EPA-600/5-73-009
November 1973
AESTHETICS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
Grant No. 802441
Program Element 1HA098
Project Officer
Martin J. Redding
Environmental Studies Division
Washington Environmental Research Center
Washington, D. C.
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402- Price $2.05
-------
-------
ABSTRACT
This report addresses the relationship of aesthetics to environmental
planning. The primary emphasis of the research is on the man/environment
interaction, with the ultimate goal directed toward improving the under-
standing of aesthetic concepts and the implication of using those concepts
in research and planning activities.
The historical development of the Western concept of aesthetics is ex-
plored with the aim of showing the relation of the concept to the partic-
ular set of attitudes at each period, to illuminate the way in which
present concepts relate to today's world. Three primary aspects of the
aesthetic concept are discussed; these include aesthetics and the human
senses, aesthetics as thinking about the arts, and aesthetics as the sci-
ence of beauty. Additional factors underlying the concept of aesthetics
include: nature as an underlying force; cultural, social and economic
phenomena as determiners of aesthetic expression; and aesthetics of Ameri-
can city life. Aesthetics is also discussed in the context of the National
Environmental Policy Act.
Methodologies for measuring or quantifying aesthetics are reviewed , as
well as a review of the state of the art of research in basic theory for
understanding the unquantifiable. A similar review of selected planning
agencies guidelines and procedures for integrating aesthetics into the
planning process is followed with an outline of suggested future research
needs.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Project Number EGU(820)-2658,
Contract R-802441, under the sponsorship of the Environmental Studies
Division, Washington Environmental Research Center, Office of Research
and Development, Environmental Protection Agency.
111
-------
-------
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vj i
LIST OF TABLES vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix
I CONCLUSIONS 1
II RECOMMENDATIONS 3
III INTRODUCTION 5
IV AESTHETICS BROADLY DEFINED 9
Aspects of the Aesthetic Concept 9
Factors Underlying the Concept of Aesthetics 14
Aesthetics in the Twentieth Century 21
Administrative and Statutory Aesthetic Concepts 28
V THE USE OF AESTHETIC CONCEPTS IN APPLIED THEORY
AND BASIC RESEARCH 39
Review of Methods for Measuring and Quantifying
Aesthetics 40
Review of Aesthetics in Basic Research 100
VI AESTHETIC RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING PROCESS 105
Planning at the Federal Level 108
Planning at the State Level 132
Regional Planning 133
City Planning 141
Planning in the Private Sector 147
Summary 153
VII WHERE WE NEED TO GO FROM HERE 157
An Improved Understanding of Aesthetics for
Environmental Quality 157
Research for Applied Theory 158
Research Directed Toward Improving Aesthetic
Considerations in the Planning Process 159
Appendix - EXAMPLES OF WORK DONE BY THE FEDERAL AGENCIES THAT
INCORPORATE ATTENTION TO AESTHETIC IMPACTS 161
REFERENCES 169
-------
-------
ILLUSTRATIONS
1 The Historical Development of the Western Concept of
Aesthetics 15
2 The Environmental Evaluation System (EES) Applied to
a Specific Study 47
3 Benefits from Improved Water Quality 57
4 Depiction of Zones in a Landscape 67
5 Classification Framework for Litton's Method 72
6 Driver Tasks and Driver Activities Related to Scale of
Seen Surroundings 80
TABLES
1 Visual Analysis Methods Numerical-Comprehensive Environmental
Analysis Methods 63
2 Visual Analysis Methods Numerical-Independent Aesthetic
Assessment Methods 70
3 Nonnumerical Visual Analysis Methods 85
4 Summary - User Analysis Methods 97
VII
-------
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Stanford Research Institute research team included Marily D. Bagley,
project leader, who was responsible for organization of the report and wrote
Sections IV and V; Cynthia Kroll who wrote the section on Planning; and
Kristin Clark, who did the first draft on Administrative and Statutory Aes-
thetic Concepts and also contributed to Section V. Robert Rodden and George
Hopkins provided their administrative support.
The Stanford Research Institute staff members who reviewed and critiqued the
draft copies were Ed Dickson, Tom Logothetti, Leo Weisbecker and Ward Stoneman.
Consultants Bill Hill and Tom Wagner from Stanford University also reviewed
the draft.
Review and critique of the final draft by Andy Euston, Office of Community
Planning and Management, Department of Housing and Urban Development; Albert
Melcher, Rocky Mountain Center on Environment; Larry Tombaugh, Division of
Environmental Systems and Resources, National Science Foundation; John Gerba,
Environmental Studies Division, and Fred Abel, Implementation and Research
Division, Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency.
The advice and guidance provided for the section, on the broad definition
of the concept aesthetics by Rudolf Arnheim, Harvard University, is grate-
fully acknowledged.
SRI acknowledges with gratitude the planners and other professionals who gave
their time, judgment, and advice during field investigations and data col-
lection:
John Urich, City Planner
Madison, Wisconsin
Hugh Iltis, Dennis Bunde, and Phil H. Lewis, Jr.
University of Wisconsin
Elizabeth Bardwell, Norda Bardwell, and Rebecca Young
Madison, Wisconsin citizen interest groups
Carl Steinitz and Peter Hornbeck
Department of City Planning and Landscape Architecture
Harvard University
Kevin Lynch, Michael and Susan Southworth, and Marvin Manheim
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ix
-------
Marilyn Klein and Carl Rappaport
Office of Environmental and Consumer Affairs
Department of Transportation, Washington, B.C.
Larry Isaacson
Federal Highway Administration
Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
Kiyoshy Mano
Urban Mass Transit Administration
Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
Dave Aggerholm
Institute for Water Resources
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Ed Stone, Dr. Hilson, Dwain Lyons
U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C.
Hubertos Mittman
U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region
Howard Alden
Colorado State University
Mr. Jenson, Glenn Taylor, Jay Bright
U.S. National Parks Service, Denver Service Center
Dennis Green
Office of Design and Construction
General Services Administration
Lani Lattin and Lois Craig
National Endowment for the Arts
Donald Appleyard
University of California, Berkeley
Joe Armstrong
California State University, San Jose
Robert H. Jarling, Environmental Planner
William La Mon, Landscape Architect
California Division of Highways, District 4
Michael Aulick, Regional Planner
Comprehensive Planning Organization
San Diego, California
-------
Ms. Lani Ridenour, Assistant Director
Department of Environmental Quality, San Diego
Shiraz R. Kaderali, Land Use Advisor
Pacific Gas & Electric Company, San Francisco
Finally, the support of the project by the Environmental Studies Division,
Washington Environmental Research Center, Office of Research and Development,
Environmental Protection Agency, and the help provided by Martin Redding,
Grant Project Officer and Peter House, Director, Environmental Studies Division,
is most gratefully acknowledged.
XI
-------
-------
I CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn;
(1) Aesthetic concepts and individual aesthetic attitudes are di-
rectly related to the political, social, cultural, and eco-
nomic phenomena of the period and are further influenced by
conditions of the physical environment and the way these
factors satisfy man's basic needs.
(2) The basic understanding of what constitutes aesthetic
resources, natural amenities, the design arts, is at
different levels of comprehensiveness in various agency
guidelines and planning procedures. Evidence shows that
the courts also have an undefined concept of what aes-
thetics is.
(3) Research in applied theory is deficient in responding to
the needs of local planners and decisionmakers. Quanti-
fication methodologies tend to be overly complex, in
addition to being highly subjective and value-laden.
(4) Basic research provides useful information for improving
an understanding of the man/environment interaction that
could be referred to for formulating aesthetic social
policies.
(5) Planning at various levels of responsibility is only
beginning to attempt to develop systematic methods for
including aesthetic considerations in the planning pro-
cess and decisionmaking for environmental impact anal-
ysis. There is limited evidence of attempts to use the
visual or user analysis methods developed by consultants
and researchers.
(6) The responsibilities for trying to develop aesthetic
criteria and controls sift down from the federal level
to the local government and private sector, providing
little coordinated direction for comprehensive environ-
mental planning.
-------
(7) The lack of significant financial support and recognition
of both the subject matter "aesthetics" and the design arts
disciplines by policymakers and decisionmakers throughout
planning agencies places aesthetics in a tenuous position
for serious consideration.
-------
II RECOMMENDATIONS
The research needs outlined in Section VII of this report should be jointly
sponsored by agencies demonstrating prime responsibility for the related
subject matter. Every effort should be made to elevate the status of
aesthetics and the design arts in environmental planning. Primary emphasis
should be placed on improving the understanding of aesthetics in the socio-
physical context with direct relationship to man's aesthetic needs. Tol-
erance levels specifically related to aesthetic needs should be identified.
A consistent social policy (preferably interactive) should be established
at various levels of planning and decisionmaking. Appropriate guidelines
and standards should be initiated to ensure that aesthetic rights are pro-
tected for present and future generations.
Criteria should be developed for«evaluating the usefulness of studies in
applied theory and basic research.
Professionals in the design arts should assume the responsibility for de-
veloping communicative tools (simulation labs and the like) so that the
relevant public can respond intelligently when presented with information
about aesthetic conditions in the environment.
-------
-------
Ill INTRODUCTION
This report addresses the relationship of the concept of aesthetics to
environmental planning. By environmental planning we mean; the delib-
erate actions of man to control the use of natural and built environment.
The primary emphasis of the research is on the man/environment interaction,
with the ultimate goal directed toward improving the understanding of aes-
thetic concepts and the implications of using those concepts in planning
activities and policies making cognizance of environmental quality. A
further objective is to identify considerations for policymakers and to
determine, in a normative fashion, the research required to advance the
state of the art.
The term aesthetics appears in many of the federal and local guidelines
.for project planning. Consequently, there is an increasing need for the
planner to be able to make rational decisions in cases where the aesthetic
factors must be considered concurrently with social, technical, economic,
and ecological factors. The problem lies in the fact that the understand-
ing and implementation of aesthetic considerations for planned activities
are at different stages of development in the various local planning de-
partments and corresponding federal agencies. Likewise, policies guiding
the consideration of aesthetic factors differ. The result is not only
lack of consistency but conflict. A common understanding of the term aes-
thetics and a comprehensive systematic method for including aesthetic fac-
tors in the project planning process are needed.
If we assume that aesthetic impacts are felt directly by individuals, then
it is evident that not all individuals will react in the same manner and
to the same extent to a given aesthetic stimulus. This arises from a vari-
ety of reasons, but the important implication is that different individuals
will make different value judgments of the same aesthetic feature. This
attitude is reflected in the cliche "Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.'
Ugliness, on the other hand, may be perceived and identified by diverse
groups more easily. Junk lots, a high whining noise, a noxious odor are
likely to receive common disapproval.
Aesthetic effects do not stop with the individual, however. Because aes-
thetic properties affect an individual's sense of well-being, they will
affect the manner in which he accomplishes his day-to-day interactions
with other individuals. Accordingly, direct aesthetic impacts on indi-
viduals are transferred through these interactions into collective social
-------
effects. The behavioral manifestations of these social effects may not
be uniquely related to aesthetic causes. For example, it will be difficult
if not impossible, to trace a high incidence of antisocial behavior to gen-
erally prevalent poor architectural (or other) design. The important thing
is establishing a communicative link between project planners and the com-
munity intruded upon. One can predict, perhaps, that an effort to make a
structure pleasing to the surrounding community may carry a message that
their value as people with feelings has been considered.
One of the most conspicuous tensions concerning aesthetics is the tension
between the desire to set down absolute uniform rules about what is aes-
thetically pleasing and the desire to consider every project in its own
context, without reference to any other. It is the position of this re-
port that neither extreme is feasible. We do not yet know enough to es-
tablish absolute rules about what is pleasing, no matter how much we may
know about what is not pleasant to look at or to be around. Also, the
desire to approach every project as though it were completely unique is
extravagant—in a world of limited resources, the waste of social funds
is indefensible.
A social policy can operate in several different modes: predictive,
interactive, or remedial. The rational implementation of a policy re-
quires decisions based on a detailed knowledge of causal interactions,
an explicit formulation of values, and criteria by which trade-offs can
be made. We are just beginning to learn about causal interactions in the
field of aesthetics, and to date the explicit formulation of values has
been almost entirely in negative terms. The development of criteria for
trade-offs has been almost entirely economic until just recently, with
the introduction of methods to quantify and measure aesthetic attributes
in the environment.
Because of the lack of information, predictive social policies concern-
ing project aesthetics have been frequently unsuccessful, and sometimes
spectacularly so. Remedial social policies (e.g., "plant morning glories")
are better than nothing, but expensive. In the absence of sufficient in-
formation, the social policy most likely to be successful is the inter-
active policy, which suffers from the disadvantage of being difficult to
implement and apparently inefficient. (It is always quicker and easier
to go ahead and get the job done as it ought to be done, until one reaches
the point where it has been completed and is obviously a mistake.)
Some attempts have already been made to include aesthetic considerations
in the decision process for all kinds of projects, from bridges and dams
to urban redevelopment, and there is abundant evidence that public opinion
demands much more. Because of the law (NEPA) the EPA is burdened with
-------
the task of defining their position for assessing aesthetic impact. Be-
cause of the present deficit of information, there is no way to estab-
lish a valid set of absolute rules about aesthetics. However, it is es-
sential that the present chaotic state of aesthetic theories not be
permitted to stand as a reason for inaction, or for evasion of responsi-
bility for the aesthetic impact of projects.
In an attempt to assist EPA in defining where we are and where we need
to go, for considering aesthetic impacts, in environmental planning this
study has been organized into the following four major phases:
(1) The historical development of the Western concept of
aesthetics is explored, with the aim of showing the
relation of the concept to the particular set of at-
titudes at each period, to illuminate the way in which
present concepts relate to today's world.
(2) The state of the art of measuring or quantifying the
specific elements of aesthetics is surveyed in the
literature with a review of selected methods and at-
tention given to basic research for understanding the
unquantifiable.
(3) The planning and policy implications of integrating
aesthetics into the planning process are explored.
(4) Finally, the above tasks are summarized by outlining
areas of primary concern and research needs identified
for further study.
-------
-------
IV AESTHETICS BROADLY DEFINED
Multitudes of scholars have spent entire careers attempting to define
aesthetics. However, unlike the definition of pi, explicit definitions
of what constitute aesthetics tend not to be accepted as binding outside
the particular culture that produced them. In general, Western tradition
has considered aesthetics as being concerned with beauty or the fine arts.
Although this aspect of aesthetics is too limited to be of much importance
to EPA, the history of the concept of aesthetics is illuminating in under-
standing how closely linked aesthetics is to human perceptions through the
senses and to cultural attitudes.
The etymology of the word aesthetics traces it back to a Greek origin
where "things apprehended through the senses" were to the Greeks AISTHE-
AISTHETA from the stem AISTHE, to feel. They were opposed to NOETA,
"things thought," from the stem NOEIN, to perceive, from NOUS, mind. Noetic
and nous have become the words of philosophy, but aesthetics has become the
name for the general field of thinking about the arts, while anesthetic has
become the term used in medicine for blocking the senses (Shipley, 1945).
A. G. Alexander Baumgarten (1714-62) is credited with coining the word
A'ESTHETIC, in his work Aesthetica (dated 1750), to denote "that branch
of science which deals with beauty" (Klien, 1966). Like beauty, then,
the word has no clear and agreed-on definition that is operative—it remains
a term that designates a vague concept. However certain aspects of this
concept have evolved through historical use that can be agreed on.
Aspects of the Aesthetic Concept
Aesthetics and the Human Senses
The aesthetic concept is used when referring to things apprehended through
the senses.
This concept is supported in direct relationship to our built or manmade
environment by Kevin Lynch, who describes the importance of sensory percep-
tion in environmental aesthetics as follows (from The City as Environment,
1968): "The physical form of a city has a sensuous impact that profoundly
conditions the lives of its people, and this is often ignored in the task
city-building." One of the problems that Lynch addresses is the burden
-------
of perceptual stress imposed by the city—not only the acoustic noise but
noise in the sense of stimuli so jumbled together that no pattern can be
discerned; physical discomfort in terms of winds in street canyons that
blow grit unpleasantly against the skin, in terms of being jostled, of
being assaulted by unpleasant odors. The perceptual stresses can go beyond
our limits of comfort or even of tolerance.
The early separation of sensory perception and reasoning, established by
Classical philosophers, has persisted. According to this theory, the
senses passively take in data for the mind to process, and "The business
of creating concepts, accumulating knowledge, connecting, separating, and
inferring was reserved to the 'higher' cognitive functions of the mind'
(Arnheim, 1972).
Rudolf Arnheim challenges this interpretation with his theory that visual
perception is_ a cognitive activity. He makes his case in The Art of Visual
Thinking (Arnheim, 1969) by stating "the cognitive operations called think-
ing are not the privilege of mental processes above and beyond perception
but the essential ingredients of perception itself." Anthropologists have
pointed out that some primitive peoples who have never seen a pictorial
representation cannot "see" any information in black and white photographs
of themselves—not only do they not recognize their own portraits, they
cannot assign any meaning to the pattern of black and white until it is
pointed out to them.
According to Arnheim, "such operations as active exploration, selection,
grasping of essentials, simplification, abstraction, analysis and synthesis,
completion, correction, comparison, problem solving, as well as combining,
separating, putting into context ,.. are not the prerogative of any one
mental function; they are the manner in which the minds of both man and
animal treat cognitive material at any level."
Arnheim concentrates on the visual sense, but the same is true of hearing.
Hearing is not merely the passive reception of certain frequencies of sound,
but the processing of the information in terms of patterns recognition and
other data processing operations. Physicians have discovered that the
auditory nerve can remain unimpaired—as shown by the startle reflex—but
"hearing" can be lost as the result of brain damage in the pattern recogni-
tion and data processing portion.
Speaking of the visual arts, Arnheim takes a case for education that can
be extended to all the arts (and perhaps aesthetics in general):
The arts are neglected because they are based on perception,
and perception is disdained because it is not assumed to involve
10
-------
thought. . . . the arts are the most powerful means of strengthening
the perceptual component without which productive thinking is
impossible in any field of endeavor. The neglect of the arts
is only the most tangible symptom of the widespread unemployment
of the senses in every field of academic study.
Arnheim points out that "The facilities of the sense of vision are not
only available to the mind; they are indispensable for its functioning.
If perception were nothing better than the passive reception of information,
one would expect that the mind would not be disturbed by being left without
such input for a while and might indeed welcome the repose. The experiments
on sensory deprivation have shown, however, that this is not so. When the
visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic senses are reduced to unpatterned
stimulation—nothing but diffuse light for the eyes and a steady buzz for
the ears—the entire mental functioning of the person is upset. Social
adjustment, serenity, and capacity for thought are profoundly impaired.
... the activity of the senses is an indispensable condition for the
functioning of the mind in general. The continuous response to the environ-
ment is the foundation for the working of the nervous system" (Arnheim,
1972).
Aesthetics as Thinking about the Arts
Defining the term "art" is as difficult as precisely defining the term "aes-
thetics or "society" or "beauty." Nevertheless in discussing aesthetic
concepts constant reference is made to the arts and they are considered
a tremendously powerful influence in human life. They deal with forces
and mechanisms which are now only slightly understood; they affect the
thoughts, emotions, desires, and actions of countless humans. To understand
aesthetic concepts we must first understand the arts as psychological and
cultural phenomena.
