boiler was obtained. Using bituminous coal in
the experimental boiler, the steaming rate achieved by an ex-
perienced stoker was 14% more than that achieved by an inex-
perienced man. When anthracite coal was used and the stoker
was the same inexperienced man, the stack gas flow dropped
by 51%, and the steaming rate dropped by 25%. When a
forced draught was used with anthracite to bring the stack-gas
flow to about the same as it was when bituminous coal was
used, the steaming rate was 56% higher than when anthracite
was used without a forced draught and 17% higher than when
bituminous coal was used. The highest efficiency was obtained
when anthracite was used with a natural draught. The flow
rate of gases through the boiler is such that some combustion
takes place in the stack, thus causing a heat loss. Worthwhile
savings could be achieved if a simple economizer were in-
stalled above the boiler. This boiler can be applied in industry
if the draught is increased so as to make the stack-gas flow
rate approximately the same as when bituminous coal is used.
15611
Motonaga, Hidekazu
SOME ASPECT ON DUST COLLECTION BY COMBINA-
TION SYSTEM OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR AND
MULTICYCLONE. (Denki shujinki oyobi maruti-saikuron no
kumiawase hoshiki niyoru shujin ni tsuite no ichikosatsu). Text
in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 5(5):363-
368, 1969. 8 refs.
The efficiencies of an electrostatic precipitator (EP) alone and
various combination of the EP and the multicyclone (MC),
which collects the dust from a boiler which burns powdered
carbon or from a hearth which burns solid wastes, are
discussed. For dust from the boiler, collection efficiencies
were 89.2 to 98% using EP alone; 89.2 to 98.3% using the MC-
EP combination, and 96.8 to 99% using EP-MC or MC-EP-MC
(MC' is a multicyclone with higher efficiency). The latter two
methods had the following advantages: collection efficiency of
the EP may last longer, the power requirement of the MC and
the MC' may be smaller, and the design for the complete col-
lection system may be determined easily by measurement of
dust particle diameter at the EP exit. For dust from the hearth,
the efficiency of the system EP-MC was excellent because this
procedure can collect about 60 to 70% of the dusts (paper
flake and re-scattered dust within the EP) which are rather dif-
ficult to collect by the EP alone. The dust collecting system
should be further refined according to the kinds of solid
wastes.
15619
Barkov, N. N. and G. A. Kipanova
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF A BOILER DUST SYSTEM
WITH CYCLONE PRECOMBUSTION CHAMBERS. (Avto-
maticheskoye regulirovaniye pylesistemy kotla s tsiklonnymi
predtopkami). Text in Russian. Elek. Sta., no. 9:43-46, 1969. 4
refs.
The industrial adoption of installations for preparing pul-
verized coal using tangential hammer mills, industrial dust
hoppers, and fuel drying with high-temperature flue gases has
revealed the ineffectiveness of standard designs in the automa-
tion of these dust systems and has required the design of fun-
damentally new systems. The proposed control system would
maintain a fixed production rate within plus or minus 1.0
ton/hr and the temperature of the dust-air mixture within plus
or minus 2.5 C. It would provide a 25% improvement in
productivity over manual control systems, as well as signifi-
cantly reduce electrical power consumption for pulverizing and
conveyance. Automatic control of the air-dust mixture with
regulation of the flow rate of the drying agent assures max-
imum drying efficiency of the dust system. Supplying the tem-
perature regulator with a signal characterizing the change in
stoking rate assures stable stoking operations under conditions
close to maximum crushing rate. An optimizing scheme which
has a stoking rate control and a temperature stabilizing control
would adequately allow for the technological characteristics of
new dust systems and assure high operating efficiency.
16068
Schlachter, D. J.
REDUCTION OF STACK EMISSION THROUGH
MODERNIZATION OF POWER PLANT FACILITIES.
Preprint, Andrew Jergens Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, 13p., 1963.
A company's power plant operations were modernized to meet
new emission standards by replacing a pulverized fired boiler
with a boiler fired by a spreader stoker with a continuous
moving grate. To achieve smokeless combustion, the boiler
-------
40
BOILERS
was equipped with pneumatic combustion controls, a tubular
dust collector with section damper for low load operation, a
convertible grate damper providing acceptable burning rates at
both high and low loads, and overfire air jets and sidewall air
jets for the proper mixing of fuel and air. Coal is mechanically
distributed over the surface of the stoker grate by feeders
equipped with rotor blades. The boiler satisfactorily meets
steam load requirements of 50,000 Ibs of steam/hr at maxium
loads and 5000 Ibs at minimum loads and simultaneously
reduces stack emissions.
16366
Muermann, Herbert
DUST REMOVAL FROM FLUE GASES OF CENTRAL
HEATING PLANTS. (Rauchgasentstaubung in Zentralheizung-
sanlagen). Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 12(1):11-13,
Jan. 1968.
For the removal of dust in central heating plants, new two or
four cyclone units have been constructed. They are of stan-
dard size with capacities of 1600 cu m/hr (two-cyclone unit)
and 3200 cu m/hr (four cyclone unit). Several of these units
can be combined to obtain the capacity required for each in-
dividual case. At nominal load and a flue gas temperature of
200 C, the pressure loss is 120 mm water. The entire height of
the unit including the dust bin is just 2175 mm. Each unit has
its own dust bin with a volume of 100 liters. They are sled into
the units and closely interlocked so that no dust can escape. A
diagram is given with which the adequately sized dust separa-
tor can be selected. The entire dust separation system com-
prises the separator which is directly connected to the boiler, a
ventilator, flexible connecting pipes, baffles, and flue gas
ducts. Larger dust separation systems catering to several
boilers, the dust may be pneumatically transported to a com-
mon paper bag where the entire dust is collected.
16867
Safford, Donald
CLEAN BURNING OF RESIDUAL FUEL OILS. ASHRAE
(Am. Soc. Heating, Refrig. Aircond. Engrs.) J., ll(4):41-43,
April 1969. 2 refs.
Good combustion of fuel oil depends on the use of proper
equipment selected on the basis of performance criteria.
Operation should be possible at 15% CO2, No. 1 Vfe Bacharach
smoke, and 86% combustion efficiency. Exceptionally clean
burning can occur with air at less than 5%. At these close to
stoichiometric conditions, sulfur trioxide and nitrous oxides
were reduced, resulting in less air pollution and extending
equipment life.
17137
Flint, D., A. W. Lindsay, and R. F. Littlejohn
THE EFFECT OF METAL OXIDE SMOKES ON THE SOS
CONTENT OF COMBUSTION GASES FROM FUEL OILS. J.
Inst. Fuel, 26(152): 122-127, Sept. 1953 15 refs.
The present work was undertaken to provide quantitative data
on the influence of various additives to the fuel burnt, as a
method of decreasing the quantity of sulfur trioxide. Measure-
ments were made with a dew-point meter on three relatively
small oil-fired appliances. Two of these were sectional boilers
and the third, on which most of the work was done, was a
refractory furnace. Five oils, varying from a heavy fuel oil (3.5
per cent sulfur) to a gas oil (0.75 per cent sulfur) were burnt in
the refractory furnace and a dew-point of the combustion
products was in the range 250 to 300 F. Measurements on the
gases from the heavy fuel oil, treated with soda residue (AS);
calcium residue (AC); commercial zinc naphthenate (AZ),
showed that the latter alone was successful in decreasing
greatly the amount of SO3. Under good combustion conditions
there was no acid dew-point when burning oil containing 0.14
per cent zinc (by weight). With 0.07 per cent zinc the amount
of SO3 was still very low, a dew-point of 160 F being mea-
sured. (Author abstract modified)
17213
Muermann, Herbert
FLUE-GAS DUST EXTRACTORS. (Rauchgasentstaubung).
Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 13(12):460-463, Dec.
1969.
Mechanical centrifugal-type dust separators of different
designs for installation in medium-size and small boiler plants
are discussed. The basic elements of a centrifugal separator
are explained. In the last few decades, the flow- and the
separation- processes have been formulated analytically and
studied experimentally, leading to improved designs. A further
development was the use of several smaller centrifugal separa-
tors (so-called 'battery cyclones') or of a large number of very
small centrifugal separators (so-called 'multiclones'). The in-
dividual separators, of which a battery cyclone is composed,
are made in different sizes, such as 400, 450, 500, 560, and 630
mm in diameter, and with volume rates of flow between 1200
and 4000 cu m/hr. These units can be assembled to take care
of any specified gas input rate, while requiring a smaller
overall amount of space than the conventional designs. By in-
stalling a system of guide vanes in the outlet duct for the
cleaned gas, the energy associated with the angular momentom
of the outlet gas can be recovered, thus rendering the pressure
drop across the battery separator quite low. The multiclone is
a high-performance separator consisting of many small parallel
tubes with stationary internal vanes which impress on the
dust-bearing inlet gas a rotary motion, so that the dust is
separated from the gas by centrifugal force. These tubes are
more effective, suffer less abrasive wear, have a lower flow
resistance than the larger units, and can be installed and
removed individually in separate locations. Standard tube
modules, each with its own dust bin, offer many operational
and economical advantages.
17905
McLaughlin, J. F. and J. Jonakin
SO2 TRAPPED IN FULL SCALE SYSTEM. Elec. World,
168(20): 108-110, Nov. 13, 1967.
In order to determine the feasibility of removing sulfur dioxide
and particulate matter from gases in a wet scrubber, a labora-
tory pilot plant was constructed and tested. A controlled
amount of sulfur dioxide, additive, and fly ash was added to
the stack gas of a natural-gas-fired boiler; the mixture was
passed through a wet scrubber. The gas was sampled before
and after the scrubber to determine the removal efficiency.
The results are tabulated. Ninety-eight to 99% sulfur dioxide
removal and 98 to 99.6% dust removal were obtained. The
next phase of the investigation was conducted to determine
whether or not the laboratory pilot data could be confirmed on
a commercial size unit. In addition, furnace operating condi-
tions during dolomite injection were studied. In the full-scale
tests, dolomite was introduced to one furnace of a 325,000
KW, twin-furnace steam generator. Dolomite was injected in a
sufficient quantity to react with all the sulfur dioxide produced
when coals containing 2.8 to 3.8% sulfur were burned. The
other furance was operated at the same firing rate and with
the same fuel but without additive or scrubber. The results of
the field tests are given. The data shows that sulfur dioxide
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
41
removal can be maintained at a very high level (95% or better).
Flow charts of the system are presented.
18118
CONTROL OF SO3 IN LOW-PRESSURE HEATING
BOILERS BY AN ADDITIVE. J. Inst. Fuel, 42(337):67-74,
Feb. 1969. 12 refs.
This paper deals with the burning of residual fuel oil contain-
ing 2.5% sulphur under conditions prevalent in heating boilers
to assess the effect of boiler load, excess combustion air,
mean residence time, and the use of a magnesia-alumina fuel-
oil additive on the formation of noxious and corrosive
products of combustion. Results show that the additive can be
used as an effective substitute for low excess combustion air
in reducing the emission of oxides of nitrogen and SO3.
Futhermore, the additive neutralizes condensed H2SO4 and
improves the electrical resistivity of soot particles to the point
where electrostatic precipitation of soot is technically feasible.
Detailed analyses of paniculate matter samples taken from
flames with untreated oil and oil treated with three different
amounts of additive are described to elucidate the mechanism
of acid soot neutralization and to obtain data on soot con-
stituents that may contribute to atmospheric pollution. It is
shown that the standard methods for measuring SO3 concen-
trations in flue gas can give misleading results when soot or
paniculate matter is present. (Author Abstract)
18149
Bell, W. J. and A. W. Overington
DUST RECOVERY IN THE KINLEITH BOILERHOUSE. Ap-
pita, 22(5):140-145, March 1969.
The equipment used to collect dust and ash from flue gases
discharged by the five primary boilers firing oil, woodwaste,
and coal consists of three separate dust recovery units. The
first unit is rated at 110 air dried tons of pulp per day and is
equipped with an ash hopper between the boiler and cyclone
and an electrostatic precipitator after the cyclone for collec-
tion of saltcake and other dust from the flue gases. The
precipitator has two fields with square wire emitters and plate
collectors with 60 kv applied between them. Collection effi-
ciency is between 75 and 95%. The second recovery unit is
rated at 110 air-dried tons of pulp per day and is equipped
with an ash hopper, a venturi scrubber, and a black liquor
evaporator after the boiler. The venturi scrubber handles
60,000 cu ft/min of flue gases at 700 F. Differential pressure
over the venturi is between 28 and 33 in H2O gauge, depend-
ing on black liquor viscosity and operating rates. Saltcake col-
lection efficiency is 80%. Number three unit is rated at 250 air
dried tons of pulp per day. It has a cyclone evaporator and an
electrostatic precipitator after an economizer. Black liquor at
45% solids is sprayed into the hot flue gas at 630 C from the
economizer just before the cyclone. The 70,000 kv, 500 ma,
two stage precipitator is designed to handle gases at 105,000 cu
ft/min and between 230 and 375 F. Collection efficiency is
99%.
18290
Thomas, S.
'CLEAN AIR, COAL AND THE ENGINEER'. Certificated
Engr., 42(4): 91-116, April 1969.
A comprehensive picture of coal combustion as it affects at-
mospheric pollution and its relationship to the Atmospheric
Pollution Prevention Act is presented. Coal burning boilers
often violate the Act, which states that smoke emissions shall
be no darker than No. 2 of the Ringelmann Chart. The various
methods of firing solid fuels and the several types of com-
bustion fuel beds used are described. Also presented is a
detailed discussion of the industrial fluidized bed boiler. This
method eliminates CO from the exit gases and eliminates fly
ash-fouling. The addition of small amounts of dolomite retains
all sulfur compounds. Control equipment used in the retention
of SO2 from stack gases is reviewed.
18296
Larsson, Olov
DIMENSIONING OF FLUES AND RUNNING CONDITIONS
IN MEDIUM-SIZED HEATING PLANTS. (Rokkanafers dimen-
sionering och driftforhaUanden i medelstora panncentraler.) Text
in Swedish. National Swedish Building Research (Statens Bygg-
forskningsinstitut, Stockholm, Sweden), 1969. 5 refs.
The National Swedish Institute for Building Research has con-
ducted a field study of both old and new heating plants in the
southern and central parts of Sweden with maximum effects
varying from 200 to 8200 Mcal/h. All plants were fired with oil
fuel, classes 3 or 4 (some with class 4 which contains little
sulphur). The overwhelming majority of the plants were
equipped with welded boilers, while 75% of the oil burners are
of the pressure jet or emulsion burner types, 18% low air pres-
sure, and the rest had rotary burners. Approximately 50% of
the heating plants studied have natural ventilation units and
about 30% of those heating plants studied have natural ventila-
tion units and about 30% of those plants with mechanical ven-
tilation (flue gas fan) have separate flues leading from each
boiler to the mouth of the chimney. The concentration of solid
matter in the flues was measured for different boiler loads and
the amount of matter per kg of fuel oil was calculated. Tem-
peratures of flue gases, amounts of soot, velocity of flue
gases, static pressure, excess air, and temperature of internal
walls were also measured. The mean for the concentration of
solid matter at all tests averaged about 74 mg/cu m. Flue
gases, while the corresponding mean for the amount of solid
matter present was 1.7 g/kg fuel oil. The usual estimate for the
CO2 content in the flue gases is 12-14%, at which level 74
mg/cu m would correspond to 1.0 g/kg of fuel oil. The survey
showed, however, that such high CO2 contents rarely occur at
the point where the content of solid matter is measured. The
mean for the CO2 content in the plants studied was 7.5%.
Only a small number of the plants tested had chimneys whose
heights with regard to the amount of flue gases emitted and to
the sulphur content in the oil were in accordance with the ad-
vice and instructions published by the authorities. Measure-
ments of soot quantities according to Bacharach show that
only about 35% of the boilers have Bacharach number 3 or
less. Measurements showed that about 80% of the plants had,
under normal running conditions, flue gas temperatures lower
than 145 C at the mouth of the chimney. About 30% of the
plants had flue gas temperatures lower than 100 C. The report
also describes the velocity of flue gases, total amount of air
leakage and damages caused by corrosion.
19056
Sensenbaugh, J. D.
FORMATION AND CONTROL OF SULFUR OXIDES IN
BOILERS. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 12(12):567-569,
591, Dec. 1962. 32 refs.
During combustion, sulfur present in commercial fuels is con-
verted to sulfur oxides, which cause corrosion and deposit for-
mation within the boiler and are emitted from the stacks. The
flue gas concentration of sulfur dioxide is generally 0.1 to
0.25% by volume. Iron oxide on boiler surfaces and deposits
containing certain ash constituents can catalyze the oxidation
-------
42
BOILERS
of SO2 to sulfur trioxide. Removal of sulfur from fuels would
be the ideal solution to air pollution prevention. However, this
is not possible due to economic limitations. There are a
number of processes for removing SO2 from stack gases.
Several scrubbing processes, such as the non-regenerative
limestone process, the regenerative sodium sulfite process,
and the ammoniacal liquor process have been investigated.
There is also a direct ammonium sulfate process in which SO2
is catalytically oxidized and neutralized with ammonia in the
scrubbing solution. Adsorption, absorption, and catalytic ox-
idation with metallic oxides have also been studied. Removal
of SO3 from stack gases by means of additives has been ac-
complished in some cases. Economic justification may be pro-
vided by alleviation of corrosion and deposit formations.
19257
Maeda, Isamu and Nobuo Ito
AN APPARATUS FOR THE CONTINUOUS RECOVERY OF
SULFUR OXIDES IN FLUE GAS. (Haigasu chuno iosankabut-
su renzoku kaishusochi). Text in Japanese. (Sumitomo
Machine Industries, Osaka (Japan)) Japanese Pat. Sho 45-2644.
2p., Jan. 29, 1970. (Appl. April 28, 1967, claims not given).
An improved conventional method of recovering sulfur oxides
from flue gas is presented which can be applied to flue gas
from boilers, smelting or metal-sintering processes, or pulp
manufacturing. Since the sulfur oxides concentration in flue
gas is extremely low and volume of flue-gas to be processed is
extremely high, the gas was previously passed through absor-
bents from which the sulfur oxides were recovered. The
process required rinsing with inert gas, H2, CO, water, or al-
kaline solutions. Consequently, generators and circulators for
those gases and liquids were necessary. In the present process,
however, the major part of the flue gas is cooled to the tem-
perature appropriate for adsorption and subsequently led to a
continuous adsorption apparatus, where the sulfur oxides are
adsorbed. The remainder of the gas by-passes the cooling
chamber. After the removal of the remaining oxygen, the gas
is led to a de-adsorption chamber and sulfur oxides are
recovered. The system requires no inert-gas generators or gas
heaters. Moreover, since a moving-layer adsorption system is
empolyed, less adsorbent is needed. Also, the concentration of
the recovered gas is more uniform than that covered by previ-
ous processes.
19453
Toelle, Juergen
DUST COLLECTORS FOR BOILER FIRED WITH ASH-
RICH HARD COAL. (Entstaubungsanlagen an Dampfkesseln
mil Feuerungen fuer aschereiche Steinkohle). Text in German.
Technik Forschung, 11(48):171-172, 1968.
The Technical Directives for the Maintenance of Clean Air
have set maximum allowable dust concentrations of 0.5 g/stan-
dard cu m (long term operation), for waste gases from boilers
and of 0.15 g/standard cu m for each newly built plant. For
boilers fired with pulverized hard coal, high-efficiency electro-
static precipitators with a collection efficiency of 99.7% must
be installed to meet these limit values. Any design of electro-
static precipitators must take into account the dust quantity in
the gas flow to be cleaned, particular properties of the dust
and gas, primarily the electric conductivity of the dust and its
tendency to agglomerate, the temperature of the waste gas, its
moisture and sulfur trioxide content. A horizontal version of
the precipitator is used for such plants with two separate
rapping devices for the primary and secondary dust collection
zones. The most favorable rapping rhythm must be experimen-
tally determined in each individual case.
19469
Woollam, J. P. V. and A. Jackson
THE REMOVAL OF OXIDES OF SULPHUR FROM EXIT
GASES. Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs. (London), vol. 23:43-51,
1945. 33 refs. (Presented at the Institution of Chemical En-
gineers North Western Branch Meeting, Manchester, England,
March 17, 1945.)
A process is described for removing sulfur dioxide and triox-
ide from the exit gases of contact acid plants, boiler installa-
tions, and smelting processes. It consists of scrubbing the
gases with a solution of ammonium sulfite, bisulfite, and
sulfate mixture, keeping the pH value at a predetermined
figure by the addition of aqueous ammonia, and bleeding off
the make of solution to an autoclave where it is heated with
steam to form ammonium sulfate solution and sulfur. On the
basis of encouraging preliminary tests, a large-scale process
facility was built at a contact acid plant. Testing and results
are given in detail, and permit definition of the limits for op-
timum conditions. The SO2 and SO3 present in the exit gases
can be reduced to less than 5% of their original value, and the
price of the ammonia feed can be reduced to 60% of that for
the pure 25% ammonia by the use of 18-20% concentrated gas
works liquor. Two applications of the process are briefly
discussed: acid plant exit gas treatment, and 'devil gas' treat-
ment with reference to a 15% hydrogen sulfide gas mixture.
19473
Johnstone, H. F.
METALLIC IONS AS CATALYSTS FOR THE REMOVAL OF
SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM BOILER FURNACE GASES. Ind.
Eng. Chem., 23(5):559-561, May 1931. 7 refs.
The use of metallic ions as catalysts for the absorption of sul-
fur dioxide from stack gases was investigated. Air containing
0.325% SO2 was passed at a constant rate through three liters
of water containing the catalyst. The catalyst concentrations
varied from 0.028 to 4.2 g/1 of the metallic ion. In concentra-
tions as low as 0.0028%, manganese ions exert a strong cata-
lytic action, increasing the capacity of the water for absorbing
SO2 by 600%. The catalytic effect of ferric ions is less than
that of manganese. Definite promoter action is shown when a
small concentration of manganese is added to dilute ferric
solutions. A trace of copper ions inhibited the action of man-
ganese in any concentration, but they had no effect on cataly-
sis by ferric ions. The presence of zinc, nickel, chromium, or
alkali metal ions neither inhibits nor promotes the catalysis by
manganese ions. Application of the laboratory results was
made with a small single-effect rotary scrubber. Although the
efficiency was much lower than that of the laboratory
scrubber, it compared favorably with that obtained by other
large-scale methods.
19588
Leigh, James Harrison
IMPROVEMENTS RELATING TO THE TREATMENT OF
BOILER FLUE GASES. Simon-Carves Ltd., Stockport (En-
gland)) British Pat. 525,883. lp., Sept. 6, 1940. (Appl. Jan. 12,
1940, 1 claim).
A process for removing sulfur compounds from boiler flue
gases and converting them into a salable product is described.
The gases are washed with an ammoniacal liquor which is then
heated under pressure in an autoclave. Sulfur compounds are
converted into ammonium sulfate which is crystallized by
evaporation and recovered. The temperature in the autoclave
is about 190 C and the pressure should not exceed 200 Ibs/sq
in. This process is economical and does not involve high pres-
sures in the autoclave. No preliminary treatment is needed to
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
43
ensure a low temperature and pressure to produce the desired
reaction.
19642
Land, George W., Eino W. Linna, and William T. Earley
CONTROLLING SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM
COAL BURNING BY THE USE OF ADDITIVES. Preprint,
Air Pollution Control Association, New York City, 33p., 1969.
4 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association An-
nual Meeting, 62nd, New York, June 1969, Paper 69-143).
A project is reported in which 20 tests with five coal additives
- dolomite chips and pulverized dolomite, hydrated lime,
aragonite (a high-calcium limestone), red mud (an aluminum
by-product high in iron oxide), and a proprietary liquid com-
bustion catalyst - were run in an operating industrial boiler
plant to study their effects on sulfur dioxide emissions. The
test unit was a 750-HP Wickes boiler fired by a multiple-retort
underfeed stoker. Two methods were used: the additive was
either mixed with the coal before it was fired, or was injected
with compressed air jets over the fire. Sampling techniques for
suspended particulates, using a gravimetric sampling train, and
for SO2 in the stack gases, are described. Results are
presented and discussed; in general they were anomalous, and
because the tests were limited in scope and subject to nu-
merous uncontrolled variables, no conclusions are drawn. The
results do however, indicate that SO2 emissions from coal
burning can be significantly reduced by the use of certain ad-
ditives, and that further studies are warranted.
19729
Chertkov, B. A.
EFFECTIVENESS OF FLY ASH REMOVAL FROM FLUE
GAS IN A FOAM BUBBLER. (Effectivnosf ochistki
dymovykh gazov ot letuchey zoly v pennom barbotazhnom ap-
parate). Text in Russian. Teploenergetika, 6(8):58-62, Aug.
1959. 4 refs.
A four-tray foam bubbler was used to remove fly ash from
flue gases of a 160-200 ton/hr boiler, fly ash content being 5-8
g/ cu m. Volumetric gas flow rates of 6000, 10,000, and 13,000
were studied with linear flow rates ranging from 1.4-3.05
m/sec. Efficiency was 97.5-98.8% at the higher flow rates.
Total flow resistance of the bubbler averaged 160 mm H2O for
a linear flow rate of 3 m/sec. Sulfur dioxide content of the
discharge water varied from 0.35 to 0.70 g/liter, while acidity
ranged from 6.2 to 9.8 mg-equiv/mole liter.
20035
Johnstone, H. F.
THE ELIMINATION OF SULPHUR COMPOUNDS FROM
BOILER FURNACE GASES. PART I. Steam Eng., 1932:153-
154, Jan. 1932. 5 refs. PART If. Ibid, 1932:208-211, Feb. 1932.
1 ref. (Presented at the Third International Conference on
Bituminous Coal at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pitt-
sburgh, Pa., Nov. 1931.)
Methods for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases are
reviewed with particular attention to scrubbing in the presence
of a cayalyst; promising results with iron and manganese com-
pounds are reported. Experiments were conducted with
0.325% SO2 in air bubbled through 2 liters of water and a
cayalyst at a rate of 0.7 cu ft/min; contact time was no more
than 4 sec. Inhibitory effects of phenols, salts of copper and
tin, and hydrogen sulfide in concentrations of more then 0.2%
in the gas were noted. Additional studies were made to deter-
mine the effects of catalyst concentration, temperature, and
presence of inhibitors on scrubber efficiency; in this case,
contact time was reduced to 3 sec. The iron catalyst was
found to be less affected by inhibitors than manganese. A 100
cu ft pilot scrubber was operated with an initial SO2 concen-
tration of 0.1% and a contact time of 0.05 sec; 270 gal of water
per ton of coal were required.
20294
Celayan, Genaro G.
SMOG-CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR INTERNAL COM-
BUSTION ENGINES, INCINERATORS AND BOILERS. (As-
signee not given.) U. S. Pat. 3,499,282. 7p., March 10, 1970. 7
refs. (Appl. Oct. 13, 1967, 6 claims).
Smog control devices which eliminate volatile matter, carbon
monoxide, and hydrocarbons from the exhausts of internal
combustion engines, home incinerators, and boilers are
described. An elongated chamber has an air inlet and an ex-
ahust gas inlet at one end, with a series of butterfly vanes
mounted for rotation along the length of the chamber. A
spark-plug between each adjacent pair of butterfly vanes ig-
nites the exhaust gas and air mixture as it passes along the
length of the chamber. By means of the vanes, the chamber is
divided into a number of separate blast chambers. The spark
plugs provide a repetitive spark to give each blast chamber a
source of heat energy to burn the volatile matter in the ex-
haust gases. As the vanes turn under the influence of moving
gas, they permit the passage of the gas from one blast
chamber to another where the remaining volatile matter is
reduced and the CO gases are eliminated. Eventually, the
processed gas passes from the last blast chamber and is then
exhausted into the atmosphere.
20539
Coutant, R. W., R. E. Barrett, and E. H. Lougher
SO2 PICKUP BY LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE PARTI-
CLES IN FLUE GAS. Preprint, American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers, New York, 9p., 1969. 7 refs. (Presented at the
Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society for Mechani-
cal Engineers, Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 16-20, 1969, Paper
69-WA/APC-l.)
An investigation was made of the reaction between sulfur
dioxide and limestone and dolomite particles in flue gas. Reac-
tion data were generated by exposing the particles to localized
boiler- furnace conditions. Variables included in the study
were residence time, temperature, particle size, SO2 concen-
tration, and chemical state of the stone. A model is hypothes-
ized for the SO2-particle reaction that is consistent with the
experimental data. The hypothesis states that the initial reac-
tion products are sulfites, and that as the particle temperature
rises above 1400 F, SO2 is lost by the thermal decomposition
of the sulfite. Concurrent with these steps, the sulfite can be
oxidized and/or disproportionate to form sulfate. The net
result is a maximum in sulfur pickup during the first second of
exposure in the reactor. (Author abstract modified)
20563
Zubik, B.
INTRODUCTORY PROJECT UNDER CONTRACT WITH
THE U. S. A. CONCERNING COOPERATION IN RESEARCH
ON DESULFURIZATION OF COMBUSTION GASES. (Pro-
jekt wstepny umowny z USA o wspolpracy w zakresie badan
nad odsiarzaniem spalin). Preprint, 9p., 1968 (?). Translated
from Polish. Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa.
Science Info. Services, 12p.
The Fuels Department of the Power Metrology Research Or-
ganization 'Energopomiar' has the following divisions: Fuels
-------
44
BOILERS
Analysis, Fuels Technology, Research on Air Pollution, and
Desulfurization of Combustion Gases. The research theme,
'research into the effect of introducing dolomite into boiler on
the disposition of coals to form deposits on the heating sur-
faces', the objectives of the research, significance of the
search, work schedule, time schedule, description of work,
deadline, research in experimental and service conditions, the
points the research will cover, the number of people and sala-
ries involved, and costs of equipment to be acquired for the
three year project are outlined. Specifically, the research will
permit wider application of the method of desulfurization of
the boiler combustion gases, based on introducing dolomite
into the combustion chamber and determining the effect of in-
termittent or continuous introduction of dolomite into boilers
which fire specified kinds of coal.
20616
Brandt, Herbert
STABLE BACK DISCHARGE IN ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATORS. Staub (English translation from German
of: Staub, Reinhaltung Luft), 29(8):21-22, Aug. 1969. 1 ref.
A study of 14 large precipitators for fly ash removal from
steam boiler furnaces indicated that the voltage peak in the 42
high- voltage fields of the precipitators varied from about 300
to 1500 mA at fluctuating current intensities. Though back
discharge set in at the voltage peak and increased with rising
current, the process was obviously stable and did not cause a
substantial reduction in efficiency. Neither did it correspond to
theories that assume that electric breakdown in the dust layers
reverse the ionization effect on the dust quantities and drive
them back to the discharge electrodes. To understand back
discharge phenomena, the process was simulated in laboratory
experiments in which the dust layer was replaced by nylon
fabric above Teflon foils. Blue light cones appeared between
approximately 5% of the discharge electrode points and the
foil. No flashovers occurred in the fabric or foil. When
flashovers were induced by adjusting the voltage and making
small holes in the insulating layer, they occurred not in the
light cone but adjacent to it and at more distant electrodes. A
photograph clearly indicated the luminescence of the excited
ions; the space charge at the light cone was greater because of
the intense ionization. The results thus indicate why flashovers
from point wires occur at higher voltages than from radial or
strip wires.
20758
Christman, John R.
HEAT GENERATOR. (Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat.
3,485,191. 2p., Dec. 23, 1969. 7 refs. (appl. Feb. 8, 1968, 4
claims).
A boiler with a heat exchanger and chimney is located over a
firebox with a radiation core and designed to discharge only
completely burned combustion products to the atmosphere. In
operation, the products of combustion travel from the firebox,
up an updraft duct, and to the chimney. Any incompletely
burned products are directed by baffles to manifolds for col-
lection and then pulled back to be reburned by the action of a
suction blower drawing the products through feed ducts and
against the radiation core, where they are reburned and begin
the cycle over again.
20777
Tamura, Zensuke and Yukio Hishinuma
A PROCESS AND APPARATUS FOR THE DESULFURIZA-
TION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE GASES. (Hitachi, Ltd.,
Tokyo (Japan)) U. S. Pat. 3,486,852. 6p., Dec. 30, 1969. 4 refs.
(Appl. Sept. 21, 1967, 20 claims).
A process and apparatus for desulfurizing industrial waste gas
and recovering sulfuric acid as a byproduct are described. A
portion of the waste gases are introduced into an adsorption
tank to remove the sulfur oxides by contacting them with ac-
tive carbon, while the remaining portion is sent to a region for
drying the active carbon which has been wet in a preceeding
rinse-desorption step. From the drying tank the gases are led
to the adsorption tank. Waste gases free of sulfur oxides are
released to the atmosphere from the adsorption stage. Sulfur
oxides are removed from the active carbon by rinsing with
water, and the washings are removed and sent to a concentra-
tion tank where they are heated and sulfuric acid is recovered.
The functions of the respective regions is the adsorption-
desorption apparatus are shifted one after another at a certain
time interval, so that a cycle of operation consisting of adsorp-
tion, rinsing-desportion and drying, is carried out concurrently
repeatedly.
20822
Aoki, Toyohiko
APPARATUS FOR PURIFYING POLLUTED GAS. (Naigaiko-
gyo Kabushiki Kaisha, Tokyo (Japan)) U. S. Pat. 3,479,799.
9p., Nov. 25, 1969. 9 refs. (Appl. March 10, 1967, 2 claims).
A device for purifying polluted gases from factory equipment,
heaters or burners, and internal and external combustion en-
gines is described. The polluted gas is sent to a perforated ro-
tary drum where it is contacted with a liquid. The gas and
liquid are passed through the perforations of the drum and
then dispersed by centrifugal force produced by the high speed
rotation of the drum. The gas is then mixed with the liquid,
and the fine particles and harmful elements in the gas are posi-
tively transferred into the liquid. The purified gas and the
liquid are separated in a cyclone. The liquid is sent to a
storage area where the particulate matter is removed, and is
then conveyed back to the contact mechanism.
21195
Montgomery, William T. S.
BOILER FUEL RECLAMATION SYSTEM. (Jacksonville
Blow Pipe Co., Fla.) U. S. Pat. 3,489,111. lip., Jan. 13, 1970. 3
refs. (Appl. Oct. 6, 1967, 14 claims).
In many industrial operations, boilers are fueled by burning
bark which is often obtained from trees growing in sandy
country where the bark grows over the sand so that the sand
permeate throughout the bark. The sand is carried about by
hot gases within the boiler firebox and is caught in the dust
collectors catching the char and is then reinjected into the
firebox of the boiler along with the char. The boiler fuel recla-
mation system includes a separator for removing sand from fly
ash charcoal in a wood or bark burning boiler and a novel
system for employing stack gas or air to convey sand or fly
ash charcoal through the separator and for returning the char-
coal to the boiler firebox. A programmed double dump valve
unit facilitates the gravity discharge of light sand and fly ash
charcoal from the low pressure area of a collecting hopper into
the high pressure area of a gas conveying tube. (Author ab-
stract modified)
21200
Mueller-Wartenberg, Heinz
APPARATUS FOR CARRYING OUT A METHOD OF PU-
RIFICATION FOR FLUE GASES. (Metallgesellschaft A. G.,
Frankfurt (W. Germany)) U. S. Pat. 3,475,133. 14p., Oct. 28,
1969. 6 refs. (Appl. Dec. 30, 1965, 9 claims).
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
45
An apparatus is proposed for a multi-stage method of purify-
ing flue gases which contain sulfur compounds, particularly
the flue gases of oil- or coal-fired boilers. After the gases have
been previously treated in coolers and scrubbers and had the
dust removed from them in mechanical or electrical dust
precipitators, they are subjected to a wet catalysis with coal or
carbon as the catalyst in order to remove the sulfur-containing
compounds, particularly sulfur dioxide. The cooler and/or
scrubber, and, if employed, the dust precipitator are arranged
vertically one above the other with catalyst reaction beds in a
tower-like common housing of prefabricated plates forming a
closed gas shaft. The gas shaft is divided up vertically into a
series of flues by a series of superimposed catalytic reaction
beds and run-off trays which form barrier walls. The reaction
beds are staggered vertically in a staircase-like manner so that
they are shifted with increasing length into the oncoming flow
of gas. The lateral offset provides an upwardly decreasing
flow area on the inlet side of the beds and an upward increas-
ing cross-sectional flow area on the outlet side of the beds.
The lower part of the gas shaft forms an acid or fluid collect-
ing container.
21268
Spaite, Paul W. and Robert P. Hangebrauck
HEW SPELLS OUT AIR-QUALITY GOALS. Elec. World,
173(20):25-27, May 18, 1970.
About half of the air pollution from industrial and commercial
activities is produced by the burning of coal, oil, and natural
gas. The emissions originate in power plants, industrial boilers,
and small installations used for commercial and residential
heating. Power production, which accounts for 70% of the
total sulfur oxides emissions from combustion, is the most im-
portant source. Power plants also account from 30% to 40% of
all nitrogen oxides emissions. Particulate emissions appear to
be less critical than SOx or NOx, but this may be misleading
because particles less than 1 micron in size are not accounted
for. Conventional electrostatic precipitators can reduce the
emissions slightly, but the number of fine particles will in-
crease by a factor of four between 1970 and 2000. Control of
SOx emissions by flue-gas cleaning should soon be practicable.
The 'throwaway' processes, which involve reacting SOx with
limestone, to be collected as calcium-sulfur in precipitators or
wet scrubbers, are most likely to find application. Reliable
methods must be developed for controlling NOx emissions
from boilers. Electrostatic precipitators could control much of
the fly ash, but many of those operating today function ineffi-
ciently because they were designed for less stringent require-
ments or have lost efficiency. There is a critical need for im-
proved systems and techniques for controlling submicron par-
ticles.
21328
Shirasawa, Tadao
FUEL, COMBUSTION, AND PREVENTION OF DUST AND
SMOKE (PART 9). (Nenryo nensho to baienboshi (sono 9).
Text in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai (Ind. Public Nuisance),
6(5):299-306, May 25, 1970.
British investigators sucessfully utilized tertiary air to inhibit
the production of dust and smoke. A small conventional
under-feed stocker was employed for the boiler. Five different
methods were tested for the effects on dust and smoke genera-
tion: (1) total air required for combustion was supplied as a
primary air when the fuel was fed to the boiler; (2) the supply
of primary air was continued, the supply of fuel was stopped;
(3) in addition to the primary air, secondary air was blown into
the combustion chamber from back; (4) in addition to the pri-
mary air, the secondary air was continuously supplied from a
nozzle provided at the fuel intake; and (5) total air required
was supplied as primary air. The third method was most effec-
tive from the viewpoint of dust and smoke prevention. The
relationship between the tertiary air intake and the size of the
combustion chamber mixing zone, is discussed, and the results
are presented of another study on air injection and com-
bustion-chamber space.
21506
Johnstone, H. F.
METALLIC IONS AS CATALYSTS FOR THE REMOVAL OF
SULFUR DIOIXDE FROM BOILER FURNACE GASES. Ind.
Eng. Chem., vol. 23:559-561, May 1931 7 refs. (Presented at
the American Chemical Society Meeting, Division of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry 81st., Indianapolis, Ind., March 30-
April 3, 1931.)
A method to remove sulfur dioxide from stack gases is
described. The method involves increasing the solubility of
SO2 in water, or aqueous solution, to such an extent that the
amount of water required for the removal of SO2 from gases
containing very small concentrations of this constituent would
be reduced to a point where the process would be economi-
cally and mechanically feasible. The capacity of water for ab-
sorbing SO2 may be increased by introducing a catalyst to
hasten the reaction between the dissolved gas and oxygen. An
experimental procedure using metals and metal sulfates as
catalysts is described, and test results are given.
21893
Lowicki, Norbert, Gernot Hanig, and Klaus Husmann
THE - WASTE GAS - SULFUR - PROCESS. REPORT ON
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCESS FOR THE REMOVAL
OF SULFUR FROM FLUE GASES. Grillo-Werke A. G.,
Duisburg-Hamborn (West Germany), Oct. 1969. Translated
from German. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 68p.,
March 30, 1970.
The difficulty of the removal of sulfur from waste gases varies
according to the origin of the waste gas. Waste gases of steam
boiler plants precipitate rather uniformly with respect to quan-
tity temperature, and composition. On the other hand, sinter
waste gases contain additional metal oxide smoke which can
complicate the process of sulfur removal. Thus, the process
selected should have no sensitivity to disturbing gas com-
ponents and should have versatility with respect to the absorp-
tion of any of the sulfur compounds coming under considera-
tion. A desulfurization process was developed which is an ab-
sorption process with thermal regeneration of the charge ab-
sorbent. The process principle selected is based on the reac-
tion of oxide compounds between a basic and an amphoteric
heavy metal component. The presence of a compound Mg6M-
nO8 has been proven using X-ray structure investigation; the
presence of a compound Mg3MnO5 is also probable. In this
combustion, the basic component is used as the actual absor-
bent and the heavy metal component as the oxygen donor.
This has the effect of increasing the total activity of the mix-
ture. For the same reason, the absorption of hydrogen sulfide
from waste gas is also made possible. In the thermal regenera-
tion of the charge mass, both components protect each other
reciprocally against deactivation. Economic aspects were a pri-
mary consideration in the selection of the desired components
for the absorption mass. This eliminated elements like Cr, V,
Mo, and Zn. Though Ca and Mg were practical, Fe and Mn
were selected because of the rapid formation and stability of
the oxide compounds between them as well as the inactivity
during absorption. All chemical and process-technological pre-
dictions made on the basis of laboratory experiments were
-------
46
BOILERS
confirm. For oil-fired steam boiler plants, flue gas desulfuriza-
tion plants ready for practical use can be set up and operated.
Capital outlays and operational costs are given for an oil-fired
300 MW power plant, in addition to total annual operational
costs. A particular advantage of this process is that the charge
mass can be regenerated by various desulfurization systems at
a central location.
22071
Douglas, Jack
INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROLS FOR INDUSTRIAL
POWER PLANTS. Nat. Eng., 73(7):10-12, July 1969.
(Presented at the Industrial Fuel Oil Conference, 7th, of the Il-
linois State Association, National Association of Power En-
gineers, Chicago, 111., May 21, 1969.)
Large power plants have long known the importance of care-
fully designed combustion control systems. The need to reduce
air pollution and operational costs now requires similar control
planning on the part of small boiler installations. Automatic
draft controls should be provided for pressurized boilers, in
which pressure at the boiler exit tends to vary with burner fir-
ing rates. Such controls make it possible to maintain relatively
constant boiler output pressure or temperature, thus insuring
proper air/fuel ratios for efficient combustion. Equally impor-
tant is the boiler's utilization of the heat generated. All steps
of steam generation should be checked by a flue temperature
gauge which shows the degree to which the boiler has ab-
sorbed the heat generated. Another measure of boiler efficien-
cy is the amount of oxygen in the flue gas. Reliable paramag-
netic instruments are available for these measurements.
Finally, master lead-lag sequence controllers, which treat all
boilers as one in supplying the load demand, should be pro-
vided in multiple boiler installations. These devices increase
the life of packaged boilers and eliminate the need for con-
stant human monitoring.
22559
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C., Federal
Construction Council
IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS ON FUEL
SELECTION FOR FEDERAL FACILITIES. Contract CST490,
TR-57, 52p., 1970.
Results of a report to determine the extent to which current
and anticipated air pollution regulations will restrict the types
of fuel which Federal agencies will be allowed to burn in
steam- power and central heating plants are described.
Procedures to be used in taking account of such restrictions in
economic analyses to determine the type of fuel to burn are
included. Three fossil fuels- coal, oil, and gas- are evaluated
regionally from the standpoint of availability, quality, and
price. Types of emissions which are considered include smoke,
particulates, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. Control equip-
ment to remove sulfur oxides is not to be considered by
Federal facilities unless there is no other alternative. Existing
and anticipated air pollution control regulations for the nation
are presented.
22603
Meier-Hedde, Otto
IMPROVEMENT OF BOILER OPERATION BY MEANS OF
FUEL ADDITIVES. (Besserer Kesselbetrieb durch Wirkstoffe
im Heizoel). Text in German. Erdoel Kohle (Hamburg),
21(9):558-561, Sept. 1968. 12 refs.
The liquid additive Bycosin was added, usually before filling,
to fuel oil tanks at the rate of 1:2500 - 1:5000 and carefully
mixed. This not only resulted in improved efficiency of boiler
operation but also eliminated molten ash and acid soot flakes,
while substantially reducing corrosion, at both high and low
temperatures The effect of the additive on the behavior of sul-
fur and vanadium compounds in the fuel is discussed.
22903
Lenz, W.
THE PRESENT STATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF OIL-FIRING
EQUIPMENT FOR HIGH-DUTY BOILERS. (Der heutige Ent-
wicklungsstand der Oelfeuerungen fuer grosse Kessel). Text in
German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 49(2):86-92, April
1969. 1 ref.
Development work is proceeding on oil-firing equipment with
an oil consumption exceeding 10 tons/hour per individual
burner. Atomizer working on 3 atomization principles based on
centrifugal force, on pressure, and on atomizing agents which
all result in near stoichiometric combustion are described. An
innovation in centrifugal atomizers is oil supply delivered
directly into the fast rotating atomization cup. Pressure
atomizers work always with a swirl nozzle because atomiza-
tion with a hole-type nozzle yields too narrow a stream for in-
timate mixing with air. Atomizers working with atomizing
agents use steam or compressed air depending on cost con-
siderations but mostly steam. Air supply heads insure ignition
by intimate mixing of the oil fog with air. Air can be supplied
with or without a nozzle. A low level of excess air requires
high air velocity in order to insure good mixing. The venturi
parallel stream head works without a nozzle and gives a long
flame. The construction of the Steinmueller head supplies air
of constant velocity. To stabilize the flame at high air veloci-
ties, so-called impellers or ignition screens are used. The to-
roidal burner developed by Shell works on the prinicple of
return feeding of hot flue gases. Rotating self-cleaning filters
are used with oils of high solid matter content. Gas-electric ig-
nition burners with infrared or ionization control devices are
used to effect ignition. Measuring and regulatory devices
designed to insure near stoichiometric combustion in a sharply
fluctuating operation, safety devices, and devices insuring
semi-automatic or automatic operation of oil firing equipment
are described.
23063
Glaubitz, F.
THE ECONOMIC COMBUSTION OF SULFUR-CONTAINING
HEATING OIL. PART II- AN ACCOUNTING OF THE
OPERATING EXPERIENCES WITH 1.0 PER CENT EXCESS
AIR. Combustion, 34(9): 25-32, March 1963. (Presented at the
VGB (Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer), 'Oil Furnaces' Meeting, Lin-
gen, Germany, April 12, 1961; printed in Mitt. Ver Grosskes-
selbesitzer, no. 73, Aug. 1961.)
A combustion process which employs a very low excess air
and flue gas oxygen content is described to control corrosion.
The use of sulfur-containing fuel can lead to corrosion by sul-
furic acid because of the relationship between dew point, ox-
ygen content, and sulfur content of the fuel. Experimental
measurements carried out on boilers indicate the optimum
quantities of various combustion parameters in terms of
economics, deposits, and continuous operation time. Develop-
ment of the optimum system is described, and detailed discus-
sions of various problems encountered with different types of
boiler arrangements are discussed. Results of firing experi-
ments with superheating are tabulated.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
47
23073
Ward, J. J., D. A. Pettit, J. F. Walings, R. H. Cherry, Jr., A.
Levy, and William T. Reid
FUNDAMENTAL STUDY OF SULFUR FIXATION BY LIME
AND MAGNESIA. (FINAL REPORT.) Battelle Memorial Inst.,
Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Labs., Contract PH 86-66-108, 55p..
June 30, 1966. 23 refs. CFSTI: PB 176843
The basic factors involved in the capture of sulfur dioxide by
limestone or dolomite addition into the hot stack gases of a
boiler furnace are identified. The limiting conditions under
which lime and magnesia will react with SO2 to form calcium
and magnesium sulfates are defined. The three tasks involved
in the study are thermodynamic calculations to show the
course of the probable chemical reactions, determining kinetic
factors as far as they can be without experimentation, and
making recommendations for the use of limestone and
dolomite most effectively in large boiler furnaces. Theoretical
calculations indicate that calcium oxide or magnesium oxide is
capable, at equilibrium, of removing all but 1 ppm of S02 at a
specified temperature. Large amounts of limestone or dolomite
are necessary to remove SO2 flue gases. Temperature and
other critical operating parameters are discussed.
23176
Jimeson, Robert M.
CENSUS OF FEDERAL COAL RESEARCH GIVEN AT SALT
LAKE CITY MEETING. Mining Engineering, 15(ll):51-55,
Nov. 1963.
About 50% of coal consumption in the United States is in the
production of electric power, 20% in the production of metal-
lurgical coke, and over 20% in the production of process
steam and power. The U. S. Bureau of Mines' Division of
Coal Research places much emphasis on research that will
maintain coal's leadership in these established areas. This
emphasis is reflected in the following projects now underway:
the possible utilization of a coal-fired turbine in conjunction
with conventional boilers; the removal of dust from coal-
generated gas by an electrostatic precipitator operating at tur-
bine conditions; conversion of coal and coal gases in plasma;
conversion of coal to high-Btu gas by direct hydrogenation and
catalytic methanation; the application of nuclear process heat
to the gasification of coal; purification of synthesis gas for
high-Btu pipline gas; four types of reactor systems for cata-
lytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide; magnetohydrodynam-
ic generation of power from coal; entrained carbonization
processes for the production of char from coal; and the use of
coal as a supplemental fuel for blast furnaces. The current
status of these projects is outlined.
23189
Oparin, V. V.
PURIFICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR OF CONTAMI-
NANTS FROM INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES. In: American
Institute of Crop Ecology Survey of USSR Air Pollution
Literature. Effects and Symptoms of Air Pollutes on Vegeta-
tion; Resistance and Susceptibility of Different Plant Species
in Various Habitats, In Relation to Plant Utilization for Shelter
Belts and as Biological Indicators. M. Y. Nuttonson (ed.), vol.
2. Silver Spring, Md., American Institute of Crop Ecology,
1969, p. 1-5. (Also: Akad, Nauk SSSR Ural. Filial. Komis. po
Okhrane Prirody. Rastitel' nost' i promyshlennye zagryaz-
neniya. Okhrana prirody na Urale. V (Sverdlovsk), 1966, p. 7-
10.) Significant work on an overall solution to air pollution
control in the Ural industrial areas was carried out by the Cen-
tral Ural Sovnarkhoz. The basic steps towards sanitation of
the surrounding air included the construction of new and the
updating of existing purification installations, improvement of
their utilization, organization of research programs, and
utilization of valuable products in industrial discharges. At-
mospheric purification in industrial areas is conducted by con-
struction of dust catchers and gas utilization shops; change in
technological processes; establishment of protective belts of
verdant plantings around industrial plants; and the closing of
certain industrial plants. Many industries are changing from
coal to oil, which is expected to greatly reduce ash, dust, and
smoke emissions.
23674
Kluge, Wolfgang and Boeho Koeppe
EFFECT OF USING ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS ON DUST
EMISSIONS FROM LIGNITE-FIRED POWER PLANTS.
(Einfluss des Elektrofilterbetriebs auf die Staubemission aus
Braunkohlenkraftwerken). Text in German. Energietechnik,
17(12):530-535, Dec. 1967. 4 refs.
A series of experiments were conducted with two two-stage
horizonta electrostatic filters made by a firm in Leipzig. These
were connected to the exhaust line of boiler furnaces using lig-
nite for fuel. The coal had a 51.5% water and 12% ash content.
Determinations were made of changes in the degree of
separating effectiveness over a long period of operation, and
differences between filter equipment that had been cleaned
and filter equipment that was dirty. Comparisons were made
between the two filters, the second of which was equipped
with a longer plate (8.5 m instead of 3.3 m), with a more
recent type of electrodes and discharge points, and with a
selenium rectifier, so that this filter operated at 400 mA and 75
kV, as compared with 200 mA and 40 kV for the first filter.
Measurements obtained with the older-type filter were com-
pared (with good agreement) with test results of 10 years
previous, on the same type of equipment. Comparative tests
with the second filter were made immediately after installation
and about 6 months later. Dust content of the purified gases
were determined as a function of filter current intensity at
several states of filter current, from maximum down to zero
mA. Further testing consisted in varying the operation of the
discharge mechanism. Very little difference was noted
between the two filters from the standpoint of 'clean' and 'dir-
ty' operation, but from the standpoint of heavy-duty opera-
tion, the new filter gave as high as 26% better performance,
with an average improvement of 6%. In the current range of
300-400 mA, it was found by extrapolation that the use of the
new type rectifier permits a significant decrease in the dust
content of the purified exhaust, amounting to as much as one
third of the total content. Elimination of a filtering stage had a
significant effect on the filtering efficienc of the electrostatic
stage. When an earlier stage was omitted, the dust content of
the filtered air was 3 times as high; when a filtering stage fol-
lowing the electrostatic stage was omitted, the dust content
was 4 times as high. The article also discusses the effects
created by varying the discharge time, the influence on filter-
ing efficiency of the manner in which the plant is operated,
and procedures for monitoring the operation of an electrostatic
filter, such as by the measurement and recording of electric
curren intensity.
23846
Hopps, George L., A. A. Berk, and J. F. Barkley
TESTS OF ADDITIVES TO CONTROL SOOT DEPOSITION
IN OIL-FIRED BOILERS. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.
C., Rept. of Investigations 5947, 19p., 1962. IS refs.
-------
48
BOILERS
The use of fuel additives to control soot deposition in oil-fired
boilers was investigated. Various chemicals, including com-
pounds of copper and lead, were added to a mixture of No. 2
and No. 6 fuel oils that was fired in an experimental furnace.
Tests were made to determine the effectiveness of these
chemicals in removing soot deposits on probes devised to
simulate heat-transfer surfaces in boiler and the effectiveness
of the chemicals in preventing the deposition of soot on the
probe surface. Test conditions were regulated so that the tem-
perature of the products of combustion adjacent to the probes
was in the range of 625 to 700 F. The clean-metal temperatures
of the air-cooled probes were comparable with the water-tube
temperatures in boilers operated at 40 to 100 psig. The dosages
of the fuel oil additives used in these tests were generally
larger than those usually recommended for most proprietary
compounds. The results of the investigation were not conclu-
sive. Under the experimental conditions that were employed,
reproducibility of test data was poor. Consequently, the data
do not provide a basis for rating or comparing the effective-
ness of th several additives used in this work. The only state-
ment that can b made with any degree of certainty is that none
of the additives prevented the formation of soot deposits on
the probes. Deposition from flue gas at a temperature higher
than 700 F was not investigated. (Author abstract modified)
24043
Stairmand, C. J. and R. M. Kelsey
THE ROLE OF THE CYCLONE IN REDUCING AT-
MOSPHERIC POLLUTION. Chem. Ind. (London), 1955:1324-
1330, Oct. 15, 1955. 5 refs. (Presented at the Society of Chemi-
cal Industry, Prevention of Atmospheric and Water Pollution
in the Chemical Industry Symposium, London, April 4-5,
1955.)
Some methods of predicting the performance of cyclone dust
arrestor under various conditions, and hence assessing the
value of the equipment for a given duty have been given. The
suitable method for comparing the absolute performances of
different collectors is in terms of the collection efficiency for
each of various particle -size groups. In considering the proba-
ble effect of final discharg to the atmosphere, the mass emis-
sion of the various sizes of particles is of primary importance,
as overall collection values may be misleading. Typical grade-
efficiency curves are provided for the four groups of dust ar-
restor under consideration, and the performance of each of the
four types of collector in removing the fly ash from a stoker-
fired boiler is considered. The four main types of cyclone dust
or grit arrestor include the simple dust collecting fan, the
medium-efficiency or high-throughput cyclone, the high-effi-
ciency cyclone, and the multicyclone. From a knowledge of
the size grading of the particles emitted from a stack, it is
possible to calculate the dust deposition rate in the neighbor-
hood of the stack, taking account of the meteorological condi-
tions in the ambient atmosphere. Projected area values are
given for the inlet dust and for the exit dusts from the four
schemes considered, to assess the probable improvement in
the appearance of the plume after fitting dust arresters. Use of
high-efficiency cyclones in conjunction with electrostatic
precipitators is mentioned, as well as the use of cyclones in a
series. Small cyclones are suggested to be more efficient than
the larger ones, but much of the theoretical advantage may be
lost in service by partial plugging of the cyclone inlet and exit
ducts.
24291
Kukin, Ira
ADVANCES IN THE USE OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT IN
AIR POLLUTION REDUCTION PROGRAMS. Preprint, Na-
tional Petroleum Refiners Association, Washington, D. C.,
18p., 1968. 4 refs. (Presented at the National Petroleum
Refiners Association Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting,
Billings, Mont., Oct. 2-3, 1968, Paper RM-68- 80.)
Extensive in-plant tests were made on the ability of a fuel ad-
ditive containing 25% activated manganese to keep boiler
fireside tubes clean and to reduce the sulfur trioxide content
of the flue gas. Especially good results were obtained in a
pressurized furnace of 2500 psig when low sulfur fuel oil (one
percent) was burned. After three months, the treated furnace
showed a 75% reduction in the SO3 content of the flue gas
and only slight tar deposits were apparent. The deposits could
be brushed off rapidly, even by simple air lancing. Since the
additive is a true 'in-flame' catalyst, it can be applied in much
smaller quantities than is the case with magnesium oxide addi-
tives. The manganese additive is not stoichiometrically con-
sumed in reactions with vanadium and sulfur oxides but
regenerates itself. It reacts with carbons and hydrocarbons to
increase the carbon dioxide content of the flue gas; it further
lowers the ignition temperature of combustible deposits within
a furnace. By eliminating soot, it improves the appearance of
stacks. Another factor favoring the use of the additive is that
it reduces the excess air to fuel ratio.
24480
Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, Dept. of Fuel
Technology
ADAPTATION OF THE EFM FIRE-JET STOKER FOR BITU-
MINOUS COAL. In: Report of Bituminous Research Activi-
ties. Serial No. 57. Proj. 392-B-7, p. 30-49, 1956. 2 refs.
Modifications to a stoker and boiler are described along with
the tests to determine the effects of the modifications. The
modifications include the installation of a water-cooled coal
feed throat to reduce coking, installation of over-fire air jets
for improved air diffusion and reduction of paniculate emis-
sions, addition of coal pushers to break up coke formed in the
feed throat shortening of the grate to speed coal ignition, in-
stallation of a refractory arch, insulation of the boiler, and
modification of the draft controls to reduce back-burning. The
combination of changes made it possible to obtain 95% or
better boiler ratings during eleven tests with ten coals. The
highest boiler rating was 150%. Efficiencies of the eleven tests
ranged from 65.2 to 73.4%. Refuse ash ranged from 63.5 to
82.1%. Fly-ash deposited in the dust collector ranged from
zero to 0.23 pounds per 100 pounds of coal. Carbon dioxide
content of the flue gas varied from 6.1 to 12.9%. A series of
cyclic tests was run to obtain efficiencies under various typical
operating modes. These data are presented tabularly. An at-
tempt to correlate two common coal performance tests, free
swelling index and specific volatile index, provided scattered
data points and no definite relationship. The burning rate of
most coals tested was doubled by the stoker modifications.
The percent boiler rating was increased by more than 100% in
most cases. The efficiencies obtained were better than those
of small, single-retort stoker fired boilers of the same size-
class. The refractory arch appeared to be the most important
modification. It improved ignition, combustion, and efficiency
and substantially increased the burning rate. Also, it costs less,
lasts longer, and gives better results than a stainless steel arch.
Overfire air jets were effective in reducing smoke. The useful
function of the coal pushers is limited to the first few minutes
of each 'on' period. The length of the grate is important in-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
49
sofar as time for complete combustion is involved, but specific
dimensions are not ye established. The value of the water-
cooled coal feed throat is questionable.
24536
Shiosawa, Kiyoshige
DIAGNOSING AIR POLLUTION IN TAIWAN. (Taiwan no
taiki osen o shindan shite). Text in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai
(Ind. Public Nuisance), 4(2):51-55, Feb. 1968.
Air pollution in Taiwan as observed in 1967 is described. It
differs in essence from that of Japan, the United States, or
Europe. Most of the air pollution in Taiwan can be controlled
by thoroughly accomplishing technical maintenance. Most of
the black smoke is caused by inferior combustion main-
tenance. Boilers and furnaces are not well equipped with me-
ters, and operations are done by experience alone. Main-
tenance of fuel is not complete. Design of stacks is not good,
i.e., they are short and thin. Many facilities are obsolete.
There is a lack of technically capable personnel. Thus it is
evident that the problem in Taiwan is not as complex as in
Japan, and most of the problems can be solved by improving
combustion maintenance.
24613
Bernhoff, R.
EXPERIENCES WITH THE USE OF LIME IN FLUE GAS
DESULFURIZATION. AB Cementa, Malmoe, Sweden, 39p.,
1970. 43 refs.
Several limestone addition methods of controlling sulfur diox-
ide ar discussed. There are two types of such processes- wet
and dry. In the wet process a slurry of lime is introduced
directly into a scrubber. The SO2 reacts to form calcium
sulfite or sulfate. In the dry process, pulverized limestone is
blown directly into the boiler, where it reacts to form calcium
or magnesium sulfite or sulfate. The dry process is only about
50% efficient, so it is used primarily with low sulfur fuels. The
general term limestone covers a range of compounds contain-
ing calcium and magnesium. Most tests show that dolomitic
limestone is not as effective as hig calcium limestone. The
sorption rates of various limestones vary, depending on parti-
cle size, precalcination, temperature, point of injection, and
stoichiometry. Several operating power plants which have
limestone control processes are described, including two plants
in the U. S. and one in Sweden. Cost studies of the operations
are given, including the cost of solid waste disposal and poten-
tial recovery methods.
24642
Knapp, Otto and Hans Luettger
DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS AND TEST RESULTS OF A
NEW MULTICELL FILTER. (Komtruktionsmerkmale und
Versuchsergebnisse eines neuentwickelten Vielzellenfilters).
Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 14(9):358-360, Sept.
1970.
In order to stay within limits of the maximum permissible dust
emission in the case of a Vekos-Powermaster boiler, a dust ex-
tractor was developed characterized by a filter housing with a
comparatively large number of cells in the filter housing and
by a strictly tangetial direction of the raw gas flow with rela-
tively small velocity (9.5 m/sec). The cells are small diameter
cyclones with the flue dust being returned to the furnace. The
combustion air purified by this filtering arrangement contained
dust levels of between 140 and 236 mg/ N cu m when bitu-
minous coal was used as fuel. The construction has unusually
low resistance because of the unhindered inflow of the gas
into the cyclones and because of the low gas velocity. The ar-
rangement was tested on a boiler with a mechanical firing
mechanism of 80% efficiency, fired with bituminous coal nut
size 3 and 4, an ash content of 3.7%, and a 3.1% H20 content.
The raw gas dust content was 0.882 g/ cu m; the purified dust
gas content, 0.074 g/ cu m; and the efficiency of the cyclone
dust arrester battery, 91.65%.
24645
Muraki, Ryoji
A NOVEL PROCESS FOR NEUTRALIZING AN ALKALINE
WASTE WATER AND FOR DESULFURIZING SMOKE.
(Arukari haisui no chuwa to haien datsuryu no atarashi hoho).
Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control),
6(10):825-827, Oct. 15, 1970.
A bubble-contact absorber was developed for simultaneously
desulfurizing boiler smoke and neutralizing alkaline waste
water. The boiler described uses heavy oil and generates
7.48% carbon dioxide and 0.2% sulfur dioxide. The waste
water of the dyeing factory contains large amounts of caustic
soda that can be neutralized by sulfur dioxide. The alkaline
waste water is neutralized to a pH of 9 by the first step of the
reaction and to a pH of 4.7 by the second. However, the stan-
dard for waste water is pH 5.6-8.6 so the reaction of the
second step must be advanced. Application of the process is
difficult because the quantities of sulfur dioxide and waste
water are not constant. If the amount of alkalies greatly ex-
ceeds the sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide is added to the gas.
Addition of a strong acid like sulfuric acid to the water for the
pH Control is not effective, since, for example, the sulfate
radical is consumed by the substitution of salts by sulfur diox-
ide. In the absorber, bubbles of carbon dioxide contact the al-
kalies: the water is neutralized to a pH of 9 by the carbon
dioxide and to a pH of 6.8 by the production of carbonic acid.
The pH value then remains a constant 6.8, since the carbon
dioxide does not react at this degree of acidity. The apparatus
effectively utilizes the surplus sulfur dioxide gas, in which
case caustic soda is usually added. The relationship between
the amount of smoke and that of alkali to be neutralized is
shown in a diagram. The bubbles formed in the apparatus is
very fine and present in large quantities.
24675
Henke, William G.
THE NEW 'HOT' ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR. Com-
bustion, 42(4): 50-53, Oct. 1970.
The problems associated with low-sulfur fuel are causing in-
creased interest in the 'hot' electrostatic precipitator which,
among its features, includes insensitivity to the sulfur content
of the gases it cleans. By being located ahead of rather than
downstream of the air heaters, the fly ash hot precipitator
operates in the range of 500 to 700 F. However, the volume of
gas at 600 F is nearly 40% greater than that of the same weight
of gas at 300 F, and the higher cost of the hot precipitator is
principally a matter of size. Low sulfur problems are caused
by the fact that good electrostatic precipitator performance
can only be obtained within a relatively narrow range of fly
ash resistivity, roughly from 10 to the 8th power to 10 to the
10th power ohm-cm. Further details are considered of low sul-
fur problems, as well as problem solutions. One approach is
enhancement of surface conductivity, but the more attractive
alternative is to end dependence on surface conductivity with
a high operating temperature. Oil ash is much more of a mo-
bility problem whan fly ash, but at the temperature at which it
leaves this hot precipitator, no problems have been encoun-
tered in hoppers or the conveying system. Six hot precipitator
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50
BOILERS
installations already operating on a pulverized coal boiler fly
ash cover a variety of differing applications.
24678
Bartok, W., A. R. Crawford, and A. Skopp
CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM STA-
TIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES. Combustion, 42(4):37-
40, Oct. 1970. (Presented at the AICHE-IMIQ Joint Meeting,
3rd, Denver, Colo., Aug. 30-Sept. 2, 1970.)
