NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT
EMISSION TRENDS
1940-1970
James H. Cavender
David S. Kircher
Alan J. Hoffman
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
January 1973
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The AP series of reports is published by the Technical Publications Branch of
the Information Services Division of the Office of Administration for the
Office of Air and Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, to report
the results of scientific and engineering studies, and information of general
interest in the field of air pollution. Information reported in this series includes
coverage of intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted in con-
junction with state and local agencies, research institutes, and industrial
organizations. Copies of AP reports are available free of charge to Federal
employees, current contractors and grantees, and nonprofit organizations - as
supplies permit - from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center,
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
27711 or from the Superintendent of Documents.
Publication No. AP-115
11
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The procedures for determining nationwide emission estimates have evolved
over time with input from many people and many sources. Much of the early
effort was documented in AP-73, Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant
Emissions, 1968.
Individuals who made significant contributions to this report include Dennis
Ackerson and Earl Hartgrove of the Monitoring and Data Analysis Division.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES vi
ABSTRACT ix
INTRODUCTION 1
NATIONWIDE EMISSION TRENDS, 1940-1970 3
Sulfur Oxides 4
Particulates 6
Carbon Monoxide 7
Hydrocarbons 8
Nitrogen Oxides 10
NATIONWIDE EMISSION ESTIMATES, 1969 13
Sulfur Oxides 13
Particulates 15
Carbon Monoxide 16
Hydrocarbons 18
Nitrogen Oxides 19
NATIONWIDE EMISSION ESTIMATES, 1970 21
Sulfur Oxides 21
Particulates 22
Carbon Monoxide 23
Hydrocarbons 24
Nitrogen Oxides 25
METHODS 27
Transportation 28
Fuel Combustion in Stationary Sources 30
Industrial Process Losses 31
Solid Waste Disposal 32
Miscellaneous Sources 33
REFERENCES 35
APPENDIX A 37
APPENDIX B 45
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1940-1970 4
2 Nationwide Estimates of Sulfur Oxide Emissions, 1940-1970 ... 5
3 Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Fuel Combustion in Stationary
Sources, 1940-1970 5
4 Nationwide Estimates of Particulate Emissions, 1940-1970 .... 6
5 Nationwide Estimates of Carbon Monoxide Emissions, 1940-1970 7
6 Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Transportation Sources,
1940-1970 8
7 Nationwide Estimates of Hydrocarbon Emissions, 1940-1970 ... 9
8 Hydrocarbon Emissions from Transportation Sources, 1940-1970 . 9
9 Nationwide Estimates of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions, 1940-1970 .. 10
10 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Transportation Sources,
1940-1970 11
11 Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1969 13
12 Nationwide Estimates of Sulfur Oxide Emissions, 1969 14
13 Nationwide Estimates of Particulate Emissions, 1969 15
14 Nationwide Estimates of Carbon Monoxide Emissions, 1969 ... 17
15 Nationwide Estimates of Hydrocarbon Emissions, 1969 18
16 Nationwide Estimates of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions, 1969 19
17 Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1970 21
18 Nationwide Estimates of Sulfur Oxide Emissions, 1970 22
19 Nationwide Estimates of Particulate Emissions, 1970 23
20 Nationwide Estimates of Carbon Monoxide Emissions, 1970 ... 24
21 Nationwide Estimates of Hydrocarbon Emissions, 1970 25
22 Nationwide Estimates of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions, 1970 26
23 Vehicle Miles of Travel in the United States, 1969 28
24 Fuel Consumption in Stationary Sources, 1969 30
25 Summary of Industrial Production, 1969 32
A-l Detailed Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1940 .... 39
A-2 Detailed Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1950 .... 40
A-3 Detailed Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1960 .... 41
A-4 Detailed Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1968 .... 42
A-5 Detailed Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1969 .... 43
A-6 Detailed Summary of Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1970 .... 44
B-l Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Industrial Process Losses, 1940-1970. 47
B-2 Particulate Emissions from Industrial Process Losses, 1940-1970 . 48
VI
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Table Page
B-3 Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Industrial Process Losses,
1940-1970 51
B4 Hydrocarbon Emissions from Industrial Process Losses, 1940-1970 52
B-5 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Industrial Process Losses,
1940-1970 52
VH
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ABSTRACT
This report presents estimates of trends in nationwide air pollutant emissions
for the five major pollutants: sulfur oxides, particulates, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. Detailed emission estimates for 1969 and
1970 are also provided. The year 1969 was selected as the base year; emissions
for other years were calculated using methods and criteria in effect for 1969.
In general, emissions of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides steadily increased
through 1970 while carbon monoxide, particulate, and hydrocarbon emissions
peaked in 1968-1969 and either decreased or remained somewhat constant
thereafter.
KeyWords: trends, emissions, inventory, air pollutants, nationwide, sulfur
oxides, carbon monoxide, particulates, hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, controllable emissions, miscellaneous emissions.
IX
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NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT
EMISSION TRENDS
1940-1970
INTRODUCTION
The primary objectives of this publication are to provide current estimates
of nationwide emissions for the five major pollutants, sulfur oxides (SOX),
particulates (Part.), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen
oxides (NOX), and to present and discuss trends of these emissions. Estimates
for 1969 and 1970 are presented in detail, along with summaries of emissions
for 1940, 1950, 1960, and 1968.
Reporting of emissions on a nationwide basis, while useful as a general
indicator of pollutant levels, has definite limitations. National totals, averages,
and trends are not the best guide for estimating the effects that will be pro-
duced in a particular locality. Yet, it is important that we establish some
criteria in order to measure progress and decide where effort should be
channeled. Ideally, nationwide emission estimates should result from a
summation of county, state, and regional data in which each component is
reported separately. The National Emission Data System (NEDS) now being
implemented by the Environmental Protection Agency1 will provide county,
state, and regional data and will include provisions for semiannual updating.
A discussion of trends is meaningful only when there is a common basis for
evaluation. It was therefore necessary to quantify emissions using the same
criteria for each year. This meant using the same estimation techniques, using
equal or equivalent data sources, covering the same pollutant sources, and using
the same collection efficiencies where applicable. Emission estimates for previ-
ous years were updated by using current emission factors and by including the
most recent information available. The criteria used in calculating emissions for
1969 and 1970 were applied to these earlier inventories. Nationwide estimates
for these earlier years, except 1966 through 1968,2 have not been released as
separate documents; however, such emission estimates have been published in
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air pollutant criteria and control techniques documents, Council on Environ-
mental Quality reports, Economics of Clean Air reports to Congress, and
similar releases.
Estimates for 1966 and 1967 were not included in this report because they
have been published previously and because they were obtained using methods
not consistent with those used in this report; different emission factors and
source categories precluded comparisons of data.
This report includes emission estimates through December 1970. It was not
possible to obtain more recent estimates because many of the basic data used
have time lags of up to 2 years.
Emission estimates in this publication are reported by pollutant for six
principal source categories: fuel combustion in stationary sources, transporta-
tion, solid waste disposal, industrial process losses, agricultural burning, and
miscellaneous. Each of these categories is further broken down into
appropriate component parts. All emissions are reported in tons per year to
three significant figures. In some instances emission totals may not completely
agree due to rounding. Appendices A and B contain a complete set of the data
used throughout this report. Appendix A presents detailed emission estimates
by pollutant and source category for 1940,1950,1960,1968, 1969, and 1970.
Appendix B provides a detailed breakdown of emissions from industrial process
losses by pollutant and year.
The basic data used in calculating the emission estimates, such as fuel usage,
vehicle miles of travel, and the methodology used, are presented in detail in the
Methods section.
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
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NATIONWIDE EMISSION TRENDS
1940-1970
The year 1969 was selected as the base year for presenting and comparing
nationwide emissions. Emissions for other years were computed using the same
criteria; thus, all years are considered equivalent and valid comparisons are
possible.