The first art theories in the Western Tradition were those of classical
antiquity highlighting instrumental, or pragmatic art, which served some
social purpose. These concepts of art and craft derived from interest in
the functions and uses of art objects (including music). They included
art as manufacture (artifacts) and art as an instrument of education or
social improvement. The arts were closely integrated into the life of
the ancient city state and were a vital part of social gatherings and
religious ceremonies. They were thought of as having tremendous social
value, since they raised man closer to the stature of the gods. Interest
in the educational, ameliorative, and propaganda functions of art in society
was dominant in classical antiquity and has remained one of the most
prominent motives of instrumental thinking. The social status of the
11
-------
artisan was not exceptionally high; he was expected to demonstrate crafts-
manship in his work from a utilitarian point of view. The instrumental
theory resulted in a distinct split between art as manufacture (artifacts)
and poetics and drama and their relationship to aesthetics.
Instrumental theories of art went on to include Medieval and Renaissance
art where art was considered an instrument of religious and moral in-
doctrination. The resulting works of art, by their very nature, reflect
control by some prevailing force, the city state, the church, the prince,
based on rather uniform standards for art. Though there is little evidence
of whether or not the masses actually agreed, these standards arose out
of the general uniformity of culture in those segments of Western Europe
society that generated works of art, the ranks of the church>and the
nobility. A concept of a social aesthetics was an underlying factor for
being able to establish a set of uniform criteria for evaluating the arts.
For instance pictures with the wrong symbolism might be heretical; or lead
to a revolt against the Prince.
Other forms of the instrumental theory came to the forefront during the
Romantic period and still exercise strong influence on popular thinking
in the 20th Century. Most important among these are the theory of art
as a means of self expression, the conception of art as an instrument or
language for the communication of feeling and emotion, and the view that
art functions as a means for the expansion of experience through the
imaginative prehension of attitudes, beliefs, judgments, valuations to
which in ordinary life man would not subscribe.
It wasn't until the late 18th Century that the formalistic theories of arts
were introduced. These theories presented the arts as autonomous, sep-
arated from function, thus beginning the notion of fine arts. The beauties
of art, and the beauties of nature were often extolled for their influence
in leading to a reverential apprehension of Divine Providence and for in-
clining the mind to ponder on manifestations of Divine purpose in the
universe.
The beginning of the notion of "fine Art" had a significant impact on the
position of the artist in society. The artist in the Romantic period was
elevated to a grand position. He was considered a creative genius because
he used his art to express himself. This factor also introduced the com-
petitive market for art goods.
Art theories in the 20th Century show traces of all three categories:
Instrumental, Naturalistic, and Formalistic. Instrumental theory is
widened in the concept that the purpose of art is to afford occasion and
scope for satisfying aesthetic contemplation. This thought is very close
12
-------
to the philosophical theories advocated by the Sophists. Art is supposed
to present ideas of self expression and communication of unverbalized
feeling and emotion, a carry-over from Romanticism. Art is also presented
as a newly created reality subserving the purpose of appreciation. In
many cases art is used to glorify nature and the ideal.
However, one difference must be pointed out in the 20th Century, and that
is that the proportion of the population who have some personal acquain-
tance with fine art appears to be far higher than it was in the past, less
as a result of mass education than as a result of increases in the number
and variety of daily human contacts with urbanization. Thus, old theories
that persist have not the same meaning as they had in the Greek city state,
where only a small fraction of the men and almost no women really "knew"
about fine art, or in the Medieval and Renaissance period of Western
Europe, where the arts were confined to the larger churches (particularly
cathedrals), towns, and palaces.
In general, two assumptions characterize 20th Century fine art theory:
that aesthetic values take their source from the ultimate value of apprecia-
tion, and that works of art are new creations appraised aesthetically in
relation to their value for appreciation. These two assumptions have be-
come more dominant and more general through the first half of the 20th
Century, and are mainly responsible for the distinctive tone of non-
philosophical aesthetic writing today as compared with critical writing
in the past. A third assumption can be made which relates to the applied
arts (i.e., architecture, industrial design, interior design, landscape
design), that is, one of functionalist!) that ascribes the value of art to
its ability to serve a particular function.
Aesthetics as the Science of Beauty
Aesthetics as a branch of science that deals with beauty was defined and
established by A. G. Alexander Baumgarten in 1750, but it has been a matter
for debate primarily in this century. Attempts to define beauty have shown
frustrated results—not all, perhaps, drawing the ridicule of Keats' famous
definition "Beauty is truth, truth beauty," but none gaining full accep-
tance as valid.
In discussing the history of the attempt to define and delimit beauty,
Osborne quotes Stewart (Philosophical Essays, published in 1810) as saying
"the attempt to extract a common core of meaning from all its [beauty's]
applications is futile because there is no common meaning ... It has long
been a favorite problem of philosophers to ascertain some common quality
or qualities which entitles a thing to the denomination of beautiful; but
13
-------
the success of their speculations has been so inconsiderable that little
can be inferred from them but the impossibility of the problem ..."
(quoted in Osborne, 1970).
As his solution to the problem, Stewart proposed to study instead the
development of the human mind and "its natural progress in the employ-
ment of speech." However, linguistic analysis appears no more success-
ful than any other method.
Factors Underlying the Concept of Aesthetics
Nature as the Underlying Force
Naturalistic assumptions were basic to art theory of classical antiquity
and continued to be preponderant in the West until a century ago. This
theory is still alive today, as expressed by those who expect the visual
arts to provide a reasonably accurate reflection of the external reality
which they use as their subject. This is an underlying factor which has
influenced not only fine art, but is also evidenced in architectural theory
(Frank Lloyd Wright, Gaudi) and has grossly attached itself to product
design (plastic trees, fountains).
Probably the single most significant point to make in this presentation
is the contrasting philosophies concerning nature between Western culture
and Eastern culture. Western culture considers nature external to and
set apart from man, something to be studied and observed with scientific
objectivity, mastered and harnessed to man* s uses,and reacted to emotion-
ally. This point is referred to continuously in the literature on art
history. To the Hindus, nature was an illusion just as man was. To the
Chinese, man is an integral part of nature: the same life processes and
rhythms transfused both man and nature. The Oriental ideal was to bring
unification of the individual with cosmic principle, not to master, re-
produce, or scientifically observe.
The significance of these basic philosophical approaches will emerge as
the predominant force behind practical application of aesthetic concepts
to planning and policy actions discussed in later sections of this report.
Cultural, Social, and Economic Phenomena as Determiners of Aesthetic
Expression
From the 18th Century on, there has been a marked move away from the
uniform social and cultural aesthetics of Classical and Medieval periods
(see Figure 1). Today, in a democratic political and social setting,
14
-------
r
s
CC
HI
<
UJ
Q_
O
CC
UJ
DC
UJ
C/)
UJ
5
_
Century
,c
8
>
If
° 0)
rr 2
CO
>
3
C
(3
£
5
OJ
U
c
Q
S
(^
QJ
CC
"O
C
CO
—
0)
"5
£
5
cr
c
2
ro
o
>"• +-•
O " C CD
^"E 0 11 Ist ST,
.£ irt y CJ :_. CO >.CU 3 O
£ g 2 K o § a! ,£ £ > c? ^
E 0 2 co £ f; c . 2 _~o
^ *^ D E ^ J^ co c Q
i § 1? u? *" ^ -2 "^ ~
— -^ co .co "5 aj
^ o c Ir
53 co —a
< <
C *-
QJ C
f£ Q;
ws £ ° C "So
<
S « t
< 5
3
CL
• — • **- -n ..
= o w 3J
- 3 *» « +3
— ro o "O j= co
2 .1 5) > n -g ^
Q 5 /? ° m S ™
3 TD n CD C/3 0 •£
in c +^ o o i_
C _ -O U ^ ^ jl
— tt) Q) O — fj
O H "p S ^
^ *- X S"
B D uj ^
£ « "S 2
u 1 Is f -5
S° ° S 2 30
01 C 0) u " C
2 — H *- < E "
°" "cu ° -n O "Q
u °- c c- ^
O CD ^ O
yj -^52
A A A
A A
yw <
h- UJ m CC
CC TO ^
< t~z t-
Is g
u
en
8
E
0)
O
c
o
"o
CD
CC
£E 1
« ^ «
.- 0) C
2 | -5
8^6
3||
h- o
t
0) °
o" -
Q_ l-
£ ^
h- ^
di
to
^
0
-J
u
K
g
CD
U >
r; S
•a > _o
J7 tu O ^>.
| 5 8 S1
•^ ro Dl i-
g s •§ 1
5 ,h -5 <
E o>
UJ —
s >•
^ D
CU CO
^ 0)
5 m
tu
< 0
•5 >
S a
» 8
o o
Oi —
x: jz
H Q.
i
-C
a
o
CO
_J
o
Q,
O
§
a.
w c
— o
c §
^ rp .52 O
03 "cc *~*
CC '*- c c
y ° QJ CD
v- 0) CD —
B E 5 <
c 73
OJ QJ
o Q
in
£
'c
CD
U
I
1
QJ
3
*C
Q)
^
CD
3
a
^
o
_c
O
OJ
JI
h-
c
ca o
I s
CJ _
nr t ,-
en E
T3 £ !2
c CL "to
0 1 -
« 1 Q.
•^J
£ 5
h-
A
_j
D
I-
CC
CL
cn
1 1
ca i^
C ro
3 5-
!o
0)
T3
CD
0)
0 ^ ^
2^ g
CD
<
QJ
tn ^
to "^
il U
0 i,
<[
A "
o
s
o
0
a
UJ
CO
|[~"
r-
X
CO
LU
LL
O
t
LU
O
"Z.
o
•z.
CC
UJ
CO
LU
g
LU
X
h-
1 1
O
1—
1
a_
0
1
UJ
^>
LU
Q
— 1
^
O
CC
O
CO
X
1 1 1
X
h-
LU
CC
D
52
LL
15
-------
public participation in the arts is individualized, is based on personal
incentives, and is almost unstructured. Other than a few fragmented efforts
to use art as an instrument for social amelioration and social comment,
the trend toward "art for art's sake" puts aesthetics in the eyes of the
beholder and takes it out of the state and the church. This fact strongly
influences the character of our cities and neighborhoods where individual
preferences in taste and style are most obvious. The competitive nature
of the architectural market is reflected in the low-bid quality of the
product.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, art was a term used to describe all
manmade objects, including those used in everyday situations, that showed
ingenuity or served some useful function. These include handicrafts and
products of workshop industry. The artist was considered a craftsman and
his success depended on his ability to shape an object to serve a defined
purpose. Uniform standards of excellence applied to all products. From
the Industrial Revolution on, there have been changes that influence not
only the quality of art, but also its use.
The factory system of production resulted in poverty, ugliness, and de-
pression for a new class of workers along with the emergence of a prosper-
ous middle class weak in indigenous cultural traditions. As one con-
sequence of mass production, society was geared as seldom before to
standards of utility measured in economic and monetary terms, while mech-
anization seemed to deprive the factory worker of the opportunity for
self-expression or identification with his job. The fine arts as defined
in the 18th Century (painting, sculpture, music, drama, poetry) were re-
served for the economic strata with the money and leisure to indulge in
them, while the industrial or "applied" art were products for society in
general. The architect, industrial designer, and commercial artist are
placed on the practical side of art and respond to the fluctuations of the
consumer market (which is heavily influenced by industry). Creativity and
quality are puppets of cost and profit, particularly in architecture.
Consumption of paintings and sculpture is based on style and taste as re-
flected by the trend setters in upper class society. "Art" is determined
by what a person can afford in terms of time and money; it is used as a
status symbol rather than a life style.
In contrast to the industrialized aesthetic, a few significant strides in
contemporary society show the emerging currents of a return to the handi-
crafts (pottery, leatherwork, sewing, weaving, sculpture, painting), par-
ticularly by the younger generation, and a renewed interest in agrarian
pursuits by "return to the earth" enthusiasts.
16
-------
Additionally, the growing interest in the natural environment has spurred
a trend toward an appreciation of nature in its raw state. Efforts to
preserve natural areas (wilderness) and reassess the use of natural re-
sources will be recorded in history as a dominant characteristic of the
1970s. Evidence of this interest is expressed in Section V of this report.
The Aesthetics of American City Life
From the early part of the 18th Century on, the newly settled American
colonies began showing signs of urbanization in the larger towns. Two
overriding influences in shaping the character of the Eastern colonies
were the reliance on trade with Europe and the English Puritan Ethic.
More than any other factors, these two gave the communities the basic homo-
geneity so characteristic of New England. Though each of the leading towns
of the English colonies developed characteristics distinctly its own—in
architecture and overall appearance, in intellectual interests and emphasis
upon some of the amenities at the expense of others, in religious and social
attitudes, in forms of municipal government, and, to a lesser extent, in
economic organization--differences were fewer and less basic than similar-
ities .
As stated in The Rise of Urban America by Constance Mclaughlin Green
(1965),
the major provincial capitals not only resembled one another in
their modes of life but long had a closer affinity to Europe than
to the frontier, for the Atlantic Ocean was a lesser barrier to
the movement of people, goods, and ideas than were the vast
westward-stretching forests of the continent.
Architectural styles in the early cities showed a close affinity to class-
ical and European taste, even in some cases, to the extent of trying to
reproduce Palladian stone buildings in timber. The proliferation of hand-
some public buildings in the colonial towns was an expression of civic
pride shared by all citizens, though it received special impetus from the
mercantile aristocracy. (Some of the buildings were put up at the expense
of rich individuals or groups of merchants.) Still, the basic similarities
with the classical city-state attitude toward art and craftsmanship were
evident.
Green (1965) goes on to describe American cities in the following:
If the amenities of city life in contrast to rural were less
evident than in the 18th Century, the city still formed the
17
-------
substance of American civilization. It was in the cities
that men by mutual imitation changed toward what they con-
sidered improvement. While urban architecture usually
suffered from the tastelessness of the Monroe P. Joneses,
public buildings in a great many cities continued to achieve
a dignity and grace of line that vied with the best in con-
temporaneous Europe. Philadelphia, birthplace of much of
the finest architecture in the United States, managed to
preserve the central core around Independence Hall from the
inroads of the early Victorian era. The national capitol
at Washington also testified to American search for beauty.
Like other foreigners before and after him, Charles Dickens
Tl II
poked fun at the city of magnificent distances where
rubbish-strewn vacant lots and unsightly shanties marred the
effect of imposing white-stone-pillared federal office build-
ings, but discerning persons, however unenthusiastic about
the classical architectural style, perceived grandeur in the
concept and could envisage its possibilities. At a later
date Englishmen who admired the Crystal Palace and the
Victoria and Albert Museum were scarcely in a position to
ridicule the turreted red-brick Norman castle erected in
the 1850s for the Smithsonian Institution at Washington.
In domestic architecture in the 1830s and 1840s North and
South alike fell under the spell of the Greek Revival. Self-
schooled carpenters learning from books of drawings generally
built the handsome houses that rose along the Gulf coast, in
New England, in Baltimore, Cincinnati, and scores of cities
between and beyond. In the old section of New Orleans the
imprint of 18th-century French and Spanish rule was still
visible in the stuccoed walls and iron grill work, arches,
balconies, and inner courts with fountains and statues half-
covered by roses and vines; the newer American quarter seldom
succeeded in reproducing that charm. The Spanish influence
was even clearer in Texas towns and the trading posts of New
Mexico. Although jerry-built monstrosities cropped up in all
cities, particularly in the newest and rawest, civic pride in
time impelled men to put up more substantial, and, by their
standards, more beautiful buildings. The rows of houses
standing shoulder to shoulder flush with the streets in colo-
nial towns rarely had counterparts in newer cities. There,
fenced yards, sometimes adorned with flower beds, ordinarily
surrounded private dwellings.
18
-------
The cities were also the cultural centers of the country. They prided
themselves in offering the finest galleries, museums, and concert halls
as attractions for the special class of society that could afford such
luxuries.
Early in the development of America, government controls were instituted
for public benefit. Much of the background of the establishment of town
ordinances had considerable influence for maintaining the natural amen-
ities of the urban community. It is also evident in early history that
private citizens provided the real impetus for establishing ordinances
governing sanitation, drainage, street extension, and police and fire
protection. It was often the Quaker sense of community responsibility
that spurred this action. These ordinances and the early strivings of
private citizen interest groups are obvious forerunners to the Environ-
mental movement of the 20th Century.
In addition, as early as 1833, George Caitlin advanced the idea that areas
of the country should be maintained as national parks (he assumed the
addition of real Indians as sort of a living diorama, but the idea of
preserving areas intact in their magnificent wildness was one seed of the
eventual National Park system). Jonathan Edwards, the Puritan preacher,
extolled the virtues of nature as enhancing our awe for the divine, but
until there were enough buildings to cut off the view, Americans tended
to consider great unspoiled vistas of scenery as probably crawling with
bears and Indians, and at best an inconvenience.
The gardens of Europe seemed less important in a country where nature was
just outside the door, and when gardens were constructed, they were less
on the "naturalistic" plan of, say, Capability Brown, and more an attempt
to extend the area of control and discipline out from the house in formal
plots and hedges.
It took some time for the landscape gardening of the Romantic period in
Europe to come to America. Coming mainly from England, the interest in
Romantic landscape spread rapidly after 1830. People not' only began to
look at views, they began to construct them. Julius Fabos (1973) stated
in a recent article "Tree-planting societies were beautifying and laying
out village commons, cemeteries, and local academies in the picturesque
Romantic style. Today the fenceless suburbias with winding roads and
large setbacks provide the same parklike quality developed during the
19th Century Romantic-Landscape Movement."
The need for harmony between man and nature was evidenced in the mid-19th
Century preachings of Thoreau, Olmsted, and their contemporaries and had
a great impact on the subsequent movement to protect the "monumental
beauty" of the West. Fredrick Law Olmsted had laid out Central Park in
19
-------
New York City in the 1860s, and in the early 1870s landscaped the grounds
of the Capitol in Washington. But, greatly admired though his work was,
it had not made sufficient impression to persuade other cities to under-
take formal programs of beautification. Green (1965) goes on to say
City planning consequently received its initial impetus from
the team of architects, sculptors, and landscapists, Olmsted
among them, to whom Chicagoans entrusted the task of laying
out the fair grounds for the Columbian Exposition of 1893.
Local promoters who had adopted the slogan ' Make Culture Hum'
were as overwhelmed as the country visitors to the fair at the
beauty of the "White City" that arose along the swampy lake
shore to the south of Chicago. The achievement gave birth
to the City Beautiful movement, for if a handful of artists
could build in a year so exquisite a creation, eclectic though
its architecture was, other men could emulate them, at least
in formulating and adhering to a consistent over-all scheme.
The depression of the 1890s delayed action, but with return-
ing prosperity cities from coast to coast set about drafting
plans for land purchases and improvements that would enhance
their looks.
Washington, where an advisory park commission mapped out an
elaborate proposal, was the first city to see results. Congress
authorized the removal of railroad tracks from the Mall and
accepted the commission's recommendations about the location
of new government buildings and the landscaping of the public
domain. Elsewhere progress was largely on paper, although
several cities launched campaigns to get rid of billboards and
similar eyesores. While Boston laid out the park along the
Fenway, she did little to develop the 5,000 acres of land
beyond the city limits which she had bought in the 1890s for
a public recreation area; Chicago made no better headway in
carrying out plans for a grand esplanade along her twenty-mile
lake shore. San Francisco, nearly completely destroyed by an
earthquake and fire in 1906, rejected a formal scheme for re-
building.
Yet ideas were germinating; in time Patrick Geddes1 "city
Development," published in 1904, would bear some fruit. New
Haven managed to restore some dignity to the old town green,
and, in preparing for a centennial of the Louisiana Purchase,
St. Louis took a fresh look at the possibilities of her river
front, the "Gateway to the West." Los Angeles planned a mile-
long, two-hundred-foot-wide avenue ending in an impressive
plaza.