Cost-effectiveness analyses of potential oxides of nitrogen
control methods are presented for stationary combustion
sources, and research and development needs in this area are
critically evaluated. National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion sponsered research related to stationary NOx control is
discussed, including modeling of NO kinetics in combustion
processes and the scrubbing of NOx from flue gases. The
major factors known to influence the NOx emissions from
combustion processes are the amount of excess air used for
combustion, the heat release and removal rates, which define
the temperature-time history of the combustion gases, trans-
port effects, and fuel type and composition. Combustion flue
gas treatment processes have been evaluated in the following
general categories: catalytic decomposition of NOx, catalytic
reduction of NOx, physical separation of NOx from the other
components of the flue gas, adsorption of Nox by solids, and
absorption of NOx by liquids. Aqueous absorption systems
using alkaline solutions or sulfuric acid appear to offer the
most promise for combined control of nitrogen and sulfur
oxide emissions. In simple terms, cost effectiveness is defined
as the ratio of the annual control cost to the tons of NOx
removed. The estimated degree of NOx reduction and as-
sociated costs resulting from the application of potential con-
trol techniques are presented for a 1000 MW gas-fired, and a
1000 MW coal-fired power plant boiler. (Author abstract
modified)
24821
Tamura, Zensuke
GAS PURIFICATION DEVICE. (Gasu seijo hoho). Text in
Japanese. (Hitachi, Ltd., Tokyo (Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho 45-
16081. 2p., June 4, 1970. 2 refs. (Appl. Aug. 6, 1965, claims not
given).
A control device designed to remove water soluble gases such
as sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide contained in combustion
exhaust gas discharged from a boiler or furnace is described.
Numerous small sealed packs of cold water or small pieces of
cooled material dropped into the exhaust gas first condense
the water content in the gas and then adsorb the water soluble
gases with the condensed water on their surfaces, thereby
removing the water soluble gases from the exhaust gas. From
this basic method is developed another in which the used
packs or pieces of cooled material are neutralized, washed,
dried, and fed into the gas purification tank again for continu-
ous cycles of the purification process. An exhaust or waste
gas purification device of this system designed for use with
exhaust gas from a boiler consists mainly of a purification
tower, a detachable alkaline solution tank provided under the
tower, a washing/cooling tank, and a drier. Numerous sealed
packs of cold water or pieces of cooled material are dropped
into the tower full of the exhaust gas, where they condense
the water content in the gas and adsorb SO2 and SO3 into the
water so condensed on their surfaces as they fall down
through the tower into the alkaline solution tank where they
will be neutralized. They are then led into the washing/cooling
tank in which they are washed and cooled with cool water.
From there, they are lifted up into a dryer where they are
dried and further elevated above the tower and put into the
tower again for another cycle of the purification process.
25079
Humbert, Clyde O.
METHOD FOR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION OF
DUST PARTICLES. (Koppers Co., Inc., Monroeville, Pa.) U.
S. Pat. 3,523,407. 4p., Aug. 11, 1970. 8 refs. (Appl. March 29,
1968, 6 claims).
Electrostatic removal of particles that are entrained in a gas
stream can be improved by the addition of preselected
amounts of ammonia and water into the particle-laden gas
stream where the gas is at an elevated temperature. Optimum
precipitation occurs when ammonia is added in an amount of
from 10 to 20 ppm of gas, if water is added in an amount of
from 4-8 gallons per 100,000 cu ft of gas, and the gas temepra-
ture is above 400 F. The ammonia and water added to the gas
stream are believed to react with the sulfur trioxide to form an
ammonium bisulfate film which envelops the particles. Or-
dinarily, fly-ash particles from a power plant, for example, in-
clude a minor amount of SO3. It appears that a synergistic
relationship exists to explain the improved collection efficien-
cy.
25468
Glowiak, Bohdan and Adam Gostomczyk
SULFUR DIOXIDE SORPTION ON ANION EXCHANGERS.
Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution Prevention As-
sociations, 19p., 1970. 10 refs. (Presented at the International
Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970,
Paper EN-23E.)
The experiment of using anion-renewable exchangers in sulfur
dioxid sorption from gases was conducted in three stages. An
artificially created mixture of sulfur dioxide and air was
passed through a column 50 mm in diameter in the first stage.
The column was filled with an anion layer 300 mm high. Next,
a laboratory device was use for obtaining SO2 from the ex-
haust gases which were emitted by a boiler-house. The gases
had to be dedusted and cooled before passing through the
column with anion. At the third stage, a pilot apparatus was
installed in a sulfuric acid works, and the characteristic fea-
tures of an installation working at this stage are described. The
method which was utilized consisted of forcing gases with
countercurrents through a layer of anion exchanger resin
which was sprayed with hydroxide solution. This method can
be used for purification of gases which have a temperature
lower than 60 C and which do not contain dust. Efficiency in-
creases slightly, simultaneous with the increasing concentra-
tion of spraying solution and with that of SO2 in the purified
gas. (Author abstract modified)
25637
Sieth, Joachim and Hans-Gunter Heitmann
APPARATUS FOR CONTINUOUSLY MEASURING THE
CONCENTRATION OF A GAS- MIXTURE COMPONENT.
(Siemens-Schuckertwerke AG, Berlin (West Germany) U. S.
Pat. 3,367,747. 5p., Feb. 6, 1968. 4 refs. (Appl. March 11, 1964,
10 claims).
In combustion plants, particularly steam-boiler plants, the flue
gases contain more or less considerable quantities of sulfur
dioxide as well as traces of sulfur trioxide, stemming from the
combustion of sulfurous fuels such as coal and oil. When the
temperature of the flue gases drops below the dew point, the
gases condense and may cause serious damage by corrosion in
the boiler. Since the dew point is influenced substantially by
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
51
the proportion of sulfur trioxide in the waste gases, it is
desirable to provide means for measuring the SO3 concentra-
tion in a gas mixture. Accordingly, the concentration of SO3
and SO2 in a flow of smoke gas can be measured by perform-
ing the following steps: treating the flowing gas mixture con-
tinuously with condensing water vapor to selectively absorb
SOS from the mixture; continuously measuring the concentra-
tion of the sulfuric acid solution resulting from the reaction of
the condensing water and the SO3, this concentratio being in-
dicative of the SO3 concentration in the gas mixture; continu-
ously treating the residual flow of gas, now free of SO3, with
water to absorb SO2; and measuring the concentration of the
sulfurous acid solution resulting from the reaction of water
and sulfur dioxide, as indicative of the SO2 concentration in
the gas mixture. The concentration of the sulfuric acid solution
and/or the sulfurous acid solution is advantageously deter-
mined by electric conductivity measurements.
25643
Sykes, W. and F. Broomhead
PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATION
REVIEWED. Gas World, 134(3494):98-104, Aug. 4, 1951. 5
refs.
Aspects of the design, construction, and operation of the elec-
trical precipitator are discussed. The great advantage of this
device is its ability to remove with high efficiency dust of par-
ticle size much smaller than that removable by mechanical or
cyclone separators. Back pressure, and power needs to
produce the corona discharge, a very small; however initial
costs are much higher. Problems considered at length include
removal efficiency and its relation to time contact of the gases
in the field, design of the precipitation chamber, insulator
breakdown, gas distribution across the precipitator, removal of
deposits from electrodes, and electrical equipment require-
ments. Five essential design factors are given; correct time
contact, good gas distribution throughout the fields, design and
arrangement of the electrodes, maintenance of clean elec-
trodes, and maintenance of correct voltage. Examples of the
following typical application are described and the principal
design features are indicated in each case to point up the great
variety of constructions required by specific and differing
operating conditions: detarring of producer gas from coal and
coke, chamber and contact process sulfuric acid manufacture,
aluminum and cement production, boiler flyash precipitation,
gypsum dust removal, sodium sulfate recovery in the Kraft
pulp industry, cleaning of blast furnace gas, air conditioning,
and spray painting.
25786
Busby, H. G. Trevor and K. Darby
EFFICIENCY OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AS
AFFECTED BY THE PROPERTIES AND COMBUSTION OF
COAL. J. Inst. Fuel (London), vol. 184-197, May 1963. 4 refs.
The results of an investigation into the adverse performance of
electrostatic precipitators on pulverized-fuel boilers firing cer-
tain coals from England and Australia are discussed. The ef-
fect of the electrical resistivity of the fly-ash is examined;
when the resistivity of the dust exceeds about 10 to the 13th
power ohm/cm, the efficiency of precipitation is reduced. The
resistivity of the dust is determined by the surface condition
of the dust particles. The adverse effect when resistivity is
high ca be overcome by the injection of sulfur trioxide into the
flue before the precipitator: this is completely absorbed by the
dust. The formation of sulfur trioxide from combustion of the
sulfur in the coal is an over-riding factor in determining
precipitator efficiency and this, while broadly related to sulfur
content of coal, is also affected by unknown factors in the
combustion process. (Author abstract modified)
26104
Tamura, Z.
COMBUSTION EMISSION GAS DISPOSAL METHOD.
(Nensho haigasu shorihoho). Text in Japanese. (Hitachi, Ltd.,
Tokyo (Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho 45-22925. 4p., Aug. 3, 1970.
(Appl. Aug. 6, 1965, claims not given).
A process is described that permits the continuous and effi-
cient desulfurization of gases emitted from boilers and fur-
naces. Exhaust gas is led to a high-temperature air pre-heater
and then to a dust collector where carbonic grains or dust are
removed. Next, the gas is passed to an adsorption-separation
unit comprising three chambers: a high-temperature adsorption
chamber, a low- temperature adsorption chamber, and a high-
temperature separation chamber. All three chambers are filled
with activated charcoal or semi-coke for the adsorption of sul-
fur dioxide or hydrogen sulfide. After the two-stage adsorption
process, the desulfurized gas goes to a low-temperature heat
exchanger from which it is discharged to the atmosphere.
Heated inert gas (such as nitrogen) is introduced into the
separation chamber to effect the separation of the adsorbed
sulfurous or sulfuric acid gas from the adsorbent. The gas so
separated is led to a deoxidation device for further processing.
26312
Rak, M. V.
USE OF SIGNALS CONVEYING INFORMATION REGARD-
ING THE OPTICAL DENSITY OF FLUE GASES FOR AUTO-
MATIC CORRECTION OF THE AIR SUPPLY OF FUEL-OIL-
FIRED BOILERS. (Ispol'zovaniye signala po opticheskoy
plotnosti dymovykh gazov dlya avtomaticheskoy korrektsii
vozdushnogo rezhima mazutnykh kotlov). Text in Russian.
Elektr. St. (Moscow), 41(10):27-29, Oct. 1970. 2 refs.
The problem of regulating excess air ratio so as to maintain an
efficient balance between corrosion in the exhaust sections
and losses due to incomplete combustion is analyzed, and a
control function capable of maintaining an optimum air supply
to within plus or minus 0.24% O2 is derived. Feedback for this
control function is provided by monitoring the optical density
of the flue gas.
26365
Snopek, S.
CONTROL OF COMBUSTION PROCESSES AND EMIS-
SIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION CHAMBERS.
(Rizeni-spalovacich procesu a emise z prumyslovych topenist).
Text in Czech. Ochrana Ovzdusi, vol. 11-12:161-166, 1969.
Some aspects of combustion processes are considered in rela-
tion to emissions occurrence. The control of the combustion
process by analysis of flue gases guarantees effective use of
fuel and at the same time most effectively limits the occur-
rence of bothersome gaseous emissions. To effectively limit
and control the amount and occurrence of toxic components
of flue gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur
trioxide, and some hydrocarbons, reliable analytical data on
composition of flue gases must be obtained. An automatic
analyses, Aspex, suitable for this task is described, which ena-
bles simultaneous determination of both combustible com-
ponents of flue gases and oxygen. From the latter, SO3 occur-
rence can be estimated and SO2 concentration determined,
provided original S concentration in the fuel is known. The
possibility of limitation or elimination of CO, hydrogen,
-------
52
BOILERS
methane, and more complex organic radical occurrence is flue
gases by suitable control of the combustion process is
discussed. The facts discussed are supported by practical mea-
surements accomplished with the use of Aspex.
26369
Ulke, R. and K. Schaefer
THE HEATING PLANT AND LONG-DISTANCE HEAT
SUPPLY NETOWRKS OF THE MUENSTER UNIVERSITY.
(Heizkraftwerk und Fernwaermenetze der Universitaet
Muenster). Text in German. Tech. Mitt. Krupp., 27(l):39-46,
1969. CFSTI: N70-12682
The plans for the construction of a heating plant and a long-
distance supply network of steam and hot water for the
University of Muenster covering an area of 88 ha elaborated
by the Friedrich Krupp Works designed to supplant an out-
moded heating plant are outlined. The plant is planned for a
heat output of 110 G cal/h, a furnace output of 150 t.h. and an
electric output of 5 MW. A thermal power plant is included in
the plant designed to supply electricity for the University's
Medical School. The boiler house, the power station, and the
thermal control switching station are described. The dust fil-
ters for the boiler furnace are so designed as to keep the emis-
sion level below 150 mg N per cu m. The stack height of 70 m
and firing of anthracite with a maximal sulfur content of 1%
are designed to keep SO2 concentration in the close vicinity of
the thermal power station at a maximal level of 0.3 mg/cu m.
To meet the requirement of maximal noise pollution of 60
DIN-Phon at a distance of 10 m from the power station, ap-
propriate insulating materials are provided for. The construc-
tion of overhead supply pipelines, transfer stations and of the
long-distance heat supply network are described.
26378
Ochs, Hans-Joachim
IMPORTANCE OF DUST REMOVAL FROM FLUE GAS.
(Belange der Rauchgas-Entstaubung). Text in German.
Maschinenmarkt, 74 (8): 123-126, 1968. 3 refs.
Flue-gas dust removal in boiler plants is discussed in relation-
ship to recent West German legislation. The properties of flue
gases are presented in the form of mathematical formulas for
use in planning the installation of dust removal equipment.
Special attention is given to the properties of electrostatic fil-
ters as the predominant type of equipment now being used.
The injection of a small amount of sulfur trioxide as a mist
reduces the electrical resistance of the dust. This reacts with
the moisture content of the fumes to form a sulfuric acid
precipitate, and the lowering of the moisture content thereby
enhances the electrostatic effect of the filter. A table is given
of the sulfur content of various types of coal. The economic
aspects of the use of various types of dust-removal equipment
are discussed. An especially critical problem is presented by
boilers that use coal dust as fuel, since the fly ash can contain
more than 20% of crude dust, necessitating the additional use
of a cylcone as prefilter for the electrostatic equipment.
26451
Hall, R. E., J. H. Wasser, and E. E. Berkau
NAPCA COMBUSTION RESEARCH PROGRAMS TO CON-
TROL POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM DOMESTIC AND
COMMERCIAL HEATING SYSTEMS. Preprint, National Oil
Fuel Inst., New York, 18p., 1970. (Presented at the National
Oil Fuel Institute, New and Improved Oil Burner Equipment
Workshop, 3rd, Hartford, Conn., Sept. 23-24, 1970.
A description is presented of research, within the Air Pollution
Control Office (formerly NAPCA), directed toward controlling
air pollution from stationary fossil-fuel boilers through com-
bustion modification. The research is primarily concerned with
control of nitrogen dioxides and combustible particulates
emitted from domestic and commercial heaters burning distil-
late and residual oil. Domestic heater studies will evaluate the
performance of heater components, attempt to correlate
burner dimensions with flame characteristics and pollutant
emissions, and investigate the control of cyclic-based emis-
sions. Commercial heater studies will also relate burner-boiler
design with flame characteristics and pollutant emissions. In
addition, a model combustion chamber will be used to deter-
mine the effects of the following variables: air-fuel ratio, com-
bustion intensity, fuel temperature, residence time, and fuel
composition. The model chamber studies will provide a basis
for a model commercial heating combustor capable of multi-
fuel mixing. Studies applicable to both domestic and commer-
cial heating systems will involve the chemistry of pollutant
formation during combustion and also the control techniques
of external flue gas recirculation, staged combustion, and in-
ternal flue gas recirculation.
26501
Host, John R. and David P. Lowery
POTENTIALITIES FOR USING BARK TO GENERATE
STEAM POWER IN WESTERN MONTANA. Forest Prod. J.,
20(2): 35-36, Feb. 1970. 1 ref. (Presented at the Forest Products
Research Society, Annual Meeting, 23rd, San Francisco,
Calif., July 8, 1969.)
Most of the bark, as well as associated residue, produced by
sawmills and plywood plants in Montana is used as fuel to
generate steam. With one or two exceptions, the steam
generating plants have been Dutch ovens, which release large
volumes of pollutants to the air. To meet new state air pollu-
tion standards, the timber industry is now considering the use
of traveling grate or suspension-burning boilers. These permit
bark to be burned with a high heat efficiency and little or no
air pollution. Both offer the prospect of generating more steam
than Dutch ovens and at costs that are highly competitive with
natural gas.
26544
Matsumoto, Hiroyasu
ON THE TREATMENT OF ALKALINE WASTE WATER BY
BOILER GAS. (Boira haigasu ni yoru arukari haisui no shori
ni tsuite). Text in Japanese. Nenryo Oyobi Nensyo (Fuel and
Combustion), 36(12): 1189-1196, Dec. 1969.
A new device was developed to treat industrial waste gas and
waste water simultaneously. It is called TCA and consists of
an absorption tower with two grids, one at the top and the
other at th bottom, between which light plastic balls are loaded
(not packed). By passing gas and liquid at high velocity
through the device from the bottom, the balls are put into tur-
bulent motion and gas-liquid contact is promoted. Even if the
reaction produces solid materials the motion of the balls
serves as self-cleaning, and no clogging occurs. The absorption
tower is mainly used for sulfur dioxide absorption, and the
neutralizing agent is usually alkali waste wate from silkette
processing or tanning, carbide slurry, or red sludge produced
in alumina manufacturing. Detailed descriptions of the TCA
operation is given for silkette processing and leather tanning
waste water treated with boiler gas.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
53
26545
Matsumoto, Hiroyasu
TREATMENT OF BOILER WASTE GAS AND ALKALI
WASTE WATER. (Boira haigasu no shori to arukari haieki no
shori). Text in Japanese. Kogai (Hakua Shobo) (Pollution Con-
trol), 4(6):300-305, Nov. 1969.
A new device was developed to treat industrial waste gas and
waste water simultaneously. It is called TCA, and it consists
of an absorption tower with two grids, one at the top and the
other at the bottom, between which light plastic balls are
loaded. By passing gas and liquid at high velocity through the
device from the bottom, the spheres are put into turbulent mo-
tion and gas-liquid contact is promoted. Even if the reaction
produces solid materials the motion of the balls serves as self-
cleaning, and no clogging occurs. The device is mainly used
for sulfur dioxide absorption, and the alkali solution for
neutralization is the waste water from leather tanning, for ex-
ample. A detailed description of the TCA operation is given
for leather tanning waste water treated with boiler gas.
26546
Inagaki, Koshiro
SMOKE AND DUST EMISSION STATUS IN AICHI PREFEC-
TURE AND CONTROL FACILITIES. (Aichi kenka no baien
hasseijokyo to boshi setsubi). Text in Japanese. Kogai (Hakua
Shobo) (Pollution Control), 4(6):286-295, Nov. 1969. 9 refs.
Dust and smoke-producing industries in Aichi Prefecture in-
clude ceramic, textile, wood fiber board, heavy chemical, and
metal industries; the emission sources include boilers, sinter-
ing, electric and blast furnaces, and open hearths. The emis-
sion data such as the type of furnace, fuel, emission quantity,
and sulfur oxides concentrations are given for various indus-
tries such as ceramic, wood fiber board, and steel; some of
the emission control facilities such as dust precipitators, gas
purifiers, and dust precipitators for open hearths are described
in detail.
26560
Ogata, Yoji
SMOKE DISCHARGE DEVICE. (Haien sochi). Text in
Japanese. (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tokyo (Japan))
Japan. Pat. Sho 45-20065. 7p., July 8, 1970. (Appl. May 31,
1967, claims not given).
A smoke discharge device or stack is designed to permit easy
detection of internal corrosion so that timely remedial action
may be taken promptly for proper maintenance. Ring-shaped
space formed between the outer tube and the inner tube of
this chimney is divided into several air-tight chambers. An out-
let cock is provided on the outer wall of each air-tight
chamber which is usually closed with a plug. When a particu-
lar part of the inner tube is corroded, the gas or smoke going
through the inner tube leaks through the corrosion hole into
the pertinent air-tight chamber. This gas or smoke leakage can
be easily detected from outside simply by opening the outlet
cock and checking the leakage, so that the location of the cor-
rosion of the inner tube may be found accurately and
promptly. With inspection of this kind conducted regularly or
whenever necessary, partial corrosion can be corrected before
it grows to a major corrosion of the entire system Especially
in view of the fact that an increasing number of boilers today
use heavy oil fuel that usually contains more sulfur for
economical reasons, their chimneys are more than ever ex-
posed to sulfuric acid gas contained in the exhaust gas and
therefore subject to an accelerated corrosion. This invention
offers an easy and economical way for proper maintenance of
chimney or smoke discharge equipment used with heavy oil-
burning boilers.
26665
'ELECTRIC' CHIMNEY ATTRACTS SMOKE AND WASHES
IT AWAY. Engineer (London), 231(5994):33, Dec. 10, 1970.
An electrostatic precipitator has been designed to operate in
conjunction with industrial incinerators, boilers, dust extrac-
tors, and other similar equipment to limit smoke emission and
pollution by harmful gases. The Aeropur features high-voltage
operation with water irrigation, as well as low running costs.
In operation, dust laden gases from the incinerator or boiler
enter the Aeropur's tower base through an involute entry port
and are directed by a fixed helix to a spiral path ascension. A
central mast mounted on an insulator carried banks of elec-
trodes with multipoints to allow corona discharge ionization of
the dust particles. The resultant charged particles are attracted
to the side plates where water irrigation washes them to the
tower base and then into a settling tank. A water flow rate of
10 gal/min is all that is needed to irrigate the unit and this can
be recirculated via a combined water reservoir and sludge
tank.
26857
Haynes, W. P.
CURRENT WORK AT THE BUREAU OF MINES ON
RECOVERY OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM STACK GAS.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New Yo N. Y. and
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Proc.
MECAR Symp. New Developments in Air Pollution Control,
New York, 1967, p. 50-61. 10 refs. (Oct. 23.)
In a program designed to develop methods for removing sulfur
oxides from stack gases, the Bureau of Mines has been in-
vestigating the absorption activities of manganese oxides and
alkalized alumina, solid absorbents for elevated temperature
absorption, Teller chromatographic absorption processes, and
dolomite injection into boiler furnaces. A summary is
presented of the activity of the absorbents tested to date. Ex-
perimental data are also given for small pilot-plant studies of
the dolomite injection process and a large alkalized alumina
pilot plant study. Initial experiments show that admixing of
fine dolomite in powdered coal is effective in reducing sulfur
oxides in stack gases, though excessive amounts of dolomite
are needed to achieve satisfactorily low concentrations In ini-
tial tests at the alkalized alumina pilot plant, up to 85% of the
SO2 in flue gas has been removed. Prospects of attaining 90%
removal are reasonably good.
27243
HOLDS 'THERMAL' CHIMNEY A POLLUTION SOLUTION.
Natl. Eng., 74(12):6-7, Dec. 1970.
The purpose of the chimney cap is to create a condition within
the stack that maintains and preserves a constant exhaust tem-
perature from the breeching inlet to the top of the stack. When
this temperature control is reached, natural buoyancy will pull
the combustion gases out the top of the stack as fast as they
enter the stack, thereby allowing an even flow of combustion
air to support an even, constant combustion reaction. Im-
properly designed and/or sized chimneys allow an influx of
colder air from above. Temperature differentials between the
upward flow of hot stack gases and colder air flowing
downward in the excess space of the stack causes excess con-
densate to form, which then flows down stack walls until
heated sufficiently to become steam, at which time it then
rises until sufficiently cooled to condense to water vapor. This
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54
BOILERS
recycling process of steam and vapor demands more pressure
to exhaust combustion gases through the boiler into the stack
because of overpressure in the combustion chamber. The
chimney cap prevents entry and flow of the colder air of the
atmosphere down into this space. Ideally, the opening in a
chimney cap approximates the cylindrical column of hot stack
gases rising up the chimney.
27295
Bartok, W., A. R. Crawford, and A. Skopp
NITROGEN OXIDE POLLUTION: CONTROL OF NOX
EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY SOURCES. Chem. Eng.
Progr., 67(2):64-72, Feb. 1971. 35 refs.
Potential combustion control techniques for reducing nitrogen
oxides emissions from stationary sources consist of modifying
equipment and design features which affect such combustion
parameters as excess air level, heat release and removal rates,
and distribution of fuel and air. The evaluation of a kinetic
model of nitrogen oxide formation has shown that the most
important operating modifications are low excess air-firing,
two- stage combustion, flue gas recirculation, water injection,
and combinations of these techniques. The important design
features are burner configuration, locating and spacing, and
the types of firing and combustion methods used. Removal of
nitrogen oxides from flue gases provides a potential alternate
method for controlling combustion-related emissions. Flue gas
treatment processes potentially capable of controlling sulfur
oxides emissions as well as nitrogen oxides are catalytic com-
bustion; catalytic reduction; adsorption/reaction by solids; ab-
sorption/ reaction by liquids; and physical separation. The esti-
mated degree of nitrogen oxides reduction and associated
costs resulting from the application of potential control
techniques are presented for a 1000 MW gas-fired and 1000
MW coal-fired power plant boiler.
27658
Koerner, H. J.
DUST FALL MEASUREMENTS IN THE KASSEL AREA.
(Staubniederschlagsmessungen im Gebiet von Kassel). Text in
German Gesundh.-Ing., 91(12):351-353, 1970. 2 refs.
The maximal permissible yearly median concentrations for non
toxic dust are 0.42 and 0.85 g/sq m/day for non industrial and
industrial areas respectively. Respective maximal permissible
peak concentrations (monthly median averages) are 0.65 and
1.3 g/sq m/day. In 1968, dust precipitation measurements were
performed in 66 individual sectors within the city limits of
Kassel by means of the Bergerhoff device and compared with
previously recorded levels. In 47 sectors concentrations of up
to 0.21, in the 19 remaining sectors concentrations up to 0.42
g/sq m were established. Thus dustfall in all sectors was within
prescribed limits. The reduction of dust concentrations in the
industrial suburb of Bettenhausen is attributed to the conver-
sion of a number of large boiler furnaces from bituminous coal
to oil.
28113
Stookey, Kenneth W.
FURNACE EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEM. (Torrax
Systems, Inc., North Tonawanda, N. Y.) U. S. Pat. 3,557,725.
5p., Jan. 26, 1971. 3 refs. (Appl. July 10, 1969, 15 claims).
A furnace emission control system is described, which per-
tains to a vertical furnace charged at the top and having a
heated well at the bottom in which hot gases are drawn off
and supplied to an igniter for secondary combustion. The
gases discharged from the igniter are passed through a waste
heat boiler, then through an induced draft fan, and through a
bag filter, or precipitator to the atmosphere. Gas flow
throughout the system is maintained so that the furnace above
the gas outlet is at subatmospheric temperature, with the gas
flowing into the igniter. The oxygen content of the gases
discharged from the waste heat boiler is determined, and
secondary air is admitted to the igniter if needed. The tem-
peratur of the gases from the igniter is measured, and supple-
mentary fuel may be supplied to maintain the minimum safe
operating temperature. Controls are provided to bypass gases
above a predetermined temperature away from the bag filter
and to maintain the igniter temperature above a predetermined
minimum. (Author abstract)
28230
Dransfield, F. and H. J. Lowe
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS FOR LARGE
BOILERS-INCLUDING COMBINATIONS WITH
CYCLONES. In: Gas Purification Processes. G. Nonhebel
(ed.), London, George Newnes Ltd., 1964, Chapt. 13, Part B,
p. 536-549.
A considerable quantity of fly ash is carried out of a boiler
furnace in the flue gases when pulverized coal is burned. The
carry-forward varies considerably with the type of firing; typi-
cal figures are 15-20% for cyclone furnaces, 45-55% for slag
tap furnaces, and 80-85% for modern, fully water-cooled, dry-
bottom furnaces. Dust burdens of about 10 grains/cu ft ntp are
usual from the latter type of furnaces. The principal means of
removing the fly ash is the electrostatic precipitator of which
the two main types are tubular and plate. A good feature of tu-
bular precipitators is that the gas cannot bypass the treatment
zone; on the other hand, it is difficult to obtain uniform gas
distribution among the tubes, and reentrainment of
precipitated dust tends to be high. Plate precipitators are
generally more compact, a feature useful in very large installa-
tions. Precipitators are commonly used for efficiencies up to
98.5%. For efficiencies of over 99%, a combination of a
mechanical collector (usually an arrangement of cylones)
preceding the precipitator is preferred. Factors influencing the
performance of precipitators and mechanical collectors are
discussed.
28271
Francis, W.
FLUE GAS-WASHING PROCESSES. PART FOUR. Power
Works Eng., vol. 41:103-105, April 1946. 5 refs. Part I. Ibid.,
vol. 41:17-21 25, Jan. 1946. Part II. Ibid., vol. 41:37-40, Feb.
1946. Part III Ibid., vol. 41:75-77, March 1946.
The recovery of by-products from gas washing plants by using
lime as the alkali appears to be practicable. Cement and sul-
furic acid are produced in one method. The second process,
the decomposition of the washer solids by ammonium car-
bonate, to produce ammonium sulfate and calcium carbonate,
appears to be feasible if complete oxidation of sulfite to
sulfate can be achieved. An alternative is to scrub with a sodi-
um sulfite-bisulfite solution, and to precipitate the fixed SO2
by the addition of zinc oxide. The zinc sulfite thus formed
may be decomposed at low temperatures to give concentrated
SO2 and zinc oxide, which is used again. Solutions of am-
monia or ammonium carbonate may be used as the scrubbing
medium, producing ammonium sulfate and sulfur. The capital
and running costs for this system probably will be lower than
those for any other system of gas washing with recovery of
by-products. (Author summary modified)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
55
28503
Peew, Dimo and B. Hadschow
SULFURIC ACID CORROSION IN STEAM BOILERS
THROUGH THE USE OF SULFUR-CONTAINING HEAVY
OILS. (Schwefelsaeurekorrosion in Dampfkesseln bei Ver-
feuerung von Schwefelhaltigen Schweroelen). Text in German.
Energietechnik, 21(l):30-33, Jan. 1971. (Presented at the Waer-
metechnischen Kolloquiums der Technischen Hochschule Otto
von Guericke, 4th, Magdeburg, East Germany, July 1970.)
Studies of sulfur trioxide formation in flue gases, dew-point
temperature, and corrosion speed in relation to boiler load and
surplus air were carried out on four boilers operated at normal
load, nominal load, and partial load. For flue gas analysis, a
measuring point ahead of the air preheater was selected. Sul-
fur trioxide formation increased with increasing fuel-to-air
ratio. The SO3 content in the flue gas rose from 0.00094% by
volume at lambda 1.23 to 0.00204% by volume at lambda 1.56.
Conversion of SO2 to SO3 was decisively influenced by the
presence of atomic oxygen which develops through dissocia-
tion of the flue gases at the high temperatures found in oil-
fired combustion chambers. A proportional dependence exists
between SO3 concentration in the flue gas, dew point tempera-
ture, and corrosion speed. Injection of earth alkaline additives
with a high fraction of magnesium oxide and calcium oxide
reduce the SO3 concentration in the flue gases considerably.
Powdery additives with more than 80% MgO and grain sizes of
less than 80 mesh are very suitable for reducing the dew point
temperature and sulfuric acid corrosion.
28517
STACK AND BOILER CONNECTION. (Schornstein und Kes-
selanschluss). Text in German. Oel Gasfeuerung, 16(3):332-
340, March 1971.
There are two approaches to conduction waste gases to the at-
mosphere. (1) If the gases have a temperature higher than that
of ambient air, they will be lighter than air and rise upward by
their own force. The buoyancy of the gases depends on the
stack height and the density difference between the cold air
and the flue gases. (2) The gases are blown out of the furnace
with the aid of a blower. The stacks must be higher than the
roof to guarantee sufficient dilution of the waste gases. Oil-
fired furnaces require stacks with smaller cross sections than
coke-fired furnaces. This is frequently overlooked by plants
switching from coke to oil, and as a consequence, the flue
gases are overcooled and thus corrosive. Soot formation, too,
can be favored by an overly large stack cross section.
28742
Oiwa, Tatsukazu
METHOD OF EXTRICATION SULFUR FROM EXHAUST
SMOKE BY AMMONIA. (Anmonia gasu ni yoru haien datsu-
ryuho). Text in Japanese. Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc.
Air Pollution), 5(1): 173, 1970. (Proceedings of the Japan
Society of Air Pollution, Annual Meeting, llth, 1970.)
The KD Smoke Desulfurization System installed in the 26-
story Kobe Commercial Trading Center building in November
1969 is claimed to remove 99.45% of the sulfur in boiler com-
bustion gas. Waste gas leaving the boiler at 270-320 C is
sprayed with ammonia gas and water to produce (NH4J2SO3
or (NH4)2SO4. The gas is then cleaned in a spiraely rotating
scrubbing chamber to remove sulfur oxides, ashes, and other
water soluble matter by adsorption. The spiral rotation
chamber is characterized by the fact that isobaric centrifugal
force during rotation creates a thin liquid film on the surface
of the filter and removes the impurities in the waste gas. Stu-
dies are currently in progress on the reclamation of the sulfur
oxides as ammonium sulfate or even as mirabilite.
28749
Nagami, K., K. Minemura, I. Shoji, Y. Noguchi, S.
Nishimura, K. Mashimo, and K. Baba
METHODS OF PURIFICATION FOR OIL-BURNING
BOILER. (Juyudaki danboyo boira haien no datsuryu sochi no
tsuite). Text in Japanese. Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc.
Air Pollution), 5(1):174, 1970. (Proceedings of the Japan
Society of Air Pollution, Annual Meeting, llth, 1970.)
A new, simple waste gas desulfurization devide was developed
for exclusive use on heating boilers. The method used is the
wet type; since the water supply is quite limited for heating
boilers, an alkaline solution is substituted for water. The
device consists of a drum rotating around the horizontal axis,
waste gas to be treated entering the drum in a tangential
direction. The nozzle in the device sprays the alkaline solution.
The heavy oil used for combustion was B-heavy oil with
1.77% sulfur content. The rpm of the rotating drum and the
size of the nozzle aperture are not related to the sulfur dioxide
removal efficiency of the device. When the flow rate of the
waste gas increased, the removal rate declined, and therefore,
the amount of solution had to be controlled to match the
amount of gas passing through. Recycling of the treatment
solution was very effective, and over a period of about 9 hrs
more than 95% of sulfur dioxide was removed from the waste
gas.
29013
Pinheiro, George
PRECIPITATORS FOR OIL-FIRED BOILERS. Power Eng.,
75(4): 52-54, Apri 1971.
The moderate plume visibility of oil-fired boilers, which the
publi ignored in the past, is now considered unacceptable. In
addition, there is the problem of acidic smut from oil firing.
Experience with operating electrostatic precipitator installa-
tions has shown that smut can be eliminated and emission
opacity substantially reduced. The stickiness of oil ash and its
low resistivity make high precipitator efficiency more difficult
to achieve. Nonetheles modification of flyash precipitators for
oil ash is neither extensive nor extremely costly; the major
change is a new power supply, or addition to the existing
power supply. Other differences are minor: additional protec-
tion of high-voltage bushings, and special provision for ash
removal from the precipitator. With these modifications, par-
ticulate emissions should be under 0.01 grains/standard cu ft.
29014
Papamarcos, John
FUEL OIL ADDITIVE PASSES TESTS. Power Eng., 75(4):46-
48, April 1971. 1 ref.
Extensive tests of a new fuel oil additive were carried out on a
115,000-lb/hr boiler. The additive was a patented nitrogenous
manganese complex called Rolfite 101. The sulfur trioxide
level in the test boiler was about 25 ppm before fuel treatment.
After 96 days of treatment, SO3 was eliminated and was vir-
tually undetectable for the remainder of the year-long test. The
additive also reduced deposit formation, cold-end corrosion of
air heater tubes, smoke density (58%), and enabled the boiler
to operate at lower excess air levels. In addition, all measure-
ments made after treatment showed lower SO2 concentrations
than the theoretical (e.g., 90% after 96 days and 78% after 314
days).
-------
56
BOILERS
29231
Nakai, Yoshiyuki and Tetsuya Yokokawa
ACTUAL EXAMPLES OF KANAGAWA RESEARCH INDUS-
TRIAL INSTITUTE TYPE DESULFURIZING UNIT FOR
WASTE GAS. (Shin ko shi shiki haien daturyu sochi no gu-
taiteki jitshi rei). Text in Japanese. Kagaku Kogaku (Chem.
Eng.), 35(l):36-42, Jan. 1971.
Practical Kanagawa Research Institute type desulfurizing units
for waste gas classify roughly into nonrecovering and recover-
ing gas absorbing units. The nonrecovering type uses fresh or
sea water as the absorbing solution for sulfur dioxide. The ab-
sorbing solution is released in a harmless condition without
recovering the SO2. The recovering type effectively uses ab-
sorbed SO2 without causing a public nuisance. The gas and ab-
sorbent contact, but the liquid s surface tension causes them
to form a thin surface on the wire mesh. Gas sucked into the
unit cannot pass through without contacting the liquid plane.
Also, the gas-liquid rate can be arbitrarily decided. If a greater
rate of gas to liquid is needed, the quantity of flowing liquid is
increased. Pressure loss at the contact surface is not related to
the change of the liquid-gas rate. An actual example is the use
of desulfurizing with hydrogen in the final gas treating unit in
petroleum refining. When hydrogen sulfide produced by
hydrogen desulfurization enters the combustion furnace for
waste gas and becomes sulfurous anhydride, the desulfurizing
unit is needed for high concentrations. Another application is
the treating unit for waste gas from sintering furnaces in iron
foundries. This gas is of fairly high concentration. Further, the
gas includes many powder dusts but the KRI-wet-type has a
good ability to manage for the structure without kinetic parts.
Also, the waste gas treatment unit from the boiler in paper
mills makes a caustic soda solution absorb sulfurous anhydride
in waste gas. The produced sodium sulfate is used as a
medicine for a pulp steam bath.
29441
Snyder, James D. and Robert F. Hickox
DOWNWIND, AKRON STINKS' -- II. Rubber World,
161(4):73-75, Jan. 1970.
The U. S. rubber industry is now thinking about ecology, since
142 million tons of toxic matter is being emitted into the air
each year, health costs run as high as $4 billion each year, and
chronic respiratory disease is a result of air pollution. The
rubber industry generates at least 1.6 million tons of solid
waste a year including discarded tires and spends only 1.6% of
its capital on pollution control. Gas-fired boilers, electrostatic
precipitators, dust collectors, and smokeless tips on flare
stacks are being installed to eliminate smoke and fly ash. Also,
new applications are being developed for reclaimed rubber; at-
tempts are being made to recycle more waste back into the
production process; and chemica compounds are being ex-
tracted from used tires for re-use. Akron s new pilot latex
plant is a sophisticated latex waste treatment unit
29471
Anson, D., W. H. N. Clarke, A. T. S. Cunningham, and P.
Todd
CARBON MONOXIDE AS A COMBUSTION CONTROL
PARAMETER. J. Inst. Fuel (London), 44(363): 191-195, April
1971. 13 refs.
Factors contributing to the controllable heat losses in boiler
furnaces are considered in relation to the operating conditions,
particularly excess air. The optimum condition is shown to be
closely associated with the point at which any further reduc-
tion in excess air leads to a rapid rise in the heat loss due to
incomplete combustion. Parameters for characterizing this
point are discussed, and the flue gas carbon monoxide level is
proposed. Results of performance checks on oil-fired boilers
are presented to illustrate that for a particular plant monitoring
of this parameter consistently indicates the standard of com-
bustion performance, and hence that it can be used for control
purposes. (Author abstract)
29514
Brinke, R.
VENTILATION AND EXPLOSION EXPERIMENTS IN A
WATER-TUBE BOILER OF A POWER PLANT. (Durchluef-
tungs-und Verpuffungsversuche an einem Kraftwerks-Wasser-
rohrkessel). Text in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer,
51(2): 104-111, April 1971.
For ventilation and explosion experiments, an additional gas
burner was installed on a water-tube boiler fired with pul-
verized coal. A separate blower was assigned to the burner.
The boiler was designed for 84 atm gauge, 500 C, and 64/80
tons/hr. During the ventilation experiments, the plant was
operated in a pressureless state (all ventilation pipes open)
with the oil burners. Changes in the carbon dioxide fraction in
the waste gas were measured with an infrared analyzer. The
experiments were conducted at air volumes of 60,000 to 17,000
cu m/hr. Application of high air volumes showed some success
after a short period of time. The change in the CO2 fraction in
the waste gas, which depends on duration of ventilation and
on air volume, is illustrated. Ventilating with an air volume of
60,000 cu m/hr (90% of the capacity), the CO2 concentration
at the boiler end was reduced to 50% in 102 sec (measured
value) or 98 sec (calculated value), and to 0% in 240 sec (mea-
sured value) or 221 sec (calculated value). The frequency of
air exchange for total removal of CO2 at the boiler end was
7.3. The air speeds required were less than 1 m/sec in the com-
bustion chamber, 3 m/sec in the flue, and 4.4 m/sec at the bot-
tom of the stack. With an air volume of 17,000 cu m/hr (25%
of the capacity), the CO2 concentration was reduced from
100% to 50% at the boiler end in 158 sec (measurement) or 163
sec (calculation) and to 0% in 360 sec and 367 sec respectively.
The frequency of air exchange was 3.1. Air speeds of 0.23
m/sec in the combustion chamber, 0.8 m/sec in the flue, and
1.2 m/sec at the bottom of the stack were necessary.
29685
Hirakawa, Hisaichi, Izumi Mizobuchi, and Toshiyuki Yamaie
DEVICE TO HOLD IN PLACE ATOMIZER NOZZLES OF A
WASHER DEVICE FOR SULFUR OXIDE GAS CONTAINED
IN COMBUSTION EXHAUST GAS FROM BOILER. (Boira
no nenshogasu chu no sanka iwo gasu senjosochi ni okeru
funmu nozuru coshaku sochi). Text in Japanese. (Hirakawa
Tekkosho K. K. (Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho 45-33635, Oct. 29,
1970, 4p. (Appl. Aug. 27, 1965, claims not given).
The atomizer nozzles for the sulfur oxide gas washing/reaction
column can be easily installed at selected spots on the upper
side of the column, using a device designed to facilitate the in-
stallation and allow more placement flexibility of the
atomizers. The column is a part of the horizontal stack. Proper
locations are selected on the top-side wall of the column and
bored for installation of the atomizer nozzles. Box-like hol-
ders, one per each hole, are then fitted to the top-side wall of
the column as if to cover the holes for atomizer nozzles. Each
atomizer nozzle is connected to a pipe branched out from the
main pipe connected to the alkaline water solution tank. To in-
stall the atomizer nozzles in the column, each nozzle unit is
fitted in the hole bored in the top-side wall of the column and
then held securely in place by means of a box-like holder in
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
57
which the atomizer nozzle unit is held by a bolt screwed in
from the top of the holder. This makes the installation much
easier and permits easy relocation of the atomizer nozzles
when necessary.
29686
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW DUST COLLECTOR. (Kokuen
o mushokuen ni joka - Shigenken ga shin shujinho o kaihatsu).
Text in Japanese. PPM (Japan), 2(5):52-53, May 1971.
A new dust collecting system for a coal boiler and a new
smoke density meter were developed. The dust collector is
used to eliminate the dusts and particles from chimneys. The
coal for combustion is packed in a bed and used as a filter to
eliminate dusts from smoke. The coal then falls by gravity to
the belt conveyer to be thrown into the combustion room. The
black color of the smoke from the combustion room of the
coal boiler almost disappears after the smoke passes through
the coal packed bed of the system. The coal is dried in the bed
by the heated gas, and consequently burns well and does not
generate dust. The size of the equipment is 1.3 meters high,
1.3 meters wide, and 7 cm thick. The construction is very
easy. The cost of construction is estimated to be about $3000.
The new smoke density meter surpasses the conventional Rin-
gelmann smoke density chart in many respects and is expected
to be used in the future. It has a telescope, and the light
through the projecting out objective lens of 8.5 magnifications
is compared in the eyepiece with the light through the light-in
window at which special light-intensity filters of ten grades
responding to the smoke densities are equipped for reference.
This smoke features easy handling, small personal error, the
possibility of remote measurement (1 km), the possibility of
the estimation of total smoke exhaust, and high precision.
29819
Kawashima, Shunkichi
ELECTRIC DUST COLLECTION DEVICE. (Denki shujin
sochi). Text in Japanese. (Hitachi Seisakusho K. K. (Japan))
Japan. Pat. Sho 46-2640. 3p. Jan. 22, 1971. 2 refs. (Appl. Sept.
16, 1966, 1 claim).
The dust removal efficiency of an electric dust collector de-
pends chiefly on the apparent specific resistance of the dust.
An electric dust collection device was specially designed to
remove dust from the exhaust gas of a boiler burning pul-
verized coal fuel. The dust in the exhaust gas gives a high
specific resistance which should be lowered for an electric
dust collector to remove dust efficiently. To lower the electri-
cal resistance (to keep it within 0.0001 omega cm to 10 to the
minus 11 omega cm), sulfur trioxide is injected into the ex-
haust gas. The dust collection efficiency increases with in-
crease of the SO3 injection but reaches saturation at a certain
point. Therefore, it is desirable to keep the amount of SO3 in-
jected to a necessary minimum. Part of the exhaust gas from
the pulverized coal boiler is taken out by a by-pass; then sul-
fur dioxide contained in the exhaust gas is reduced to SO3 by
means of oxidation catalyst made from compounds of iron ox-
ide, platinum, and vanadium. The produced SO3 is fed into the
exhaust gas in the electric dust collector to adjust the re-
sistance value. In the new device, exhaust gas from the boiler
goes through the exhaust duct into the air preheater, then it
goes through another duct into the electric dust collector unit;
and finally it is blown out into the chimney by a blower. A
smaller duct pipe branches out from the first exhaust duct and
is connected to a small cyclone, or similar dust collector,
which is equipped with a built-in converter. Part of the ex-
haust gas taken into the by-pass dust collector is cleaned, and
the SO2 is reduced to SO3 by the converter at the same time.
The SO3 gas is then fed back into the main dust collector by a
blower fan through another by-pass.
29861
Busch, Hans-Peter and Friedrich Erwin Seese
THE NEW DUPLEX IRON MELTING PLANT AT THE M.
BUSCH KG IN WEHRSTAPEL. (Neue Duplex-Eisenschmel-
zanlage bei der M. Busch KG in Wehrstapel). Text in German.
Giesserei (Duesseldorf), 58(7):171-173, 1971.
A hot blast cupola furnace plant with two furnaces and an
hourly melting capacity of 12.5 tons is described. The plant is
equipped with a dust collection system comprising saturation
apparatus, a venturi scrubber, a collector, a waste gas blower,
and an exhaust pipeline for the cleaned gas. The annular
chamber of the cupola furnace is equipped with a pressure-
measuring probe. The measured pressure is relayed to a regu-
lator from which impulses are sent to the motor that adjusts
the dosing device for the waste gas. This method guarantees
that all waste gas is passed to the dust collection plant. The
path of the gas to the second furnace is blocked by water. The
waste gas is drawn off just below the furnace throat and is
cooled from 250-350 C to 80 C by saturation with water vapor.
The gas next enters the venturi scrubber where the dust parti-
cles are thoroughly mixed with water and retained in the sub-
sequent collector. The cleaned gas is then discharged through
the stack.
29940
Hashizume, Minoru, Takeshi Iwasaki, and Kuro Shimoto
METHOD TO ARREST AND REMOVE WHITE SMOKE
PRODUCED FROM MOLTEN ZINC PLATING PROCESS.
(Yoyu aen mekki purosesu kara hassei sum hakue no haiki
hoshu jokyoho). Text in Japanese. Preprint, Japan Society of
Chemical Engineering, Tokyo, 3p., 1971. 1 ref. (Presented at
the Japan Society of Chemical Engineering Convention, An-
nual, 36th, Tokyo, Japan, April 2-5, 1971, Paper E313.)
Equipment designed for the disposal of white fumes
discharged from a melting kiln used in the batch type molten
zinc plating process consists of a local exhaust hood, an ex-
haust duct, a fume/dust arresting device, and an exhaust
blower. The white fume is produced in large quantities from
thermal cracking of the flux when materials which are surface-
treated with the flux are immersed in molten zinc for plating.
It is also produced in large quantities as fumes of ammonium
chloride when the NH4C1 powder is applied for additional
treatment. The white smoke ascends with an ascending hot air
current while diffusing. If a high canopy hood is used to arrest
the white fume, it will require a tremendous exhaust wind
volume which will in turn require a high-cost investment in a
larger exhaust duct, dust collector, and exhaust blower. With
the new equipment, this problem is solved by using local ex-
haust hoods combined with baffle plates and provided with
slots. As a result, safety and sanitation problems caused by
the white smoke are eliminated and the work efficiency is in-
creased by 30%. Prior to designing the fume and dust arresting
device, analysis of the white fume with amorphous filter
paper, high-volume sampler, X-ray diffraction, impinger, ion
analyzer, cascade impactor, and electron microscope showed
its chemical composition to be mostly crystaline particulates of
3NH4C1, ZnC12, Zn(NH3)C12, NH4C12, and ZnO. It also con-
tains a small amount of NH3 gas and H2O steam. The density
of the fume particulates in the gas was 142 mg/cu m on the
average and 1278 mg/cu m at a maximum. A total of 97-98% of
the particulates was of sub-micron size, 1 micron or smaller.
Of the sub-micron size particulates, the 0.4-micron size ac-
counted for 51-54%. The fume particulates include ZnC12
-------
58
BOILERS
which is highly moisture-absorbent and easily condensed and
solidified through reaction with the water in the air. These
characteristics of the white fume make any inertial-type dust
collection method impractical. The only applicable methods
are either filtration or electrical dust collection. For economic
reasons, the filtration method comprising a special device to
prevent the filter cloth from becoming clogged with the ar-
rested particulates was used with the equipment.
30055
Lee, G. K., F. D. Friedrich, and E. R. Mitchell
CONTROL OF POLLUTANT EMISSION AND SULPHURIC
ACID CORROSION FROM COMBUSTION OF RESIDUAL
FUEL OIL. PART I: LOW-PRESSURE HEATING BOILERS
WITH MECHANICAL ATOMIZING BURNERS. Dept of
Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa (Ontario), Canadian
Combustion Research Lab., RR-195, 50p., Dec. 1968. 14 refs.
The burning of residual fuel oil containing 2.5% sulfur was
tested in a pilot boiler by using low excess combustion air to
control combustion conditions and by neutralizing sulfur triox-
ide and sulfuric acid with a fuel additive. The effects of boiler
load, excess combustion air, mean residence time, and a mag-
nesia-alumina fuel oil additive were tested on the formation of
noxious and corrosive combustion products. The additive was
an effective substitute for low excess air in reducing nitrogen
oxides and SO3 emissions. Also, the additive neutralized con-
densed H2S04 and improved the electrical resistivity of soot to
the point where soot electrostatic precipitation became feasi-
ble. The mechanism of acid soot neutralization and soot con-
stituents were studied by a detailed analyses of particulate
matter samples taken from flames with untreated oil and oil
treated with three different amounts of additive. When soot or
particulate matter is present, standard methods for measuring
SO3 concentrations can give misleading results. Hycrocarbons
and aldehydes in flue gas were relatively low, and carcinogens
in the soot were present in less than trace amounts. (Author
abstract modified)
30131
Ishibashi, Yasumasa and Masao Morita
STUDY ON DESULFURIZATION BY THE INJECTION OF
LIMESTONE POWDER INTO FURNACE OF OIL FIRING
BOILER (PART I). Text in Japanese. Mitsubishi Juko Mit-
subishi Heavy Ind., Tech. Rev.), 8(2):207-214, March 1971. 6
refs.
The removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gas emitted by an oil-
fired boiler by injecting alkaline earth additives such as
limestone and magnesium hydroxide into the furnace was stu-
died using a 125 MW boiler. Injection of the additives tended
to raise steam and flue gas temperatures, however, the in-
creases could be prevented by changing the injecting position.
Pressure loss of flue gas was increased by the deposit formed
on the surface of the reheater tubes and the blockage of the
clinker at the primary superheater tubes. These deposits can
possibly be controlled by soot blowers or protectors for re-
heater tubes. The SO2 removal ratio was 18-25% when the
amount of limestone injected was equivalent to that of sulfur
in the fuel oil; it increased with an increase in the amount of
additive. The low removal ratio is due to the short residence
time of additive particles in the flue gas and the unreactivity
of SO2 to the additive at temperatures above 700 C. As far as
the tested boiler is concerned, a higher removal rate cannot be
expected without addition of some oxidizing catalyst such as
Fe204 or Vs05. (Author abstract modified)
30155
Olds, F. C.
PROGRESS AND PROGRAMS IN AIR POLLUTION ABATE-
MENT. Power Eng., 75(6):54-56, June 1971.
Several examples are cited to illustrate the scope and variety
of air pollution research programs conducted by the Division
of Control Systems of the Office of Air JArograms. These
research programs relate to improved techniques for reducing
pollution from stationary sources, and are directed toward the
removal of pollutants from fuels before burning, control of
combustion processes to minimize emissions, or cleaning of
the discharged gases. Fluid bed combustion is a major DCS ef-
fort because of the high potential the removal of sulfur oxides
builds into an economic system. Three systems are under in-
vestigation for sulfur and nitrogen oxides control. One is for a
utility boiler at atmospheric pressure, a second for a boiler
under pressure, and a third is an acceptor-fluidized bed to
produce gas with combustion in a second stage. In another im-
portant, seven million dollar study underway at a power plant,
a comparison is being made between wet (scrubbers) and dry
(limestone injection) sulfur dioxide removal systems. DCS is
also addressing itself to origin of submicron matter and the
kinetics of its generation. Both the measurement and removal
of these very small particles require new technology and
equipment.
30159
THE DESIGN OF FLUID BED BOILERS. I. Steam Heating
Eng. (London), 40(472):6-12, March 1971. 1 ref.
A discussion meeting on fluid bed boilers held recently was in-
tended to provide the opportunity to review the state of fluid
bed boiler technology, identify areas where work is required to
solve immediate problems and where further research is neces-
sary, and to discuss the potential offered by the development.
In fluidized bed combustion, a bed of fine particulate inert
solids is fluidized by air blown in from beneath. When the bed
is heated and a fossil fuel injected, the fuel burns in the
fluidized air and heat is rapidly transferred to all the solid par-
ticles in the bed. In a coal-burning system of this type, coal
ash forms a suitable inert material for the bed. Among the ad-
vantages of the fluid bed system are reduced capital costs, ex-
cellent solid- gas contact, long solids residence time, and low
operating temperatures. Recent experimental work indicates
that the addition of limestone to the bed would result in 90%
of the sulfur in coal being retained. This retention rate would
meet U. S. requirements limiting sulfur dioxide in waste gases
to 300 ppm. The main product of the reaction between sulfur
and lime is CaSO4: the SO2 produced in the process of
regenerating this to CaO could be recovered by processing to
elementary sulfur or sulfuric acid.
30220
Yamada, Hiroshi
ON REMOVAL OF SULFUROUS ACID GAS FROM EX-
HAUST SMOKE. (Haien chu no aryusangas jokyo ni tsuite).
Text in Japanese. Nenryo Oyobi Nensyo, (Fuel and Com-
bustion), 38(2):32-39, Feb. 1971.
Although the use of low-sulfur crude oil or liquid natural gas
fuel is most desirable for the reduction of sulfur dioxide in the
fuel gas, the supply of these fuels is very limited. The desul-
furization of heavy oil gives rise to the problem of marketing
sulfur, its by-product. Another problem is that it gives a com-
paratively lower rate of desulfurization, i.e., 70-80% with the
direct desulfurization and 30-40% with the indirect. To raise
the rate of desulfurization, the process requires consuming a
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
59
sharply increased volume of hydrogen, thus causing the cost
of desulfurization to increase. The desulfurization of exhaust
gas in a large-scale plant can achieve a desulfurization rate of
up to 90%. The two methods may be used in combination for
more economical desulfurization; the heavy oil desulfurization
process performs the rough removal of sulfur, while the ex-
haust gas desulfurization removes the remaining sulfur con-
tent. Special boilers designed to burn high-sulfur heavy oil fuel
may be installed and combined with a desulfurization device.
In this connection, the flue gas desulfurization processes
developed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries were introduced, in-
cluding the Mitsubishi Activated Manganese Oxide Method
and the Mitsubishi Wet Lime Method. The former uses a pow-
dered absorbent while the latter uses a lime-slurry absorbent.
The activated manganese oxide method consists of a SO2 ab-
sorption process, an absorbent regeneration process, and an
ammonium sulfate recovery process. The activated manganese
oxide (MnOx nH2O) is fed and dispersed in the exhaust gas
and reduced to manganese sulfate through a reaction with SO2
or S03. The manganese sulfate and the absorbent that has not
yet reacted with SO3 or SO2 are arrested by a multicyclone
and electric dust collector, while the cleaned exhaust gas is
discharged through the chimney. The wet lime method consists
of a SO2 absorption process and a sulfite lime oxidation
process. The exhaust gas is moistened and cooled to 60 C in a
water spray tower to improve the absorption efficiency,
thereby removing the dust and SOS at the same time. The gas
is then led to the first and second absorption towers. A milky
solution of slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is sprayed into the gas in
the second absorption tower, so that SO2 in the gas can be
removed as sulfite lime (CaSO3). The cleaned gas goes
through the mist separator and is heated by after-burning; it is
then discharged from the chimney.
30331
Moor, B. St. C.
NOTES ON AIR POLLUTION IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY.
South African Sugar Technologists Assoc. Mount Edgecombe
(Natal), Proc. South African Sugar Technologists Assoc.,
Annu. Congr., 44th, Mount Edgecombe, Natal, 1970, p. 54-56.
(June 15-19.)
In the sugar industry, air pollution is primarily associated with
the fall-out of incompletely combusted particles (smuts) from
bagasse-fired boilers. The remedy lies either in prevention, by
avoiding the generation of smuts, or in cure, by removing
generated smuts from gases before their release. Preventive
measures include adequate furnace area, draft controls on the
boiler, increased boiler capacity, and addition of air heaters to
promote combustion of the relatively moist bagasse. Some
success in removing smuts from flue gas has been achieved
with water sprays in a smuts chamber and as the result of fil-
tering flue gases through a mesh stainless steel vibrator. The
filtering system virtually guarantees the dry removal of 99%
by volume of all particles over 0.25 mm and a large proportion
of all finer particles. Disadvantages of the system are its costs
and increased I.D. fan power requirements.
30488
Kuwaki, Motozo, Nobuo Ito, Isamu Maeda, and Ituo Tanaka
DEVELOPMENT OF REMOVING SO2 PROCESS FROM
FLUE GAS, (SUMITOMO ACTIVE-CARBON ADSORPTION
PROCESS BY GAS DESORPTION). (Gasu datsu shiki kas-
seitan ho ni yoru haigasu datsuryu sochi no kaihatsu). Text in
Japanese. Sumitomo Jukikai Giho (Sumitomo Shipbuilding
Machinery), 19(52):76-81, April 1971.
A new desulfurization process to remove sulfur dioxide from
flue gas is described. The process, named Sumitomo Active-
Carbon Adsorption Process with Gas Desorption, has proven
to be industrially applicable by the successful operation of the
pilot plant designed to treat flue gas of 10,000 N cu m/hr.
Based on the sucess of the pilot plant, a larger-scale, semi-
commercial exhaust gas desulfurization plant designed to treat
gas amounting to 175,000 N cu m/hr, is now under construc-
tion. The Sumitomo Active-Carbon Adsorption Process con-
sists of the adsorption of SO2 contained in the exhaust gas by
the activated carbon, the desorption of the SO2, and the
recovery of the SO2 separated from the activated carbon as
concentrated sulfuric acid. In the adsorption process, the ex-
haust gas from a heavy oil-burning boiler is led into the ad-
sorber. The adsorber is provided with a moving layer of granu-
lar activated carbon which moves from top to bottom. As the
gas flows to cross the layer at a right angle, SO2 is adsorbed
by the activated carbon. The exhaust gas is discharged through
the flue and chimney while the activated carbon flows further
downward to go out of the adsorber. In the desorption
process, the activated carbon is fed into the separator or
desorber where it is heated by an inert high-temperature gas
and SO2 gas of 10% or higher concentration is separated. The
activated carbon is returned to the adsorber for recirculation.
The separated SO2 is recovered as 98% high-concentration sul-
furic acid by the contact-type sulfuric acid manufacturing
device. The features of the process are: a dry desulfurization
process which results in no temperature drop of the treated
gas and assures effective diffusion of the desulfurized gas; the
adsorber employs a moving layer of activated carbon crossing
the gas flow at a right angle so that dust will not deposit in the
bed; the adsorbing bed is a moving layer of uniform thickness
giving high efficiency of SO2 adsorption; safe processing
method fully ensured against possible explosion; recovers
high-quality 98% sulfuric acid of high economical value; and
easy to control operation.
30612
Wierick, Dieter and Werner Schneider
QUALITY CRITERIA FOR AUTOMATIC OPTIMIZATION
OF THE AIR/FUEL RATIO AND THE WASTE GAS TEM-
PERATURE OF PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED BOILERS.
(Guetekriterien zur automatischen Optimierung des Luftver-
haeltnisses und der Abgastemperatur kohlenstaubgefeuerter
Dampferzeuger). Text in German. Energie Tech., 21(5):207-
213, May 1971. 22 refs. (Presented at the Kraftswerk-
stechnischen Kolloquiums der Sektion Energieumwandlung der
Technische Universitaet Dresden, Nov. 1970.)
As quality criteria for the best air/fuel ratio, the minimum sum
from waste gas loss and loss through gaseous and solid non-
combusted matter, or the maximum boiler efficiency, is used.
Optimization of the air/fuel ratio without considering the loss
through solid non-combusted matter is not recommended
because the efficiency is lowered and the heating surfaces
must be cleaned more often. Since the optimum magnitude of
the air fuel ratio changes with the operating conditions, an au-
tomatic optimization is advisable. The optimum waste gas tem-
perature is then achieved when the sum total of fuel costs plus
additional costs for low temperature corrosion are at a
minimum. A regulating circuit can be used for adjusting the
optimum waste gas temperature, which is found by continuous
sulfur trioxide determination. 0 The adjustment is achieved
through changing the operation of the air preheater.
-------
60
BOILERS
30734
Jonke, A. A., E. L. Carls, R. L. Jarry, L. J. Anastasia, M.
Haas, J. R. Pavlik, W. A. Murphy, C. B. SchoffstoU, and G.
N. Vargo
REDUCTION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION BY THE AP-
PLICATION OF FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION. (ANNUAL
REPORT). Argonne National Lab., 111., Chemical Engineering
Div., AEC Contract W-31-109-Eng- 38, Rept. ANL/ES-CEN-
1002, 87p., 1970. 19 refs. NTIS: ANL/ES-CEN-1002
Combustion of fossil fuels in a fluidized bed, to which panicu-
late limestone is added to react with sulfur oxides, is being
studied as a means of reducing the emission of sulfur dioxide
released during combustion. Coal has been burned in a six-
inch diameter bench-scale combustor to study the following:
the effect on SO2 removal of the limestone particle size, type
of limestone, temperature, calcium to sulfur ratio, fluidized-
bed depth, and recycle of elutriated fly ash to the bed; the ex-
tent of calcination and sulfation of limestone; and factors af-
fecting the nitric oxide concentration in the flue gas. In natural
gas combustion experiments, measurements were made of the
extent of SO2 removal, the NO level in the flue gas, and the
combustion efficiency. Mathematical models have been
developed to estimate the extent of reaction of limestone with
SO2 during coal combustion and the effect of nonuniform
feeding of coal on combustion efficiency. (Author abstract)
30926
ADDITIVES CUT POLLUTION WHEN FIRING RESIDUAL
OILS. Mod. Power Eng., 65(6):70-71, June 1971.
Most residual oils contain vanadium, sodium, and potassium
compounds. These harmful metals act as catalysts for the for-
mation of sulfur trioxide from the sulfur oxides produced by
the burning of sulfur, the other major noncombustible material
in the oils. The sulfur trioxide, which reacts with moisture to
form sulfuric acid, leads to low-temperature corrosion. This
and other problems, such as oil ash corrosion and slag forma-
tion in superheaters and sludge buildup in tanks or piping, are
alleviated by metal-based pre-combustion and combustion ad-
ditives. These additives come in solutions of oil-soluble com-
pounds or suspensions of micron sized dispersed particles,
with metal oxide content from less than one percent to more
than 50%. For boilers, the most promising additives appear to
be magnesium, manganese, or a mixture of magnesium and
aluminum. A magnesium-silicon additive improves the efficien-
cy of gas turbines operation on residual fuels, while silicon ad-
ditives increase diesel engine exhaust valve life.
30994
Argonne National Lab., 111., Chemical Engineering Div.
FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS. In.
Chemical Engineering Div. Research Highlights. Rept. ANL-
ES/CEN-FB1000, Rept. ANL-ES/CEN-FB1000, p. 67-68, 1969.
2 refs. NTIS: ANL-7650
The fluidized-bed technique is being investigated as a possible
way to reduce the emission of atmospheric pollutants in the
combustion of coal. The concept involves the introduction of
fuel and a sulfur dioxide-reactive additive (such as limestone)
into a hot fluidized bed of solids. The solids consist of small
particles of noncombustible material, such as ash, held in a
dense suspension by a stream of air passing upward through
them. As it mixes with the bed material, the fuel burns. The
heat generated is transferred to boiler tubes immersed in the
fluidized bed, and simultaneously SO2 reacts in situ with the
additive material. A six-inch diameter, bench-scale fluidized-
bed combustor was constructed, together with a preheater,
three feeders, and two cyclones. Initially, exploratory bench-
scale experiments were performed to aid in the selection of
operating conditions. Next, a systematic set of bench-scale ex-
periments were performed to investigate the emission of SO2
under conditions applicable to conceptual designs of both utili-
ty-sized power generating stations and industrial steam boilers.
The variables considered were the particle size of the
limestone additive, the superficial velocity of fluidizing gas,
and the recycling or nonrecycling of elutriated solids to the
fluidized-bed combustor. The major results of the bench-scale
experiments, which were all conducted at a combustion tem-
perature of 1600 F and a superficial gas velocity of 3 ft/sec,
are indicated.
31100
Jonke, A. A., E. L. Carls, G. J. Vogel, L. J. Anastasia, R. L.
Jarry, and M. Haas
REDUCING POLLUTION FROM FOSSIL FUEL COM-
BUSTION. Instr. Control Systems, 44(7):95-98, July 1971. 4
refs.
The reduction of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide emissions
from boilers using fossil fuels is discussed. A fluidized bed is
an efficient contact medium for gas-solid chemical reactions,
and injection of material that reacts with SO2 provides a
means of efficient emission control. Also, low combustion
temperatures offer a potential means of reducing NO emis-
sions. Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide emissions can be con-
trolled by feeding coarse solid materials, such as limestone, to
the bed which react with these gases to form sulfate com-
pounds. When limestone was fed at twice the stoichiometric
rate needed to convert all sulfur to calcium sulfate, the sulfur
in the flue gas was decreased by 70-90%. Tests using natural
gas, which does not contain nitrogen compounds, showed an
NO level in the fluidized bed effluent of only 60-90 ppm. Such
fuels, therefore, can apparently be burned in fluidized beds
with relatively low NO emissions. Thus, boilers using
fluidized-bed combustion show promise of being cheaper,
more compact, and more efficient than conventional units.