Emissions during 1969 are considered basically uncontrolled for the gaseous
pollutants (CO, HC, NOX> and SOX). This does not imply that no controls
existed prior to 1969 because many cities and states have had control programs
for a number of years. Such programs were, however, restricted mainly to the
visible particulate pollutants.
Implementation of motor vehicle controls in the mid 60's began to effect a
downward trend in nationwide emissions during 1969 and 1970. As the older
uncontrolled vehicles are phased out, and as the more stringent 1975-1976
exhaust emission standards are implemented, a more dramatic downward shift
in emissions will be evident.
Table 1 summarizes estimated total emissions for each pollutant by year.
Emissions in this table are separated into controllable emissions and miscellane-
ous emissions. These miscellaneous emissions, which are basically uncontrolla-
ble, include emissions from forest fires, structural burning, coal refuse burning,
and evaporative losses of gasoline and solvents. These are considered uncontrol-
lable even though man may have an influence, through public awareness pro-
grams, safety education, and similar indirect techniques, on the amounts of
pollutants emitted from such sources. Many categories of natural emissions
could be considered uncontrollable, but estimates of these types of emissions
were not available. When comparing emissions over time, however, we are
primarily interested in controllable emissions. The division of emissions into
controllable and uncontrollable can be rather nebulous since some areas
overlap. For this report, controllable emissions are considered basically
man-made or man-directed emissions.
Table 1 gives nationwide estimates for controllable emissions. Emissions of
sulfur oxides, except in 1960, increased during each reporting interval; CO
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Table 1. SUMMARY OF
NATIONWIDE
1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
EMISSION ESTIMATES,
Year
1940
1950
1960
1968
1969
1970
Type of emission
Controllable
Miscellaneous8
Total
Controllable
Miscellaneous
Total
Controllable
Miscellaneous
Total
Controllable
Miscellaneous
Total
Controllable
Miscellaneous
Total
Controllable
Miscellaneous
Total
sox
21.3
0.2
21.5
23.6
0.2
23.8
23.0
0.3
23.3
31.0
0.3
31.3
32.2
0.2
32.4
33.6
0.3
33.9
Part.
20.7
6.4
27.1
22.6
3.3
25.9
23.2
2.1
25.3
24.9
1.7
26.6
25.2
2.1
27.3
24.6
1.0
25.6
CO
66.4
19.0
85.4
93.0
10.0
103.0
121.0
6.4
127.4
145.0
5.0
150.0
148.0
6.3
154.3
144.0
3.0
147.0
HC
14.6
4.5
19.1
21.4
4.2
25.6
27.2
4.4
31.6
30.3
4.9
35.2
30.2
5.0
35.2
30.3
4.4
34.7
NOX
7.1
0.8
7.9
10.0
0.4
10.4
13.8
0.2
14.0
21.1
0.2
21.3
22.3
0.2
'22.5
22.6
0.1
22.7
Miscellaneous emissions are primarily uncontrollable.
levels consistently rose through 1969 and dropped in 1970; particulate
emissions followed the same pattern as CO emissions; HC emissions increased
until 1968 and remained fairly constant thereafter; and NOX emissions steadily
increased. Detailed discussions of these trends and trends for individual source
categories are contained in the following sections.
SULFUR OXIDES
The largest source of sulfur oxides is fuel combustion in stationary sources,
and the next largest contributor is industrial process losses. Table 2 summarizes
SOX emissions for the six principal source categories, and Table 3 provides a
detailed breakdown for the most important source of SOX emissions, fuel
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
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Table 2. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS,
1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Transportation
Solid waste disposal
Industrial process
losses
Agricultural
burning
Miscellaneous
Total
Total controllableb
1940
16.8
0.7
Nega
3.8
Neg
0.2
21.5
21.3
1950
18.3
1.0
0.1
4.2
Neg
0.2
23.8
23.6
1960
17.5
0.7
0.1
4.7
Neg
0.3
23.3
23.0
1968
24.7
1.1
0.1
5.1
Neg
0.3
31.3
31.0
1969
25.0
1.1
0.2
5.9
Neg
0.2
32.4
32.2
1970
26.5
1.0
0.1
6.0
Neg
0.3
3? 9
33.6
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 10^ tons/year).
Miscellaneous sources not included.
Table 3. SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION IN
STATIONARY SOURCES, 1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Steam electric
Industrial
Commercial and insti-
tutional
Residential
Total
1940
2.8
9.3
1.7
3.0
16.8
1950
5.4
8.2
1.8
3.0
18.4
1960
10.1
4.8
1.2
1.4
17.5
1968
17.4
4.8
1.4
1.2
24.8
1969
18.3
4.6
0.8
1.3
25.0
1970
19.4
4.9
0.8
1.4
26.5
comoustion in stauonary sources. This source consistently contributes from 76
to 80 percent of the controllable SOX emissions.
Table 2 shows an unexpected decrease in SOX emissions for 1960. This
decrease is due to two basic factors: (1) residential and industrial use of coal
(other than for power generation) dropped sharply during this period and there
Nationwide Emission Trends, 1940-1970
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was a corresponding increase in the use of natural gas and fuel oil, both of
which have lower sulfur contents than coal (the breakdown in Table 3 shows
these results), and (2) in the transportation category, vessel use of residual fuel
oil dropped considerably. Total SOX emissions then increased in 1968 and
again in 1969 and 1970.
Controllable SOX emissions increased from 21.3 million tons in 1940 to
33.6 million tons in 1970, a net increase of 58 percent or an average annual
gain of nearly 2 percent.
PARTICULATES
Particulate emissions result primarily from fuel combustion in stationary
sources and from industrial process losses. Table 4 gives estimates of emissions
from the main source categories. Controllable particulate emissions, those not
from miscellaneous sources, gradually increased from 1940 through 1969, and
subsequently decreased in 1970 due to increased use of particulate control
devices.
From 1940 to 1970, an average increase of about 0.6 percent per year
occurred, from 20.7 to 24.6 million tons. A much larger increase in particulate
Table 4. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS,
1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Transportation
Solid waste disposal
Industrial process
losses
Agricultural
burning
Miscellaneous
Total
Total controllable8
1940
9.6
0.4
0.4
8.8
1.6
6.4
27.1
20.7
1950
9.0
0.4
0.6
10.8
1.8
3.3
25.9
22.6
1960
7.6
0.5
1.0
11.9
2.1
2.1
25.3
23.2
1968
6.5
0.8
1.4
13.8
2.4
1.7
26.6
24.9
1969
6.4
0.7
1.4
14.3
2.4
2.1
27.3
25.2
1970
6.8
0.7
1.4
13.3
2.4
1.0
25.6
24.6
Miscellaneous sources not included.
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
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emissions would have been expected because of increased fuel requirements
and other needs that a growing population would incur; however, the applica-
tion of particulate control devices has resulted in decreased emissions, even
though fuel use and industrial output have increased substantially.
CARBON MONOXIDE
The principal contributor of CO emissions is fuel combustion in mobile
sources. The percentage of total controllable carbon monoxide emissions from
these sources has increased substantially since 1940. Table 5 lists the amounts
of CO emitted by the principal source categories. Dramatic overall increases in
CO emissions until the late 1960's are due almost exclusively to the increased
use of automobiles. Since 1968, automobile emissions have declined because of
the installation of emission control devices. Table 6 gives a detailed breakdown
of transportation emissions. There has been a steady increase in emissions from
uncontrolled nonhighway vehicles such as snowmobiles, tractors, etc. since
1940. Two other important sources of CO emissions are agricultural burning
and industrial process losses; emissions from these sources have remained fairly
Table 5. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF CARBON MONOXIDE
EMISSIONS, 1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Transportation
Solid waste disposal
Industrial process
losses
Agricultural
burning
Miscellaneous
Total
Total controllable3
Percent of controll-
able emissions from
transportation sources
1940
6.2
34.9
1.8
14.4
9.1
19.0
85.4
66.4
52.6
1950
5.6
55.4
2.6
18.9
10.4
10.0
103.0
92.9
59.6
1960
2.6
83.5
5.1
17.7
12.4
6.4
128.0
121.0
69.0
1968
2.0
113.0
8.0
8.5
13.9
5.0
150.0
145.0
77.9
1969
1.8
112.0
7.9
12.0
13.8
6.3
154.0
148.0
75.7
1970
0.8
111.0
7.2
11.4
13.8
3.0
147.0
144.0
77.1
Miscellaneous sources not included.