20
-------
Ridden with graft, vice, and crime, pocked with ugliness and
human wretchedness, urban America was nevertheless stirring
itself to build anew. (Green, 1967.)
Thus, Olmsted and others helped to bring about the preservation of some
unique landscapes in several parts of the United States and their values
have influenced the attitudes of the National Park Service.
Aesthetics in the Twentieth Century
Thomas Munro (1954) defines aesthetics today as "a subject which aims
primarily at a theoretical understanding of the arts and related modes
of behavior and experience." He goes on to say "Unless so limited,
aesthetics is understood as general or comparative aesthetics, covering
all the arts and the varieties of behavior and experience connected with
them. It thus investigates not only the products, but also the processes
and abilities involved in creating, using, enjoying, appreciating, and
evaluating the arts" (Beardsley and Schneller, 1967). This definition
•
covers a wide range of activities, extending outside the arts themselves.
It is broad enough to include not only human response to art but human
response to objects other than works of art: to scenes in nature, for
example. The concern of aesthetics with general theory, which sets it
apart from specialized studies of the arts, has thus evolved from its
early history as a branch of philosophy. In the 18th Century and early
19th Century, aesthetics was commonly defined as "the philosophy of
beauty." At that time, aesthetics was highly abstract and speculative,
often paying little attention to works of art or other concrete phenomena.
It was devoted largely to such questions as whether beauty is an objective
property of things, or whether it is merely a subjective human feeling.
If aesthetics could find some eternal "laws" of beauty, the laws would
provide a foundation for value judgments about works of art or greatness
in the artist, and such laws would form explicit rules for the guidance
of the artist.
Considerable debate took place among 20th Century philosophers on the
subject of defining art and beauty. Clive Bell and George Santayana
searched to discover "the essential quality of works of art, the quality
which distinguishes works of art from all other classes of objects," and
"some quality common and peculiar" to all beautiful things. Others, such
as Dewitt Parker, Paul Ziff, Morris Weitz, and W. E. Kennick, maintained
that any common feature of all things traditionally and currently held to
be beautiful would turn out to be trivial and not worth pursuing.
21
-------
Osborne recognizes a new way of tackling aesthetics that began to come
into vogue in the 1930s. This systematic process he characterizes as
of a cautious, empirical, analytical but more rigorous temper, which
was reluctant to generalize but more keenly alert to the special charac-
teristics of the individual arts" (Osborne, 1970). In actuality the
approach can be dated to the 19th Century when the trend toward the
protoscience of art philosophy began. In this most recent development,
the focus seems to be on the logical exercise of clarifying the conceptual
apparatus of criticism. Each of the arts is examined separately with
the intent of rendering explicit the different criteria of valuation that
are employed. No common rules for beauty are derived; instead, the
establishment of uniformities was treated either as premature or, some-
times, as dangerously obscurantist (Osborne, 1970). Osborne acknowl-
edges that some of the studies made contributed to the clarification of
particular problems and to the separation of genuine from spurious issues
in particular small areas, but he claims that the fragmentation entailed
in the approach keeps it from being fruitful in terms of producing con-
gruent conclusions.
Some very useful studies have been conducted which aimed at clarifying
specific aesthetic concepts and delving into their logic. Frank Sibley's
work ( Aesthetic Concepts in Philosophy Looks at the Arts, 1959) ad-
dressed the difference between features of works of art and other familiar
things around us as a difference between aesthetic and nonaesthetic terms.
Nonaesthetic terms (such as red, noisy, clammy) refer to features which
are observable by anyone with normal eyes, ears, and intelligence.
Aesthetic terms on the other hand (such as dainty, delicate, graceful,
elegant) refer to features of things where judgment requires the exercise
of taste or sensibility. In contrast, a study by Isabel Hurgerland points
out that aesthetic properties include those features of everyday perception
which the gestalt psychologists have called attention to. They are some-
times called "emotional" or "physiognomic" properties—such as the cheer-
fulness of some colors, the grace of some movements.
These studies represent a new trend in the philosophical interpretation
of aesthetics. The new trend is broader in scope, making aesthetics
almost coextensive with the study of perception. Terms such as awkward,
graceful, dainty, enter into our ordinary everyday recognitions and de-
scriptions of things; they have no special attachment to works of art or
things of beauty.
From the 19th Century on, aesthetics has steadily progressed in the use
of scientific method. It has become more empirical, basing its con-
clusions on the observation of works of art and related phenomena, in-
stead of deducing them from religious and metaphysical assumptions. It
22
-------
is working in the spirit of natural science, insofar as man and all his
works are considered as parts of nature. It is becoming a humanistic
science, like psychology and sociology, insofar as man and his arts are
contrasted with nature.
In fact, according to Osborne and Munro, aesthetics could not become a
scientific study of the arts until psychology and sociology had furnished
the prerequisites. Psychology had to provide a general, naturalistic
conception of human nature, including its basic processes and functions,
and various types of personality, which would hold up in the arts as in
other activities. Sociology, ethnology, and anthropology had to show
how art arises and functions in different cultural settings, and how art
changes as society evolves. Aesthetics makes constant use of terms, con-
cepts, and data from psychology and from the social sciences.
The danger in discussing aesthetics as a science is that confusion is
likely to arise from the indiscriminate mixing of statements of fact with
judgments of value. If this happens, feelings about some aesthetic char-
acteristic in an object may be expressed as if they were inherent, ob-
jective properties of it. Scientific method does not require that man
suppress or conceal his likes and dislikes, but only that he keep them
distinct from his conception of the facts, and not allow them to influence
his conception where he can prevent it. Munro addresses this problem by
saying, Values are facts in one sense; that is, they are somehow actually
involved in the phenomenal world and in the interaction between humans
and their environment. They are not mysterious, transcendent entities
or pure ideas inaccessible to all empirical research, but they are a
peculiar kind of fact, usually hard to investigate empirically' (Beardsley
and Schneller, 1967).
Accordingly, in aesthetics, the trend toward sciences involves an effort
to eliminate evaluation and personal preference from certain phases of
inquiry: to make them purely descriptive, neutral, and as objective as
possible. This can never be entirely complete, since all human thinking
is conditioned by the architecture of the human nervous system, by in-
dividual personality, and by cultural environment. One evaluates by
implication, merely in picking out certain problems and examples as worth
studying.
In addition to psychological theories for art and aesthetics, two con-
trasting strands of sociological theory have been evidenced in the 20th
Century. One maintains that art has been influenced by social and
economic conditions and the changing patterns of civilization, and the
other claims that art influences society and individuals. From whichever
point of view it sets out, the sociological study of the arts may be
23
-------
treated either as a descriptive discipline or as discipline that estab-
lishes norms. The first, the descriptive mode, claims that taste, and
therefore the production of art, is influenced by geographical, climatic,
racial, and historical factors. The 19th Century evolutionists went on
to claim that the arts do not exist outside the system of natural cause
and effect. Art is not the result of some divine inspiration or any im-
pulse not explicable by natural laws ; it is evolved by natural processes
along with other social and cultural developments. The evolutionists
pictured it as emerging at a late stage from prehistoric technologies
through a gradual advance in the adaptation of means to ends. Emphasis
was placed on the value of art as reflecting the spirit of an age, national
character, economic conditions bearing on market and demand, factors of
religious faith, common ideals and endeavors, and in a word, all "that
contributes to the understanding of any cultural period.
Osborne points out that "Through most of the 19th Century thoughtful
minds were preoccupied with the more immediate social and economic con-
sequences of the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution and
with their more distant spiritual and cultural effects."
The arts were turned to as a possible instrument for rescuing society
from the grave peril of the age. The sociological aesthetician Jean-
Marine Guyan (1854-88) in his book L'Art au point de vue sociologique
(1887) evolved an aesthetic which was designed to break down the barriers
which separate art from the other aspects of civilization and represented
aesthetic experience, with its culmination in artistic enjoyment, as a
restoration of harmonious living and a sense of belonging which is the
denial of estrangement and alienation. Art is identified with the sense
of beauty, and the sense of beauty is expanded to become an ideal of all
healthy and harmonious life-experience. The feeling of beauty, Guyan
maintained, was explained as the higher form of the sentiment of soli-
darity and the unity in harmony; it is the consciousness of a society in
our individual life.
William Morris in England set out to glorify earlier handicrafts, trying
to remedy the ugliness that resulted from the factory system of produc-
tion. Ruskin set out to prescribe tastes and preferences for a newly
emerging middle class strong in money but weak in indigenous cultural
traditions. Society demanded the completion of the Industrial Revolution
but set out at the same time to provide uplift for the factory worker,
whom mechanization seemed to deprive of the opportunity for self-
expression or identification with his job. These uplift and improvement
attempts, conducted outside of working hours, were an attempt to impose
acceptable mores and values on workers seen to have none of their own
and to be in danger of becoming subhumans. In some cases, the failure
24
-------
of these attempts led to the diagnosis that workers were somehow dif-
ferent," the proletariat, a group apart. This view results in Marxist
rhetoric in some countries and in alienation rhetoric in the United
States. Only recently has an acknowledgment been made that the factory
worker has a culture of his own that is neither subhuman nor all that
far removed from the culture of the office worker.
A growing sense of isolation and estrangement has become evident in the
20th Century. Alienation has come to be regarded as the chief spiritual
malady of our age. It is seen both as a metaphysical isolation of the
individual in a post-Christian world of thought, and as a psychological
alienation in the depersonalized world of technological culture.
John Dewey, in Art and Experience (1934), defines the work of art as
not the actual product but "what the product does with and in experience."
Dewey gives it as the primary task of anyone who writes about philosophy
of the fine arts "to restore continuity between the refined and intensi-
fied forms of experience that are works of art and the everyday events,
doings, and sufferings that are universally recognized to constitute
experience.
Herbert Read, in his book Art and Alienation (1968), illuminates the
problem of "alienation" of the arts and artist in our modern technological
society by analyzing the characteristics of the modern movement and the
difficulties involved in communication between the artist and his public.
Read advocates the view that aesthetic activity is a formative process
with direct effect both on individual psychology and on social organi-
zation. He states that never before in the history of our Western world
has the divorce between man and nature, between man and his fellow-man,
between individual man and his 'self-hood' been so complete. Such is one
of the main effects of that system of production we call capitalism as
Marx foresaw. We now realize that not capitalism alone, but the whole
character and scope of a technological civilization is involved (the end
of capitalism in certain countries has not meant the end of alienation).
To change the world, meaning the prevailing economic system, is not
enough. The fragmented psyche must be reconstituted, and only the cre-
ative therapy we call art offers that possibility (Herbert Read, 1969).
If art and aesthetic concepts are truly a reflection of our society, then
we must examine our way of life, a direction advocated by a majority of
art historians—our social structure, our methods of production and dis-
tribution, the accumulation of capital and the incidence of taxation—to
decide whether it is not in these factors that we should look for an
25
-------
explanation of our aesthetic impotence. However, note that Read de-
mands the country admit to aesthetic insensitivity—a point with which
some might disagree.*
Read points to three characteristics of our civilization which are patently
inimical to the arts. First is the general phenomenon of alienation
which he defines as the "progressive divorce of human faculties from
natural pi-ocesses.
Another characteristic of contemporary society inimical to the arts is
the decline of religious worship, attributed partly to the growth of
scientific rationalism. Read claims that "the nature of the cosmos and
the origins and purpose of human life remain as mysteries, and this means
that science has by no means replaced the symbolic functions of art,
which are still necessary 'to overcome the resistance of the brutish
world '" (Read, 1969) .
The third characteristic Read talks about is that the values of art are
essentially aristocratic; they are not determined by a general level of
aesthetic sensibility, but by the best aesthetic sensibility available
at any particular time. According to him, this is a faculty possessed
by relatively few people—the arbiters of taste, the critics and connois-
seurs and above all, artists themselves—and the level of taste is de-
termined by their intercourse. Again, the contrast to the classical
aesthetic life-style of the city state and early American colonialism is
widened. The uniform values and public participation so characteristic
of the arts in societies have now been replaced by a very personalized
and fragmented social aesthetic.
In fact, what we face today is a society pioneered in the development of
an industrial revolution, where wealth and leisure are broadly distributed
and a rising standard of living exists for all. We have a society com-
mitted to material progress. Incomes have risen but there is little
evidence that a proportionate rise in cultural attainment comparable to
the past achievements has taken place. August Heckscher writes in his
article "The Quality of American Culture" in Goals for Americans (1968)
His view implies that art can only be what it has been, and current
forms of expression, such as science fiction, jazz, and rock, Bob Dylan,
and the Beatles have no art to them. But must we be counted off as
freaks because our art forms are not those of Fragonard, Michelangelo
or Bach? We now see African masks and Indian baskets as art forms— can
we not see our own works that way? Or at least as transitional forms?
26
-------
that The general advance in well-being seems to have brought with it a
lessening of moral intensity and a readiness to indulge in secondhand
experience. The ethic of the contemporary economic system emphasizes
consumption, with 'happiness' and 'comfort' as the objectives to be sought.
The end product seems to be a great mass prepared to listen long hours to
the worst of TV or radio and to make our newsstands—with their diet of
mediocrity—what they are" (Heckscher, 1960).
Hecksher condemns the lack of public monuments.
The effects of the Industrial Revolution are exceedingly obvious in
American life style. Urban life, for instance, has been altered by in-
dustrial developments such as the mechanical refrigerator, canned goods
on grocers' shelves, mechanized housekeeping gadgets, all of which con-
tribute to lessening the burden on the housewife and mother and freeing
her time for other activities. And other industrial achievements such as
a method of fabricating standardized concrete building blocks or facing
panels gave the construction industry an economical, fireproof material,
so that contractors could begin to put up substantial five- and six-story
apartment houses. Large-scale production of heavy duty electric power
transmission cables contributed to a dispersal of factories to sites
supplied by truck rather than railroad. All of these factors contributed
to shaping the manmade, or "built" environment of our urban areas, but
the single most influential development of all has been the automobile.
Surely a separate study could be made which addresses the aesthetic im-
plications of the automobile. Green (1965) notes that
Civic pride, fortifying notions of convenience,, also asserted
itself in building parkways to speed automobile traffic through
business districts and out to residential areas, while highway
engineers and planners paid at least lip service to urban beauty.
He also noted that the Federal government created a National Capital Park
and Planning commission in Washington to buy land for parks and scenic
drives. New York City built a two-level parkway along the Hudson River
below Riverside Drive; in lower Manhattan realtors bought up office build-
ings, replaced them with seventy-storied skyscrapers, and ran the Empire
State Building to 102 stories. Here was a model. In the vast spaces of
the Great Plains, Tulsa and Oklahoma City, scarcely more than villages
before the discovery of oil in the region early in the century, burst forth
with skyscrapers and parkways. Chicago undertook the long-talked-of lake
shore development with a stadium, fountains, and acres of automobile
parking laid out to the south of the Art Institute, and "outer drive" to
the east stretching from the site of the 1893 World's Fair to the far
north side, and a new natural history museum and a planetarium built on
land made by fill along the lake front formerly preempted by the Illinois
27
-------
Central Railroad trade. The heavy tower of the Chicago Tribune Building
rose fifty-two stories on Michigan Avenue; nearby on the Chicago River,
where the wholesale vegetable and fish markets had stood, Samuel Insull,
transit tycoon, erected an imposing opera house; and across the river
Marshall Field & Company built a mighty Merchandise Mart. Thus, the first
indication of contemporary interest in urban aesthetics by engineers and
planners.
Surban sprawl and central city development, rarely taken very seriously,
before 1950, suddenly became a source of anxiety to both city and suburban
administrators, spurring a growing army of professional planners to draft
schemes for the orderly development of urban areas. Terminology for
making aesthetic considerations became a part of the vocabulary of archi-
tects and urban planners everywhere. Terms such as ' variety," scale,
"character," "uniqueness," "patterns," "texture," and many others were
used to describe the aesthetic quality of an urban area.
Today, project planners face considerable pressure from private citizens
on aesthetic issues. The purely functional cost-conscious engineering-
feats are no longer acceptable by communities adjacent to planned projects.
A careful balancing of all aspects, including aesthetics, is now required
in every planning activity. Passage of the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA), 1969, placed further restrictions on planning activities (at
least publicly funded or licensed projects).
Administrative and Statutory Aesthetic Concepts
- In the NEPA Context
A growing concern for environmental quality by policymakers and certain
sectors of the American public ultimately resulted in The National En-
vironmental Policy Act, 1969 (NEPA).
The objective of preserving aesthetic resources is clearly expressed in
the NEPA where the Act requires the "Federal Government to use all prac-
ticable means ... [to] ... assure for all Americans safe, healthful, pro-
ductive, and aesthetically and culturally pleasing surroundings ... [and
to] ... preserve important historic, cultural, and natural aspects of our
national heritage, and maintain, wherever possible, an environment which
supports diversity and variety of individual choice "(NEPA Sec. 101(b)
(2,4). To accomplish this, Federal agencies are directed to "utilize a
systematic, interdisciplinary approach which will insure the integrated
use of the natural and social sciences and the environmental design arts
in planning and in decision making which may have an impact on man's
28
-------
environment" (NEPA Sec. 102(a)). Though the disciplines are never identi-
fied in the Act the word "design" has direct implications for human in-
volvement, therefore "environmental design arts" would seem to include:
architects, landscape architects, industrial designers, interior designers,
urban designers. Another topic of concern resulting from the Act is that
of defining "aesthetic resources," since one of the expressed purposes
of the Act is "to enrich the understanding of the ecological systems and
natural resources important to the Nation," (NEPA Sec. 2). One might ask
how aesthetics of the natural environment is a resource "important to the
Nation."
NEPA goes on to state that "all agencies of the Federal Government shall ..
identify and develop methods and procedures, in consultation with the
Council on Environmental Quality ..., which will insure that presently un-
quantified environmental amenities and values may be given appropriate
considerations" (NEPA Sec. 102(b). It becomes obvious after reviewing
Agency guidelines and planning procedures that the state of the art for
accomplishing this is at best in its infancy. Yet this section of the
Act is no doubt the one that initiated development of the methodologies
for measuring and quantifying aesthetics (reviewed in the following section
of this report).
Appendix II of the May 1973 CEQ Guidelines to the NEPA (F.R., Vol. 38,
No. 84, p. 10862) is a list of Federal agencies with jurisdiction or
"special expertise" in different areas of environmental impact. "Esthetics'
is listed under "Land Use and Management." However, no agencies are listed
for reference, yet there is a note saying: "Numerous agencies have de-
veloped specific methods of assessing esthetics in relation to their area
of responsibility."
Although the NEPA and CEQ recognize the necessity of considering aesthetic
impact in environmental impact analysis, guidance on how such impact should
be considered and by whom is presently extremely vague.
*
For instance, a number of public interest trends (i.e., Sierra Club
scenic posters purchased, tourism, backpacking,and bicycling for leisure
activities) could be cited as an indication of resources important to
the nation.
29
-------
Federal Agency Environmental Impact Statement Guidelines
The response of various Federal agencies to the NEPA concept of aesthetics
and "environmental design arts" can, to some degree, be seen in their
guidelines for preparing environmental impact statements (EIS). The
following are excerpts from Agency guidelines that explicitly address
aesthetics.
The Department of the Interior, in their guidelines, make no direct mention
of aesthetics, but use related terminology such as "cultural resources"
and "social well-being," presumably meant to include aesthetics among
other concerns. The "destruction of archaeological or historical sites"
is listed as one of the possible irretrievable commitments of resources.