31104
Jones, Ben G.
REFINERY IMPROVES PARTICULATE CONTROL. Oil Gas
J., 69(26):60-62, June 28, 1971. (Presented at the National
Petroleum Refiners Association Meeting, San Francisco,
California.)
Electrical precipitators at a refinery control particulate emis-
sions with efficiencies of 94.6% at the cat cracker, 98.7% at
the coker, 99.3% at the boiler house, and 99.7% at the coker
hopper. The efficiency attained by the cat-cracker precipitator
is due to a voltage control mechanism called Anacomp. In this
system, a silicon control rectifier replaces the original satura-
ble core reactor for voltage control. The installation eliminates
electrical breakdowns and failures. With it, the precipitator
now meets regulations limiting particulates to 40 Ib/hr and to
an opacity below Ringelmann 1. Data on size, operating condi-
tions, and gas composition are given for each precipitator unit.
31145
Kawashima, Shunkichi and Yoshio Matsumoto
ELECTRIC DUST COLLECTOR. (Denki shujinki). Text in
Japanese. (Hitachi, Ltd., Tokyo (Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho 46-
21153. 3p., June 15, 1971. (Appl. Dec. 1, 1967, 1 claim).
An electric dust collector, used for removing the sooty dust
from the exhaust gas of a boiler uses finely powdered coal as
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B. CONTROL METHODS
61
fuel, is described. The apparent resistance of sooty dust
lowers the efficiency of an electric dust collector. When finely
powdered coal is burned, this electric resistance is especially
strong, so that the electric dust collector cannot function fully.
The new collector aims at lowering the electric resistance to
improve its efficiency. The electric dust collector has a side
channel in the smoke duct through which a part of the cleaned
gas is extracted. In the side channel, there is a device which
converts sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide in the prsence of a
catalyst. The SOS thus formed is poured into the smoke duct
before the inlet of electric dust collector. In the side channel,
there is a converter and a small supplementary dust collector
which eliminates dust from the gas extracted. Within the con-
verter, using an oxidation catalyst, such as an oxidized iron,
platinum, or vanadium compound, SO2 in the gas is converted
to SO3, which is sent to the smoke duct before the electric
dust collector by means of a supplementary blower. Sulfur
dioxide, oxygen, and ozone in the cleaned gas are changed
into SO3, by various reactions. Sulfur dioxide exists in the
range of 700 ppm - 2400 ppm in exhaust gas from the boiler.
The electric dust collector is operated by selecting the
catalyst, in accordance with the SO2 concentration for the
converter, and calculating the necessary amount of SO3. There
is no need to supply SO3 from the outside. Since the reaction
occurs in the cleaned gas, the catalyst is very durable, and lit-
tle is lost in the reduction and reuse of the catalyst.
31229
Tomany, J. P., R. R. Koppang, and H. L. Burge
A SURVEY OF NITROGEN-OXIDES CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW NOX
EMISSIONS COMBUSTOR. J. Eng. Power, 93(3):293-299,
July 1971. 9 refs. (Presented at the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Winter Annual Meeting, New York, N.
Y., Nov. 29-Dec. 3, 1970, Paper No. 70-WA/Pwr-2.)
The problem of nitrogen oxides (nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide
are major pollutants) emissions reduction is gaining increased
attention from those concerned with air pollution control ac-
tivities. The Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District has
published regulations which limit emissions from combustion
sources to a fixed rate of 140 Ib/hr. This is equivalent to an al-
lowable emission concentration of 20 ppm for a 500 MW
power station. Two of the major contributors to nitrogen ox-
ides pollution are industrial processes and stationary com-
bustion sources, which are responsible for over 50% of the
total nitrogen oxide emissions. Motor vehicles contribute the
remainder, for a total of 20 million tons/yr. Although some ad-
vances have been made in the development of commercial
control equipment for industrial process emissions, there is lit-
tle well-developed technology for stationary combustion
sources. Two of the most promising areas being studied are:
stoichiometric variations of the air-fuel feed and partidal
recycling of the combustion products, and advanced design of
combustion equipment. The former control system has
reduced nitrogen oxides emissions from 350 to 150 ppm in a
test program with 17 commercial boilers. An advanced design
combustor has produced values of about 150 ppm. When cou-
pled with simulated combustion gas recycle, the emissions
were further reduced to 100 ppm. Other control methods in-
clude catalytic reduction, scrubbers, and desulfurization of
fuels. (Author summary modified)
31404
Ingraham, T. R. and P. Marier
MECHANISM OF THE ABSORPTION OF SO2 BY
LIMESTONE. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 21(6):347, June
1971. 3 refs.
When finely powdered limestone is injected into the hot flue
gases in a steam boiler, it calcines rapidly to produce calcium
oxide. As the gases cool, the CaO begins to combine with sul-
fur dioxide. The final reaction product is calcium sulfate, and
the reaction systems involved in the conversion of limetone to
CaSO4 are presented. Calcium sulfite, which is an inter-
mediate in the formation of calcium sulfate from CaO and
SO2, is formed rapidly at temperatures as low as 330 C. At
temperatures above 650 C, it is thermally unstable in an inert
atmosphere. There are two competing processes in its decom-
position. One liberates SO2 and forms CaO, the other forms a
mixture of CaS and CaSO4. The latter process predominates
except under vacuum. Calcium sulfite may be readily oxidized
to CaSO4 by oxygen, SO2, or sulfur trioxide.
31456
Miura Kagaku Sochi K. K. (Japan)
ON DESULFURIZATION OF EXHAUST SMOKE BY TURN-
ING-FLOW GAS LIQUID CONTACT METHOD. (Senkairyu
kieki sesshokoho ho yoru haien datsuryu ni tsuite). Text in
Japanese. Nenryo oyobi nensyo (Fuel and Combustion),
38(5):51-58, May 1971.
A conventional wet type desulfurization/dust removal method
designed to clean exhaust gas usually requires 20 1 wash
water/cu m of gas to be treated. Suppose the water consump-
tion is 10 1/N cu m the total amount of waste water will be 500
T/hr when an exhaust gas of 50,000/N cu m/hr is treated. It
thus requires a great amount of extra cost to treat the waste
water. Designed to minimize the water consumption, and yet
assure high efficiency of dust removal and desulfurization, are
the Blue Bird, a scrubber for dust removal, and the Totem-
pole, another scrubber for the removal of sulfur dioxide ab-
sorption of gas, and removal of odors and fumes from boiler
exhaust gases. Two cages with a number of tangential slits are
provided within a bottle-like cylindrical unit. The lower one is
the intake cage, and the upper is the discharge cage. The gas
intake port is provided in the lower side of the cylindrical unit.
This assembly of the cylindrical casing, the intake cage, and
the discharge cage makes the basic unit. The Blue Bird con-
sists of one basic unit, while the Totempole has two or more
basic units. With the Blue Bird, the dust-containing exhaust
gas flows into the intake cage through the slits at a velocity of
15-25 m/sec and moves upward turning at the high speed. It is
then discharged at the same velocity through the tangential
slits of the discharge cage. The slits are 3 mm, 5 mm, or 10
mm wide, so that the high-speed gas atomizes water mem-
branes, formed on the inner walls of the slits, as it flows
through. Since there is a high-speed turning current in the
cage, the atomized water droplets are driven toward the inner
walls of the slits by the centrifugal force, and form water
membranes. The dust is also driven toward the inner walls of
the slit by the centrifugal force, and are thus arrested by the
water membranes. The water, having now adsorbed the dust,
is discharged through the slits of the discharge cage together
with the gas that it turning at the high speed. The dust is then
separated from the water in a centrifuge provided above the
scrubber unit. Similar principles applying to the Totempole,
except that the scrubbing is repeated at several stages, since
the gaseous substances or fume-like micron dusts are too small
to be removed by a one-stage process.
31662
Frazier, J. F.
REMOVAL OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM INDUSTRIAL
BOILER FLUE GASES. Natl. Eng., 75(8):6-9, Aug. 1971. 4
refs. (Presented at the Illinois State NAPE, Pollution Control
Conference, 3rd.)
-------
62
BOILERS
The problem is to remove sulfur dioxide from flue gases
without removing non-contaminants at the lowest possible
cost. At this time, the scrubbing or washing of flue gases with
an alkaline additive appears to be a practical way to remove
sulfur products from industrial boiler stack gases. A system is
described which consists of washing the stack gases with a
weak solution of sodium hydroxide or soda ash, as either is
converted by the carbon dioxide to sodium bicarbonate, which
reacts with SO2 to form sodium acid sulfite. A schematic flow
system, chemical reactions, and factors for estimating quanti-
ties are presented. A secondary chemical treatment system
consists of treating the sodium acid sulfite with calcium
hydroxide to precipitate insoluble calcium sulfite which can be
disposed of with the boiler ash. Costs are cited.
31795
Morse, W. L.
SMUTTING OF OIL-FIRED BOILERS AND ITS COR-
RECTION BY THE DCP SYSTEM. Plant. Eng. (London),
14(8):186, 191-192, Aug. 1970.
The D.C.P. Systems Ltd. method of injecting powder and oil-
fired boilers is described, to prevent acid smuts from chim-
neys falling all around on property, cars, washing, and so
forth, and to keep flues clean, so that weekend shutdown time
is reduced. In the basic installation, a very fine spray of al-
kaline powder, (consisting mainly of calcium and magnesium
carbonates), is injected into the flue gases to neutralize and
dry up the acid condensation, and prevent the formation of
carbon agglomerates. A special insufflator, the Alkajector, is
used to inject the powder where it is most likely to be effec-
tive.
31990
Minemura, Katsuya
DESULFURIZATION OF STACK GAS BY ROTARY WASH-
ING METHOD. (Kaiten senjoho ni yoru haien datsuryu). Text
in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Management: Energy and Pol-
lution Control), 23(7):46-51, July 1971.
No adequate equipment for the control of sulfur oxides has
been found for the smaller boilers used for heating buildings.
Recently, a rotary washing method has been utilized by the
National Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation to
prevent the deterioration of their equipment by sulfuric acid
gas. The rotary economizer recovers heat from boiler exhaust.
The aim was to devise a sulfur dioxide control apparatus
which was as compact as possible, and rotary equipment was
selected since it has good contact between air and liquid. Gas
absorption and dust elimination can be carried out simultane-
ously. Sulfuric acid gas can be absorbed in a short period of
time when an alkali solution is released by the rotary sprayer
in fine droplets. Very little special metal is used, so that the
cost is low, and little maintenance is required, as the structure
is simple.
31997
Walsh, W. H. and J. A. Waddell
OBTAINING AND MAINTAINING LOW EXCESS AIR
OPERATION ON AN INDUSTRIAL BOILER. Preprint, Il-
linois Inst. of Tech., Chicago, Technical Center, 8p., 1971.
(Presented at the American Power Conference, Annual Meet-
ing, 33rd, Chicago, 111., April 20-22, 1971.)
The problem of the fouling of the regenerative air heater sur-
face of a steam generator due to acid condensed on the air
heater surfaces is examined. More accurate use of the air
warmer and conversion to low excess air firing in order to
minimize the formation of sulfur trioxide are discussed as
solutions. Satisfactory combustion conditions were established
when carrying 15% excess air; with 10% excess air, operation
became unsatisfactory. To improve operation with 5% excess
air, mechanical analyses were made of control system tuning,
air quantity in the burners, spray angles for the steam atomiz-
ing burner nozzles, and steam atomizing oil guns. Air pre-
heater plugging was examined by use of a sulfur oxide
analyzer and an acid deposition rate probe. No stack emissions
were observed when the unit was operating at 265,000 Ibs of
steam per hour, or 88% of maximum continuous rating, with
3% excess air (0.6% oxygen), 3.1% sulfur oil, and an ambient
temperature of 26 F.
32274
Hammons, G. A. and A. Skopp
A REGENERATIVE LIMESTONE PROCESS FOR
FLUIDIZED BED COAL COMBUSTION AND DESUL-
FURIZATION. (FINAL REPORT). Esso Research and En-
gineering Co., Linden, N. J., Government Research Div.,
APCO Contract CPA-70-19, APTD-0669, 115p., Feb. 28, 1971.
21 refs. NTIS: PB 198822
An experimental study was conducted on a fluidized bed coal
combustion system using lime as a bed material. The lime
reacts with sulfur dioxide and oxygen to form calcium sulfate
under oxidizing conditions, thus reducing SO2 emissions. The
regeneration reductive of the sulfated lime back to CaO and
recycle of the generated lime back to the combustor was in-
vestigated as a method of reducing fresh limestone feed rates
to the system. The maximum efficiency of the three-inch
diameter coal combustor used was 97% at a bed temperature
of 1800 F, a superficial gas velocity of three ft/sec, and an ex-
cess air level of ten percent. The combustion efficiency
decreased as bed temperature decreased, increased as superfi-
cial gas velocity decreased, was independent of the excess air
level over a range of seven to 30%, and decreased with in-
creasing bed height. Experiments were conducted in the
fluidized bed combustor with batch charging quantities of
freshly calcined lime. Experiments were also performed with
respect to nitric oxide emissions. The NOx emissions from the
fluidized bed combustor in a typical batch lime operation
decreased as a run progressed. The reductive regeneration of
the partially sulfated lime back to CaO was investigated. An
economic comparison of the two fluidized bed boiler systems
is included. (Author abstract modified)
32414
Barrett, R. E. and D. W. Locklin
INDUSTRIAL STEAM GENERATION AND COMMERCIAL
AND RESIDENTIAL HEATING. In: The Federal R and D
Plan for Air-Pollution Control by Combustion-Process Modifi-
cation. Battelle Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio, Columbus
Labs., 1971, APCO Contract CPA 22-69-147, Rept. APTD-
0643, p. V-l to V-47, Jan. 11, 1971. 48 refs. NTIS: PB 198066
Energy-conversion devices within the source category of in-
dustrial steam generation and commercial and residential heat-
ing are used primarily for converting chemical energy in fuel
to thermal energy in the form of steam, hot water, or warm
air. Possibilities for pollutant emission reduction by com-
bustion modification are discussed as they pertain to steam
generation, space heating, and service water heating. Principal
fuels utilized for these applications include: bituminous coal,
small quantities of anthracite coal and lignite, residual fuel oil,
distillate fuel oil, propane and butane, and natural gas. Pollu-
tant emission levels are mentioned for products of incomplete
combustion, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, fly ash, and other
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B. CONTROL METHODS
63
noncombustible particles. The empirical knowledge relating
combustion variables to emissions is cited, as well as com-
bustion equipment development, techniques for lowering peak
gas temperatures, flue-gas recirculation, and other techniques
for achieving low-temperature combustion. Servicing and
maintenance, additives and emulsions, and fluidized-bed com-
bustion are discussed. Current and relevant combustion
research and development are summarized.
32455
Walker, A. B.
EFFECTS OF DESULPHURIZATION DRY ADDITIVES ON
THE DESIGN OF COAL-FIRED BOILER PARTICIPATE
EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS. Can. Mining Met. Bull.
(Montreal). 64(713):85-90, Sept. 1971. 11 refs. (Presented at the
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Annual General
Meeting, 73rd, Quebec City, Quebec, April 1971.)
The effects of the injection of dry limestone additives into
boilers for the sorption of sulfur dioxide were studied in pilot
and full-scale systems. Implications of the effects on the
design and economics of particulate collectors, in particular
electrostatic precipitators, are discussed. The injection of cal-
cium or magnesium-base additives into boilers for flue gas
desulfurization will have a significant effect on the economics
of the collection of fly ash and reaction products. The effects
can be minimized if precipitators are either modified or ini-
tially installed to operate at temperatures in excess of 600 F.
(Author abstract modified)
32524
Mizukami, Yukihiro
AIR POLLUTION AND DISTRICT HEATING IN SAPPORO
CITY. (Sapporo shi no taiki to chiiki danbo keikaku osen).
Text in Japanese. Kuki Seijo (Clean Air - J. Japan Air Clean-
ing Assoc., Tokyo), 9(1):45-51, Apiil 1971.
Beginning each November, Sapporo City suffers from heavy
smog. Air pollution in Sapporo, which first became a problem
in 1955, is due to boilers for heating, black smoke and harmful
gas from domestic-stove chimneys, and automobile exhaust.
On the advice of the Antismoke Council, an ordinance against
black smoke went into effect in June 1962. In July 1966, the
council (enlarged and renamed the Sapporo City Antipollution
Council) recommended two permanent air pollution control
measures: the adoption of district heating in congested areas
where large boilers are used and, where possible, in residential
areas; and the mass production of smokeless solid fuel for
home and school use. Since reaching a peak in 1961, the
volume of dust periodically measured at 10 points in Sapporo
has gradually decreased. The 1965 volume was 55% of the
1961 volume and the 1969 volume was 31% of the 1965
volume. The reduction is the result of improved incinerator
facilities and control methods, and the switch from coal to oil
in 1962/1963. In the center of Sapporo, dust volume is still
three to four times greater than in other areas. Between 1966
and 1970, the number of large boilers in Sapporo increased
from 1500 to 2100. Of this number, 20% are located in the
1.35-sq-cm central area.
32552
Clain, F.
A DISTRICT HEATING AND COOLING DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM SENRI NEW TOWN. (Une distribution de chaleur et
de froid a distance: Senri New Town). Text in French.
Promoclim., l(9):567-584, 1970.
Senri New Town, a new urban complex under construction at
Osaka, Japan will be served by a central water heating and
cooling distribution system. The advantages of a central heat-
ing and cooling system, as opposed to a multiple system, are
lower initial investment, saving in fuel consumption, lower
fuel costs because of bulk purchasing, reduction of the
number of attendants, reduction of atmospheric pollution,
reduced fire hazard, and saving in space. Calculations dis-
closed that while a conventional multiple heating system would
add 0.24 ppm sulfur dioxide at ground level to the existing
SO2 concentration, a central heating system would add only
0.0002 ppm SO2 to existing SO2 pollution at a distance of 13
km from the stack. The Senri installation (resembling that of
Hartford, Conn.) will furnish water of two temperature ranges
between 120 and 180 C and between five and 13 C. The central
heating and cooling plant will occupy 13250 sq m and will con-
sist of five gas-heated steam boilers, of absorbers, and five
turbocompressors. The boilers produce steam fed into primary
heat exchangers which heat water to 120-180 C. Cooling water
is produced by passing it through a series of turbocompressor
evaporators. Centrifugal compressors are activated by steam
turbines fed from boilers. The hydraulic aspects of hot and
cold water distribution is outlined.
32751
Shimada, Saburo and Kazuyoshi Shimizu
STEEL DOUBLE-TUBE CHIMNEY EQUIPPED WITH HEAT-
ING ELEMENT AND HEAT- INSULATING MATERIAL.
(Haigasu no kanetsu oyobi reikyaku boshi yo koban sei niju
entotsu). Text in Japanese. (Ishikawajima- Harima Heavy In-
dustries (Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho 46-24945. 2p., July 17, 1971. 1
ref. (Appl. Aug. 4, 1965, 1 claim).
An exhaust gas temperature drop and/or lower temperatures of
the inner wall of the stack are believed to effect the formation
of acid smuts in stacks. Acid fumes are likely to develop and
be discharged into the atmosphere particularly when boilers
have just been started, causing serious air pollution problems.
A double-tube steel chimney was designed to prevent acid
smut formation by keeping the exhaust gas hot. An electro-
heating tape or small steam pipe is wound spirally around the
inner tube of the chimney. The space between the inner tube
and the outer tube is then packed with a heat-insulating
material to keep the inner tube from cooling.
32803
Sato, Takahisa and Yoshiyasu Sakai
DESULFURIZATION EQUIPMENT OF STACK GAS BY NTC
WET SYSTEM PROCESS. (NTC shiki shisshiki haien datsu-
ryu sochi). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kami (Heat Management:
Energy and Pollution Control), 23(8):61-65, Aug. 1971.
Sulfur oxides in boiler exhaust gas are controlled by a liquid-
gas contact, absorption process. Alkaline effluents discharged
from the plant are utilized in a four-stage spray device. Sodi-
um hydroxide, calcium monoxide, and calcium carbonate can
be used in plants which do not produce an alkaline effluent.
The liquid is sprayed under pressure in order to well mix the
liquid and gas. Sodium sulfite is generated. Liquid from the
reaction area is sent to an effluent treatment area which main-
tains an alkaline pH. Thus, sulfur dioxide is eliminated. Equip-
ment costs and operation costs are low. The equipment is sim-
ple and easy to maintain.
-------
64
BOILERS
32824
Ozawa, Toshio
WET TYPE DESULFURIZATION EQUIPMENT. (Shisshiki
haien datsuryu sochi). Text in Japanese. Preprint, Reutilization
of Resources Technical Assoc. (Japan), 7p., 1971. (Presented
at the Seminar on Reutilization of Resources Technology, 2nd,
Japan, July 12-14, 1971), Paper 7).
A venturi scrubber with a caustic soda liquid is used to absorb
sulfur dioxide from boiler waste gases. Dust can be eliminated
at the same time. The scrubbing liquid is sent through a set-
tling tank and filter, and the waste is solidified so that there is
no danger of effluent pollution. Stainless steel equipment is
used to prevent corrosion. As the absorbing liquid forms
droplets, its surface area increases, thus providing for effec-
tive contact with the gas. The equipment is simple and auto-
matic. Then sulfurous acid soda of high purity is recovered.
32826
Inagaki, Koshiro
DESULFURIZATION OF SMOKE USING NEW DESUL-
FURIZING CHEMICAL. (Shin datsuryuzai shiyo ni yoru
haien datsuryu jitsuyo shiken). Text in Japanese. Preprint,
Reutilization of Resources Technical Assoc. (Japan), 8p., 1971.
1 ref. (Presented at the Seminar on Reutilization of Resources
Technology, 2nd, Japan, July 12-14, 1971, Paper 6.)
A tower packed with an activated charcoal impregnated with a
metal oxide catalyst is described for removing sulfur oxides
from smoke emissions. The metals can be copper, nickel,
chrome, cobalt, or molybdenum. Fabrication of the catalyst to
make it especially acid-resistant is discussed. Construction and
operating costs are low since only one tower is required. Since
the catalyst carrier is spherical, there is little friction re-
sistance, and it is easy to maintain. The tower is noiseless,
compact, and very efficient even after four hours of continu-
ous operation. This method can be applied to very small or
very large boilers.
32827
Kurosawa, Kenji
DESULFURIZATION OF STACK GAS BY WL-NA PROCESS.
(Ueruman rodo ho ni yoru haiendatsuryu). Text in Japanese.
Netsu kanri (Heat Management: Energy and Pollution Con-
trol), 23(8):46-49, Aug. 1971. 1 ref.
The WL-sodium method went into trial operation in June of
this year at a synthetic rubber company plant to recover pure
sulfur dioxide from boiler stack gas and produce high concen-
tration sulfuric acid. Near-saturation sodium sulfite is used to
absorb the SO2 at about 60 C. When heated to about 100 C,
SO2 and Na2SO3 are recovered. The Na2SO3 crystal is dis-
solved and recycled as absorbing liquid. The SO2 is cooled to
remove water, mixed with air, and sent to the contact sulfuric
acid equipment. Automatic control is possible since very little
handling of solids is required. SO2 in the stack gas is main-
tained at less than 200 ppm. Construction and operating costs
are low. About 200,000 N cu m/h stack gas from the boiler is
desulfurized.
32906
Nojiri, Hideo
DUST REMOVER FOR DUSTY GAS. (Ganjin kitai yo jojin
sochi). Text in Japanese. (Mitsui Miike Seisakusho Co.
(Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho-14638. 3p., April 19, 1971. 2 refs.
(Appl. Feb. 18, 1971, 1 claim).
A dust remover for high-temperature dusty gas from boilers or
heating furnaces is presented. The top of the filter unit, con-
tained in a box-like casing, is a detachable cover, and the front
upper part is cut as a gas intake port, covered with a rectangu-
lar plate with several nine-mesh holes. Two shelf plates, also
with nine-mesh holes, are placed one above the other and
spaced in the lower part of the casing. Coarse pebbles, five-
seven micron in size, are packed between the shelf-plates,
with a layer of two-four micron pebbles on the upper shelf
plate. The compartment between the lower shelf plate and the
casing bottom is the suction chamber, connected to the suction
pumps by ducts. Several units are lined up at varying heights
within the dust remover. The gas intake pipe is connected to
the top of the dust remover; the discharge port is at the bot-
tom. Several gas diffuser plates are installed immediately
under the top of the dust remover for uniform distribution of
the gas to all filter units. The gas enters the filter unit through
the holes of the gas intake port cover and is sucked down
through the pebble layers into the suction chamber and out of
the unit through the pump. The dust accumulated on the top
filter layer is blown off by air from the suction chamber,
leaves the filter unit through the holes of the port, and falls on
the main casing of the dust remover.
32910
Kobayashi, Hiroshi and Shoyo Kawabata
SOOTS-REMOVING DEVICE FOR PRESSURE COM-
BUSTION TYPE SMOKE TUBE BOILER. (Kaatsu nensho
gata enkan boira ni okeru baifun haijo sochi). Text in
Japanese. (Hirakawa Tekkosho K. K. (Japan)) Japan. Pat. Sho
46-26721. 3p., Aug. 3, 1971. (Appl. Nov. 27, 1968, 2 claims).
A pollution control device is presented which removes the
soot from the furnace tube and smoke pipes by accelerating
the speed of the air blower. The smoke tube boiler is posi-
tioned horizontally in a tubular main casing, with a smaller
inner tube in the lower half of the main casing interior which
serves as the furnace tube. An oil burner whose tip is in the
air chamber between the front of the main casing and the fur-
nace tube, is installed in the front of the main casing. An air
blower, outside the main casing and connected to the air
chamber by ducts, supplies primary and secondary combustion
air. Several small smoke pipes are installed horizontally paral-
lel to the furnace tube. The rear smoke chamber is directly in-
side the back of the casing, and the front smoke chamber is
above the air chamber and directly connected to the upright
stack. As the burner is ignited, the flame jets into the furnace
tube and produces combustion gas which flows toward the
rear smoke chamber, turns upward and through the smoke
pipes, and reaches the front smoke chamber to be discharged.
The control device necessitates that the front smoke chamber
be divided by a vertical partition plate which extends into the
upright stack. Two independent dampers, which may be
operated manually from the outside, are installed in the di-
vided stack for each half of the smoke chamber. When the
boiler is operating, they are kept open. When the inside of the
smoke pipes must be cleaned, one damper is closed and the
blower operates at full speed to blow away the soot. The
blower is directly connected to the front smoke chamber by an
extra air duct and enables the cleaning air to flow through the
pipes opposite to the normal flow of the combustion gas.
33030
Monkhouse, A. C. and H. E. Newall
INDUSTRIAL GASES-RECOVERY OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE.
Society of Chemical Industry, London (England), Disposal
Ind. Waste Mat. Conf. Sheffield, England, 1956, p. 103-107. 17
refs. (April 17-19.)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
65
Developments in the recovery of sulfur dioxide from waste in-
dustrial gases are reviewed, and commercial processes for the
recovery of sulfur dioxide from smelter gases are briefly
described. An important modification of the chamber sulfuric
acid plant, used on the Continent, is the Petersen process in
which packed towers replace the chambers and high concen-
trations of oxides of nitrogen are circulated. The Kachkaroff
process is similar and also utilizes a high concentration of ox-
ides of nitrogen. Processes, other than standard methods of
sulfuric acid manufacture, have been used, or are in use, for
the recovery of sulfur dioxide from gases containing 1-7% of
SO2. The most important of these are the dimethylaniline
process, the Lurgi Sulphidine process, the I.C.I, process, and
the Trail ammonia process. The more difficult problem of
developing a technically and economically satisfactory method
of recovering SO2 from boiler flue gases containing very low
concentrations of SO2 is exemplified by descriptions of two
processes that have been operated on a full scale, and of
others at the pilot-plant stage of development. Scrubbing with
water, with an organic base and with an aqueous solution of
an inorganic base or with the sulfite of the base are noted.
Electrical oxidation and fixation of SO2 as a dry solid com-
pound are also mentioned. (Author summary modified)
33288
Godel, Albert and Paul Cosar
THE SCALE-UP OF A FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
SYSTEM TO UTILITY BOILERS. Preprint, Activit, Paris
(France) and Babcock Atlantiqu Paris (France), 31p., 1971 (?).
10 refs.
Fluidized bed technology as applied to the coal combustion
processes was reviewed. The principles of traditional com-
bustion methods and combustion in fluidized beds, the origin,
principle, and industrial development of the ignifluid process,
and the correlation with air pollution were examined. The
overall result of the combustion was a reducing gas; the
amount of nitrogen oxides in the flue gases was about half of
that from emission from conventional furnaces. Particle
discharge was not specifically problematic, but the high carbon
content of the fly ash and the relatively coarse size of the par-
ticles which were totally recycled to the fluidized bed were
considered. The low excess air reduced the rate of conversion
from sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide to a minimum. The scale-
up of the process to the utility boilers level is described with
respect to the steam cycle, automatic control of the furnace,
including primary and secondary air control, coal feed control,
and total air pressure control, and a comparison with other
fluidized bed combustion systems.
33603
Dittrich, A.
ATMOSPHERIC GAS BURNERS AND HEATING BOILERS.
(Atmosphaerische Gasbrenner und Heizungskessel). Text in
German. Del Gasfeuerung, 16(10):971-976, Oct. 1971.
In countries with large natural gas supplies, boilers with at-
mospheric burners for heat production are preferred. For car-
bon monoxide-free combustion, the exit speed of the fuel gas
from the injection nozzle must be between 0.3 to 0.6 m/sec
corresponding to the maximum pressures of 80 mm at city gas
and 180 mm at natural gas. About 40 to 48% of the total pri-
mary air for combustion must be drawn along with the fuel.
An insufficient secondary air supply leads to CO formation
which is optically recognizable by the yellow flame.
33623
Eick, H.
SERVICE FOR HEATING SYSTEMS. (Service fuer Heizung-
sanlagen). Text in German. Oel Gasfeuerung, 16(10):958-964,
Oct. 1971.
For proper functioning of oil heaters it is always important to
adjust the burners properly. The combustion efficiency or the
waste gas loss depends on the carbon dioxide content and on
the waste gas temperature. Measures which reduce the waste
gas temperature at high CO2 values improve the efficiency
more than efforts aiming at a more complete combustion. The
waste gas losses depend on the waste gas quantity and the
temperature. It is desirable to operate with a minimum of ex-
cess air. The combustion process can be termed efficient when
a synthesis between highest achievable CO2 content and
lowest permissible soot number is accomplished. The pressure
atomizers which are usually used for oil-fired boilers have a
narrow range in which a relative high CO2 content and a soot
number below two (according to DIN standard 4787) can be
maintained. At lower air surplus or higher CO2 content, the
soot number increases in similar manner as at higher air sur-
plus and low CO2. The soot number and the quantity of car-
bon particles in the waste gas should be periodically moni-
tored.
33734
Nakamura, Kiyohiko
PREVENTION OF ACID SMUT FROM SMALL SIZE OIL
FIRING BOILER. (Kogata juyu boira no entotsu kobai
boshirei). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Management:
Energy and Pollution Control), 23(9):29-33, Sept. 1971.
A small boiler (with a maximum steam quantity of 1750 kg/h
and a combustion chamber of 2.8 cu m) produced a great
quantity of acid smut. It was remodelled with the following
improvements in mind: complete combustion of soot, low ox-
ygen combustion in order to prevent sulfur dioxide and sulfur
trioxide formation, a higher stack for better smoke dispersion,
a faster stack gas emission rate, a higher stack gas tempera-
ture, a constant operation of the boiler to prevent pressure
variance in the flue and stack, elimination of dead space,
better ventilation, and a stable temperature in the flue and
stack. The flue was remodelled from a descending type to an
ascending type and the corners were rounded. The flue from
the boiler pipe was attached above the horizontal multipipe
flue in order to avoid smoke turbulence and gas pressure.
Refractory bricks closed one of the flues from the horizontal
multipipes which were not in use. In order to improve com-
bustion and to keep the temperature stable at approximately
700 C, refractory bricks were used to line the flue. The con-
ductive surface was reduced by the use of bricks, but the
combustion condition was improved. At the entrance of the
stack, a dust receptacle was installed under the flue. Acid
smuts were sucessfully eliminated after the improvement. The
total cost for remodelling was approximately $900.
33738
Yamada, T., S. Sakabe, M. Kawai, S. Hirasawa, K. Miyajima,
and M. Oya
STUDIES ON NO2 CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF STABILIZED
COMBUSTION SYSTEM. (Kotei nensho sochi kara no NO2
boshi gijutsu ni kansuru kenkyu). Text in Japanese. Preprint,
the Japan Society of Chemical Engineers, Tokyo, p. 75-76,
1971. 3 refs. (Presented at the Japan Society of Chemical En-
gineers, Autumn Conference, 5th, Osaka, Japan, Oct. 1971.)
-------
66
BOILERS
Influences of oxygen partial pressure, combustion tempera-
ture, boiler load, and amount of nitrogen in fuel on the
nitrogen oxide emission volume, were examined. A continuous
infrared gas analyzer, and the naphtyl ethylenediamine method
of gas analysis were used to measure NOx, and a magnetic ox-
ygen meter was used to measure 02. The nitrogen dioxide was
sampled by the wet method when gas analyzer index figure
and temperature were stabilized. The NOx content and the
combustion temperature formed a proportionate relationship,
NOx content between 1550-1850 K temperature was 250-390
ppm. The NOx concentration seemed to decrease when the
partial pressure was increased, because the combustion tem-
perature dropped; but under a stabilized temperature, NOx
concentration tended to increase when 02 partial pressure was
increased. When the boiler load was reduced by half, com-
bustion was irregular and fluctuation in NOx measurements
occurred. But when the lead was three times larger, NOx con-
tent tended to increase. When the N content ratio was in-
creased in the fuel, NOx in emission gas tended to increase;
however, the ratio was not proportionate. It was concluded
that the NOx content in emission gas was largely influenced
by the temperature factors.
34025
Barren, A. V., Jr.
PARTICIPATE AND SO2 CONTROL TECHNOLOGY FOR
THE SMALL AND MEDIUM COAL-FIRED BOILER. Com-
bustion, 43(4):44-56, Oct. 1971. (Presented at the Industrial
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., Oct. 7-8, 1970.)
In firing one ton of coal with two percent sulfur, some 40
pounds of sulfur is burned and released into the flue gas. This
40 pounds of sulfur combines with oxygen to form 80 pounds
of sulfur dioxide. The sulfur oxides react with moisture result-
ing in sulfuric acid, eventually making some 125 pounds of sul-
furic acid. The particulates include fly ash, which is the un-
burnable inert material in fuels; soot, which is the burnable
unburned material left from inefficient combustion; and lead,
unburnable additive in gasoline. Electrostatic precipitators, bag
or fabric collectors, mechanical dust collectors or multiple
cyclones, scrubbers or washers, and thermal or catalytic con-
verters are discussed for use in air pollution control. Design
criteria are presented, as well as advantages and disad-
vantages. An SO2 scrubbing system project built to operate as
a mobile pilot plant, unique in the Zurn designed particulate-
S02 removal system for the City is discussed. The scrubbing
slurry will be a combination of sea water and pulverized native
coral marl.
34026
Plumley, A. L.
FOSSIL FUEL AND THE ENVIRONMENT -- PRESENT
SYSTEMS AND THEIR EMISSIONS. Combustion, 43(4):36-
43, Oct. 1971. 21 refs. (Presented at the Energy, Environment
and Educational Symposium, Tucson, Ariz., April 5-7, 1971.)
The combustion of fossil fuels in stationary sources accounts
for an annual emission of about nine million tons of particulate
matter, over 24 million tons of sulfur oxide, and 10 million
tons of nitrogen oxides. Efforts to reduce emissions of sulfur
oxides are prompted by their damaging effects on plant life
and possible adverse health effects. From the equipment
operator s standpoint, sulfur oxides can be detrimental since
they contribute to corrosion and deposit problems in the
boiler. Techniques have been developed for control of sulfur
trioxide by means of low-excess air and/or additives. Sulfur
dioxide control can be accomplished by use of low sulfur fuel,
fuel desulfurization, and removing the SO2 from the stack gas.
Oxides of nitrogen are air pollutants because of their participa-
tion in the reactions leading to photochemical smog. Since the
localities most subject to photochemical smog are in oil and
gas burning areas, most of the work has been done on these
fuels. The emission of oxides of nitrogen can be significantly
reduced by use of a suitable firing method to control the time-
temperature relationship, low excess air firing, or an alternate
fuel. Boiler particulate emissions have been gradually reduced
over the years by improvements in the combustion process.
Particulate size distribution and the use of collection equip-
ment such as settling chambers, cyclones, electrostatic
precipitators, scrubbers, and fabric filters are considered.
(Author summary modified)
34278
Baddams, H. W.
INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION OF OIL FUELS. Clean Air (J.
Clean Air Soc. Australia New Zealand), 5(2):31-37, May 1971.
6 refs. (Presented at the Clean Air Society, Victoria Branch,
Sept. 1970.)
At present almost half of Australian primary energy consump-
tion is supplied by petroleum products; typical property ranges
for the oil fuels commonly available in Australia are given, in-
cluding an average sulfur content of two to .25%. Variables af-
fecting smoke and soot emissions from atomizing burners are
discussed. Although desulfurization of fuel and/or flue gas
may ultimately solve problems of sulfur oxide emissions,
present costs remain excessive; the usual alternative for the
small consumer at present, if a low-sulfur fuel oil is not
economically available, is dispersion from high chimneys. Cor-
rect chimney design for height and for high exit gas velocities
can enhance the effectiveness of such dispersion. Improved
efficiency of many industrial oil-burning plants by installation
of an instrument such as a carbon dioxide or excess oxygen
recorder would achieve a drop in consumption of 90,000 tons
of fuel oil for every one percent overall increase in com-
bustion efficiency, representing reduced sulfur dioxide emis-
sions by about 5000 tons. Costs would compare very favorably
with fuel desulfurization costs. Control methods for acid smut
formation in high efficiency boilers are discussed, and data are
given on various dry absorption processes for SO2 and on
system benefits with improved burner design.
34282
Oya, Masaaki
STUDIES ON CONTROL TECHNIQUES OF NOX FROM
STABILIZED COMBUSTION SYSTEM. (Kotei nensho sochi
kara no NOx boshi gijutsu ni kansuru kenkyu). Text in
Japanese. Preprint, Industrial Public Nuisance Council, Tokyo
(Japan), 7p., 1971. (Presented at the Public Nuisance Symposi-
um, 6th, Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 20-21, 1971.)
The influences of oxygen partial pressure, combustion tem-
perature, boiler negative load, and nitrogen content in the
fuels on the nitrogen oxides content of stack gas were ex-
amined with experiments using a small heavy oil boiler. The
NOx concentration in the gas was considerably smaller than
the theoretical calculation figure that was obtained. The dura-
tion of gas stagnation in the furnace and the temperature dis-
tribution in the furnace seem to be the reason for this
phenomenon. Within the temperatures 1550 to 1850 K, NOx
concentration was 250 to 390 ppm and proportionate. When
oxygen partial pressure was increased, NOx concentration
decreased because of the drop of the combustion temperature;
however, under the same temperature, NOx content tended to
increase when O2 partial pressure was increased. NOx concen-
tration increased when the N content in fuel was increased;
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS 67
however, the NOx increase was relatively small compared to bustion would be effective. As chemical methods of NOx
the N content in the fuel. As control methods for NOx in the
stack gas, improvement of combustion methods by low oxygen elimination, the use of methane, hydrogen, ammonia, or al-
combustion, emission gas recirculation, and two-stage com- kaline solution absorption, may be examined.
-------
68
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
00275
J. R. Dewhurst and C. G. Holbrook
A TEST FOR THE SOOTING PROPENSITY OF TOWN GAS.
Inst. Gas Eng. J. (London) 6, (6) 387-400, June 1966.
A new test is described in which the sooting propensity of
town gas may be assessed as a Sooting Number. Laboratory
tests and district experience have been used to define the max-
imum Sooting Number that is acceptable for British appliances
adjusted for G4 gas. When the appliances are adjusted for
other groups, the test burner is similarly adjusted so that the
same Sooting Number limit is obtained. A simple method has
been developed for calculating the Sooting Number of a gas
from its composition. (Authors' summary)
00403
V. Jirasek
(ON THE SULFUR BALANCE IN STEAM GENERATORS.)
Prispevek k Bilanci Siry, Parnich Kotlu. Energetika (Prague)
16(4): 169-176, Apr. 1966. Czeck Text
The methodology for experimental determination of the sulfur
balance in steam generators (i.e. the distribution of sulfur
between the slag, fly ashes, and gaseous combustion products)
is described. The sources of various errors and their mag-
nitude, and the accuracy of the overall sulfur balance compu-
tation is discussed in detail. Measurements carried out on
basic types of Czechoslovak steam generators employing
diverse means of combustion are reviewed. It is deduced that
with existing methods of combustion the predominant part of
the sulfur leaves together with the gaseous combustion
products, and constitutes the basic amount of sulfur emitted
into the surrounding. In common cases, it appears that better
accuracy of sulfur-emission determination can be achieved by
computation from the sulfur content of the fuel and the solid
combustion products than by direct measurement of sulfur
dioxide contained in the gaseous combustion porducts.
(Author's summary)
03201
THE RESULT OF MEASUREMENT OF SO2 AND SO3
GASES DISCHARGED FROM BOILERS. Clean Air and Heat
Management (Tokyo), 15(5):12- 13, May 1966.
This paper tabulates the results of measuring SO2 and SO3
concentrations in the exhaust gas from boilers burning heavy
oil and gives the pertinent conditions of the measurements.
03460
H. A. Belyea, R. W. Johns, F. W. Taylor, and W. Surh
STACK EMISSION COLLECTOR. Preprint. 1962.
Stack Emission Collectors are relatively small test devices
which may be placed in a stack for a period of time and which
collect (by the settling process) a sample of the relatively large
sizes of particulate matter in stack emissions, the fine or light
particles continuing on through the S.E.C. The particles
retained in the collector are of a size and density which would
fall within several stack heights of the source of the emission
and the weight of the collected sample is a measure of the
nuisance created by the source. As well, an estimate or ap-
proximation of the total emission (all sizes of particles) from
the source can be made whenever the kind or class of the ef-
fluent or a size and density determination of the particulate
matter is known.
04324
EMISSIONS OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN FROM STATIONA-
RY SOURCES IN LOS ANGELES COUNTY (REPORT NO. 1)
(A JOINT DISTRICT, FEDERAL, STATE AND INDUSTRY
PROJECT). Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control Dis-
trict, Calif. Feb. 1960. 55 pp.
This is the first of a series of joint project reports of work and
findings on the oxides of nitrogen. The need and the recog-
nized importance of the role of oxides of nitrogen in smog for-
mation led to a survey of available data on the emissions of
NO from stationary sources. One of the objectives of this pro-
ject was to determine the rate of discharge of oxides of
nitrogen from each type of equipment under varying operating
conditions. Various analytical procedures for the determination
of oxides of nitrogen were reviewed. Sampling and analytical
procedures are discussed. The phenoldisulfonic acid method
was selected because of its reliability, reproducibility, and its
suitability for field test- ing. Forms used for recording field
data, analytical results and calculations are contained in the
appendix.
04360
H. Kuhn
WHAT IS MEANT BY BOILER EFFICIENCY? ((Was versteht
man unter Kesselwirkungsgrad?)) Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft
(Duesseldorf) 17(5):250-2S2, May 1965. Ger.
Varying results are obtained, if the boiler efficiency is deter-
mined according to the direct or indirect methods of the VDI-
Regulations for Steam Generators. The deviation of the effi-
ciency, determined according to the two equivalent methods,
increases with increasing electrical capacity of the auxiliary
equipment. In extreme cases, the results by indirect measure-
ments of the boiler efficiency are one point lower than if mea-
sured by the direct method. On order to achieve the same
values by application of both methods, it is suggested that the
DIN 1942 regulations for steam generators be corrected.
05552
B. R. Meland
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PARTICULATE LOADING IN
PLUMES USING MUL- TIPLE SAMPLING DEVICES. J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 18(8):529-533, August 1968.
(Resented at the 60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Association, Cleveland, Ohio June 11-16, 1967, Paper 67-55.)
Particle size distributions and particulate concentrations must
be known to relate effluents to reduction in visibility- Similar
types of emissions from an aluminum and brass scrap smelter,
a glass fiber plant, a secondary aluminum smelter, and a
residual oil heated apartment complex were measured during
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
69
fumigating conditions with cascade impactor, membrane filter,
and rotorod samplers. The different particle si e distributions
and concen- trations are reported. Membrane filter or cascade
impactor samples yield similar results for paniculate size dis-
tributions in plumes. If unusually high loadings exist in the
plume, short sampling times and separational methods of sam-
pling such as the cascade impactor are recommended. Because
of its overall high efficiency, the membrane filter is the
method of choice for de- termining particle concentrations.
The rotorod sampler is more capable of picking up the large
particles, such as the large stringy glass fiber particles, com-
pared to the cascade impactor or membrane filter. To get sizes
and identity of larger particles, the rotorod sampler is recom-
mended. Estimation of larger parti- cle concentrations in
plumes is useful for emission inventory and contamination in-
formation in the immediate areas of the emission source.
06770
J. Tolle
(INVESTIGATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC DUST MEASUR-
ING DEVICES FOR MONITORING THE AIRBORNE DUST
EMISSION OF STEAM BOILER FURNACES.) Untersuchun-
gen von Lichtelektrischen Staubmessgeraten zur Uberwachung
der Flugstaubemission von Dampfkesselfeuerungsanlagen. Kon-
tinuierliche Messung der Staub- und Gas-Emission (Essen) (71)
5-23, Nov. 1965. Ger.
The theory and the statistical evaluations of dust measure-
ments are presented which were performed by means of a two
- beam photometer at a steam boiler furnace. In the theoretical
part it is shown that the extinction of light is a linear function
of the specific dust content, with slopes depending on the par-
ticle size distributions. The photometer uses two light beams,
chopped at different frequencies, one of which crosses the
chimney twice while the other acts as a reference. Both beams
are detected by the same photoelement and the output signal is
frequency selectively amplified. The logarithm of the ratio of
the two amplitudes is proportional to the light extinction. The
photometer was calibrated with the aid of a Babcock dust
measuring apparatus. By varying the load of the furnace and
the setting of an electrofilter the experimental conditions could
be altered. A detailed discussion of the statistics of the results,
such as confidence levels and error margins, is included.
07848
Short, W.
MEASUREMENT OF GRIT AND DUST EMISSION. Fuel
Econ, Vol. 44, p. 89-91, 1966. 5 refs.
A cyclone and filter method developed by the British Coal
Utilization Research Association combining reasonable accura-
cy and easy portability has been used since 1958 for determin-
ing grit and dust emission. Emissions from a chimney can be
calculated as the weight of grit and dust passing the sampling
plane minus the weight collected by the arrestor. Results show
that, in many cases, quite low emissions are obtained without
grit arresters. When high emissions are reported where no grit
arrestor is fitted at the time of test, a simple arrestor of stack
or scroll type with induced draught fan would reduce emission
to a low and acceptable figure if a 60% collection efficiency
were achieved. For oil-fired boiler plants using oil, the ash
content is very low, and emissions will largely consist of car-
bon particles; appreciable quantities of solid particles can also
be emitted if badly operated or poorly maintained. Factors that
seem to influence production of fine particles are oil preheat
temperature and excess air percentage.
08895
Ministry of Technology, London, England, Warren Spring
Lab.
THE INVESTIGATION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
1958-1966. (TIflRTY- SECOND REPORT). London, Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, 1967, 146p. 39 refs.
A broad review of emissions, abatement processes, dispersion,
weather effects on pollution, the national survey of smoke and
sulfur dioxide, trends in pollution, grit and dust fall, and mea-
surement methods is presented. Research now in progress in
the United Kingdom is described and the research location and
project officer for each project is given.
11859
Gruber, Charles W. and Charles E. Schumann
OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENT OF SMOKE FROM COM-
BUSTION SOURCES. Am. Chem. Soc. Div. Fuel Chem.
Preprints, 10(l):57-64, 1966. 6 refs. (Presented at the Symp. on
Fossil Fuels and Environmental Pollution Joint with Div. of
Water, Air, and Waste Chemistry, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 22-
31, 1966.)
The suitability of the soiling index method for evaluating the
source strength of smoke plumes in objective units is
discussed. Satisfactory measurements were obtained in 17 field
tests on nine different plants ranging from a small steel-fired
tube boiler to a 225,000 Ib water boiler, fired by a pulverized
fuel burner. The sampler used was a Soiling Potential Sampler
which is arranged to draw a variable sample of combustion
gases either directly through filter tape or through a circuit
which first dilutes the sample from the source. The spots are
evaluated by a reflectance meter and the soiling potential is
calculated in terms of Rud-ft 2/cu ft of gas sampled. The
average value of soiling potential! per cu ft of stack gas for 16
tests was 1.10 Ruds-ft 2/cu ft; the soiling potential per unit of
fuel input was Rud-ft 2/lb. of coal. By expressing soiling
potential values per unit of fuel lend, emissions per unit of
time can be quantitatively determined by simple arithmetic cal-
culations. Another advantage of the soiling potential method is
that the summation of source strengths in the same terms as
the measurement of the resulting soiling index provides a
ready means for estimating the contribution of various com-
bustion sources to the total buildup of atmospheric particles.
16952
Luxl, F. C.
SAMPLING, ANALYZING AND CONTROL OF OXYGEN IN
BOILER FLUE GAS. Preprint, American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers, New York, 8p., 1961. 2 refs. (Presented at the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Winter Annual
Meeting, New York, Nov. 26-Dec. 1, 1961.)
Information gathered from a series of studies was used to
ascertain the best approach to the solution of the problem of
sample validity in large ducts, based on 792 Orsat traverse
analyses in 10 different ducts at 88 different loads, firing pul-
verized coal, oil, and gas. Nine probes were located in equal
cross sectional areas of the duct in which the tests were con-
ducted. The average performance of the three probes each
located in the center of equal duct areas gave a higher as-
surance of being within a given accuracy than any of the best
single probes. A single probe in the center of the duct was
within 0.15% (accuracy of commercial 02 analyzers) 47% of
the time, whereas the average of three probes in the center in
one of each of three equal areas across the duct was within
0.15% 02 82% of the time. The maximum error that can be ex-
pected with one probe located in the center of the duct is 0.7%
-------
70
BOILERS
02. The sampling analyzing equipment employed to monitor
the flue gas for 02 in large ducts comprised of several probes,
steam samplers, sample averaging unit, analyzer, and recorder.
The application of sampling, analyzing equipment to automatic
combustion control systems is schematically outlined.
17497
Sawicki, E., R. C. Corey, A. E. Dooley, J. B. Gisclard, J. L.
Monkman, R. E. Neligan, and L. A. Ripperton
TENTATIVE METHOD OF MICROANALYSIS FOR
BENZO(A)PYRENE IN AIRBORNE PARTICULATES AND
SOURCE EFFLUENTS. Health Lab. Sci. Suppl., 7(1) 56-59,
Jan. 1970. 5 refs.
Particulates collected from the urban atmosphere are extracted
with methylene chloride, then separated alongside pure
benzo(a)pyrene with alumina thin-layer chromatography; the
unknown and standard spots are eluted, their solutions
evaporated, and the residues dissolved in concentrated sulfuric
acid. Readings of standard and test spot solutions are taken at
an excitation wavelength of 470 nanometers and an emission
of 540 nanometers, with the spectrophotofluorimeter or with a
filter fluorimeter containing a primary filter peaking at 460
nanometers. Range of analysis is 3-200 nanograms of BaP for
the spectrophotofluorimetric method, and 10-300 nanograms
for the filter fluorimetric method. Laboratory air must be
clean, but hydrocarbons found with or near BaP in alumina
chromatographic fractions do not interfere. Eleven
micromethods were compared for the estimation of BaP in a
composite benzene soluble fraction of airborne particulates
from over 100 communities, and an average value of 870
micrograms BaP per sample grams was obtained. The spec-
trophotofluorimetric method yielded an average of 800 in 8
determinations, and the filter fluorimetric method, approxi-
mately 950. A straight line relation through the origin between
the concentration and the fluorescence intensity is obtained
for both methods, but it is advisable to run standards at the
same time. Solutions should be protected from light and stored
in a cold box if they cannot be analyzed until the next day.
20256
IMPROVED N C B APPARATUS FOR MEASURING FLUE
GAS DUST CONCENTRATIONS. Steam Heating Eng. (Lon-
don), 39(459): 12-15, Feb. 1970.
Most techniques for measuring grit and dust concentrations in
flue gases rely on the use of a filter to remove all or part of
the burden of solids. Drawbacks include the need to con-
tinually adjust the suction on the probe in the gas stream to
compensate for increased filter resistance and the need for
powerful suction equipment to overcome the high pressure
drop through the equipment. A new probe design overcomes
these problems by dispensing with the filter and utilizing a
small high-efficiency, tangential flow cyclone carried within
the probe head. The probe and its associated pilot tube (for
velocity profile measurements) are designed for insertion
through a 50 mm hole in a stack or duct carrying flue gases.
The equipment, which is suitable for use in gas temperatures
up to 400 C, is primarily intended for measuring grit and dust
emission from a coal-fired boiler plant. The stainless-steel
sampling probe comprises an inlet nozzle from which flue gas
are led to a miniature cyclone with removable hopper. Gas is
drawn through the probe by a fan. The simplicity of the ap-
paratus permits samples to be taken from a maximum number
of positions without a corresponding increase in test time. Fol-
lowing a test, the cyclone hopper is removed, and solids sur-
rounding the cyclone are brushed into the hopper. The materi-
al is dried at 105-110 C until all moisture has been driven off.
The material is then weighed and the solids emission deter-
mined.
20317
Brand, Ernest K. Von
ANALYTICAL APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR INSTAN-
TANEOUS RECORDING AND READING CONTAMINANTS
IN FLUENT MATERIALS. (Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat.
3,495,439. 5p., Feb. 17, 1970. 5 refs. (Appl. April 6, 1966, 10
claims).
An apparatus and method are described which obtain an in-
stantaneous and continuous reading and permanent record of
contaminants in a fluid, such as solids in air. The device util-
izes a filter tape which continuously moves across a predeter-
mined flow path of the fluid to be analyzed. The contaminants
are deposited on the filter tape as a permanent record. A light
source is mounted in longitudinal allignment with the intersec-
tion of the path of the filter tape and the flow path of the
fluid. A photocell instantaneously and continuously senses the
light reflected from the filter tape at the intersection. The
quantity of light sensed is proportional to the quantum of con-
taminant deposited on the filter tape at the intersection.
(Author abstract modified)
21055
Yamada, T., K. Nakamura, T. Kawai, S. Hirasawa, and K.
Miyajima
METHOD OF MEASURING SULFUR OXIDES IN FLUE
GASES. 1-1. SAMPLING POSITION AND METHOD OF GAS
SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. (Haigasu chu no iosankabutsu
sokutei ho. 1-1. Bunsekiyo shiryo gasu no saishu ichi oyobi
hoho). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Tokyo) (Heat Eng.),
22(2):5-9, Feb. 28, 1970. 2 refs.
Sulfur oxides in flue gases are generally analyzed either by a
volumetric or a colorimetric method. These methods are
moderately accurate but when a concentration distribution ex-
ists on the cross section of the flue through which the gases
pass, or air leaks into the pipe, accurate measurements of
average density cannot be expected as long as gas samples are
gathered from one point. Consequently, a regulation of the
conditions for sampling gases is necessary, which is also im-
possible because the differences in equipment and the com-
position of flue gases are not equal. The result of an experi-
ment on the sampling of flue gas is shown, using a small prac-
tical boiler as the model plant. An examination was made of
how the current distribution at a spot in the pipe relates to the
concentration distribution of sulfur oxides as well as the dis-
agreement of measurements in many methods of analysis.
When there is no leakage, a reliable result is obtained by sam-
pling gas from an arbitrary point. In another experiment it was
shown that when L is the length from the measuring point to
the point at which air leaks occur and D is the length of one
side of the pipe, the density distribution through the cross sec-
tion becomes uniform at the point which a distance L/D equals
1-2 from the leak. Density becomes uniform unexpectedly
soon, even when air of as much as 4% of total the volume of
flue gas leaks into the pipe.
21872
THE 'OPTIMOMETER' - A DEVICE FOR AUTOMATIC
CONTROL OF SMOKE EMISSION. Steam Heating Eng. (Lon-
don), vol. 39:30-33, March 1970.
The 'Optimometer' monitors stack conditions and automati-
cally adjusts burner air/fuel ratio to hold smoke emission at a
predetermined level. In its present form, it is suitable for use
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
71
on boilers fired by a single oil burner with fd or id fan. The
device is essentially a servomechanism interposed between the
oil and air supply controls, the error signal required being
derived from photocell equipment in the exhaust flue from the
boiler. It replaces the conventional linkage between oil valve
and air damper, allowing the oil/air ratio to be trimmed as
required. The equipment is supplementary to conventional
controls, and is designed to allow the burner/fan control
system to operate conventionally in case of failure of the
smoke sensing equipment. The Optimometer maintains a
smoke number of 4-5 in the stack, corresponding to operation
at obscuration of approximately 3% and a smoke color
between Ringelmann O and 1.
22998
Pfeifer, R. J., B. Y. Cho, and O. L. Utt
MERCURY SUBSTITUTION--NUCLEONIC DETECTION IN-
STRUMENT FOR SULFUR DIOXIDE MEASUREMENT. ISA
(Instr. Soc. Am.) Trans., 9(1):9-16, 19 1 ref. (Presented at the
Instrument Society of America, Analysis Instrument Division,
National Symposium 15th, May 6, 1969.)
In the future, stack gas monitors for sulfur dioxide may be
require to demonstrate compliance with federal regulations,
and such monitors may become integrally associated with con-
trol systems such as scrubbers. For application in power plants
and heat-generation facilities, a potential stack-gas monitor
must be reliable and easily maintainable, reasonably accurate
and free from errors due to contaminants, and of simple con-
struction. The Gas sampling procedure must be such that sul-
fur dioxide in the gas under test is not altered by sampling
conditions. A sulfur dioxide measuring instrument based on a
mercury substitution and nucleonic detection (MSND)
technique provides these four desirable features. The instru-
ment is characterized by a stoichiometric substitution of mer-
cury for sulfur dioxide in a reaction cell, transfer of the mer-
cury to a measurement cell, and measurement of the mercury
by low-energy X-radiation absorption. Construction of the in-
strument is simple and the disposable reaction cell is charged
with reagents for 10-day operation. Measurement accuracy is
excellent due to the stoichiometric substitution which is unaf-
fected by interfering substances. Since the mercury substitu-
tion occurs in an aqueous medium, the gas sample need not be
freed of water vapor and particulates. Total response time, as
determined by the sizes of reaction and measurement cells and
fluid flow rate, is approximate! 15 min.
23351
Shigehara, R. T., W. F. Todd, and W. S. Smith
SIGNIFICANCE OF ERRORS IN STACK SAMPLING MEA-
SUREMENTS. Preprint, Air Pollution Control Association,
New York City, 27p., 1970. 6 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollu-
tion Control Association, Annual Meeting, 63rd, St. Louis,
Mo., June 14-19, 1970, Paper 70-35.)
Many separate measurements are made in order to determine
the average pollutant emission rate over the sampling period.
For example, temperature, pressure, gas composition including
moisture content, velocity heads, and metering device adjust-
ments are all necessary in order to accurately attain isokinetic
sampling conditions. The stack sampler is faced with the
problem of deciding how accurately he should make these
measurements, a decision which directly influences his selec-
tion of stack sampling equipment and the sampling methodolo-
gy. Maximum errors in terms of individual measurements con-
ducted in stack sampling are considered for two specific exam-
ples: velocity measurement using the pitot tube, and a sam-
pling train utilizing a pitot tube and an orifice meter to attain
isokinetic conditions. By partial differentiation of the pitot
tube equation and the isokinetic sampling train equation, the
relative order of magnitude of errors are determined. For the
example of measuring velocity using the pitot tube, the
greatest source of error is the velocity head measurement; for
the isokinetic sampling train equation, the greatest sources of
error are the measurements of the velocity head, moisture
content of the stack gas, and the nozzle diameter of the sam-
pling train. (Author abstract modified)
23441
Larsson, Olov
THE MEASUREMENT OF SOLIDS IN FLUE GASES.
(Matning av fasta partiklar i rokgaser). Text in Swedish.
VVS(J. Assoc. Heating, Ventilation, Sanit. Engrs.)
(Stockholm), 60(9):509-511, Sept. 1969. 12 refs.
Investigations indicate that available paniculate measuring
equipment for the determination of particulates in flue gases is
error-prone in the standard measurement techniques. A
minimum gas velocity of 5 m/sec is necessary to get reliable
values. Discrepancies are large, and single values are not
representative. Test indicate that for boilers between 200-
10,000 Mcal/h, the concentration of paniculate matter is about
110 mg/cu m as a mean value at standard conditions and at
10% carbon dioxide without air cleaning equipment; the con-
centration is about 60 mg/cu m at 10% CO2 with air cleaning
equipment.
23681
Bamnger Research Ltd., Rexdale (Ontario)
A REPORT TO DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION
AND WELFARE OF OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS OF SO2
AND NO2 AIR POLLUTION USING BARRINGER COR-
RELATION SPECTROMETERS. NAPCA Contract PH-22-68-
44, Barringer TR-69-113, 192p., Dec. 1969. 8 refs. CFSTI: PB-
193485
Research on the application and evaluation of a new measure-
ment technique based on correlation spectrometry is described
wherein a portion of the desired spectrum containing rotation-
vibration band structures is compared against a stored replica
of the sought spectral signature contained within the spec-
trometer, thereby generating a real time readout of the quanti-
ty of target gas within the field of view of the instrument.
Tests on boiler stacks show that the in-stack moniter can be
used successfully for the continuous monitoring of the sulfur
dioxide content of flue gases. The airborne correlation spec-
trometer is used to study the oxidation of nitric oxide emis-
sions to nitrogen dioxide downwind of the stack. Field tests in
southern California indicate that the concentrations of NO2
vary considerably from point to point. Aerosol scatter and op-
tical dilution by the California smog enhance the amount of
backscattered radiation returned from the upper layers of the
inversion, thereby decreasing the sensitivity of the instrument.
(Author summary modified)
24879
Bnukov, A. K., Ye. I. Volkova, L. A. Goykhman, and L. M.
Kofman
DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING, WITH STANDARDIZED
MIXTURES AND ON A VAPOR GENERATOR, OF AN IN-
STRUMENT FOR MEASURING SO3 IN COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS. (Razrabotka, oprobovaniye na etalonnykh
smesyakh i parogeneratore pribora dlya izmereniya SO3). Text
in Russian. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Energ. Transp., 5:142-146,
Sept., Oct. 1969. 2 refs.
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72
BOILERS
An instrument, utilizing selective condensation at about 80 C
in a thermostated coil and designed to determine SO3 concen-
tration in flue gases, was tested. Condensation droplets are
trapped on a glass filter and the coil is eluted after each
sampling. The quantity of sulfuric acid thus collected is then
determined by titrimety, analysis requiring 3 min. Testing with
standardized gas mixtures generated by controlled combustion
of methane showed good convergence of the results. Use of
the instrument on a boiler showed a clear relationship between
air excess and SO3 concentration. Instrument operation is reli-
able and only simple maintenance is required.
25260
Smith, Nelson S., Jr. and George E. Fasching
ELECTROGASDYNAMIC APPLICATION TO DUST MONI-
TORING. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution
Prevention Associations, 17p., 1970. 18 refs. (Presented at the
International Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C.,
Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper CP-19E.)
Electrogasdynamic principles were investigated at the basis for
a continuous monitor for size and mass flow of dust in a
stream of gas. A cylindrical monitor was developed consisting
of a high- velocity ionizing section that electrically charges the
dust, a velocity-reducing diffusing section, and a metal charge-
collecting section that is segmented to permit the measurement
of four currents. For dusts of uniform size, segment currents
were shown theoretically to be a function of dust size and
concentration. Segment currents produced by different particle
sizes interact, however, making the relationship invalid. To
overcome this, equations for segments currents in terms of
size and flow rate of fly ash were developed from an 18-test
factorial experiment coverin mean dust sizes of 43, 104, and
143 micron and dust rates of 2, 8, and 14g/hr. At the test gas
flow rate of 3.5 scfm, dust concentrations were 0.15, 0.59, and
1.03 gr/cu ft. Dust sizes and flow rates predicted from the
equations were subsequently compared with segment currents
for known sizes and flow rates of dust within the calibration
range. Largest errors in sizes and flow rate for five tests were
20 and 85%, respectively. Further reduction in error and adap-
tation of the method to a practical system useful in air pollu-
tion control appears feasible. The method might be used to
continuously measure fly ash in power plant stack gases and,
if made portable, to monitor respirable dust levels in coal
mines. (Author abstract)
25593
Gilbert T.
PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT. (Nachbarschutz). Text
in German. Rheinisch-Westfaelischer Technischer
Ueberwachungs-verein e. V. Jahresbericht, 1969:57-66. 16 refs.
Methods and results of several hundred ambient concentration
and emission determinations of sulfur dioxide, fluorine,
chlorine, ammonia, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide,
nitrogen oxides and of hydrocarbons emitted by a variety of
industrial enterprises and shops undertaken in 1969 in the
State of Nordrhein-Westfalen are tabulated and analyzed as
are 469 expert opinions concerning pollution rendered as part
of a certification procedure of new enterprises from all indus-
trial fields. Procedural and instrumental changes designed to
improve on present practices as they result from the analysis
are proposed. These involve emission measurement of boiler
plants, dust emission by large boiler furnaces, the operation of
refuse incinerators, the supervision of steam and hot water
boiler plants, exhaust gases from combustion engines and er-
rors in pollution measuring instruments (Diesel-engin smoke).
Noise pollution measurements issuing from 65 different
sources undertaken during 1969 are tabulated and recommen-
dations designed to reduce the noise level are submitted.
Decrees, norms and guidelines concerning pollution promul-
gated during 1969 in the state of Nordrhein-Westfalen are
listed.
26588
DISCUSSION ON: 'A WATER COOLED SMOKE METER
FOR THE ESTIMATION OF SOOT CONCENTRATIONS IN
NATURAL GAS FLAMES, 'AUTOMATIC CONTINUOUS
MEASUREMENT OF SULPHUR TRIOXIDE IN FLUE
GASES,' 'A RAPID, MULTIPOINT, OXYGEN ANALYZER
FOR POWER STATION FLUE GASES.' J. Inst. Fuel (Lon-
don), 43(359):531-535, Dec. 1970. 2 refs.