Nationwide Emission Trends, 1940-1970
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Table 6. CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORTATION
SOURCES, 1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total
1940
32.1
Neg3
Neg
Neg
Neg
2.7
34.8
1950
48.1
0.1
0.1
Neg
1.7
5.5
55.5
1960
73.9
0.4
0.1
Neg
2.1
7.0
83.5
1968
98.4
1.0
0.1
1.7
2.9
8.6
113.0
1969
96.8
1.0
0.1
1.7
2.9
9.0
112.0
1970
95.8
0.8
0.1
1.7
3.0
9.5
111.0
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
constant since 1968. The change in controllable CO emissions from 1940 to
1970, from 66.4 million tons to 144.0 million tons is an overall increase of
nearly 117 percent, or nearly 4 percent per year.
Miscellaneous sources such as forest fires, structural fires, and burning in
coal-refuse banks have accounted for a large portion of the CO emitted. These
are basically uncontrollable emissions and are not considered in discussing
trends; they are, however, an important source of carbon monoxide.
HYDROCARBONS
Approximately 65 percent of controllable hydrocarbon emissions are the
result of fuel combustion in transportation sources. Emissions from the
principal source categories are listed in Table 7, and a detailed breakdown of
mobile-source emissions is given in Table 8. Hydrocarbon emissions increased
during each reporting period through 1968, after which they remained at about
the same level even though the number of vehicles continued to increase. This
trend reversal is due to the installation of pollution control devices, which
resulted in decreased automotive emissions. Hydrocarbon emissions from
nonhighway sources such as farm tractors, construction equipment, utility
engines, etc. have shown a continuous upward trend since 1940; however, their
contribution has never exceeded 10 percent of the total transportation emis-
sions.
After transportation, the next largest contributor of HC emissions is
industrial process losses. The amount of such emissions has not varied greatly
over the years, but since 1960 has shown a slight upward trend.
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
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Table 7. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS,
1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Transportation
Solid waste disposal
Industrial process
losses
Agricultural
burning
Miscellaneous
Total
Total controllable3
1940
1.4
7.5
0.7
3.3
1.9
4.5
19.1
14.7
1950
1.3
11.8
0.9
5.2
2.1
4.2
25.6
21.4
1960
1.0
18.0
1.3
4.3
2.5
4.4
31.6
27.2
1968
1.0
20.2
2.0
4.4
2.8
4.9
35.2
30.3
1969
0.9
19.8
2.0
4.7
2.8
5.0
35.2
30.2
1970
0.6
19.5
2.0
5.5
2.8
4.4
34.7
30.3
Miscellaneous sources not included.
Table 8. HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORTATION
SOURCES, 1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total
1940
6.9
Nega
Neg
Neg
Neg
0.5
7.4
1950
10.4
Neg
0.1
Neg
0.2
1.1
11.8
1960
16.1
0.1
0.1
Neg
0.3
1.4
18.0
1968
17.4
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
1.8
20.2
1969
16.9
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
1.9
19.8
1970
16.6
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
2.0
19.5
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Uncontrollable emissions from miscellaneous sources account for roughly
15 to 20 percent of all HC emissions. The quantity of emissions from these
sources has been nearly constant since 1940.
Nationwide Emission Trends, 1940-1970
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NITROGEN OXIDES
Emission of controllable nitrogen oxides almost exclusively results from fuel
combustion in mobile and stationary sources; each source category contributes
about half of the total amount emitted. Solid waste disposal, industrial process
losses, and agricultural burning together account for less than 5 percent of NOX
emissions. Increased NOX emissions from the manufacture of TNT might have
been expected in 1950 and 1968 due to increased arms production; however,
such data were not available. Table B-5 in Appendix B lists NOX emissions
from industrial process losses. Nationwide estimates of emissions from the
major sources are presented in Table 9, and a detailed breakdown of NOX
emissions from transportation sources is given in Table 10. Controllable
nitrogen oxide emissions show a continuing upward trend from 1940 through
1970. Automotive pollution control devices, although helpful in reducing CO
and HC emissions, are basically ineffective in reducing NOX, and in some cases
even result in increased NOX emissions. Thus, we do not see the reduction in
NOX emissions in 1969 and 1970 which occurred in CO and HC emissions
during those years.
Table 9. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS,
1940-1970
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Transportation
Solid waste disposal
Industrial process
losses
Agricultural
burning
Miscellaneous
Total
Total controllableb
1940
3.5
3.2
0.1
Nega
0.2
0.8
7.9
7.1
1950
4.3
5.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.4
10.4
10.0
1960
5.2
8.0
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.2
14.0
13.8
1968
9.7
10.6
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
21.3
21.1
1969
10.2
11.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
22.5
22.3
1970
10.0
11.7
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
22.7
22.6
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
bMiscellaneous sources not included.
10
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
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Table 10. NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM TRANSPORTATION
SOURCES, 1940-1970
(10^ tons/year)
Source category
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total
1940
2.9
Nega
Neg
0.1
Neg
0.2
3.2
1950
4.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
Neg
0.4
5.2
1960
6.8
0.4
0.1
0.1
Neg
0.5
8.0
1968
7.5
1.1
0.1
0.2
Neg
1.7
10.6
1969
7.6
1.1
0.1
0.2
0.4
1.8
11.2
1970
7.8
1.3
0.1
0.2
0.4
1.9
11.7
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Nationwide Emission Trends, 1940-1970
11
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NATIONWIDE EMISSION ESTIMATES
1969
Nationwide emission estimates of the five major pollutants for 1969 are
presented in Table 11.
Table 11. SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION ESTIMATES, 1969
(106 tons/year)
Source category
Transportation
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Industrial process
losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Total
sox
1.1
25.0
5.9
0.2
Nega
0.2
32.4
Particulates
0.8
6.4
14.3
1.4
2.4
2.1
27.3
CO
112.0
1.8
12.0
7.9
13.8
6.3
154.0
HC
19.8
0.9
4.7
2.0
2.8
5.0
35.2
NOX
11.2
10.2
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
22.5
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
SULFUR OXIDES
In 1969, approximately 32.4 million tons of sulfur oxides, primarily 862,
was emitted in the United States (Table 12). More than 25.0 million tons, or
77 percent of the national total, was produced by the burning of fossil fuels.
Combustion of coal accounted for 21.2 million tons and combustion of fuel oil
for about 3.8 million tons. Approximately 940 power plants in the country
emitted 18.3 million tons, and industrial plants emitted 4.6 million tons. The
remaining amount was discharged from the space heating of homes and
businesses.
Industrial process losses added an additional 5.9 million tons annually to
nationwide SOX emissions. Four industries contributed a large part of this
13
-------
Table 12. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF SULFUR OXIDE
EMISSIONS, 1969
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Distillate
Residual fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
1 06 tons/yr
1.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
25.0
21.2
0.5
3.3
Nega
Neg
5.9
0.2
Neg
0.2
Neg
0.2
32.4
Percent
of total
3.4
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.9
0.6
77.2
65.4
1.5
10.2
-
18.2
0.6
-
0.6
-
0.6
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
total: petroleum refineries (0.4 million tons), smelters (4.4 million tons),
sulfuric acid manufacturing plants (0.6 million tons), and coking operations
(0.5 million tons).