The statement that an EIS must be prepared "if the environment or its
uniqueness may be significantly affected" could easily be interpreted as
implying that unique aesthetic considerations might constitute the need
for an EIS (i.e., The Grand Canyon, Niagra Falls, the Redwoods).
The HUD guidelines to the NEPA are primarily procedural but they do in-
clude an appendix with definitions of key words, one of which follows:
"Environment is not defined in the basic legislation or in the CEQ guide-
lines. However, it is clear from section 102 in the Act and elsewhere
that it is broadly defined to include physical, social, and aesthetic
dimensions."
The Federal Highway Administration guidelines to the NEPA refer to the
human environment as "the aggregate of all external conditions and in-
fluences (aesthetic, ecological, biological, cultural, social, economic,
historical, etc.) that affect the life of a human."
The U.S. Forest Service guidelines to the NEPA see aesthetics in terms
of scenic, historical, or archaeological areas. They also mention "visual
pollution" as a possible adverse environmental effect which cannot be
avoided.
It is apparent that various Federal agencies have responded differently
to the NEPA's expressed desire to "assure for all Americans ... esthetically
and culturally pleasing surroundings." In general, the terminology re-
lating to aesthetics, which is vague and undefined, could be interpreted
that the agency guidelines for preparing EIS intend the various responding
planning departments to adopt their own functional definitions of
30
-------
aesthetics and "environmental design arts" which are applicable to their
specific areas of responsibility. Section VI of this paper will discuss
the ways various planning agencies have incorporated aesthetic concepts
in their planning process.
Aesthetics in the Courts
The involvement of the American courts with aesthetics has not been only
a recent development; cases dealing in some way with aesthetics can be
found at least as far back as 1888 (Burke v. Smith). Aesthetics has
appeared as a legal concern in the contexts of nuisance, zoning, and ad-
ministrative decision making. The following is a brief review of these
three legal issues as they relate to aesthetics, as they appear in three
excellent articles:
"Aesthetic Nuisance: An Emerging Cause of Action," New York
University Law Review, November 1970.
"Aesthetics as a Legal Basis for Environmental Control,"
Leighton L. Leighty, Wayne Law Review, July-August 1971.
'Aesthetics and Environmental Law: Decisions and Values,"
Robert Broughton, Land and Water Law Review, Vol. VII, 1972.
The reader is directed to these articles for a more comprehensive review
of aesthetics in the courts than is possible within the scope of this
report.
Happily, the day has arrived when persons may entertain
appreciation of the aesthetic and be heard in equity with
vindication of their love of the beautiful, without becoming
objects of opprobrium. Basically, this is because a thing
visually offensive may seriously affect the residents of a
community in the reasonable enjoyment of their homes, and
may produce a decided reduction in property values. Courts
must not be indifferent to the truth that within essential
limitations aesthetics has a proper place in the community
affairs of modern society. (Broughton, 1972)
This is a portion of a dictum from the Parkersburg Builders Material Co.
v. Barrack case (1937), which involved the use of land as a junkyard in
an allegedly residential neighborhood, The court ruled that the defendants
would have to construct a structure which would protect the residents from
the visually offensive" business. On appeal, however, the court reversed
31
-------
the decision, on the basis that the neighborhood was not proven to be
residential (Kew York University Law Review, 1970). In his article,
Broughton makes the comment that "one should not be surprised that courts
occasionally make stirring statements of principle, as in Parkersburg
Builders Material Co. v. Barrack, and then back off from holding that the
law has been violated." Along these same lines Leighty says:
The problem appears seldom to have been insensitivity to the
need for the functions that beauty may serve in a quality
environment. Instead, the reluctance seems to have had its
origin in the general common law protections for property in-
terests against governmental constraints ... (Leighty, 1971)
In nuisance cases such as the above (New York University Law Review, 1970),
the balance between property rights and individual freedom is the essential
issue, and in many cases in the past, aesthetics has had to bow to individ-
ual freedom:
The early attitude toward aesthetics [was that] beauty was
a matter of luxury, and interference with the freedom to use
property as the owner saw fit was permissible only where
necessity, life or health was at stake (Broughton, 1972).
In this regard, smell and sound nuisances have been easier to prosecute
than sight nuisances because they can be directly related to matters of
health:
Sights are felt to present problems of defining a reason-
ably certain standard ... in part due to a feeling ... that
there are no stable standards of beauty (Broughton, 1972).
The problem for nuisance cases is not the determination of
what is beautiful . . . the problem is whether the conduct of a
particular defendant interferes unreasonably with the use and
enjoyment of the plaintiff's land (Broughton, 1972).
Finding a standard of visual ugliness that would unreason-
ably disturb a normal; average citizen in the community is
no more difficult than finding a standard of olfactory ugli-
ness that would do the same thing (Broughton, 1972).
It is necessary to point out at this time that "in the context of nuisance,
courts define aesthetics as embracing only the visual sense" (New York
University Law Review, 1970):
32
-------
One of the unsettled questions of law is the extent to which
the concept of nuisance may be enlarged by legislation so as
to give protection to sensibilities that are merely cultural
or aesthetic. People v. Rubenfeld, 1930. (Broughton, 1972).
Broughton does not feel, though, that nuisance law is the most likely
area in which aesthetics will "find its way into the law as a legally
protected interest" (Broughton, 1972). The New York University Law Review
expresses the need for what it calls "an aesthetic nuisance action [which]
would allow ... private citizens and public officials alike to examine on
an individual basis those activities which threaten the scenic resources"
(New York University Law Review, 1970).
Zoning and the case of eminent domain is another area in which aesthetics
has been dealt with in the courts. The first case that comes to mind is
Berman v. Parker (1954) in which a slum clearance project caused the
plaintiff's department store to be condemned for the purpose of restoring
the area. "The exercise of public control was challenged, in part, because
plaintiff's department store was not in fact blighted slum housing but
was merely inconsistent with comprehensive planning for the area, planning
based,in_ part, on aesthetic purposes" (Leighty, 1971). The court held
that:
The concept of the public welfare is broad and inclusive ...
the values it represents are spiritual as well as physical;
aesthetic as well as monetary. It is within the power of the
legislature to determine that the community should be beauti-
ful as well as healthy, spacious as well as clean, well-
balanced as well as carefully patrolled (Berman v. Parker,
1954).
The power of eminent domain was exercised and the court ruled that the
department store would be removed.
Berman v. Parker does not represent the majority of cases dealing with
zoning and aesthetics, however. Leighty describes the general trend:
Courts have not been unaware of the importance of community
appearance, but until recently they have strongly questioned
whether this societal interest falls within the ambit of
'general welfare.' Hence, exercises of police power have
normally been sustained, if at all, only when they also served
public morals, health or safety (Leighty, 1971).
33
-------
This is directly parallel to the distinction between sight nuisances,
and smell and noise nuisances described above. Leighty questions the
realism of this "traditional approach" in view of "an expanding population
with increased needs for space organization and quality surroundings." He
continues, saying:
If 'reasonable aesthetic satisfaction' is one of the minimum
requirements for an adequate environment., then emphasis on
safety and public health to the exclusion of visual protection
could lead to a sterile and insipid existence and a loss of
'public happiness.' Moreover, recent cases have upheld the
direct application of general welfare as a sufficient basis
for exercises of state police regulations concerning resource
use. In light of the observation that .aesthetic objectives are
drafted into these regulations with increasing frequency, it
would seem appropriate for courts to begin to sanction aesthet-
ics as a separate and independent basis for public environ-
mental controls. This would open the door for the development
of meaningful aesthetic standards unfettered by traditional
health, morals or safety concepts (Leighty, 1971, footnotes
deleted).
Again we come back to the issue of the need for standards of aesthetics,
without which the courts, for the most part, are forced to rely on "health,
morals or safety" or "economics" in defending aesthetic quality:
The courts obviously have not decided conclusively that
aesthetics alone are sufficient grounds for the exercise
of police power but the trend is clearly moving in that
direction. However, the courts in most instances "still
associate aesthetics with economics (property depreciation).
While this association may be justified, it begs the question
of aesthetics as a legal principle. Masotti & Selfon,
Aesthetic Zoning and Police Power, 46, J. Urban L. 773, 786-88
(1969). (Quoted in New York University Law Review, 1970.)
In order for aesthetics to be an effective "legal principle" with respect
to zoning, Broughton feels that aesthetics must be accepted as a value
and that some way of measuring the "relative weight to be accorded to
it" must be developed. Of the latter problem he says:
The weight to be allowed for any given degree of ugliness or
beauty,, in deciding whether that degree of ugliness or beauty
justifies a specific interference with private property, re-
quires a reviewing court to define some standard. The standard
34
-------
defined should be replicable to serve as a guidepost on the
question of just how far a municipality can go in restricting
the use of private property (Broughton, 1972).
An interesting sidelight was brought up by Leighty with respect to public
control of land use:
Frequently} however} aesthetic motives are blended with the
traditional categories of health or safety and are treated
as harmless, incidental community benefits, so long as they
are not the dominant objective. In short, an inarticulate
aesthetic objective could arguably be stated to have pro-
vided the impetus for many areas of natural resource law,
particularly land use controls (Leighty, 1971).
This is particularly thought-provoking in view of the current flood of
environmental legislation (not that "an inarticulate aesthetic objective"
brought this on, but that it was there before a popular concern for the
protection of natural resources became significant), If nothing else,
this should serve to point out the underlying importance of aesthetics
to society as a whole, even in the absence of "standards of beauty."
Overall, however, Broughton feels that zoning will not be the most im-
portant way for "aesthetics to be introduced into the law":
Aesthetics and other intangible environmental values may
best be dealt with on a more or less case by case basis by
an administrative agency having the time to examine and sift
public and private interests with regard to these values and
having the expertise and inclination to deal with them in-
telligently ... To impose upon these agencies values, such as
aesthetic values, that are not directly a part of their
specialties represents a third facet of the response of the
law to new values. This is the area where the greatest prog-
ress has been made to include aesthetics as a primary factor
in the decision making process fthe first two being nuisance
and zoning] (Broughton, 1972).
Although Broughton feels that this area, which he calls "Administrative
Value Systems," is where aesthetics is making the "greatest progress,"
it is still fraught with the problem of personal bias. In court cases
such as the Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Com-
mission (1966), courts have intervened to determine whether or not an
agency decision took all required factors into consideration, but as in
Scenic Hudson, simply remanded the case with direction to reconsider the
decision. (After reevaluating the possibilities, the FPC nevertheless
35
-------
decided to go ahead with construction of the controversial power plant in
the originally prosposed, scenically beautiful, and historically signifi-
cant Hudson River Gorge.)
Ultimately, decisions such as that one must be made by
some person, and that person's personal value system will
influence his decision (Broughton, 1972).
That this is probably inevitable in the case of aesthetic judgments is
expressed by Newsom in a 1969 article entitled "Zoning for Beauty":
Because concepts of beauty are extremely difficult to
articulate or otherwise enunciate, it is argued that they
are somehow unprovable, if not unreal, and cannot be
trusted or relied upon to serve as effective guides to or
limitations on either private or public decision making.
Newsom "Zoning for Beauty," 5 New England L. Rev. 1 (1969)
at 1-2 (Quoted in New York University Law Review. 1970).
Broughton strongly contends, however, that:
Nothing, however, is intrinsically intangible. Intangi-
bility—meaning here difficulty of measurement—exists in
part because no one has gone to the effort to work out
some method of quantification ... the fact [that] no one has
tried to quantify these values has resulted in their con-
tinuing to be unquantifiable, which has resulted in their
continuing to be under or over-valued according to the bias
of the administrative decision makers (Broughton, 1972).
The NEPA, Broughton feels, is the most effective approach to making the
administrative decision making process meaningful to aesthetics:
The key to bringing aesthetics and other similar values
into the decision making processes is to structure the
process to force the decision maker to consider fully all
values which society treasures ...
To this end, he feels that the NEPA is a most promising tool for the
legal protection of aesthetic values:
The National Environmental Policy Act has a number of pro-
visions that ought to be helpful in broadening the protec-
tion of aesthetic and related values (Broughton, 1972).
36
-------
In the conclusion to his article, Broughton focuses on societal values
and maintains that administrative decision making is the most effective
method of responding to those changing values:
Ultimately, however, it is a question of values^ new values,
before being woven into the legal fabric, must find support
in society as a whole.
Of the three methods for working aesthetic values into the
law—common law nuisance, the use of police powers, and
legislative requirements placed upon the administrative pro-
cess—it would seem that the latter provides the best means
for success and that the use of common law nuisance presents
the most remote chance for success. The most important feature
of the new requirements for administrative decision making is
that the procedure must now be responsive to all of the con-
sequences of the decision and to changes in the priorities
which people of this nation attach to values (Broughton, 1972).
Leighty sees the legal future of aesthetics in the context of a somewhat
more traditional role:
One can expect "public interest" standards for aesthetics
to emerge through the process of statutory interpretation ...
Thus, it appears to be only a matter of time before the de-
velopment of an aesthetic common law to foster broad societal
goals (as opposed to the narrow interests of individual liti-
gants) will become visible' (Leighty, 1971).
Clearly, the legal need for aesthetics in the future is the further defini-
tion of responsibility (such as in the NEPA), if not the development of
replicable" standards which can provide a legal basis for the protection
of aesthetic values.
Nuisance, zoning, and administrative decision-making are only a few of
the legal paths that have been taken for the protection of aesthetic
values. The scope of this paper does not permit more than a brief review
of the three articles mentioned in the beginning of this section, but
enormous amounts of legal material dealing with aesthetics have been
written. (See the references listed throughout the above articles.)
37
-------
The following sections of this report will attempt to show how various
aspects of aesthetic concepts have been applied to the development of
methodologies for aesthetic analysis, basic theory, and finally, imple-
mentation in the planning process. The fragmented interpretation of what
characterizes aesthetics attributes in the environment and how these at-
tributes in turn affect man is a recurring theme for concern as the state
of the art is reviewed.
38
-------
THE USE OF AESTHETIC CONCEPTS IN APPLIED
THEORY AND BASIC RESEARCH
In project planning for transportation, waste treatment facilities, public
utilities, water resources, parks, and other publicly funded activities, the
practical concern for aesthetics stems from two primary sources: the plan-
ners' first concern is to ensure the ultimate success or acceptance of the
project, by the surrounding community or by the users; the second concern is
to meet the requirements outlined in regulatory guidelines for publicly
funded projects. The first concern usually initiates an honest attempt by
the project planner to at least consider the visual impact of the project.
This approach typically relies on the advice of experienced designers in
the area. Much to the bewilderment of the planning team, however, this ap-
proach does not always succeed in making the project acceptable to the com-
munity (e.g., redevelopment in the City of Bath, England).
The second concern, that for meeting regulatory requirements, is the one
currently receiving considerable attention. As cited in the preceding sec-
tion, NEPA requires that "Federal agencies must identify and develop methods
and procedures...which will insure that presently unquantified environmental
amenities and values may be given appropriate consideration in decision-
making along with economic and technical considerations" (Public Law 91-190,
NEPA 1969). Projects using Federal monies or requiring Federal permits are
responsive to NEPA, thus placing project planners under agency guideline
regulations.
Several attempts have been made in recent years to both quantify and qualify
various elements of aesthetics to allow these aspects of a proposed project
to be evaluated concurrently with the technical, social, and economic aspects
of alternative design proposals. These attempts have been made primarily in
the areas of land use planning, forestry, water resources, highway planning,
park services, and public utility planning.
The following analysis represents a selective rather than exhaustive review
of the literature directed to the needs of these areas of activity. The
literature reviewed was selected on the basis of whether it represented
basic trends in the art of quantifying aesthetic elements or qualifying
aesthetic concepts.
For purposes of analysis the literature reviewed is presented in two distinct
sections. The first group of studies can be referred to as Applied Theory.
39
-------
They have been designed specifically to be used as a tool by planners and
decision-makers when attempting to quantify or measure aesthetic attributes
in either a visual analysis of the environment or a user preference assess-
ment of visual stimuli. The second major group of studies present Basic
Research for aesthetics in the natural environment, the social-psychological
environment, and the man-made environment. This research is directed toward
providing a better understanding of the unquantifiable, particularly regard-
ing the relationship of aesthetic concepts to physical and social arrange-
ments .
Review of Methods for Measuring and Quantifying Aesthetics
The development, introduced in the early 20th Century, advocating a scien-
tific approach to understanding aesthetics was the forerunner of a recent
trend to measure or quantify aesthetics. Since aesthetics and beauty have
traditionally been treated as esoteric subjects, especially when considering
the visual quality of a planned physical facility, aesthetic considerations
often resulted in a "cosmetic attempt" limited by the size of the project
budget. An increased concern for visual quality, along with cultural norms
demanding "objectivity" by the decision maker, forced the planning and design
professionals to provide objective aesthetic impact information that could be
compared with "hard facts and figures" from more pragmatic disciplines. This
section of the report will review some of the aesthetic quality ranking sys-
tems developed.
Three previous studies, all of which evaluated quantitative methodologies,
heavily influenced the basic structure of this analysis. These studies are:
"An Analysis of Environmental Quality Ranking Systems" by Julius Gy. Fabos
(1971); "On The Criteria For and The Possibility of Quantifying the Aesthetic
Aspects of Water Resource Projects" by Ron S. Boster (1973); and "A Review of
Selected Materials Relevant to Environmental Impact Assessment" by William W.
Hill (1973). A review of these studies is highly recommended for persons
particularly interested in quantification methodologies. Although none of
the analytical techniques presented in the studies mentioned above were com-
pletely suitable for this analysis, those parts (i.e., some of the criteria
for analysis) that were felt particularly useful for this section of the re-
port are included with appropriate references.
General Analysis Procedure
The methodologies designed to measure or quantify aesthetics are grouped
into two basic categories: visual analysis and user analysis. A brief ab-
stract interpretation of each method reviewed will be analyzed against an
appropriate set of criteria thus enabling a discussion of some of the
40
-------
strengths and weaknesses in each method. The first category of methods to
be reviewed, visual analysis methodologies, can best be described as tools
to be used by a planning staff or decision maker to identify aesthetic at-
tributes and forecast changes in the aesthetic characteristics in the en-
vironment, and to describe the implications of changes in terms of potential
uses of environmental resources and environmental quality standards. Methods
in the second category reviewed, user analysis methodologies, are designed
specifically for evaluating individual preferences for various aesthetic
(visual) stimuli. Both categories are intended to provide information that
will assist decision makers and the general public when considering the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of proposed planning activities.
The methods in each of the two categories (visual analysis and user analysis)
are further divided into subcategories: those that assign numerical (quanti-
tative) values to aesthetic characteristics and those that rank (measure)
aesthetic attributes but are nonnumerical. One additional distinction is
made under numerical methods; some of the methods reviewed attempt to relate
aesthetic considerations to other environmental considerations (i.e., impacts
resulting from a change in air quality, land form, water quality; economic
impacts; social impacts). These methods are grouped under the title compre-
hensive environmental analysis methods because aesthetic changes are evalu-
ated concurrently with other environmental changes and weighted or ranked
accordingly. The implication of this approach is that trade-offs are made
among various impacts during the valuation process thus providing the de-
cision maker with a single solution to the problem statement. Methods that
do not interrelate environmental components are designed to assess aesthetic
impacts as an independent environmental consideration, therefore providing
the decision maker with information that must then be weighed against other
impacts identified by some unidentified technique. Methods falling under
this category will be referred to as independent aesthetic assessment
methods.