The state of the art of instrumentation as related to boiler
measurements is surveyed. Specifically discussed are a water-
cooled smoke meter for estimating soot concentrations in natu-
ral gas flames, an automatic continuous sulfur trioxide
analyzer, and a rapid, multipoint oxygen analyzer for power
station flue gases. The possibility of converting the oxygen
analyzer for use on residual oil-fired burners is noted; boiler
conditions, especially stratification of boiler gases, influencing
the accuracy of the other instruments are summarized.
26601
Shaw, J. T.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN: THEIR OCCURRENCE AND MEA-
SUREMENT IN FLUE GAS FROM LARGE COAL-FIRED
BOILERS. BCURA (Brit. Coal Util. Res. Ass. Monthly Bull.,
34(10):252-259, Oct. 1970. 22 refs.
Following a discussion of the formation and decomposition of
nitrogen oxides at five flue gas temperatures and a summary
of nitrogen oxide emissions from four types of pulverized
coal-fired burners, the state of the art of sampling and analyti-
cal methods is reviewed. The recommendation is made to sam-
ple flue gas at the lowest possible temperature by using water
injection at the mouth of the sampling probe. Materials that
should not be used in sampling lines are noted. Among
methods for determining nitric oxide, there is little doubt that
chemiluminescence will soon be applied to flue gas. By use of
an oxidizer, the following methods can be applied to the deter-
mination of NO if NO2 is absent or to that of nitrogen oxides
if NO2 is present: nondispersive absorptio spectrometry, elec-
trochemical methods, and automated wet chemical methods.
The ion-specific electrode method could be used to monitor
the nitrogen oxides dissolved in water from a water-injecte
sample probe. Manual colorimetric methods are laborious and
need considerable skill.
27100
Berger, A. W., J. N. Driscoll, and P. Morgenstern
REVIEW AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF STACK SAM-
PLING PROCEDURES FOR THE SULFUR AND NITROGEN
OXIDES IN FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION. Prepri Air Pollu-
tion Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pa., 20p., 1970. 44 refs.
(Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association, Annual
Meeting, 63rd, St. Louis, Mo., June 14-18, 1970, Paper 70-33.)
A brief review is given of the state-of-the-art in 'manual'
chemica methods for stack sampling and analysis for the ox-
ides of sulfur an nitrogen. The precision and accuracy of
analytical procedures and of sampling and collection methods
are compared. These results are based upon a statisitcal analy-
sis of the sparse published field data as well as upon a signifi-
cant number of unpublished power plan measurements. The
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
73
observed precision (coefficient of variation) in field measure-
ment of sulfur trioxide by absorption in 80% isopropanol is
plus or minus 10-20% at 15 ppm. The controlled condensation
method provides considerable improvement; precision of plus
or minus 4% has been obtained for field sampling at 12 ppm
SO3 Collection of sulfur dioxide in hydrogen peroxide, fol-
lowed by analysis specific for sulfate provides the best preci-
sion; better than plus or minus 3% can be attained at SO2 con-
centrations of approximately 1000 ppm. Methods which utilize
caustic or iodine collection are subject to interferences which
lead to poorer precision. Regression analysis of field data for
determination of NOx by the phenol-disulfonic acid method
over a wide concentration range at a number of coal-fired
power plants, suggests that a precision of plus or minus 3% is
achieved at 1000 ppm. The precision at 100 ppm NOx. esti-
mated as plus or minus 16%, is significantly poorer. (Author
abstract modified)
27735
McKee, Herbert C.
INSTRUMENTAL METHOD SUBSTITUTES FOR VISUAL
ESTIMATION OF EQUIVALENT OPACITY. Preprint, Air
Pollution Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pa., 24p., 1970. 6 refs.
(Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association, Annual
Meeting 63rd, St. Louis, Mo., June 14-18, 1970, Paper 70-84.)
A method developed by the Texas Air Control Board as an al-
ternative to the 'equivalent opacity' concept utilizes an instru-
ment to measure the optical properties of an emission in order
to determine compliance with regulations. A commercial light-
scattering instrument is installed in a duct or stack where the
optical properties of the gas stream can be measured prior to
leaving the stack, thus obtaining a continuous record of optical
transmittance. The regulation provides that the light source
emit spectral energy approximately equivalent to normal
daylight, with no more than 10% of the total energy in the re-
gion of the spectrum above two micron wave length. A
calibration procedure developed to permit use of the method
as a legal basis for regulation and control is described, and
precautions and an illustrative example are given. The instru-
mental method has several advantages over visual observa-
tions by inspectors: it is completely objective, has superior ac-
curacy and reproducibility, can be used at all times indepen-
dent of sunlight, cloud cover, darkness, or poor weather;
produces continuous automatic records at far lower costs than
those for frequent visual observations; and can be used as a
means of process control for continuous processes. Considera-
tion is being given to making the instrumental method manda-
tory for all industries subject to regulation on the basis of
opacity excluding only those below some minimum size.
28708
Thoen, Gerhardt N.
GAS SAMPLING PROBE. (Weyerhaeuser Co., Tacoma,
Wash.) U. S. Pat. 3,559,491. 3 p., Feb. 2, 1971. 7 refs. (Appl.
March 10, 1969, 10 claims).
A probe is disclosed for sampling particulate and moisture-
laden gases, especially those from combustion furnaces such
as black liquor recovery furnaces, power boilers, and lime
kilns. The probe is much simpler than known gas sampling ap-
paratus, has fewer parts, and is capable of operating effi-
ciently over extended periods of time. The probe comprises a
tubular shield having an open end in the gas flow path and a
tubular sampling probe mounted concentrically within the
shield. The probe is made of low heat conductive subtance
permeable to moisture. Particularly useful are ceramic materi-
als. The probe allows moisture to evaporate through it to the
atmosphere, cools the gas sample without degradation of its
contents, and is corrosion resistant. Particulate matter which
deposits in the probe is removed periodically by flushing the
tubular probe with compressed air or other fluid. Valve means
periodically and selectively connect the flushing fluid to the
probe. (Author abstract modified)
28991
Reigel, Stanley A. and Charles W. Gruber
SOILING POTENTIAL--A PROMISING TECHNIQUE FOR
EVALUATING PLUMES FROM FOSSIL FUEL COM-
BUSTION. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 21(4):214-217,
April 1971. 7 refs.
The 'Soiling Potential' technique for evaluating fossil fuel
combustion plumes in quantitative units is explained by exam-
ples and test results. This technique is based on measuring the
light reflected by solids and expressed the soiling potential in
terms of the Rud (Reflectance unit of dirt) unit, which is
defined as tha quantity of light scattering solids producing an
optical density of 0.01 when measured by light reflectance.
The method involves passing diluted combustion gas through a
tape filter and measuring the deposited spots by means of a
photo-reflectance meter. The soiling potential of the emission
is calculated in terms of Rud-sq ft/cu ft of stack gas, Rud-sq
ft/lb fuel, and Rud-sq ft/Btu input. The technique may serve
as a valuable tool in emission inventory programs since it is a
reproducible method for assessing the degradation of the soil-
ing index of the ambient air resulting from fossil-fuel com-
bustion.
29072
Pilat, Michael, J., David S. Ensor, and John C. Bosch
SOURCE TEST CASCADE IMP ACTOR. Atmos. Environ.,
4(6):671-679, Nov. 1970. 24 refs.
A description is given of a source test cascade impactor for
measuring the size distribution of particles in stacks and ducts
at air pollutant emission sources. The impactor is operated in-
side the stack or duct to achieve true isokinetic sampling with
a minimum of wall losses and condensation problems. The im-
pactor includes seven stages (a single inlet jet stage, six multi-
jet stages) followed by a filter. The single jet of the inlet noz-
zle (first stage) eliminates the problem of particle loss on the
top of the first multi-jet stage. One eighth in. high rims around
the parameter of the plates prevent particles from falling to
the wall. The source test impactor has been used to measure
the size distribution of particles emitted by a coal-fired power
boiler, a kraft pulp mill recovery furnace, and a plywood
veneer drier. Particle size distributions measured at the power
plant and kraft recovery furnace are presented.
29313
Archer, J. S.
ON-LINE ANALYSIS OF WET COMBUSTION GASES BY
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY. J. Inst. Fuel (London),
43(349):56-58, Feb. 1970. 7 refs.
A technique is presented for the on-line analysis by gas chro-
matography of a single sample of wet combustion gas contain-
ing the following: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
water, oxygen, nitrogen, methane, ethylene, and ethane. This
analysis is not usually attempted with a wet gas or with a. sin-
gle sample. A hot-wire detector is used to detect components,
which are separated on a dual column system. The columns
used are 4-m Poropak Q and 2-m Molecular Sieve 5A at a heli-
um carrier gas flow rate of 0.688 cu cm/s. A switching valve is
incorporated to divert the sample beneath the columns. This
-------
74
BOILERS
technique was successfully used to analyze combustion gases
withdrawn isokinetically from a residual fuel oil-fired com-
bustion system. (Author abstract modified)
29677
Yanagisawa, Saburo
JIS ANALYTICAL PROCESS FOR NITROGEN OXIDES IN
WASTE GAS. (JIS hai gasuchu chisso sankabutsu bunsekiho
to sono mondaiten). Text in Japanese. Preprint, Japan Society
of Analytical Chemistry, Tokyo, 2p., 1971. (Presented at the
Nitrogen Oxides Conference, 3rd, Tokyo, Japan, Jan. 22,
1971.)
The generation and elimination of nitric oxide and nitrogen
dioxide and the analytical process for nitrogen oxides - the JIS
ethylene diamine method are disucssed. One third of NOx are
from automobile exhaust fumes and the rest are from industri-
al sources. An improvement of the combustion mechanism
(boiler design or motor engine change) can prevent this genera-
tion. Nitric oxide converted into carbon monoxide and
nitrogen gas with the existence of hydrocarbons, and the CO
is then oxidized to carbon dioxide. Several reactions are used
for the elimination of NO: ammonium nitrate and ammonium
chloride are formed with the addition of chloride and ammoni-
um; lead nitrate can be produced by lead dioxide sodium
chloride and sodium hydroxide form sodium nitrate and sodi-
um chloride; the oxidation of NO makes oxygen and NO2;
nitrogen dioxid can be formed with the existence of silver per-
mangante; and cuprous oxide and manganese oxides help to
make NO2. N(l-naphthyl) ethylene diamine hydrochloride, or
N ethylene diamine, together wit sulfanilic acid or sulfanila-
mide, is used as a reagent for the JIS ethylene diamine method
to determine nitrogen oxides. Ammonia water or NaOH is
used as the absorption liquid; in the former case, NO2 and
ammonium hydroxide produce NH4NO3 and, NH4NO2, and
NO and NH4OH form NH4NO2 and nitrogen gas; for the
latter case, NO2 and NaOH make NaNO3 and NaNO2. Gas is
sampled with a syringe, and a swift determination of coex-
istent NO and NO2 must be made. Other oxidation methods
for NO are air oxidation, permanganic acid method and
chromic acid method. The Saltzman coefficient is important in
coloring by NO2 absorption. Colorimetry and nondispersive in-
frared or ultraviolet absorption are applied to the continuous
analysis.
29749
Bahlo, K.
DETERMINATION OF THE SOOT INDEX IN WASTE
GASES OF OIL BURNERS. (Bestimmung der Russzahl in Ab-
gasen von Oelfeuerungen). Text in German. Sanit. Heizung-
stech., 36(1):3, Jan. 1971.
The soot index per German norm DIN 51402 serves for the
qualitative characterization of the soot contained in waste
gases from oil burners. It is sometimes also called Bacharach
index, based on a reference scale first developed in the U.S.A.
by the laboratories of the Shell Oil Co. in co-operation with
the Bacharach Industrial Instrument Co., and publicized under
the name Shell Bacharach Smoke Scale. The soot index refers
to the degree of blackening on a white filter paper, caused by
solid particles emanating from combustion. To determine the
soot index grade, a certain volume of the waste gas is
aspirated by a pump whose characteristics have to conform to
DIN 51402, and whose inlet connection is fitted with a filter
paper. The ensuing blackening of the filter is visually com-
pared with a soot reference scale which consists of 10 areas of
various degrees of blackness. In connection with a number of
oil fired heating devices, special DIN norms are in existence
which als specify admissible maximum soot index values.
Among these devices are atomizing and vaporizing types of oil
burners, oil stoves, and oil fired boilers for hot water heating,
central heating, and air heating, respectively.
29955
Bernert, Juergen
EMISSION MONITORING WITH ACKNOWLEDGED MEA-
SURING UNITS AND ANALYZERS. (Emission-
sueberwachung mil anerkannten Mess-und Analysengeraeten).
Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 15(4):123-127, 1971. 13
refs.
The Ministry of the Interior has recognized the infrared
analyzer URAS and the conductivity analyzer Mikrogas-MSK
as suitable units for measuring sulfur dioxide emissions from
hard coal- and oil-fired furnaces, as well as the smoke density
measuring units RM 3g and D-R/110 for measurements of the
dust content and the smoke density of waste gas. The URAS
analyzer is calibrated in percent by volume. Its indication is
dependent on the pressure and the temperature of the gas; as
far as possible, the influence of these parameters on the
results must be avoided. According to Lambert-Beer s law, the
calibration curve follows an exponential function. The URAS
measures absorption by a nondispersive method. The Mikrogas
unit measures changes in the electric conductivity of an elec-
trolyte consisting of diluted hydrogen peroxide solution (2.0 ml
30% H202/1 of distilled water with a conductance of less than
10 microhm/cm). The change in conductance caused by SO2
absorption is indicated directly in g SO2/cu m of waste gas.
The principle of the two smoke density measuring units is also
based on light extinction following Lambert-Beer s law, with
the difference that the normal radiation range is used ans that
light extinction is achieved through dimming by the dust con-
tained in the waste gas.
30084
Butyugina, E. M. and M. D. Kazakova
DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD FOR DETERMINING
SULPHUR OXIDES IN FLUE GASES. Thermal Eng. (English
translation form Russian of: Teploenergetika), 17(6):39-43,
1970. 7 refs.
To solve the problems of corrosion by sulfur dioxide and sul-
fur trioxide, a reliable measurement method was developed.
Sulfur oxides in flue gases are reliably determined by absorp-
tion of the gases in isopropyl alcohol followed by titration with
barium perchlorate, thoron being used as an indicator. This
colorimetry method is suitable for lower concentrations of sul-
fur oxides. It s advantages include the possibility of determin-
ing the total quantity of sulfates in a slightly acidic organic
medium, which eliminates the introduction of a correction for
neutralization of the absorber.
30118
SOURCE SAMPLING OF ATMOSPHERIC CONTAMINANTS.
Chem. in Can., 23(5):12-13, May 1971.
At a recent symposium on source sampling, it was noted that
source sampling is the key to a successful and practical abate-
ment program and that the largest growth in sales of air pollu-
tion instrumention should occur in the field of stationary
source monitoring. Within this field, automatic monitoring is
expected to assume an increasingly important role. Continuous
monitoring is also important. Of the particulate monitors now
under development, one of the most promising is based on a
Beta-ray scanning of dust caught on a filter tape. In connec-
tion with stack dust measurements, the object should be to
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
75
determine not merely weight concentration of dust but rather
the total emission rate. This is the only logical basis for ap-
praising an emission, since the ground level concentration is
directly proportional to the rate of emission at the source. Par-
ticle size is an important variable to be considered in monitor-
ing and removal systems.
30219
Miura, Michiaki
ANALYSIS OF STACK GAS. (Endo gasu no bunseki). Text in
Japanese. In: On Environmental Pollution Measuring Instru-
ments and Analyzers, Kanto, Japan, Japan Society of Chemi-
cal Engineering, 1970, p. 18-23. 2 refs. (Presented at the
Chemical Instruments Conference, 54th, July 28, 1970.)
The continuous analysis of oxygen, sulfur dioxide, nitric ox-
ide, and nitrogen dioxide in stack gases is discussed. The mea-
surement of oxygen in stack gases is important for the com-
bustion control of boilers. Low-oxygen combustion is viewed
as an effective means to prevent corrosion by sulfuric acid,
heat loss, and soot-blowing. This increases operational econo-
my and prevents air pollution caused by dust dispersion. Dia-
grams were presented showing the relationships between ex-
cess air ratio and oxygen for various fuels, excess air ratio and
sulfur trioxide, and sulfuric acid dew point and oxygen. Ac-
cording to the diagrams, SO3 is not formed at an excess air
ratio of zero, while the dew point becomes lower with a
decrease of oxygen density. Nitrogen oxides increase with a
higher excess air ratio. An oxygen meter suited for this use
should have three full-scale ranges, zero to one percent, zero
to five percent, and zero to ten percent, and have an accuracy
amounting to plus two percent of the full scale, even at the
one percent range. An oxygen meter best meeting these
requirements is the magnetic-type oxygen meter. For the mea-
surement of SO2 in stack gases, an infrared ray analyzer is
usually employed. The problem here is its selectivity, which is
affected by about eight to ten percent water content present in
the gas. The selectivity can be also affected by carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide in the gas. The use of the new posi-
tive/negative filter system has improved the selectivity, keep-
ing the interference of 10% H2O to 50 ppm or lower, and that
of 14% CO2 to 20 ppm or lower. High- temperature and low-
temperature methods are discussed for the sampling of stack
gas for SO2 analysis. Under the high-temperature method, the
sampled gas is heated to avoid condensation of the water con-
tent and fed into the analyzer. This gives a high- accuracy
measurement of SO2 but is subject to technical and practical
problems in heating the sampler and the analyzer. The low-
temperature method is simpler but lower in measuring accura-
cy since some of the SO2 dissolves in water formed by con-
densation. The rapid cooling method developed by MSA of
U.S.A. can keep the SO2 loss to two percent or lower of the
full scale. For measurement of nitrogen oxides, either infrared
ray or ultraviolet ray analyzer is used. The problems of selec-
tivity and sampling are the same as those discussed in SO2
measurement.
30997
Pfeifer, Robert J.
MEASUREMENT OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN STACK GASES.
DEMONSTRATION INSTRUMENT: DESIGN, FABRICA-
TION, AND TEST. Industrial Nucleonic Corp., Columbus,
Ohio, AEC Contract AT(30-l)-3882, 93p., May 28, 1970. 7 refs.
NTIS, CFSTI: NYO-3882-2
Theoretical and experimental studies and the construction of a
working model sulfur dioxide monitor for stack gases were un-
dertaken. The stoichiometric characteristics of the mercury-
substitution process were investigated and determined to be a
major advantage of the measurement instrument. Reaction
stoichiometry is not affected by typical interfering substances,
such as fly ash and nitrogen oxides, or by water vapor. As a
result, a simple sampling system in which the stack gas is un-
modified can be used. Thus the sample passed through the
gauge is identical with the stack gas so that high accuracy and
maintainability result. A working model embodying the mercu-
ry substitution-nucleonic detection concept was designed.
Tests indicated that the instrument is capable of giving reliable
measurements of sulfur dioxide to 10% accuracy in the 100-
5000 ppm concentration range, with a response time of 15 min.
The reaction cell was designed as a discardable unit to be
replaced weekly and contains an appropriate charge of mercu-
rous chloride. Emphasis on digital circuitry in the electronic
design maximized stability and reliability of the instrument.
Field testing of the instrument indicated the desirability of im-
proving the response time of the material transport system and
the overall chemical system stability. Future development in-
cludes miniaturization and redesign of the reaction and mea-
surement cells of the instrument to eliminate excessive foam-
ing and filtration difficulties and to reduce the response time
to five min or less. (Author summary modified)
31482
Axtman, Bill
UNDERSTANDING SMOKE DENSITY INDICATORS. Fuel
Oil Oil Heat, 30(8): 47-48, Aug. 1971.
The advantage of smoke density indicators over visual obser-
vation is that it provides a continuous, accurate monitoring of
smoke discharge and an overall indication of combustion effi-
ciency. Basically, the system, regardless of manufacturer, con-
sists of a light source, light sensor, and smoke density indicat-
ing instrument. The light source and light sensor are mounted
on opposit sides of the breeching or stack with the light beam
focused on the photocell. Combustion gases passing between
the light and photocell reduce the amount of light striking the
cell in proportion to the amount of smoke present in the stack
gas. A micro-ammeter connected to the output side of the
photocell is calibrated in such a manner that cell output cur-
rent is proportional to the amount of smoke present. The Rin-
gelmann and Shell-Bacharach smoke reading scales are men-
tioned.
31547
Sjogren, Arne
DETERMINATION OF CARBON CONCENTRATIONS IN
FLUE GASES-PART II: FROM THE COMBUSTION OF
RESIDUAL FUEL OILS. J. Inst. Fuel, vol. 44:373-376, July
1971. 7 refs.
A method and Orsat apparatus are described for the deter-
mination of the carbon concentration in flue gas when using
fuel oils or distillate oils. A sampling probe is inserted in the
flue gas stream and, when it has achieved an adequate tem-
perature, the suction pump is started, and continued until suf-
ficient carbon has been collected on the silica wool. When the
sampling is finished, the filter is flushed with oxygen, and the
burette, which during the sampling has been full of water, is
filled with oxygen to the zero-mark. After setting the equip-
ment to zero, the filter is heated by a gas flame. When all the
carbon has been burned and the silica wool turns white, the
filter tube is cooled and at the same time carbon dioxide is ab-
sorbed in the potassium hydroxide. The volume of the oxygen
consumed is measured. There is a very simple relationship
between oxygen consumption and the quantity of carbon col-
lected on the filter material. It is very important to ensure that
-------
76
BOILERS
the filter and oxygen in the system are cooled to ambient tem-
perature before setting the burette to zero.
31723
Geller, Z. I. and N. M. Ashikhmina
INFLUENCE OF ERRORS IN DETERMINATION OF CAR-
BON BY THE YUZHORGRES METHOD ON THE ACCURA-
CY OF CALCULATION OF FLUE GAS CARBON WITH
COMBUSTION OF OIL. Thermal Eng. (English translation
from Russian of: Teploenergetika), 17(0:109-113, Jan. 1970. 6
refs.
Carbon concentration was determined by burning carbon in a
tubular furnace at a temperature of 700 C. The carbon dioxide
formed was absorbed in bubblers filled with a solution of bari-
um hydroxide. The absorbed amount of CO2 was determined
by back titration of the residue of barium hydroxide with 0.1
normal solution of hydrochloric acid. The qualitites of this
method were evaluated by comparing calculated values of
systematic errors with experimental values of overall errors.
The total error was calculated as the difference between the
weighted carbon and that determined from back titration. In
addition to systematic errors associated with the measure-
ments, random errors could occur, leading to a result either
too low to follow or too high. Maximum absolute and relative
errors were determined for the method. Recommended sam-
pling times are included.
31842
Boubel, Richard W.
A HIGH VOLUME STACK SAMPLER. Preprint, Air Pollu-
tion Control Assoc., Pittsburgh, Pa., 17p., 1971. 7 refs.
(Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association, Annual
Meeting, 64th, Atlantic City, N. J., June 27-July 2, 1971, Paper
71-114.)
The development, design, and trial application of a sampling
train to gather a relatively large amount of particulate sample
in a short period of time are discussed. The high volume train
overcomes the shortcomings of other sampling trains and has
some additional advantages. It uses the same glass fiber that is
specified for ambient air particulate sampling, so that the
emission test results are directly comparable to ambient air
sampling data. No additional equipment is needed for the
emission sampling analysis. The sample collected by the high
volume probe may be analyzed microscopically for size and
characteristics of the particles, an important factor if the con-
trol equipment is to be specified for the process or source.
The high volume sampler was evaluated on field tests of wood
fired boilers, incinerators, wigwam burners, asphalt batching
plants, seed cleaning plants, and wood fiber filtration systems.
The results obtained from a variety of sources using this probe
indicate that it is both versatile and reliable, and no serious
problems in its use have been encountered. (Author abstract
modified)
31981
Sjogren, Arne
DETERMINATION OF CARBON CONCENTRATIONS IN
FLUE GASES-PART 1: FROM THE COMBUSTION OF
DISTILLATE OILS. J. Inst. Fuel, vol. 44: 370-373, July 1971.
4 refs.
A method and apparatus are described for fast and reliable
determination of the carbon concentration in flue gases from
the combustion of distillate fuel oil. This method is based on
the principle of staining filter paper with soot, but differs from
the current method for smoke number determination in that a
variable volume of flue gas is drawn through the filter paper to
give a fixed degree of staining (reflection). Thus, the volume
of the flue gas is a measure of the soot concentration. The
soot concentration is easily calculated from the known volume
of gas by measuring the soot deposited on the filter paper at
the chosen fixed staining. The heart of the apparatus is a mea-
suring cell in which flue gas is drawn through the filter paper
and a photocell measures the reflection calibration is also
discussed. The method is currently used in an oil burner
laboratory to determine the relationship between soot forma-
tion and excess air for oil firing.
32008
Driscoll, J. N., A. W. Berger, J. H. Becker, J. T. Funkhouser,
and J. R. Valentine
DETERMINATION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN COM-
BUSTION EFFLUENTS WITH A NITRATE ION SELECTIVE
ELECTRODE. Preprint, Air Pollution Contr Assoc., Pitt-
sburgh, Pa., 16p., 1971. 16 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution
Control Association, Annual Meeting, 64th, Atlantic City, N.
J., June 27-July 2, 1971, Paper 71-149.)
Nitrate ion selective electrode was investigated as an alterna-
tive approach to the present colorimetric determination of
nitrate resulting from oxidative absorption of nitrogen oxides
from combustion effluents. The electrode offers advantages of
speed and relatively simple experimental procedure. Replicate
measurements of 0.0001 to 0.01 M nitric acid solutions using
bracketins standards show that the electrode approach is capa-
ble of good precision with a coefficient of variation of about
4%. Comparison of a method utilizing the nitrate electrode
with the more laborious phenol disulfonic acid method for the
measurement of nitrogen oxides in both oil and gas fired com-
bustion effluents showed agreement with 4% of the mean,
even in the presence of high levels of sulfur dioxide. The cor-
relation coefficient found for phenol disulfonic acid versus
nitrate electrode is 0.987. (Author abstract modified)
32773
Bailey, J. B. W., N. E. Brown, and C. V. Phillips
A METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF CARBON
MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE, SULPHUR DIOXIDE,
CARBONYL SULPHIDE, OXYGEN AND NITROGEN IN
FURNACE GAS ATMOSPHERES BY GAS CHROMATOG-
RAPHY. Analyst (London), 96(1143):447-451, June 1971. 15
refs.
A method is described for the routine analysis of mixtures
containing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonyl sulfide,
sulfur dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen using a dual-column
system and a katharometer detector. The method was suitable
for 1 ml gas samples containing from 0.07 to 100% of one of
the gases, provided that the CO-CO2 or N2-CO ratios did not
exceed 50:1. (Author abstract modified)
33054
Lasa, J., A. Korus, and Maria Kilarska
ANALYSIS OF SULPHUR COMPOUNDS OF INDUSTRIAL
COMBUSTION GASES BY MEANS OF AN ELECTRON-CAP-
TURE TYPE DETECTOR. International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna (Austria), Nucl. Environ. Pollut. Proc. Symp.,
Salzburg (Austria), 1970, p. 215-221. 3 refs. (Oct. 26-30, Paper
IAEA-SM-142a/ll.)
Sulfur compounds occurring in industrial combustion gases
present a dangerous environmental pollution problem. Results
of the analysis of these compounds by gas chromatography
using an electron capture-type detector (a radioionization de-
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS 77
lector) are presented. The analysis of sulfur dioxide and car- tor with a nickel-63 source was used, with nitrogen as carrier
bon disulfide was made on a chromatographic column 70 cm gas in the dc or pulse modes of operation. The universai detec.
long and four mm in diameter filled with Cehte covered with
polyethylene glycol. Hydrogen sulfide and carbonyl sulfide tor' wluch can work as weU as a cross-section, argon, and
were separated on a column 30 cm long and three mm in electron capture-type detector, is described. (Author abstract
diameter filled with silica gel. An electron capture-type detec- modified)
-------
78
D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
02147
(RESULTS OF SO2 AND HO6 MEASUREMENTS WITH
FLUE GAS OF OIL-FIRED BOILERS.) Clean Air and Heat
Management (TOKYO) 15, (4) 26-7, APR. 1966.
Data are tabulated for ten factories indicating the extent of
pollution from oil-fired boilers. Weather conditions, fuel
analyses, exhaust gas analyses, types of test instruments and
design of boilers and stacks are some of the data considered.
03363
M. S. Sokoloskii, Zh. L. Gabinova, B. V. Popov, L. F.
Kachor, and B. S. Levine, 'Translator'
SANITARY PROTECTION OF MOSCOW ATMOSPHERIC
AIR (U.S.S.R. LITERATURE ON AIR POLLUTION AND RE-
LATED OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES, VOLUME 14).
Moscow Sanitary-Epidemiological Station. 1965. 68 PP. CF-
STI, TT 67-60046
Moscow is a large industrial center with various types of in-
dustries discharging a complex of solid and gaseous, organic
and inorganic chemical substances into the air, causing con-
siderable damage to the National economy. This work reviews
the Moscow Sanitary Service in its efforts to control air pollu-
tion from the many sources described.
05645
A SURVEY OF HEATING AND POWER PLANTS IN ADRI-
AN, MICHIGAN (WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE
ELIMINATION OF SMOKE). Preprint. (Coal Producers Com-
mittee for Smoke Abatement). (1951).
The results of a survey of smoke and other air pollutant
sources in Adrian, Michigan are discussed. Recommendations
for the abatement of smoke and an air pollution ordinance are
included.
07141
Dubrovskaya, F. I.
THE EFFECT OF SMOKE EMISSION PURIFICATION ON
AIR DUST CONCENTRATION OF A LARGE CITY. U.S.S.R.
Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases,
Vol. 1:118-121, Jan. 1960. (Also published in Gigiena i Sanit.,
23(1):69-71 1958.) Translated from Russian. CFSTI: TT 60-
21049
Over a period of several years the pollution of Moscow air
was studied. The accumulated data presented the opportunity
to determine the changes in air pollution intensity which
resulted from the introduction of control measures. One of the
basic measures was an official mandatory requirement that fly
ash be removed from smoke gases emitted by electric power
and heating plants and by boiler operated manufacturing and
production industries. A comparison of the data under study
with the value representing the limit of allowable concentra-
tion of dust in the atmospheric air of inhabited localities,
shows that in most of the samples studied the dust concentra-
tion exceeded the maximal single limit of allowable dust con-
centration of 0.5 mg/cu m. Thus, despite considerable attain-
ment in the fight against air pollution in Moscow, the condi-
tion of the air with regard to dust concentration failed to come
up to the official sanitary requirement. Data regarding dust
concentrations in different sections of the city during cold and
warm weather, from 1946 - 1956, are presented in graphs.
12358
Craxford, S. R. and M.-L. P. M. Weatherley
AIR POLLUTION IN GREAT BRITAIN. Centre Beige
d'Etude et de Documentation des Eaux, Liege, Belgium, 17p.,
1968. 2 refs. (Presented at the International Congress of the
Centre Beige d'Etude et de Documentation des Eaux, 21st,
Liege, Belgium, May 1968.)
Data are presented for smoke and sulfur dioxide emissions in
Great Britain from 1952 to 1967. The data for smoke show a
steady decrease in the amount emitted since 1954; by 1967, the
values had dropped to 40% of 1954 values. The decrease is
closely tied to the Clean Air Act of 1956, which prohibited the
emission of dark smoke. Practically the whole of the smoke
emitted during the period surveyed arose from the incomplete
combustion of coal in inefficient boiler plants and furnaces.
Considering the steady fall in the consumption of coal by in-
dustry and its replacement by oil, smoke emissions should
decrease another 15% by 1975. Ground-level pollution is
shown to be caused almost entirely by smoke from domestic
heating. Despite the nation-wide decrease in smoke emissions,
smoke levels are still unsatisfactory in the North where
domestic provisions of the Clean Air Act have not been
strictly enforced. The data for sulfur dioxide show that emis-
sions have reached their peak and are not decreasing, despite
increasing industrial activity. Continuing decreases are an-
ticipated as North Sea gas and nuclear energy come into use.
As with smoke, ground-level concentrations of sulfur dioxide
are closely linked to domestic emissions.
17360
Craxford, S. R. and M.-L. P. M. Weatherley
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN GREAT BRITAIN. (La pol-
lution atmospherique en Grande-Bretagne). Text in French.
Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), no. 44:187-194, Oct.-Dec. 1969. 2 refs.
The total population, energy consumption, and emissions of
black smoke and sulfur dioxide in Great Britain in the years
1952 to 1967 are given. Black smoke emission in the years
1952 to 1967 shows a continuing decrease since 1954 which is
directly related to the Clean Air Act of 1956. Analogous data
based on other sets of measurements carried out during some
of these years are plotted. Almost all black smoke is due to in-
complete combustion of fuel oil in boiler furnaces or in ineffi-
cient furnaces. The Act required that all changes of the operat-
ing equipment should be completed before 1961. Hence, the
further decrease a black-smoke emission is due to progressive
modernization of the equipment. Total coal consumption and
black-smoke emission between 1952 and 1967 is given. The act
gave municipalities the power to establish 'smoke control
areas' in which the use of domestic fuels other than 'smoke-
less fuels' is forbidden. These areas contribute significantly to
the decrease of the total black-smoke emission. Analogous in-
-------
D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
79
formation regarding SO2 emission, both total and separate ac-
cording to domestic, industrial, and power plant sources is
plotted. No decrease of SO2 emission occurred until 1960, but
from that year on, a slow decrease has occurred to the
present. The distribution of black smoke and SO2 contents in
micrograms/cu m as well as in terms of gigagrams/1 million of
inhabitants is given in conjunction with the map of districts of
Great Britain. On the basis of the above mentioned air pollu-
tion data, forecasts are made for 1970 and 1975 which are
quite optimistic.
17785
Gurinov, B. P.
CANCEROGENIC SUBSTANCES IN THE ATMOSPHERIC
AIR WITH A VIEW TO CANCER PREVENTION. U.S.S.R.
Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases,
vol. 8:145-152, 1963. (B. S. Levine ed.) CFSTI: 63-11570
Studies on the effect of cancerogenic substances present in the
atmosphere are reviewed with special reference to 3,4-
benzyprene. The percent of 3,4-benzypyrene present in
selected Russian cities is reported and compared with mea-
sured levels in the U. S. and England. Lower levels (100 times
less) in the USSR are attributed to differences in the intensity
of automobile traffic and to different air sampling methods.
Comparative studies of fuel burning methods which indicate
that the discharge of cancerogenic hydrocarbons could be
eliminated by improved fuel combustion are summarized. Data
is presented to show that the layer-bed method of hand-stoked
fuel burning produces dust with a high 3,4-benzpyrene concen-
tration, while mechanically stoked fuel produces lower con-
centrations; burning by the chamber method generated dust
with almost no 3,4-benzpyrene. Other investigations indicate
that small boiler plants emit smoke and gases containing poly-
cyclic hydrocarbons of the type 1,12-benzoperilene and 3,4-
benzpyrene, and that diesel operated engines emit less 3,4-
benzpyrene than carburetor operated automobiles. No 3,4-
benzpyrene has been discovered in the crude oil bitumens
used to pave streets in the USSR.
20348
Nakatsuji, N., G. Ueda, and K. Sakai
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION FROM HEATING BOILER OF
BUILDING. (Biru dambo no taiki osen ni oyobosu eikyo ni
tsuite). Text in Japanese. Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc.
Air Pollution), 4(1):19, 1969. (Proceedings of the 10th Annual
Meeting of the Japan Society of Air Pollution, 1969.)
The characteristics of air pollution due to heating of buildings
in Osaka were analyzed based on the distributions of sulfur
oxides concentrations (lead dioxide method), the number of
smoke emission sources, and amount of sulfur emissions. The
observations were conducted in the summer and the winter of
1968. The density of air pollution was high in winter in the
central area of the city where it is mainly commercial and re-
sidential. The cause is attributed to the boilers for the winter
heating of the buildings in the area, as well as the pollutants
from the coastal industrial areas, although it is not yet clear
meteorologically how the industrial pollutants are transported
to the center.
29973
Tokyo Metropolitan Environmental Protection Research Inst.
(Japan)
POLLUTIONS AND TOKYO METROPOLITAN GOVERN-
MENT. (Kogai to Tokyo-to). Text in Japanese. 724p., June
1970.
Ten thousand and four hundred facilities are required to report
under Air Pollution Control Law, of which 91% are boilers. In
the six central wards, there are 37% of the total boilers, con-
sidered to be for heating of buildings. There are only 17 open
hearths, 84 cupolas, 61 electric furnaces for steel-making, 25
boilers for thermal generation, and 45 facilities to supply city
gas. Of the 19 stacks taller than 70 m, 13 are in Kawasaki
City, and nine are in vokohama; these 41 stacks emit 6,783.3
cu m sulfur dioxide. Pollutants emitted in a year in Tokyo are:
857,000 tons of carbon monoxide, 444,000 tons of SO2, and
30,000 tons of particulates. This is roughly twice as much SO2
and CO as in the U. S. Metals and sulfuric acid mist adhere to
dust. Also the 10 micron and submicron particulates from elec-
tric furnace can be seen only under electronic microscopes. At
a busy intersection in Tokyo, 11.6 ppm CO on the ground was
measured, the daily average was 11.6 ppm and 12.3 ppm at
another crossing. Nitric oxide concentration in front of the
Metropolitan Government Office was 0.078 ppm, annual
average, but in the hinterland, the concentration of nitrogen
dioxide was greater. The number of cars has increased at the
rate of 100,000 a year since 1960, and at 200,000 since 1966;
recently there is one car for every 6.5 people. Most of CO is
estimated to have been caused by the automobiles gasoline
combustion. Cars emit NO at high concentrations near the
ground. Also, 270 complaints out of 1000 complaints on air
pollution lodged with the Metropolitan Government in 1960
concerned the factories which generated harmful substance
and obnoxious odor. Of 12,000 factories, employing more than
20 workers, about 5000 are suspected of emitting harmful gas
and obnoxious odor. Since 1964, manuals on guiding these en-
terprises have been in use on dust, harmful substance (am-
monia and chromium acid mist), and there are 14 in all as of
March, 1969. Thirteen automatic measuring equipment stations
have been installed to measure SO2 and micro- particulates
(rate of filtering) and six stations measure CO, NO, and NO2
(to be increased to nine in the future). At present, five spots
on major highways measure CO, NO, NO2, and hydrocarbons
(to be increased to 10 spots in 1969 and 1970). Air pollution
control agreements have been concluded between the Tokyo
Metropolitan Government, the Tokyo Electric Power Co., and
the Tokyo Gas Co.
30860
Murphy, R. P.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
Preprint, Dept. f Public Health, Sydney (Australia), Air Pollu-
tion Control Branch, 20p., 1970 (?).
All Australian state governments, with the exception of
Tasmania, have passed air pollution legislation. The federal
Clean Air Act established an Advisory Committee, fees, ad-
ministration, regulations setting up emission standards, and
licenses. An Air Pollution Control Branch was established with
10 engineers, four chemists, two technical officers, seven field
assistants, and one laboratory attendant to implement the Act,
monitor pollution, and research the problem. Stacks were sam-
pled and analyzed by chemistry, spectroscopy, chromatog-
raphy, and other means. New monitors have been developed
including a sulfur dioxide colorimeter and a portable gas
calibration apparatus. Three Clean Air Conferences have taken
place, and a Clean Air Society was formed. Air pollution was
monitored in Sydney and nearby cities. Dust fall improved
over the years, while smoke density and sulfur dioxide con-
centrations have varied. Insoluble solids ranged from four
tons/sq mi/month at purely residential sites to up to 60 tons sq
mi/month at industrial sites. Average daily values of SO2 and
smoke density were determined by hydrogen peroxide and
paper tape clamps, respectively, at a series of monitoring sta-
-------
80
BOILERS
tions. Also, continuous SO2 monitors were installed operating
on the conductivity principle, but these were unsatisfactory
for low concentration measurements. Hourly smoke haze
results between 1960 and 1967 showed a reduction in the
frequency of smoggy days and in the maximum hourly and
daily values. Automobile exhaust was monitored close to Syd-
ney traffic lanes; carbon monoxide ranged from .2% to 10%
and could be lowered by adjusting the idling speed; aldehydes
(formaldehyde), nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, hydrocar-
bons (as methane), and other particulates were also measured.
The cost of air pollution control in New South Wales was
determined by a survey of various industries. The total expen-
diture for five years (1963-1968) was 39,910,000. Iron and steel
companies spent 34.2% of the total and electric power sup-
pliers spent 28.2%. The cost per person per year was $1.89.
Other industries included boilers, cement, metallurgical,
milling, chemical, oil refining, and gas. Various factors in-
fluencing pollution dispersion were studied including inver-
sions, seasons, topographical interactions, and so on. The ef-
fect of weather conditions on smoke in the Sydney area was
studied; air pollutants emitted to the west of Sydney during in-
versions increased the maximum values recorded at Sydney or
extended the period during which high values occurred. Vari-
ous analytical instruments are listed.
32055
Murphy, R. P.
THE PROBLEM OF AIR POLLUTION. Preprint, Dept. of
Public Health, Sydney (Australia), Air Pollution Control
Branch, 8p., 1969.
Air pollution has now reached especially significant levels in
industrial cities. Smog episodes and health studies of
bronchitis, mortality, and respiratory diseases have increased
the urgings for pollution legislation. Therefore, Australian
state, federal, and local governments have passed control
legislation. The New South Wales Clean Air Act of 1961
established an advisory committee, licenses, and fees. Certain
meteorological conditions can increase air pollution to the
degree that illness and death can occur. An organization of en-
gineers, chemists, and laboratory assistants was set up to im-
plement the Clean Air Act. Emission limits were set after
chemical and dust emission tests were made in exhaust flues.
The main sources of air pollution are boilers, kilns, and fur-
naces which produce smoke, fly ash, and sulfur dioxide.
Chemical plants, metallurgical processing, grinding, and milling
also produce some contaminants like metal fumes and dust.
Motor vehicle exhaust and smoke from shipping contribute as
well. Air pollution was automatically monitored daily in Syd-
ney, Newcastle, Port Kembla, Lithgow and Wollongong (dust
fall, smoke haze, and SO2). Continuous recorders were also
used to monitor hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen oxides, total oxi-
dants, suspended inert dust, iron, copper, and lead. In Sydney,
SO2 concentrations were usually lower than that for British ci-
ties, but high values sometimes occurred. A peak value of 270
ppm was recorded in 1967 with a maximum daily average of 57
ppm. Since crude oil and natural gas are being increasingly
used, air pollution by sulfur gases should be reduced in the fu-
ture. Surveys of motor vehicle exhaust showed slight oxidant
content (an indicator of photochemical pollution), and some
carbon monoxide, aldehydes, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides,
suspended dust, and lead in congested traffic areas near the
center of the city. The CO concentration reached a peak of 80
ppm, and the average value was 50 ppm. Adjustment of the
idling speed reduced CO. Natural gas is replacing older fuels,
but few Australian plants are eager to improve their existing
?lants and reduce pollution.
2259
Hidy, G. M., S. K. Friedlander, and W. Green
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON SITE AND
METEOROLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS. PASADENA SMOG
EXPERIMENT. In: Aerosol Measurements in Los Angeles
Smog, Vol. I, Section II. Minnesota Univ., Minneapolis, Parti-
cle Technology Lab., Particle Lab. Pub. 141, Air Pollution
Control Office APTD-0630, PHS Grant AP-00680-02, 18p.,
Feb. 1971. 14 refs. NTIS: PB 198816
The general character of the observational site, an inventory
of sources, and the meso-scale meteorology of the Los An-
geles basin are presented. The physical site in Pasadena is
described in detail and a brief summary of the meteorological
instrumentation and support of the program is presented. Typi-
cal stationary sources producing a variety of pollutants include
chemical processing equipment, boilers and heaters, paint bake
ovens, incinerating equipment, melting equipment, and power
plants. The power plants release mainly nitrogen oxides to the
atmosphere. Typical contaminant concentration levels are
listed for the summer months in West San Gabriel Valley. The
broad scale features that characterize Los Angeles weather are
the Pacific high pressure zone which dominates the synoptic
scale atmospheric motion from early spring to early fall, the
continental high pressure region over the deserts and high
plains to the east and north which is present most of the
period from fall through winter, and the winter passage of
cyclonic storms originating to the north, south, and west over
the Pacific. In addition to direct observations made from the
roof of Keck Laboratories, several parameters were recorded
from local sources. Some meteorological charts and data on
emissions and meteorological instrumentation are included.
-------
81
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
15174
Inouye, Rikita
ON THE TEMPERATURE RISE OVER CITY CENTERS.
(Toshi chushin chiiki ni okeru kion no josho gensho ni tsuite).
Text in Japanese. Eisei Kogaku (J. Hyg. Chem.), no. 9:1-11,
Jan. 1964. 8 refs.
The phenomenon of higher air temperatures over city centers
as compared to the temperature over the suburbs is explained
in many cases by the greenhouse effect. The air conditions of
typical cities of Japan, such as Tokyo, Osaka, Sapporo, and
Asahigawa, were analyzed. Sapporo and Asahigawa have a
different type of air temperature rise from Tokyo and Osaka.
From the estimate of the heat balance of Sapporo, it was con-
cluded that the rise in temperature was not due to the green-
house effect but to the lessened exposure to sunshine because
of polluted air, and to the heat from city boilers and stoves.
(Author abstract modified)
20853
Perkins, R. W., C. W. Thomas, and J. A. Young
APPLICATION OF SHORT-LIVED COSMOGENIC
RADIONUCLIDES AS TRACERS OF IN-CLOUD SCAVENG-
ING PROCESSES. J. Geophys. Res., 75(15): 3076-3087, May
20, 1970. 11 refs.
Measurements of cosmogenic radionuclides Cl(38), Cl(39), and
Na(24) in consecutive rain water samples during storms have
provided a basis for studying precipitation formation. These
radionuclides, which result from cosmic ray spallation of at-
mospheric argon, 'label' the natural aerosols, and can thus
serve as tracers of in-cloud scavenging. They are collected on
cation and anion resin beds and are counted on multidimen-
sional gamma ray spectrometers. Cloud droplets form on 'labe-
led' condensation nuclei. During subsequent growth of the
cloud droplets through coalescence and condensation, addi-
tional collection of newly formed cosmogenic radionuclides
appears to be small. During their in-cloud development, the
raindrops may be subjected to several cycles of partial
evaporation followed by further coalescence and condensa-
tion, particularly in light rains. Measurements indicate that
light rains have spent a substantially longer period in their
development than heavy rains. They show higher radionuclide
concentrations and higher ratios of long-lived to short-lived
radionuclide.
26550
Short, W.
POLLUTION PROBLEMS FROM COMBUSTION
PROCESSES. Environ. Health, 78(11):510-517, 550, Nov.
1970. 35 refs.
The essential problems with the combustion of any fuel or
waste material include the nuisance due to dust, smell or parti-
cles while awaiting incineration, smoke due to poor com-
bustion, grit and dust emission from the chimney, emission of
toxic or offensive gases fro the chimney, and disposal of the
residue which may contain offensiv or dangerous material.
Smoke formation, furnace residues, and the storing of fuels
are mentioned. Recommended chimney heights and plume
behavior are also discussed. When calculating maximum con-
centrations of solids and sulfur dioxide, the formula used is fo
an instantaneous value as might be obtained over a short
period of say 3 minutes when all variables, especially wind
speed and direction, are fixed at constant values. While the
Clean Air Act does not lay down any figures for permissible
dust and grit content in the flue gases leaving the chimneys of
a boiler plant, various organizations have made suggestions
covering a range of about 0.2 t 0.3 grains per cu ft of gases.
However, the size distribution is important. Grit and dust
deposition and measurement are discussed, and it is suggested
to state the emission as weight emitted in an hour, rather than
just weight and volume. Sutton's diffusion equation is cited,
while factors affecting a thermal plume include the tempera-
ture of gases, their velocity and mass, and the stack height.
The incineration of chlorinated compounds and some special
wastes, such as organic tars, is also mentioned.
28937
Nonhebel, G.
HEIGHTS OF CHIMNEYS. In: Gas Purification Processes. G.
Nonhebel (ed.), London, George Newnes Ltd., 1964, Chapt.
19, p. 824-880. 66 refs.
New knowledge on chimney design to ensure adequate disper-
sal of chimney gases and general rules to be followed are sum-
marized. Power station chimneys should be at least 2.5 times
the height of adjacent buildings to overcome the effects of
downdraught and as slender as possible to avoid downwash.
The formula for calculating the height necessary to overcome
the effect of downdraught is given. A minimum height of 120
ft for emissions from chemical processes is suggested. Recom-
mended heights for smal industrial boiler plants with relatively
innocuous effluents are tabulated. The discharge velocity
should be 50-60 ft/sec. Acceptable ground-level concentrations
of gases derived from chimney discharges are discussed in
terms of effects on human beings, farmstock, and vegetation.
Methods are given for calculating the concentration which
reaches the ground from a chimney by the process of eddy
diffusion and for rate of dust deposition. The daily rate of
coverage of surfaces by deposited dust should not exceed
0.04%. Formulas for calculation of gas concentrations
downwind of a chimney and examples of the two steps of cal-
culation (the maximum height of plume rise and downwind
concentration) are given. Two equations and an example for
determining the distance from the chimney at which the plume
becomes substantially invisible are included.
29177
Yoshida, Tsuyoshi
THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE POLLUTANT CON-
CENTRATION IN AN URBAN AREA. (Toshinbu ni okeru
taiki osen nodo no nichikenka ni tsuite). Text in Japanese.
Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 5(1):113,
1970. (Proceedings of the Japan Society of Air Pollution, An-
nual Meeting, llth, 1970.)
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82
BOILERS
Air pollution in Sapporo in winter shows morning and evening
concentration peaks. The vertical diffusion coefficient was cal-
culated from the daily variation of the temperature and from
boundary conditions at the upper layer. Together with the
emission intensity obtained from a boiler investigation, an at-
tempt was made to solve by approximation the diffusion equa-
tion. Two-peaked high concentrations were reproduced. The
technique essentially involves a set of simultaneous second-
order partial differential equations relating wind speed to the
vertical distance and temperature gradient to the vertical
distance, respectively. Two parameters are involved: KM, the
vortex diffusion coefficient of the momentum, and KH, the
vortex diffusion coefficient of heat. By approximation
methods, KM, which is a function of height and time, is used
to approximate the vertical diffusion coefficient KZ. The solu-
tion by the relaxation method of the second-order partial dif-
ferential equation gives the concentration as a function of time
and vertical distance, after a proper set of boundary condi-
tions has been chosen.
31122
Voshida, Tsuyoshi
THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE POLLUTANT CON-
CENTRATION IN AN URBAN AREA. (Toshinbu nokeru taiki
osen nodo no hihenka nitsuite). Text in Japanese. Kuki Seijo
(Clean Air J. Japan Air Cleaning Assoc., Tokyo), 9(l):35-44,
April 1971. 10 refs.
From the record of pollutant concentrations in the urban area
it can be seen that the concentration increases after sunrise
and sunset and decreases in the daytime. The concentration
peak after sunrise is attributed to the warming up of heating
boilers in early morning. The factors responsible for the in-
crease after sunset are not known. Numerical experiments are
proposed, which use the Fickian diffusion equation connected
with the diurnal variation of the eddy diffusion coefficient,
Kz. The diffusion coefficient also depends on the diurnal
variation of the lower atmospheric temperature. The decrease
in concentration during the day can be seen in the results. The
concentration peak after sunset, which occurs with a decrease
in emission rates, is explained by the fact that Kz becomes
smaller than the daytime value and the atmosphere loses its
diffusion ability. (Author summary modified)
32371
Council of Ministers (USSR), Voeykov Main Administration
and Inst. for Industrial Buildings and Construction (USSR)
Central Scientific Research and Experimental Project
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE CALCULATION OF
DISPERSION IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF NOXIOUS
AGENTS (DUST AND SULPHUR DIOXIDE), CONTAINED IN
THE EFFLUENTS FROM INDUSTRIAL UNDERTAKINGS.
Gidrometeorolog. Izdat., 1967. Translated from Russian. Na-
tional Lending Library for Science and Technology (England),
49p.
A procedure for calculating dispersion in the atmosphere of
dust and sulfur dioxide discharged by industrial installations
and boiler plants is presented. Meteorological coefficients,
ground level emissions, maximum allowable concentrations,
the gas-air mixture in the flue gases, and topographic charac-
teristics are examined. Single sources and groups of emission
sources are considered and recommendations are given for cal-
culating the background pollution of the air basin of a re-
sidential area and determining the boundaries of the health
protection zone. Proposals for basic measures for protecting
the air basin from pollution with the operation of industrial in-
stallations and boiler plants are presented. (Author abstract
modified)
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83
F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
00572
A. B. Hedley, T. D. Brown, and A. Shuttleworth
AVAILABLE MECHANISMS FOR DEPOSITION FROM A
COMBUSTION GAS STREAM, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York. (Presented at the Winter
Annual Meeting, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Chicago, 111., Nov. 7-11, 1965, Paper No. 65-WA/CD-4.)
The paper describes various mechanisms by which mineral im-
purities in combustion gases, present either as a vapor or as
discrete liquid or solid particles, can find their way onto
cooled surfaces in the path of the gases. It is shown that im-
paction of large particles and vapor diffusion are the dominant
deposition mechanisms. Diffusion of particles is unlikely to be
of importance except as a rate controlling step in the vapor
diffusion process. This will occur only when a vapor conden-
ses within the temperature boundary layer thus producing par-
ticles. The importance of the various mechanisms in practical
systems such as boilers and gas turbines is assessed. (Author)
03874
A. Levy E. L. Merryman
INTERACTIONS IN SULPHUR OXIDE-IRON OXIDE
SYSTEMS. J. Eng. Power 89 A(2), 297-303 (Apr. 1967).
(Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York City, Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1966.)
The aim was to examine what is occuring during passage over
the boiler tubes where catalytic and chemical reactions can
occur on and with the iron oxide surfaces. Fe2O3-, Fe3O4-,
and NaOH- Fe2O3-, and NaOH-Fe3O4-coated substrates of
Vycor and of iron were exposed to controlled gas mixtures
containing SO2 and SO3. Sulfate and sulfide formation is ex-
amined and explained on thermodynamic grounds. Examina-
tions of the role of MgO coating indicates a limited 'protec-
tive' effect through its removal of SO3 from the gas stream.
03881
W. T. Reid
BASIC PROBLEMS IN THE FORMATION OF SULFATES IN
BOILER FURNACES. J. Eng. Power 89, 283-7 (Apr. 1967).
(Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York City, Nov. 27-Dec. 1, 1966.)
Reactions involving the formation of sulfates are responsible
for most of the problems with external corrosion in boiler fur-
naces. This paper reviews what is known today about these
materials and how they are formed in combustion systems.
(Author's abstract)
04357
S. Dauer
(COMBUSTION TRAINGLE FOR FLUE GASES FROM COM-
POUND FURNACES.) Das Verbrennungsdreieck fur Rauchgase
aus Mischfeuerungen. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft (Duesseldorf)
17, (5) 232-7, May 1965. Ger.
In order to utilize high value fuels, residues of production
processes which are not sufficient for the power production
needed, other fuels have to be used in addition and compound
furnaces become necessary. These type furnaces are available
for all sizes of steam generators and varied fuelds can be
burned either individually or combined in one combustion
chamber. If several combustion chambers are used, the flue
gases, after the combustion process, flow combined through
the rest of the boiler surface. However, incomplete com-
bustion may result if flues of various characteristics are used.
The flue gases have to be controlled and analyzed by chemical
or physical methods. For this analysis, a combustion diagram
is of great value. The construction of such a diagram is
discussed in the following equations: Equation of the enlarged
combustion triangle by occurrence of hydrogen in the flue gas.
Equation of the enlarged combustion triangle by occurrence of
hydrogen in the flue gas. Equation of the enlarged combustion
traingle by occurrence of loss of carbon. Equation of the en-
larged combustion triangle by simultaneous occurrence of
hydrogen in the flue gas and loss of carbon. Onfluence of car-
bon loss on air proportion. Mixed (compound) fuels. Mathe-
matical formulas are given for the construction of a com-
bustion traingle.
04939
A. B. Walker
INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR SELECTION OF ELEC-
TROSTATIC AND COMBINATION FLY ASH COLLEC-
TORS; METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR CHEMICAL PHYSI-
CAL, AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH (IN-
FORMATIVE REPORT NO. 2). J. Air Pollution Control As-
soc. 15, (6) 256-60, June 1965.
The information required for specification or request for bids
for fly ash collectors are presented. The APCA Standard
Methods for determination of the following properties of fly
ash are presented: (1) bulk resistivity of dry particulated in the
laboratory; (2) bulk electrical resistivity of dry particulates in
situ; (3) water soluble content; (4) water soluble sulfate con-
tent (with an alternate method); and (5) loss on ignition.
05302
A. Levy and E. L. Merryman
SO3 FORMATION IN H2S FLAMES. J. Eng. Power 87, (4)
374-8, Oct. 1965. (Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City,
Nov. 29-Dec. 3, 1964.)
The microstructure of H2S-O2 flames was developed in terms
of composition and temperature profiles. With the aid of these
profiles, rates of formation of SO2 and SO3 are reported and
discussed. With the aid of kinetics and thermodynamic data
developed for the principal reaction steps, it is shown that a
major part of the SO3-problem may be related to the O-atom
oxidation of SO2 in the flame. These fundamental studies of
thermochemical reactions provide the basic information
needed as the next step in understanding how reactions in
flames and on surfaces affect external corrosion and deposits
in boiler furnaces. (Author abstract)
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84
BOILERS
07811L
Casey, R. J. and H. J. Falcone
ACOUSTIC FUEL OIL ATOMIZERS FOR NAVAL BOILERS.
Naval Ship Engineering Center, Philadelphia, Pa., Project No.
B-485, ((17))p., Jan. 18, 1967. DDC: AD 807213L
The use of sonic energy to atomize Navy Special Fuel Oil has
been proposed. In light of its application in commercial instal-
lations and claims that sonic atomizers reduce excess air and
increase combustion efficiency they were incorporated in bur-
ners for evaluation in naval boilers. Three different sonic
atomizers were utilized. Performance data from forty-five tests
was obtained through single burner operation in DLG-6 and
DLG-9 test boilers. The feasibility of using sonic energy to
atomize Navy Special Fuel Oil was demonstrated. Combustion
performance of sonic atomizer burners compares favorably
with that of standard return flow burners and it is expected
that design modifications will eliminate the furnace carbon
deposit problems encountered. (Authors' abstract)
10066
Shaw, J. T. and P. D. Green
OXIDATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN AIR AT 950 DEC C:
CO-OPERATIVE INFLUENCES OF CARBON MONOXIDE
AND NITRIC OXIDE. Nature, 211(5054):1171-1172, Sept. 10,
1966. 8 refs.
The oxidation of sulfur compounds in fuel during composition
to form sulfur dioxide and the further oxidation of this to sul-
fur trioxide gives rise to the problem of corrosion, specifically
in boilers. The part played by oxides of nitrogen and carbon,
both of which occur influe gases from normal fuels, and then-
influence on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide in a clean system
has been investigated. A marked effect on sulfur trioxide
production was found when nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
were present together. The experiment is described.
12997
Koizumi, Mutsuo, Hirokazu Mizutani, Yoshihiko Takamura,
and Katsuya Nagata
HIGH SPACE HEAT RELEASE AND LOW EXCESS AIR
COMBUSTION OF HEAVY FUEL OIL USING EXHAUST
GAS RECIRCULATION METHOD. Bull. JSME (Japan Soc.
Mech. Engrs)., 12(51):530-538, 1969. 8 refs.
The use of low excess air combustion in boilers for the reduc-
tion of corrosion of low-temperature heating surfaces results
in increased soot formation. Where high-space heat release is
used to obtain smaller boiler size, overheating of the com-
bustion chamber walls results. An exhaust gas recirculation
method, in which exhaust gases are mixed with combustion
air, was applied to heavy fuel oil firing equipment fitted with a
pre-combustion chamber in an effort to reduce the inherent
problems in low excess air combustion. Combustion was al-
most completed in the pre-combustion chamber with a heat
output of 10,000,000 kcal/cu m/hr and an excess air factor of
1.03. Soot formation was on the order of 70 mg/N cu m, being
reduced as exhaust gas recirculation was increased. The acid
dewpoint was slightly reduced by exhaust gas recirculation.
Gas temperature in the pre-combustion chamber was lowered
and eventually became stable with increases in recirculated ex-
haust gas.
13487
Fukuma, Shin-ichi and Kazumi Kamei
DRY-SYSTEM FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZATION PROCESS
(DAP-MN PROCESS) FOR SO2 REMOVAL. Jap. Chem.
Quart., 4(3):12-14, July 1968.
The DAP-Mn process for desulfurization of flue gases has the
following properties; it removes SO2 efficiently and economi-
cally; recovered by products are of marketable quality; the ab-
sorbent has long-term operation and can operate reliably with
sharp load fluctuations; consumption of absorbent is minimal
and SO2 removal is accomplished without a sharp pressure
drop; and no major change in the boiler structure is required.
After successful laboratory tests in 1963, this desulfurization
process which uses manganese oxide and ammonia to make
ammonium sulfate from flue gases was tested at a pilot plant
in Japan. A semicommerical plant capable of treating gases
from a 55 MW power plant has since been constructed and is
being test-run in the compound of Chubu's Yokkaichi station.
The process occurs three steps: SO2 removal, absorbent
regeneration, and by product treatment. Test results indicate a
desulfurization rate of 90% at a 1968 cost of $l/ton of fuel oil.
14363
Samuel, T. and M. Heise
THERMOGRAVTMETRIC METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF
THE EQUILIBRIA SOLID STATE/GAS AND MELT/GAS IN
SULFATE SYSTEMS IMPORTANT IN CORROSION
CHEMISTRY. (Thermogravimetrische Methode zur Unter-
suchung der Gleichgewichte Festkoerper/Gas und
Schmelze/Gas in korrosionschemisch wichtigen
Sulfatsystemen). Text in German. Werkstoffe Korrosion,
19(10):837-844, Oct. 1968. 21 refs.
Many liquid sulfates are responsible for high-temperature cor-
rosion. The stability of these sulfates depends on the partial
pressure of sulfur trioxide. A method for determining the
equilibrium partial pressure of SO3 is described. The SO3 con-
centration was determined by measuring the CO2 concentra-
tion developed according to the reaction Na2CO3 plus SO3
yields Na2SO4 plus CO2 by infrared spectrophotometry. The
composition of the condensed phase was determined by
weighing a small sample of the substance. Thus, the absorp-
tion of SOS could be observed. Weight, IR absorption, and
temperature were continuously recorded. The method is fully
explained for the system Na2SO4 - SO3. The diagrams of state
for the reaction Na2SO4 plus SO3 yields Na2S2O7 were deter-
mined. Uncertainties due to residual moisture and undercool-
ing are discussed. These probably explain the large differences
between the current results and those quoted in the literature.
The system Na2SO4-SO3 has eutectic point at 390.5 C at an
SO3 pressure of 2.57 mbar. The melting point of Na2S2O7 is
402 C. The system Na2SO4/H2SO4 has a eutectic point at 380
C and 1.58 mbar SO3. The eutectic point of K2SO4/SO3 is
411.0 C and 0.305 mbar SO3. The melting point of K2S2O7 is
417.5 C. It is concluded that the alkali pyrosulfates do not cor-
rode gas turbines because of their low decomposition tempera-
tures (435 C for sodium melts and 565 C for potassium melts).
In boilers, however, they may play a significant role. The in-
fluence of water vapor has not yet been fully investigated.
14896
THE COMBUSTION OF SMALL SIZES OF COKE IN A
DOMESTIC BOILER. British Coke Research Assoc., Chester-
field, (Derbyshire), Coke Research Kept. 48, 10p., March 1968.
The influence of a reduction in lump size on the combustion
of coke singles in a small domestic boiler was studied. The
combustion performances of two cokes were examined. In the
case of the first coke, narrow grades of small lump sizes rang-
ing from five-eighths to one-eighth of an inch were used. The
ignition and high-output stages of combustion were examined.
The size of the second coke was modified from that of com-
-------
F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
85
mercially produced singles to allow 95% (the lower limit) to be
progressively reduced from five-eighths to three-eighths to
one-fourth of an inch while 5% (the upper limit) was main-
tained constant. Three further samples were prepared, involv-
ing the introduction of varying proportions of breeze into the
singles. Each size of the coke was tested dry and with a total
moisture content of 10%. During the combustion tests, the fuel
loss through the boiler firebars was estimated. Satisfactory
combustion using narrow grades of coke was not achieved.
The detrimental features included the lack of thermostatic con-
trol and severe fuel losses. A drop in the lower size limit of
coke singles of 95% greater than three-eighths of an inch,
resulted in a prolongation of the time to attain the rated out-
put, even when the coke contained 10% moisture. Further size
reduction reduced the maximum output below the normal level
required. The addition of up to 25% of breeze to coke singles
has no adverse effect on combustion performance, although
there was an increase in the time to attain rated output. When
the lower size limit of the coke was dropped to one-fourth of
an inch by the addition of breeze, there was a relatively small
increase in the quantity of material lost on charging. Observa-
tions from the limited data obtained when the fuel bed was de-
ashed suggested that there was a slightly greater loss of
material from the samples containing a greater proportion of
smaller coke.
15615
Jirous, Frantisek
THE EFFECT OF THE ENTHALPY OF THE FLY ASH ON
THE ENERGY BALANCE OF A HEATED SURFACE AND
ON THE EXHAUST LOSSES. (Der Einfluss der Enthalpie der
Flugasche auf die Energiebilanz der Beruehrungsheizflaechen
und auf den Abgasverlust). Text in German. Brennstoff-
Waerme-Kraft, 21(9):490-2, Sept. 1969. 9 refs.
An error arises in the energy balance by neglecting the enthal-
py of the fly ash. This influences the boiler efficiency. The
error becomes apparent when the fly ash concentration varies.
In reality, the contact heating surfaces are designed with suffi-
cient reserve so that the effects from neglecting the enthalpy
of the fly ash do not necessarily become apparent. However,
if the fly ash concentration varies considerably, the boiler effi-
ciency might be strongly impaired. A diagram is given for
computing the error. A table indicates the enthalpies of flue
gases and fly ash, as well as the errors occurring at various
flue gas temperatures.
15695
Yoshida, Hiroshi and Yuji Morikawa
AN APPARATUS FOR BLOWING SOOT. (Susu huki sohchi).
Text in Japanese. (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tokyo
(Japan)) Japanese Pat. Sho 44-12322. 2p., June 4, 1969. (Appl.
Aug. 20, 1966, claims not given).
The apparatus for blowing soot consists of a tube the length of
a hearth which has a row of nozzles parallel to the axis; it is
supported in a hole of a bearing board fixed to the hearth wall.