A large percentage of sulfur oxide emissions is concentrated in specific
regions of the country. The industrial Northeast, a large contributor, accounts
for almost 50 percent of the national total. In these states, coal and residual
fuel oil are important sources of heat and power. Other states with estimated
emissions of more than 1 million tons per year are Arizona and Texas. In these
two states, the primary sources are smelters and refineries, which collectively
contribute more than 80 percent of the total SOX emitted in each state.
About two-thirds of nationwide sulfur oxide emissions occurs in urban
areas. Power plants, industries, businesses, and homes all contribute to
14
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
emissions in urban areas. Much of the SOX pollution in rural areas is emitted
by a relatively small number of large sources. Smelters, most of which are
located away from metropolitan areas, emit large quantities of SOX. Many of
them emit over 100,000 tons per year, and some emit as much as 300,000 to
500,000 tons per year. In addition, almost half of the nation's 940 power
plants are located in rural areas and contribute a significant amount of the total
nationwide SC>2 emissions.
PARTICULATES
It has been difficult in the past to accurately estimate nationwide particu-
late pollution because most of such emissions, unlike gaseous emissions, have
been under some kind of control. The extent and efficiency of these controls
Table 13. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS, 1969
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
106tons/yr
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.1
Nega
0.1
0.1
0.1
6.4
5.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
14.3
1.4
2.4
2.2
2.0
0.1
0.1
27.3
Percent
of total
2.5
1.4
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
23.4
20.5
1.5
0.7
0.7
52.4
5.1
8.8
7.7
7.3
0.4
0.4
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1969
15
-------
were evaluated nationwide in a contract effort recently completed for EPA.3
This effort also included emission estimates for many previously uninventoried
sources.
In 1969, nationwide particulate emissions reached 27.3 million tons (Table
13). Particulate emissions from fuel combustion in stationary sources in 1969
are estimated to total 6.4 million tons. Fuel combustion in power plants and
industries resulted in 3.5 million tons and 2.1 million tons, respectively. The
burning of coal accounted for 87.5 percent of emissions from fuel combustion.
Industrial process losses are estimated at 14.3 million tons. Iron and steel
mill complexes collectively generated some 1.1 million tons of particulate
matter. The sand, stone, and rock processing industries, the greatest con-
tributors, emitted 7.0 million tons.
Estimates of particulate emissions in highly industrialized urban areas range
from 40,000 tons per year to 500,000 tons per year. Among these areas are
Chicago (450,000 tons), Pittsburgh (500,000 tons), and Philadelphia (200,000
tons). Several heavily populated metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles
(47,000 tons), Washington (50,000 tons), and Denver (40,000 tons) have lower
emission rates due to the absence of heavy industry and coal combustion.
In cities with high levels of particulate emissions, coal combustion and
industrial process losses are the principal sources of such emissions. In Pitts-
burgh, for example, 33 percent of particulate emissions was attributable to
stationary fuel combustion and 66 percent to industrial process losses. In
Chicago, 76 percent came from coal combustion and 22 percent from
industrial process losses.
In cities where emission surveys were conducted recently, nearly every coal-
fired power plant was equipped with some kind of control device. This is also
essentially true of the larger industrial process sources such as cement plants
and iron and steel mills. In contrast, the multitude of smaller sources such as
foundries, concrete-batching plants, and grain storage and handling facilities is
largely uncontrolled.
CARBON MONOXIDE
In 1969, approximately 154.0 million tons of carbon monoxide was emitted
in the United States (Table 14).
16 NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Table 14. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF
MONOXIDE EMISSIONS, 1969
CARBON
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
106tons/yr
112.0
97.8
96.8
1.0
2.9
0.1
1.7
9.0
1.8
0.6
0.1
0.1
1.0
12.0
7.9
13.8
6.3
5.8
0.2
0.3
154.0
Percent
of total
72.7
63.5
62.8
0.6
1.9
0.1
1.1
5.8
1.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.6
7.8
5.1
9.0
4.0
3.8
0.1
0.2
Gasoline-powered motor vehicles constitute the largest single source of CO
emissions and account for 96.8 million tons per year, or 62.8 percent of the
total amount emitted. The next largest source category includes forest fires,
structural fires, agricultural burning, and coal-refuse-bank fires, which
collectively emit 20.1 million tons. Industrial sources emit 12 million tons of
CO; the largest of these sources include foundries, petroleum refineries,
sintering plants, and Kraft paper mills.
Even though vehicular travel is fairly evenly divided between urban and
rural areas, traffic in urban areas where slower driving speeds prevail accounts
for 64 percent of total motor vehicle emissions. In addition, essentially all
industrial emissions, aircraft emissions occurring below 3,000 feet, and a
majority of emissions from fuel combustion and refuse disposal occur in urban
areas.
Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1969
17
-------
HYDROCARBONS
In 1969, approximately 35.2 million tons of hydrocarbons was emitted in
the United States (Table 15). Of the sources surveyed, motor vehicles con-
stituted the largest single contributor of HC emissions, accounting for 17.1
million tons per year, or 48.6 percent of the total amount emitted. Miscellane-
ous sources, including agricultural burning, was the next largest group and
accounted for 7.8 million tons.
An estimated 22 million tons, or 62 percent of the national total, was
emitted in urban areas. Motor vehicles accounted for 10 million tons of this
total. Although vehicular travel will increase rapidly in the next few years,
federal control measures should significantly reduce the HC emissions from this
source.
Table 15. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF HYDROCARBON
EMISSIONS, 1969
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial processes
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent evaporation
Gasoline marketing
Total
Emissions,
106tons/yr
19.8
17.1
16.9
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.3
1.9
0.9
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
4.7
2.0
2.7
5.1
0.5
0.1
0.1
3.1
1.3
35.2
Percent
of total
56.2
48.6
48.0
0.6
1.1
0.3
0.8
5.4
2.6
0.3
0.3,
0.8
1.1
13.4
5.7
7.7
14.5
1.4
0,3
0.3
8.8
3.7
18
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
NITROGEN OXIDES
In 1969, about 22.5 million tons of NOX was emitted in the United States
(Table 16). Motor vehicles and the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas are the
principal sources of NOX. In 1969, these sources accounted for 18.9 million
tons, or almost 84 percent of the national total. Of the 10.2 million tons
generated by the stationary combustion of fuels, 4.4 million tons was emitted
by power plants, 4.6 million tons by industries, and 1.2 million tons by homes
and offices. Burning of natural gas, the largest stationary source, accounted for
over 4.5 tons. An estimated 11.2 million tons was emitted by transportation
sources; 8.7 million tons of that came from motor vehicles.
Table 16. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF NITROGEN OXIDE
EMISSIONS, 1969
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
106tons/yr
11.2
8.7
7.6
1.1
0,4
0.1
0.2
1.8
10.2
3.9
1.6
4.5
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
Neg8
Neg
22.5
Percent
of total
49.8
38.7
33.4
4.9
1.7
0.4
0.9
8.0
45.3
17.3
7.1
20.0
0.9
0.9
1.7
1.3
0.9
0.9
-
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1969
19
-------
Nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide, probably more than other pollut-
ants, are closely related to the distribution of the population. Combustion in
motor vehicles and burning of fuels - coal, fuel oil, natural gas, kerosene, and
liquefied petroleum gas - contribute significantly to total nitrogen oxide
emissions. It is not surprising, therefore, that over 60 percent of NOX emissions
in the country occur in urban areas; 60 percent of the emissions from fuel
combustion and 45 percent of those from motor vehicles occur in urban areas.
20 NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
NATIONWIDE EMISSION ESTIMATES
1970
Nationwide emission estimates for 1970 are presented in Table 17. In some
cases the data presented in this table may differ slightly from the 1970 data
discussed in the section entitled Nationwide Emission Trends, 1940-1970.
These differences are due to the inclusion of estimates of emissions from
prescribed burning; such estimates were not available for earlier years, and
therefore were not included in the discussion of trends.