Category 1—Visual Analysis Methods
Criteria for Analysis
According to R. S. Boster, "Objective evaluation of any measuring system
requires reference to a set of standards, implicit or explicit; in effect
how well a system works...if it works at all...is determined by notions of
what constitutes a working system." Broadly based criteria are defined as
the basis for formulating such judgments as to workability for various sys-
tems (Ron S. Boster, 1973). Each method reviewed will be analyzed against
the criteria described below. The criteria will be used to point out
strengths and weaknesses in each approach and a comparison of these will
summarize each category analyzed:
41
-------
(1) The system should be generated from public experience and as
free as possible of the developer's biases (Boster, 1973).
(The method should be as objective as possible and should at
least reflect knowledge of information generated from studies
developed for assessing user preferences.)
(2) The system should cover the full range of aesthetic attributes
in the environment including natural and man-made (built) char-
acteristics, unique features, and misfits (i.e., results of human
activities, subjectively evaluated as obvious eyesores, such as
junk yards or garbage pits).
(3) The factors and variables used should be appropriate to the scale
and purpose of the ranking system.
"A ranking system designed to evaluate a large region for the
purpose of formulating a land-use policy may necessitate an
entirely different set of factors and variables than a system
prepared to evaluate a camping site" (Fabos, 1971).
(4) Secondary as well as primary impacts should be considered.
• Primary impacts are changes resulting from the planned
activity which directly affect the aesthetic character-
istics in the existing environment. (That is, a proposed
highway project creates improved access to an area, commer-
cial development opportunities open up, and the aesthetic
character of planned corridor changes from natural to built
environment.)
• Secondary impacts would include changes in the environment
which are encouraged or induced by the planned activity.
(A proposed highway that allows commercial development along
the corridor might be visible from an exclusive low-density
residential area. The change in view could cause property
values to drop, open space to be subdivided, and apartments
to be introduced; thus population density increases, and
visual character and community cohesiveness change.)
(5) Changes or impacts should be measured against an established ref-
erence point so that the value assigned to one impact can be com-
pared with the value assigned another impact.
(6) A good technique will be straightforward and easily reproduced
by others (planners), and relatively inexpensive to employ.
"Persons having skills and training similar to those who develop
a technique should be able to reproduce and evaluate it" (Fabos
1971). Likewise, the complexity of the technique and sophistica-
tion of the tools used in the system should reflect the resources
typically available to the intended users (including manpower,
budget and hardware resources).
42
-------
(7) The output from the system (information generated) should be
easily translated and useful as a communicative tool between
planner and decision maker; a decision maker and the relevant
public.
Additionally, values assigned to impacts or changes should indi-
cate especially sensitive aspects that influenced evaluation
(special interest groups, trends in established values, cul-
turally diverse groups).
Numerical Systems for Visual Analysis—Comprehensive Environmental
Analysis
Several methods have been designed to identify aesthetic attributes and fore-
cast changes in the aesthetic characteristics of the environment. The numeri-
cal methods reviewed here have attempted to measure or quantify aesthetic at-
tributes in the environment by assigning numerical values to identified
aesthetic characteristics and forecasted changes.
'An Environmental Quality Rating System"
This comprehensive environmental analysis system, prepared by the Northeast
Region staff of the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (Holland Handley) is an
attempt to quantify quality levels in a portion of the total environmental
spectrum. The basic intent is to incorporate all positive value sources,
man's and nature's, into an environmental analysis to be used as a tool for
making environmental decisions. Numerical values assigned to environmental
elements are "arbitrarily selected by the development staff" and are meant
to indicate a strong possibility worth pursuing further.
The system originated during the Kanawha River Basin Comprehensive Study,
and has since been tested in three different environment types: a small
city, a classic suburb, and a rural area.
The approach begins with the selection of eight categories to be rated:
residential population, community resources, water resources, land forms,
leisure resources, vegetative resources, fish and wildlife, and historical
and archeological sites. Categories are then rated (out of a possible 400
points) arbitrarily, using the following criteria: whether they have a high
potential for interaction, a high visibility, and the extent of their impact
as a result of varying conditions.
Each category is then broken down to factors (ranging from 4 to 6 per cate-
gory) established by using the following criteria: Man needs variety; The
43
-------
visible elements of the environment are the most significant; and A system
should include as many as possible of those elements demonstrating potential
for action and reaction.
According to category points, then, each factor is assigned a base weight
by which a total category base value is obtained. Values express positive
values as influenced by outside forces.
Four standard base values are used: optimum represents assignment of 90%
of possible base points in the category; satisfactory is 40-89% of base
points; marginal is 20-39% of base points; and unsatisfactory is less than
20% of base points. An additional negative value rating is then applied to
each category to account for conditions or influences whose presence de-
grades or reduces the weighted base value of positive environmental factors
(e.g., visual pollution, junkyards, garbage dumps, utility lines, billboards,
intense night lights, air pollution, noise pollution, and crowding). The
final number derived from application of the base value, weighting value,
and negative value represents the environmental quality rating for that
environment.
Definitions presented in the paper (Handley, 1973) are:
Base value--the comparative numerical value assigned to each factor
to indicate the degree to which it is present in and adds to the
environmental quality of a given location.
Weighting value—variable multipliers applied to the determined
base values on the assumption that the degree to which positive
values are present can add value which is beyond that represented
by the resource alone.
One example of a factor under the category Community Resources (with a base
value of 80) is visual stability (20-year trend). It has a base value of
6 out of 80 and is weighted by the way the area considered meets the follow-
ing standard (Handley, 1973):
Satisfactory place identity and security is derived from stability
of its positive environmental values. Stability can connote addi-
tion of positive factors; therefore, stability does not mean stag-
nation. Stability in a changing environment does not consider
size, just the nature of change. Pointless changes from one posi-
tive value to another—destroying adequate row houses to create
adequate apartments—produce a net loss. They destroy place
identity and security.
(Max.) Area has retained its positive values, identity, and
preserved its own character.
44
-------
(Min.) Widespread visual changes appreciably affecting identity
usually in a negative manner (Handley, 1973).
Analysis: "An Environmental Quality Rating System" satisfies all of the
criteria in varying degrees except for the first one requiring that it be
generated from public experience rather than the developer's biases. The
fact that values are assigned arbitrarily (with no explanation of how the
division of points was established) and factors are selected without ref-
erence to user preference studies is stated openly by the author.
Limited field testing to date leads the authors to believe that
they have achieved a balance between the natural and the human
values which compose the environment. It does appear possible
that an urban area and a rural area could rate about equal. The
surface has only been scratched as behavioral scientists have con-
tributed very little to date in identifying social criteria and
priorities for inventories; therefore, the authors took a subjec-
tive approach and relied somewhat on their own interpretations and
assumptions about man and his values (Handley, 1973).
In terms of Criterion 3, the appropriateness of factors and variables for
the scale, the title of the system implies that it is broadly applicable,
but the scale of the factors indicates that application on a community or
neighborhood scale is more appropriate than on a regional or state scale.
The factors and criteria in the system reflect the developers' broad def-
inition of aesthetics and the man/environment interaction.
The strong points of the system come under Criteria 5 and 7 (established
reference points and easily communicated). Although the vocabulary is
professionally oriented, the minimum and maximum qualifications for evalu-
ating each factor are exceptionally well described. Thus, they establish
a frame of reference and provide information easy to communicate to decision-
makers and the general public. Finally, the development of a process for
rerating proposed activities provides very good feedback for checking the
direct and indirect impacts caused by the activity and any changes in values.
This system in the author's opinion provides a much clearer definition of
aesthetic (particularly visual) quality indicators than a similar study for
outlining the environmental quality indices for aesthetics presented in the
Mitre report "Monitoring the Environment of the Nation" (1971).
45
-------
"An Environmental Evaluation System (EES) for Water Resource
Planning"
The EES, a comprehensive environmental analysis system devised by Norbert
Dee, et al., Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, was developed for the Bureau
of Reclamation (1972) to assess environmental impacts of water resource
development projects proposed by the Bureau. According to Dee (1972),
The structure of the EES is hierarchical to allow some resolution
of the analytical difficulties stemming- from the specialist and
the generalist approaches. By organir-ng specific disciplines
into a hierarchy, the problems of measurement are laid out so that
the specialists can handle them; but on ascending the hierarchy,
the divisions broaden to permit applying the generalists' view-
point and talents.
The hierarchy consisted of four levels:
• Level 1—environmental categories—contained the most general
information.
• Level 2—environmental components—contained less general
information.
• Level 3—parameters—contained fairly specific information.
• Level 4—measurements—contained the most specific information
(Dee, 1972).
The EES provides for environmental impact evaluations in four major cate-
gories: ecology, environmental pollution, aesthetics, and human interest.
These four categories are further broken down into 18 components and finally
into 78 parameters.
The categories and components developed for the EES for Bureau of Reclama-
tion project evaluations are illustrated in Figure 2.
The relative importance of the parameters expressed in Parameter Importance
Units (PIU) are grouped by category and component in the above parentheses.
A total of 1,000 PIU are distributed to the 78 parameters in the EES. The
system is further explained in the Battelle Research Outlook (1972), as
follows:
The number of measurements taken (Level 4) varied according to the
parameter, the project, the size of the area considered, and the
judgment of the specialist doing the measuring.
46
-------
§
I
S
3
I
.a S R
Educational/Scientif
Packages (48)
rcheological; Ecolog
eological; Hydrologic
< O
25
.. c
Historical Packages
litecture and Styles
nts; Persons; Religio
Cultures; "Western
ntier"
u OJ "D O
< ill £ it
a
3
_ .a 2
~" UJ 3
o o
W *
. - v>
•p °
Life Patterns (37)
ployment Opportun
using; Social Interac
b ^
LLJ I
II 1 1 1 1
a.
Z
UJ
>
UJ
W Tj
C <(t
V —
II
in S.
••HMI
Aesthetics (153)
CO
Land (32)
Geological Surface Mate
Relief and Topographic
Character; Width and
Alignment
I I
3
O
3 •-
' CO
t 3
< ^
•o
C
CD
6
•D
o
Water (52)
Appearance of Water; L
and Water Interface; Ode
and Floating Materials;
Water Surface Area; Woe
and Geologic Shoreline
>
> 'C
Biota (24)
Animals — domestic;
Animals — wild; Diversit
of Vegetation Types; Va
within Vegetation Types
o
Man-Made Objects (
Man-Made Objects
Composition (30)
Composite Effect; Uniq
Composition
II III
f m- 2
.,
fl
><
.1 15
B O 3
."? n •=
— .2
oo '«
~ 2
c
O :=
'45 O
3 CO
5 ~°
i c
-J CO
"3
a.
0 S
Z o
a
D
to
CJ
o
LU
Q.
CO
e
Q
Q.
Q.
111
LU
CO
CO
z
O
I-
D
LLJ
<
•z.
o
tr
CN
>
O
O
111
o
r-
£
O
'^
Species and Popul
TERRESTRIAL
c
.0
» 5
m QJ
S g>
to J~
1 Browsers and Gr
Crops; Natural V
0
AQUATIC
Commercial Fish
Natural Vegetatn
-c
V)
Species; Sport F
Waterfowl
§
8
4*<
'^
^
Habitats / Commi
TERRESTRIAL
S
D
•o
c
ro "D
. K
Oj ^
If
JD*
03 -n
g C
? £
O <0
LL CC
>
'i
0)
,>
1 Species; Species E
^
c
CO
d>
to
CC
I AQUATIC
Food Web Index;
0?
CE £
*n £
oj 2J
Endangered Speci
Characteristics; S|
1 Diversity
in <=
c o
Ecosystel
Descriptive
LLJ
I
I-
LU
rr
47
-------
Level 3, parameters, is the key level at which environmental
impacts are experienced directly. Each parameter represents
some unit or aspect of environmental significance that merits
separate consideration. In selecting the parameters for in-
clusion in the EES, it was decided that parameters should be:
highly comprehensive indicators of environmental quality; easily
measurable in the field; measurable on a project scale; and as
limited in number as possible while retaining comprehensive
character.
Although the parameters were not specifically interlinked,
interaction between them was often taken into account by
repeating the measurements under different parameters. Noise,
for instance, appears as such only under the category of "En-
vironmental Pollution." However, noise measurements would be
significant as part of the parameter "Sounds" under "Esthetics,"
and in most of the "Mood/Atmosphere" parameters under the "Human
Interest" category.
To use the EES, measurements must be synthesized into an
evaluation of each environmental parameter, the parameters must
be joined into measures of the components, the components must
be put together into measures of impact on the categories, and,
finally, the categories must be integrated into an overall
statement of environmental impact. After laying out the hier-
archical approach to the EES, the research team established a
common scale for characterizing the environmental parameters.
The team attacked this task by transforming all parameter
measurements or estimates into corresponding indexes of en-
vironmental quality. This index is a number between 0 and 1,
where 0 denotes extremely bad quality and 1, extremely good
quality. To get the index, a "value function" was set up for
each parameter, and then applied to the parameter to get its
environmental quality index.
Obtaining the necessary 78 value functions, one for each par-
ameter, was sometimes easy; there are historical measures of
environmental quality for some parameters, such as water tur-
bidity. Here quality or lack of it has long been related to
the value of the measurement taken. For other parameters, the
task was more difficult; association of measurement to environ-
mental quality had been built from scratch—there were no his-
torical antecedents. In such cases, the value function was
developed from professional judgments based on best estimates.
48
-------
Generating environmental quality indexes was only half the
task of developing common units; the other half involved weight-
ing the parameters. Each parameter represents only a part of
the total environment. These parts must be combined to provide
a picture of the entire system. In doing this it must be recog-
nized that some parameters are more important than others. Con-
sequently, it was necessary to weight the various parameters
according to the relative importance they were perceived to have
in contributing to overall environmental quality.
This weighting was done by distributing 1,000 parameter importance
units among the 78 parameters. Historical weight and current pro-
fessional judgments provided the bases for distribution. The
importance units allotted to the parameters ranged from 31 for
"Dissolved Oxygen" (under "Water Pollution" in the "Environmental
Pollution" category) to 2 for "Sounds ' (under "Air" in the "Esthe-
tics" category). Some 60 percent of the parameters had an impor-
tance weighting between 10 and 15.
By summing up the weights given to the individual parameters in
each category, weights were obtained for the categories, too.
With the environmental quality index (EQI) and the parameter
importance units (PIU) in hand, the two were multiplied to give
common environmental-impact units (EIU): EQI X PIU = EIU. This
completed the task of evolving common units for all the parameters.
(Battelle Research Outlook, 1972)
The EES described in the report provided a means for measuring or estimating
selected environmental impacts of Bureau projects in commensurate units,
EIU. Results of using the EES include a total EIU score with and without
the proposed project; the difference between the two scores is one measure
of environmental impact. Environmental impact scores developed in the EES
are based upon the magnitude of specific environmental impacts and their
relative importance as judged by the interdisciplinary team conducting the
research.
According to Battelle (1972),
Besides getting an overall view of the environmental impact, it's
also important to know if any fragile elements of the environment
would be disturbed by a proposed project. Examples of such ele-
ments are the Redwood Forests, the Everglades, and the Painted
Desert. Unfortunately, fragile elements vary from project to proj-
ect, and there's no special formula to pinpoint them generally.
49
-------
Thus, each parameter of the EES must be considered to be a
potential fragile element that could, for some project, be cru-
cial in determining the magnitude and significance of the over-
all environmental impact. In other words, the overall impact
expression by itself is not enough to characterize environmental
impact adequately.
The approach used to identify these potential problem areas was
to call out parameters that changed sharply in the adverse direc-
tion with "red flags." These "red flags" were calculated by tak-
ing the difference in the environmental quality index of a param-
eter with and without the proposed project present. The weight
of the parameter is of no importance in identifying the "red
flag;" only the difference in EQI counts.
Besides signaling potential problem areas, the "red flags" can
also point out parameters for which there are too few satisfactory
data for evaluation. These parameters, then, are areas in which
intensive information gathering is needed.
Analysis : The Battelle "Environmental Evaluation System"—has a predominant
strength and a predominant weakness for aesthetic assessment. Its strength
is the comprehensiveness displayed in the range of environmental factors
considered to have aesthetic relevance. The aesthetics category includes
air, land, water, biota, man-made objects, and composition parameters. Aes-
thetics is also an important consideration in the category of Human Interest
and Environmental Pollution. An attempt is made to assess such parameters
as mood/atmosphere, awe-inspiration, isolation/solitude, mystery, and "one-
ness" with nature.
The emphasis placed on man's aesthetic needs in addition to the aesthetic
balance in nature provides a complete range of aesthetic considerations for
environmental quality. Unfortunately, the drawback as the developers them-
selves recognized, is a system so concerned with evaluating subjective pa-
rameters that it is bound to reflect biases. Although Dee and his staff
state that representatives from a cross-section of society should assign
value functions and weights, they made no attempt to incorporate this as-
pect into their system. Instead, the value functions and weights published
in the report represented the combined judgment of the entire research team,
all professional people and probably primarily technicians.
Subjective biases were particularly evident in statements like "The esthetic
quality of water depends on its clarity and, in a stream, on its rate of
movement. Pure, clean water is most desirable; fast moving white water is
considered more visually exciting than slow or static water" (Dee, 1972).
The fact that the Red River has a high mineral content does not detract from
50
-------
its beauty, nor does the stillness of Yosemite's Mirror Lake make it un-
exciting. Without a thorough explanation of how weights are assigned to
each parameter and how values contain biases, the information resulting
from application of this method would be of minimal use for the decision
maker.
One further criticism of the EES system is its failure to consider the inter-
action among environmental parameters. Changes that occur in one character-
istic of the environment are bound to affect other characteristics and cannot
be assessed realistically without considering these chain reactions.
"A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact'1
This system devised by Luna Leopold in 1971 for the U.S. Geological Survey
is, no doubt, one of the most well known methods for environmental analysis.
The system utilizes a complex matrix (8,800 cells) to inventory or catalog
impacts. One axis of the matrix lists 100 types of actions that can result
in environmental impact and the other axis lists 88 environmental character-
istics that can receive environmental impacts. Each cell is filled with two
numerical indicators from 1 through 9. First, the evaluator indicates the
"magnitude" of the impact, using a minus to indicate adverse impacts on a
plus for beneficial impacts. Next, the evaluator indicates the relative
"importance" of each impact. The term magnitude is used "in the sense of
degree, extensiveness, or scale" of the impact; the importance refers to the
"significance" of the impact. The intent here is to clearly separate the
evaluator's value judgment from the factual material. Matrix cells with high
numbers would indicate areas of concern to be documented in the environmental
impact statement.
Aesthetics is listed in the matrix along with human interest under the major
heading of cultural factors and is subdivided into the following: scenic
views and vistas, wilderness qualities, 6pen space qualities, landscape de-
sign, unique physical features, parks and reserves, monuments, rare and
unique species and ecosystems, historical or archaeological sites and ob-
jects, and presence of misfits.
Analysis: Leopold's "A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact"—
has been a major contribution to environmental impact assessment due to its
wide circulation and relatively straightforward approach. It is not sur-
prising to find the oversized matrix on many walls in local planning offices,
since it is easy to use and at first glance requires little technical exper-
tise. The output is also an efficient tool for communicating impacts to
decision makers in addition to the fact that it allows planners an elaborate
checklist for identifying critical areas of concern to be covered in the
environmental impact statement.
51
-------
The main fault with the system lies in its very simplicity: A matrix com-
parison allows cross impacting of variables in a linear fashion, but does
not provide an interrelationship of a complex system of environmental fac-
tors. Additionally, secondary impacts are not considered, so that even
though a wide range of environmental factors (and aesthetic variables) seem
to be covered, the true scope is limited. Only first-order changes are in-
dicated (i.e., a change in land form).