The gas media, such as steam or compressed air from the noz-
zles, blows the soot by turning back and forth through the
prescribed length of the hearth. When the nozzles blow toward
the front of the hearth, the flow of the gas in the hearth is hin-
dered, thus increasing the pressure in the hearth. If the pres-
sure increase is too great, the hot gas is emitted from the
opening. This tendency is more noticeable in smaller hearths,
and disturbs the running condition by lowering the efficiency,
thus creating a danger for the operator. This inefficiency is
corrected by the present invention. Nozzles are arranged in a
spiral form, and the tube rotates around the axis. Because the
flow of the hot gas is not disturbed, and the effect on the gas
flow is always constant, a pressure increase is prevented.
Thus, the boiler runs steadily and easily with a high efficiency.
To limit the blowing to a certain section, a cover is fixed on
the bearing board for that part of the tube. The arrangement
makes the use of a complicated apparatus to limit the motion
of the tube unnecessary. The nozzles may be placed in several
rows.
15799
Smith, Ennis C., Addison Y. Gunter, and Sydney P. Victory,
Jr.
FIN TUBE PERFORMANCE. Chem. Eng. Progr., 62(7):57-67,
July 1966. 22 refs.
The performance of air-cooled heat exchangers depends on the
effectiveness of the fin tube and the air moving equipment;
consequently, the following parameters were determined for
extruded and tension wound fin tubes: joint contact pressure
and isothermal temperature at which the contact pressure is
exhausted as manufactured by both mechanical strain gauge
and heat transfer tests; fin column stability as determined by
visual means, photographically, and by strain gauges; effects
of variation in intensity of thermal shock and cycling. The
results indicated that isothermal mechanical strain gauge tests
are an accurate means of determining isothermal temperature
and the average contact pressure. Fin column stability is one
of the important limitations of the maximum values obtainable
for manufactured contact pressure and isothermal temperature.
The average contact pressure obtained directly from strain
gauge data was 1100 Ibs/sq in. for the extruded fin tubes and
250 Ibs/sq in. for the footed tension wound fin tubes at 80 deg
F manufactured temperature. Tube liner protection is an im-
portant factor. The results were compared with previous
recommendations and findings.
15944
Rylands, J. R. and J. R. Jenkinson
THE ACID DEW-POINT. Eng. Boiler House Rev., vol.
69:104-111, 1954. 14 refs. (Presented at a meeting of the Inst.
of Fuel, London, March 4, 1954.)
The mechanism of deposit formation on heat-exchange sur-
faces of sulfuric acid at elevated temperatures is considered in
terms of acid dew point temperatures and the reliability of in-
struments for estimating the acid dew point. Also discussed is
the new concept that the rate of condensation of sulfuric acid,
as distinct from dew point temperatures, depends on the
amount of acid in the gas. To resolve arguments concerning
the form in which acid is condensed, acid dew formation was
studied by volumetric techniques not dependent on electrical
measurements. Tests demonstrated the presence of two
distinct dew points: acid and water. Results show that while
there may be a theoretical dew point temperature as defined
on a saturation basis, there is no precise dew point tempera-
ture as defined on a condensation basis: properties of the ad-
sorption layer shaded insensibility into those of the liquid layer
of the condensate. Other experiments were directed toward
the role of water vapor in the condensation mechanism. They
show that water vapor fixes concentrations of the condensate
and hence the overlying SO3 partial pressures. A correspond-
ing rise in acid dew point temperatures indicates that a varia-
tion in the water content affects the acid dew point. Maximum
acid deposition for most acid concentrations in boiler practice
occur at 220 to 280 F. Above this range, acid exists in an un-
saturated state; below it, the acid combines with water vapor
to form a mist. The supersaturation phemomena can be sup-
pressed by shock cooling gaseous mixtures with lower acid
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86
BOILERS
concentrations at a location slightly before the approximate
dew point position.
16883
Halstead, W. D. and E. Raask
THE BEHAVIOUR OF SULPHUR AND CHLORINE COM-
POUNDS IN PULVERIZED-COAL- FIRED BOILERS. J. Inst.
Fuel, 42(344):344-349, Sept. 1969. 14 refs.
Laboratory experiments and probe tests in boilers have been
made to study the decomposition of pyrite, the evaporation of
sodium chloride and the formation of sulfates in the flue gas
of pulverized-coal-fired boilers. The results have been com-
pared with theoretical predictions made on the basis of ther-
modynamic calculations. In large boilers where there is good
mixing of the fuel and combustion air it is shown that the con-
version of chloride to sulfate is complete when the flue gas
leaves with only trace amounts of chloride. Initial deposits on
the furnace tubes will contain significant amounts of chloride
and pyrite residues when there is either a localized deficiency
in oxygen, or a particularly short residence time of sulfur and
chlorine compounds in the flame. (Author's Abstract)
20274
Collins, Conrad G., Jr.
A REVIEW OF SULPHUR FLAME TECHNOLOGY. (PART
2). Sulphur Inst. J., 6(l):18-22, Spring 1970. 52 refs. Part I.
Ibid, Winter 1969-70.
The encounter and reaction of sulfur dioxide with an oxygen
atom appears to be the predominant mechanism for sulfur
trioxide formation according to most studies of stack gases
and the hydrogen sulfide flame. The mechanism can be impor-
tant only in flames with high temperature (1200 C) zones for
the formation of atomic oxygen, as at lower temperatures, the
slow homogeneous reaction between SO2 and molecular ox-
ygen appears to be a two body collision reaction. Catalytic ac-
tion of nitric oxide for oxidizing SO2 to SO3 is questioned in
lower temperature regions where SO2 would react only with
molecular oxygen, but if high temperatures prevail, such that
the oxygen atom concentration is appreciable, the catalytic ef-
fect of NO may be established. Experimental work with
hydrogen chloride added to the flame (nucleophilic partner)
yielded 38% SO3, and HC1 was viewed as a stabilizing medium
for SO3. Different sulfur oxide species have been detected
spectroscopically at a variety of conditions, from low tempera-
ture to the high temperature of shock waves.
32430
Clark, L. W.
EDDY CURRENT CONTACT ABSORBERS FOR SULFUR
DIOXIDE. (Wirbelstrom-Kontaktabsorber fuer Schwefeldiox-
id). Text in German. Chem. Anlagen Verfahren, no. 7-8:46-47,
July-Aug. 1968.
An eddy current contact absorber was developed based on a
previously used prototype scrubber that processes flue gas
from a coal-fired boiler installation. The sulfur dioxide content
of the gas at the scrubber inlet is 0.05 to 0.15% by volume.
The effectiveness of the absorption depends on the difference
between partial pressure of the gas to be dissolved and its
vapor pressure above the absorbing liquid. The partial pressure
of SO2 gases in concentrations of 0.05 to 0.15% is about one
mm Hg. To maintain an active pressure differential, the vapor
pressure above the liquid must, therefore, be near zero. The
vapor pressure is a function of the temperature of the absorb-
ing liquid and of the pH value. The pH can be influenced by
the use of various alkaline solutions as absorbing liquids. The
usual alkali for SO2 absorption are sodium carbonate and
potassium carbonate. At minimum concentration, either of
these solutions can maintain a pH value of 10 to 12, at which
condition the vapor pressure of the SO2 is almost zero, as
desired.
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87
G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
00236
H. Neuberger
CONDENSATION NUCLEI - THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN AT-
MOSPHERIC POLLUTION. Mech. Eng. 70, 221-5, Mar. 1948.
(Presented at a Joint Fuels Conference of the American Inst.
of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers and The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct. 20-22,
1947.)
Author discusses the constituents of the atmosphere and refers
to the suspensions in the atmosphere as 'aerosols'. Explana-
tions of dust and condensation nuclei including their chemical
and physical nature are included. Also included is a section on
the sources of nuclei as well as biological effects of aerosols.
Charts include: Sulphur content of air and average number of
nuclei in representative cities; Average ultraviolet radiation
and number of condensation nuclei for clear skies; Average
number of condensation nuclei per cubic millimeter for clear
and cloudy skies; Mean number of condensation nuclei for
various ranges of dust concentration in city air; and Retention
of condensation nuclei in human respiratory system for vari-
ous concentrations of nuclei in air.
07541
P. Polu, P. Laurent, C. H. Guyotjeannin, D. Thin
AN OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE OF CHIMNEY SWEEPS
CLEANING OIL-FIRED FURNACES. (Pathologie profession-
nelle des fumistes effectuant le ramonage des chaufferies a
mazout.) Text in French. Arch. Maladies Profess. Med, Trav.
Securite Social (Paris), 26(4-5):435-446, April-May 1967. 8 refs.
The frequent and consistent symptoms experienced by chim-
ney sweeps cleaning oil-fired furnaces appear to present a new
specific syndrome. Most of the efforts of industrial hygienists
have been concentrated on the pollution in the air and not
much has been done on the chemistry of soots. Findings,
hypotheses as well as suggestions for control are presented. A
table is given which compares the symptoms of the workers
such as irritation of the eyes, the upper respiratory tract, the
mouth, and skin as well as serious deterioration of their
clothing. The men also complained of loss of appetite, nausea,
vomiting, lack of coordination of movements, amnesia, and
headache. In the same table in parallel columns are listed the
symptoms of exposure to vanadium, sulfur dioxide, and oxides
of nitrogen. Based on an examination of the soot involved it
was concluded that the vanadium was not involved in the
symptoms of the chimney sweeps and that the sulfur content
of the fuel was an important factor. It is recommended that
fuels low in sulfur be used, that the optimum combustion con-
ditions be maintained by keeping the temperature of the flame
down by a high excess of outside air. Electrostatic precipita-
tors can cut the emission of SO3 by 50%. The injection of
magnesia in the vicinity of the flame can meutralize the SO3he
use of industrial-type vacuum cleaners offers a method of fur-
nace cleaning without an occupational exposure.
11656T
F. F. Lampert
HYGIENIC EVALUATION OF LIVING CONDITIONS IN
APARTMENTS ABOVE STATIONARY BOILERS. ((Gi-
gienicheskaya otsenka uslovii prozhivaniya v kvartirakh nad
vstroennymi kotel'nymi.)) Translated from Russian. Gigiena i
Sanit., No. 7, 1956, p. 14-18.
The air in eleven apartments and one area in a children's home
situated above boiler rooms utilizing solid fuel were analyzed
for CO and SO2. Eleven other apartments and one room in the
children's home located in the same building but in areas away
from the boiler rooms served as controls. The air in apart-
ments located above boiler rooms was much more polluted by
CO and SO2 than air in the control apartments. The frequency
of detection and the concentration increase during cleaning of
the boilers indicated that the boiler room was the source of the
pollution. In order to study the effect of the air on the carbox-
yhemoglobin level three groups of persons were examined: 22
janitors, 56 persons who lived above boiler rooms, and 63 chil-
dren from areas with no stationary boiler room. The tests, ad-
justed for a 6% COHb level in all city dwellers, showed that
children living in buildings with no stationary boiler had a car-
boxyhemoglobin concentration of less than 6 percent in the
overwhelming majority of samples. In persons living above
boiler rooms the number of positive samples amounted to 34
percent. Most of the samples with concentrations above 6 per-
cent were found in janitors (64 percent).
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88
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
14944
Fukuchi, Tomoyuki and Takeo Yamaraoto
A FEW IDEA ON COUNTERMEASURE AS TO BE CONNEC-
TION WITH EXHAUST GAS FROM GAS-WORKS AND
DAMAGE ON MANDARIN. (Toshigasu seizokojyo no haigasu
to mikan no higai narabini sono taisaku ni kansuru shokosatsu).
Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control),
5(9):17-23, Sept. 1969. 22 refs.
Because mandarin oranges fell from trees before the harvest
period, waste gas from a gas works near the orange orchard
was suspected to be the cause. With this idea as a starting
point, the relationship between waste gas and ripening oranges
was examined in a laboratory. The possibility that the ripening
period had been accelerated by other factors, such as
hydrocarbon gases, especially ethylene, was considered. It was
reported by Magill that the tomato is influenced by hydrocar-
bons such as ethylene, 0.1 ppm; acetylene, 50 ppm; propylene,
50 ppm; and butylene, 50,000 ppm. Thus, a very small amount
of ethylene has a great influence on ripening fruit. According
to the result analysis of the waste gas, the assumption that
windblown ethylene influenced the ripening orange is reasona-
ble. The boiler system for waste gas control is shown. By
means of chemical reactions, ethylene vanished at 260 C. Gas
compounds are first prevented from entering the boiler and are
then sent to a reservoir tank and mixed with catalyst and
steam, and finally discharged in vapor form. By this treatment,
the waste gas compounds are vaporized. Since this boiler
system has been used at the gas works, damage to oranges has
decreased.
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89
I. EFFECTS-MATERIALS
04622
R. H. Boll and H. C. Patel
THE ROLE OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS IN
ANALYZING GAS-SIDE PROBLEMS IN BOILERS. J. Eng.
Power 83, 451-67, 1961. (Presented at the Annual Meeting,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City,
Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1960)
Part 1 deals with equilibrium concentrations of 29 gaseous and
5 condensed constituents which were calculated for the com-
bustion gases from 2 coals. Temperatures ranged from 440 to
3140 F and fuel-air ratios from 90 to 130% of theoretical air.
The 2 coals were selected for their difference with respect to
behavior in a boiler. Both are high in S but the Pana, which is
especially high in alkali and Cl, produces a highly fouling and
corrosive deposit, whereas the Wright contains less of these
elements and is innocuous with respect to superheater fouling.
In determining the elemental composition of the gases, it was
assumed in all cases that: (1) 95% of the nonash S appears in
the combustion gas, the remainder going into ash; (2) 40% of
the Na content of the coal appears in the gas; (3) 20% of the
K content of the coal appears in the gas; (4) all of the K con-
tent may be handled as though it were Na; and (5) except for
Na, K, and S, no ash constituents enter the combustion gas.
Results are presented in graphical and tabular form. Starting
from the equilibrium-gas composition results of Part 1, the re-
gions of thermodynamic stability of various Na and Fe com-
pounds are obtained in Part 2 as functions of temperature and
fuel-air ratio. It is shown that purely thermodynamic con-
siderations impose an upper temperature limit upon corrosion
mechanisms involving complex iron sulfates. The severe foul-
ing tendency of high alkali coals is discussed. By purely ther-
modynamic means, this study has succeeded in approximately
separating the regions wherein accelerated oxidation and sulfa-
tion can operate as corrosion mechanisms. Results are in good
agreement with experimental observations when allowance is
made for probale error in certain basic thermodynamic data,
for solution effects and for differences in behavior among the
different alkali-metal compounds. Sulfidation is predicted ther-
modynamically if O2 is excluded from the metal surface.
Na2SO4 and Na2Si205 are stable above 1600F in contact with
high-alkali combustion gas.
11286
Frey, Donald J., R. C. Ulmer, O. B. Bucklen, and P. Meikle
BOILER TUBE CORROSION. Preprint, Combustion En-
gineering, Inc. and West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, 15p.,
1966. 6 refs. (Presented at the Annual Meeting, National Coal
Association Technical-Sales Conferences and Bituminous Coal
Research, Inc., Pittsburgh, Penna., Sept. 14-15, 1966.)
High temperature corrosion of coal boiler superheater and re-
heater surfaces is an industry wide problem. The ideal solution
would be to render the coal product shipped to the utility non-
corrosive. The remainder of this report discusses a program
aimed largely at eliminating corrosiveness of coal but at the
same time alleviating its air polluting tendencies as much as
possible. An integral part of this project is the establishment
of relative rates of corrosion produced by coals of varying
physical and chemical properties. Methods of testing and
design of test equipment are discussed. Metal wastage occurs
as the result of a chemical reaction between the tube surface
and a complex alkaliron-sulfate compound, expressed as (K3
or Na3) Fe (SO4)3. Three ingredients are absolutely necessary;
sodium and potassium oxides, iron oxide, and SO3; if any one
of these three reactants is missing, corrosion will not occur.
Attention is also being given to the alkaline earths, calcium
and magnesium, since these are known to play an inhibiting
role in the corrosive reaction. It is believed that Ca and Mg, in
forms reactive with SOS, tie up a portion of the alkalies as
double salts (viz. K2SO4.2CaSO4). As such, the alkalies are
unavailable for formation of the corrosive compound. In
general, the higher the soluble alkali content, the greater the
observed rates of corrosion.
13681
Thomson, A. G.
DEPOSITS ON BOILER PLANT HEATING SURFACES. Eng.
Boiler House Rev., vol. 69:269, 1954.
The role played by SO2 and SO3 in the formation of bonded
deposits on boiler superheater tubes was investigated under
experimental conditions. A mixture of flue gas containing SO2
and radioactive SO3 was passed over sodium chloride at vari-
ous temperatures. By measuring the activity of the sulfate
produced, the percentage of sulfate derived from the SO3 was
determined. Corrections to allow for oxygen exchange
between the SO2 and the SO3 were made by determining the
activity of the exit SO2 and SO3 gases. The amount of sulfate
formed at low temperatures was not great, but a considerable
amount was formed as the temperature was increased. Above
650 C, most of the sulfur was derived from SO2. The addition
of a catalyst resulted in the production of sulfate from SO2 at
temperatures as low as 300 C. With SO3, the rate of reaction
was unaffected by the catalyst. The evidence that Na2SO4 in
boilers is derived largely from SO2 implies that the sulfur con-
tent of a fuel is an important consideration in the formation of
bonded deposits.
14084
Barrett, R. E.
ALKALI IRON TRISULFATE FORMATION WITHIN
DEPOSITS IN AN OIL-FIRED LABORATORY COMBUSTOR.
J. Eng. Power, 91(Sect. A, no. 3), July 1969. 14 refs.
(Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting of the Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs., New York City, Dec. 1-5, 1968.)
Alkali iron trisulfates (M3Fe(SO4)3) are major contributors to
the corrosion of superheater tubes of boiler furnaces, and fac-
tors affecting their formation were studied in an oil-fired
laboratory combustor which simulated a boiler-furnace en-
vironment. To produce the high SO3 concentrations necessary
to stabilize trisulfates at superheater temperatures, SO2 was
catalytically oxidized to SO3 by three fly ashes containing 17
to 30% Fe203, 38 to 40% Si02, and 17 to 28% A1203. Effects
of deposit composition, deposit thickness, temperature, and
SO3 concentration on formation of trisulfates were examined.
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90
BOILERS
Preheating of the Fe203-Kaolin mixtures at 2000 F for 16 hrs
significantly reduced the catalytic activity of the mixtures, in-
dicating that the thermal history of fly ash is more significant
than its composition in affecting catalysis. Tests show that
trisulfates can form within a few hours and in the absence of
thick deposits. Potassium appears to be more reactive than
sodium in forming trisulfates, while fused deposits, apparently
sodium vanadyl vanadate, form readily when both vanadium
and alkalies are present. Formation of these molten vanadium
compounds is inhibited by magnesium oxide. Although these
results are not conclusive in defining the exact corrosion
mechanism, they should prove useful in further studies of the
reactions leading to corrosion and deposits.
14153
Weintraub, M., S. Goldberg, and A. A. Orning
A STUDY OF SULFUR REACTIONS IN FURNACE
DEPOSITS. J. Eng. Power, vol. 83:444-450, Oct. 1961. 5 refs.
The association of external corrosion of certain heat-transfer
surfaces in high-pressure, coal-fired boilers with adherent
deposits that are rich in alkali metals and sulfur was in-
vestigated. The constituents of these deposits are generally
combined as normal sulfates, pyrosulfates, or more complex
compounds, such as potassium ferric trisulfate. The sulfates
found in the deposits do not occur as such in the coal, and
therefore were assumed to result from chemical reactions dur-
ing combustion or from reactions between combustion
products and compounds previously deposited on the metal
surfaces. A study was made of absorption of sulfur from
synthetic flue gas by coal ash. When fly ash was placed in a
temperature gradient like that in a boiler tube, deposit, max-
imum absorption was found in the coldest layer. When held at
constant temperature, maximum absorption was found at 1100
F. The amount of absorption was highest for fly ash from fur-
naces in which serious deposit formation was observed. It was
also highest for fly ash containing the highest content of sodi-
um and potassium. A liquid phase of these compounds in con-
tact with tube metal causes corrosion. The maximum sulfur
absorption found at 1100 F coincides with a maximum at the
same temperature that has been observed for external tube-
metal corrosion. (Author abstract modified)
14948
Yamamoto, A.
PREVENTION MEASURES OF CORROSION OF CHIMNEYS
AND FLUES OF HEAVY OIL BURNING BOILERS. (Juyu
boira no entotsu oyobi endo no fushoku taisaku). Text in
Japanese. Netsu kanri (Heat Management: Energy and Pollu-
tion Control), 21(7):19-25, July 1969.
Decrease in weight due to corrosion is greater at the chimney
exit than at the entrance with high percentages of excess air.
Low-oxygen and low-temperature operation is the key to the
prevention of chimney and flue corrosion. Another measure
for preventing corrosion is the proper choice of liner materials.
Over 50 kinds of metals and non-metals were tested for re-
sistivity to sulfuric acid and high temperature and for mechani-
cal strength. Among gunnite liners, fly ash cement with sand
was found to be the best, although its resistivity to acid was
limited by the binder. Brick and ceramics were both heat- and
sulfuric acid-resistant. For the latter, the higher the density
and lesser the void, the better the resistivity. Resin mortar and
water glass mortar were the most appropriate as binders. An
acid-resistant castable material of the water glass family was
excellent in acid resistivity but rather permeable to acid.
Plastic liners of fluorine, polyether chloride, or the phenol
family proved good, but the latter was most economical.
Coatings on gunnite liners were not as effective as those on
steel plates. Among metals, lead was the most corrosion- re-
sistant. Steels with high tensile strength were superior to mild
steels, but this resistivity varied with composition. An electri-
cal detector of corrosion in liners was developed and proved
successful in application to two or three chimneys.
15274
Mauss, M. F.
SULFURIC CORROSION IN HOT WATER HEATERS. (Cor-
rosion sulfurique dans les chaudieres a eau chaude). Text in
French. Rev. Ass. Fr. Tech. Petrole, no. 188:127-136, 1968. 19
refs.
This study showed that certain traditional findings on steam
boilers have little application in the case of hot water boilers.
According to the classic Hoffmann graph, the rate of corro-
sion has a maximum between the condensation temperatures
of water and sulfuric acid from the fumes. In this range, rela-
tively concentrated acid is deposited. Below the water conden-
sation point, dilute acid with SO2 in solution condenses and
causes very fast corrosion. In hot water heaters, oxidation of
SO2 to SO3 takes place only in the flame and not on the walls.
In these studies, fuel oils containing 0.5% and 2% sulfur were
used. The rate of corrosion of a sample of soft steel and the
rate of formation of an acid film on glass were measured, the
latter with the B.C.U.R.A. apparatus. Temperatures of max-
imum potential corrosion, i.e., considering all deposited SO3
as being transformed into FeSO4, were never found, perhaps
because the sulfur content or the rate of fuel consumption was
too low. In a 314,000 metric ton (?) per hour furnace, the
quantity of sulfur in the gas, before and after passing the heat
exchanger, was measured to determine the mass of sulfur
deposited. It was shown that water temperature had less in-
fluence on the deposition rate of SO3 than the air excess used
in the burners, especially below 10% excess air. It is recom-
mended that this be taken into account in the operation and
design of water heaters.
17475
Weber, G.
THE INFLUENCE OF SULPHUR CONTENT ON CORRO-
SION. (Der Einfluss des Schwefelgehaltes auf das Korrosion-
sergebnis). Text in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer,
50(l):60-66, Feb. 1970. 6 refs.
Conductance and direct corrosion measurements were taken
for two oil-fired steam boilers with capacities of 90 and 100
t/h. The first boiler was fired with a fuel oil containing 0.9%
sulfur; the second boiler was fired with fuel oil containing
1.65% sulfur. For corrosion measurements, up to 100 probes
cooled with compressed air were inserted into the flue gas
duct ahead of the air preheater. The weight loss of each probe
and the surface temperature of every tenth probe were mea-
sured. The weight loss through operational corrosion was con-
siderable at the plant fired with the higher sulfur fuel. How-
ever, to about 100 C (or even 90 C) surface temperature, the
weight loss was so low that maintenance of a wall temperature
of about 100 C prevented the air preheater from premature
wear. Standstill corrosion was about the same in both plants,
which means that it is largely independent of the sulfur con-
tent. The weight losses were 0.38% of the initial weight/lOOOh
of standstill for the plant fired with the lower sulfur fuel and
0.45% at the second plant.
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I. EFFECTS-MATERIALS
91
21641
Nelson, Wharton and E. S. Lisle
A LABORATORY EVALUATION OF CATALYST POISONS
FOR REDUCING HIGH- TEMPERATURE GAS-SIDE COR-
ROSION AND ASH BONDING IN COAL-FIRED BOILERS. J.
Inst. Fuel, 37(284):378-385, Sept. 1964. 7 refs. (Presented at the
19th Annual Conference of the National Association of Corro-
sion Engineers, New York City, 1963, p. 2603.)
A laboratory test was used to screen catalyst poisoning ability
of additives designed to hinder catalytic production of SOS
and reduce dependent formation of corrosive complex alkali
sulfates on finishing superheater and reheater tubes of coal-
fired boilers. In this test, the weight gain with time response of
alkali-sulfate rich synthetic ash mixtures containing various ad-
ditives was determined at typical temperatures in flue gas at-
mosphere. Antimon trioxide was by far the most effective
compound tried. Three percent reduced the amount of com-
plex sulfates by 90%, prevented bonding entirely, and
decreased corrosion of stainless steel test coupons by 93% in a
ten-day test at 1100 F. Its beneficial action was verified as
catalyst poisoning by gas analysis for sulfur trioxide in a series
of experiments with and without the additive. The poisoning
ability of antimony trioxide, which attenuated at temperatures
near its melting point, was extended to higher levels by mixing
with sorptive siliceous minerals like diatomaceous earth. A
synergistic effect found with this combination may make
possible the dilution of antimony trioxide with 80 to 90% of
cheap sorptive materials without sacrificing efficiency. Some
other antimony compounds exhibited catalyst poisoning ten-
dency, possibly due to release of antimony trioxide on heating.
(Author abstract modified
23460
Stoenner, A.
INFLUENCE OF REDUCING FLUE GASES ON THE COR-
ROSION OF FURNACE TUBES. (Einfluss von reduzierender
Rauchgasatmosphaere auf die Korrosion von Brennkammer-
rohren). Text in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer,
49(3): 180-182, June 1969. 3 refs.
The partial renovation of combustion chamber pipes of a
forced- through-flow boiler carried out after 55 thousand
working hours revealed a very good agreement with the results
of the study of combustion processes by measurement of flue
gases concentration in the atmosphere of combustion chamber
of the boiler 6 years ago. The position of highest carbon
monoxide concentrations found at that time coincided with the
most corroded areas of the pipes. It was estimated that in the
presence of 1.3% sulfur and 3-4% CO in the close neighbor-
hood of the tube wall, the rate of wall thinning was .6 mm 110
to the fourth power hours. The economic aspects of the neces-
sity of partial changing of combustion chamber pipes are con-
sidered.
28335
Rosborough, D. F. and W. Hansen
STUDIES OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE CORROSION OF OIL-
FIRED BOILERS OF POWER PLANTS WITH NEAR
STOICHIOMETRIC COMBUSTION PROCESS, (Intersuchun-
gen ueber Hochtemperaturkorrosionen an oelgefeuerten Kraft-
werkskesseln mit nahstoechiometrischer Feuerfuehrung). Text
in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 51(l):51-57, Feb.
1971. 9 refs.
Experiments on high-temperature corrosion were conducted at
two power plants. Both boiler furnaces were operated with an
air surplus of less than 2%. In one plant, austenitic steel AISI
316, together with two ferritic steels (1% Cr and 8% Cr), were
used for pipes; in the other plant, the same austenitic steel and
a ferritic steel (12% Cr) were used. The experiments lasted for
more than 1000 hours at metal temperatures to 650 C. At metal
temperatures corresponding to a steam condition of 565 C, sig-
nificant high-temperature corrosion occurred. This was par-
ticularly true for the second plant where the pipes were ex-
posed to high flue-gas temperatures and a high flame radiation.
The ferritic metal alloys proved to be more resistent than the
austenites. Corrosion was due primarily to oxidation and sul-
fide formation, although the oxygen concentration in the flue
gas was only 0.1 to 0.2%. It is concluded that near
stoichiometric combustion is advantageous with respect to
low-temperature corrosion and boiler efficiency. It does not
however, prevent high-temperature corrosion in boilers
designed for higher steam temperatures.
29783
Rasch, Rudolf
COMPLEX ALKALI IRON SULFATES A CONTRIBUTION
TO THE THERMODYNAMICS OF FIRESDIDE HIGH-TEM-
PERATURE CORROSION. (Komplexe Alkali- Eisen-Sulfate
Beitrag zur Thermodynamik der Feuerseitigen Hochtem-
peraturkorrosionene). Text in German. Chemiker. Ztg.
(Heidelberg), 95(9):405-414, 1971. 69 refs.
The present state of high temperatures corrosion research
(hydrogen chloride, sulfate, and sulfide corrosion) is surveyed.
In the combustion chambers of boiler furnaces and incinera-
tors, incrustation of the heating surfaces is the first step
toward corrosion. Corrosive agents in the flue gas and fly dust
such as sulfur trioxide, sodium sulfate, HC1, sodium chloride,
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and sodium sulfite are the
direct or indirect causes of corrosion. Fireside high-tempera-
ture corrosion is closely related to the frequent changes
between reduction and oxidation. With the aid of ther-
modynamic equations, the reaction mechanism at the reduc-
tion of oxide layers on the heat exchangers could be deter-
mined. Moreover, the assumptions concerning the reaction
mechanism which causes sulfates to concentrate on the heat
exchanger surfaces could be narrowed by thermodynamic cal-
culations. The formation of the intermediate incrustating or
wetting layers is to some extent due to the complex alkali-iron
sulfates. Solutions of alkali sulfates with iron sulfates occur
under the formation of complex compounds, as well as alkali-
aluminum-sulfate complexes, sulfates of other heavy metals,
and arsenic compounds. External pipe erosions are due to
hydrogen chloride corrosion, local erosions are due to sulfide
corrosions.
29956
Rogner, Walter
PROBLEMS IN INDUSTRIAL POWER PLANTS. (Probleme
des industriellen Energiebetriebes). Text in German, Energie
(Munich), 23(4): 119-123, April 1971. 13 refs.
The use of fuel oils containing vanadium leads to corrosion of
super heater pipes on the flue-gas side. During combustion,
vanadium fractions of the oil reacts with oxygen to form
vanadium pentoxide, which is highly corrosive, primarily in its
liquid state. On combustion of fuel oils also containing sodium
and sulfur fractions, complex oxygen compounds develop with
eutectic melting temperatures of 580 C. Although these eutec-
tica are less corrosive than V205, they nevertheless attack
heating surfaces. The rate of corrosion depends on the ash
composition and the ash quantity, as well as on the type of
material. Vanadium-containing material is susceptible to corro-
sion while steel with a high chromium low nickel content is
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92
BOILERS
quite resistant. Fuels with a V203/Na20 ratio of smaller than
0.9 are less corrosive. Combustion of sulfur-containing fuels
leads to formation of sulfur dioxide, which upon cooling to
less than 700 C reacts with the free oxygen of the flue gases to
form SO3, when cooled to below 500 C, SOS reacts with the
water vapor produced by the combustion process to yield sul-
furic acid. This condenses on surfaces with temperatures
between 80 and 160 C.
30022
Wahnschaffe, E.
A STUDY OF THE CONVERSION OF SO2 TO SO3. (Bin
Beitrag zur Umwandlung von SO2 zu SOS). Text in German.
Energie (Munich), 23(5):165, May 1971.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide, which to some extent are
responsible for corrosion problems, develop from the com-
bustion of sulfur-bearing fuels. The reactions of the individual
components of the flue gas must be known to determine the
factors influencing the conversion of SO2 to SO3. The total
nitrogen content in the flue gases is dependent on the boiler
load; it increases with increasing load. If the oil is efficiently
atomized, thereby improving the addition of primary air, the
concentration of nitric oxide is reduced. The development of
nitrogen oxides depends on the load, the oxygen content, and
the fuel/air mixture; these oxides have considerable influence
on the conversion of the sulfur oxides. Their concentration is
highly significant in boiler corrosion.
31588
Rasch, R.
FORMATION OF ffiON-H-CHLORIDE AND IRON-HI-
CHLORIDE AT HIGH- TEMPERATURE CORROSION IN
FURNACES. Battelle Inform. (Frankfurt am Main), 1969:18-
22, 29 refs. NTIS: N70-42557-562
High temperature corrosion, particularly the external tube cor-
rosion occurring in melting chamber boilers and in heat
exchangers of refuse incinerators, is initiated by the decom-
position of the oxide film protecting the metal. The oxide film
is decomposed either by reduction, or because alkali
pyrosulfates decompose it with formation of complex alkali-
iron sulfates. After the decomposition of the protective oxide
film, hydrogen chloride contained in the furnace gases may
react with iron-II-oxide, iron carbide, and elemental iron to
give volatile iron chlorides. Iron carbide and elemental iron
occur only as unstable intermediate phases. At elevated tem-
peratures, the sodium chloride in fossil fuels reacts with sulfur
trioxide or with silicic acid and water vapor to form sodium
sulfate or sodium silicate. This reaction yields hydrogen
chloride, one of the corrosive components in flue gas. The
hydrogen chloride present in the flue gases of refuse incinera-
tors is produced by the combustion of polyvinyl chloride. With
present-day refuse, which contains an average of one percent
by weight of PVC, the concentration of hydrogen chloride in
the flue gases of refuse incinerators is between 0.05 and 0.1%.
The concentration of hydrogen chloride in the flue gas de-
pends on the composition of the refuse and the air ratio.
(Author introduction modified)
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93
J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
01308
M.N. Magnus
HISTORY OF FLY ASH COLLECTION AT THE SOUTH
CHARLESTON PLANT UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION -
CHEMICALS DIVISION. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
15(4):149-154, April 1965.
This report summarizes the installation and operation of fly
ash collection and disposal equipment at the South Charleston
Plant and includes installation costs, replacement costs based
on present-day cost factors, as well as performance data, and
maintenance and operating costs. (Author abstract)
21241
Fogel, M. E., D. R. Johnston, R. L. Collins, D. A. LeSourd,
R. W. Gerstle, and E. L. Hill
COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC COST STUDY OF AIR POL-
LUTION CONTROL COSTS FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES
AND SELECTED REGIONS. (FINAL REPORT). Research
Triangle Inst., Durham, N. C., Operations Research and
Economics Div., NAPCA Contract CPA 22-69-79, RTI Proj.
OU-455, 414p., Feb. 1970. 360 refs. CFSTI: PB 191054
Costs are estimated for controlling emissions of particulates,
sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxides from
twenty-two sources within 100 metropolitan areas, through the
Fiscal period 1970-1975; data defining relevant processes and
air pollution control engineering characteristics required to
support the analyses are presented. Sources for which control
cost estimates were made are solid waste disposal, steam-elec-
tric generating plants, industrial boilers, commercial and in-
stitutional heating plants, residential heating plants, and the
following industrial categories: kraft pulp, iron and steel, gray
iron foundry, primary and secondary nonferrous metallurgy,
sulfuric acid, phosphate fertilizer, petroleum refining, cement,
lime, coal cleaning, petroleum products and storage, grain
milling and handling, varnish, and rubber tires. The total in-
vestment cost includes $221 million, $1.29 billion, and $1.13
billion to control emissions from solid waste disposal, stationa-
ry combustion, and industrial process sources, respectively,
while the metropolitan areas for which cost estimates are the
highest include the very large, highly industrialized, more
northern cities of Chicago, New York, Pittsburgh, Philadel-
phia, Cleveland, Detroit, and St. Louis. Assuming the 1967
emissions as a baseline, calculations are performed to deter-
mine the pollutant removal efficiencies required to bring the
emissions into compliance with the standards assumed.
(Author abstract modified)
26757
Jackson, Walter E. and Henry C. Wohlers
DETERMINATION OF REGIONAL AIR POLLUTION CON-
TROL COSTS AND THE COST OF AIR POLLUTION
REDUCTION IN THE DELAWARE VALLEY. Drexel Univ.,
Philadelphia, Pa., Environmental Science and Engineering,
U.S.P.H.S Grant AP 00512-01A1, 224p., June 1970. 97 refs.
A procedure is developed for determining costs to reduce air
pollution emissions in a metropolitan area. Methods are suffi-
ciently general to be applicable in any region and sufficientl
comprehensive to include analysis of all major sources, future
trends, control limitations and other factors of importance in a
dynamic community. The analytical procedure examines rela-
tionships among emission inventories, regional growth, control
trends, alternate control schemes, control costs, and optimum
cost- effectiveness. The cost analysis procedure is tested by
applicatio to the Delaware Valley. Costs are determined for
reducing emission to various levels between the years 1960
and 2000. Emissions from private automobiles are projected to
decrease below the 1960 emission rate by 1980, at a cost of
150 million dollars per year. Stationary source emissions of
sulfur dioxide and particulates can be reduced to 1960 levels
by 1980 for 37 million dollars per year if 'least cost'
procedures are used (selective abatement). Uniform conver-
sion to 0.5% sulfur fuel oil (equiproportional ababement) can
affect a similar reduction in emissions for about 94 million dol-
lars per year in 1980. Other cost analysis comparisons are
made and projections to the year 2000 are included. (Author
abstract)
30122
Hollander, Herbert I.
VALUE ANALYSIS OF COAL. Combustion, 41(10):13-17,
April 1970. (Presented at the Purdue Industrial Coal Con-
ference, Oct. 8, 1969.)
Guidelines are presented which will enable spreader stoker-
fired boiler plants to select the most economical and suitable
fuels. The guidelines concern the following factors judged to
influence utilization by such plants of the available BTU in
coals: moisture, coal fines, ash quantity, ash characteristics
(ash fusion temperature, iron oxide), sulfur, and heating value.
Use of the guidelines to determine relative cost/million BTU is
illustrated by graphs and a Relative Coal Utilization Analysis
Sheet (showing chemical analysis of the coal and ash and the
percentage of particulates passing through screens).
30696
LeSourd, D. A., M. E. Fogel, A. R. Schleicher, T. E.
Bingham, R. W. Gerstle, E. L. Hill, and F. A. Ayer
COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF SPECIFIED AIR POLLU-
TION SOURCES TO ASSESS THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS. VOL. I. (FINAL REPORT).
Research Triangle Inst., Durham, N. C., Operations Research
and Economics Div., APCO Contract CPA 70-60, RTI Proj.
OU-534, Rept. FR-OU-534, 395p., Dec. 1970. 328 refs. NTIS:
PB 197647
Air pollution control costs for mobile sources are presented on
a national basis and in terms of unit investment and annual
operating and maintenance costs as well as total annual operat-
ing and maintenance costs. The analyses cover the estimated
emissions and control costs for new cars for Fiscal Year 1967
through Fiscal Year 1976. Control costs for each stationary
source, except for residential heating, are shown for 298
metropolitan areas by investment and annual expenditures by
Fiscal Year 1976. The impact of control on selected industries
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94
BOILERS
and the Nation are also determined. Finally, an extensive
bibliography is included. The pollutants from mobile sources
selected for analysis are hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and particulates. The six pollutants for which
control cost estimates are made for stationary sources are par-
ticulates, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
fluorides, and lead. Emission standards applied are considered
stringent in comparison with many currently in use throughout
the Nation. Mobile sources include automobiles and light and
heavy-duty trucks. Stationary sources studied include solid
waste disposal, commercial and institutional heating plants, in-
dustrial boilers, residential heating plants, steam- electric
power plants, asphalt batching, brick and tile, coal cleaning,
cement, elemental phosphorus, grain handling and milling
(animal feed), gray iron, iron and steel, kraft (sulfate) pulp,
lime, petroleum products and storage, petroleum refineries,
phosphate fertilizer, primary non-ferrous metallurgy (alu-
minum, copper, lead and zinc), rubber (tires), secondary non-
ferrous metallurgy, sulfuric acid, and varnish. Data essential
for defining metropolitan areas, emission control standards,
and relevant process and air pollution control engineering
characteristics required to support the cost analyses for each
source and the cost impact on each industrial process are
presented and analyzed in separate appendixes to this report.
(Author abstract modified)
33530
Nordrhein-Westfalen Arbeits- und Sozialminister (West
Germany)
IMMISSION AND EMISSION CONTROL. (Ueberwachung
der Immissionen und Emissionen). Text in German. In: Rein-
haltung der Luft in Nordrhein Westfalen. Essen, West Ger-
many, Brinck and Co. KG, 1969, p. 53-65.
Since 1962, paniculate emissions are measured over a total
area of 6225 sq km by one measuring station per sq km on
4150 sq km and one measuring station for each 4 sq km on
2075 sq km. Sulfur dioxide emissions are measured on 5026 sq
km by one station for each sq km. Particulates are measured
(continuously) by the Bergerhoff device, SO2 by the silica gel
method. A comparison of monitoring results from 1963 and
1967/8 reveals that in almost all areas both SO2 and particulate
emissions were reduced. The areas in which maximal emission
limit were exceeded since the measuring program began
dropped for particulates from 365 sq km in 1964/65 to 234 in
1967/8 and for SO2 from 248 sq km in 1964/5 to 43 sq km in
1967/8. In 12 cities a continuous SO2 monitoring service is in
operation which issues smog alerts. The state emission protec-
tion law grants the authorities the right to order emission mea-
surements performed by a polluter at his cost. This right is
being applied in cases of newly constructed enterprises and
following expansions of established enterprises, mainly for
S02 and particulates but also for other pollutants where the
situation demands. Since 1966 emissions from steam and hot
water boilers are supervised on a systematic basis, and, where
maximal emission levels are exceeded, the polluters are
prosecuted. All oil-fired central heating systems are periodi-
cally tested by district chimney sweeps by the Bacharach
method and fines are levied for violations. Heating plants in all
local and state government buildings are being also tested
regularly.
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95
K. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA
06778
(INDUSTRY AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN GREAT
BRITAIN.) Industrie et pollution atmospherique en Grande
Bretagne. Centre Interprofessionnel Technique d'Etudes de la
Pollution Atmospherique, Paris, France. (1967.) 6 pp. Fr. (Rept.
No. CI 310.) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Document No. 24.)
A summary of the basis of governmental action in Great
Britain in the struggle against industrial emissions is outlined.
The regulations imposed by the 'Alkali Act' are in most cases
based on 'the most practical means.' Standards are given for
chimney heights. Statutory limits are given for various materi-
als emitted such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid,
hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, and
lead. The construction of tall buildings tends to reduce the
benefits obtained by tall chimneys. A better knowledge of the
effects of pollutants should be obtained so as not to burden in-
dustry with unnecessary expense in their control. It is urged
that international standards for emission be adopted.
09921
Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Great Britain.
27p. 1967.
REPORT OF THE WORKING PARTY ON GRIT AND DUST
EMISSIONS.
The working party on grit and dust emissions was set up to ad-
vise the Minister of Housing and Local Government on grit
and dust emissions from industrial and other similar furnaces.
Ways and means of measuring grit and dust emissions and the
levels of emission admissible in relation to furnaces burning
fuel equivalent to 100 to 50,000 pounds per hr. of coal are
presented. Sampling methods and emission levels are given for
the following furnaces; solid fuel fired boilers, oil fired boilers
and indirect and heating furnaces.
21896
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Air
Pollution Standards Committee
ASME STANDARD APS-2. RECOMMENDED GUIDE FOR
THE CONTROL OF EMISSION OF OXIDES OF SULFUR.
COMBUSTION FOR INDIRECT HEAT EXCHANGERS, lip.,
Jan. 1970. 14 refs.
The three basic methods for controlling pollution of the air by
waste materials are reduction in production of pollutants, col-
lection of pollutants, and dispersion of the pollutants in am-
bient air by air motion. Control usually involves a combination
of two or more of these. The philosophy was adopted that the
maximum concentration of sulfur dioxide in the ambient air
resulting from discharges is of primary importance when regu-
lating ambient air quality. A method is presented for estimat-
ing the concentration of SO2 in ambient air based on the stack
height, total heat input, and sulfur content of the effluent. An
alternate method involving the allocation of emissions among
several stacks of equal height is included. The limitations of
these systems caused by the presence of large numbers of low
level S02 sources and topographical conditions are considered.
Data presented are arbitrarily cut off at 10,000 million Btu/hr
on the theory that very large sources will have to take addi-
tional factors into account. Abatement is, of necessity, con-
centrated on effluent control, since the desulfurization of solid
fuels has limited potential and desulfurization of liquid fuels
requires extensive and costly additions to existing installations.
Flue gas desulfurization techniques under development are
limited to large installations because of cost and space and
may themselves introduce serious problems of disposal of low
strength sulfuric acid and/or large quantities of dust.
25134
Persson, Goran A.
SWEDISH EMISSION LIMITS FOR SPECIFIC SOURCES OF
AIR POLLUTION. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollu-
tion Prevention Associations, 29p., 1970. 9 refs. (Presented at
the International Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C.,
Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper AD-17D.)
The 'best practicable means' and 'air resource management'
approaches to air pollution control are discussed with
reference to a 5-yr control program in Sweden worked out by
the National Environment Protection Board. The definition
and supervision of Swedish emission standards are discussed.
These standards are applicable to all operating conditions and
should be fulfilled during the entire life of the plant. This
means that control equipment must be dimensioned for emis-
sions that are considerably lower than the numerical value of
the standard. Generally, the equipment will also have to be di-
vided into two independent units to avoid excessive emissions
when one unit is out of operation. Emission standards are
given for iron and steel, ferroalloy, gray iron foundry, cement
and lime, asphalt, pulp, chemical, solid waste disposal, and
fuel combustion. Standards are adopted for both new and ex-
isting units. For the latter, the requirements should be met be-
fore July 1, 1974; government subsidies will cover 25% of the
investment costs. The degree of control to meet the standards
and investment and annual costs are evaluated. The permissi-
ble contributions to ground-level concentrations of sulfur diox-
ide and particulates used in calculating stack heights are given.
Tall stacks are used as complements to but not as substitutes
for efficient air pollution control at stationary sources. (Author
abstract modified)
31968
Yamamoto, Norimasa
ON EMISSION STANDARD OF SMOKE (HARMFUL SUB-
STANCES) BASED ON AIR POLLUTION CONTROL LAW.
(Taiki osen boshiho ni motozuku baien -- yugai busshitsu -- no
haishutsu kijin ni tsuite). Text in Japanese. Preprint, Smaller
Enterprises Promotion Corp. (Japan) 72p., 1971. (Presented at
the Public Nuisance Prevent. Tech. Seminar, Japan, 1971.)
Characteristics of smoke, dust collection equipment, average
paniculate diameter, and other factors are tabulated. The
number of boilers in Tokyo, Osaka, and Kanagawa are com-
pared. The emission standard for dust is 0.06 g/N cu m-0.20
g/N cu m for boilers and furnaces, in newly constructed instal-
lations, which utilize heavy oil as fuel. The average cadmium
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96
BOILERS
concentration at nine monitoring stations in 1969 was 0.020
micrograms/cu m. Environmental pollution due to heavy
metals is also considered. At 0.1 ppm, the odor of chlorine can
be detected with slight irritation; at three to six ppm, there is
irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and headache, while life is
threatened at 14-21 ppm. Chlorine also damages plants after
about 0.5 ppm. Chlorine, up to 0.5 ppm, is contained in tap
water. The environmental standard should be less than 0.02
ppm. Even small amounts of fluorine in the atmosphere can
damage plants, and the standard should be two to five micro-
grams/cu m. Above two to eight ppm of F, teeth have motley
patterns, and eight to 15 mg/day for 10 years would bring
about softening of the bone. Standards are also given for sul-
fur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxidants, hydrocarbons, and
nitrogen dioxide. Air pollution control agencies, districts, plans
and alerts are mentioned.
34015
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL LAW. (Taiki osen boshi-ho ni
tsuite). Text in Japanese. Preprint, Japan Industrial Newspaper
Co., Tokyo, lOp, 1971. (Presented at the Seminar on Air Pollu-
tion Control, Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 1971.)
The present Air Pollution Control Law, issued in 1968, is
based on the Laws concerning stack gas emission of 1962.
Main points of revision are reviewed, and newly added pollu-
tants, emission regulations, emission standards, fuel standards,
particulate standards, automotive exhaust gas emission stan-
dards, emergency operations, treatment of stack gases from
electric and gas factories, enforcement of laws, and progress
reports are discussed. Localized emission standards of sulfur
dioxide are: 0.020 ppm for the Tokyo-Yokohama area, Osaka-
Amagasaki, Yokkaichi, and a few cities were newly added.
Maximum permissible concentration is 0.022 ppm for
Kashima, Chiba, Ichihara, Kurashiki, and few other cities of
Akita and Shizuoka prefectures; 0.024 ppm for Muroran, Fuji,
Nagoya, Himeji, Wakayama, northern Kyushu areas, and
some parts of Hokkaido; and 0.027 ppm for Sapporo,
Kawaguchi, Hatogatani, Kyoto, and some cities of Shikoku
and eastern provinces. The largest maximum permissible con-
centration of SO2 is 0.045 ppm and this applies to all areas
mentioned above and other areas where designated indexes are
0.030 to 0.040 ppm. Stack gas emission standards according to
the new regulation are 0.05 to 0.10 g/N cu m for boilers using
heavy oil and 0.20 to 0.40 g/N cu m for boilers using coal. Fur-
nace emission standards are 0.05 to 0.10; rotary, roasting, sin-
tering, and open hearth furnaces are 0.20 to 0.30; other heat-
ing, smelting, drying, cement, electric furnaces are 0.20 to
0.40; and incinerators are 0.20 to 0.70 g/N cu m. Special emis-
sion standard areas and toxic material emission standards are
given.
34154
British Standards Inst., London (England)
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SIM-
PLE SMOKE VIEWERS. Brit. Standard, no. 2741, 12p., 1969.
Iref.
Two types of smoke viewers are described. In the first, a light
is viewed through the flue gases and the appearance of the
light itself is taken as an indication of the density of the
smoke. This type is normally used in brick-set boilers. In the
second type of viewer, a beam of light passes through the
smoke onto an opalescent screen, the brightness of which
gives an indication of the smoke density. This viewer may be
used in most other boilers. The windows of the viewers are li-
able to damage by grit particles during soot blowing, making it
necessary to protect them while the soot blowers are in opera-
tion. Cleaning should be carried out manually at least once per
shift, and always after soot blowing. Diagrams of the viewers
are given.
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97
L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
04620
R. C. Huxford
UTILIZATION OF SOLID FUEL TODAY. J. Inst. Heating
Ventilating Engrs. (London) 32, 405-33, Feb. 1965.
Types, classification and preparation of coal, different
methods of delivery and conveyance, mechanical stoking and
ash removal are considered; different types of boiler and fuels
applicable to each are reviewed; use of solid fuel in relation to
British Clean Air Act is considered and various coals clas-
sified.
04942
F. B. Kaylor
AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT PROGRAM OF A CHEMI-
CAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.
15, (2) 65-7, Feb. 1965.
Solvay Process, a Division of Allied Chemical Corporation,
utilizes Onondaga County's only two mineral resources, salt
and limestone, to manufacture soda ash as well as caustic
soda, chlorine, calcium chloride and chlorinated organics. The
following areas involved most of the major pollution com-
plaints: particulate matter from the boiler house, dust and
fumes from the lime kilns, smoke and soot from the ammonia-
caustic soda concentration operation, smoke and soot from
soda ash calcining operation, and occasional situations where
odors and reactions of sulfur dioxide were noticeable. The
abatement program and its costs are described.
06741
E. S. Monroe, Jr.
RECENT COMBUSTION DEVELOPMENTS PREVENT AIR
POLLUTION - LOW EXCESS AIR FIRING OF HEAVY FUEL
OILS AND NEW WASTE INCINERATOR. 90th Congress 'Air
Pollution-1967, Part IV (Air Quality Act)' Senate Committee
on Public Works, Washington, D.C., Subcommittee on Air and
Water Pollution, May 15-18, 1967. pp. 2597-2601. (Presented at
the Joint Technical Conference on Clean Air, Trenton, N.J.,
Nov. 19, 1964.)
The advantages of stoichiometric combustion or low excess air
firing of heavy fuel oils are discussed. A new incinerator for
the destruction of waste products is described which utilizes a
simplified overfire airjet system. Both of these systems excel
in performance and economy and their rapid adoption appears
to be to the mutual advantage of industry and the public.
07202
Tada, H.
THE REGULATIONS FOR SMOKE ABATEMENT. Text in
Japanese. Kuki Seijo (Clean Air, J. Japan. Air Cleaning As-
soc.) (Tokyo), 4(l):l-5, 1966.
The law of smoke abatement was first adopted by the
Japanese government in 1960. Prior to that time only local
authorities adopted such measures. The regulations are
directed against smoke from factories (including the area,
facilities, and materials used) and other types of exhaust. The
facilities which fall under the regulation are boilers (electric,
heat-producing, and those using sulfur-containing fuels), fur-
naces (calcinating, gas exhausting, sintering, revolving, open
hearth), and incinerators. Under the regulation, 'smoke' in-
cludes soot, cinders, powdery dust (such as cement dust and
iron dust), SO2 gases, and others. The maximum permissible
concentration of smoke is tabulated according to facility, rang-
ing from 0.5 to 2,0 g/cu m at OC and 1 atmos pressure. A
smog signal or alert must be issued when the concentration os
SO2 in the air is greater than 0.2 ppm for 3 hr or 0.3 ppm for 2
hr. The system of control and direction is outlined.
07363
Fournier, M. and P. Jacquinot
FIGHT AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION FROM
DOMESTIC FURNACES. CONTROL MEASURES IN EFFECT
IN THE SPECIAL PROTECTION ZONES IN PARIS DURING
WINTER OF 1965-1966. ((Lutte Contre la Pollution At-
mospherique Due aux Foyers Domestiques. Controle Exerce
dans les Zones de Protection Speciale a Paris (Hiver 1965-
1966.)) Text in French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), 9(34):91-99,
Apr.-June 1967.
The activities under the jurisdiction of the Housing Depart-
ment of the Seine District in their fight against air pollution for
the winter of 1965-1966 are outlined. The philosophy of the
control efforts to end pollution from domestic heaters is based
on proper management of the fire, with the quality of the com-
bustion adapted to the quality of the fuel. The large volume of
data taken as the result of tests and during various insepctions
is presented in charts. Inspections of 476 boiler rooms using
coal and 327 using fuel oil showed 13 of the coal burners and
38 of the oil burners did not comply with present regulations.
The causes of the defective installations included use of im-
proper fuels, poor regulation of the draft, and failture to clean
chimneys and flues. The establishemnt of special zones of pro-
tection against atmospheric pollution is too recent to draw any
conclusions as to their effectiveness. The equipment in these
areas is not being used to the best advantage as far as the con-
trol of emission of colored smokes. The authorities are moving
from a period of education and testing to an enforcement
phase where cooperation is not received.
07550
Philadelphia Dept. of Public Health, Pa.
AIR POLLUTION FROM FUEL COMBUSTION PROCESSES
IN PHILADELPHIA. Preprint, 8p., Sept. 1966.
The combustion of fuels is the greatest single source of air
pollutant emissions within a metropolitan area. As much as
80% of the total weight of pollutants discharged to the at-
mosphere result from the burning of fuels for electrical power
generation, for industrial and commercial heat and power, for
domestic heating, and for vehicular power. The purpose of this
report is to summarize the present status of the problem in
Philadelphia and to recommend necessary regulations and
other action required to deal with the problem.
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98
BOILERS
07950
F. G. Sugden
LOCAL AUTHORITY PROBLEMS IN AN INDUSTRIAL
AREA. Roy. Soc. Health J. (London), 87(4):204-214, July-Aug.
1967. 5 refs.
The history of air pollution control in Britain under The Alkali
bSworks Act of 1863, the Public Health Act of 1875, and the
Clean Air Act of 1956 is presented along with a review of cur-
rent problems in the measurement and control of air pollution
which confront local authorities in industrial areas. Until 1946,
the standard deposit gage was commonly used for measureing
air pollution. Some of the instruments had been in use sincethe
1920's. Since the Second World War, air filters which permit
daily readings of smoke and sulfur dioxide have been used
although deposit gages continued in use. The use of deposit
gages was unfortunate since local authorities did not measure
the trend in grit and dust deposition which are an important
part of total air pollution. Results should be studied on the
basis of 3,4 or 5-year moving averages to level out meteorolog-
ical variations in any one year. Smoke from industrial sources
seems to come primarily from steam raising plants and the
control of dark smoke is delegated to the local authorities.
Suggestions are made for changes in the Clean Air Act to
require more information in regard to new installations. The
burning of material in the open should be brought under the
dark smoke regulations. The most prolific grit producer sub-
ject to local control i s the cold blast cupola. In 1963, more
than 1/2 the arresters fitted to the larger cupolas were the dry
type and 18% had no arresters. The amount of SO2 in the air
will increase unless there is an increase in the use of low sul-
fur fuels. The ground level control of SO2 is based on proper
chimney heights. Since domestic smoke is responsible for
much of the smoke pollution, further diminution depends on
increased implementation of smoke control orders. In spite of
past accomplishments, much remains to be done.
09445
Comprehensive Planning Bureau, Japan, Osaka Municipal
Office
AIR OVER OSAKA CITY. 93P., 1967
The location, geographical features, population, manufactur-
ing, and administration of Osaka City are discussed. An exten-
sive discussion of the measurement of air pollution is
presented. The sampling networks and measurement of dust-
fall, sulfur dioxide, suspended particulate matter, automobile
exhaust gases, and meteorological parameters are discussed in
detail. A survey of air pollution sources in Osaka City is sum-
marized.
09603
Maryland State Dept. of Health, Baltimore
43P04 REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE CONTROL OF
AIR POLLUTION IN AREA III. Preprint, 6p., March 29,
1968.
A regulation governing area III in the State of Maryland speci-
fies: the control and prohibition of open burning; and max-
imum allowable emissions of particulate matter from fuel
burning equipment. Area III is comprised of the Baltimore
Metropolitan Area, and the counties of Anne Arundel, Bal-
timore, Hartford, and Howard.
09604
Maryland State Dept. of Health, Baltimore
43P05 REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE CONTROL OF
AIR POLLUTION IN AREA IV. Preprint, 10p., March 29,
1968.
A regulation governing area IV in the State of Maryland speci-
fies the control and prohibition of: visible emissions; particu-
late matter from fuel burning equipment, incinerators, other
installations, material handling; gas, vapor and odor emissions;
and open burning. No control equipment that may produce
emissions can be operated such that a nuisance is created.
Area IV is comprised of Montgomery and Prince George
Counties.
09677
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C., National Center for
Air Pollution Control
A COMPILATION OF SELECTED AIR POLLUTION EMIS-
SION CONTROL REGULATIONS AND ORDINANCES.
(REVISED EDITION.) 142p., 1968.
This compilation contains selected sections of many emission
con- trol regulations and ordinaces. It has been prepared to
provide state and local air pollution control agencies, indus-
tries, and other interested people with selected examples of
the many types of regulations and ordinances in use today. All
sections of regula- tions and ordinances included have been
copied directly from the original text of individual state and
local laws. The regula- tions and ordinaces have been arranged
in such a manner that each section of this report is a compial-
tion of laws pertaining to a specific type of pollutant or pollu-
tant source. These sections include Smoke Emissions and
Equivalent Opacity Regulations, Particulate Emissions from
Fuel Burning Plants, Particulate Emissions from Refuse-burn-
ing equipment, Particulate Emissions from Manufacturing
Processes, Particulate Emissions from Asphalt Batching
Plants, Sulfur Compound Emissions, Organic Solvent Emis-
sions, Hydrocarbon Emissions, Fluoride Emissions, Motor
Vehicle Emissions, Odor Emissions, and Zoning Ordinances.
The regulations and ordinances compiled were selected to
represent the different methods of controlling emissions by
law and to represent varying degrees of control.
11077
Loquercio, Peter A. and William J. Murphy
HOW AN EFFECTIVE PERMIT SYSTEM WORKS. Preprint,
Dept. of Air Pollution Control, Chicago, 111., Engineering Ser-
vices Div., ((24))p., ((1968)). (Presented at the 61st Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, St. Paul,
Minn., June 23-27, 1968, Paper 68-111.)
The controversial subject of the relative merits of a Permit
System in the field of air pollution control is discussed. Details
are given describing how a successful permit system in
Chicago is being routinely applied for registering and regulat-
ing all air pollution sources. Furthermore, the unique method
of intergrating this system with other Municipal Bureau activi-
ties, such as Zoning, Ventilation, Fire Prevention, etc. is ex-
plained. The Permit System not only has the capability of very
effectively recording air pollution sources but also has the
benefit of making available a cross reference from these other
Bureaus. This provides another facility by which unregistered
air pollution sources are located. (Authors' abstract, modified)
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L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
99
16343
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION. Intern. Digest Health
Legislation, 20(3):499-512, 1969. (Original text in Public
General Acts and Measures of 1968, Chapt. 62, p. 1523-1538,
1969.)
The British anti-air pollution act is presented in its entirety in
addition to supplements, schedules, and means of administra-
tion. Various terms are defined. Limits on the rates of emis-
sion are prescribed. The uses of furnaces are standardized,
and the over-all policy of the act is provided. The emissions
covered include dark smoke, grit, dust, and fumes.
16736
Cleary, Graham J.
A STATUS REPORT: AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN AUS-
TRALIA. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 19(7):490-496, July
1969. 13 refs.
All but one of the Australian States now have legislation to
control air pollution. These are similar in broad principle and
rely upon the system of prior approval and the use of emission
limits. At the present time Victoria is the only state with
legislation providing for the recycling of crankcase vent gases
on motor cars. Methods being used to control pollution and fu-
ture outlook and needs are discussed. At least 65 percent of
the crude oil requirements should be met by indigenous low
sulfur oil by 1975. This fact and the imminent supply of natu-
ral gas to the four major cities and to the centers of heavy in-
dustrial development should result in a marked reduction in
sulfur dioxide concentrations. A major outstanding problem is
the lack of air pollution considerations in planning at regional
and local government levels. (Author's Abstract)
20698
Dickinson, R.
MEASUREMENTS OF DOMESTIC SMOKE EMISSION AND
THEIR APPLICATION TO CLEAN AIR LEGISLATION. J.
Inst. Fuel, vol. 43:75-81, March 1970. 15 refs.
To assist in the implementation of a clean air policy, a labora-
tory investigation was conducted to determine the weight of
smoke emitted from domestic solid fuels and appliances. A
small electrostatic precipitator was used to determine the
weight. A representative range of open-fire fuels including
bituminous coals, low volatile steam coals, anthracite, manu-
factured fuels, and wood and peat fuels were compared by a
standard series of tests. Supplementary investigations were
made to find the effects of the method of ignition, size grad-
ing, and refuelling procedure. Measurements were also made
of the emissions from two authorized fuels on a small boiler
and from a limited number of experimental smoke-reducing
appliances. These investigations have enabled the British Stan-
dards Institution to draw up a standard for the authorization of
manufactured smokeless fuels and to recommend the exemp-
tion of smoke-reducing appliances and to recommend these to
the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. It was recom-
mended that the authorization level should ensure a smoke
reduction of 80% compared with bituminous coal; a limiting
level of 0.9% at a burning rate of 2 Ib/hr was considered ap-
propriate.
20861
Henderson, J. S.
PLANNING FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL. PART 1-
LAWS AND THEIR IMPACT. Plant Eng., 24(12):94-97, June
11, 1970.
The Clean Air Act of 1967 designates 91 air quality control re-
gions and makes each state responsible for adopting regional
air quality standards and for developing an abatement
procedure plan. The central cities of the air quality control re-
gions are specified in this article, and the need of control
agencies to include emission standards in their implementation
plan is discussed. Typical standards for particulate emissions
from coal-fired boilers, manufacturing processes, and incinera-
tion are summarized, as are representative ambient air stan-
dards for particulates and sulfur dioxide. Some state and local
laws require all emission sources to meet both pollution emis-
sion and plume visibility standards. Plant engineers may also
face compliance with other types of requirements and restric-
tions. These may include industrial source registration, includ-
ing quantities and location of pollutant discharges; registration
of plant expansions or process changes; plant access and in-
spection by control authorities; provision of stack sampling
ports and platforms, and continuous monitoring of stack
discharges.
21104
Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare, Tokyo
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL LAW (1968). (AMBIENT AIR
QUALITY STANDARDS FOR SULPHUR OXIDE.) EMISSION
STANDARD). P. L. 97, 50p., June 10 1968.
Regulations are presented to control sulfur oxide emissions in
soot and smoke from industrial and vehicle exhaust sources.
The Minsters of International Trade and Industry and of
Health are empowered to established emission standards ap-
plicable to individual 'designated areas.' After a 2-year com-
pliance period, violators are subject to fines and, in some
cases, imprisonment; in additions, operations of the emitting
facilities are temporarily suspended. Provisions are made for
cases of accidents or emergency situations. The Minister of
Transportation provides the allowable limit for vehicle exhuast
emissions. An expert mediation panel is established to adju-
dicate civil cases resulting from damages caused by pollution.
An enforcement order issued by the Cabinet on Nov. 30, 1968
includes a list of specified noxious substances, and set 0.2
ppm as the highest hourly value for atmospheric sulfur oxides
permissible during a year, or 0.06 ppm in the annual average
of hourly values. Size or capacity of specified types of boilers
and furnaces are enumerated. Supplementary orders include a
formula for calculating standard limits for sulfur oxide
discharge, exhaust limits for combustion equipment, limits for
carbon monoxide from vehicles, environmental quality stan-
dards of sulfur oxides for public health, 5- and 10-year goals
for environmental improvement, research objectives, calcula-
tion of stack heights, and various policy and enforcement deci-
sions and amendments.
23610
Public Nuisance Control Committee (Japan)
BASIC POLICY REGARDING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A
PUBLIC NUISANCE CONTROL PROGRAM FOR THE
TOKYO AREA. (Tokyochiiki ni kakawaru kogaiboshikeikaku
sakutei no kihonhoshin. An). Text in Japanese. Yosui to Haisui
(J. Water Waste), 12(9):750-758, Sept. 1, 1970.
A control program to be effective throughout the Tokyo
metropolitan area other than islands in the Pacific Ocean
under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan government is
presented. The area is a megalopolis with 11.5 million people,
and the industrial and economic activities are increasingly ex-
acerbating the pollution problem. Air pollution from automo-
biles and factories is severe. It originates from the central and
Joto areas as well as from factories along the Arakawa River
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100
BOILERS
and Sumida River. Water pollutio in Sumida, Naka, and Tama
Rivers is also intense. The pollution levels are to be lowered to
within the tabulated limits by 1980. The necessary control
measures are numerous, but the following are especially
emphasized in view of the national planning priorities. They
are the control measures against stationary air pollution
sources, purification of sea water in the coastal areas and
fresh water in rivers and streams, control of nuisances accom-
panying automobile traffic, control of ground settling (in some
areas as deep as four meters), and treatment measures for
metropolitan and industrial wastes. In addition, the establish-
ment of nuisance monitoring and measurement system is
necessary, and close cooperation with the neighboring prefec-
tures is indispensable. Detailed tables are given on the target
maximum allowable concentrations of sulfur oxides,
suspended particulates, and carbon monoxide in air as well as
cyanides, alkyl mercury, organic phosphorus, cadmium, lead,
chromium, arsenic, mercury in general and pH, BOD, SS, DO,
and conform bacteria values for water pollution. The max-
imum allowable noise levels for daytime, morning and
nighttime are also listed.