Table 17. SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION ESTIMATES, 1970
(TO** tons/year)
Source category
Transportation
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Total
sox
1.0
26.5
6.0
0.1
Nega
0.3
33.9
Part.
0.7
6.8
13.3
1.4
2.4
1.5
26.1
CO
111.0
0.8
11.4
7.2
13.8
4.5
149.0
HC
19.5
0.6
5.5
2.0
2.8
4.5
34.9
NOX
11.7
10.0
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
22.8
aNegligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
SULFUR OXIDES
Nationwide sulfur oxide emission estimates for 1970 are contained in Table
18. Fuel combustion in stationary sources, the major contributor, accounted
for 26.5 million tons or approximately 78.1 percent of the total amount
emitted. Process losses, including those from sulfuric acid production, smelting,
petroleum refining, coking, calcium carbide production, and pulp and paper
manufacturing, accounted for 17.7 percent of the total sulfur oxides emissions,
or 6.0 million tons. The remaining sources listed in Table 18 are responsible for
approximately 1.4 million tons, or 4.2 percent of the total.
21
-------
Table 18. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF SULFUR OXIDE
EMISSIONS, 1970
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
106 tons/year
1.0
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
26.5
22.2
4.2
Nega
0.1
6.0
0.1
0.1
0.2
Neg
Neg
0.2
33.9
Percent of
total
3.0
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.9
0.6
78.1
65.4
12.4
0.3
17.7
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.6
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
PARTICIPATES
The 1970 nationwide participate emission estimates, by source category, are
shown in Table 19. The largest source of nationwide particulate emissions is
industrial process losses. These process losses were responsible for 13.3 million
tons of particulate matter, or 51 percent of the total emitted. The second most
significant source is the combustion of fossil fuel in stationary sources, which
accounted for 6.8 million tons of particulates or 26.1 percent of the total.
Steam-electric power plants were responsible for the majority of fuel-
combustion-generated particulates from stationary sources. Power plants
emitted 3.6 million tons collectively in 1970. Agricultural burning, forest fires,
and solid waste disposal were responsible for a total of 5.2 million tons. The
22
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Table 19. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS, 1970
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest f iresb
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
106 tons/year
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
Nega
0.1
0.1
6.8
5.6
0.4
0.2
0.6
13.3
1.4
2.4
1.5
1.4
Neg
0.1
26.1
Percent of
total
2.7
1.5
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
26.1
21.5
1.5
0.8
2.3
51.0
5.3
9.2
5.7
5.3
0.4
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Includes prescribed burning.
remaining 0.8 million tons of particulates came from mobile sources and from
coal refuse burning.
CARBON MONOXIDE
Table 20 presents a breakdown, by source category, of 1970 carbon
monoxide emissions. The major source is gasoline-powered motor vehicles,
which contributed 95.8 million tons of carbon monoxide, or approximately
64.3 percent of the total nationwide emissions. The second largest category,
agricultural burning, is responsible for 9.3 percent of the total, or 13.8 million
tons. Other important sources include industrial process losses, solid waste
disposal, and nonhighway use of motor fuels. These three sources collectively
Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1970
23
-------
Table 20. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF CARBON MONOX-
IDE EMISSIONS, 1970
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Other nonhighway use of motor
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires8
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
106 tons/year
111.0
96.6
95.8
0.8
3.0
0.1
1.7
fuels 9.5
0.8
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
11.4
7.2
13.8
4.5
4.0
0.2
0.3
149.0
Percent of
total
74.5
64.8
64.3
0.5
2.0
0.1
1.2
6.4
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
7.7
4.9
9.3
3.0
2.7
0.1
0.2
alncludes prescribed burning.
emitted approximately 28.1 million tons of carbon monoxide in 1970, or 19
percent of the total. Other mobile sources, stationary fuel combustion, and
miscellaneous sources account for the remaining 11.3 million tons.
HYDROCARBONS
Table 21 contains a summary of the 1970 nationwide hydrocarbon
emissions, by source category. The largest hydrocarbon source, transportation,
emitted 19.5 million tons (55.9 percent of the total) in 1970. Other major
sources are agricultural burning and evaporative losses of gasoline and solvents,
as well as industrial process losses. Combined, these sources contributed 12.8
million tons in 1970. The remaining 2.6 million tons came from solid waste
disposal and fuel combustion in stationary sources.
24
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Table 21. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF HYDROCARBON
EMISSIONS, 1970
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest firesb
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Gasoline and solvent
evaporation
Total
Emissions,
10^ tons/year
19.5
16.7
16.6
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.3
2.0
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.3
Nega
5.5
2.0
2.8
4.5
0.3
0.1
0.1
4.0
34.9
Percent of
total
55.9
47.9
47.6
0.3
1.1
0.3
0.9
5.7
1.7
0.6
0.3
0.8
-
15.8
5.7
8.0
12.9
0.9
0.3
0.3
11.4
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
"Includes prescribed burning.
NITROGEN OXIDES
Nationwide nitrogen oxide emissions for 1970 are presented in Table 22.
The major source is transportation, which is responsible for 11.7 million tons
of nitrogen oxides, or 51.3 percent of the total amount emitted. Another
major source, stationary fuel combustion, produced 10.0 million tons of
nitrogen oxides in 1970 or 43.8 percent of the total. Industrial process losses,
solid waste disposal, and miscellaneous sources, all minor contributors,
accounted for the remaining 1.1 million tons of nitrogen oxides.
Nationwide Emission Estimates, 1970
25
-------
Table 22. NATIONWIDE ESTIMATES OF NITROGEN OXIDE
EMISSIONS, 1970
Source category
Transportation
Motor vehicles
Gasoline
Diesel
Aircraft
Railroads
' Vessels
Nonhighway use of motor fuels
Fuel combustion in stationary
sources
Coal
Fuel oil
Natural gas
Wood
Industrial process losses
Solid waste disposal
Agricultural burning
Miscellaneous
Forest fires8
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Total
Emissions,
1 fj6 tons/year
11.7
9.1
7.8
1.3
0.4
0.1
0.2
1.9
10.0
3.9
1.3
4.7
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
Negb
Neg
22.8
Percent of
total
51.3
39.9
34.2
5.7
1.8
0.4
0.9
8.3
43.8
17.1
5.7
20.6
0.4
0.9
1.8
1.3
0.9
0.9
Includes prescribed burning.
bNegligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
26
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
METHODS
The generation of an emission inventory involves many steps to achieve the
desired result, which is to estimate the amount of emissions for selected
pollutants in a defined geographical area. Because it is impossible to test every
pollutant source individually, particularly area sources, an estimating procedure
must be used. In order to do this, however, one must either estimate the
emissions directly or estimate the magnitude of other variables that can then be
related to emissions. These indicators include such things as fuel consumption,
vehicle miles, population, sales, tons of refuse burned, raw materials processed,
etc., which are then multiplied by appropriate emission factors4 to obtain
emission estimates.
The limitations and applicability of emission factors must be understood. In
general, emission factors are not precise indicators of emissions from a single
source; rather, they are quantitative estimates of the average rate of pollutant
release as a result of some activity. They are most valid when applied to a large
number of sources and processes. If their limitations are recognized, emission
factors are extremely useful in determining emission levels. A detailed discus-
sion of emission factors and related information is contained in Compilation of
Air Pollutant Emission Factors.
The emission factor thus relates quantity of pollutants emitted to indicators
such as those noted above, and is a practical approach for determining
estimates of emissions from various source categories.
The methodology used in generation of emissions estimates for individual
source categories follows.