The system was developed with no reference to user preference input and does
not reflect much sensitivity to the man/environment interaction; it is pri-
marily concerned with physical impacts in the environment.
'An Interstate Corridor Selection Process"
This comprehensive environmental analysis system was devised by Allen Miller
and Bernard J. Niemann, Jr., at the University of Wisconsin in 1972 to demon-
strate the application of computer technology to highway location dynamics.
An article ("Evaluation of Environmental Impact Through A Computer Modeling
Process") written by two of the developers, Thomas Krauskopf and Dennis Bunde,
explains the system further.
The application of information technology (the computer) to the environmental
management process represents a current trend in the art of environmental
analysis. The complexity of the interrelationships among environmental fac-
tors seem perfectly suited to computerized techniques. The Environmental
Awareness Center and the Department of Landscape Architecture have been de-
veloping this tool for environmental management for the past four years.
This study applies the process to the problem of locating an interstate high-
way in Wisconsin. The Regional Environmental Management Allocation Process
(REMAP) is designed as a four-phase process consisting of: data bank develop-
ment ; determinant establishment; alternative representation; and alternative
analysis and selection. Data are tailored to the region under study and are
selected objectively rather than interpreted. Data are stored by the computer
on a cellular basis, in Phase 1, data bank development. Data are stored under
the following hierarchy of variables.
Natural Characteristics (including landscape resources - visual
resources)
(1) HydrologicaT systems
(2) Ecological systems
(3) Physiographical systems
(4) Pedological systems (soil types).
52
-------
Cultural Characteristics (including cultural resources)
(1) Existing land use patterns
(2) Projected land use systems
(3) Population distribution systems
(4) Communications systems.
Phase 2, determinant establishment, consists of the construction of sets of
factors (the determinants) which "should influence the location of the fa-
cility under examination." The determinants were selected by an interdis-
ciplinary team made up of representatives of participating agencies. Deter-
minants selected were engineering difficulty, cost of construction, cost of
acquisition, projected traffic generation, impact on the cultural system
(including incompatibility), impact on the ecological system, impact on
quality agricultural land, scenic potential ("The maximization of the land-
scape's potential to depict the rural Wisconsin scene at interstate-designed
speeds through identification of scenic resources and evaluation of the
ability to see from the highway"), impact on recreation and conservation
lands, development of joint communications corridors.
Each determinant is represented by a linear model, constructed by selecting
the data variables which should influence each determinant, grouping these
variables into components, and weighting the influence of each variable
within a component. "The weighting process relies upon the experience of
specialists," according to Miller (1972). The amount of influence of each
component can be described either as a percent of the total problem or as
the magnitude of influence of the component relative to the other components
in the determinant. Finally the determinant modeling process is applied
to the data bank creating a spatial value surface for each determinant.
The stored information may then be retrieved in the form of a symbolic map
where the highest-value cells (represented by the most dense print charac-
ter) indicate areas most restrictive to highway location under the criteria
considered.
Phase 3 of REMAP, alternative representation, entails the combination of
the determinants to form "alternative surfaces" upon which an optimal loca-
tion may be found. Recognizing that any weighting process involves fairly
subjective decisions, the developers of REMAP designed the process so that
these weights could be set by users in a dynamic fashion. Thus, "at this
stage, opinions can freely interact with the process and the resulting value
surfaces displayed for analysis." In another aspect of this phase, a dynamic
programming model (the "line finder") was developed to select the "lowest
effective cost corridor" between two points. The "line finder" was de-
signed to simulate human decision strategy.
53
-------
The final phase alternative analysis, consists of finding the effective
cost of alternative routes by placing them on alternative or determinant
surfaces. For any selection criterion created by the policy maker, a
different optimum corridor can be generated by the "line finder."
In conclusion, the use of REMAP for preparing impact statements is advo-
cated by the developers.
Analysis: "An Interstate Corridor Selection Process" using the Regional
Environmental Management Allocation Process (REMAP) displays primary
strengths in satisfying visual analysis methodology Criteria 2 and 3,
full range of aesthetic attributes and appropriate to scale and purpose
of system. The factors and variables used in the system are compatible
with the intended scope of the analysis. Both "intrinsic" and "extrinsic"
landscape resources are identified (these have been defined in earlier
work by Phil H. Lewis, Jr. in a 1964 study for the Wisconsin Department
of Resource Development), which cover visual resources such as a light-
house, natural bridge, rifle range, canal, log cabin, old fort, antique
ship, rare track, old cemetery, and the like. Thus, the amount of data
easily manipulated by computer technology allowed for considerable detail
in the analysis, particularly suited to corridor studies. This positive
feature leads into several problem areas, however, the first of which
addresses Criterion l--who selects the variables and determinants for
the system?
REMAP was entirely designed by an interdisciplinary team "representing
expert judgments" from the Environmental Awareness staff, the Wisconsin
Department of Transportation divisions of highways and planning, and the
Federal Highway Administration. This group developed determinants and
established variable combinations and respective weights placing a heavy
emphasis on the cost effectiveness factors. Public participation is ad-
vocated but not used in this study.
Other problems with data manipulation and computer modeling efforts are
the obvious limitations of linear combinations of variables and determi-
nants and the failure to consider parameters which are not amenable to
quantification (Hill, 1973). Aesthetic considerations are therefore
limited to counting visual objects or distinctly desirable scenes, the
"worth" of these objects is limited to assessing how well they enhance
the driving experience.
Criteria 6 and 7 (system straightforward, easily reproduced—output useful
to decisionmaker) are violated by REMAP in that the system is very com-
plex, depending on manipulation of a large amount of data (132 data bank
variables requiring over 6,000 man-hours of student help for data extrac-
tion alone). The computer graphics (maps) are easy to read at first
54
-------
glance but communicate poorly to the decision maker because they fail to
describe where personal biases influenced the information entered into
the system.
Computer technology is advancing rapidly in the art of environmental
assessment, therefore, it is extremely important to openly debate the
issues critical to its development. Information systems are extremely
useful for analyzing intricate systems, and should be encouraged but only
under carefully defined conditions. Attention should be paid particularly
to limitations on the type of aesthetic data that are amenable to computer
analysis.
Systems Approach to the Evaluation of Benefits From
Improved Great Lakes Water Quality
This methodology developed by Dale D. Meredith and Ben B. Ewing at the
University of Illinois, is based on the benefit/cost analysis approach.
Municipal and industrial water supply, recreational use, commercial
fishing, and aesthetic enjoyment are the basic components in the analysis.
The effects of a change in water quality in the Great Lakes in terms of
annual costs and benefits are outlined for each of the components. A
mathematical model is presented which can be solved to determine the bene-
fits for a change in water quality when the level of water quality before
and after the improvement is shown.
The objectives of the study were (1) to determine the feasibility of
evaluating the economic benefits which might accrue from improvements in
the quality of water in the Great Lakes due to pollution abatement prac-
tices and (2) to develop feasible methodologies for evaluating these
benefits.
The study method included the following steps: (1) inventory of the data
pertaining to the problems available from various Federal, state, and
local agencies and private sources; (2) review of the literature pertain-
ing to water resources benefit evaluation as a means of establishing the
state of the art; (3) organization of free discussion by a team of quali-
fied experts in various pertinent disciplines in an effort to expose all
the questions which must be answered in determining the benefits involved;
and (4) working out methods for answering these questions.
The study was concerned with assessing benefits expected to result from
changes in water quality variables at specific points of use. Changes in
dredging practices were used for analysis. The scope of the analysis was
limited to "at point" assessment of water quality, relatively small changes
55
-------
in the direction of water quality improvement, and an assumption that
benefits would have to be reevaluated at ten-year intervals to reflect
changing economic values.
Benefits of pollution abatement are analyzed in a systematic way. First,
the system is defined by identifying and describing the boundaries in as
much detail as possible. Second, the elements of the systems are described
and delineated for interrelationships and interaction. Third, objectives
and criteria for optimum performance of the system in achieving the objec-
tives are outlined. Next, alternative approaches for achieving objectives
are developed and evaluated in terms of criteria established. [Finally,
alternatives are presented to the decision makers for selection of the best
course of action.
The paper goes on to propose various methodologies for obtaining the inter-
relationships and interactions necessary for applying the proposed mathe-
matical model to particular water uses, (see Figure 3). In each case the
horizontal pathway represents the interrelationships which the methodology
must define in order to evaluate the benefit of water quality improvements.
Changes in water quality are reflected by a sequence of changes across
this horizontal pathway. The external factors are considered essentially
independent of water quality changes and are shown as vertical inputs. In
the case of aesthetic benefits, the dotted lines represent that portion of
the evaluation which is considered by the authors, not feasible to quan-
tify. For purposes of this paper only the recreation and aesthetic bene-
fit components of the system will be reviewed.
The authors claim that "the extent to which recreational use of water is
deleteriously affected by pollution, or conversely, the extent to which
recreational use of water is increased by improvement in the quality of
water has not been well identified because of many variables which are
difficult to measure, either individually or as an interacting group"
(Meredith, 1969). Though the recreational use of water resources does
not result in an economic benefit, benefits from pollution abatement
practices can accrue to recreational use of the Great Lakes in the follow-
ing ways: (1) by an increase in the unit value of the recreational ex-
perience, and (2) by an increase in the number of people participating in
water-oriented recreation.
The methodology for assessing recreation benefits deals only with the
measurement of tangible benefits and does not include the increase in the
56
-------
ASSOCIATED COSTSJ
UJ
O
CC
CL
111
CO
PURCH
or
LU
CONSL
^
CC
1-
UNICIPAL AND INDL
WATER SUPPL>
LT
U
(D
£
••^••M
Z
o
h-
O
-^
Q
O
CC
w
UJ ^
w <
3 I
< 5
i
o
i-
LU <
T D
in n
FINI
WATER
._ _
h
h
L
U
U
Q
<;
<:
J
LL
O
I-
o
H
1
L
0
L
C
t
•r
e
LJ
C
J
IX
LL'
1-
3
g
CC
J
V
J
Q
J
t
D
7
'
I
t
1-
LJJ
s
UJ
CC
h-
1
J
T
J
D
r
j
>
j
c
J
i
QUALITY
_
C
1-
u
CC
It
C VALUE 1
IWONOOr
cr,
CC
z
o
o
„_
L
c
3 ;
- c
*- c
3 c
L
c
>
h
<
C
u
a
c
~1
c7
u
o
D
^
5
t
u
c
J
u
c
c
a,
.c
L
c
J
)
J
J
)
>
h
<
r
C
L
)-
c
J
t
5
c
J
t
h
L
L.
L
C
<
<:
£.
<
ATION
RECRE
i t
.
7
LJ
D
J
t
'J
,'
'
t
UJ
D
L 1
^
»•
h
h
G
k
L
3
5
3
Q
Ci
U.
3
c/
u
<
L
a
a
^
J:
UJ
^
CO
O
0)
<
EFFORT j
U-
O
h-
to
0
o
LU
o
CC
Q_
cr
r>
U-
LiJ
1
WATER QUALITY
h
L
L
L
C
>;
e.
€
t.
t
u
LJ
C
i
I
<
c
'
a
C
I-
c
C
c
L
c
u
c
0
n
c.
1
t
H
<
c
c
H
h
C
a
.
u
?
LJ
Q
t
3
-^
7
\
LJ
D
7
>
LJ
C
I
c
J
I
J
'
;=•
•^
t
J
J
1_
D
0
J
5
u
L
0
O
t
1
j
£
3
3
>
5
3
a
_
t/
i-
a
u.
2
u
c,
u.
1
IS
w
_!!
VALUE OF 1
RESPONSE!
ECONOMIC
BEHAVIOR
CC
UJ
c/^
Z
O
(J
L
C
C
y L
Aest
PERCEPTUf
.
WATER QUALITY
BENEFIT 1
ANNUAL
f
!
o
LJJ
m
4
i
HI
Q
D
\-
(-
I
U
c
D
3
<
u
SYMBOLIC
ff
'
INTERPRETATION
J
a
CC
LU
<
Q
O
CE
Q.
O
CC
LL
LU
Z
LU
CC
13
57
-------
unit value of the recreation experience. The 12-step method for evaluating
economic recreational benefits follows:
(1) Determine levels of water quality variables (i.e., coliform
bacteria) which describe the suitability of water to sup-
port recreation uses. A panel of experts is used for
determining threshold levels.
(2) Determine the different recreation uses (activities) and
potential uses in the water resource area, and locate the
existing and potential recreation use sites in the area
(i.e., direct body activities such as swimming,"< skin
diving; indirect body contact such as boating, hunting;
and non-body (sic!) activities such as sight-seeing and
camping).
(3) Determine the level of each water quality variable at each
recreation site.
(4) Compare the levels of the water quality variables deter-
mined in Step 3 with the levels of the water quality
variables established for each activity in Step 1.
(5) Estimate the effect of different levels of the water qual-
ity variables on recreation participation at each site,
assuming each site has an optimum annual carrying capa-
bility.
(6) Determine the level of the water quality variables that
would be attained if pollution abatement practices were
followed.
(7) Determine the recreation participation at the site for
the original level of water quality variables as a per-
cent of the optimum carrying capacity.
(8) Repeat Step 7 for the improved level of water quality
variables.
(9) Determine the increase in recreation participation at the
site attributed to the improvement in water quality as a
percent of optimum carrying capacity.
(10) Calculate the number of recreation days attributable to
improved water quality by multiplying, the optimum carry-
ing capacity of the site by value obtained in Step 9.
(11) Establish a monetary value attributable to increased
participation in a given activity at a given site as a
result of water quality improvement. Increase in
58
-------
recreation days at site multiplied by a monetary value
per recreation day as authorized by the U.S. Congress
in 1964.
(12) The total annual benefit attributable to increased partici-
pation in recreation in the Great Lakes as a result of water
quality improvement is equal to the values for each activity
at each site determined in Step 11 summed for all activi-
ties, all sites, all sections, and all lakes in the system
for a period of a year.
The lack of reliable methods for projecting recreation demand and allocat-
ing monetary values to recreation activity are pointed out by the authors
as weak links in the approach for assessing recreation benefits for im-
proved water quality.
The methodology proposed for assessing aesthetic benefits is as follows:
(1) Determine the exposure of persons to the water conditions
including the number, kind, characteristics and amount of
exposure of persons with the Great Lakes.
(2) Determine the aesthetic and evaluative responses to the
exposure. Responses are measured individually by using
the Semantics Differential technique and values are con-
sidered within personal, societal, environmental, and the
specific water quality context. Aesthetic assessment is
made by the variation in aesthetic responses and the degree
to which people view their values as being promoted by or
blocked by a given level or change in water quality.
(3) Determine the behavioral and economic outcomes as a result
of the aesthetic response. These include effects which
are implicitly reflected in other benefits such as those
connected with real estate site selection and recreation
use preferences. "The economic value of the aesthetic
component is thereby represented even if it is not
specifically identifiable or directly estimated" (Meredith,
1969). The author claims that these benefits are not
measurable because we haven't developed techniques to
measure them yet. Also included in this category are
responses related to water quality that have an unpleasant
or pleasant 'feel' but do not have any obvious relation-
ship to overt behavior. These social values are not
amenable to economic figures, states Meredith.
59
-------
However, some approximate estimates between aesthetics and economics behavior
are listed. These include the costs incurred in the media (radio, TV, news-
papers) to discuss aesthetic aspects of the natural environment; research
costs for aesthetics and premiums paid by people for scenic views in real
estate.
The study concludes by stating that the aesthetics of the matter cannot be
included when public policy decisions are made solely on the basis of eco-
nomic considerations because there are no numbers to guide, nor formulas to
follow.
Analysis: "A Systems Approach to the Evaluation of Benefits from Improved
Great Lakes Water Quality" is reviewed for the sole purpose of showing the
limitations of attempting to apply benefit/cost techniques to aesthetic
assessments given the present state of the art for aesthetic quantification
and understanding. The developers fully realized that only the tangible
elements such as the numbers of people exposed to a facility and an indica-
tion of how people responded to exposure given a change in water quality
could be determined. Any attempt to link behavioral and economic outcomes
of the aesthetic quality are severely limited. Instead further research in
the area of socio-psychology was suggested. The "willingness to pay" approach
is limited to news media and real estate analysis.
Evaluated with the criteria for a workable system this study displayed its
most positive feature by showing the interrelationship among water quality
variables and water related uses of aesthetic relevance. It did not, how-
ever, attempt to relate water quality conditions along with other environ-
mental factors (such as vegetation, air quality, noise) to assess the effect
on use of multiple pollutants acting at the same time in the same location.
Secondary or induced activities are suggested for economic assessment (i.e.,
real estate values) but are not developed to the full extent possible for
aesthetics. The recreation component in comparison is systematically out-
lined and well described although it is not quite clear as to how the distinc-
tion between aesthetics and recreation is made.
The severe limitations on data for economic analysis of aesthetic character-
istics concerning water quality does not offer the decision maker much help
when evaluating a project. The methodology is incomplete in the area of
aesthetic assessment procedures but is a useful example of the problem en-
countered when attempting to attach dollar values to highly subjective evalu-
ations .
An article by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (Fitch 1970) supports this by
stating,
60
-------
Money measures in relation to questions of public acquisition
and development of outdoor recreation resources are relevant,
but the degree of relevance varies, and they are only part of
a much larger story. If the problem is one of decision as to
whether money should be allocated to finance the restoration
of a dying lake or stream or shore line, the solution of the
problem should begin with an appraisal, in both qualitative
and quantitative terms, of the effect of the pollution on the
life, liberty, and happiness of the citizens who are affected
by it. If civilization and sanity persuade us that we should
restore the stream, the lake, or the shore line, the next ques-
tion is "Can we afford it?" and not "what percentage of cash
return can we expect from an alternative investment?
Fitch goes on to describe the limitations of using the willingness to pay
for environment factors that are not a marketable commodity, such as sunshine
and scenery. Economic theory is based primarily on the value of ownership
and scarcity concepts. Outdoor recreation emphasizes values for which the
true scale is qualitative, not quantitative—a scale of pricelessness rather
than a price, encouraging a policy of protection rather than consumption.
If all human beings interested in a given land problem were
identical statistical units, if there were no significant var-
iations in their reactions to beauty, if they possessed the
same standards of judgment as to the content of the good life,
then and then only could their characteristics, their needs,
and their desires be measured with the precision required for
a determination of the arithmetical net of advantage and dis-
advantage (Fitch, 1970).
Fitch goes on to warn those who insist upon consigning dollar values to such
things as the purity of air and water that such measurements would tend to
sanction the destruction of the land and the pollution of air and water
wherever and whenever destruction and pollutons could be shown to be profit-
able. It is a false premise to believe that the best way is always the
cheapest and that the most worthwhile alternative is the one that yields the
highest net return.
The article concludes by saying:
Reliance upon judgment requires an awareness of the limitations
of quantitative evidence, not its abandonment. It means an ex-
tension of the logic of choice beyond measurement to include a
consideration of the aspirations of mankind and the content of
the good life. Outdoor recreation, from the establishment of
Central Park to the latest public acquisition of California
61
-------
redwoods, depends upon the victory of the priceless over that
which is priced. It is possible that the preservation of man-
kind itself will require many more such victories (Fitch, 1970).
This is not to say that aesthetic factors are entirely adverse to economic
analysis, but that the present state of the art for understanding and quan-
tifying aesthetics is not yet at the point where dollar values can be as-
signed in a reliable way. Studies for identifying variables in the environ-
ment that can be attributed to affecting man's aesthetic experiences, thus
influencing his actions (i.e., "willingness to pay," investments in both
time and money, real estate values, leisure activities) are yet to be de-
veloped .