24828
Cox, Geoffrey E.
BOILERS AND THE CLEAN AIR ACTS. J. Inst. Heating
Ventilating Engrs. (London), vol. 38:A24, A29, A30, Oct. 1970.
(Also: Oil Gas Firing, June 1970.)
Legislation of The Clean Air Acts 1956/68 involves the design,
installation and usage of boilers, and responsibility rests on the
Manufacturer, the Installer, the Retailer of both fuel and ap-
pliance, and of course the User. The User is prohibited from
emitting dark smoke, and a comparison is provided between
the Ringlemann Chart and the Bacherach and Shell smoke test
given at the boiler fluehood. New furnaces should be capable
of operatin continuously without emitting smoke as far as
practicable. There are prescribed limits on the user for emis-
sion of grit, dust and fumes. However, the MEG and UEG
range of solid fuel boilers are exempted on the basis that they
fall within the stated category of combustion chamber and
stoker design, in that the burning rate is not more than 25 Ibs
of fuel per sq ft of combustion area per hour and below the
maximum input rating of 1 ton per hour. The installer must
make notification and have the Local Authority's approval of
chimney height. Obligations of the manufacturer, installer, and
user are summarized. Smoke control areas will be set up
where purchase of prescribed solid fuel as wel as appliances
are the responsibility of both user and retailer.
26938
West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission
REGULATION II--TO PREVENT AND CONTROL AIR POL-
LUTION FROM COMBUSTION OF FUEL IN INDIRECT
HEAT EXCHANGERS. West Virginia Administrativ Regula-
tions, Chapt. 16, Article 20, Ser. 2, 10p., 1966.
A regional air quality control area is initiated along the
Kanawha River (Charleston area), and establishes smoke con-
trol within it. Definitions are provided for 'new' equipment
and 'existing' equipment. Ringelmann No. 1 is the smoke limit
for new equipment, and Ringelmann No. 2 is the limit for ex-
isting equipment with equivalent readings on approved opacity
meters being accepted in lieu of Ringelmann readings. Fly-ash
limitations are based on a sliding scale as a function of the
heat input of the system. Larger systems are more limited than
are smaller systems. The smoke regulating sections include
provisions for 8-min in every eight hours of up to a number 3
Ringelmann rating to allow for start-up of a new fire or soot
blowing. Owners of existing equipment that cannot meet the
requirements of the regulation may avoid being in violation by
submitting a modernization plan to the Air Pollution Control
Commission for approval and, following approval, complying
with its schedules. Penalties for violation are established by
the Air Pollution Control Law and may only be imposed by
the courts. Maximum penalty under the law is $1000/day of
violation. Residential and small apartment house (6 units max)
heating systems are exempted from this regulation. Registra-
tion, testing, fuel use reporting, and notice of intent to modify
equipment or change ownership thereof are provided for in the
regulation.
27242
Henderson, J. S.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL: LAWS AND THEm IMPACT.
Text. Ind. (Atlanta), 135(2):54-58, Feb. 1971. 7 refs.
The Federal Air Quality Act of 1967 is discussed, as well as
state and local air pollution standards. The Act charges the
Department of Health, Education and Welfare with three new
activities: the designation of air quality control regions, the
publication of ambient air quality criteria, and the publication
of air pollution abatement techniques. A list of air quality con-
trol regions is presented. Under the Act and after regional
designation each state is responsible for adopting regional air
quality standards and for developing an abatement implemen-
tation plan. A flow diagram for action to control air pollution
on a regional basis is included. Source emission standards,
plume visibility standards, and ambient air quality standards
are mentioned. Limiting particulate emissions and sulfur diox-
ide is indicated. The Ringelmann Chart is cited for determina-
tions of plume density.
30779
REVISED REGULATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CON-
TROL, TOKYO. (Tokyoto kogai boshi jorei no shiko kisoku
okaisei). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Management:
Energy and Pollution Control), 23(3):61-63, March 1971.
A revised regulation initiated in Tokyo standardized the sulfur
content in oil used by factories according to their total oil con-
sumption. The installation of smoke and dust collectors for
boilers, furnaces, incinerators, and of an anti-steam device
against hydrocarbon gas was ordered. Factories were
requested to reduce their discharge of sulfur dioxide by 30%
to 70% at the time of smog warnings. The owners of automo-
biles were advised to install afterburners at authorized garages.
Copper, zinc, oil, COD (chemical oxygen demand), ap-
pearance, odor, and temperature were added to the previous
list of 11 water pollutants subjected to the maximum discharge
law. Factories along the Tama, Edo, and Naka Rivers will
receive a warning as soon as the water content reaches a cer-
tain point. Vibration and dust were newly designated as sub-
ject to noise- controlO laws. Seventeen items were newly
designated as industrial wastes, including alkali and acid
wastes, metal dust, and sludge. Factories were requested to re-
port periodically concerning the classification, quantity, and
method of disposal of various wastes, and to appoint qualified
pollution controllers for each category of environmental pollu-
tion.
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L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
101
31509
Cheaney, Edgar S., Richard E. Barrett, Richard B. Engdahl,
Joseph A. Hoess, David W. Locklin, Philip R. Sticksel, and
Albert E. Weller
APPROACH TO THE COMBUSTION R AND D PLAN. In:
The Federal R and D Plan for Air-Pollution Control by Com-
bustion-Process Modification. Battelle Memorial Inst., Colum-
bus, Ohio, Columbus Labs., APCO Contract CPA 22-69-147,
Rept. APTD-0643, p. II-l to 11-24, Jan. 11, 1971. NTIS: PB
198066
In a planning study that is concerned with the identification
and selection of research investments, the resulting research
and development plan is intimately related to the valuation and
decision-making process used in developing the plan. The
planning rationale is discussed for the five-year combustion
and research development plan, which is aimed at the control
of pollutant emissions from stationary and vehicular com-
bustion sources. An additional factor important to the develop-
ment of the five-year combustion R and D plan is the projec-
tion of pollutant emissions that serves to define the problem
which the R and D plan is designed to attack.
31740
Battelle Memorial Inst., Columbis, Ohio, Columbus Labs.
SUMMARY OF THE 5-YEAR COMBUSTION R AND D
PLAN. In: The Federal R and D Plan for Air Pollution Con-
trol by Process Modification. APCO Contract CPA 22-69-147,
Rept. APTD-0643, p. IX-1 to IX-16, Jan. 11, 1971. NTIS: PB
198066
Several aspects of the five-year combustion research and
development plan, which is directed to the control of pollutant
emissions from stationary and vehicular combustion sources,
are considered in order to provide a proper perspective for its
utilization. These include the limitations of scope of the plan,
its organization and problems of allocating resources, the
presentation of competing research opportunities, and the
provision of adding new R and D on new concepts not now
identified or for accelerating on-going R and D.
32647
Hoess, Joseph A. and Edgar S. Cheaney
PRIORITY RATING METHODOLOGY FOR APPLIED-R
AND D OPPORTUNITIES. In: The Federal R and D Plan for
Air Pollution Control by Process Modification. Battelle
Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Labs., APCO
Contract CPA 22-69-147, Rept. APTD-0643, p. A-l to A-10,
Jan. 11, 1971. NTIS: PB 198066
The methodology used to establish priorities for the applied
research and development opportunities in the five-year R and
D plan for reduction of emissions from energy-conversion
combustion sources by combustion process modification is
outlined. Priorities were assigned on the basis of relative
potential for air-pollution reduction, relative cost to implement
the results of research, and expert judgment. Combustion
sources including coal-fired power plants, steam generation,
gasoline engines, diesel engines, natural-gas engines, industrial
processing, commercial and residential heating, gas turbines,
oil, coal, and gas and their combustion products are noted.
32884
Smaller Enterprises Promotion Corp. (Japan)
AMENDMENT DRAFT AND EXPLANATION OF AIR POL-
LUTION CONTROL LAW ENFORCEMENT REGULATIONS.
(Taiki osen boshiho sekorei no kaiseian oyobi kaisetsu). Text
in Japanese. Preprint, 20p., 1971. (Presented at the Public
Nuisance Prevent. Tech. Seminar, Japan, 1971.)
Air pollution control laws and amendments in Japan are ex-
amined. Regions are divided into eight classes based on the
discharge standard of sulfur dioxide, for which the maximum
allowable concentration is 0.020-0.045 ppm at groung level. In-
dustries discharging smoke, cadmium, or lead and boilers
burning heavy oils must be equipped with electric dust collec-
tors, bag filters, or multi-cyclones. In certain areas, buildings
with central heating must install multi-cyclones or more effi-
cient dust collectors or change to gas or electric heating. The
prefectural governments may adopt emission standards stricter
than those enforced by the national government. Industries
discharging chlorine or fluorine must be equipped with alkali
washing devices. Sulfur content in fuels is limited to 1.0-1.5%.
33228
Locklin, David W., Albert E. Weller, and Richard E. Barrett
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. In: The Federal R and D Plan for
Air-Pollution Control by Combustion-Process Modification.
Final Report. Battelle Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio,
Columbus Labs., APCO Contract CPA 22-69-147, Rept.
APTD-0643, p. 1-1 to 1-15, Jan. 11, 1971. NTIS: PB 198066
The five year combustion research and development plan
recommended in this report is directed to the control of pollu-
tant emissions from stationary and vehicular combustion
sources through modification of combustion processes, rather
than emission control by add-on or downstream devices. The
plan is confined to combustion research and development,
both fundamental and applied, for energy-conversion systems
utilizing prime fuels and air. Organization, philosophy, and a
brief summary of the plan are presented.
-------
102
M. SOCIAL ASPECTS
08698
Nelson, Bryce
AIR POLLUTION: THE 'FEDS' MOVE TO ABATE IDAHO
PULP MILL STENCH. Science, 157(3792):1018-1021, Sept. 1,
1967.
A major inversion occurred in 1959; one resident recalls it as
'the black night.' After such incidents, more citizens
protested, and the mayor of Lewiston created a committee on
air pollution. In Nov. 1960, the mayor of Clarkston wrote to
the chief of the Division of Air Pollution of PHS to request
help in abating an interstate air-pollution problem said to be
principally caused by the PFI mill. In response to this request,
the PHS initiated several meetings with local and state authori-
ties and began a study of air pollution in 1961-62. The PHS
study indicated that Lewiston and Clarkston had a common air
mass and that either city could pollute the air of the other. The
PHS report stated that 50 percent of the physicians in
Lewiston and Clarkston had been interviewed and that a large
majority of the physicians stated that they concurred in their
patients' belief that certain of their disease conditions were re-
lated to air pollution and that several noted improvement in
patients with respiratory conditions when the patients moved
from the area of high pollution or used air conditioning. In-
cluded in the PHS-study was an opinion survey conducted in
1962 about community perception of air quality in Clarkston.
Nearly 80 percent of those interviewed said that their city was
affected by air pollution, and almost two-thirds stated they
were bothered by it to some degree. More than 90 percent who
recognized air pollution as a problem first mentioned the pulp
mill as being among the sources of such pollution. In March of
this year, a conference on the areas air pollution was held in
Clarkston. The conference provided many area citizens with
an unparalleled opportunity to voice their frustration about the
condition of their local atmosphere.
-------
103
N. GENERAL
03197
DIVISION OF AIR POLLUTION CONTRO6 (IN: PENNSYL-
VANIA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH 1964 ANNUAL RE-
PORT). Pennsylvania State Dept. of Health, Harrisburg 86-8,
1964
Soot and fly ash from boilers, and smoke and odors from open
burning at dumps and industrial and commercial sites, ac-
counted for more than 45% of 284 air pollution complaints re-
gistered with the Department during the year. Sulfur dioxide
gas from coal refuse disposal piles, coal dusts, and dust from
limestone quarries and cement plants were other major causes
of complaint. The Division conducted sampling programs in
the Wyoming Valley, Carlisle, the Lehigh Valley, Greater
Johnstown, and the Lock Haven-Williamsport area as part of
area air quality surveys. Additional sampling was conducted in
Johnstown, as part of an air pollution meteorology research
project, and in the vicinity of a number of industrial plants
creating air pollution problems. In the course of conducting
the air quality surveys and the research project, engineers ob-
tained over 27,000 samples of pollutants. Most of the samples
were collected by continuously operated sampling equipment.
Ten stack tests were conducted; two autometers, measuring
community levels of sulfur dioxide, were operated for a total
of 659 days. Wind speed and direction instruments were
operated for 827 days. An air pollution meteorology research
project was conducted in Greater Johnstown where three
telescoping towers were erected to hold instruments used to
measure and record data on weather and air pollution.
Weather data will be correlated with pollution data to deter-
mine which weather factors contribute to the buildup of air
pollutants in the community. The Air Pollution Commission
continued its study of state-wide regulations to control the
emission of smoke, dust, and gases. These proposed regula-
tions will be the first to require that pollutants be controlled to
specific levels measured at the source. The seven Regional Air
Pollution Control Associations continued to play important
roles in the abatement of pollution problems. Most of the 130
abatements recorded during the year were accomplished while
the problems were in the hands of the Regional Associations.
These Associations attempt to resolve problems on the local
level through conciliation and persuasion.
05221
Sinoski, D. A., and W. L. Creighton
ELECTRIC HEAT SUPPLIES DISTRICT STEAM. Power,
110(ll):84-87. Nov. 1966. (Presented at the 80th Annual Meet-
ing, Engineering Inst. of Canada, Winnepeg, Manitoba, May
25-27, 1966.)
Steam is supplied to a complex of civic buildings in Toronto
by the Toronto Hydro-Electric system. The electric steam
generating plant went into service in 1963. The heating load
consumes up to 50,000 Ib of steam per hour. High-voltage
electric boilers generate steam, using off-peak power. Steam,
stored in a bank of accumulators, maintains flow for up to
four hours during the peak loading times, when the boilers are
shut off. Overall capital cost of this installation was approxi-
mately $675,000, of which $130,000 was for accumulators. The
installed steam generating capacity is 120,000 Ib per hr so that
the capitalized generating cost is about $4.50 per Ib. This cost
is comparable to conventional oil-fired installations. Some
other major cost items were, approximately: boilers, $160,000;
building, $130,000; mechanical work, $80,000, and controls,
$45,000.
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
105
ADAMS, P J 'A-05846
ALKIRE H L 'A-23313, *A-23314
ALLIOT, L 'A-04799, *B-00716
ANASTASIA L J B-30734, B-31100
ANCONA G 'A-24219
ANDERS, H *B-05429
ANSON D "B-29471
AOKIT 'B-20822
ARCHER J S 'C-29313
ASHIKHMINA N M C-31723
ATTIG, R C *A-04342
AUCLAIR, M A-04799, B-00716
AXTMAN B 'C-31482
AXTMAN, W H 'B-03790
AVER F A J-30696
AYNARD A A-13855
B
BABA K B-28749
BADDAMS H W *B-34278
BAHLO K 'C-29749
BAILEY J B W 'C-32773
BARBYSHEV, B N A-09016
BARKLEY J F B-23846
BARKOV N N 'B-15619
BARNHART, D H 'B-05857
BARRETT R E B-20539, *B-32414,
•1-14084, L-31509, L-33228
BARRETT, R E "B-00287
BARRON A V JR 'B-34025
BARTOK W 'B-24678, 'B-27295
BAUM F *A-28388
BAXTER, W A 'B-12574
BEAUMONT, M 'B-01496
BECKER J H C-32008
BEIGHTON, J 'A-10735
BELL W S *B-18149
BELYEA, H A "C-03460
BERGER A W 'C-27100, C-32008
BERK A A B-23846
BERKAU E E B-26451
BERNERT J 'C-29955
BERNHOFF R 'B-24613
BERNSTEIN R H A-25142
BINGHAM T E J-30696
BISHOP, J W 'B-11178
BLOCK W A-28388
BLOKH A G 'A-16990
BNUKOV A K 'C-24879
BOLL, R H '1-04622
BORGWARDT R H *B-12308
BORIO R W *B-14838
BOSCH J C C-29072
BOUBEL R W "C-31842
BRAND E K V 'C-20317
BRANDT H 'B-20616
BRINKE R 'B-29514
BROCKE W A-28388
BROOMHEAD F B-25643
BROWN N E C-32773
BROWN T D 'A-30829
BROWN, T D F-00572
BUCKLEN, O B 1-11286
BUENZ P *A-30021
BURAKOVICH, M S B-11491
BURDOCK, J L . 'B-09191
BURGE H L B-31229
BURKE, S A 'B-00406
BUSBY H G T *B-25786
BUSCH H P *B-29861
BUTYUGINA E M *C-30084
BYERS, R E *A-07975
CAMPBELL, O F *B-05347
CARLS E L B-30734, B-31100
CASEY, R J *F-07811
CAVE G A *A-24005
CELAYAN G G 'B-20294
CHANEY, A L A-05800
CHASS, R L B-04516
CHEANEY E S 'L-31509, L-32647
CHEN, P M B-11178
CHERRY R H JR B-23073
CHERTKOV B A *B-19729
CHO B Y C-22998
CHORY J P *A-30132
CHRISTIE, J 'A-10743
CHRISTMAN J R 'B-20758
CHUDNOVSKAYA I I A-22955
CLAIN F 'B-32552
CLARK L W 'F-32430
CLARKE W H N B-29471
CLEARY G J *L-16736
CLEMENTSON S P A-31657
COATES N H 'A-31299
COLLINS C G JR 'F-20274
COLLINS R L J-21241
COLLINS, K E B-00406
COOK, E B B-07881
COREY R C C-17497
COSAR P B-33288
COUTANT R W *B-20539
COX G E 'L-24828
CRANE, W M *B-12672
CRAWFORD A R B-24678, B-27295
CRAXFORD S R *D-12358, *D-17360
CREIGHTON, W L N-05221
CROUSE, W R A-03154
CUNNINGHAM ATS B-29471
D
DAILY, W B B-09546
DARBY K B-25786
DARBY, K 'B-04394
DAUER, S 'F-04357
DEVITT T W A-32165
DEVORKIN H 'A-23745
DEWHURST, J R 'C-00275
DICKINSON R *L-20698
DIEHL, E K B-05857
DITTRICH A *B-33603
DOOLEY A E C-17497
DOUGLAS J 'B-22071
DRAKE, P F 'B-03153
DRANSFIELD F 'B-28230
DRISCOLL J N C-27100, 'C-32008
DUBROVSKAYA, F I *D-07141
DUMARCHEY G A-13855
DUZY A F *A-12120
DUZY, A F 'A-02630
DYMSHITS S A A-17017
BARLEY W T B-19642
ECKERD J W A-31299
EHRENFELD J R *A-25142
EHRLICH, S B-11178
EICK H 'B-33623
ELDER, J L A-02631
ENGDAHL R B A-33087, L-31509
ENSOR D S C-29072
ERTL, D W 'B-07932
ETOC, P 'B-07839
FALCONE, H J F-07811
FASCHING G E C-25260
FAUTH, U 'A-08255
FELDKIRCHER J J *A-24854
FERNANDES, J H 'B-00140, 'B-09546
FIELD, J H B-09666
FINFER, E Z *B-04856
FLINT D *B-17137
FLODIN, C R 'B-05853
FLYNN, N E 'A-03154
FOGEL M E "3-21241, J-30696
FOSHKO, L S A-09016, B-09016
FOUR, R A-04799
FOURNIER, M *L-07363
FRANCIS W *B-28271
FRAZIER J F *B-31662
FRAZIER J H 'B-13857
FREY, D J *I-11286
FRIEDLANDER S K D-32259
FRIEDRICH F D B-18118, B-30055
FRIELING, G G B-07430
FRITSCH W H *A-15375
FUKUCHI T *H-14944
FUKUMA S *F-13487
FUNKHOUSER J T C-32008
G
GABINOVA, Z L D-03363
GALLAGHER J T *A-13794
GELLER Z I 'C-31723
GEORGE, R E 'B-04516
GERLOVIN L I *A-17840
GERSTLERW * A-32165, J-21241,
J-30696
GERTH, G *B-08741
GILBERT T 'C-25593
GILS W 'A-29781
GISCLARD J B C-17497
GLAUBITZ F *B-15432, *B-23063
GLAUBITZ, F 'A-02287
GLEASON T G B-14221
GLEASON, T G B-07752
GLENSY, N 'B-00272
-------
106
GLOWIAK B »B-25468
GODEL A 'B-33288
GOLDBERG S 1-14153
GOLDISH J C A-25142
GORMAN P G A-25196
GOSTOMCZYK A B-25468
GOVAN F A 'A-27471
GOYKHMAN L A C-24879
GRABOWSKI H A B-14838
GREEN W D-32259
GREEN, BL 'B-11726
GREEN, P D F-10066
GRIMSEY, R G B-09164
GRISWOLD, S S 'B-00107
GRONHOVD, G H *A-09161
GRUBER C W *C-11859, C-28991
GRUMER, J 'B-07881
GUNTER A Y F-15799
GURINOV B P 'D-17785
GURINOV, B P *A-08200
GUYOTJEANNIN, C G-07541
H
HAALAND, H H B-05853
HAAS M B-30734, B-31100
HADSCHOW B B-28503
HAGIWARA, I *B-07527
HALL R E *B-26451
HALSTEAD W D *F-16883
HAMMONS G A *B-32274
HANBY V I A-30829
HANGEBRAUCK R P A-24732,
'B-15544, B-21268
HANGEBRAUCK, R P 'A-01788,
'A-05005
HANIG G B-21893
HANSEN W 1-28335
HARRIS, M E B-07881
HASEGAWA T *A-17190
HASHIZUME M *B-29940
HAYNES W P *B-26857
HEDLEY, A B 'F-00572
HEINRICH, D O B-04394
HEISE M F-14363
HEITMANN H G B-25637
HENDERSON J S 'L-20861, 'L-27242
HENKE W C *B-24675
HENSEL R P B-14838
HESCHELES, C A *A-03870
HICKOX R F B-29441
HIDY G M *D-32259
HILL E L J-21241, J-30696
HIRAKAWA H *B-29685
HIRASAWA S B-33738, C-21055
HISAMURA T B-14844
HISHINUMA Y B-14844, B-20777
HOESS J A L-31509, *L-32647
HOLBROOK, C G C-00275
HOLLANDER H I 'J-30122
HOPPS G L *B -23846
HOST J R *B-26501
HUBBARD, E H B-03153
HUMBERT C 0 *B-25079
HUMMELL, J D B-00287
HUSMANN K B-21893
HUXFORD, R C *L-04620
I
IEHLE, F A-04799
IHLE C *A-28515
INAGAKI K »B-26546, «B-32826
INGRAHAM T R 'B-31404
INOUYE R 'E-15174
ISHIBASHI Y 'B-30131
ITO F 'B-14194
ITO N B-19257, B-30488
IVANOV V P *A-22955
IWASAKI T B-29940
JACKSON A B-19469
JACKSON W E 'J-26757
JACQUINOT, P L-07363
JAIN, A K B-11178
JARRY R L B-30734, B-31100
JENKINSON J R F-15944
JIMESON R M *B-23176
JIRASEK, V 'C-00403
JIROUS F *F-15615
JOENSUU O I «A-30017
JOHNS, R W C-03460
JOHNSON G M *A-25169
JOHNSTON D R J-21241
JOHNSTONE H F 'A-19017, *B-14996,
"B-19473, »B-20035, 'B-21506
JOHNSWICH, F *B-05137
JONAKIN J B-17905
JONES B G *B-31104
JONKE A A »B-30734, 'B-31100
JURKIEWICZ, J A-08820
K
KACHOR, L F D-03363
KALYUZHNYI, D N *B-11491
KAMEI K F-13487
KATSNEL SON, B D A-09016
KAWABATA S B-32910
KAWADA N 'A-19217
KAWAI M B-33738
KAWAI S 'A-21363
KAWAI T C-21055
KAWASHIMA S 'B-29819, 'B-31145
KAYLOR, F B *L-04942
KAZAKOVA M D C-30084
KELSEY R M B-24043
KILARSKA M C-33054
KITO, N 'B-08957
KITTLEMAN T A B-12308
KITTREDGE G D B-15544
KLUGE W 'B-23674
K.NAPP O 'B-24642
KOBAYASHI H *B-32910
KOEPPE B B-23674
KOERNER H J *B-27658
KOFMAN L M C-24879
KOIZUMI M A-21363, 'F-12997
KOPITA R *B-14221
KOPITA, R *B-07752
KOPPANG R R B-31229
KORN J *A-28800
KORUS A C-33054
KRYZHANOVSKAYA, M V B-11491
KUBE, W R A-02631
KUHN, H 'C-04360
KUKIN I *B-24291
KUKIN, I 'B-07971, *B-09504
KUL CHITSKII, A I A-09016
KUROSAWA K 'B-32827
KUWAKI M *B-30488
LABARDIN, A A-04799, *B-00717
LAMPERT, F F 'A-04082, *G-11656
LAND G W 'A-23726, *B-19642
LARSSON O *B-18296, *C-23441
LASA J *C-33054
LAURENT, P G-07541
LE BOUC F «A-13807
LEE G K 'B-18118, 'B-30055
LEE, G K 'B-09164
LEIGH J H *B-I9588
LEITHE, W *B-07535
LEMKE E E *A-3235I
LENHART, K »B-03121
LENZ W 'B-22903
LEONARD J W B-14838
LESOURDDA J-21241, 'J-30696
LEUDTKE, K D A-05160
LEVINE, B S D-03363
LEVY A B-23073
LEVY, A *F-03874, *F-05302
LEWIS P S A-31299
LINDSAY A W B-17137
LINNA E W B-19642
LIPANOVA G A B-15619
LISLE E S 1-21641
LJTTLEJOHN R F B-17137
LOCK, A E 'B-07537
LOCKLIN D W B-32414, L-31509,
'L-33228
LOQUERCIO, PA *L-11077
LOUGHER E H B-20539
LOWE H J B-28230
LOWERY D P B-26501
LOWICKI N *B-21893
LUETTGER H B-24642
LUXL F C "C-16952
M
MAARTMAN, S *B-02030
MACCALLUM, N R B-08695
MACHIYAMA T A-21363
MACPHEE, R D 'A-05800
MADOYAN, A A A-09016
MAEDA I 'B-19257, B-30488
MAGNUS, M N 'J-01308
MARIER P B-31404
MARTENEY P J *A-21940
MASHIMO K B-28749
MATHUR, M L 'B-08695
MATSAK, V G *B-08155
MATSUMOTO H 'B-26544, 'B-26545
MATSUMOTOY B-31145
MATSUMURA Y *A-28137
MATTHEWS C J A-25169
MATUO M *A-28544
MAUSS M F *I-15274
MAUSS, F A-04799, B-00717
MCKEE H C "C-27735
MCLAUGHLIN j F *B-i7905
MEEKER, J E A-01788, A-05005
MEIER HEDDE O *B-22603
MEIKLE, P 1-11286
MELAND, B R "C-05552
MERRYMAN, E L F-03874, F-05302
MILLS, J L 'A-05160
MINEMURA K B-28749, 'B-31990
MITCHELL E R B-18118, B-30055
MITCHELL, E R B-09164
MIURA M "C-30219
MIYAJIMA K B-33738, C-21055
MIZOBUCHI I B-29685
MIZUKAMI Y «B-32524
MIZUTANI H F-12997
MONKHOUSE A C *B-33030
MONKMAN J L C-17497
MONROE, E S JR 'L-06741
MONTGOMERY W T S *B-21195
MOOR B S C *B-30331
MORGAN G B *A-23561
MORGENSTERN P C-27100
MORI, H *B-03045
MORIKAWA Y F-15695
MORITA M B-30131
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
107
MORSE W L »B-31795
MOTONAGA H 'B-15611
MUELLER WARTENBERG H 'B-21200
MUERMANN H *B-16366, 'B-17213
MURAKI R 'B-24645
MURPHY R P 'D-30860, *D-32055
MURPHY W A B-30734
MURPHY, W J L-11077
N
NAGAMI K 'B-28749
NAGATA K F-12997
NAKAI Y »B-29231
NAKAMURA K 'B-33734, C-21055
NAKATSUJI N *D-20348
NAPIER D H 'B-14262
NELIGAN R E C-17497
NELSON W '1-21641
NELSON, B 'M-08698
NEUBERGER, H 'G-00236
NEWALL H E B-33030
NEWELL, J E 'B-11247
NEWTON D F *A-26277
NIEPENBERG H P 'A-31252
NIKOLAEV S P *A-17017
NISHIMURA S B-28749
NOGUCHI Y B-28749
NOJIRI H 'B-32906
NONHEBEL G *E-28937
NONHEBEL, G *B-01459
NORDA H 'A-28158
o
OCHS H J 'B-26378
OGATA Y 'B-26560
OIWA T 'B-28742
OLDS F C 'B-30155
OPARIN V V 'B-23189
OPLADEN, H B *B-10993
ORNER R A-25142
ORNING A A 1-14153
ORNING, A A 'A-05011
OVERINGTON A W B-18149
OYA M B-33738, 'B-34282
OZAWA T 'B-32824
OZOLINS G A-23561
PAPAMARCOS J *B-29014
PARPAROV, D I A-09016
PATEL, H C 1-04622
PAVLIK J R B-30734
PAZYCHENKO, V S A-09016
PEEW D 'B-28503
FENNELS, N E B-05347
PERKINS R W 'E-20853
PERRY, H 'B-09666
PERRY, L B A-05160
PERSSON G A 'K-25134
PESTERFIELD, C H 'B-01626
PETERSEN, F 'B-04862
PETERSON, D G B-00140
PETTIT D A B-23073
PFEIFER R J 'C-22998, 'C-30997
PHILLIPS C V C-32773
PILAT M J 'C-29072
PINHEIRO G 'B-29013
PLUMLEY A L 'B-34026
POLGLASE, W L *B-09792
POLI, P 'G-07541
POLLOCK, W A *B-07430
POPOV, B V D-03363
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE *L-09677
R
RAASK E F-16883
RAK M V 'B-26312
RASCH R '1-29783, *I-31588
REICHEL M A-25196
REID W T B-23073
REID, W 'B-04304
REID, W T B-00287, 'F-03881
REIGEL S A 'C-28991
RIPPERTON L A C-17497
ROBINSON, E B B-11178
ROGNER W '1-29956
ROLFE, T J K B-12672
ROSBOROUGH D F '1-28335
ROWE, V R B-07881
RUBIN, M M A-09016
RUDCHUK, Z Y B-11491
RUTZ P 'A-21166
RYLANDS J R 'F-15944
SAFFORD D 'B-16867
SAKABE S B-33738
SAKAI K D-20348
SAKAI T 'A-24076
SAKAI Y B-32803
SALERNO, A A B-11251
SALLEE E E A-25196
SAMUEL T 'F-14363
SATO T 'B-32803
SAWICKI E 'C-17497
SCAVIZZI G A-24219
SCHAEFER K B-26369
SCHIEMANN, G 'B-02973
SCHLACHTER D J 'B-16068
SCHLEICHER A R J-30696
SCHNEIDER W B-30612
SCHOFFSTOLL C B B-30734
SCHULE, W A-08255
SCHUMANN C E C-11859
SCHWARTZ, C H A-05011
SCHWARZ, K 'B-02032, B-03121
SCOTT, D 'A-02634
SEDOR, P A-04342
SEESE F E B-29861
SENSENBAUGH J D 'B-19056
SENSENBAUGH, J D B-00140
SEVERS, B C 'B-04336
SHAGALOVA, S L 'A-09016
SHANNON L J *A-25196
SHAW J T 'C-26601
SHAW, J T »F-10066
SHIGEHARA R T 'C-23351
SHIMADA S *B-32751
SHIMIZU K B-32751
SHIMOTO K B-29940
SHIOSAWA K 'B-24536
SHIRASAWA T 'B-21328
SHNITSER, I N A-09016
SHOJI I B-28749
SHORT W 'E-26550
SHORT, W 'A-08615, 'C-07848
SHUTTLEWORTH, A F-00572
SICKLES, D 'B-08616
SIEGMUND C W 'A-16836
SIETH J 'B-25637
SIGACHEV V P A-17840
SIMONIN J C 'B-14716
SINOSKI, D A 'N-05221
SJOGREN A 'C-31547, 'C-31981
SKOPP A B-24678, B-27295, B-32274
SMITH E C 'F-15799
SMITH M Y A-25169
SMITH N S JR 'C-25260
SMITH W S C-23351
SMITH, J F A-05011
SMITH, M C *B-11251
SNOPEK S 'B-26365
SNYDER J D 'B-29441
SOKOLOVSKII, M S 'D-03363
SONDREAL, E A 'A-02631
SPAITE P W *A-24732, 'B-21268
SPEEDIE, I B A-08374
SPINDLER, W L 'A-05264
STAIRMAND C J *B-24043
STEIGERWALD B J A-23745
STEWART, I M 'B-05517
STICKSEL P R 'A-33087, L-31509
STOENNER A '1-23460
STONE M H B-14262
STOOKEY K W 'B-28113
STRAUSS, W 'A-08374
STREWE, W "B-05393
STUDENT, R 'B-04358
SUGDEN, F G 'L-07950
SUGIYAMA S A-24076
SULLIVAN, K M 'A-08641
SURH, W C-03460
SUZUKI J 'A-26538
SYKES W 'B-25643
TADA O 'A-29538
TADA, H 'L-07202
TAGA, T 'A-02148
TAHARA T 'A-29534
TAKAKUWA, T 'A-06111
TAKAMURA Y F-12997
TAMURA Z 'B-12478, *B-14844,
'B-20777, 'B-24821, 'B-26104
TANAKA I B-30488
TAYLOR, F W C-03460
TAYLOR, J R A-05800
THIEME, W 'A-02667
THIN, D G-07541
THOEN G N 'C-28708
THOMAS C W E-20853
THOMAS G A-32351
THOMAS S 'B-18290
THOMSON A G '1-13681
THURLOW G G 'B-13950
TODD P B-29471
TODD W F C-23351
TOELLE J *B-19453
TOLLE, J 'C-06770
TOMANY J P 'B-31229
TOMANY, J P B-07430
TOMCZYNSKA, J 'A-08820
TULLY R E 'A-31657
TURNER L G B-12308
TURNER, D B 'A-05563
u
UEDA G D-20348
ULKE R 'B-26369
ULMER R C B-14838
ULMER, R C 1-11286
UTT O L C-22998
VALENTINE J R C-32008
VAN DOORNUM G A W 'B-12446
VAN DOORNUM, G A W 'B-03053
VANDEGRIFT E A A-25196
VARGO G N B-30734
VICTORY S P JR F-15799
VIOLET P 'A-13855
VOGEL G J B-31100
-------
108
VOLKOVA YE I C-24879
VON LEHMDEN, D J A-01788, A-05005
w
WADDELL ] A B-31997
WAGNER, R J »A-02629, A-09161
WAHNSCHAFFE E »A-33697, »B-14690,
'1-30022
WALINGS J F B-23073
WALKER A B 'B-32455
WALKER, A B *A-08642, 'B-08343,
•F-04939
WALKER, J B JR A-02630
WALPOLE, R H JR B-09546
WALSH W H 'B-31997
WALSH, R T 'A-09831, 'A-09832,
*B-09833
WARD J J 'B-23073
WASSER J H B-26451
WEATHERLEY M L P M D-12358,
D-17360
WEBER G '1-17475
WEINTRAUB M '1-14153
WELLER A E L-31509, L-33228
WHITE, H J 'B-05868
WIERICK D 'B-30612
WIKSTROM O 'A-23443
WILLIAMS D J A-25169
WILLIAMS, A F 'A-10075
WILSON E B B-14838
WITTMAIER, A J A-09161
WOHLERS H C J-26757
WOOLLAM J P V 'B-19469
WOOLRICH, P F A-05160
YAMADA G 'A-12975
YAMADA H 'B-30220
YAMADA T 'B-33738, 'C-21055
YAMAIE T B-29685
YAMAMOTO A '1-14948
YAMAMOTO N 'K-31968
YAMAMOTO T 'B-14928, H-14944
YANAGISAWA S *C-29677
YANYSHEVA, N Y B-11491
YOKOKAWA T B-29231
YOSHIDA H 'F-15695
YOSHIDA T 'E-29177, 'E-31122
YOUNG J A E-20853
ZABROSKE, T A 'A-09539
ZAKS, A Z B-11491
ZENTGRAF, K M 'B-08825, 'B-11056
ZUBIK B 'B-20563
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
109
ABATEMENT A-32351, B-30155, B-32524,
C-30118, D-05645, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, J-33530, K-21896, L-04942,
L-07202, L-07950, L-09677, L-16343,
L-20861, L-23610, L-24828, L-26938,
L-27242, L-31509, L-32647, L-32884,
M-08698
ABSORPTION A-08255, B-01626, B-05429,
B-07430, B-07535, B-08741, B-09833,
B-11247, B-11256, B-20822, B-21506,
B-24678, B-25786, B-27295, B-31456,
B-34282, C-04324, C-30084, D-03363,
F-32430, G-00236
ABSORPTION (GENERAL) B-00140,
B-0304J, B-07535, B-09833, B-11256,
B-14716, B-14928, B-14996, B-19056,
B-19469, B-19473, B-20035, B-21200,
B-21893, B-24645, B-25468, B-26544,
B-26545, B-26857, B-29231, B-30220,
B-31404, B-3I990, B-32274, B-32827,
B-34278, C-08895, F-13487, F-32430
ACETIC ACID A-23745
ACETYLENES C-00275, H-14944
ACID SMUTS A-08374, B-07839, B-29013,
B-31795, B-32751, B-33734, B-34278,
G-07541, L-07950
ACIDS A-04342, A-05011, A-05800,
A-08374, A-09832, A-12975, A-16836,
A-19017, A-23561, A-23745, A-28158,
A-29538, A-30021, A-32165, A-32351,
B-04336, B-04862, B-07535, B-08155,
B-08343, B-09191, B-09792, B-09833,
B-11247, B-11256, B-12090, B-14262,
B-18118, B-20777, B-25468, B-25637,
B-25643, B-26378, B-26560, B-28271,
B-28503, B-30055, B-30159, B-30488,
B-30926, B-31990, B-32274, B-32824,
B-32827, B-33030, B-34025, C-24879,
C-31723, D-03363, D-29973, F-15944,
F-20274, G-00236, 1-14948, 1-29783,
1-29956, 1-31588, J-30696, K-06778
ADMINISTRATION A-09539, A-10743,
A-16949, A-22800, A-23313, A-23314,
A-25142, A-25196, A-25638, A-32351,
A-33087, B-01626, B-03121, B-07971,
B-11178, B-11491, B-15544, B-20563,
B-23176, B-26451, B-26857, B-30155,
B-31229, B-32414, B-32524, C-04324,
C-08895, C-25593, D-03363, D-05645,
D-12358, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
J-26757, J-33530, K-25134, K-31968,
L-04942, L-07363, L-07550, L-07950,
L-09445, L-09677, L-11077, L-16736,
L-23610, L-26938, L-27242, L-31509,
L-31740, L-32647, L-33228, N-03197
ADSORPTION A-08374, A-30021, B-01626,
B-04862, B-08741, B-09833, B-24678,
B-27295, C-22998, D-03363, 1-21641
ADSORPTION (GENERAL) B-12478,
B-14221, B-14844, B-15378, B-19056,
B-19257, B-20777, B-21200, B-24821,
B-26104, B-30488, K-21896
ADULTS G-11656
ADVISORY SERVICES D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, K-09921
AERODYNAMICS B-03153, B-08695
AEROSOL GENERATORS A-05264,
A-09832, A-10075, A-28800, B-08741,
B-09833, B-10993, B-22903, B-29685,
F-07811
AEROSOLS B-00107, B-04516, B-08155,
B-08741, B-09833, C-23681, G-00236,
N-03197
AFRICA B-00140, B-06548, B-07932,
B-12446, B-15560, B-18290, B-30331
AFTERBURNERS A-05157, A-24219,
B-07535, B-09792, B-30220, B-31229,
B-34025, J-21241, L-30779
AGE B-07527
AIR POLLUTION EPISODES A-32351,
B-03790, C-08895, D-32055, K-31968,
L-30779
AIR POLLUTION FORECASTING
A-33087
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA A-08642,
A-25638, B-26369, L-07363, L-07950,
L-27242
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT
PROGRAMS A-23313, A-23314,
A-25196, A-25638, A-32351, A-33087,
C-04324, C-25593, D-03363, D-05645,
D-12358, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
J-26757, J-33530, K-31968, L-07363,
L-07950, L-09445, L-16736, L-23610,
N-03197
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
A-01788, A-02629, A-02630, A-02631,
A-03154, A-03870, A-04799, A-05005,
A-05160, A-06111, A-08642, A-09161,
A-09831, A-10075, A-13855, A-23745,
A-24005, A-26693, A-28137, B-00406,
B-01459, B-01626, B-03121, B-04856,
B-05429, B-05868, B-07537, B-09164,
B-09833, B-16867, B-18290, B-26546,
B-27658, B-29013, C-00275, C-03201,
C-04324, C-08895, C-11859, C-25593,
C-27735, C-28991, C-31482, D-02147,
D-12358, D-17360, D-17785, D-20348,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
E-28937, E-31122, G-00236, O-07541,
J-01308, J-26757, K-31968, K-34154,
L-04942, L-07950, L-09445, L-09603,
L-09604, L-09677, L-11077, L-16736,
L-24828, L-26938, L-27242
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS A-25638,
A-29538, A-32351, B-02032, B-09833,
B-27658, C-25593, D-03363, D-07141,
D-32055, E-32371, K-06778, K-31968,
K-34015, L-07202, L-09677, L-21104,
L-23610, L-27242, L-32884
AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
K-25134, L-31740
AIR-FUEL RATIO A-02629, A-07975,
A-10075, A-23745, A-25169, B-07881,
B-15432, B-20294, B-22071, B-24291,
B-26451, B-27295, B-28503, B-30612,
B-31229, 1-04622, 1-30022, 1-31588
AIRCRAFT A-03154, A-26693, A-32351,
A-33087, B-12672, B-15544, D-32259,
G-00236
AIRPORTS B-07537
ALCOHOLS C-30084
ALDEHYDES A-01788, A-05011, A-09832,
A-23561, A-23745, B-07971, B-09792,
B-18118, B-30055, D-30860, D-32055,
L-16736
ALERTS A-32351, B-03790, K-31968,
L-30779
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS A-09831,
A-09832, A-17017, A-23745, A-25169,
B-05857, B-26365, B-34282, C-00275,
C-29313, C-29677, D-30860, H-14944
ALKALINE ADDITIVES A-22800,
B-00140, B-05137, B-07430, B-07537,
B-08825, B-09666, B-09833, B-11056,
B-11178, B-12308, B-12574, B-14716,
B-17905, B-18118, B-19056, B-20539,
B-21268, B-23073, B-24613, B-24678,
B-24821, B-26857, B-28271, B-28503,
B-28742, B-30131, B-30155, B-30159,
B-30734, B-30994, B-31100, B-31404,
B-31662, B-31795, B-31990, B-32274,
B-32455, B-32803, B-32824, B-34025,
B-34282, G-07541
ALKALIZED ALUMINA (ADSORPTION)
B-00140, B-09666, B-11247, B-13501,
B-26857
ALTITUDE A-34303, B-32552, C-30118,
D-12358, D-29973, E-29177, E-32371
ALUMINUM B-00107, B-25643, C-05552,
J-30696
ALUMINUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-18118, B-30055, B-30926, 1-29783
ALUMINUM OXIDES A-02629, B-05868,
B-09164, B-09833, B-32274
AMINES C-29677
AMMONIA A-23745, B-01626, B-03223,
B-07839, B-09833, B-12574, B-19588,
B-25079, B-28742, B-34282, C-25593,
D-29973, F-03881, L-04942
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE B-29940,
C-29677
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS A-23745.
B-01626, B-03223, B-07839, B-09833,
B-12574, B-14262, B-19588, B-25079,
B-28271, B-28742, B-29940, B-30220,
B-34282, C-25593, C-29677, D-29973,
F-03881, G-00236, L-04942
ANALYTICAL METHODS A-01788,
A-02631, A-05005, A-05157, A-05387,
A-08820, A-10075, A-22955, A-30017,
B-04372, B-07537, B-07557, B-07881,
B-08825, B-09504, B-18118, B-31997,
C-04324, C-16952, C-17497, C-21055,
C-24879, C-26601, C-27100, C-29313,
C-29677, C-29749, C-30084, C-30219,
C-31723, C-32008, C-32773, C-33054,
D-30860, E-20853, F-03874, F-10066,
J-30122
ANIMALS D-03363, G-00236, G-11656,
K-31968
ANNUAL B-32524, D-29973, D-30860,
L-09445
ANTHRACENES A-01788, A-05005
ANTIMONY COMPOUNDS 1-21641,
K-06778
AREA EMISSION ALLOCATIONS
L-09677, L-32884
-------
110
AREA SURVEYS A-23313, A-23314,
A-25196, A-32351, D-03363, D-05645,
D-12358, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
J-26757, K-31968, L-07363, L-09445,
N-03197
AROMATIC FRACTIONS B-04856
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS A-01788,
A-09832, A-10075, B-02973, B-04856,
C-00275, M-08698
ARSENIC COMPOUNDS B-08155,
B-09833, 1-29783, K-06778, L-23610
ASBESTOS A-23561
ASHES A-02629, A-02630, A-02631,
A-02634, A-05800, A-08255, A-08641,
A-09161, A-09831, A-09832, A-16949,
A-16990, A-19017, A-22955, A-24005,
A-33087, B-00272, B-00406, B-02032,
B-07535, B-07537, B-07839, B-08155,
B-08343, B-09164, B-09504, B-09833,
B-09923, B-11726, B-28742, B-29013,
B-30994, B-31662, C-00403, 1-11286,
J-30122, L-07550
ASIA A-02148, A-06111, A-12975,
A-17190, A-19217, A-21363, A-24076,
A-25868, A-26538, A-28137, A-28544,
A-29534, A-29538, B-07527, B-08957,
B-12478, B-14194, B-14844, B-14928,
B-15611, B-19257, B-20777, B-20822,
B-21328, B-24536, B-2464S, B-24821,
B-26104, B-26544, B-26545, B-26546,
B-26560, B-28742, B-28749, B-29231,
B-29685, B-29686, B-29819, B-29940,
B-30131, B-30220, B-30488, B-31145,
B-31456, B-31990, B-32524, B-32552,
B-32751, B-32803, B-32824, B-32826,
B-32827, B-32906, B-32910, B-33734,
B-33738, B-34282, C-03201, C-21055,
C-29677, C-30219, D-02147, D-20348,
D-29973, E-15174, E-29177, E-31122,
F-12997, F-15695, H-14944, 1-14948,
K-31968, K-34015, L-07202, L-09445,
L-21104, L-23610, L-30779, L-32884
ASPHALT A-05005, A-32351, B-00107,
J-30696, L-09677
ASPIRATORS A-28388, C-29749, D-03363
ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS A-08615,
A-10075, A-23313, A-32351, B-00140,
B-07537, C-08895, D-03363, D-32259,
E-29177, E-32371, G-00236, L-09445,
N-03197
AUSTRALIA A-08374, A-08641, A-25169,
A-34303, B-05517, B-18149, B-34278,
D-30860, D-32055, L-16736
AUTOCLAVES B-19588
AUTOMATIC METHODS B-15619,
B-26312, C-26588, C-27735, C-30118,
D-03363, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055
AUTOMOBILES A-05005, A-23561,
A-26693, A-32351, A-33087, B-07535,
B-07537, B-31229, B-32524, C-29677,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, G-00236,
J-26757, J-30696, L-07550, L-23610,
L-30779
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL
A-02629, A-07975, A-10075, A-23313,
A-23314, A-23745, A-25169, A-32351,
B-07881, B-15432, B-15544, B-20294,
B-22071, B-24291, B-26451, B-27295,
B-28503, B-30612, B-31229, C-29677,
1-04622, 1-30022, 1-31588, J-26757,
J-30696, L-33228
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS A-05005,
A-21940, A-23561, A-26277, A-26693,
A-29538, A-32351, B-06781, B-07535,
B-07537, B-07881, B-15544, B-31229,
B-32524, C-08895, C-25593, C-29677,
D-17785, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
J-26757, K-34015, L-09445, L-0%77,
L-16736, L-21104, L-23610, L-30779
B
BAFFLES A-08615, B-18149, B-20758,
B-29940, C-00275, J-01308
BAG FILTERS A-31299, B-00107,
B-00140, B-01626, B-04516, B-08155,
B-08343, B-08741, B-09833, B-34025,
J-01308, L-04942, L-32884
BARIUM COMPOUNDS C-30084, C-31723
BASIC OXYGEN FURNACES L-09677
BELGIUM B-04372, D-12358
BENZENE-SOLUBLE ORGANIC MATTER
A-05005, B-04856, L-09445
BENZENES A-01788, A-09832, C-00275
BENZO(3-4)PYRENE A-01788, A-05005,
A-05011, A-08200, D-03363, D-17785
BENZOPYRENES A-01788, A-05005,
A-05011, A-08200, C-17497, D-03363,
D-17785
BERYLLIOSIS A-01788, A-02667,
A-03154, A-03870, B-00140, B-00287,
B-00406, B-00716, B-00717, B-01459,
B-01626, B-03045, B-03121, B-03153,
C-00275, C-00403, C-03201, C-03460,
D-02147, D-03363, F-00572, G-00236
BESSEMER CONVERTERS D-05645,
G-00236, L-09677
BIOMEDICAL TECHNIQUES AND
MEASUREMENT D-03363,
G-07541, G-11656
BLACK LIQUOR OXIDATION B-18149
BLAST FURNACES A-25638, B-25643,
B-26546, E-32371, G-00236, L-09677
BLENDING A-09161, A-16836
BLOWBY A-32351
BODY CONSTITUENTS AND PARTS
G-07541
BODY PROCESSES AND FUNCTIONS
B-09164, G-00236
BOILERS A-01788, A-02148, A-02287,
A-02629, A-02630, A-02631, A-02634,
A-02667, A-03154, A-03870, A-04082,
A-04342, A-04799, A-05005, A-OS011,
A-05157, A-05160, A-05264, A-05387,
A-05563, A-05800, A-05846, A-06111,
A-%578, A-06687, A-07975, A-08200,
A-08255, A-08374, A-08615, A-08641,
A-08642, A-08820, A-09016, A-09161,
A-09539, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-10735, A-10743, A-12120, A-12975,
A-13794, A-13807, A-13832, A-13855,
A-15375, A-16836, A-16949, A-16990,
A-17017, A-17190, A-17840, A-19017,
A-19217, A-21166, A-21363, A-22955,
A-23443, A-23745, A-24005, A-24219,
A-24732, A-24854, A-25142, A-25638,
A-25868, A-26277, A-26278, A-26538,
A-27471, A-28137, A-28158, A-28388,
A-28515, A-28544, A-28800, A-29308,
A-29534, A-29538, A-29781, A-30132,
A-31252, A-31299, A-31657, A-32351,
A-33640, A-33697, A-34303, B-00107,
B-00140, B-00272, B-00287, B-00406,
B-00716, B-00717, B-01459, B-01496,
B-01626, B-02030, B-02032, B-02973,
B-03045, B-03053, B-03121, B-03153,
B-03223, B-03790, B-04304, B-04336,
B-04358, B-04372, B-04394, B-04516,
B-04856, B-04862, B-05137, B-05347,
B-05393, B-05429, B-05517, B-05853,
B-05857, B-05868, B-06548, B-06562,
B-06563, B-06781, B-07430, B-07527,
B-07535, B-07537, B-07557, B-07752,
B-07839, B-07881, B-07932, B-07971,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08616, B-08695,
B-08741, B-08825, B-08957, B-09164,
B-09191, B-09504, B-09546, B-0%66,
B-09792, B-09833, B-09923, B-10415,
B-10993, B-11056, B-11178, B-11247,
B-11251, B-11256, B-11491, B-11726,
B-12090, B-12308, B-12446, B-12478,
B-12574, B-12672, B-13501, B-13857,
B-13950, B-14194, B-14221, B-14262,
B-14690, B-14716, B-14838, B-14844,
B-14928, B-14996, B-15378, B-15432,
B-15544, B-15560, B-15611, B-15619,
B-16068, B-16366, B-16867, B-17137,
B-17213, B-17905, B-18118, B-18149,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19056, B-19257,
B-19453, B-19469, B-19473, B-19588,
B-19642, B-19729, B-20035, B-20294,
B-20539, B-20563, B-20616, B-20758,
B-20777, B-20822, B-21195, B-21200,
B-21268, B-21328, B-21506, B-21893,
B-22071, B-22603, B-22903, B-23063,
B-23073, B-23176, B-23189, B-23674,
B-23846, B-24043, B-24291, B-24480,
B-24536, B-24613, B-24642, B-24645,
B-24675, B-24678, B-24821, B-25079,
B-25468, B-25637, B-25643, B-25786,
B-26104, B-26312, B-26365, B-26369,
B-26378, B-26451, B-26501, B-26544,
B-26545, B-26546, B-26560, B-26665,
B-26857, B-27243, B-27295, B-27658,
B-28113, B-28230, B-28271, B-28503,
B-28517, B-28742, B-28749, B-29013,
B-29014, B-29231, B-29441, B-29471,
B-29514, B-29685, B-29686, B-29819,
B-30055, B-30131, B-30155, B-30159,
B-30220, B-30331, B-30488, B-30612,
B-30926, B-30994, B-31100, B-31104,
B-31145, B-31229, B-31404, B-31456,
B-31662, B-31990, B-31997, B-32274,
B-32455, B-32524, B-32552, B-32751,
B-32803, B-32824, B-32826, B-32827,
B-32906, B-32910, B-33030, B-33288,
B-33603, B-33623, B-33734, B-33738,
B-34025, B-34026, B-34278, B-34282,
C-00275, C-00403, C-03201, C-03460,
C-04324, C-04360, C-05552, C-06770,
C-07848, C-08895, C-11859, C-16952,
C-20256, C-21055, C-21872, C-23441,
C-23681, C-24879, C-25593, C-26588,
C-26601, C-28708, C-29072, C-29677,
C-29749, C-29955, C-30219, C-31842,
D-02147, D-03363, D-05645, D-07141,
D-12358, D-17360, D-17785, D-20348,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
E-15174, E-26550, E-28937, E-29177,
E-31122, E-32371, F-00572, F-03874,
F-03881, F-04357, F-04939, F-05302,
F-07811, F-10066, F-12997, F-13487,
F-14363, F-14896, F-15615, F-15695,
F-15799, F-15944, F-16883, F-20274,
F-32430, G-00236, G-07541, G-11656,
H-14944, 1-04622, 1-11286, 1-13681,
1-14084, 1-14153, 1-14948, 1-15274,
1-17475, 1-21641, 1-23460, 1-28335,
1-29783, 1-29956, 1-30022, 1-31588,
J-01308, J-21241, J-26757, J-30122,
J-30696, J-33530, K-06778, K-09921,
K-31968, K-34015, K-34154, L-04620,
L-04942, L-06741, L-07202, L-07363,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09445, L-09603,
L-09604, L-09677, L-11077, L-16343,
L-16736, L-20698, L-20861, L-21104,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
111
L-23610, L-24828, L-26938, L-27242,
L-30779, L-32884, M-08698, N-03197,
N-05221
BONES K-31968
BRICKS B-33734, 1-14948, J-30696
BRONCHITIS D-32055
BUBBLE TOWERS B-00140, B-08155,
B-19729, B-24645
BUILD-UP RATES E-28937
BUILDINGS A-04082, D-05645, D-20348,
G-11656
BUSES B-07971, G-00236
BUTANES A-09832
BUTENES H-14944
BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY A-02634,
A-06687, A-16949, A-28158, B-09666,
B-09833, B-H247, B-12478, B-14716,
B-19056, B-19469, B-19588, B-20777,
B-21195, B-23189, B-24613, B-26501,
B-28271, B-28742, B-29231, B-29441,
B-30159, B-30220, B-30488, B-31990,
B-32824, B-32827, B-33030, B-33288
CADMIUM COMPOUNDS K-06778,
K-31968, L-23610, L-32884
CALCIUM COMPOUNDS A-02629,
A-09831, A-22955, B-05137, B-07557,
B-08825, B-09191, B-09833, B-11056,
B-12672, B-23073, B-24613, B-28503,
B-30734, B-31404, B-31662, B-31795,
B-32274, B-32455, B-32803, F-04939,
1-11286
CALCIUM SULFATES A-02629, B-09833,
B-11056, B-23073, B-24613, B-31404,
B-31662, B-32274
CALIBRATION METHODS B-08825,
C-00275, C-04324, C-06770, C-08895,
C-27735, C-31981
CALIFORNIA A-03154, A-05157, A-05160,
A-32351, B-00107, B-04516, B-06781,
B-07535, B-09833, C-04324, D-32259,
L-09677
CANADA A-02631, A-02634, A-03154,
B-04358, B-09164, B-18118, B-30055,
B-31404, D-03363, N-05221
CARBIDES B-11056, 1-31588
CARBON BLACK A-05005, A-08374,
A-09831, A-28137, B-05868, B-30488,
B-33288, C-07848, C-31547, C-31723,
C-31981, F-07811
CARBON DIOXIDE A-01788, A-05264,
A-05387, A-08641, A-09831, A-10075,
A-13855, A-16990, A-28800, A-33697,
B-03223, B-04358, B-05429, B-08825,
B-08957, B-16867, B-18118, B-18296,
B-24480, B-24645, B-29514, B-33623,
B-34278, C-00275, C-04324, C-23441,
C-29313, C-29677, C-31723, C-32773,
D-03363, D-32055, F-04357, F-07811,
L-04620, L-09677
CARBON DISULFIDE C-33054
CARBON MONOXIDE A-01788, A-04082,
A-05011, A-08255, A-09832, A-17017,
A-23561, A-26693, A-30I32, A-32351,
A-33087, A-33697, B-00107, B-03121,
B-04358, B-04372, B-04856, B-05347,
B-05429, B-07881, B-07971, B-08825,
B-08957, B-09666, B-09833, B-10993,
B-18118, B-20294, B-26365, B-29471,
B-32274, B-33603, C-00275, C-04324,
C-25593, C-29313, C-29677, C-32773,
D-03363, D-29973, D-30860, D-32259,
F-04357, F-10066, G-11656, 1-23460,
J-21241, J-26757, J-30696, K-31968,
L-09445, L-16736, L-21104, L-23610
CARBONATES B-03223, B-09833,
B-28271, B-31795, B-32803
CARBONYLS C-32773, C-33054, L-09677
CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN G-11656
CARBURETOR EVAPORATION LOSSES
L-09677
CARCINOGENS B-00406, B-01459,
B-01626, B-03121, B-03153, B-18118,
C-00275, C-03201, D-02147, D-17785,
G-00236
CASCADE SAMPLERS B-29940, C-05552,
C-29072
CATALYSIS A-05005, A-05011, B-00140,
B-00287, B-05137, B-09833, B-12478,
B-14996, B-19056, B-19473, B-20035,
B-21200, B-21506, B-23176, B-24291,
B-24678, B-29819, B-31145, B-32826,
F-03874, F-03881, 1-14084, 1-21641
CATALYSTS B-00287, B-05137, B-09833,
B-14996, B-19056, B-19473, B-21506,
B-24291, B-29819, B-31145, B-32826,
1-21641
CATALYTIC ACTIVITY B-00140,
B-00287, B-09833, B-14996, B-19056,
B-21506, 1-14084
CATALYTIC AFTERBURNERS B-07535,
B-34025
CATALYTIC OXIDATION A-19017,
B-00140, B-00287, B-09666, B-11256,
B-14262, B-18149, B-19056, B-20035,
B-21200, B-27295, B-29819, B-31145,
B-31229, F-20274, 1-21641
CATTLE K-31968
CEMENTS A-06687, A-29781, B-07535,
B-07932, B-09833, B-11491, B-25643,
B-28271, D-30860, J-30696
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS A-02634,
A-05005, A-08615, A-31299, B-02030,
B-03121, B-05393, B-05853, B-05868,
B-06562, B-06563, B-07932, B-08343,
B-08741, B-09191, B-09546, B-09833,
B-10415, B-11726, B-14716, B-15611,
B-16366, B-17213, B-18149, B-20822,
B-22903, B-24043, B-24642, B-26378,
B-26546, B-28230, B-29819, B-30220,
B-31456, B-34025, B-34026, C-07848,
J-21241, L-04942, L-32884
CERAMICS B-00107, B-26546, C-28708,
1-14948
CHAMBER PROCESSING B-25643
CHARCOAL B-01626, B-14844, B-21195,
B-26104, B-32826
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION A-02629,
A-02630, A-02631, A-03870, A-05005,
A-09161, A-09831, A-23745, A-24005,
A-28137, B-01626, B-04856, B-05429,
B-05868, B-09164, L-09445
CHEMICAL METHODS A-05157,
A-08820, A-10075, B-07537, B-07557,
C-24879, C-26601, C-27100, C-32008,
D-30860, F-03874, J-30122
CHEMICAL PROCESSING A-03154,
A-05005, A-05157, A-23745, A-25196,
A-28158, A-29534, A-29781, A-32165,
A-32351, B-00107, B-05347, B-07535,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08957, B-09504,
B-09792, B-09833, B-14928, B-15432,
B-19469, B-25468, B-25643, B-26546,
B-29231, B-30488, B-31104, B-32274,
B-32827, C-04324, C-28708, C-29072,
D-03363, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
E-32371, J-21241, K-06778, K-25134,
L-04942, L-16736, M-08698
CHEMICAL REACTIONS A-05011,
A-12975, A-19017, A-23561, A-32351,
B-00140, B-00287, B-05137, B-06781,
B-07537, B-07881, B-09666, B-09833,
B-20539, B-23176, B-24678, B-27295,
B-29819, B-31145, B-31404, B-31662,
B-33288, B-34026, C-23681, C-26601,
C-29677, D-32055, F-03874, F-03881,
F-05302, F-10066, F-16883, G-00236,
1-04622, 1-11286, 1-23460, 1-29783,
1-31588
CHEMISTS D-30860, D-32055
CHICAGO A-09539, L-09677, L-11077
CHILDREN G-11656
CHLORATES C-30084, F-03881
CHLORIDES B-09833, C-30997, F-03881,
G-00236, 1-31588
CHLORINE A-32165, B-03045, C-25593,
K-06778, K-31968, L-32884
CHLORINE COMPOUNDS B-08343,
B-09833, B-12672, C-30084, C-30997,
F-03881, F-16883, G-00236, 1-04622,
1-31588
CHROMATOGRAPHY A-01788, A-05005,
B-07881, C-26601, C-29313, C-32773,
C-33054, D-30860
CHROMIUM 1-28335
CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-14996, B-32826, D-29973, L-23610
CHRONIC B-29441
CINCINNATI L-09677
CINDERS A-16990, B-00272, B-00406,
B-09164, C-00403, L-07202
CITIZENS GROUPS D-30860, M-08698
CITRUS H-14944
CITY GOVERNMENTS B-07971, D-29973,
L-07363, L-07550, L-09445, L-30779
CLEAN AIR ACT A-08615, A-10735,
L-04620, L-07950, L-16736, L-20861,
M-08698
CLOUDS E-20853
COAL A-01788, A-02148, A-02629,
A-02630, A-02631, A-02634, A-02667,
A-05005, A-05011, A-05846, A-06111,
A-06578, A-06687, A-08200, A-08615,
A-08641, A-08642, A-09016, A-09161,
A-09539, A-10743, A-12120, A-13832,
A-13855, A-16949, A-17017, A-17190,
A-19017, A-22800, A-23314, A-23726,
A-24005, A-24854, A-26278, A-26693,
A-29538, A-30017, A-31299, A-31657,
A-32165, B-00140, B-00272, B-00406,
B-01459, B-02032, B-03045, B-03053,
B-03121, B-04304, B-04394, B-04516,
B-05429, B-05517, B-05853, B-05868,