27
-------
TRANSPORTATION
Motor Vehicles
Emission estimates from gasoline-powered motor vehicles were obtained by
two basic approaches. Both were necessary because a complete list of emission
factors was not available for SOX and particulates, as it was for CO, HC, and
NOV
'x-
Estimates of CO, HC, and NOX were based upon vehicle-mile tabulations
and upon emission factors developed from both road and cycle data.5 An
example of the distribution of vehicle miles by vehicle-type and location is
presented in Table 23. The emission factors used account for variations in
emissions due to type, speed, age, transmission, size of engine, and size of
vehicle.
Estimates of SOV and particulate emissions were based on total, nationwide
vehicle miles of travel. An average particulate emission factor and an average
sulfur content of gasoline were applied to the mileage .4 The average emission
factors used to obtain estimates in this report were based on data presented in
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors.
Table 23. VEHICLE MILES OF TRAVEL IN THE UNITED
STATES, 1969
(109 miles)
Type of vehicle
Passenger cars
Light-duty trucks8
Heavy-duty trucks
Class I lb
Class 1 1 lc
Class IVd-e
Gasoline
Diesel
Total
Urban
455.55
33.46
9.34
6.23
11.72
9.20
525.50
Rural
410.51
50.20
14.02
9.34
28.71
23.10
535.88
Total
866.06
83.66
23.36
15.57
40.43
32.30
1,061.38
aUnder 6,000 pounds.
b6,000 to 10,000 pounds.
°10,000 to 19,000 pounds.
dOver 19,000 pounds.
Includes buses.
28
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Emissions from diesel-powered motor vehicles were based on fuel consump-
tion data because road-emission data were lacking. Average factors were
applied to the gallons of diesel fuel consumed by motor vehicles.6
Aircraft
The emissions in this category were determined from the results of a recent
extensive study.7 Estimates of all pollutants, except sulfur oxides, were
presented for emissions at all altitudes based on the number of flights made by
different types of aircraft. Sulfur oxide emissions were calculated by assuming
that aircraft fuels contain an average of 0.055 percent sulfur.
Railroads
The annual fuel consumption by railroads includes consumption of diesel
fuel as well as distillate and residual fuel oils.8 The average emission factors
applicable to diesel fuel combustion, except those for SOX, were assumed to be
applicable also to residual and distillate fuel oils. The average sulfur content of
each fuel was used in estimating SOX emissions.
Vessels
Ships and vessels consume diesel fuel, residual fuel oil, gasoline, and
Reported usage figures represent quantities sold in this country rather than
quantities consumed; thus, the quantities of fuels actually consumed within the
United States are probably considerably less, with the exception of gasoline.
Emission factors available for this category are based on average emission
factors applicable to other types of combustion.
Nonhighway Use of Motor Fuels
The nonhighway consumption of motor fuels includes consumption of
gasoline and diesel fuel. Average emission factors for gasoline and diesel
combustion were used. Consumption in the aviation and marine categories was
excluded from this section since these sources were included previously.
Methods 29
-------
FUEL COMBUSTION IN STATIONARY SOURCES
Coal
Bituminous coal, lignite, and anthracite coal are consumed in the United
States in stationary sources. (This excludes that consumed by such mobile
sources as railroads, ships, and vessels?) Table 24 presents an example of
annual consumption by user category. Average emission factors and the sulfur
content of fuels for each category were used to estimate emissions. Degree of
particulate control was based on a report by Midwest Research Institute.
Table 24. FUEL CONSUMPTION IN STATIONARY SOURCES, 1969
Source category
Electric
utilities
Coke plants
Steel and
rolling mills
Cement mills
Oil companies, gas
pipelines, and gas
transmission
Other
manufacturing
Military
Residential,
commercial.
institutional,
and light industrial
Total
Coal,
106tons/yr
310.3
92.9
6.8
9.3
79.6
16.9
515.8
Fuel oil,
106 bbl/yr
Residual
247.6
36.5
130.6
31.7
187.0
633.4
Distillate
12.2
13.9
42.4
14.0
524.3
606.8
Total gas,
109ft3/yr
3,486
4,001
7,612
6,982a
22,081
Does not include light industrial sources.
30
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Fuel Oil
Distillate and residual fuel oils are consumed in large quantities nationwide
by stationary sources. Table 24 presents an example of annual consumption by
user category. Average emission factors and the sulfur content of fuels for each
category were used to estimate emissions. It was assumed that there are no SOX
controls on sources of fuel oil combustion.
Natural Gas
Total gas consumption, 99 percent of which consists of consumption of
natural gas, is given for 1969, an example year, in Table 24.10 Average
emission factors and the sulfur content of fuels were used to estimate
emissions.
Wood
Wood consumption by user category was not available. However, estimates
of the total energy produced by wood combustion could be determined.1'
Assuming 9,000 Btu per pound of wood, the quantity of wood burned can
then be estimated. Average emission factors were used to estimate total
emissions.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESS LOSSES
In addition to fuel combustion, certain other industrial processes generate
and emit varying quantities of pollutants into the air. The lack of published
national data on production, type of equipment, and controls, as well as an
absence of emission factors, makes it impossible to include estimates of emis-
sions from all industrial process sources.
Table 25 summarizes, as an example, the 1969 production of the various
industrial processes surveyed.12 In all cases, emission estimates were obtained
by applying average emission factors to total production amounts, when they
were available. Various degrees of control were used, as outlined in a report by
Midwest Research Institute.3
Methods 31
-------
Table 25. SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION, 1969
Source category
Iron and steel mills
Coke manufacture
Gray iron foundries
Aluminum primary
Copper primary
Lead primary
Zinc primary
Miscellaneous secondary metals
Petroleum refineries
Cement
Acid manufacture
Phosphoric
Nitric
Sulfuric
Hydrochloric
Mineral industries
Explosives
Petrochemicals
Cotton
Pulp mills, Kraft and NSSCa
Grain handling
Grain milling
Production,
tons (except as noted)
141,000
65,000
24,400
3,793
1,550
639
1,500
3,900 x 106bbl
408,000 x 106bbl
4,900
6,200
29,000
1,800
2,665,000
9.9 x 106 bales
28,800
177,000
100,000
aNeutral sulfite semichemical.
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
A study conducted in 1968 on solid waste collection and disposal practices
was the basis for estimating emissions from solid waste disposal.13 Results of
this study indicate that the average collection rate of solid waste is about 5.5
pounds per capita per day in the United States. It has been stated that a
conservative estimate of the total generation rate is 10 pounds per capita per
day.
The results of this survey were used to estimate, by disposal method, the
quantities of solid waste generated. Average emission factors were applied to
these totals to obtain estimates of total emissions from the disposal of solid
wastes.
32
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES
Forest Fires
The Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture publishes information
on the number of forest fires and the amount of controlled burning that occurs
in the United States.14 These data indicate the number of acres of forest fires
that occurred each year. Average emission factors were applied to the quanti-
ties of combustible materials burned to arrive at estimated emissions.
Structural Fires
The United States Department of Commerce publishes in their statistical
abstracts information on the number and types of structures damaged by
fire.15 This information was supplemented by data from the National Fire
Protection Association or local fire departments. Emissions were then esti-
mated by applying average emission factors to these totals.
Coal Refuse
Estimates of the number of burning, coal-refuse piles existing in the United
States are made periodically by the Bureau of Mines.16 Their publication, Coal
Refuse Fires, An Environmental Hazard, presents a detailed discussion of the
nature, origin, and extent of this source of pollution. Rough estimates of the
quantity of emissions were obtained using this information.
Organic Solvent Evaporation
Insufficient national data were available to permit accurate estimation of
hydrocarbon emissions from organic solvent evaporation. A rough estimate of
nationwide emissions was made from an average per capita rate based on data
gathered in four metropolitan areas: Los Angeles, San Francisco, St. Louis, and
Washington, D.C. One-third of the total HC emissions is attributed to evapora-
tion of the solvents handled by the paint and varnish industry, for which
estimates of gallons handled and resultant emissions were available.
Methods 33
-------
Gasoline Marketing
Estimates of the evaporation of motor fuels during the filling of tank vehi-
cles, service station tanks, and automobile tanks are included in this section.