Summary of Comprehensive Environmental Analysis Methods
Although the methods reviewed above represent only a select few of those
developed, they are presented for their ability to represent various analyt-
ical approaches: environmental quality indicators, systems analysis, matrix
identification, computer analysis, and cost/benefit analysis. References to
other methods falling under this category are listed in the selected reading
list at the back of this report.
Using the criteria outlined in this report for analysis, the methods re-
viewed can best be summarized in Table 1.
Numerical Systems for Visual Analysis—Independent Aesthetic
Assessment Methods
The following methods apply numerical values to the identification and as-
sessment of aesthetic (or visual) characteristics in the environment, but
do not attempt to make a comprehensive analysis of all environmental char-
acteristics. Therefore, their usefulness for decision making is somewhat
restricted because they have a limited scope for analysis (aesthetic fac-
tors only). Information generated from application of these techniques
must be transferred to usable form when considering trade offs for any
project decision.
"Quantitative Comparison of Some Aesthetic Factors Among
Rivers"
This method, described by Luna B. Leopold (1969) is, no doubt, the published
aesthetic quantification methodology most often referred to. Leopold's ap-
proach was developed specifically for the purpose of determining whether
62
-------
J]
-C O
73 -H
SH -M
y y
S c
y
a
SH
y ,-^
rH y
H P
%-' a
E
3 3
C£
T3 X
0 SH
a -P
O t!
CU S
^
y co
£ 1
a
D c3
QJ y
•P -p
P CO
^
•H 01
"2 ^
C rH
73 •—
O C
QJ
3
pa
CO
H
0)
-p
H
S*
O
1
a 73
W C 05
4-J rH -M
v- y en
y > o
a y P
1 QJ P
-H C C H
0 ^ OJ
£ 73 P 3
co y d
H 3 1 C
I
-•o a
,c to
.d C
y
1 X! ;« rJ
73 QJ y
UJ XI 0 M
G CJ HH -P
QJ s y *
3 C
— Ti Jl E
c y G o
rH -H C 73
0!
i y 73 y c
*— ' O. GJ rH CO
O P -O -P
rH y co s-
o y H o
> -H H a
y cj re S
Q 01 > H
1
-C
-H bC
V-t H
co y
<-, w
i d QJ
c y
'/l 3 J
CJ 0 Jl
Jl H
CO > cxD
CQ "3 H
MH
C
Q
P 0)
O H
r-t -P
^ & -4
I en 3
•— ' | +->
01 C
CJ H
y c
W V,
y
3 y
S C H
0 C .Q
V- -01
y -
73 U (-
OJ C G>
p y a
CO H 0
01 O 0>
c! a >
y x ci
O 01 -a
C
OJ
5 1
£
;>, d
H CO
"-' 3 >, Q
CT r-i Jl
C 3
0) IH
P QJ QJ
aS -C P
S: P QJ
y
CO
y 73
y a
S* X!
^-, O SH
+ M O
^ y Ji
t, 0)
73
CO >
O a1
•p i y
c c c
0 CO
'"P ft ,_( (fl _I
•— ' H nj y >
en y SH d
TJ H 3 y
£ J! P \ C
a >> os c o
w a 1 £
X1 OJ C
X' > C
^s W H
SH C! >
a- y c
:> x; y
i
CO 'Jl
ci y
CO -P
3
=H ,Q
O -H
y -P
bfi w
C -5
CO
H O
rH y
3 Jl
En P
CM
7
+ -a
y
OJ
-p
w
01
CJ
01
i.
0
CO
be
X
P
+ -H
y
H
w
"S
co en
— 0)
+ >H"-<
^ e
0 r-H
73 cO
t- O
rV >
c y
U M
d
^ c
T3 ^
0) w
P 0
C *Q
^ y .a
h H bX
^^ !~ -H
o y
H P
nJ y
U r-
C P
hJ «
01
"0 '/)
H O
i- a
a tn
t- D,
a
a ^
CO |_
01 y y
—• rH P>
X! Ti 'Jl
> P 0
S
c
-i 73 -P
> y co
-P jj y
^*- o i> 73
4- ^ bC ~
73 3 C
y y; c
c: H o
!_
y
c
c
i
^ \ c
c Ji
s o
IH CJ
a «i
C 1
i y
rn C Q
S C3
a, c H
i
1 T3 QJ
S O -P
<~> rH C
OJ H
1 Ci rJl C
•^ s c c
^ a w 73
Q, -P y
J) O -P
> p 13 co
rH y a rH
c $ E y
O a rH rM
i
y
r-, !H
C CO
« y
nj H
^s _y 4-
•— • S >
y -p y
> O H
H CO <-i
w y K
C 0 QJ
01 3 73
W 73 H
•o
C
cO O
H V
-P -C y
y 4-1 -o
-p ii j)
01 C
co >-> y
>i ni \fi
co c; u
ECS
H cj a
t- o E
I
^
+ t CJ
-j Sc
c c
T) «
x: r- CD
H s a
«H
r- rH
y rH
E y
3
y
•— r*, "0
+ XJ y
"S -H
c
r, C
y -P
Q (H
r- I
G C
7 o 1 $
•§33
a r- a
H
bo -H -P
GO-*
H q
•^ C H
1 r- -P C
y y
H -a c J
co o y y
CX C SH £
01
y
> o:
3 rH
d o
^ "i -2
cO OJ
E +-> y
3 Cfi C
s y j
X -p
co t-H 3
?= o c
1
en y
y o
en *H
d y
CO i)
bC IH
CO
T3
73 y
y x:
3 H -P
J) rH C
OJ CO 0
m
1
e
0 t
y Ji
y
^-^ >-i C
CO H W
D y
5- Q H
-t- 01 01
;s a -P
X
y
a
E
C
y c
I C -P
*— ' cO CJ
y
0 rH
> rH
P 0
[/i y
0* TJ
a -P
W 73
d
1 O
C H
y i co p
Jl -^ rH -
+ "0 — '
^ c -3 o H
•H s P j;
>, >, y be
en « rH c
co y Xl tn
j3 > CO d
rH1
rH
^^ nj
i d
H C
X O
er T3
y d
o a
rH CJ
a 73
rH |
c y
0 -P
en H
y T-J
. ,
CO H
S- iT
C71 01
S
CO '~
C ^ 0
^^ H C r-
-p c: y
CJ 73
j= y c
H- 3 3
J3 rH
r-t
1
T3
C
1 0)
co y
OJ 0)
73 •"*
a; ^
i
P S-H
SH -J
y
j)
+ y y
o
H — 1
d sJ rH
M a
C H y
X X
QJ -H d
--. 3 en o
1 -H H H
c, P y
y £ 73
-a bo
73 r- IH
H y c
ffi S -H
j; a
a P
G 0
IH
bC -H
^-. 3 3 -n
+ P rH
•^ -H -0)
3 73 73
y QJ d
H 3
en H >!
SH P rH
D C H
> CJJ CC
H -n cd
Q H y
o
y
^
iH
co -a
QJ 01
P cO
G, rH
O E
c-
63
-------
the Hell's Canyon of the Snake River was unique aesthetically when compared
with other canyons, based on the following premise: "Landscape which is
unique—that is, different from others or uncommon—has more significance
to society than that which is common. The unique qualities which enhance
its value to society are those which have some aesthetic, scenic, or human
interest connotation." Leopold presents a preliminary attempt to "quantify
some elements of aesthetic appeal while eliminating, insofar as possible,
value judgment or personal preferences." Leopold claims that by assigning
quantitative estimates to aesthetic factors, his approach leads to relative
rank positions of factors rather than ratios of values.
The Hell's Canyon analysis considered three types of factors aesthetically
relevant: physical features, biologic features, and human interest factors.
A total of 46 items were ranked under the three types of factors. Each item
was then assigned a numerical position on a comparative scale which repre-
sented the degree of presence or absence of that factor for the area being
studied (twelve sites were evaluated). "All factors were assumed to range
through a span of five degrees or categories. The physical factors which
could be measured were divided by a geometric scale into the five categor-
ies." As pointed out by Hill (1973) in his review of the method, a 'unique-
ness ratio," which is defined as the reciprocal of the number of sites shar-
ing a particular category value, was calculated for each site and for each
of the 46 factors. A "total uniqueness ratio" for each site was obtained
by adding up the uniqueness ratios for all 16 factors; in this way, each
factor was weighted equally.
Uniqueness, described by Leopold, might also apply to something which is
uniquely bad. Therefore, the ranking scheme consists of two parts which
separately determine (1) the relative uniqueness whether the unique quali-
ties have aesthetic, scenic, or human interest connotation or not, and (2)
the relative uniqueness when the unique qualities are arranged in hierar-
chical order of aesthetic interest or are chosen to do so. Thus, a site
which has a sluggish, algae infested, murky stream might be unique in the
categories of physical and biological factors but would not rank high in
human interest.
Once factors are ranked, the data may be used to make site comparisons.
This is done by grouping factors selected to represent particular aspects
of the landscapes. "Although selection of factors involves judgment as
to which factors appropriately describe certain landscape characteristics,
grouping of selected factors need not involve assignment of preference."
Group factors used in the Hell's Canyon comparison were landscape scale
(spectacular scenery, bigness or grandeur), degree of urbanization, degree
of wildness, river characteristics. Hell's Canyon, as compared to the
other twelve sites was uniquely in a category of its own with respect to
the character of the valley and river, thus had exceptional aesthetic
64
-------
quality. When compared on a broader scale it still was clearly unique and
comparable only to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River.
Analysis: "Quantitative Comparison of Some Aesthetic Factors Among Rivers"
depends heavily on personal preference. When Leopold states that "experi-
ence indicates that the grandeur or majesty of a river is dependent on a
combination of size and apparent speed.... Small rivers tumbling over a suc-
cession of falls are more impressive or are more aesthetically appealing
than a large river which appears sluggish," he fails to clarify whose or
what "experience" led him to this conclusion. Huck Finn, on a raft, would
not have considered a large river unexciting. The most subjective part of
Leopold's approach (i.e., preferred landscape character) is evidenced when
"defining human interest." The addition of user preference studies, could
add considerable validity to the uniqueness methodology.
Leopold's experience, on the other hand, shows itself well in his selection
of factors for comparison. The list of 47 factors is comprehensive, and
well suited for site analysis of river canyons. The method adequately
covers natural, man-made, unique, and misfit features. Since the same list
of factors is quite specific and reflects a wilderness area it is not ap-
plicable to other types of analysis (a waste treatment plant site analysis
in an urban area for instance), without considerable modification; its ap-
plication, therefore, is limited.
The method fails to satisfy Criterion 5 (common reference point) because
each site was evaluated separately—there was no indication of an evalua-
tion reference point, so if one river was ranked "foamy" with only minor
evidence of foam, how would a "very foamy" river be ranked?
In conclusion, Leopold's work has significantly contributed to the art of
aesthetic measurement. His techniques are exceptionally suited to the re-
sources available to most planning offices. Although they are dependent
on interdisciplinary technical input, they do not require exorbitant amounts
of data, or expensive processing. With the addition of substantiating evi-
dence of human interest, this method could be a useful tool for planning
offices and decision makers when considering resource development in a
rural or wilderness area.
"A Method for Classifying Scenery from a Roadway"
This method, devised by Hubert D. Burke, et al., was designed to provide
U.S. Forest Service planners with a method for appraising scenic values for
forest highways and other secondary roads. Burke begins by referring to
several studies that have been conducted to appraise scenic values, and
65
-------
goes on to present a method closely aligned to a classification technique
developed by Harrison (1962).
The objective of Burke's method is to supplement a method developed for
evaluating scenery through photographs, sketches, and maps by providing
useful terms for recording, communicating, and comparing scenic values.
The methodology is designed to evaluate scenery along a roadway on the
basis of how a single view deviates from a "characteristic landscape."
A "characteristic landscape," according to Burke, is "one that occurs
most of the time—the average condition." Each single view is further
divided into a far zone, an outer zone, and a roadside zone (Figure 4).
Each zone is rated as follows:
+1 = view has elements of natural or man-made beauty or
interest that are superior to the characteristic
landscape.
c = view represents the characteristic landscape.
° -1 = some work of man in the view detracts from the
characteristic landscape.
N = some work of man in the view is nontypical of
the characteristic landscape, but it is neutral
or attractive in beauty or interest.
X = zone is not visible.
These ratings are admitted to be subjective, but the use of characteristic
landscape is claimed to provide for consistency between observers.
Burke goes on to portray pictorially five types of landscapes: high plains,
irrigated farm land, mountain canyons, high mountain forest land, and
Southwestern pinyon-juniper. The rater is to ask himself "is this one of
the variety of views that typify this landscape? Is this average? If the
answer is yes it gets a (c)." If the view is thought to be one which a
tourist might photograph, the scene gets a (+1). Structures in the land-
scape are likewise rated. If the structure detracts (a dump or house in
disrepair), the zone is rated -1; if it is neutral (the example used is
an oil tank on an open plain) the zone is rated N; and if the structure
adds to the charm of the scene (a historical building) it is rated +1.
Burke concludes by stating that "these scenic ratings in conjunction with
a map (although subjective) can provide useful route summaries, and with
the addition of proper sampling techniques (beyond the scope of this study),
could be used to quantify and compare scenic values along existing or pro-
posed routes."
66
-------
o
V)
<
_l
<
CO
LU
z
o
N
u.
O
O
a.
LU
Q
LU
tr
67
-------
Analysis: Although the author of "A Method for Classifying Scenery from
a Roadway" states openly that the ratings are designed to be assigned to
views subjectively, he refers to studies of user's preferences, and in-
dicates that these should be used for verifying his evaluation. The tech-
nique, which relies heavily on the use of photos, is straightforward and
easily reproduced. Burke*s explanation of the way views are divided into
zones and then each zone is rated against a characteristic scene is easily
communicated. The real problem lies in trying to determine scenes which
deviate from the norm, particularly when structures are involved. What
one person might call neutral (the author's example was an oil storage
tank in an open plain), another person might label an eyesore. Burke's
hint for developing sampling techniques to test the rating in this method
seems essential for its implementation.
VIEWIT
A new computerized technique is described by Gary H. Eisner in his article
"Computing Visible Areas from Proposed Recreation Developments" for the
USDA Forest Service (1971).
VIEWIT is a technique designed to measure the amount of terrain visible
from a given point realizing that the amount of visible area is often an
important consideration in judging the feasibility of proposed recreation
developments in National Forests. VIEWIT was applied in a study on the
Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota. The scenic vistas from 12
heavily visited scenic points in the area and along three proposed scenic
tramway routes were delineated. In each of the twelve cases the number
of acres visible from a development were computed. Additional information,
such as the number of times a vista was seen from various observation
points, was depicted with overlay maps.
The procedure for using VIEWIT is as follows: First, the topography of
the area is digitized and recorded as elevation points on data cells.
Each of the elevation points (45,152 in the case study) represents about
3.1 acres, with the elevation recorded to the nearest 100 feet. Next,
elevation points were individually analyzed as observer positions by check-
ing the number of other cells visible from this point (the calculation
process is programmed). Using the same approach, the visible area along
each of the three proposed tramway routes is computed by doing a single-
point analysis at each point along a route. Resulting information is pre-
sented graphically on overlay maps that show the maximum area visible
from each observation point. In the case study for instance, 101,016 acres
or 72.17% of the total area analyzed was visible from the top of Harney
Peak. Of this total visible area, 72.886% was within a 6-mile radius.
68
-------
A carefully controlled data collection and programming effort is required
for VIEWIT, but once the data has been stored it needs to be updated only
infrequently. Information generated from VIEWIT helps define visible areas
both of and from sites for proposed projects.
Analysis: VIEWIT is designed as a tool for recording the number of point-
to-point views possible from given observation points. It is based on
objective data (elevations from a topographical map) and it does not eval-
uate the views, it merely calculates which views are within the range of
human vision. Though objects or aesthetic attributes are not identified
the technique has potential for use in identifying visible areas. The
approach seems most appropriate for mountainous or hilly regions.
This method is straightforward and would not be difficult to reproduce
given a staff member who can read topographical maps and record data in
computer format, plus having access to computer hardware for compiling
the data. The graphic maps are easy to interpret, allowing the decision
maker limited but useful data for specific planning decisions.
Summary of Independent Aesthetic Assessment Methods
The above methods represent various analytical approaches for assessing
aesthetic attributes in the environment. Use of these methods is limited
in that they consider only one factor of the total environmental analysis.
Analyzed with the criteria outlined previously in this section the methods
reviewed are summarized in Table 2.
Nonnumerical Visual Analysis Methods
The following methods do not attempt to assign numerical values to aesthe-
tic attributes but do address the problem of identifying and ranking
aesthetics.
Litton Method
R. Burton Litton, Jr. has developed an approach for assessing the aesthetic
characteristics in a landscape. He has applied his basic framework for
analysis in several studies, including "An Aesthetic Overview of the Role
of Water in the Landscape" for the U.S. National Water Commission (1971),
"Aesthetic Dimension of the Landscape" for the U.S. Forest Service, and
"Forest Landscape Description and Inventory—a Basis for Land Planning
and Design" for the U.S. Forest Service (1968).
69
-------
CM
CD
oi
CO
O
O
S3
m
co ra
Q W
O W
K ra
H <
rij U
r—I
CO E-H
i—i W
CO S3
<: w
D o
OT S5
I-H W
> DH
W
Q
Z
^^
•o
CD
N
H i-l
se CD
W P
S 3
> a
E
0
o
\_^
^^
01
(-]
a
CD CO
i> ^
SH hO
3 O
0
a
\^s
k>>
•o
3
•p
co ^
CD
CO rH
CO Oi
CD O
C 01
CD
3 rH
cy
t—)
43 >,
O rH
I — |
>, Oi
rH O
rH T-l
CO CO
P >,
O 43
H a
-p
3
oi
CD
43
CD
C
•H
HH
CD
-a
^ CO
1 CD
•^ CO
CO
•H
41 -P
01
CO CD
SH tn
CD CD
a -P
O C
rH -H
CD
> ~O
CD ti
Q o)
1
CD
^H
a
SH
O CO
o
C H
0 4J
•H CD
•P rH
^ O SH
1 CD CD
CD O
CO 03
^1
CD 01
> 42
•H O
4J
0 -0
CD CD
3 CD
co
CD X CD
C3 CD T3
3
CD
o
• -H
03 SH
• O
C CO
CD
•a
-p
o
c
en
P
o
CD
,Q
O
•a
CD
^ a
+ o
^ -H
•a
c
•H
CD
bo
C
CO
SH
rH
3
rH
•a
CD
^
0
•o
•H
CO
C CD
O hO
U C
CO
01 SH
x-s SH
+ 0-0
o c
ai bJD
*H
U r-t
•rt -H
•p ai
d) -P
-G 0)
+J -O
en
QJ C
1
CQ en
0) (D
cc -u
3
CH ^
O -H
CD 4J
C Oi
OJ
SH 0
•H
•-I -P
i— f QJ
D ^
fe -P
S
^.^
^_
s^ /
T3
OJ
^-i
ai
r— (
Q)
!^
0)
•H
CO
T3
0)
4-»
H
rH
1)
SH
1-.