B-06548, B-06562, B-06563, B-07430,
B-07535, B-07537, B-07752, B-07932,
B-07971, B-08155, B-08343, B-08825,
B-09546, B-09666, B-09833, B-09923,
B-11178, B-11251, B-11256, B-12446,
B-12574, B-12672, B-13501, B-13857,
B-13950, B-14194, B-14838, B-15378,
B-15560, B-16068, B-17905, B-18290,
B-19642, B-20539, B-20563, B-21200,
B-21268, B-22559, B-23176, B-23189,
B-23674, B-24480, B-24642, B-24675,
B-24678, B-25786, B-26369, B-26378,
B-27658, B-28230, B-29514, B-29686,
B-29819, B-30612, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31100, B-31145, B-32274, B-32414,
B-32455, B-33288, B-34025, C-03460,
C-07848, C-08895, C-26601, C-28991,
C-29955, D-12358, D-17360, F-03881,
F-04939, F-16883, G-00236, 1-04622,
1-11286, 1-13681, 1-17475, 1-21641,
J-01308, J-30122, J-30696, K-09921,
-------
112
K-21896, K-34015, L-04620, L-07363,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09445, L-20698,
L-32647
COAL CHARACTERISTICS A-02629,
A-08200, A-08641, A-09161, A-12120,
B-12672, B-14838, B-25786, B-26378,
1-17475, J-30122
COAL PREPARATION A-09161, A-16949,
B-09666, B-14838, B-19056, B-23176,
J-26757, K-21896, L-04620
COAL RESOURCES A-02630, B-22559
COAL TARS A-08200, A-29534, B-03053
COBALT COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-04856, B-32826
CODES B-06781, B-07932, K-06778,
L-07550, L-11077
COKE A-02667, A-05005, A-06578,
A-13855, A-24076, A-29781, A-30021,
B-03121, B-04304, B-21200, B-26104,
B-28517, F-148%, L-04620, L-09677,
L-20698
COLLECTORS A-02634, A-05005,
A-05011, A-08615, A-08642, A-13832,
A-31299, B-00140, B-00272, B-02030,
B-03045, B-03121, B-05393, B-05853,
B-05868, B-06562, B-06563, B-07557,
B-07932, B-08155, B-08343, B-08741,
B-09191, B-09546, B-09833, B-09923,
B-10415, B-11251, B-11726, B-13857,
B-14716, B-14928, B-15611, B-16068,
B-16366, B-17213, B-18149, B-18290,
B-20758, B-20777, B-20822, B-22903,
B-23189, B-24043, B-24642, B-26378,
B-26546, B-28230, B-29441, B-29686,
B-29819, B-29861, B-29940, B-30220,
B-31145, B-31456, B-32455, B-32824,
B-34025, B-34026, C-00275, C-07848,
J-01308, J-21241, K-09921, K-31968,
L-04942, L-30779, L-32884
COLLOIDS B-09504
COLORIMETRY A-05157, A-22955,
B-07881, C-04324, C-21055, C-26601,
C-27100, C-29677, C-30084, C-31723,
D-30860, F-03874, F-10066
COLUMN CHROMATOORAPHY
A-01788, A-05005
COMBUSTION A-01788, A-02629,
A-04342, A-04799, A-05005, A-05264,
A-07975, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-13807, A-21940, A-23443, A-23561,
A-23745, A-24076, A-24219, A-24732,
A-25169, A-26538, A-28158, A-28388,
A-28800, A-30829, A-31299, A-33087,
A-33697, B-00287, B-00716, B-00717,
B-01626, B-02973, B-03053, B-03153,
B-04516, B-04856, B-05857, B-06781,
B-07881, B-07971, B-09164, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-10993, B-11178,
B-11247, B-12446, B-13950, B-16867,
B-18118, B-18290, B-19642, B-20563,
B-21328, B-22071, B-22903, B-24536,
B-24678, B-25786, B-26312, B-26451,
B-26501, B-27295, B-29471, B-30155,
B-30331, B-30734, B-30926, B-31100,
B-31229, B-33288, B-33734, B-33738,
C-31723, C-31981, D-03363, D-17360,
D-17785, F-03881, F-04357, F-04939,
F-05302, F-07811, F-14896, 1-23460,
1-28335, K-25134, L-04620, L-06741,
L-07550, L-09677, L-31509, L-31740,
L-32647
COMBUSTION AIR A-02287, A-04342,
A-04799, A-05011, A-05264, A-05387,
A-07975, A-08642, A-09832, A-10075,
A-30132, A-30829, A-34303, B-00717,
B-03053, B-03153, B-04372, B-04862,
B-05429, B-05857,
B-07881, B-08957,
B-09833, B-10993,
B-16068, B-18118,
B-22903, B-23063,
B-24678, B-26312,
B-28113, B-29014,
B-30055, B-31997,
B-32910, B-33288,
B-33734, B-33738,
C-21872, C-30219,
F-12997,G-07541,
COMBUSTION GASES
A-02287, A-04342,
A-05387, A-06111,
A-08255, A-08374,
A-08642, A-08820,
A-09832, A-10075,
A-16836, A-16990,
A-19017, A-21363,
A-23745, A-24005,
A-25196, A-26277,
A-26693, A-28137,
A-2930S, A-29538,
A-30829, A-31252,
A-33087, A-33697,
B-00140, B-00287,
B-01496, B-01626,
B-04516, B-05137,
B-05857, B-06548,
B-06781, B-07430,
B-07839, B-07881,
B-08155, B-08343,
B-09792, B-09833,
B-11056, B-11247,
B-12478, B-12574,
B-14262, B-14716,
B-15378, B-15560,
B-17213, B-17905,
B-18290, B-19056,
B-19473, B-19588,
B-20035, B-20539,
B-20822, B-21200,
B-21893, B-22559,
B-23189, B-24043,
B-24645, B-24678,
B-25637, B-25786,
B-26365, B-26378,
B-2654S, B-26546,
B-26857, B-27243,
B-28271, B-28503,
B-28749, B-29013,
B-29471, B-29514,
B-29819, B-29861,
B-30155, B-30159,
B-30488, B-30612,
B-31100, B-31145,
B-31662, B-31795,
B-32274, B-32455,
B-32824, B-32826,
B-32910, B-33030,
B-33734, B-34025,
B-34282, C-00403,
C-16952, C-17497,
C-22998, C-23351,
C-24879, C-25260,
C-27100, C-27735,
C-29677, C-29749,
C-30219, C-30997,
C-31723, C-31981,
C-33054, D-02147,
D-32055, E-26550,
F-03874, F-03881,
F-10066, F-13487,
F-20274, F-32430,
1-04622, 1-23460, I
B-06548, B-07537, 1-30022, 1-31588, J-30122, K-06778,
B-09164, B-09792, K-21896, K-25134, K-34015, K-34154,
B-11726, B-15432, L-04620, L-04942, L-07550, L-09677,
B-18290, B-21328, L-16343, L-27242, L-32647
B-24480, B-24642, COMBUSTION PRODUCTS A-01788,
B-27243, B-27295, A-02148, A-02287, A-02629, A-02630,
B-29471, B-29514, A-02631, A-02634, A-04082, A-04342,
B-32274, B-32414, A-04799, A-05005, A-05011, A-05160,
B-33603, B-33623, A-05387, A-05800, A-06111, A-06578,
B-34026, B-34282, A-08200, A-082S5, A-08374, A-08615,
C-31981, F-03881, A-08641, A-08642, A-08820, A-09161,
L-04620, L-07363 A-09539, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-01788, A-02148, A-10735, A-10743, A-13855, A-16836,
A-05005, A-05160, A-16949, A-16990, A-17017, A-17840,
A-06578, A-08200, A-19017, A-21363, A-21940, A-22800,
A-08615, A-08641, A-22955, A-23313, A-23314, A-23561,
A-09161, A-09831, A-23726, A-23745, A-24005, A-24076,
A-10743, A-13855, A-25169, A-25196, A-26277, A-26278,
A-17017, A-17840, A-26538, A-26693, A-28137, A-28158,
A-21940, A-22800, A-28515, A-29308, A-29538, A-30017,
A-24076, A-25169, A-30021, A-30829, A-31252, A-31657,
A-26278, A-26538, A-32165, A-33087, A-33640, A-33697,
A-28158, A-28515, A-34303, B-00107, B-00140, B-00272,
A-30017, A-30021, B-00287, B-00406, B-00716, B-00717,
A-31657, A-32165, B-01496, B-01626, B-02032, B-03053,
A-34303, B-00107, B-03121, B-03223, B-04394, B-04516,
B-00716, B-00717, B-05137, B-05393, B-05429, B-05857,
B-03121, B-04394, B-06548, B-06562, B-06563, B-06781,
B-05393, B-05429, B-07430, B-07535, B-07537, B-07752,
B-06562, B-06563, B-07839, B-07881, B-07932, B-07971,
B-07537, B-07752, B-08155, B-08343, B-08825, B-09164,
B-07932, B-07971, B-09191, B-09504, B-09666, B-09792,
B-08825, B-09666, B-09833, B-09923, B-10993, B-11056,
B-09923, B-10993, B-11247, B-11256, B-11726, B-12308,
B-11256, B-12308, B-12478, B-12574, B-13501, B-14221,
B-13501, B-14221, B-14262, B-14716, B-14844, B-14928,
B-14844, B-14928, B-15378, B-15544, B-15560, B-16068,
B-16068, B-17137, B-16867, B-17137, B-17213, B-17905,
B-18118, B-18149, B-18118, B-18149, B-18290, B-19056,
B-19257, B-19469, B-19257, B-19469, B-19473, B-19588,
B-19642, B-19729, B-19642, B-19729, B-20035, B-20539,
B-20758, B-20777, B-20758, B-20777, B-20822, B-21195,
B-21268, B-21506, B-21200, B-21268, B-21506, B-21893,
B-23063, B-23073, B-22559, B-23063, B-23073, B-23189,
B-24291, B-24613, B-24043, B-24291, B-24613, B-24645,
B-24821, B-25079, B-24678, B-24821, B-25079, B-25637,
B-26104, B-26312, B-25786, B-26104, B-26312, B-26365,
B-26451, B-26544, B-26369, B-26378, B-26451, B-26544,
B-26560, B-26665, B-26545, B-26546, B-26560, B-26665,
B-27295, B-28113, B-26857, B-27243, B-27295, B-28113,
B-28517, B-28742, B-28271, B-28503, B-28517, B-28742,
B-29014, B-29231, B-28749, B-29013, B-29014, B-29231,
B-29685, B-29686, B-29471, B-29514, B-29685, B-29686,
B-30055, B-30131, B-29819, B-29861, B-30055, B-30131,
B-30220, B-30331, B-30155, B-30159, B-30220, B-30331,
B-30734, B-30994, B-30488, B-30612, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31404, B-31456, B-31100, B-31145, B-31404, B-31456,
B-31990, B-31997, B-31662, B-31795, B-31990, B-31997,
B-32751, B-32803, B-32274, B-32414, B-32455, B-32751,
B-32827, B-32906, B-32803, B-32824, B-32826, B-32827,
B-33288, B-33603, B-32906, B-32910, B-33030, B-33288,
B-34026, B-34278, B-33603, B-33734, B-34025, B-34026,
C-04324, C-11859, B-34278, B-34282, C-00275, C-00403,
C-20256, C-21055, C-04324, C-11859, C-16952, C-17497,
C-23441, C-23681, C-20256, C-20317, C-21055, C-22998,
C-26588, C-26601, C-23351, C-23441, C-23681, C-24879,
C-28991, C-29313, C-25260, C-26588, C-26601, C-27100,
C-30084, C-30118, C-27735, C-28991, C-29313, C-29677,
C-31482, C-31547, C-29749, C-30084, C-30118, C-30219,
C-32008, C-32773, C-30997, C-31482, C-31547, C-31723,
D-29973, D-30860, C-31981, C-32008, C-32773, C-33054,
E-32371, F-00572, D-02147, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
F-05302, F-07811, E-26550, E-32371, F-00572, F-03874,
F-15615, F-16883, F-03881, F-05302, F-07811, F-10066,
G-07541, H-14944, F-13487, F-15615, F-16883, F-20274,
-28335, 1-29783, F-32430, G-07541, H-14944, 1-04622,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
113
1-11286, 1-23460, 1-28335, 1-29783,
1-30022, 1-31588, J-21241, J-30122,
K-06778, K-21896, K-25134, K-34015,
K-34154, L-04620, L-04942, L-07202,
L-07550, L-09603, L-09604, L-09677,
L-16343, L-23610, L-27242, L-31509,
L-31740, L-32647, L-33228
COMMERCIAL AREAS A-05563, B-32524,
D-20348, D-30860, D-32055, L-07550,
L-09677
COMMERCIAL EQUIPMENT A-25142,
B-00107, B-00272, B-00406, B-09546,
B-31795, F-15799, L-04620
COMMERCIAL FIRMS B-29441, D-29973,
J-30122
COMPLAINTS D-29973, L-07363,
L-11077, M-08698
COMPRESSED GASES B-08343, B-28271
COMPUTER PROGRAMS A-21940,
A-25142, B-10993
COMPUTERS B-10993
CONCRETE A-06687, A-32351, B-00107
CONDENSATION A-30021, B-05853,
B-09833, B-17137, B-24821, B-31795,
C-24879, F-15944
CONDENSATION (ATMOSPHERIC)
C-08895, E-20853, G-00236
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS A-05005,
A-06687, A-29781, A-32351, B-00107,
B-07535, B-07932, B-09833, B-11491,
B-25643, B-28271, B-32906, B-33734,
D-30860, 1-14948, J-30696, L-09677
CONTACT PROCESSING B-19469,
B-25643, B-30488, E-32371
CONTINUOUS MONITORING A-05005,
A-31657, B-14690, B-19257, B-24821,
B-25637, B-33738, C-20317, C-23681,
C-25260, C-26588, C-27735, C-29677,
C-29955, C-30118, C-30219, C-31482,
D-30860, D-32055, J-33530, L-09445
CONTRACTING A-09539
CONTROL AGENCIES A-25638, B-26451,
B-30155, D-30860, K-31968, L-07550,
L-09445, L-11077, L-26938, M-08698
CONTROL EQUIPMENT A-02634,
A-04082, A-05005, A-05011, A-05157,
A-08615, A-08642, A-13832, A-24219,
A-25196, A-26538, A-28388, A-30132,
A-31299, A-32165, A-33640, B-00107,
B-00140, B-00272, B-00406, B-01626,
B-02030, B-02032, B-03045, B-03121,
B-04358, B-04394, B-04516, B-05137,
B-05393, B-05853, B-05868, B-06562,
B-06563, B-06781, B-07430, B-07535,
B-07557, B-07752, B-07932, B-08155,
B-08343, B-08616, B-08741, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09546, B-09666, B-09792,
B-09833, B-09923, B-10415, B-10993,
B-11251, B-11256, B-11491, B-11726,
B-12574, B-13857, B-14194, B-14221,
B-14716, B-14928, B-14996, B-15378,
B-15611, B-16068, B-16366, B-17213,
B-17905, B-18149, B-18290, B-19056,
B-19453, B-19469, B-19473, B-19729,
B-20035, B-20616, B-20758, B-20777,
B-20822, B-21200, B-21268, B-22071,
B-22903, B-23176, B-23189, B-23674,
B-24043, B-24613, B-24642, B-24645,
B-24675, B-24678, B-24821, B-25079,
B-25643, B-25786, B-26369, B-26378,
B-26544, B-26545, B-26546, B-26665,
B-27243, B-28113, B-28230, B-28271,
B-28742, B-28749, B-29013, B-29231,
B-29441, B-29685, B-29686, B-29819,
B-29861, B-29940, B-30055, B-30155,
B-30220, B-30331, B-31104, B-31145,
B-31229, B-31456,
B-32455, B-32524,
B-32826, B-32906,
B-34025, B-34026,
C-06770, C-07848,
C-24879, C-29749,
E-20853, F-04939,
F-32430, J-01308,
K-06778, K-09921
L-06741, L-09604,
L-32884, M-08698
CONTROL METHODS
A-02634, A-03870,
A-05011, A-05264,
A-07975, A-08200,
A-08615, A-08642,
A-09832, A-10075,
A-13855, A-16836,
A-19217, A-21166,
A-23313, A-23314,
A-25638, A-26278,
A-28515, A-29534,
A-30829, A-31299,
A-33640, A-34303,
B-00287, B-00406,
B-01626, B-03045,
B-03153, B-03223,
B-04372, B-04516,
B-05137, B-05347,
B-05517, B-05853,
B-06781, B-07430,
B-07537, B-07752,
B-07932, B-07971,
B-08616, B-08695,
B-08957, B-09164,
B-09666, B-09792,
B-10993, B-11056,
B-11251, B-11256,
B-12446, B-12478,
B-14221, B-14262,
B-14844, B-14928,
B-15432, B-15544,
B-16068, B-16867,
B-18118, B-18149,
B-19056, B-19257,
B-19588, B-19642,
B-20539, B-20563,
B-21195, B-21200,
B-21506, B-21893,
B-22903, B-23063,
B-23189, B-23846,
B-24536, B-24613,
B-24675, B-24678,
B-25643, B-25786,
B-26365, B-26369,
B-26544, B-26545,
B-26857, B-27243,
B-28271, B-28503,
B-29014, B-29231,
B-29514, B-29685,
B-30055, B-30131,
B-30220, B-30488,
B-30926, B-30994,
B-31229, B-31404,
B-31795, B-31990,
B-32414, B-32455,
B-32751, B-32803,
B-32827, B-329IO,
B-33603, B-33623,
B-34025, B-34026,
C-04324, C-06770,
C-22998, C-25593,
C-30219, C-31981,
F-03881, F-04939,
F-20274, F-32430,
1-04622, 1-14948, I
B-31662,
B-32803,
B-32910,
C-00275,
C-20317,
C-31842,
F-13487,
J-21241, J
, K-31968,
L-20698,
B-31990,
B-32824,
B-33030,
C-05552,
C-23441,
D-03363,
F-15695,
-30122,
L-04942,
L-30779,
A-02287, A-02629,
A-04342, A-04799,
A-05387, A-06687,
A-08255, A-08374,
A-09161, A-09831,
A-10743, A-12975,
A-16949, A-19017,
A-21363, A-22800,
A-23745, A-25169,
A-27471, A-28158,
A-30021, A-30132,
A-31657, A-32351,
B-00107, B-00140,
B-00716, B-00717,
B-03053, B-03121,
B-03790, B-04336,
B-04856, B-04862,
B-05393, B-05429,
B-05857, B-06548,
B-07527, B-07535,
B-07839, B-07881,
B-08155, B-08343,
B-08741, B-08825,
B-09191, B-09504,
B-09833, B-10415,
B-11178, B-11247,
B-11726, B-12308,
B-12574, B-13501,
B-14716, B-14838,
B-14996, B-15378,
B-15560, B-15619,
B-17137, B-17905,
B-18290, B-18296,
B-19469, B-19473,
B-20035, B-20294,
B-20777, B-20822,
B-21268, B-21328,
B-22071, B-22603,
B-23073, B-23176,
B-24291, B-24480,
B-24642, B-24645,
B-24821, B-25468,
B-26104, B-26312,
B-26451, B-26501,
B-26546, B-26560,
B-27295, B-28113,
B-28742, B-28749,
B-29441, B-29471,
B-29819, B-29940,
B-30155, B-30159,
B-30612, B-30734,
B-31100, B-31145,
B-31456, B-31662,
B-31997, B-32274,
B-32524, B-32552,
B-32824, B-32826,
B-33030, B-33288,
B-33734, B-33738,
B-34278, B-34282,
C-08895, C-21872,
C-29677, C-30084,
D-03363, F-00572,
F-12997, F-13487,
G-00236, G-07541,
-21641, 1-30022,
1-31588, J-26757, J-30696, J-33530,
K-21896, L-04620, L-07363, L-11077,
L-20698, L-31509, L-31740, L-32647,
L-33228
CONTROL PROGRAMS A-10743,
A-22800, A-25142, B-07971, B-11491,
B-31229, B-32524, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, J-33530, K-25134, K-31968,
L-07363, L-07950, L-09677, L-11077,
L-23610, L-26938
CONVECTION B-09833
COOLING A-03870, A-23561, B-07881,
B-09833, B-21200, B-29861, B-32552
COPPER B-00107, C-05552, J-30696
COPPER ALLOYS B-00107, C-05552
COPPER COMPOUNDS A-09831, B-04856,
B-14996, B-19473, B-32826, C-29677,
D-32055
CORE OVENS B-00107
CORONA B-05868, B-07932, B-26665
CORROSION A-02287, A-04342, A-12975,
A-19017, A-23443, A-24005, A-31299,
A-33697, B-00287, B-04336, B-04372,
B-04862, B-05853, B-07839, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-12090, B-14690,
B-14838, B-15432, B-18118, B-18296,
B-19056, B-22603, B-23063, B-25637,
B-26560, B-28503, B-28517, B-29014,
B-30055, B-30612, B-30926, B-32824,
B-34026, C-30084, F-03874, F-03881,
F-05302, F-12997, F-14363, F-15944,
F-16883, G-00236, 1-04622, 1-11286,
1-14084, 1-14153, 1-14948, 1-15274,
1-17475, 1-21641, 1-23460, 1-28335,
1-29783, 1-29956, 1-30022, 1-31588
COSTS A-08615, A-09539, A-13794,
A-13832, A-22800, A-23443, A-24854,
A-25142, A-26278, B-00140, B-05137,
B-06781, B-07430, B-07752, B-08825,
B-08957, B-09666, B-09833, B-11056,
B-11247, B-13501, B-14194, B-14716,
B-21893, B-24613, B-24678, B-26378,
B-26665, B-27295, B-28271, B-29441,
B-29686, B-30612, B-31662, B-32274,
B-32455, B-32552, B-32803, B-32826,
B-32827, B-33734, B-34278, D-30860,
F-13487, J-01308, J-21241, J-26757,
J-30122, J-30696, K-25134, L-04942,
L-32647, N-05221
COTTONS B-08343
COUNTY GOVERNMENTS A-23313,
A-23314, B-00107, L-09677
CRANKCASE EMISSIONS A-32351,
J-26757, L-09677
CRITERIA A-04799, A-08642, A-10735,
A-25638, B-13501, B-26369, B-32552,
F-04939, K-34154, L-07363, L-07950,
L-09677, L-27242, L-32884
CROPS B-07537
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE A-22955,
A-28137, B-09164
CUMULATIVE METHODS L-09445
CUPOLAS A-05157, A-25638, A-32351,
B-00107, B-29861, D-03363, D-05645,
D-29973, L-07950, L-09677
CYANIDES L-23610
CYCLONES (ATMOSPHERIC) D-32259
CZECHOSLOVAKIA A-01788, A-02631,
A-03870, B-00287, B-00716, B-01459,
B-01496, B-01626, B-02032, B-26365,
C-00275, C-03460, F-00572, F-03874,
F-04357, F-15615
-------
114
D
DATA ANALYSIS B-10993, C-06770,
C-25593, F-14896, L-11077
DATA HANDLING SYSTEMS A-21940,
A-25142, B-10993, C-06770, C-25593,
F-14896, L-11077
DECISIONS L-21104
DECOMPOSITION B-09833, B-24678,
B-31404, C-26601, 1-31588
DECREASING A-05157, A-32351
DENSITY A-22955, A-24005, B-05868,
B-09164, B-17137, B-28517, B-29686,
B-29940, B-32274, C-21055, C-31981,
D-32259, F-04939, 1-31588, K-34154
DEPOSITION A-22955, A-24005, B-06562,
B-06563, B-09164, B-12672, B-23846,
B-24291, D-29973, 1-29783
DESIGN CRITERIA A-02667, A-05846,
A-07975, A-08642, A-09016, A-09832,
A-12120, A-13807, A-13832, A-15375,
A-21166, A-25868, A-26278, A-27471,
A-31252, B-01496, B-03045, B-07557,
B-07752, B-07881, B-07932, B-09546,
B-09792, B-09833, B-10415, B-11247,
B-11251, B-11256, B-12446, B-13950,
B-15560, B-15619, B-16366, B-17213,
B-18149, B-19453, B-20294, B-20758,
B-20777, B-20822, B-21195, B-21200,
B-22071, B-23674, B-24480, B-24642,
B-25079, B-25643, B-26451, B-26544,
B-26545, B-26560, B-28113, B-28517,
B-29685, B-29819, B-30159, B-30994,
B-31145, B-31456, B-32455, B-32751,
B-32803, B-32827, B-32906, B-32910,
B-33734, B-34025, C-00275, C-11859,
C-20256, C-20317, C-21055, C-21872,
C-25260, C-28708, F-15695, L-06741,
L-20698
DESULFURIZATION OF FUELS
A-08642, A-09161, A-09831, A-16836,
A-16949, A-22800, B-00140, B-03121,
B-03790, B-06781, B-07752, B-09666,
B-11247, B-13501, B-14716, B-14838,
B-17137, B-19056, B-20563, B-23176,
B-29231, B-30155, B-30220, B-31229,
B-34026, B-34278, J-26757, K-21896,
L-04620
DETROIT L-09677
DIAGNOSIS G-07541
DIESEL ENGINES A-03154, A-05005,
A-26277, A-29538, A-32351, A-33087,
B-07537, B-07971, B-09504, B-15544,
B-30926, C-25593, D-03363, D-32259,
G-00236, L-32647
DIFFRACTION B-29940
DIFFUSION A-34303, B-32552, C-08895,
E-29177, E-31122, E-32371, F-00572,
L-32884
DIFFUSION MODELS B-32552, E-29177,
E-31122, E-32371
DIGESTERS A-31657
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM G-07541
DISPERSION A-08615, A-23561, A-34303,
B-06562, B-06563, B-09666, B-28517,
B-32552, B-34278, C-05552, C-08895,
D-30860, E-20853, E-26550, E-28937,
E-29177, E-31122, E-32371, F-00572,
K-21896, L-27242, L-32884
DISPERSIONS B-09504
DISSOCIATION F-16883
DISTILLATE OILS A-04342, A-09831,
A-09832, A-16836, A-29534, B-09504,
B-26451, B-32414, C-31547, C-31981,
G-07541, J-26757
DIURNAL A-05563, A-32351, C-08895,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
E-29177, E-31122
DOMESTIC HEATING A-01788, A-05005,
A-05157, A-05563, A-06111, A-06578,
A-08820, A-09831, A-10075, A-10743,
A-13855, A-24732, A-29781, A-31657,
A-33087, A-33640, B-00406, B-01626,
B-03053, B-03121, B-04516, B-06781,
B-07535, B-07971, B-09504, B-09833,
B-18118, B-18296, B-21268, B-26451,
B-31990, B-32414, B-32524, B-32552,
B-32906, B-33603, C-00275, C-04324,
C-05552, D-05645, D-12358, D-20348,
D-29973, E-15174, 3-21241, J-26757,
J-30696, J-33530, L-07363, L-07550,
L-07950, L-16343, L-20698, L-26938,
L-32647, L-32884
DROPLETS A-24076, B-03153, B-09833
DRY CLEANING A-32351
DRYING A-29781, B-24821, B-31795
DUMPS A-01788, A-23313, A-23314,
N-03197
DUST FALL A-06111, B-27658, D-30860,
D-32055, E-28937, G-00236, J-01308,
L-07950, L-09445, L-16736
DUSTS A-02667, A-05005, A-06111,
A-06578, A-08615, A-08820, A-10735,
A-13832, A-16990, A-17190, A-19017,
A-24005, A-25638, A-26538, A-28388,
A-33640, B-00140, B-00272, B-00406,
B-01459, B-02030, B-02032, B-02973,
B-03045, B-03121, B-05393, B-06562,
B-06563, B-06781, B-07430, B-07535,
B-07537, B-07932, B-08155, B-08343,
B-08616, B-08741, B-08825, B-09923,
B-10415, B-11056, B-11726, B-13857,
B-14194, B-14716, B-14928, B-15611,
B-15619, B-16068, B-16366, B-17213,
B-17905, B-18149, B-19453, B-20777,
B-20822, B-21328, B-23176, B-23189,
B-23674, B-24043, B-24480, B-24642,
B-25079, B-25643, B-26104, B-26369,
B-26378, B-26546, B-26665, B-29231,
B-29686, B-29819, B-29861, B-30220,
B-31145, B-31456, B-31990, B-32524,
B-32824, B-32906, B-33734, C-06770,
C-07848, C-20256, C-25260, C-25593,
C-29955, C-30118, D-03363, D-05645,
D-07141, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
E-26550, E-32371, F-04939, G-00236,
G-07541, K-06778, K-09921, K-31968,
L-04942, L-07202, L-07950, L-09677,
L-16343, L-16736, L-24828, L-30779,
L-32884, N-03197
DYE MANUFACTURING B-08957,
B-24645, D-03363
ECONOMIC LOSSES B-08957, B-29441,
D-03363, J-30122
EDUCATION A-26277, L-07363
ELECTRIC CHARGE B-25468, G-00236
ELECTRIC FURNACES A-05157,
A-32351, B-00107, B-26546, C-04324,
D-29973, E-32371, N-05221
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
A-01788, A-02629, A-02634, A-05005,
A-05011, A-05157, A-05160, A-09016,
A-09161, A-09831, A-10743, A-12120,
A-16949, A-22800, A-23726, A-24732,
A-24854, A-251%, A-26278, A-28158,
A-29781, A-32351, A-33087, B-00107,
B-03121, B-04372, B-04516, B-04856,
B-05857, B-06781, B-07537, B-07881,
B-07932, B-07971, B-08155, B-08343,
B-09191, B-09504, B-09666, B-09833,
B-09923, B-10993, B-11247, B-11251,
B-11256, B-12308, B-12574, B-15544,
B-16068, B-16366, B-18296, B-20035,
B-21268, B-21506, B-21893, B-22071,
B-22559, B-23176, B-23674, B-24613,
B-24678, B-25079, B-25637, B-26369,
B-26501, B-27295, B-29514, B-30155,
B-30994, B-31229, B-31997, B-32414,
B-34025, B-34026, B-34278, C-00403,
C-04324, C-25260, C-26588, C-27100,
C-28708, C-29072, D-03363, D-05645,
D-07141, D-17360, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32259, F-13487, 1-04622, 1-17475,
1-28335, J-01308, 3-21241, J-26757,
J-30696, K-06778, K-34015, L-04620,
L-07550, L-07950, L-16736, L-23610,
L-32647, L-32884, N-05221
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT DEVICES
C-31482
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES A-24005,
B-04394, B-05853, B-05868, B-07557,
B-07932, B-08616, B-18118, B-20616,
B-23674, B-25468, B-25643, B-25786,
B-26378, B-26665, B-29819, B-30055,
B-31104, B-31145, C-25260, F-04939,
G-00236
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE B-07557,
B-18118, B-25786, B-26378, B-29819,
B-30055, B-31145, F-04939
ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS
C-26601, C-32008
ELECTROCONDUCTIVITY ANALYZERS
B-25637, C-25260, C-29955, D-30860,
L-09445
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY B-07932,
B-29940
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
A-05005, A-05011, B-00107, B-00140,
B-01626, B-02030, B-02032, B-03121,
B-04394, B-04516, B-05137, B-05393,
B-05853, B-05868, B-06562, B-06563,
B-06781, B-07535, B-07557, B-07932,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08616, B-08741,
B-09833, B-11251, B-11256, B-11491,
B-12574, B-13857, B-14716, B-15611,
B-18149, B-18290, B-19453, B-20616,
B-21200, B-21268, B-23176, B-23674,
B-24043, B-24675, B-25079, B-25643,
B-25786, B-26378, B-26665, B-28230,
B-29013, B-29441, B-29819, B-30055,
B-30220, B-31104, B-31145, B-32455,
B-34025, B-34026, C-06770, D-03363,
F-04939, J-01308, J-21241, K-06778,
L-04942, L-20698, L-32884
EMISSION INVENTORIES A-03154,
A-05160, A-26693, B-26546, C-04324,
D-32259, J-26757, L-04942, L-11077
EMISSION STANDARDS A-01788,
A-10735, A-25638, A-27471, A-32351,
A-34303, B-07932, B-09666, B-19453,
B-31104, B-31229, B-33623, C-25593,
D-32055, J-30696, K-06778, K-09921,
K-25134, K-34015, L-09603, L-09604,
L-09677, L-20698, L-20861, L-21104,
L-26938, L-27242, L-32884
ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES
A-25638, J-33530, K-06778, K-34015,
L-07363, L-11077, L-21104, L-26938
ENGINE DESIGN MODIFICATION
B-31229
ENGINE EXHAUSTS A-05005, A-21940,
A-26277, A-29538, A-32351, B-07535,
B-07537, B-07881, B-15544, B-31229,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
115
B-32524, C-08895, C-29677, D-17785,
D-30860, D-32055, J-26757, L-09445,
L-09677, L-16736, L-30779
ENGINE OPERATING CYCLES A-05160,
A-26693, D-30860, D-32055
ENGINE OPERATION MODIFICATION
A-02629, A-07975, A-10075, A-23745,
A-25169, B-07881, B-15432, B-20294,
B-22071, B-24291, B-26451, B-27295,
B-28503, B-30612, B-31229, C-29677,
1-04622, 1-30022, 1-31588
ENGINEERS A-08642, B-18290, D-30860,
D-32055, L-20861
EQUIPMENT CRITERIA A-08642,
B-26369, B-32552, F-04939, K-34154,
L-07363, L-07950
EQUIPMENT STANDARDS A-25638,
B-18296, C-25593, L-21104
ERYTHEMA G-07541
ETHYLENE A-09832, C-29313, C-29677,
H-14944
EUROPE A-01788, A-02631, A-03870,
A-04082, A-04342, A-04799, A-05387,
A-061I1, A-06578, A-06687, A-08200,
A-08255, A-08615, A-08820, A-10075,
A-10735, A-10743, A-13807, A-13855,
A-15375, A-16990, A-17017, A-17840,
A-22955, A-23443, A-24005, A-24219,
A-25638, A-28158, A-28388, A-28515,
A-29308, A-29781, A-30021, A-30132,
A-30829, A-31252, A-31657, A-33640,
A-33697, A-34303, B-00140, B-00287,
B-00406, B-00716, B-00717, B-01459,
B-01496, B-01626, B-02032, B-02973,
B-03045, B-03053, B-03121, B-03153,
B-03223, B-04304, B-04336, B-04358,
B-04372, B-04394, B-04862, B-05137,
B-05393, B-05429, B-05517, B-06562,
B-06563, B-06781, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07839, B-08155, B-08741, B-08825,
B-11056, B-11247, B-11491, B-13950,
B-14262, B-14690, B-14716, B-15378,
B-15432, B-15619, B-16366, B-17137,
B-17213, B-18296, B-19453, B-19469,
B-19588, B-19729, B-20563, B-20616,
B-21200, B-21893, B-22603, B-22903,
B-23063, B-23189, B-23674, B-24043,
B-24613, B-24642, B-25468, B-25637,
B-25643, B-25786, B-26312, B-26365,
B-26369, B-26378, B-26665, B-27658,
B-28230, B-28271, B-28503, B-28517,
B-2947], B-29514, B-29861, B-30159,
B-30612, B-31795, B-33030, B-33288,
B-33603, B-33623, C-00275, C-00403,
C-03460, C-04360, C-06770, C-07848,
C-08895, C-20256, C-21872, C-23441,
C-24879, C-25593, C-26588, C-26601,
C-29313, C-29749, C-29955, C-30084,
C-31547, C-31723, C-31981, C-32773,
C-33054, D-03363, D-07141, D-12358,
D-17360, D-17785, E-26550, E-28937,
E-32371, F-00572, F-03874, F-03881,
F-04357, F-14363, F-14896, F-15615,
F-15944, F-32430, G-00236, G-07541,
G-11656, 1-15274, 1-17475, 1-23460,
1-28335, 1-29783, 1-29956, 1-30022,
1-31588, J-33530, K-06778, K-09921,
K-25134, K-34154, L-04620, L-07363,
L-07950, L-16343, L-20698, L-24828
EXCESS AIR A-02287, A-04342, A-04799,
A-05011, A-05264, A-05387, A-10075,
A-34303, B-00717, B-04372, B-04862,
B-07537, B-08957, B-09164, B-09833,
B-10993, B-15432, B-18118, B-18290,
B-23063, B-24678, B-26312, B-27295,
B-29014, B-29471, B-30055, B-31997,
B-32274, B-33288, B-33623, B-34026,
C-30219, C-31981, F-03881, F-I2997,
G-07541
EXHAUST SYSTEMS A-04082, A-08615,
A-13832, B-02032, B-09792, B-28113,
B-29819, B-29940, B-32906, B-32910,
F-15695, L-04942
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT A-04342,
B-00716, B-01496, B-05137, B-08741,
B-08825, B-15560, B-26365, C-30997
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS A-05011,
A-08641, A-15375, B-00716, B-02032,
B-07527, B-07881, B-08741, C-06770,
C-33054, F-04939, L-07363
EXPLOSIONS A-19217, B-29514
EYE IRRITATION A-32351, G-07541,
K-31968
EYES G-07541
FANS (BLOWERS) A-08615, A-13832,
B-02032, B-09792, B-29819, B-32910
FARMS A-26277
FEASIBILITY STUDIES B-01626, B-17905
FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS A-22800,
A-34303, B-06781, B-07932, B-07971,
B-22559, B-23176, B-26451, D-32055,
L-16343, L-27242, L-32884, M-08698
FEES D-30860, D-32055
FERTILIZER MANUFACTURING J-21241
FIELD TESTS A-01788, A-03870, B-05857,
B-09546, B-09833, B-11056, B-12308,
C-03460, C-29072, C-30997, C-31842,
L-07363
FILTER FABRICS A-05005, A-26538,
B-00107, B-00140, B-01626, B-08155,
B-08343, B-08741, B-09833, B-14716,
B-34025, B-34026, C-05552, C-31842,
E-20853
FILTERS A-05005, A-26538, A-28388,
A-31299, A-33640, B-00107, B-00140,
B-01626, B-03121, B-04516, B-05137,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08741, B-09504,
B-09833, B-14716, B-24642, B-26369,
B-28113, B-29231, B-29686, B-29940,
B-30331, B-32824, B-32906, B-34025,
B-34026, C-05552, C-20317, C-24879,
C-29749, C-31842, E-20853, J-01308,
J-21241, J-30122, K-09921, L-04942,
L-32884
FIRING METHODS A-02287, A-02634,
A-03870, A-04342, A-04799, A-05011,
A-05264, A-05387, A-07975, A-08200,
A-08642, A-09832, A-10075, A-10743,
A-21166, A-27471, A-28515, A-30132,
A-30829, A-34303, B-00406, B-00716,
B-00717, B-01626, B-03053, B-03153,
B-04372, B-04516, B-04862, B-05393,
B-05429, B-05517, B-05857, B-06548,
B-07537, B-07881, B-08957, B-09164,
B-09792, B-09833, B-10993, B-11726,
B-12308, B-12446, B-15432, B-15560,
B-15619, B-16068, B-16867, B-18118,
B-18290, B-18296, B-21328, B-22903,
B-23063, B-24480, B-24642, B-24678,
B-26312, B-27243, B-27295, B-28113,
B-29014, B-29471, B-29514, B-30055,
B-31997, B-32274, B-32414, B-32910,
B-33288, B-33603, B-33623, B-33734,
B-33738, B-34026, B-34282, C-06770,
C-21872, C-30219, C-31981, F-03881,
F-04939, F-12997, G-07541, L-04620,
L-07363, L-20698
FLAME AFTERBURNERS A-24219,
B-34025
FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR
B-07881
FLORIDA L-09677
FLOW RATES A-05264, A-07975,
A-08255, A-24005, A-24219, A-25196,
A-25868, A-28515, A-31657, B-03153,
B-05868, B-06548, B-07430, B-07537,
B-07881, B-07932, B-08343, B-08695,
B-09833, B-19729, B-24642, B-26665,
B-29231, B-30994, B-31100, B-31456,
B-32274, B-33738, C-23351, C-23441,
C-25260, C-31723
FLOWMETERS A-02287, A-07975,
A-09832
FLUID FLOW A-05264, A-07975,
A-08255, A-24005, A-24219, A-25196,
A-25868, A-28515, A-31657, B-03153,
B-05853, B-05868, B-06548, B-07430,
B-07537, B-07881, B-07932, B-08343,
B-08616, B-08695, B-09833, B-19729,
B-24642, B-26665, B-27243, B-29231,
B-30994, B-31100, B-31456, B-32274,
B-33738, C-20317, C-23351, C-23441,
C-25260, C-31723
FLUORANTHENES A-01788, A-05005
FLUORESCENCE C-17497, C-26601
FLUORIDES A-23561, J-30696, L-09677,
L-16736
FLUORINE A-25638, C-25593, K-31968,
L-32884
FLUORINE COMPOUNDS A-23561,
J-30696, L-09677, L-16736
FLY ASH A-02629, A-02667, A-06687,
A-08255, A-08642, A-09161, A-09831,
A-13832, A-16949, A-24732, A-26278,
A-30021, B-00107, B-00140, B-03121,
B-05853, B-05868, B-07430, B-07557,
B-07752, B-07932, B-08155, B-08343,
B-08616, B-08825, B-09191, B-09833,
B-10415, B-11726, B-12574, B-14221,
B-14716, B-17137, B-19056, B-19729,
B-20616, B-21195, B-21268, B-23189,
B-24043, B-24480, B-24675, B-25079,
B-25643, B-25786, B-26378, B-28230,
B-29013, B-29441, B-30734, B-32274,
B-32414, B-32455, B-33288, B-34025,
C-00403, C-03460, C-25260, D-05645,
D-07141, D-32055, F-04939, F-15615,
G-00236, 1-14084, 1-14153, 1-29783,
J-01308, L-04620, L-07550, L-09677,
L-20698, L-26938, N-03197
FOG C-08895
FOOD AND FEED OPERATIONS
A-23313, A-23314, A-26277, B-09792,
B-30331, J-30696
FOODS A-26277
FORMALDEHYDES A-01788, A-05011,
A-09832, A-23561, D-30860
FRANCE A-04799, A-06111, A-06687,
A-13807, A-13855, B-00406, B-01626,
B-03223, B-04336, B-07839, B-14716,
B-15378, B-33288, F-03881, G-07541,
1-15274, L-07363
FREE RADICALS A-28137
FROTH FLOATATION B-09666
FRUITS H-14944
FUEL ADDITIVES A-08615, A-12975,
A-29534, B-01626, B-03223, B-04336,
B-04856, B-07527, B-07537, B-07971,
B-08343, B-09164, B-09191, B-09504,
B-14838, B-17137, B-19642, B-20563,
B-22603, B-23846, B-24291, B-29014,
B-30055, B-30926, B-32414, B-34025,
B-34026, B-34282, F-03881
-------
116
FUEL CHARGING A-02634, A-03870,
A-05264, A-08200, A-09832, A-10743,
B-00716, B-00717, B-05393, B-12308,
B-15619, B-24480, B-33603, B-33738,
B-34282, C-06770, F-04939, L-07363
FUEL CRITERIA B-13501
FUEL EVAPORATION A-32351, J-26757,
L-09677
FUEL GASES A-01788, A-04082, A-04342,
A-05005, A-05157, A-05563, A-06111,
A-09539, A-09831, A-09832, A-17017,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24219, A-24854,
A-25868, A-26693, A-28158, A-28544,
A-29308, A-29538, A-29781, A-30132,
A-31252, A-32351, A-33087, A-33640,
B-00107, B-00140, B-01626, B-03121,
B-04516, B-05137, B-05857, B-07881,
B-09666, B-09833, B-11247, B-11491,
B-21268, B-22559, B-23189, B-24678,
B-30734, B-31100, B-32414, B-33603,
C-00275, C-26588, D-32055, F-04357,
J-26757, L-04942, L-07550, L-07950,
L-16343, L-16736, L-32647, L-32884
FUEL OIL PREPARATION A-09161,
A-09831, A-16836, B-03790, B-19056,
B-29231, B-30220, K-21896
FUEL OILS A-01788, A-02287, A-04342,
A-04799, A-05005, A-05160, A-05264,
A-05800, A-06111, A-08200, A-08255,
A-08374, A-08615, A-09539, A-09831,
A-09832, A-10075, A-13855, A-16836,
A-17190, A-23313, A-23314, A-23443,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24076, A-24219,
A-25868, A-26538, A-28137, A-28158,
A-28800, A-29534, A-29538, A-30021,
A-31657, A-32165, A-32351, A-33697,
B-00107, B-00140, B-00716, B-00717,
B-01459, B-01626, B-03045, B-03121,
B-03153, B-03223, B-03790, B-04372,
B-04516, B-04856, B-04862, B-05857,
B-07527, B-07537, B-07839, B-07971,
B-08343, B-089S7, B-09164, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09666, B-09833, B-10993,
B-11056, B-11247, B-11251, B-12090,
B-15378, B-15432, B-16867, B-17137,
B-18118, B-18296, B-21200, B-21268,
B-21893, B-22559, B-22603, B-23063,
B-23846, B-24675, B-26312, B-26451,
B-26560, B-27658, B-28503, B-28517,
B-28749, B-29013, B-29014, B-30055,
B-30131, B-30220, B-30926, B-32274,
B-32414, B-32524, B-34278, B-34282,
C-03201, C-03460, C-05552, C-07848,
C-08895, C-28991, C-29955, C-31547,
C-31723, C-31981, D-02147, D-32055,
F-07811, F-12997, G-07541, 1-14948,
1-29956, J-26757, K-09921, K-21896,
K-31968, K-34015, L-06741, L-07363,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09445, L-16736,
L-30779, L-32647, L-32884
FUEL STANDARDS B-22559, K-34015,
L-30779, L-32884
FUELS A-01788, A-02148, A-02287,
A-02629, A-02630, A-02631, A-02634,
A-02667, A-04082, A-04342, A-04799,
A-05005, A-05011, A-05157, A-05160,
A-05264, A-05563, A-05800, A-05846,
A-06111, A-06578, A-06687, A-08200,
A-08255, A-08374, A-08615, A-08641,
A-08642, A-09016, A-09161, A-09539,
A-09831, A-09832, A-10075, A-10743,
A-12120, A-13832, A-13855, A-16836,
A-16949, A-17017, A-17190, A-19017,
A-22800, A-23313, A-23314, A-23443,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24005, A-24076,
A-24219, A-24732, A-24854, A-25142,
A-25868, A-26278, A-26538, A-26693,
A-28137, A-28158, A-28388, A-28544,
A-28800, A-29308, A-29534, A-29538,
A-29781, A-30017, A-30021, A-30132,
A-30829, A-31252, A-31299, A-31657,
A-32165, A-32351, A-33087, A-33640,
A-33697, B-00107, B-00140, B-00272,
B-00406, B-00716, B-00717, B-01459,
B-01626, B-02032, B-03045, B-03053,
B-03121, B-03153, B-03223, B-03790,
B-04304, B-04372, B-04394, B-04516,
B-04856, B-04862, B-05137, B-05393,
B-05429, B-05517, B-05853, B-05857,
B-05868, B-06548, B-06562, B-06563,
B-06781, B-07430, B-07527, B-07535,
B-07537, B-07752, B-07839, B-07881,
B-07932, B-07971, B-08155, B-08343,
B-08741, B-08825, B-08957, B-09164,
B-09191, B-09504, B-09546, B-09666,
B-09833, B-09923, B-10415, B-10993,
B-11056, B-11178, B-11247, B-11251,
B-11256, B-11491, B-11726, B-12090,
B-12446, B-12574, B-12672, B-13501,
B-13857, B-13950, B-14194, B-14838,
B-15378, B-15432, B-15560, B-16068,
B-16867, B-17137, B-17905, B-18118,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19642, B-20539,
B-20563, B-21195, B-21200, B-21268,
B-21893, B-22559, B-22603, B-23063,
B-23176, B-23189, B-23674, B-23846,
B-24480, B-24642, B-24675, B-24678,
B-25786, B-26104, B-26312, B-26365,
B-26369, B-26378, B-26451, B-26546,
B-26560, B-27658, B-28230, B-28503,
B-28517, B-28749, B-29013, B-29014,
B-29514, B-29686, B-29819, B-30055,
B-30131, B-30220, B-30331, B-30612,
B-30734, B-30926, B-30994, B-31100,
B-31145, B-32274, B-32414, B-32455,
B-32524, B-32552, B-33288, B-33603,
B-34025, B-34026, B-34278, B-34282,
C-00275, C-03201, C-03460, C-05552,
C-07848, C-08895, C-26588, C-26601,
C-28991, C-29955, C-31547. C-31723,
C-31981, D-02147, D-12358, D-17360,
D-29973, D-32055, D-32259, F-03881,
F-04357, F-04939, F-05302, F-07811,
F-12997, F-14896, F-16883, G-00236,
G-07541, 1-04622, 1-11286, 1-13681,
1-14948, 1-17475, 1-21641, 1-29956,
1-30022, J-01308, J-26757, J-30122,
J-30696, K-09921, K-21896, K-25134,
K-31968, K-34015, L-04620, L-04942,
L-06741, L-07363, L-07550, L-07950,
L-09445, L-09603, L-09604, L-09677,
L-11077, L-16343, L-16736, L-20698,
L-24828, L-26938, L-30779, L-32647,
L-32884
FUMES B-00107, B-01459, B-03053,
B-07932, B-29940, B-31456, B-32751,
D-05645, D-32055, K-06778, L-04942,
L-09677, L-16343, L-24828
FUMIGATION C-05552
FURNACES A-01788, A-02287, A-02634,
A-03154, A-03870, A-05005, A-05157,
A-05160, A-05264, A-08255, A-08820,
A-09016, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-10735, A-10743, A-12975, A-13807,
A-13832, A-17190, A-19017, A-24076,
A-24219, A-25196, A-25638, A-28137,
A-28158, A-28515, A-28800, A-29308,
A-30021, A-31657, A-32351, A-33087,
B-00107, B-00287, B-00716, B-00717,
B-02030, B-02973, B-03045, B-03053,
B-03121, B-03153, B-03790, B-04336,
B-05393, B-05868, B-07430, B-07535,
B-07881, B-07971, B-08155, B-08741,
B-09164, B-09191, B-09504, B-09833,
B-10993, B-11056, B-11251, B-12446,
B-14690, B-15432, B-15544, B-19473,
B-20822, B-21506, B-23073, B-23189,
B-23674, B-24536, B-25643, B-26104,
B-26365, B-26369, B-26451, B-26546,
B-26857, B-28113, B-28503, B-28517,
B-28749, B-29013, B-29471, B-29514,
B-29861, B-30488, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31795, B-32274, B-32906, B-32910,
B-33288, B-33623, B-33734, B-34278,
B-34282, C-04324, C-06770, C-08895,
C-26588, C-28708, C-29072, C-29749,
C-32773, D-02147, D-03363, D-05645,
D-17360, D-29973, D-32055, E-32371,
F-00572, F-03874, F-03881, F-04357,
F-07811, G-00236, 1-11286, 1-14084,
1-29783, 1-31588, K-09921, K-31968,
K-34015, L-07202, L-07363, L-07950,
L-09445, L-09603, L-09604, L-09677,
L-11077, L-21104, L-26938, L-30779,
N-05221
G
GAMMA RADIATION E-20853
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY B-07881,
C-26601, C-29313, C-32773, C-33054
GAS SAMPLING A-01788, A-Q5005,
A-05160, B-00287, B-03121, B-18296,
B-19642, C-04324, C-11859, C-20317,
C-26588, C-28708, D-02147, F-03874
GAS TURBINES A-29781, A-33087,
B-00287, B-07971, B-08695, B-30926,
F-00572, L-32647
GASES A-01788, B-03045, B-07537,
B-07932, B-08343, B-08825, B-09833,
B-28271, B-32803, F-00572, F-05302,
F-14363, G-00236, 1-04622
GASIFICATION (SYNTHESIS) B-09666,
B-23176, J-26757
GASOLINES A-05005, A-26693, B-04516,
B-09504, B-32414, D-29973, L-07550,
L-32647
GERMANY A-06111, A-06578, A-06687,
A-08255, A-1537S, A-25638, A-28158,
A-28388, A-28515, A-29308, A-29781,
A-30021, A-30132, A-31252, A-33640,
A-33697, B-02032, B-02973, B-04358,
B-05137, B-05393, B-05429, B-06562,
B-06563, B-06781, B-07535, B-08741,
B-08825, B-11056, B-14690, B-15432,
B-16366, B-17213, B-19453, B-20616,
B-21200, B-21893, B-22603, B-22903,
B-23063, B-23674, B-24642, B-25637,
B-26369, B-26378, B-27658, B-28517,
B-29514, B-29861, B-30612, B-33603,
B-33623, C-04360, C-06770, C-25593,
C-29749, C-29955, F-04357, F-32430,
1-17475, 1-23460, 1-28335, 1-29783,
1-30022, 1-31588, J-33530
GLASS FABRICS A-05005, A-26538,
B-00107, B-00140, B-01626, B-08343,
B-08741, C-05552, C-31842, E-20853
GOVERNMENTS A-08615, A-22800,
A-23313, A-23314, A-25638, A-34303,
B-00107, B-06781, B-07932, B-07971,
B-22559, B-23176, B-26451, C-25593,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, J-33530,
K-06778, K-34015, L-07363, L-07550,
L-07950, L-09445, L-09603, L-09604,
L-09677, L-16343, L-16736, L-26938,
L-27242, L-30779, L-32884, M-08698,
N-03197
GRAIN PROCESSING J-30696
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
117
GRASSES B-07537
GRAVITY SETTLING B-08741, B-10415
GREAT BRITAIN A-05387, A-06687,
A-08615, A-10735, A-10743, A-24005,
A-30829, A-31657, A-34303, B-00406,
B-01459, B-04304, B-04394, B-07535,
B-07537, B-11247, B-13950, B-14262,
B-17I37, B-19469, B-19588, B-24043,
B-25643, B-25786, B-26665, B-28230,
B-28271, B-29471, B-30159, B-31795,
B-33030, C-07848, C-08895, C-20256,
C-21872, C-26588, C-26601, C-29313,
C-32773, D-12358, D-17360, E-26550,
E-28937, F-14896, F-15944, K-06778,
K-09921, K-34154, L-04620, L-07950,
L-16343, L-20698, L-24828
GROUND LEVEL A-34303, B-32552,
C-30118, D-12358, D-29973, E-32371
H
HALOGEN GASES A-25638, A-32165,
B-03045, B-09833, C-25593, K-06778,
K-31968, L-32884
HARBORS L-23610
HEADACHE K-31968
HEALTH IMPAIRMENT A-04082,
B-00140, B-34026, G-07541, K-31968
HEARINGS A-24732, L-06741
HEAT OF COMBUSTION B-32274,
F-12997
HEAT TRANSFER A-03870, A-05387,
A-16990, A-23561, A-24219, A-29308,
A-31299, B-07881, B-09833, B-11178,
B-13950, B-15378, B-20758, B-21200,
B-26104, B-27243, B-29471, B-29861,
B-32414, B-32552, B-32751, B-32827,
F-15799, L-04620
HEIGHT FINDING A-34303, B-01459,
B-01496, B-34278, E-26550, E-28937,
K-21896, L-21104
HEMATOLOGY G-11656
HEMEON AUTOMATIC SMOKE
SAMPLERS L-09445
HEXANES A-23745
HI-VOL SAMPLERS A-05005, B-29940,
C-31842, L-09445
HOT SOAK L-09677
HOURLY A-05563, C-08895, D-30860,
D-32259, E-31122
HOUSTON B-05347
HUMANS A-04082, B-07527, D-03363,
D-32055, G-00236, G-07541, G-11656
HUMIDITY A-02287, A-16836, B-18118,
B-28503, E-20853, F-15944, G-00236,
J-30122
HYDRAZINES B-04856
HYDROCARBONS A-01788, A-05005,
A-05011, A-08200, A-09831, A-09832,
A-10075, A-17017, A-21940, A-23561,
A-23726, A-23745, A-25169, A-26693,
A-32351, A-33087, B-00107, B-01626,
B-02973, B-04856, B-05857, B-06781,
B-07881, B-07971, B-09666, B-09833,
B-I81I8, B-20294, B-26365, B-30055,
B-34282, C-00275, C-04324, C-17497,
C-25593, C-29313, C-29677, D-03363,
D-17785, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
F-04357, H-14944, J-21241, J-26757,
J-30696, K-31968, L-07550, L-09677,
L-16736, L-30779, M-08698
HYDROCHLORIC ACID A-32165,
C-31723, F-20274, 1-29783, K-06778
HYDRODESULFURIZATION A-16836,
B-29231
HYDROFLUORIC ACID A-23561,
K-06778
HYDROGEN A-09832, B-09833, B-26365,
B-34282, C-29313, D-03363, D-30860,
F-03874, F-04357, 1-31588
HYDROGEN SULFIDE A-09831, A-17017,
A-23561, A-25169, A-28158, A-31252,
B-03045, B-09666, B-21893, B-26104,
B-29231, C-25593, C-33054, D-32055,
F-03874, F-05302, 1-29783, K-06778,
M-08698
HYDROGENATION B-23176
HYDROXIDES B-08825, B-09833,
B-14838, B-25468, B-30131, B-31662,
C-29677, C-31723
HYGROSCOPICITY A-19017, B-08825,
B-09833
I
IDAHO M-08698
ILLINOIS A-09539, L-09677, L-11077
IMPINGERS A-24219, B-00716, B-00717,
B-29940, C-04324
INCINERATION A-01788, A-03154,
A-03870, A-05005, A-05157, A-05160,
A-21166, A-23313, A-23314, A-32165,
A-32351, B-00107, B-03121, B-06781,
B-08343, B-08957, B-09792, B-14928,
B-15544, B-20294, B-26665, B-31229,
B-32524, C-03460, C-25593, C-31842,
D-32259, E-26550, 1-29783, 1-31588,
J-26757, K-09921, K-34015, L-06741,
L-07202, L-07550, L-09445, L-09604,
L-09677, L-16343, L-20861, L-27242,
L-30779
INDIANA L-09677
INDUSTRIAL AREAS B-23189, B-27658,
B-32524, D-07141, D-30860, D-32055,
J-21241, J-33530, L-07550, L-07950,
L-09677, L-23610
INDUSTRIAL EMISSION SOURCES
A-01788, A-02629, A-02634, A-03154,
A-03870, A-05005, A-05011, A-05157,
A-05160, A-08374, A-08615, A-08642,
A-09016, A-09161, A-09831, A-10743,
A-12120, A-16949, A-19217, A-21166,
A-22800, A-23313, A-23314, A-23561,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24732, A-24854,
A-25196, A-26277, A-26278, A-28158,
A-29534, A-29781, A-32165, A-32351,
A-33087, A-33640, B-00107, B-01626,
B-02032, B-03053, B-03121, B-04372,
B-04516, B-04856, B-05347, B-05857,
B-06781, B-07535, B-07537, B-07881,
B-07932, B-07971, B-08155, B-08343,
B-08616, B-0874], B-08957, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09546, B-09666, B-09792,
B-09833, B-09923, B-10993, B-11056,
B-11247, B-11251, B-11256, B-11491,
B-11726, B-12308, B-12574, B-13501,
B-14928, B-15432, B-15544, B-16068,
B-16366, B-18296, B-19257, B-19469,
B-20035, B-20294, B-2I268, B-21506,
B-21893, B-22071, B-22559, B-23176,
B-23189, B-23674, B-24613, B-24645,
B-24678, B-25079, B-25468, B-25637,
B-25643, B-26369, B-26501, B-26544,
B-26545, B-26546, B-26665, B-27295,
B-28271, B-29231, B-29441, B-29514,
B-29861, B-29940, B-30155, B-30331,
B-30488, B-30994, B-31104, B-31229,
B-31997, B-32274, B-32414, B-32524,
B-32827, B-33030, B-34025, B-34026,
B-34278, C-00403, C-03460, C-04324,
C-05552, C-07848, C-25260, C-25593,
C-26588, C-27100, C-28708, C-29072,
C-29677, C-31842, D-03363, D-05645,
D-07141, D-17360, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, D-32259, E-26550, E-32371,
F-13487, G-00236, 1-04622, 1-17475,
1-28335, 1-29783, 1-31588, J-01308,
J-21241, J-26757, J-30696, K-06778,
K-09921, K-25134, K-34015, L-04620,
L-04942, L-06741, L-07202, L-07550,
L-07950, L-09445, L-09603, L-09604,
L-09677, L-11077, L-16343, L-16736,
L-20861, L-21104, L-23610, L-26938,
L-27242, L-30779, L-31509, L-32647,
L-32884, L-33228, M-08698, N-03197,
N-05221
INERTIAL SEPARATION B-07932,
B-08155
INFRARED SPECTROMETRY A-02631,
A-08255, B-01626, B-04372, B-08825,
C-04324, C-29677, C-29955, C-302I9,
F-03874
INORGANIC ACIDS A-04342, A-05800,
A-08374, A-12975, A-16836, A-19017,
A-23561, A-28158, A-29538, A-30021,
A-32165, A-32351, B-04336, B-04862,
B-07535, B-08155, B-08343, B-09191,
B-09833, B-11247, B-11256, B-12090,
B-14262, B-18118, B-20777, B-25468,
B-25637, B-25643, B-26378, B-26560,
B-28271, B-28503, B-30055, B-30159,
B-30488, B-30926, B-31990, B-32274,
B-32824, B-32827, B-33030, B-34025,
C-24879, C-31723, D-03363, D-29973,
F-15944, F-20274, G-00236, 1-14948,
1-29783, 1-29956, 1-31588, J-30696,
K-06778
INSPECTION A-13855, B-26560, J-33530,
L-11077
INSTRUMENTATION A-02634, A-10743,
A-30017, B-05517, B-07881, B-08825,
B-29686, C-04324, C-06770, C-26588,
C-27735, C-30997, C-31482, C-32773,
D-03363
INTERMITTENT MONITORING C-22998
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
A-03154, A-05005, A-26277, A-29538,
A-32351, A-33087, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07971, B-09504, B-15544, B-20294,
B-20822, B-30926, C-25593, D-03363,
D-17785, D-32259, G-00236, L-09677,
L-21104, L-32647
INVERSION B-07535, B-08957, C-23681,
D-30860, E-32371, M-08698
IONIZATION B-07932, C-25260, C-33054
IONS B-14996, B-19473, C-32008, E-20853,
G-00236
IRON A-04342, A-05005, A-32351,
B-00287, B-09833, B-26546, B-29231,
B-29861, B-32751, B-32824, D-29973,
D-30860, F-03874, 1-21641, 1-28335,
J-30696
IRON COMPOUNDS A-09831, A-19017,
A-30021, B-00287, B-04856, B-05137,
B-09504, B-14838, B-14996, B-19473,
D-32055, F-03881, F-16883, 1-04622,
1-11286, 1-14084, 1-29783, 1-31588
IRON OXIDES A-02629, A-08374,
B-05868, B-09164, B-09504, B-09833,
B-29819, F-03874, F-03881, 1-31588,
J-30122
ISOTOPES E-20853
ITALY A-24219
JAPAN A-02148, A-06111, A-12975,
A-17190, A-19217, A-21363, A-24076,
-------
118
A-25868, A
A-29534, A
B-12478, B-
B-15611, B-
B-21328, B-
B-26104, B-
B-26560, B-
B-29685, B-
B-30131, B-
B-31456, B-
B-32751, B-
B-32827, B-
B-33738, B-
C-29677, C-
D-29973, E
F-12997, F-
K-31968, K
L-21104, L
JET AIRCRAFT
D-32259
•26538, A-28137, A-28544,
29538, B-07527, B-08957,
14194, B-14844, B-14928,
19257, B-20777, B-20822,
24536, B-24645, B-24821,
26544, B-26545, B-26546,
•28742, B-28749, B-29231,
29686, B-29819, B-29940,
30220, B-30488, B-31145,
31990, B-32524, B-32552,
32803, B-32824, B-32826,
32906, B-32910, B-33734,
34282, C-03201, C-21055,
30219, D-02147, D-20348,
15174, E-29177, E-3H22,
15695, H-14944, 1-14948,
-34015, L-07202, L-09445,
23610, L-30779, L-32884
A-32351, B-12672,
K
KENTUCKY L-09677
KEROSENE A-26693
KETONES A-23561
KILNS A-03154, A-05157, A-05160,
A-08374, A-25196, B-07535, B-07932,
B-11056, B-28271, B-29940, C-28708,
D-32055, K-09921, L-04942, L-09677,
L-16736
KRAFT PULPING B-08343, B-25643,
C-28708, C-29072, J-21241, M-08698
LABORATORY ANIMALS D-03363,
G-00236
LABORATORY FACILITIES B-30994
LACHRYMATION O-07541
LAKES B-08343
LANDFILLS A-23313, A-23314
LAUNDRIES B-09833
LEAD B-00107, J-30696
LEAD COMPOUNDS A-09831, A-23561,
A-33087, B-34025, C-29677, D-30860,
D-32055, J-30696, K-06778, L-16736,
L-23610, L-32884
LEAD PEROXIDE CANDLE L-09445
LEATHER B-08155, B-26544, B-26545
LEGAL ASPECTS A-08615, A-08642,
A-10735, A-23313, A-23314, A-24732,
A-25638, A-32351, B-00107, B-01459,
B-02032, B-03121, B-04304, B-04516,
B-06781, B-07932, B-08741, B-18290,
B-22559, B-26378, B-31229, B-32524,
C-04360, C-25593, D-03363, D-05645,
D-17360, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
E-32371, J-33530, K-06778, K-34015,
L-04620, L-06741, L-07202, L-07363,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09603, L-09604,
L-09677, L-11077, L-16343, L-16736,
L-20698, L-20861, L-21104, L-24828,
L-26938, L-27242, L-30779, L-32884,
M-08698
LEGISLATION A-08615, A-10735,
A-32351, B-18290, B-26378, D-17360,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, K-06778,
K-34015, L-04620, L-07202, L-07950,
L-09677, L-16343, L-16736, L-20698,
L-20861, L-21104, L-24828, L-27242,
L-32884, M-08698
LIGHT RADIATION A-16990, A-23561,
B-07535, C-06770, C-20317, C-23681,
K-34154
LIGHT SCATTERING B-05868, C-23681,
C-27735, C-28991
LIME B-11056, C-28708, L-04942
LIMESTONE A-26278, B-05137, B-07430,
B-08343, B-08825, B-09666, B-09833,
B-11178, B-12308, B-19642, B-20539,
B-23073, B-30131, B-30159, B-30734,
B-30994, B-31100, B-31404, B-32274,
B-32455
LINE SOURCES E-32371
LIQUIDS A-08374, A-21363, B-09191,
B-09833, B-14996, B-20777, B-25079,
B-29861, B-32552, B-32803, C-28708,
C-29313, F-03881, F-04939, F-14363,
G-00236, 1-04622
LITIGATION L-21104
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS D-32055,
L-07950, L-09677, L-27242, L-32884
LONDON A-31657, B-00406, B-07535,
C-08895
LOS ANGELES A-05157, A-05160,
B-00107, B-04516, B-06781, B-07535,
B-09833, C-04324, D-32259, L-09677
LOWER ATMOSPHERE D-12358, E-29177
LUNGS G-07541
M
MAGNESIUM B-00107, B-03223
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS A-02629,
A-09831, B-03223, B-05137, B-07557,
B-09164, B-09191, B-09833, B-18118,
B-23073, B-28271, B-28503, B-30055,
B-30131, B-30926, B-31795, B-32455,
F-03874, F-04939, 1-11286
MAGNETIC SEPARATION B-09666
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS (MHD)
A-16949, A-32351, B-23176
MAINTENANCE A-10743, A-19217,
A-27471, B-03790, B-05853, B-09833,
B-24536, B-25643, B-26S60, B-31990,
B-32414, B-32803, B-32826, F-12997,
J-30696
MANAGEMENT PERSONNEL A-26277
MANGANESE COMPOUNDS B-04856,
B-14996, B-19473, B-24291, B-24613,
B-26857, B-29014, B-30926, B-32274,
C-29677
MANGANESE DIOXIDE (JAPANESE)
B-09666, B-30220, F-13487
MANGANESE SULFATES B-24613
MANUAL C-04360, C-27100
MAPPING D-32259
MARYLAND A-23313, A-23314, L-09603,
L-09604
MASS SPECTROMETRY B-01626,
C-26601
MASS TRANSPORTATION L-07550
MATERIALS DETERIORATION A-02287,
A-04342, A-12975, A-19017, A-23443,
A-24005, A-31299, A-33697, B-00287,
B-04336, B-04372, B-04862, B-05853,