Other sources of evaporation are the evaporation of gasoline from storage tanks
at refineries and bulk terminals and evaporation during the operation of motor
vehicles. These emissions were included in the petroleum refinery and motor
vehicle sections. Average evaporation factors were applied to the amount of
gasoline and diesel fuel consumed in order to estimate hydrocarbon emissions
from gasoline marketing.
Agricultural Burning
Large quantities of agricultural refuse are burned annually in the United
States. Estimates of the amounts burned were obtained from state agricultural
departments or extension services. Emissions estimates were obtained by
applying factors to these rough totals.
34 NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
REFERENCES
1. Guide for Compiling a Comprehensive Emission Inventory (Revised). U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No. APTD-1135.
March 1973.
2. Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant Emissions - 1968. U.S. DHEW,
PHS, EHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Raleigh, N.C.
Publication No. AP-73. August 1970. 36 p.
3. Handbook of Emissions, Effluents, and Control Practices for Stationary
Particulate Pollution Sources. Final Report. Midwest Research Institute.
Kansas City, Mo. Prepared under Contract No. CPA 22-69-104. November
1970. 5 07 p.
4. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (Revised). U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Office of Air Programs. Research Triangle Park,
N.C. Publication No. AP-42. February 1972. 163 p.
5. Goodman, K., J. Kurtzweg, and N. Cernansky. Determination of Air Pol-
lutant Emissions from Gasoline Powered Motor Vehicles. U.S. DHEW,
PHS, EHS, National Air Pollution Control Administration. Raleigh, N.C.
Unpublished. 1969.
6. Highway Statistics, 1969. U.S. Department of Transportation. Washington,
D.C. 1971. 212 p.
7. Nature and Control of Aircraft Engine Exhaust Emissions. Final Report.
Northern Research and Engineering Corp. Cambridge, Mass. Prepared
under Contract No. PH22-68-27. November 1968. 388 p.
8. Sales of Fuel Oil and Kerosene in 1969. Mineral Industry Surveys. Bureau
of Mines. Washington, D.C. September 30, 1970.
9. Coal: Bituminous and Lignite, 1969. Mineral Industry Surveys. Bureau of
Mines. Washington, D.C. February 1971.
10. Natural Gas Production and Consumption, 1969. Mineral Industry Sur-
veys. Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. September 1970.
11. Landsberg, H., L. L. Fischman, and J. L. Fisher. Resources in America's
Future. Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins University Press. 1963. 1017 p.
35
-------
12. 1969 Minerals Yearbook. Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. 1971.
1194 p.
13. 1968 National Survey of Community Solid Waste Practices. Interim
Report. U.S. DHEW, Public Health Service. Cincinnati, Ohio. Publication
No. 1867. 1968.
14. Wildfire Statistics. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Divi-
sion of Cooperative Forest Fire Control. Washington, D.C. July 1971.
61 p.
15. Statistical Abstract of the United States. 91st Edition. U.S. Department of
Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Washington, D.C. 1970.
16. McNay, Lewis M. Coal Refuse Fires, An Environmental Hazard. Bureau of
Mines. Washington, D.C. Information Circular 8515. 1971.
36 NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
APPENDIX A
DETAILED NATIONWIDE EMISSION
ESTIMATES, 1940-1970
37
-------
-------
Table A-1. DETAILED SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION
ESTIMATES, 1940
(103 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Steam-electric
Industrial
Commercial and
institutional
Residential
Total fuel
Transportation
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Total road vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total transportation
Solid waste disposal
Municipal incineration
On-site incineration
Open burning
Conical burning
Total solid waste
Industrial process losses
Agricultural burning
Total controllable
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent
Gasoline marketing
Total miscellaneous
Total all categories
sox
2,860
9,310
1,680
2,960
16,800
60
5
65
288
306
1
40
700
9
14
17
-
40
3,770
21,300
-
-
-
240
21,500
Part.
1,980
6,180
358
1,040
9,560
99
2
101
33
210
Nega
7
351
41
136
269
-
446
8,820
1,580
20,700
5,930
31
400
6,360
27,100
CO
25
177
13
6,030
6,250
32,100
34
32,100
5
10
23
2,690
34,900
81
282
1,430
-
1,790
14,400
9,110
66,400
17,700
120
1,200
-
-
19,000
85,400
HC
14
109
13
1,250
1,380
6,940
7
6,950
11
12
3
521
7,500
6
146
505
-
657
3,280
1,860
14,700
1,410
37
240
1,980
789
4,460
19,100
N0>;
595
1,940
60
942
3,530
2,900
36
2,900
7
97
1
179
3,220
6
22
101
-
129
29
197
7,110
699
4
48
-
-
751
7,860
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Appendix A
39
-------
Table A-2. DETAILED SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION
ESTIMATES, 1950
(1()3 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Steam-electric
Industrial
Commercial and
institutional
Residential
Total fuel
Transportation
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Total road vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total transportation
Solid waste disposal
Municipal incineration
On-site incineration
Open burning
Conical burning
Total solid waste
Industrial process losses
Agricultural burning
Total controllable
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent
Gasoline marketing
Total miscellaneous
Total all categories
SOX
5,360
8,160
1,840
2,970
18,300
90
12
102
413
358
31
80
984
14
21
24
-
59
4,210
23,600
-
-
-
250
23,800
Part.
2,950
4,640
386
986
8,960
150
6
156
55
155
43
14
424
63
209
378
-
650
10,800
1,800
22,600
2,910
35
400
-
3,340
25,900
CO
44
172
27
5,380
5,620
48,100
83
48,200
71
11
1,690
5,520
55,400
125
433
2,010
-
2,570
18,900
10,400
92,900
8,670
133
1,200
-
10,000
103,000
HC
36
153
20
1,130
1,340
10,400
18
10,400
61
13
236
1,070
11,800
10
225
709
-
944
5,170
2,140
21,400
693
41
240
2,270
903
4,150
25,600
NOX
1,220
2,020
113
970
4,330
4,410
87
4,500
211
126
13
368
5,210
9
34
142
-
185
55
225
10,000
343
4
48
-
395
10,400
40
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Table A-3. DETAILED SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION
ESTIMATES, 1960
(103 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Steam-electric
Industrial
Commercial and
institutional
Residential
Total fuel
Transportation
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Total road vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total transportation
Solid waste disposal
Municipal incineration
On-site incineration
Open burning
Conical burning
Total solid waste
Industrial process losses
Agricultural burning
Total controllable
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent
Gasoline marketing
Total miscellaneous
Total all categories
SOX
10,100
4,800
1,210
1,380
17,500
141
55
196
150
187
32
110
675
22
33
27
2
84
4,720
23,000
-
-
274
23,300
Part.
4,440
2,350
253
593
7,630
234
31
265
48
86
54
18
471
101
333
424
151
1,010
1 1 ,900
2,140
23,200
1,680
39
400
-
-
2,120
25,300
CO
88
139
54
2,290
2,570
73,900
398
74,300
127
13
2,060
7,050
83,600
198
691
2,250
1,970
5,110
17,700
12,400
121,000
5,000
148
1,200
-
-
6,350
128,000
HC
69
197
39
713
1,020
16,100
86
16,200
99
13
283
1,360
18,000
15
358
795
166
1 ,330
4,280
2,530
27,200
405
45
240
2,690
1,070
4,450
31,600
NOX
2,290
1,780
204
877
5,150
6,850
416
7,270
148
74
16
470
7,980
15
54
159
15
243
82
267
13,800
198
4
48
-
-
250
14,000
Appendix A
41
-------
Table A-4. DETAILED SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION
ESTIMATES, 1968
(103 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Steam-electric
Industrial
Commercial and
institutional
Residential
Total fuel
Transportation
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Total road vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total transportation
Solid waste disposal
Municipal incineration
On-site incineration
Open burning
Conical burning
Total solid waste
Industrial process losses
Agricultural burning
Total controllable
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent
Gasoline marketing
Total miscellaneous
Total all categories
sox
17,400
4,750
1,390
1,210
24,700
200
100
300
200
300
100
200
1,100
-
80
-
80
5,080
31,000
-
290
31 ,300
Part.
3,460
2,240
261
534
6,500
300
100
400
100
100
100
100
800
87
359
656
297
1,400
13,800
2,400
24,900
1,220
43
400
-
-
1,660
26,600
CO
70
154
66
1,670
1,960
98,400
1,000
99,400
100
1,700
2,900
8,600
113,000
280
750
3,480
3,500
8,010
8,520
13,900
145,000
3,640
166
1,200
-
-
5,010
150,000
HC
28
53
184
614
979
17,400
200
17,600
100
300
400
1,800
20,200
22
390
1,230
320
1,960
4,370
2,840
30,300
291
51
240
3,100
1,200
4,880
35,200
NOX
4,170
3,750
980
810
9,710
7,500
1,100
8,600
100
200
40
1,700
10,600
22
59
246
38
360
173
300
21,100
144
5
48
-
197
21,300
42
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Table A-5. DETAILED SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMISSION
ESTIMATES. 1969
(103 tons/year)
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Steam-electric
Industrial
Commercial and
institutional
Residential
Total fuel
Transportation
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Total road vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total transportation
Solid waste disposal
Municipal incineration
On-site incineration
Open burning
Conical burning
Total solid waste
Industrial process losses
Agricultural burning
Total controllable
Miscellaneous
Forest fires .
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent
Gasoline marketing
Total miscellaneous
Total all categories
sox
18,300
4,560
793
1,310
25,000
200
100
300
200
300
100
200
1,100
187
5,870
32,200
-
-
-
197
32,400
Part.
3,550
2,130
433
250
6,360
300
100
400
67
59
50
103
719
87
361
646
304
1,400
14,300
2,400
25,200
1,960
60
115
-
-
2,140
27,300
CO
157
74
100
1,450
1,780
96,800
, 1 ,000
97,800
100
1,700
2,900
9,000
112,000
280
750
3,430
3,400
7,860
12,000
13,800
148,000
5,750
220
300
-
-
6,270
154,000
HC
144
192
44
520
900
16,900
200
17,100
100
300
400
1,900
19,800
22
392
1,210
330
1,950
4,740
2,750
30,200
460
67
100
3,100
1,300
5,030
35,200
NOX
4,350
4,550
440
910
10,200
7,600
1,100
8,700
100
200
400
1,800
11,200
22
59
242
39
362
213
300
22,300
230
4
14
-
-
248
22,500
Appendix A
43
-------
Table A-6. DETAILED
SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE
ESTIMATES, 1970
(103 tons/year)
EMISSION
Source category
Fuel combustion in
stationary sources
Steam-electric
Industrial
Commercial and
institutional
Residential
Total fuel
Transportation
Gasoline vehicles
Diesel vehicles
Total road vehicles
Railroads
Vessels
Aircraft
Other nonhighway use
Total transportation
Solid waste disposal
Municipal incineration
On-site incineration
Open burning
Conical burning
Total solid waste
Industrial process losses
Agricultural burning
Total controllable
Miscellaneous
Forest fires
Structural fires
Coal refuse burning
Organic solvent
Gasoline marketing
Total miscellaneous
Total all categories
sox
19,400
4,890
815
1,350
26,500
200
100
300
124
297
100
163
984
15
34
53
2
104
6,030
33,600
-
-
-
279
33,900
Part.
3,700
2,140
132
879
6,850
300
100
400
47
51
49
108
655
144
338
840
105
1,430
1 3,300
2,400
24,600
835
57
110
1,000
25,600
CO
162
73
170
385
790
95,800
800
96,600
100
1,700
3,000
9,500
1 1 1 ,000
350
450
4,470
1,950
7,220
1 1 ,400
13,800
144,000
2,460
220
340
3,020
147,000
HC
140
272
55
148
615
16,600
100
16,700
93
317
420
2,000
19,500
15
248
1,580
165
2,000
5,470
2,750
30,300
197
67
68
3,050
1,010
4,390
34,700
NOX
4,710
4,530
225
565
10,000
7,800
1,300
9,100
142
162
364
1,920
11,700
20
45
315
15
395
199
275
22,600
98
7
34
139
22,700
44
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
APPENDIX B
EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL
PROCESS LOSSES, 1940-1970
45
-------
-------
Table B-1. SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
LOSSES, 1940-1970
(103 tons/year)
Source
Pulp and paper
Calcium carbide
Su If uric acid
Coking
Petroleum refining
FCCb
TCCC
Metals
Copper
Zinc and lead
Total
1940
22
Nega
196
278
123
2
2,030
1,120
3,770
1950
37
Neg
293
352
201
3
2,030
1,290
4,210
1960
63
Neg
347
341
286
5
2,540
1,140
4,720
1968
68
Neg
568
461
310
5
2,750
916
5,080
1969
78
Neg
580
461
358
6
3,410
977
5,870
1970
77
2
474
474
354
5
3,570
944
6,030
Negligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Fluid catalytic cracking.
thermal catalytic cracking.
Appendix B
47
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49
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50
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
-------
Table B-3. CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM
PROCESS LOSSES, 1940-1970
(103 tons/year)
INDUSTRIAL
Source
Grey iron foundries3
Petroleum refineries
FCC
TCC
Fluid coking
Carbon black
Furnace - gas
Furnace - oil
Channel
Thermal
Formaldehyde
Steel manufacturing
Sintering- sinter
Sintering - pellets
Basic oxygen furnace
Coke
Beehive
By-product
Pulp and paper
Total
1940
-
3,200
127
2,000
95
Negb
4,160
Neg
5
4,480
-
2
35
314
14,400
1950
-
5,250
208
1,640
775
202
5,170
Neg
21
5,040
-
-
3
45
520
18,900
1960
-
3,740
148
2,340
726
1,360
2,450
Neg
50
5,990
-
-
1
43
886
17,700
1968
-
2,020
84
140
405
2,480
1,260
Neg
102
3,500
-
-
1
58
945
8,520
1969
1,770
2,340
84
140
405
2,480
1,110
Neg
105
_
1,100
1,290
128
1
58
966
12,000
1970
1,740
2,310
83
137
382
2,500
955
Neg
108
917
1,080
137
1
60
999
11,400
aData for 1940 through 1968 are included under steel manufacturing.
bNegligible (less than 0.05 x 106 tons/year).
Appendix B
51
-------
Table B-4. HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
LOSSES, 1940-1970
(103 tons/year)
Source
Petroleum refineries
Natural gas liquids
Photochemicals
Coke
By-products
Beehive
Carbon black
Furnace - oil
Furnace - gas
Channel
Ammonia
Total
1940
1,680
-
-
117
12
32
1,430
9
3,280
1950
2,880
-
-
148
23
18
263
1,770
72
5,170
1960
2,710
-
-
143
4
121
247
840
219
4,280
1968
2,780
-
-
193
5
220
138
431
603
4,370
1969
2,300
700
200
193
5
220
138
380
600
4,740
1970
2,960
810
222
199
6
222
130
328
589
5,470
Table B-5. NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL
PROCESS LOSSES, 1940-1970
(103 tons/year)
Source
Nitric acid
Sulfuric acid
Petroleum refining
TNTa
Coke
Total
1940
9
4
15
-
1
29
1950
25
5
24
-
1
55
1960
43
3
34
-
1
82
1968
110
24
37
-
2
173
1969
111
29
43
28
2
213
1970
114
12
43
28
2
199
Data not available prior to 1969
52
NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION TRENDS
*U.S. G.P.O.: 1973 746-758/3808, Region No. 4
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