B-07839, B-09191, B-09504, B-09833,
B-12090, B-14690, B-14838, B-15432,
B-18118, B-18296, B-19056, B-22603,
B-23063, B-24291, B-25637, B-26560,
B-28503, B-28517, B-29014, B-30055,
B-30612, B-30926, B-31990, B-32824,
B-34026, C-30084, F-03874, F-03881,
F-05302, F-12997, F-14363, F-15944,
F-16883, G-00236, 1-04622, 1-11286,
1-13681, 1-14084, 1-14153, 1-14948,
1-15274, 1-17475, 1-21641, 1-23460,
1-28335, 1-29783, 1-29956, 1-30022,
1-31588
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSES A-13807,
A-15375, A-24076, A-30829, A-34303,
B-01459, B-09923, B-26312, B-30734,
C-06770, C-25260, E-28937, F-00572,
F-04357, F-16883, 1-04622, K-21896
MATHEMATICAL MODELING B-30734,
E-28937, F-00572, K-21896
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
CONCENTRATION A-25638,
B-02032, B-09833, B-27658, D-03363,
D-07141, D-32055, E-32371, K-06778,
K-34015, L-07202, L-09677, L-21104,
L-23610, L-32884
MEASUREMENT METHODS A-02667,
A-05005, A-05387, A-08255, A-08642,
A-10075, A-10735, A-31657, B-03790,
B-04372, B-05429, B-08155, B-08741,
B-08825, B-14690, B-15619, B-18118,
B-18296, B-19257, B-22071, B-24821,
B-25637, B-26312, B-26365, B-29471,
B-29686, B-30055, B-33738, C-04324,
C-04360, C-06770, C-11859, C-16952,
C-20317, C-21872, C-22998, C-23681,
C-24879, C-25260, C-26588, C-26601,
C-27100, C-27735, C-29677, C-29955,
C-30118, C-30219, C-30997, C-31482,
C-31547, C-31981, C-32008, C-33054,
D-03363, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
E-20853, F-15799, J-33530, K-09921,
K-31968, L-04942, L-09445
MEDICAL FACILITIES G-07541
MEETINGS A-06687, M-08698
MEMBRANE FILTERS C-05552, C-08895
MERCAPTANS M-08698
MERCURY COMPOUNDS A-23561,
A-30017, C-22998, C-30997, L-23610
METAL COMPOUNDS A-02629, A-09161,
A-09831, A-19017, A-22955, A-23561,
A-29781, A-30017, A-30021, A-33087,
B-00287, B-01626, B-03045, B-03223,
B-04336, B-04856, B-05137, B-07557,
B-07752, B-08825, B-09164, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-11056, B-12672,
B-14262, B-14838, B-14996, B-18118,
B-19473, B-22603, B-23073, B-24291,
B-24613, B-26857, B-28271, B-28503,
B-29014, B-29819, B-29940, B-30055,
B-30131, B-30734, B-30926, B-31404,
B-31662, B-31795, B-32274, B-32455,
B-32803, B-32824, B-32826, B-32827,
B-34025, C-22998, C-29677, C-30084,
C-30997, C-31723, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, E-20853, F-03874, F-03881,
F-04939, F-16883, G-07541, 1-04622,
1-11286, 1-14084, 1-21641, 1-29783,
1-29956, 1-31588, J-30696, K-06778,
K-31968, L-16736, L-23610, L-30779,
L-32884
METAL FABRICATING AND FINISHING
A-03154, A-32351, B-25643, B-29231,
C-05552, D-03363, D-05645, J-21241,
J-30696
METAL POISONING G-07541, K-31968
METALS A-04342, A-05005, A-22955,
A-32351, B-00107, B-00287, B-03223,
B-09504, B-09833, B-25643, B-26546,
B-29231, B-29819, B-29861, B-32751,
B-32824, C-05552, D-29973, D-30860,
F-03874, 1-11286, 1-14084, 1-14948,
1-21641, 1-28335, 1-29956, J-30696
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
D-32259, E-20853
METEOROLOGY A-02287, A-05563,
A-08615, A-10075, A-16836, A-23313,
A-23561, A-32351, B-00140, B-07535,
B-07537, B-18118, B-28503, C-08895,
D-03363, D-05645, D-30860, D-32055,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
119
D-32259, E-15174, E-20853, E-29177,
E-31122, E-32371, F-04939, F-15944,
G-00236, J-30122, L-09445, M-08698,
N-03197
METHANES A-09831, A-09832, A-17017,
B-26365, B-34282, C-29313, D-30860
MICHIGAN D-05645, L-09677
MICROMETEOROLOGY A-23561
MICROSCOPY A-02631
MILK A-26277
MINERAL PROCESSING A-09161,
A-29781, A-32351, B-00107, B-03121,
B-07932, B-1I491, B-25643, B-26546,
C-25260, D-03363, D-30860, D-32055,
J-21241, J-30696, K-25134, L-09677,
L-16736
MINERAL PRODUCTS A-23561, A-26278,
B-00287, B-05137, B-07430, B-08343,
B-08825, B-09666, B-09833, B-11178,
B-12308, B-19642, B-20539, B-23073,
B-30131, B-30159, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31100, B-31404, B-32274, B-32455
MINING A-09161, B-03121, C-25260
MINNESOTA A-09I6I
MISSOURI A-02630, A-02631, A-03870,
A-05563, B-02973, B-03053, B-04336,
B-04394, F-00572, G-00236, L-09677
MISTS B-03045, B-07971, B-08343,
B-09792, B-09833, D-29973
MOBILE A-32351, B-34025, J-30696
MOLYBDENUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-32826
MONITORING A-05005, A-05387,
A-31657, B-04372, B-14690, B-19257,
B-24821, B-25637, B-29471, B-33738,
C-06770, C-20317, C-21872, C-22998,
C-23681, C-25260, C-26588, C-27735,
C-29677, C-29955, C-30118, C-30219,
C-30997, C-31482, D-03363, D-30860,
D-32055, J-33530, L-09445
MONTHLY D-30860, L-09445
MORBIDITY G-07541
MORTALITY D-32055
MULTIPLE CHAMBER INCINERATORS
A-05005, A-05160
N
NATIONAL AIR SAMPLING NETWORK
(NASN) L-16736
NATURAL GAS A-01788, A-04082,
A-04342, A-06111, A-09831, A-09832,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24854, A-25868,
A-26693, A-29308, A-29781, A-31252,
A-32351, A-33087, A-33640, B-00107,
B-01626, B-04516, B-09666, B-11247,
B-21268, B-22559, B-23189, B-30734,
B-31100, B-32414, B-33603, C-00275,
C-26588, D-32055, J-267J7, L-07550,
L-16736, L-32647
NAUSEA G-07541
NEW JERSEY L-09677
NEW YORK CITY B-04516, B-11251,
L-09677
NEW YORK STATE B-04516, B-11251,
L-04942, L-09677
NICKEL COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-09164, B-09833, B-14996, B-32826
NITRATES A-23561, C-29677', C-32008,
L-09445
NITRIC ACID A-29538, B-07535, K-06778
NITRIC OXIDE (NO) A-05011, A-05157,
A-09831, A-2I940, A-23561, A-29538,
A-33697, B-00107, B-OOI40, B-05857,
B-07535, B-09833, B-30734, B-31100,
B-31229, B-32274, C-23681, C-26601,
C-29677, C-30219, D-29973, D-30860,
F-10066, F-20274, L-09445, L-16736
NITRITES C-29677
NITROGEN A-33697, B-05429, B-32274,
B-34282, C-00275, C-29313, C-29677,
C-32773, F-03874
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2) A-02148,
A-05011, A-05157, A-09831, A-23561,
A-23745, A-29538, A-33697, B-00107,
B-00140, B-03045, B-09833, B-18118,
B-26451, B-31229, B-33738, C-23681,
C-26601, C-29677, C-30219, D-29973,
D-30860, G-07541, K-06778, K-31968,
L-07550, L-09445, L-16736
NITROGEN OXIDES A-01788, A-02148,
A-03154, A-05011, A-05157, A-05160,
A-09831, A-09832, A-21940, A-23561,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24732, A-25142,
A-26693, A-29538, A-30829, A-31299,
A-32351, A-33087, A-33697, B-00107,
B-00140, B-01626, B-03045, B-04516,
B-04856, B-05857, B-06781, B-07430,
B-07535, B-07881, B-07971, B-09666,
B-09833, B-12090, B-18118, B-21268,
B-22559, B-24678, B-26451, B-27295,
B-30055, B-30155, B-30734, B-31100,
B-31229, B-32274, B-32414, B-33288,
B-33738, B-34026, B-34282, C-04324,
C-23681, C-25593, C-26601, C-27100,
C-29677, C-30219, C-32008, D-03363,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
F-10066, F-20274, G-00236, G-07541,
1-30022, J-26757, J-30696, K-06778,
K-31968, L-07550, L-09445, L-09677,
L-16736
NITROUS ANHYDRIDE (N203) G-07541
NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) G-00236
NON-INDUSTRIAL EMISSION SOURCES
A-01788, A-03154, A-03870, A-05005,
A-05157, A-05563, A-06111, A-06578,
A-08615, A-08642, A-08820, A-09831,
A-10075, A-10743, A-13855, A-16949,
A-23313, A-23314, A-23561, A-24732,
A-25638, A-26277, A-26693, A-29781,
A-31657, A-32165, A-33087, A-33640,
B-00406, B-01626, B-03053, B-03121,
B-04516, B-06781, B-07535, B-07971,
B-08741, B-09504, B-09833, B-15611,
B-18118, B-18296, B-21268, B-24613,
B-24645, B-26451, B-26501, B-26544,
B-26545, B-29441, B-31990, B-32414,
B-32524, B-32552, B-32906, B-33603,
C-00275, C-04324, C-05552, C-07848,
C-25593, D-03363, D-05645, D-12358,
D-20348, D-29973, E-15174, E-26550,
G-11656, 1-31588, J-01308, J-21241,
J-26757, J-30696, J-33530, K-25134,
L-07363, L-07550, L-07950, L-09603,
L-09604, L-09677, L-16343, L-16736,
L-20698, L-23610, L-26938, L-30779,
L-32647, L-32884, N-03197
NON-URBAN AREAS A-26277, A-26693,
B-11491, D-29973
NORTH DAKOTA A-09161
NUCLEATION G-00236
NYLON B-08343
o
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH D-03363,
G-07541
OCEANS G-00236
OCR PROCESSES A-16949
ODOR COUNTERACTION B-07535,
B-31456
ODORTMETRY K-31968
ODORS A-10075, A-23313, A-23314,
A-25638, B-07971, B-08343, B-31456,
D-29973, E-26550, L-04942, L-09604,
L-09677, L-16736, L-23610, M-08698
OHIO L-09677
OIL BURNERS A-01788, A-02287,
A-05160, A-05264, A-08255, A-09832,
A-10075, A-10743, A-12975, A-24219,
A-28137, A-28158, A-28800, A-31657,
B-00716, B-00717, B-02030, B-02973,
B-03045, B-03153, B-03790, B-09164,
B-09191, B-09833, B-10993, B-11056,
B-15432, B-26451, B-28503, B-28517,
B-28749, B-29013, B-29471, B-29514,
B-30488, B-31795, B-32910, B-33623,
B-33734, B-34278, B-34282, C-08895,
C-26588, C-29749, D-02147, F-07811,
G-00236, L-07363
OIL RESOURCES B-03790, B-22559,
J-26757
OLEFINS A-09832, C-00275, C-29313,
C-29677, H-14944
OPEN BURNING A-01788, A-05005,
A-10743, A-23313, A-23314, A-26693,
A-32165, L-09603, L-09604, L-16343,
N-03197
OPEN HEARTH FURNACES A-05157,
A-05160, A-32351, B-00107, B-26546,
D-29973, E-32371, L-09677
OPERATING CRITERIA A-04799,
A-25638, B-32552, K-34154, L-09677,
L-32884
OPERATING VARIABLES A-08200,
A-09831, A-10075, A-17840, A-21166,
A-21363, A-24219, A-24732, A-24854,
A-25868, A-26278, A-27471, A-28515,
B-05857, B-09833, B-10415, B-12308,
B-17137, B-20035, B-21893, B-23674,
B-24480, B-24675, B-25643, B-26544,
B-28230, B-29231, B-29471, B-30055,
B-30331, B-30612, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31662, B-32274, B-32414, B-32455,
B-32751, B-33603, B-33623, B-33734,
B-33738, B-34025, B-34278, B-34282,
C-17497, C-30219, C-31482, D-05645,
1-28335
OPINION SURVEYS M-08698
OREGON L-09677
ORGANIC ACIDS A-05011, A-09832,
A-23745, B-09792
ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
C-29677
ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS
L-23610
ORGANIC SULFUR COMPOUNDS
M-08698
ORGANOMETALLICS A-09831, B-04856,
L-23610
ORSAT ANALYSIS A-05387, B-05429,
C-04324, C-31547
OVERFIRE AIR B-03053, B-07537,
B-16068, B-18290, B-24480
OXIDANTS A-32351, D-32055, K-31968
OXIDATION A-12975, B-00140, B-00287,
B-05137, B-07537, B-07881, B-09666,
B-09833, B-20539, B-31404, C-29677,
F-05302, F-10066, F-16883, G-00236,
1-04622, 1-29783
OXIDES A-01788, A-02148, A-02287,
A-02629, A-02631, A-03154, A-04082,
A-04342, A-05011, A-05157, A-05160,
A-05264, A-05387, A-06111, A-08255,
A-08374, A-08615, A-08641, A-08820,
A-09161, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-12975, A-13855, A-16836, A-16990,
A-17017, A-19017, A-21940, A-23561,
-------
120
A-23726, A-23745, A-24732, A-25142,
A-25169, A-26538, A-26693, A-28800,
A-29538, A-30132, A-30829, A-31299,
A-31657, A-32351, A-33087, A-33640,
A-33697, A-34303, B-00107, B-00140,
B-00287, B-01459, B-01626, B-03045,
B-03121, B-03153, B-03223, B-03790,
B-04336, B-04358, B-04372, B-04394,
B-04516, B-04856, B-04862, B-05137,
B-05347, B-05429, B-05853, B-05857,
B-05868, B-06781, B-07430, B-07535,
B-07537, B-07752, B-07839, B-07881,
B-07932, B-07971, B-08343, B-08616,
B-08825, B-08957, B-09164, B-Q9191,
B-09504, B-09666, B-09833, B-10993,
B-11056, B-11256, B-12090, B-12574,
B-13501, B-14221, B-14262, B-14690,
B-15378, B-15432, B-16867, B-18118,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19729, B-20294,
B-21268, B-22559, B-22603, B-24291,
B-24480, B-24645, B-24678, B-24821,
B-25079, B-25637, B-25786, B-26365,
B-26378, B-26451, B-26546, B-26857,
B-27295, B-28271, B-28503, B-29014,
B-29471, B-29514, B-29819, B-30055,
B-30155, B-30612, B-30734, B-30926,
B-31100, B-31145, B-31229, B-31404,
B-31997, B-32274, B-32414, B-32552,
B-32803, B-32826, B-33288, B-33603,
B-33623, B-33734, B-33738, B-34026,
B-34278, B-34282, C-00275, C-00403,
C-03201, C-04324, C-08895, C-21055,
C-22998, C-23441, C-23681, C-24879,
C-25593, C-26588, C-26601, C-271QO,
C-29313, C-29677, C-29955, C-30084,
C-30219, C-30997, C-31723, C-32008,
C-32773, C-33054, D-02147, D-03363,
D-12358, D-17360, D-20348, D-29973,
D-30860, D-32055, D-32259, E-26550,
E-32371, F-03874, F-03881, F-04357,
F-05302, F-07811, F-10066, F-13487,
F-14363, F-16883, F-20274, F-32430,
G-00236, G-07541, G-11656, 1-04622,
1-13681, 1-14084, 1-14153, 1-15274,
1-21641, 1-23460, 1-29783, 1-29956,
1-30022, 1-31588, J-21241, J-26757,
J-30122, J-30696, J-33530, K-06778,
K-21896, K-25134, K-31968, K-34015,
L-04620, L-04942, L-07202, L-07550,
L-07950, L-09445, L-09677, L-16736,
L-20861, L-21104, L-23610, L-27242,
L-30779, L-32884, M-08698
OXYGEN A-01788, A-05387, A-19017,
A-30829, A-33697, B-00287, B-05429,
B-08957, B-09833, B-18118, B-28113,
B-31145, B-32274, B-33734, B-33738,
B-34282, C-04324, C-16952, C-26588,
C-29677, C-30219, C-31547, C-32773,
F-03874, F-03881, F-04357, F-05302
OXYGEN LANCING B-07535
OZONE A-23561, A-32351, B-31145,
D-32259, G-00236
PACKED TOWERS A-32165, B-00140,
B-07430, B-08343, B-09833, B-28271,
B-32826, J-21241
PAINT MANUFACTURING A-32351,
D-03363, D-32259
PAINTS B-09833, B-12090
PAPER MANUFACTURING A-32165,
B-08343, B-11726, B-19257, B-26546,
B-29231, M-08698
PARIS L-07363
PARTICLE COUNTERS B-08155, B-18296
PARTICLE GROWTH B-04862, B-09164
PARTICLE SHAPE B-33288, G-00236
PARTICLE SIZE A-06111, A-08642,
A-23561, A-24005, A-24076, A-25196,
A-30829, B-00140, B-03153, B-04856,
B-05853, B-05868, B-07557, B-08155,
B-08343, B-08741, B-09191, B-09546,
B-09833, B-09923, B-10415, B-10993,
B-11056, B-12308, B-20539, B-20822,
B-24613, B-25643, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31456, B-32274, B-33288, C-05552,
C-06770, C-2S260, C-29072, C-30118,
C-31842, D-29973, F-00572, F-04939,
G-00236, K-09921, K-31968
PARTICULATE CLASSIFIERS A-05800,
A-06111, A-08642, A-23561, A-24005,
A-24076, A-25196, A-30829, B-00140,
B-03153, B-04856, B-05853, B-05868,
B-07557, B-08155, B-08343, B-08741,
B-09191, B-09546, B-09833, B-09923,
B-10415, B-10993, B-11056, B-12308,
B-18118, B-20539, B-20822, B-24613,
B-25643, B-25786, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31456, B-32274, B-33288, C-05552,
C-06770, C-25260, C-29072, C-30118,
C-31842, D-29973, F-00572, F-04939,
G-00236, K-09921, K-31968
PARTICULATE SAMPLING A-01788,
A-02667, A-09161, B-08741, B-19642,
C-03460, C-05552, C-07848, C-23441,
C-31842, L-09445
PARTICULATES A-01788, A-02287,
A-02629, A-02667, A-04799, A-05005,
A-05264, A-05800, A-05846, A-06111,
A-06578, A-06687, A-08200, A-08255,
A-0861S, A-08642, A-08820, A-09161,
A-09539, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-10735, A-10743, A-13832, A-16949,
A-16990, A-17017, A-17190, A-19017,
A-23313, A-23314, A-23443, A-23561,
A-23726, A-23745, A-24005, A-24076,
A-24219, A-24732, A-25196, A-25638,
A-26278, A-26538, A-26693, A-27471,
A-28137, A-28388, A-28800, A-30021,
A-31657, A-32351, A-33087, A-33640,
B-00107, B-00140, B-00272, B-00406,
B-00716, B-00717, B-01459, B-01626,
B-02030, B-02032, B-02973, B-03045,
B-03053, B-03121, B-03153, B-03790,
B-04358, B-04516, B-04856, B-04862,
B-05393, B-05853, B-05868, B-06548,
B-06562, B-06563, B-06781, B-07430,
B-07527, B-07535, B-07537, B-07557,
B-07752, B-07839, B-07932, B-07971,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08616, B-08741,
B-08825, B-08957, B-09191, B-09504,
B-09546, B-09666, B-09792, B-09833,
B-09923, B-10415, B-10993, B-11056,
B-11726, B-12446, B-12574, B-13857,
B-14194, B-14221, B-14716, B-14928,
B-15560, B-15611, B-15619, B-16068,
B-16366, B-17137, B-17213, B-17905,
B-18118, B-18149, B-18290, B-18296,
B-19056, B-19453, B-19642, B-19729,
B-20294, B-20616, B-20777, B-20822,
B-21195, B-21268, B-21328, B-22559,
B-23176, B-23189, B-23674, B-23846,
B-24043, B-24291, B-24480, B-24536,
B-24642, B-24645, B-24675, B-25079,
B-25643, B-25786, B-26104, B-26369,
B-26378, B-26451, B-26546, B-26665,
B-28230, B-28517, B-28742, B-29013,
B-29014, B-29231, B-29441, B-2%86,
B-29819, B-29861, B-29940, B-30055,
B-30220, B-30331, B-30612, B-30734,
B-3U04, B-31145, B-31456, B-31795,
B-31990, B-32274, B-32414, B-32455,
B-32524, B-32751, B-32824, B-32906,
B-32910, B-33288, B-33623, B-33734,
B-34025, B-34026, B-34278, C-00275,
C-00403, C-03460, C-06770, C-07848,
C-08895, C-11859, C-17497, C-20256,
C-20317, C-21872, C-23441, C-23681,
C-25260, C-25593, C-26588, C-27735,
C-28708, C-29749, C-29955, C-30118,
C-31842, C-31981, D-03363, D-05645,
D-07141, D-12358, D-17360, D-29973,
D-30860, D-32055, D-32259, E-26550,
E-32371, F-04939, F-15615, F-15695,
G-00236, G-07541, 1-14084, 1-14153,
1-29783, J-01308, J-21241, J-26757,
J-30696, J-33530, K-06778, K-09921,
K-25134, K-31968, K-34015, L-04620,
L-04942, L-06741, L-07202, L-07363,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09445, L-09603,
L-09604, L-09677, L-16343, L-16736,
L-20698, L-20861, L-21104, L-23610,
L-24828, L-26938, L-27242, L-30779,
L-32884, M-08698, N-03197
PEAT A-06578, A-08200, L-20698
PENELEC (CONTACT PROCESS)
B-32827
PENNSYLVANIA A-06687, L-07550,
L-09677, N-03197
PERMITS L-11077
PEROXIDES D-30860
PEROXYACETYL NITRATE A-23561
PEROXYACYL NITRATES A-23561
PERSONNEL A-08642, A-26277, B-18290,
D-05645, D-30860, D-32055, L-20861
PERYLENES A-01788, A-05011
PESTICIDES A-23561
PETROLEUM DISTRIBUTION A-32351
PETROLEUM PRODUCTION A-05157,
A-32351, B-00107, B-09504
PETROLEUM REFINING A-03154,
A-05005, A-23745, A-32351, B-00107,
B-05347, B-09504, B-09792, B-09833,
B-15432, B-29231, B-31104, C-04324,
D-30860, E-32371, J-21241
PH A-28137, B-04862, B-07430, B-07932,
B-19469, B-19729, B-24645, B-28271,
B-31795, B-32803
PHENANTHRENES A-01788
PHILADELPHIA L-07550
PHOSPHATES B-12672
PHOSPHORIC ACID B-08343
PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS B-12672,
G-00236
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
A-23561, A-32351, B-06781, B-34026,
C-23681, D-32055
PHOTOELECTRIC PHENOMENA
C-20317
PHOTOGRAPHIC METHODS C-20317
PHOTOMETRIC METHODS B-08741,
B-26312, C-06770
PHOTOOXIDATION B-06781, C-23681
PHYSICAL STATES A-01788, A-05563,
A-08374, A-08615, A-21363, A-28158,
A-28800, B-00717, B-03045, B-07537,
B-07932, B-08343, B-08825, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-12672, B-14194,
B-14996, B-15560, B-20777, B-25079,
B-26501, B-28271, B-29861, B-32552,
B-32803, B-33288, C-28708, C-29313,
F-00572, F-03881, F-04939, F-05302,
F-07811, F-14363, G-00236, H-14944,
1-04622
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
121
PILOT PLANTS A-16949, A-31299,
B-05347, B-12478, B-17905, B-25468,
B-29441, B-30055, B-30155, B-30488,
B-32455, B-33030
PITTSBURGH A-06687
PLANNING AND ZONING B-04304,
D-03363, E-32371, L-09677, L-24828,
L-27242, L-32884
PLANS AND PROGRAMS A-10743,
A-22800, A-23313, A-23314, A-25142,
A-25196, A-25638, A-32351, A-33087,
B-01626, B-07971, B-11491, B-31229,
B-32524, C-04324, C-25593, D-03363,
D-05645, D-12358, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, J-26757, J-33530, K-25134,
K-31968, L-04942, L-07363, L-07550,
L-07950, L-09445, L-09677, L-11077,
L-16736, L-23610, L-26938, L-27242,
N-03197
PLANT DAMAGE B-OOI40, B-34026,
D-03363, H-14944, K-31968
PLANTS (BOTANY) B-00140, B-07537,
B-23189, D-03363, H-14944
PLASTICS B-08825, 1-14948
PLATING B-29940
PLATINUM B-29819
PLUME BEHAVIOR A-08615, A-34303,
B-28517, C-05552, E-26550, E-28937,
E-32371, L-27242
POINT SOURCES E-32371
POLLENS B-07557
POLYNUCLEAR COMPOUNDS A-01788,
A-05005, A-05011, A-08200, A-17017,
A-33087, B-04856, B-30055, C-17497,
D-03363, D-17785
PORTABLE C-04324, C-05552, D-30860
POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS A-29781,
B-12672, B-14838, B-30926, 1-04622,
1-14084
POWER CYCLES B-06781, B-07932,
C-00403, K-06778
POWER SOURCES A-03154, A-05005,
A-26277, A-29538, A-29781, A-32351,
A-33087, B-00287, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07971, B-08695, B-09504, B-15544,
B-20294, B-20822, B-26369, B-30926,
B-34278, C-25593, D-03363, D-17785,
D-32259, F-00572, G-00236, L-09677,
L-21104, L-31509, L-31740, L-32647,
L-33228
PRECIPITATION C-08895, E-20853
PRESSURE A-05264, A-08255, A-21940,
A-24219, A-28515, A-30829, B-04862,
B-06548, B-07430, B-08343, B-08695,
B-08957, B-09833, B-10993, B-18118,
B-19588, B-32803, B-33288, B-33603,
B-33623, B-33734, B-34282, F-04939,
L-07202
PRESSURE (ATMOSPHERIC) D-32259,
F-04939
PRIMARY METALLURGICAL
PROCESSING A-05005, A-05157,
A-19217, A-25196, A-32165, A-32351,
B-00107, B-08343, B-09833, B-19257,
B-19469, B-26546, B-29861, B-33030,
D-29973, D-30860, E-32371, J-30696,
K-06778, K-25134, L-07950, L-09677,
L-16736, L-23610
PROCESS MODIFICATION A-02287,
A-02634, A-03870, A-04342, A-04799,
A-05011, A-05264, A-05387, A-07975,
A-08200, A-08642, A-09832, A-10075,
A-10743, A-21166, A-21363, A-27471,
A-28515, A-30132, A-30829, A-34303,
B-00406, B-00716, B-00717, B-01626,
B-03053, B-03153, B-04372, B-04516,
B-04862, B-05393, B-05429, B-05517,
B-05857, B-06548, B-07537, B-07839,
B-07881, B-08825, B-08957, B-09164,
B-09792, B-09833, B-10993, B-11726,
B-12308, B-12446, B-15432, B-15560,
B-15619, B-16068, B-16867, B-18118,
B-18290, B-18296, B-21195, B-21328,
B-22903, B-23063, B-23189, B-24480,
B-24642, B-24678, B-26312, B-26451,
B-27243, B-27295, B-28113, B-29014,
B-29471, B-29514, B-30055, B-30155,
B-30612, B-31229, B-31997, B-32274,
B-32414, B-32910, B-33288, B-33603,
B-33623, B-33734, B-33738, B-34026,
B-34278, B-34282, C-06770, C-21872,
C-25593, C-29677, C-30219, C-31981,
F-03881, F-04939, F-12997, G-07541,
J-26757, L-04620, L-07363, L-20698,
L-31509, L-31740, L-32647, L-33228
PROFANES A-25169, B-05857
PROPELLER AIRCRAFT A-32351
PROPENES A-09832, H-14944
PROPOSALS L-07950
PUBLIC AFFAIRS A-26277, D-29973,
D-30860, L-07363, L-11077, M-08698
PUBLIC INFORMATION A-26277,
L-07363
PULVERIZED FUELS A-01788, A-02634,
A-05011, A-08200, A-09016, B-05853,
B-06563, B-07752, B-07932, B-09923,
B-12574, B-24675, B-25786, B-29514,
B-29819, C-26601, F-04939, F-16883,
L-04620
PYRENES A-01788, A-05005, A-05011,
A-08200, C-17497, D-03363, D-17785
QUARTZ B-00287, B-08825
QUESTIONNAIRES A-02634
R
RADIATION MEASURING SYSTEMS
C-30118, C-33054, E-20853
RADIOACTIVE RADIATION A-02631,
B-29940, C-22998, E-20853, F-03874
RADIOGRAPHY G-07541
RADIOSONDES E-20853
RAIN C-08895, E-20853
RAPPING B-07932, B-08616
REACTION KINETICS A-12975, A-21940,
A-30829, A-33697, B-00287, B-09833,
B-23073, B-24678, B-27295, B-30734,
B-32274, C-31723, F-05302, F-16883
REACTION MECHANISMS A-33697,
B-09833, B-20539, B-31404, B-32274,
F-00572, F-05302, F-10066, F-16883,
F-20274,1-11286, 1-29783, 1-31588
RECORDING METHODS B-04358,
C-20317
REDUCTION A-19017, B-09666, B-24678,
B-27295, B-29819, B-33288, 1-23460,
1-29783,1-31588
REFRACTORIES B-00287, B-09833,
B-24480
REGIONAL GOVERNMENTS L-09603,
L-09604, L-27242, L-32884, N-03197
REGULATIONS A-08642, A-23313,
A-23314, A-25638, B-00107, B-01459,
B-02032, B-03121, B-04516, B-06781,
B-07932, B-22559, B-31229, B-32524,
C-04360, C-25593, D-03363, D-05645,
D-30860, K-06778, L-07202, L-07363,
L-07550, L-09603, L-09604, L-0%77,
L-11077, L-20698, L-21104, L-26938,
L-30779, L-32884
REINLUFT PROCESS (ADSORPTION)
B-00140, B-06781, B-09666, B-09833,
B-11056, B-13501, C-08895
RENDERING A-32351, B-09792, L-09677
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES A-25142,
A-26693, B-18118, L-31509, L-31740,
L-32647
RESEARCH PROGRAMS A-16949,
A-22800, A-33087, B-01626, B-11178,
B-11491, B-15544, B-20563, B-23176,
B-26451, B-26857, B-30155, B-32414,
C-08895, D-30860, L-31509, L-31740,
L-32647, L-33228
RESIDENTIAL AREAS A-05563, B-27658,
B-32524, D-07141, D-20348, D-30860,
D-32055, L-07550, L-09677
RESIDUAL OILS A-05264, A-08255,
A-08374, A-09831, A-09832, A-16836,
A-24076, A-25868, A-29534, B-03153,
B-03790, B-04856, B-09164, B-09191,
B-09666, B-09833, B-16867, B-17137,
B-18118, B-26451, B-26560, B-28503,
B-28749, B-30055, B-30220, B-30926,
B-32414, C-05552, C-31547, D-32055,
G-07541, J-26757, K-31968, K-34015,
L-07550, L-32884
RESPIRATORY DISEASES B-29441,
D-32055, G-07541
RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS A-22955,
A-24005, B-06562, B-06563, B-09164,
B-12672, B-23846, B-24291, D-29973,
G-00236, 1-29783
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM G-07541
RETENTION G-00236
RHODE ISLAND L-09677
RINGELMANN CHART B-00406,
B-09833, B-18290, C-31482, L-09603,
L-09604, L-09677, L-24828, L-26938,
L-27242
RIVERS L-23610, L-30779
RUBBER B-32827, J-30696
RUBBER MANUFACTURING A-03870,
B-29441, J-21241
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
SALTZMAN METHOD
SAMPLERS A-05005,
A-22955, A-24219,
B-00717, B-08741,
C-03460, C-04324,
C-11859, C-29072,
D-03363, K-09921,
SAMPLING METHODS
A-05005, A-05011,
A-08200, A-08255,
A-10735, A-22955,
A-26538, A-28388,
B-00717, B-03121,
B-07537, B-08741,
B-19642, B-29940,
B-34278, C-00403,
C-05552, C-07848,
C-16952, C-20256,
C-23441, C-23681,
C-27100, C-27735,
C-29749, C-30118,
C-31842, D-02147,
F-03874, F-16883,
L-09445
SAMPLING PROBES
A-05011, A-08255
A-19217, A-28544
C-26601, C-29677
A-10075, A-10735,
A-28388, B-00716,
B-29940, B-33738,
C-05552, C-08895,
C-29749, C-31842,
L-09445
A-01788, A-02667,
A-05160, A-05387,
A-09161, A-10075,
A-23745, A-24219,
B-00287, B-00716,
B-04372, B-05429,
B-13857, B-18296,
B-31997, B-33738,
C-03460, C-04324,
C-08895, C-11859,
C-20317, C-23351,
C-26588, C-26601,
C-28708, C-29072,
C-30219, C-31547,
D-03363, E-20853,
K-09921, K-21896,
A-01788, A-02667,
, A-09161, A-28388,
-------
122
B-31997, C-16952, C-20256, C-233S1,
C-26601, C-28708, C-31547, F-03874,
F-16883, K-09921
SAN FRANCISCO A-03154, L-09677
SCREEN FILTERS B-08155, B-29231,
J-30122
SCRUBBERS A-05005, A-31299, A-32165,
B-00107, B-00140, B-00406, B-01626,
B-03045, B-03121, B-07430, B-07535,
B-07752, B-07932, B-08155, B-08343,
B-08741, B-09666, B-09833, B-11726,
B-14221, B-14716, B-14996, B-17905,
B-18149, B-18290, B-19056, B-19469,
B-19473, B-19729, B-20035, B-21200,
B-21268, B-24613, B-24645, B-24678,
B-24821, B-26544, B-26545, B-26665,
B-28271, B-28742, B-28749, B-29685,
B-29861, B-30155, B-30220, B-30331,
B-31229, B-31456, B-31662, B-31990,
B-32803, B-32824, B-32826, B-33030,
B-34025, B-34026, D-03363, F-13487,
F-32430, J-21241, L-04942, L-32884
SEA BREEZE G-00236
SEA SALTS G-00236
SEASONAL A-05563, A-08820, A-31657,
A-32351, B-32524, D-03363, D-07141,
D-20348, D-30860, D-32259, E-29177
SECONDARY AIR A-09832, B-03053,
B-07881, B-09792, B-09833, B-28113,
B-32910, B-33288
SEDIMENTATION B-07932, B-08155,
B-08741, B-10415, F-00572
SENATE HEARINGS A-24732
SETTLING CHAMBERS A-08615,
B-03121, B-08155, B-32824, B-34026
SETTLING PARTICLES A-02287,
A-02667, A-05005, A-05264, A-06111,
A-06578, A-08255, A-08615, A-08820,
A-09161, A-09831, A-09832, A-10075,
A-10735, A-13832, A-16990, A-17017,
A-17190, A-19017, A-24005, A-24076,
A-24219, A-25638, A-26538, A-28137,
A-28388, A-30021, A-33640, B-00107,
B-00140, B-00272, B-00406, B-00716,
B-00717, B-01459, B-02030, B-02032,
B-02973, B-03045, B-03121, B-03153,
B-03790, B-04856, B-04862, B-05393,
B-06562, B-06563, B-06781, B-07430,
B-07527, B-07535, B-07537, B-07839,
B-07932, B-07971, B-08155, B-08343,
B-08616, B-08741, B-08825, B-08957,
B-09504, B-09546, B-09833, B-09923,
B-10415, B-11056, B-11726, B-13857,
B-14194, B-14716, B-14928, B-15611,
B-15619, B-16068, B-16366, B-17213,
B-17905, B-18118, B-18149, B-18296,
B-19453, B-20777, B-20822, B-21328,
B-23176, B-23189, B-23674, B-23846,
B-24043, B-24291, B-24480, B-24642,
B-25079, B-25643, B-26104, B-26369,
B-26378, B-26546, B-26665, B-28517,
B-29231, B-29686, B-29819, B-29861,
B-30055, B-30220, B-31145, B-31456,
B-31990, B-32524, B-32824, B-32906,
B-32910, B-33623, B-33734, B-34025,
B-34278, C-00275, C-06770, C-07848,
C-08895, C-20256, C-20317, C-25260,
C-25593, C-26588, C-29749, C-29955,
C-30118, C-31981, D-03363, D-05645,
D-07141, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
E-26550, E-32371, F-04939, F-15695,
G-00236, G-07541, K-06778, K-09921,
K-31968, L-04942, L-06741, L-07202,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09604, L-09677,
L-16343, L-16736, L-21104, L-24828,
L-30779, L-32884, N-03197
SEWAGE A-16949, A-26277, B-09504,
B-24645, B-26544, B-26545, L-30779
SEWAGE TREATMENT A-16949, B-24645
SHIPS A-17840, A-26693, A-32351,
B-09164, D-32055
SILICATES 1-31588
SILICON COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-30926, 1-04622, 1-31588, L-16736
SILICON DIOXIDE A-02629, B-05868,
B-32274, F-03874
SILVER COMPOUNDS A-09831, C-29677
SIMULATION A-08374, A-15375, B-00287,
B-07881, B-20539, F-05302, 1-14084
SINGLE CHAMBER INCINERATORS
A-05005
SINTERING A-06687, B-21893, B-26546,
B-29231, K-06778, L-07202
SKIN G-07541
SLUDGE B-09504, L-30779
SMOG A-23726, A-32351, B-00107,
B-06781, B-07535, B-20294, B-20822,
B-32524, B-34026, C-23681, D-30860,
D-32055, D-32259, L-09445
SMOKE SHADE A-04799, A-08642,
A-10075, A-13855, B-00406, B-04856,
B-09833, B-16867, B-18290, C-27735,
C-31482, D-30860, D-32055, K-34154,
L-09603, L-09604, L-09677, L-16736,
L-24828, L-26938, L-27242
SMOKEMETERS A-10075, A-31657,
B-03790, B-04372, B-29686, C-06770,
C-21872, C-26588, C-27735, C-29955,
C-31482, C-31981, L-04942
SMOKES A-05005, A-08200, A-09539,
A-09831, A-09832, A-10075, A-10743,
A-17190, A-23313, A-24005, A-28800,
A-31657, A-33640, B-00107, B-00406,
B-00716, B-00717, B-03053, B-03121,
B-03790, B-04358, B-04516, B-06548,
B-07527, B-07535, B-07537, B-07971,
B-08155, B-09504, B-09833, B-10993,
B-12446, B-14194, B-15560, B-16068,
B-17137, B-18290, B-18296, B-21328,
B-22559, B-23189, B-24536, B-24645,
B-26546, B-26665, B-28742, B-29014,
B-29441, B-29686, B-32910, B-33734,
B-34278, C-06770, C-08895, C-11859,
C-21872, C-27735, C-29955, D-03363,
D-05645, D-07141, D-12358, D-17360,
D-30860, D-32055, E-26550, K-31968,
L-04942, L-07202, L-07363, L-07550,
L-07950, L-09445, L-09603, L-09604,
L-09677, L-16343, L-16736, L-20698,
L-21104, L-24828, L-26938, L-30779,
L-32884, N-03197
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS A-29781,
J-30696
SODIUM CARBONATE B-07752, B-31662
SODIUM CHLORIDE C-29677, 1-29783,
1-31588
SODIUM COMPOUNDS A-02629,
A-09161, A-09831, A-22955, B-03045,
B-07752, B-09164, B-09191, B-09833,
B-12672, B-14838, B-30926, B-31662,
B-32803, B-32824, B-32827, C-29677,
E-20853, F-03874, 1-04622, 1-11286,
1-14084, 1-29783, 1-29956, 1-31588
SODIUM HYDROXIDE B-03045, B-31662,
B-32803, B-32824, C-29677, F-03874
SODIUM SULFITE B-09833, B-31662,
B-32827, 1-29783
SOILING INDEX C-11859, C-28991
SOLAR RADIATION A-23561, B-07535
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL A-01788,
A-03870, A-05005, A-23313, A-23314,
A-25638, A-26277, A-26693, B-15611,
B-24613, B-26501, B-29441, C-25593,
D-03363, D-05645, E-26550, 1-31588,
J-01308, J-21241, J-30696, K-25134,
L-09604, L-09677, N-03197
SOLIDS A-08615, A-28800, B-00717,
B-09833, F-14363, G-00236
SOLVENT REFINING (LOW ASH)
B-09666
SOLVENTS A-26693, A-32351, B-00107,
3-26757, L-09677
SOOT A-02287, A-06111, A-06578,
A-08255, A-09161, A-09831, A-09832,
A-10075, A-13832, A-16990, A-17017,
A-24219, A-28137, A-30021, A-33640,
B-00716, B-00717, B-02973, B-03045,
B-03121, B-03790, B-04856, B-04862,
B-07527, B-07537, B-07971, B-08957,
B-09504, B-09833, B-18118, B-18296,
B-23189, B-23846, B-24291, B-28517,
B-30055, B-31145, B-32910, B-33623,
B-33734, B-34025, B-34278, C-00275,
C-08895, C-20317, C-26588, C-29749,
C-31981, D-03363, F-15695, G-00236,
G-07541, K-09921, L-04942, L-06741,
L-07202, L-07550, L-16736, L-21104,
N-03197
SOOT FALL B-07537, B-09833, C-00275,
L-07950
SOURCE SAMPLING A-05387, A-08200,
A-10735, A-22955, A-23745, A-26538,
B-05429, B-13857, B-18296, B-19642,
B-34278, C-00403, C-03460, C-04324,
C-07848, C-11859, C-16952, C-20256,
C-23351, C-23441, C-23681, C-26601,
C-27100, C-27735, C-29072, C-30118,
C-30219, C-31842, K-21896
SO2 REMOVAL (COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS) A-12975, A-16836,
A-22800, A-25638, A-26278, A-31299,
B-00140, B-03045, B-05137, B-06781,
B-07430, B-07535, B-07537, B-07752,
B-08825, B-09666, B-09833, B-11056,
B-11178, B-11247, B-11256, B-12308,
B-12478, B-12574, B-13501, B-14221,
B-14716, B-14844, B-14928, B-14996,
B-15378, B-17905, B-18118, B-18290,
B-18296, B-19056, B-19257, B-19469,
B-19473, B-19588, B-19642, B-20035,
B-20539, B-20777, B-21200, B-21268,
B-21506, B-21893, B-23073, B-24613,
B-24645, B-24678, B-24821, B-25468,
B-26104, B-26544, B-26545, B-26546,
B-26857, B-27295, B-28271, B-28503,
B-28742, B-28749, B-29014, B-29231,
B-30131, B-30155, B-30159, B-30220,
B-30488, B-30734, B-30994, B-31100,
B-31404, B-31456, B-31662, B-31795,
B-31990, B-32274, B-32455, B-32803,
B-32824, B-32826, B-32827, B-33030,
B-34025, B-34026, B-34278, B-34282,
C-08895, F-13487, F-32430, G-07541,
K-21896
SPARK IGNITION ENGINES A-05005,
B-07537, B-15544, G-00236
SPARK TIMING B-20294
SPECTROMETRY A-01788, A-02631,
A-05005, A-08255, B-01626, B-04372,
B-08741, B-08825, B-33738, C-04324,
C-23681, C-26601, C-29677, C-29955,
C-30219, D-30860, E-20853, F-03874,
F-20274
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY A-01788,
A-05157, B-08825, B-31997, C-17497
SPOT TESTS C-29749
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
123
SPRAY TOWERS A-05005, B-00140,
B-07932, B-21200, B-30220, B-30331,
B-32803
SPRAYS A-05264, A-24076, B-03153
ST LOUIS A-02630, A-02631, A-03870,
A-05563, B-02973, B-03053, B-04336,
B-04394, F-00572, G-00236, L-09677
STABILITY (ATMOSPHERIC) B-07535,
B-08957, C-23681, D-30860, E-29177,
E-32371, M-08698
STACK GASES A-01788, A-02287,
A-04342, A-05387, A-06111, A-06578,
A-08255, A-08374, A-08615, A-08641,
A-08642, A-08820, A-09161, A-10075,
A-10743, A-16836, A-17840, A-19017,
A-23745, A-24005, A-24076, A-25196,
A-26277, A-28515, A-31657, A-33697,
A-34303, B-00140, B-01496, B-01626,
B-03121, B-04394, B-05137, B-05429,
B-05857, B-06548, B-06562, B-06563,
B-06781, B-07430, B-07537, B-07752,
B-07839, B-07881, B-07932, B-07971,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08825, B-09666,
B-09833, B-09923, B-10993, B-11247,
B-11256, B-12478, B-12574, B-13501,
B-14221, B-14262, B-14716, B-14928,
B-15378, B-15560, B-16068, B-17905,
B-18118, B-18149, B-18290, B-19056,
B-19257, B-19469, B-19473, B-19588,
B-19642, B-19729, B-21200, B-21506,
B-21893, B-22559, B-23063, B-23073,
B-23189, B-24043, B-24291, B-24613,
B-24645, B-24678, B-24821, B-25079,
B-25786, B-26104, B-26312, B-26365,
B-26451, B-26544, B-26545, B-26546,
B-26560, B-26665, B-26857, B-27243,
B-27295, B-28271, B-28503, B-28517,
B-28742, B-28749, B-29013, B-29231,
B-29471, B-29685, B-29686, B-29861,
B-30055, B-30131, B-30159, B-30220,
B-30331, B-30488, B-31100, B-31145,
B-31404, B-31456, B-31662, B-31795,
B-31990, B-31997, B-32274, B-32455,
B-32751, B-32803, B-32824, B-32826,
B-32827, B-32910, B-33288, B-33734,
B-34025, B-34278, B-34282, C-00403,
C-04324, C-11859, C-17497, C-20256,
C-21055, C-22998, C-23351, C-23441,
C-23681, C-24879, C-25260, C-26588,
C-26601, C-27100, C-27735, C-28991,
C-29749, C-30084, C-30118, C-30219,
C-30997, C-31S47, C-31723, C-31981,
D-02147, D-29973, D-30860, D-32055,
E-32371, F-10066, F-13487, F-15615,
F-16883, F-20274, G-07541, 1-23460,
1-28335, 1-29783, 1-31588, K-06778,
K-21896, K-25134, K-34015, K-34154,
L-04620, L-07550, L-09677, L-16343,
L-27242
STACK SAMPLING A-05387, A-08200,
A-10735, A-23745, B-05429, B-13857,
B-19642, B-34278, C-00403, C-03460,
C-04324, C-07848, C-20256, C-23351,
C-23441, C-23681, C-26601, C-27100,
C-27735, C-29072, C-30118, C-30219,
C-31842, K-21896
STACKS A-06111, A-06578, A-08615,
A-08642, A-08820, A-10743, A-15375,
A-23745, A-25638, A-28158, A-31657,
A-34303, B-01459, B-01496, B-06562,
B-06563, B-06781, B-07537, B-07932,
B-09666, B-09833, B-13857, B-18296,
B-20758, B-24536, B-26369, B-26560,
B-26665, B-27243, B-28517, B-29441,
B-29685, B-29686, B-31795, B-32751,
B-32910, B-33734, B-34278, C-03460,
C-04324, C-06770, C-07848, C-08895,
C-21872, C-23681, C-27100, D-29973,
E-28937, F-20274, 1-14948, J-33530,
K-06778, K-09921, K-21896, K-25134,
L-04620, L-07363, L-07950, L-09603,
L-09604, L-21104, L-24828
STANDARDS A-01788, A-10735, A-25638,
A-27471, A-29538, A-32351, A-34303,
B-02032, B-07932, B-09666, B-09833,
B-18296, B-19453, B-22559, B-27658,
B-31104, B-31229, B-33623, C-25593,
D-03363, D-07141, D-32055, E-32371,
J-30696, K-06778, K-09921, K-21896,
K-25134, K-31968, K-34015, L-07202,
L-09603, L-09604, L-09677, L-20698,
L-20861, L-21104, L-23610, L-26938,
L-27242, L-30779, L-32884
STATE GOVERNMENTS A-23313,
A-23314, A-25638, B-07971, C-25593,
D-30860, D-32055, J-33530, L-09603,
L-09604, L-09677, L-16736, L-26938,
L-27242, N-03197
STATISTICAL ANALYSES A-23726,
B-09923, C-06770, C-11859, C-27100,
J-30696
STEAM A-01788, A-05563, A-28158,
B-09833, B-12672, B-14194, B-15560,
B-26501, B-33288, F-07811
STEAM ENGINES G-00236
STEAM PLANTS A-02629, A-05011,
A-05160, A-09016, A-09161, A-09831,
A-10743, A-12120, A-22800, A-23726,
A-24854, A-26278, A-28158, A-32351,
A-33087, B-06781, B-07537, B-07932,
B-07971, B-08155, B-08343, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-09923, B-10993,
B-11251, B-12308, B-16068, B-20035,
B-21506, B-21893, B-22071, B-22559,
B-24613, B-25637, B-26369, B-26501,
B-31997, B-32414, C-00403, C-27100,
1-17475, J-21241, K-06778, L-04620,
L-07550, L-07950, L-32647, N-05221
STEEL A-04342, A-05005, A-32351,
B-00287, B-26546, B-32751, B-32824,
D-29973, D-30860, F-03874, 1-21641,
1-28335, J-30696
STOMACH G-07541
STONE B-32906
STREETS D-29973
SULFATES A-19017, B-05137, B-07557,
B-09164, B-09191, B-09833, B-12672,
B-18118, B-18149, B-19588, B-23073,
B-28271, B-28742, B-30220, B-31100,
C-27100, F-03874, F-03881, F-04939,
F-14363, F-16883, 1-04622, 1-11286,
1-13681, 1-14084, 1-14153, 1-21641,
1-29783, 1-31588, L-09445
SULFIDES A-09831, A-17017, A-19017,
A-23561, A-25169, A-28158, A-31252,
B-03045, B-09666, B-21893, B-26104,
B-29231, C-25593, C-32773, C-33054,
D-32055, F-03874, F-05302, F-16883,
1-28335, 1-29783, K-06778, M-08698
SULFITES B-09833, B-11056, B-20539,
B-28271, B-31404, B-31662, B-32803
SULFUR COMPOUNDS A-02631,
A-04342, A-08374, A-09831, A-17017,
A-19017, A-22800, A-23313, A-23314,
A-23443, A-23561, A-25169, A-28158,
A-31252, A-32351, B-03045, B-04856,
B-05137, B-07537, B-07557, B-09164,
B-09191, B-09666, B-09833, B-11056,
B-11247, B-11251, B-12672, B-14838,
B-18118, B-18149, B-19588, B-20539,
B-21893, B-22603, B-23073, B-24675,
B-26104, B-26365, B-26378, B-28271,
B-28742, B-29231, B-30159, B-30220,
B-30734, B-31100, B-31404, B-31662,
B-32803, C-00403, C-25593, C-27100,
C-32773, C-33054, D-32055, F-03874,
F-03881, F-04939, F-05302, F-14363,
F-16883, G-00236, G-07541, 1-04622,
1-11286, 1-13681, 1-14084, 1-14153,
1-17475, 1-21641, 1-23460, 1-28335,
1-29783, 1-29956, 1-31588, J-30122,
K-06778, L-09445, L-09677, M-08698
SULFUR DIOXIDE A-02287, A-04342,
A-06111, A-08255, A-08374, A-08615,
A-08820, A-09161, A-09831, A-10075,
A-12975, A-16836, A-17017, A-19017,
A-23561, A-23745, A-25142, A-25169,
A-26538, A-31657, A-32351, A-33640,
A-33697, A-34303, B-00107, B-00140,
B-01459, B-01626, B-03045, B-03121,
B-03223, B-04516, B-04862, B-05137,
B-06781, B-07430, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07752, B-07971, B-08343, B-08825,
B-08957, B-09504, B-09666, B-09833,
B-11056, B-11256, B-12574, B-13501,
B-14221, B-14262, B-15378, B-15432,
B-18118, B-18290, B-18296, B-19729,
B-22603, B-25637, B-26365, B-26378,
B-26546, B-28271, B-28503, B-29819,
B-31145, B-32552, B-33288, B-33734,
B-34026, B-34278, C-00403, C-03201,
C-08895, C-22998, C-23681, C-25593,
C-27100, C-29955, C-30084, C-30219,
C-30997, C-32773, C-33054, D-02147,
D-03363, D-12358, D-17360, D-29973,
D-30860, D-32055, D-32259, E-26550,
E-32371, F-03874, F-03881, F-05302,
F-10066, F-13487, F-32430, G-00236,
G-07541, G-11656, 1-13681, 1-14153,
1-21641, 1-29783, 1-30022, J-26757,
J-33530, K-06778, K-21896, K-25134,
K-31968, K-34015, L-04620, L-04942,
L-07202, L-07550, L-07950, L-09445,
L-09677, L-16736, L-20861, L-23610,
L-27242, L-30779, L-32884, M-08698
SULFUR OXIDES A-01788, A-02148,
A-02287, A-02629, A-04342, A-05011,
A-06111, A-08255, A-08374, A-08615,
A-08820, A-09161, A-09831, A-09832,
A-10075, A-12975, A-16836, A-17017,
A-19017, A-23561, A-23726, A-23745,
A-24732, A-25142, A-25169, A-26538,
A-26693, A-30829, A-31657, A-32351,
A-33087, A-33640, A-33697, A-34303,
B-00107, B-00140, B-00287, B-01459,
B-01626, B-03045, B-03121, B-03153,
B-03223, B-03790, B-04336, B-04372,
B-04394, B-04516, B-04856, B-04862,
B-05137, B-05853, B-05868, B-06781,
B-07430, B-07535, B-07537, B-07752,
B-07839, B-07932, B-07971, B-08343,
B-08616, B-08825, B-08957, B-09164,
B-09191, B-09504, B-09666, B-09833,
B-11056, B-11256, B-12090, B-12574,
B-13501, B-14221, B-14262, B-14690,
B-15378, B-15432, B-18118, B-18290,
B-18296, B-19729, B-22559, B-22603,
B-24291, B-24821, B-25079, B-25637,
B-25786, B-26365, B-26378, B-26546,
B-28271, B-28503, B-29014, B-29819,
B-30055, B-30155, B-30612, B-30926,
B-31100, B-31145, B-31997, B-32414,
B-32552, B-33288, B-33734, B-34026,
B-34278, C-00403, C-03201, C-08895,
C-21055, C-22998, C-23681, C-24879,
C-25593, C-26588, C-27100, C-29955,
C-30084, C-30219, C-30997, C-32773,
C-33054, D-02147, D-03363, D-12358,
-------
124
D-17360, D-20348, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, D-32259, E-26550, E-32371,
F-03874, F-03881, F-05302, F-10066,
F-13487, F-14363, F-16883, F-20274,
F-32430, G-00236, G-07541, G-11656,
1-04622, 1-13681, 1-14084, 1-14153,
1-15274, 1-21641, 1-29783, 1-29956,
1-30022, 1-31588, J-21241, J-26757,
J-30696, J-33530, K-06778, K-21896,
K-25134, K-31968, K-34015, L-04620,
L-04942, L-07202, L-07550, L-07950,
L-09445, L-09677, L-16736, L-20861,
L-21104, L-23610, L-27242, L-30779,
L-32884, M-08698
SULFUR OXIDES CONTROL A-08642,
A-09161, A-09831, A-12975, A-16836,
A-16949, A-22800, A-25638, A-26278,
A-29534, A-31299, B-00107, B-00140,
B-00287, B-03045, B-03121, B-03790,
B-04336, B-05137, B-06781, B-07430,
B-07535, B-07537, B-07752, B-07839,
B-08825, B-09666, B-09833, B-11056,
B-11178, B-11247, B-11256, B-12308,
B-12478, B-12574, B-13501, B-14221,
B-14716, B-14838, B-14844, B-14928,
B-14996, B-15378, B-17137, B-17905,
B-18118, B-18290, B-18296, B-19056,
B-19257, B-19469, B-19473, B-19588,
B-19642, B-20035, B-20539, B-20563,
B-20777, B-21200, B-21268, B-21506,
B-21893, B-23063, B-23073, B-23176,
B-24291, B-24613, B-24645, B-24675,
B-24678, B-24821, B-25468, B-26104,
B-26369, B-26544, B-26545, B-26546,
B-26857, B-27295, B-28271, B-28503,
B-28742, B-28749, B-29014, B-29231,
B-29685, B-30131, B-30155, B-30159,
B-30220, B-30488, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31100, B-31229, B-31404, B-31456,
B-31662, B-31795, B-31990, B-32274,
B-32414, B-32455, B-32803, B-32824,
B-32826, B-32827, B-33030, B-34025,
B-34026, B-34278, B-34282, C-08895,
F-13487, F-32430, G-07541, J-26757,
K-21896, L-04620
SULFUR TRIOXIDE A-02148, A-02287,
A-02629, A-04342, A-05011, A-08255,
A-08374, A-09161, A-09831, A-12975,
A-16836, A-19017, A-23745, A-26538,
A-30829, A-33697, B-00107, B-00140,
B-00287, B-01626, B-03!53, B-03223,
B-04336, B-04372, B-04394, B-04862,
B-05853, B-05868, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07839, B-07932, B-07971, B-08343,
B-08616, B-08825, B-09164, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-11256, B-12090,
B-12574, B-14690, B-15378, B-15432,
B-18118, B-22603, B-24291, B-24821,
B-25079, B-25637, B-25786, B-26365,
B-26378, B-28503, B-29014, B-29819,
B-30055, B-30612, B-30926, B-31100,
B-31145, B-31997, B-33288, B-33734,
B-34026, C-00403, C-03201, C-24879,
C-26588, C-27100, C-30084, C-30219,
D-02147, F-03874, F-05302, F-10066,
F-14363, F-16883, G-07541, 1-13681,
1-14084, 1-14153, 1-15274, 1-21641,
1-29783, 1-30022, 1-31588, K-06778
SULFURIC ACID A-04342, A-05800,
A-08374, A-12975, A-16836, A-19017,
A-28158, A-30021, A-32351, B-04336,
B-04862, B-07535, B-08155, B-08343,
B-09191, B-09833, B-11247, B-11256,
B-12090, B-14262, B-18118, B-20777,
B-25468, B-25637, B-25643, B-26378,
B-26560, B-28271, B-28503, B-30055,
B-30159, B-30488, B-30926, B-31990,
B-32274, B-32824, B-32827, B-33030,
B-34025, C-24879, D-03363, D-29973,
F-15944, F-20274, G-00236, 1-14948,
1-29956, J-30696, K-06778
SURFACE COATING OPERATIONS
C-04324, J-30696
SURFACE COATINGS A-32351, B-09833,
B-12090, F-03874, 1-14948, 1-31588,
J-30696
SURFACE PROPERTIES A-05800,
B-05868, B-11056, B-29231, B-32824,
B-32826
SURFACTANTS B-09504
SURVEY METHODS L-07950
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES A-02629,
A-02667, A-05005, A-06687, A-08200,
A-08255, A-08642, A-09161, A-09539,
A-09831, A-09832, A-10075, A-10743,
A-13832, A-16949, A-17190, A-23313,
A-23561, A-23726, A-24005, A-24076,
A-24732, A-26278, A-28800, A-30021,
A-31657, A-32351, A-33640, B-00107,
B-00140, B-00406, B-00716, B-00717,
B-01459, B-03045, B-03053, B-03121,
B-03153, B-03790, B-04358, B-04516,
B-05853, B-05868, B-06548, B-06781,
B-07430, B-07527, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07557, B-07752, B-07932, B-07971,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08616, B-08825,
B-09191, B-09504, B-09546, B-09792,
B-09833, B-10415, B-10993, B-11726,
B-12446, B-12574, B-14194, B-14221,
B-14716, B-15560, B-16068, B-17137,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19056, B-19642,
B-19729, B-20294, B-20616, B-20822,
B-21195, B-21268, B-21328, B-22559,
B-23189, B-24043, B-24480, B-24536,
B-24645, B-24675, B-25079, B-25643,
B-25786, B-26378, B-26546, B-26665,
B-28230, B-28742, B-29013, B-29014,
B-29441, B-29686, B-29940, B-30734,
B-31456, B-32274, B-32414, B-32455,
B-32524, B-32751, B-32910, B-33288,
B-33734, B-34025, B-34026, B-34278,
C-00403, C-03460, C-06770, C-08895,
C-11859, C-21872, C-23681, C-25260,
C-27735, C-29955, D-03363, D-05645,
D-07141, D-12358, D-17360, D-29973,
D-30860, D-32055, D-32259, E-26550,
F-04939, F-15615, G-00236,1-14084,
1-14153,1-29783, J-01308, K-06778,
K-31968, L-04620, L-04942, L-07202,
L-07363, L-07550, L-07950, L-09445,
L-09603, L-09604, L-09677, L-16343,
L-16736, L-20698, L-21104, L-23610,
L-24828, L-26938, L-27242, L-30779,
L-32884, N-03197
SWEDEN A-01788, A-03870, A-04342,
A-06111, A-23443, B-00140, B-00287,
B-00716, B-00717, B-01626, B-02973,
B-03045, B-03053, B-03153, B-04862,
B-18296, B-24613, C-23441, D-03363,
"F-00572, F-03874, F-03881, F-04357,
G-00236, K-25134
SYNERGISM B-25079
SYNTHETIC FIBERS B-08343
SYNTHETIC RUBBER B-32827
TEFLON B-08825
TEMPERATURE A-02631, A-04342,
A-05011, A-07975, A-08255, A-08374,
A-08615, A-08641, A-09832, A-16836,
A-19017, A-21363, A-21940, A-22955,
A-23745, A-24219, A-25169, A-25868,
A-29534, A-30021, A-30829, A-31252,
A-33697, B-02973, B-03053, B-04336,
B-04862, B-05137, B-05853, B-07881,
B-07932, B-08343, B-08616, B-08825,
B-09164, B-09833, B-11056, B-11251,
B-12308, B-14690, B-15432, B-18296,
B-19588, B-20539, B-23846, B-24613,
B-24675, B-25079, B-25468, B-26857,
B-27243, B-28113, B-28503, B-28517,
B-30131, B-30612, B-30734, B-30994,
B-31100, B-31404, B-31997, B-32274,
B-32414, B-32455, B-32552, B-32751,
B-32827, B-33288, B-33623, B-33734,
B-33738, B-34282, C-24879, C-31547,
E-32371, F-00572, F-04939, F-10066,
F-14363, F-16883, F-20274, 1-04622,
1-11286, 1-14948, 1-21641, 1-28335,
1-31588
TEMPERATURE (ATMOSPHERIC)
A-05563, E-15174, E-31122, E-32371
TEMPERATURE GRADIENT E-29177,
E-32371
TEMPERATURE SENSING
INSTRUMENTS B-28113
TESTING FACILITIES B-30994
TEXAS B-05347
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING B-08155,
B-08957, B-26544, B-26545, B-26546
TEXTILES B-08155, B-08343, B-26544,
B-26546
THERMAL RADIATION B-09833
THERMODYNAMICS A-05011, A-17840,
A-25169, A-30829, B-07881, B-23073,
F-00572, F-03874, F-14363, F-15615,
1-04622, 1-29783
TIP BURN D-03363
TITANIUM COMPOUNDS A-02629,
A-09831
TOKYO D-29973, L-23610, L-30779
TOPOGRAPHIC INTERACTIONS
A-23561, D-30860, E-32371
TOXIC TOLERANCES K-31968
TRACE ANALYSIS A-02631, E-20853
TRACERS E-20853
TRAINS A-03154, A-26693, A-32351,
B-03121, G-00236
TRANSPORT A-23561
TRANSPORTATION A-03154, A-05005,
A-17840, A-23561, A-26277, A-26693,
A-29538, A-29781, A-32351, A-33087,
A-33640, B-00287, B-03121, B-04516,
B-06781, B-07535, B-07537, B-07971,
B-08695, B-09164, B-09504, B-12672,
B-15544, B-20294, B-20822, B-26369,
B-30926, B-31229, B-32524, B-34278,
C-25593, C-29677, D-03363, D-17785,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
F-00572, G-00236, J-26757, J-30696,
L-07550, L-07950, L-09677, L-16736,
L-21104, L-23610, L-30779, L-31509,
L-31740, L-32647, L-33228
TRAPPING (SAMPLING) A-05005,
C-20317, F-03874
TREATED FABRICS B-08343, B-08741
TREATMENT AND AIDS G-07541
TREES B-07537, D-03363
TRUCKS A-05005, A-26693, A-33087,
B-07971, G-00236, J-30696
TURBIDIMETRY C-27100
TURBULENCE (ATMOSPHERIC)
A-04799, A-09832, A-24005, E-32371
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SUBJECT INDEX
125
U
ULTRASONICS A-28800
ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETRY
A-01788, A-05005, C-26601, C-29677,
C-30219
UNDERFIRE AIR B-33734
UNITED STATES A-06111, B-06781
UNIVERSITIES B-07971
URBAN AREAS A-05563, A-26693,
A-31657, A-32351, B-01459, B-09666,
B-11491, B-23189, B-27658, B-32524,
B-32552, D-07141, D-17785, D-20348,
D-29973, D-30860, D-32055, D-32259,
E-15174, E-29177, E-31122, J-21241,
J-30696, J-33530, K-34015, L-07550,
L-07950, L-09677, L-11077, L-23610,
L-30779
URINALYSIS B-00140, D-03363
USSR A-04082, A-06111, A-08200,
A-16990, A-17017, A-17840, A-22955,
B-08155, B-11491, B-15619, B-19729,
B-23189, B-26312, C-24879, C-30084,
C-31723, D-03363, D-07141, D-17785,
E-32371, G-11656
VALLEYS D-32259
VANADIUM A-22955, B-09504
VANADIUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-01626, B-04336, B-09164, B-09191,
B-09504, B-09833, B-14262, B-18118,
B-22603, B-29819, B-30926, F-03881,
G-07541,1-14084, 1-29956
VAPOR PRESSURE A-25868, A-31252,
B-09833, B-33738, B-34282, F-14363,
F-16883
VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS F-13487
VAPORS A-01788, A-05563, A-28158,
B-09833, B-12672, B-14194, B-15560,
B-26501, B-33288, C-28708, F-07811,
H-14944
VARNISHES J-30696
VEHICLES A-03154, A-05005, A-23561,
A-26693, A-32351, A-33087, A-33640,
B-03121, B-04516, B-07535, B-07537,
B-07971, B-31229, B-32524, C-29677,
D-03363, D-17785, D-29973, D-30860,
D-32055, D-32259, G-00236, J-26757,
J-30696, L-07550, L-16736, L-21104,
L-23610, L-30779, L-31509, L-33228
VENTILATION B-18296, B-29514,
B-33734
VENTURI SCRUBBERS B-18149,
B-29861, B-32824, J-21241
VISIBILITY B-09833, B-29013, G-07541,
L-09445, L-27242
VISIBLE RADIATION C-20317
VOLATILITY A-02631, A-28388, A-33697
VOLCANOES G-00236
VOLTAGE B-04394, B-05868, B-08616,
B-20616, B-31104, F-04939
w
WASHINGTON D C L-09677
WATER A-08374, A-21363, B-09191,
B-09833, B-14996, B-20777, B-25079,
B-29861, B-32552, C-28708, C-29313,
F-03881, F-04939
WATER POLLUTION L-23610, L-30779
WEATHER FORECASTING N-03197
WEST VIRGINIA J-01308, L-0%77,
L-26938
WET CYCLONES B-00140, B-00406,
B-08155, B-08343, B-08741, B-18149,
B-28742, D-03363
WETTING G-00236, 1-29783
WIND ROSE L-09445
WINDS A-08615, A-23313, A-32351,
B-07537, C-08895, D-03363, E-29177,
E-32371, G-00236, L-09445, N-03197
WOOD A-06578, B-11726, B-21195,
B-26501, B-26546
X
X-RAYS A-02631, B-29940, C-22998,
F-03874
ZINC B-00107, B-03223, J-30696
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE I 972— k
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