O
T5
•H
^
tt
>-v O
-f 0
**^ 1
1
ID
C
0
N
t*i
f~>
CO
^
CD
•H
"*
+
"^
•a
CD
4^
CO
rH
CD
SH
d)
-p
•H
w
CD
•P CD
03 Ul
•H 0
^ O.
a SH
0 3
^ a
a
a -o
CO g
CO
to S
CD CD CD
rH rH -P
43 CO 01
CO CJ >i
•H CO 01
SH
CO O -P O
8
CO
c
>)
rH
CD
•P
CO
3
a1
CD
•a
CO
-P
o
1
^ CO
01
CD
r)
Oi
CD ti
> CD
H jO
P -H
•H rH
01 u
d 01
CD CD
1
^
^i
rH
C
0
Si
SH
CO
6
• H
r<
PH
T3
C
CO U
H .Q
U <-" CD
•H CD SH
-P X CD
CD -P T3
P CD 01
CO 03 c
CD O
CO >> O
SH
!>} ol CO
SH *O 4->
jj C O
E 0 co
•H U Q,
SH CD g
(X U3 H
S
+J
0
d
+ ^
-— c
OJ
r-<
^o
•H
tf]
•H
^.
-P
-H
U)
1— 1
4-^
o
a
CD
a
OS
o
CO
•o
c
^^ CO
N_^
O i-H
•H rH
-P CD
01 S
•H
SH -a
CD CD
4-* o
O -H
CO SH
SH CJ
CO 01
A CD
u -a
rH
•P
C
^ CD
^ C
CD
a
CD
TJ
C
• H
T3
CD
a
01
OS
CD
o
c
CD
SH
P CD
CO HH
d CD
•H SH
CO
hO Tl
OS CD
r*t
T3 CO
CD -H
SH -H
3 43 -P
CO 01 S
OS -P -H
CD 01 O
s CD a
in
SH
CD
-P
3
a
E
0
o
•o
c
o!
+ ho
•r-i
•D
CO
CD
SH
a
03
E
O 0!
a P
O OS
H •o
+ t>>
'*-' i-H
•H
SH
CO
S
•H
^4
a
CO
o
•p
o
DH
1
CD
•a
oi
•a
a
ol
•a
/-v ID CD
N— ' OJ -H
•H SH
SH 0
D. 01
O CD
SH -a
a >>
Oi rH
CD
OS V
4J CO
CO 3
Q 0-
•d
CO "O
cu
•^ o
SH 3
OS T3
S O
SH SH
o a
i
•H rH
OS -rl
,H 03
H-1 OS
W CD
§
c^
•rl
TJ
CD
•H
g
•rH
^-^ rH
_^_
>-^ -P
^3
43
m
> CO
•H CO
4-> CD
co C
S rH
SH P
O
CD
^>
•H
-p
O
CD
3
ra
1
X
CD
-p
0
c
yv co
1 -n
CD
-P rH
•H rH
r< CD
0 S
hO T3
C CD
•H C
C ffl
CO •— 1
cs a
1
E
0
o
>>>
rH
•H
X
OS T3
CD CD
4->
V CO
3 O
a -H
P C
3 3
0 6
S
ho •
G >,
•H i-H
•a CD
c -P
o > SH
MH CD
CO -H
CD -P
E S
CD CD
-p -p
CO 01
>, >.
01 CO
CO 01
CD CD
70
-------
Litton's approach, as described in "An Aesthetic Overview of the Role of
Water in the Landscape" is a visual classification system which identifies
the aesthetic aspects of water in the landscape derived from the interrela-
tionships of water, vegetation, and landform with human use and man-made
change. The aesthetic interaction of man and environment can be assessed
as enhancing, compatible, or degrading to the landscape. For this study,
the water landscape as "an environmental stimulus and a concrete visual
resource" is stressed. Drawings and photographs are used throughout as a
visualization of subject matter.
The classification system is built around the following components:
• The landscape unit is a broad interpretation of an area,
it suggests a regional or geographic context, characterized
by generalized impressions rather than details.
• The setting unit is critical for its tangibility, showing
water and landscape in visual combinations—its importance
is its reality, establishing the sense for direct appraisal
and management situations.
• The waterscape unit carries the detailed sense of water and
its immediate shore.
Figure 5 further describes Litton's classification system. The three dif-
ferent units represent various levels of detail for making inventories and
evaluation comparisons. Inventories of the water-landscape resource repre-
sent the need for documenting in a tangible and graphic way those compon-
ents and relationships that portray the resource. It serves as an infor-
mation base and is not by itself evaluative. "Rather, it is factual,
carries material which is subject to evaluation and that will appear as
supplementary to the general instrument."
Landscape inventories depend on field reconnaissance. Using the basic
classification units and their subelements under landscape unit, setting
unit, and waterscape unit, selected examples of high and low quality situa-
tions are outlined for comparison. Landscaped compositions are then evalu-
ated against the criteria set up fay the developers: unity, variety, and
vividness. Litton defines these as follows: "Unity is that quality of
wholeness in which all parts cohere, not merely as an assembly but as a
single harmonious unit. Variety can be defined as an index to how many
different objects and relationships are found present in a landscape.
Vividness is that quality in a landscape which gives distinction and makes
it visually striking."
71
-------
LANDSCAPE UNIT
Boundary Definition
General Form — Terrain
Pattern Features
Vegetation Patterns
Water Presence
Characteristic Weather
Cultural and Land
Use Patterns
SETTING UNIT
Landscape Expression I
Water Expression
Boundary Definition
Enclosure
Land Form Definition
Features
Vegetational Patterns
Evidence of Human
Impact
Prominence
Continuity
Transition
Evidence of Human
Impact
WATERSCAPE UNIT
Water Element
Shore Element
(Litton, 1971)
Spatial Expression
and Edge
Movement and Features
Appearance
Aquatic Environment
Evidence of Human
Impact
Edge Definition — Vertical
and Longshore
Spatial Expression
Edge Features
Riparian Environment
Evidence of Human Impact
FIGURE 5 CLASSIFICATION FRAMEWORK FOR LITTON'S METHOD
72
-------
The next part of Litton's approach classifies the man-made elements and
improvements. These are described in five categories of elements: linear,
area, mass, enclosing, and point. Five evaluative terms are then described:
unifying (importance to the total scene), focal (conscious direction of
attention), enclosing (arrangement of positive enclosure), organizing (for-
mation of coherent patterns, forms, and the like) and modifying/enhancing
(positive rapport between structures and landscape). Using these elements
and evaluative terms, a quality comparison of structures and alterations
is made within the bounds of the three kinds of units.
Analysis: "An Aesthetic Overview of the Role of Water in the Landscape,"
by R. Burton Litton, is difficult to critique. His approach almost unani-
mously satisfies the criteria established in this report for analyzing
aesthetic measurement methods. At the outset Litton states "this study will
not carry an emphasis of behavioral response to the landscape and to water
for the very simple reason that there is so little information in this area.
We will not make conjectures about what the landscape and associated water
mean to the beholder. As references are found in literature and in studies
by others which do deal with meaning or response, those findings will be
cited." Not only did Litton make continual reference to user preference
studies, but he went on to develop three general variables which classify
aesthetic experience. These variables represent the basic responses of
the observer-user to a particular landscape: "the observer's 'state of
mind,' e.g., such as his current perceptual set, past experiences, future
expectations, and environmental life style; the context of observation,
e.g., boating, photographing, swimming; and the environmental stimulus it-
self" (Litton, 1971).
The report reviewed does an exceptional job of covering the full range of
aesthetic attributes in the visual classification system inventory. The
basic framework is structured to show the appropriateness of the factors
to the scale being considered (from unit to elements).
Evaluation is made against a well-described high-low measurement index
under each element according to prescribed criteria. Example:
High Quality Low Quality
Overlooks and viewpoints are lo- Few overlooks and viewpoints.
cated to permit view of boundary Those available are limited
and extent in a more complete to local features or roadside
manner than is visible in a moving incidents.
vehicle.
73
-------
Although the method is comprehensive and tends to use designer's language
(e.g., "harmony," "patterns," "visual edge," "spatial expression"), it is
straightforward and could be reproduced by planning staff, particularly
someone with design training.
Results of using this approach should provide the decision maker with in-
formation which shows precisely how human use or man-made facilities en-
hance, are compatible with, or degrade the visual landscape, thus offering
a very useful tool for environmental planning. The drawing and photos used
to describe the landscape are also excellent communicative resources for
obtaining public feedback to proposed projects. Litton also outlines miti-
gating considerations for activities which degrade the landscape, thus
offering options to the decision maker when considering trade-offs among
alternative designs.
McHarg's Approach
''A Study of the Potomac River Basin" as it appears in Ian McHarg's Design
with Nature, was derived from a study done during the academic year 1965-
66, by 18 University of Pennsylvania graduate students of landscape archi-
tecture and regional planning. McHarg calls it "a landmark, the first
ecological planning study conducted in the United States." McHarg's
philosophy of respect for natural systems in planning for human use is
central to his methodology for evaluating land use potential. McHarg
justifies an ecological approach to land use planning and management in
his statement that "it is necessary to understand nature as an interacting
process that represents a relative value system, and that can be interpre-
ted as proffering opportunities for human use...but also revealing con-
straints, and even prohibitions to certain of these [uses]" (McHarg, 1969).
Data on the Potomac River Basin were gathered and assembled in the form of
500 maps and "several pounds of reports." The maps include subject areas
such as bedrock geology, soils, wildlife, mineral resources, slope, and
unique sites. McHarg divides "unique sites" into "natural phenomena" and
"cultural manifestations"; it is in these two areas that aesthetic factors
are considered. The map of unique sites keys the following as having what
McHarg calls "popular or personal importance:" scenic corridors, significant
peaks, sites of geologic interest, sites of vegetational interest, land-
based recreational sites, historic structures, historic battle sites, trout
streams, water-oriented recreation sites. These maps, then, were used to
make maps on the "intrinsic suitabilities" of the river basin for agricul-
tural, forest, recreation, and urban uses. From these maps it became ap-
parent what the "intrinsic dominant land use for each physiographic region"
was. However, since part of the objective of the study was to determine
74
-------
"Multiple compatible land uses," it was necessary to develop a matrix
listing "all prospective land uses" on each coordinate. "Each land use
was then tested against all others to determine compatibility, incompati-
bility, and two intervening degrees." In this way, the dominant, or co-
dominant, and minor land uses which are compatible for one area are deter-
mined. The "prospective land uses" included: urban, suburban residential,
industrial, institutional, mining, quarrying, vacation settlement, agri-
culture, forestry, recreation, water management (subcategories excluded).
A second section of the matrix was developed which compares the prospective
land uses with "natural determinants," which include: slope, vehicular
accessibility, soils, aquifer recharge areas, water supply dependability,
climate (subcategories excluded). Thus, for example, an area with poor
vehicular accessibility and/or low water supply dependability would be
determined to have little or no compatibility with urban or suburban land
uses. A third and final section of the matrix compares land uses with
their environmental consequences which include:
Air pollution
Water pollution
Stream sedimentation
Flood and drought control
Soil erosion.
"The sum of these [cross impacts], in principle, allows one to consider
the intercompatibility of land uses, the natural determinants for their
occurrence and the consequences of their operation," all in the context of
the ecological character of the different physiographic areas within the
river basin.
McHarg makes it clear that this study was not an attempt at a plan: "this
study does not suggest that urbanization (for example) should occur on the
locations shown. It merely reveals which lands meet the criteria for ur-
banization that have been selected." That is, potential land-use alloca-
tion is actual land-use assignment.
Analysis: "A Study of the Potomac River Basin" successfully establishes
an ecological basis for land use planning in the Potomac River Basin. The
ecosystems of the area provide the reference point against which alterna-
tive land uses and their consequences are measured, fulfilling Criteria 3
and 5 (factors and variables appropriate to scale of system; impacts mea-
sured against established reference point). Even with the ecological
focus, aesthetic factors are considered. Some mention of the man-made
aesthetic features is made, although the emphasis is on the natural aes-
thetics of the area. The maps and the matrix, using color keyed overlays,
are easily understood, even though their basis is technical in nature.
75
-------
There are two primary disadvantages to this methodology. The first is the
time factor of the initial study, which requires an extensive amount of
ecological information that is not generally available, to make the maps.
The second disadvantage is the centrality of McHarg's values on natural,
ecological systems; the study was generated by students who presumably
shared his philosophy. To be effective, planning based on this type of
study must also be ecologically oriented. (What good would it be to know
that an area is unsuitable for urban development if you plan development
there anyway?) However, both of these disadvantages will probably become
less and less significant in the future as information on ecosystems is
continually amassed and public planners begin responding to the increasing
public awareness of the importance of the natural environment.
"The Impact of 1-84 on Visual Quality"
This nonnumerical visual analysis method is part of a draft Environmental
Impact Statement done by Steinitz, Rogers Associates, Incorporated (for
DOT) on Interstate Highway 84 in Rhode Island. Like REMAP, discussed under
numerical methods, it is based on computer processing and graphic display
of data in the form of a grid map of the study area.
Steinitz approaches the visual quality of a proposed highway by analyzing
both the view from the highway and the view of the highway from the sur-
rounding area. The entire study area was divided into "cells" to enable
data processing. Ten possible highway alignments and a "no-build" option
are analyzed. (The "no-build" option is analyzed on the basis of more in-
tense use of existing routes.)
The first step in determining the quality of the view from the highway is
analyzing the driver's cone of vision—the area that it is physiologically
possible for a driver to see. It also involves a determination of "rear
view" and "far view" areas, followed by an analysis done for all "origin
points" of view along the road. Next, the visual topography is recorded,
or the natural and man-made features which determine "the degree to which
places are seen or hidden." The third step is to note all cells within
near or far view of each origin point along the route. "Each cell is
identified for the frequency with which it is seen, with cells in near
view weighted twice." This is repeated for the other direction on the
route and the results are printed in a map form.
Next the visual attractiveness of each visible cell is defined as most
positive, positive, neutral, negative, or most negative. Principal physi-
cal characteristics have been preclassified based on studies by Steinitz
and Way (1969) and Rabinowitz and Coughlin (1970); physical characteristics
of visible cells are identified, resulting in one of the visual attractiveness
76
-------
ratings listed above for each cell. The fifth step consists of compiling
information and printing the results in the form of a grid map. For each
cell, a symbol indicates the attractiveness value, weighted by the frequency
sighting and the distance from the driver (near or far). The last step,
"done external to the computer program...consists of an evaluation of the
degree to which the major regional and local features, both land forms and
urban development, occur within the view field, thus identifying a sense
of place for the road." This is repeated for each alternative route.
The analysis of the view of the highway is done in a similar fashion. First,
the "assumed visual characteristics" of the highway are identified. Next,
the cells through which the alternative highway passes are identified and
"the physical characteristics of that part of the highway" are determined.
The third step is to establish the visual topography of the study area
(identical to Step 2 of the view from the road analysis). Fourth, the area
from which the highway can be seen is established. Each cell is "identified
for the frequency with which it is seen, with cells in near views weighted
twice." The fifth step is to identify "the predominant land uses within the
visual corridor of the highway." This is important because, as Steinitz
says, "a highway seen from a prime conservation area (for example), can be
considered visually obtrusive, while that same highway seen from an indus-
trial area may not make a great difference to the observer." The last step
consists of evaluating the view of the highway from the various cells as
a function of distance and setting. "Each setting (e.g., pasture, utility,
residence, commerce, etc.) has a near and far weighting factor associated
with it which reflects the visual impact of a highway on people within that
setting" (Steinitz, 1972). The result of the above process is again a map
with symbols indicating the visual impact of the highway on each visible
cell.
Analysis: It must be pointed out that "The Impact of 1-84 on Visual Quality"
is a specific application of a much broader ranging methodology using com-
puter technology for visual impact analysis. This analysis does not cover
Steinitz's complete methodology.
General comments concerning the use of computers for environmental analysis
have already been made in the analysis of "An Interstate Corridor Selection
Process" (REMAP). As pointed out in the previous analysis, the computer is
able to record and process enormous bits of information, thus satisfying the
criteria for a full range of aesthetic attributes appropriate to the scope
of the problem most adequately. Referring to Criterion 4, we find that the
primary impacts are very thoroughly studied, yet the secondary impacts are
purposely ignored ("the model makes the assumption that those areas which
can be seen must be under some system of visual controls, so as to prevent
future development from encroaching on what might now be considered a high
quality view," Steinitz, 1972).
77
-------
The methodology was developed with reference to the studies of visual pref-
erence for different physical settings done by Steinitz and Way (1969) and
Rabinowitz and Coughlin (1970). These studies and the assumptions about
the highway impact on various types of land uses are the basis for determin-
ing impacts (fulfilling Criterion 5), but these are by no means free of the
bias of the developer. Subjective decisions are involved in data collection
for determining the characteristics of the various cells which make up the
"visual topography." The output maps contain a large amount of information
that can be easily read, but, as in the REMAP methodology, do not indicate
the hidden biases of the developers. The fact that this study is a part of
an environmental impact statement brings up the problem of how to integrate
the information into the total impact analysis procedure. The decision
maker is presented with fragmented information and must find a way to weigh
visual impacts with other environmental concerns.
"Visual Values for Highways"
Hornbeck et al. (1970) wrote a summary report of a portion of the five-year
study in highway aesthetics conducted by the Landscape Architecture Research
Office at Harvard University (Hornbeck et al., 1970) for the Department of
Transportation. One of the primary objectives of the study is to define
and assess the qualitative visual criteria for highway design and planning
purposes, emphasis being on the "view from the road." As stated in the
report 'visual factors of the highway landscape are the major source for
information, stimuli, and pleasure for the driver. In order to improve the
visual quality of highways, it is necessary to identify those visual com-
ponents which are useful and significant to the driver and to determine ways
in which these factors may be coordinated with procedures for actual highway
planning and design" (Hornbeck et al., 1970). During the course of the
study, the developers have attempted to identify visual characteristics at
both the right-of-way scale and the corridor scale; to identify relative
driver perception values; to relate qualitative values (aesthetics) to quan-
titative values (cost) to aid decision making; and to provide a direct re-
lationship to study procedures in the existing highway planning process.
The analytical techniques used in the study are also adaptable to computer
manipulation and simulation. The methodology, data, and procedures for the
determination of visual values of merit were tested and illustrated by case
study, using an existing highway (Route 109 in eastern Massachusetts). The
report's major concern is that "consideration of highway aesthetics should
involve all visual factors and all relationships which influence the linkage
of driver seeing and reacting. These factors and relationships imply input
to driver experience and behavior. They are the visual impact of the pro-
gression and organization of landscape views, changes in road alignment,
enclosure by vegetation or buildings, and landmarks. The visual highway
environment is the source of significant driver information, guidance and
pleasure" (Hornbeck et al., 1970).
78
-------
Major visual factors would be those characterizing the general landscape
composition at corridor scale—e,g., mountains, valleys, rivers. These
are important for driver orientation. Other driver needs related to the
corridor scale are listed under the category of environmental awareness.
These are "sensing the natural and man-made communities" and "sensing en-
vironmental composition." At the right-of-way scale, visual factors such
as sequences of views, topographic elevation, and enclosure by vegetation
or cut slopes are important for the driver's task performance--e.g., path
finding or speed control, sense of place, sense of identity, sense of well-
being (Figure 6).
The procedure starts with corridor selection: relative visual values for
driver use are first established by comparing many visual factors at cor-
ridor scale. Then, within the corridor selected, relative values are fur-
ther identified for route location values of optional or highest merit.
The route having been selected, values of aesthetic merit are then identi-
fied and compared for optimal R.O.W. (right of way) design development.
Rated inventory data are entered into the computer cell by cell, and a
map inventory of rated factors is recorded for programmed grid printouts.
The case study utilized a grid to map the inventory. The grid size selec-
ted was one kilometer square, applied over a U.S. Geological Survey map
at a scale of 1 in = 2,000 ft. Ratings are adjusted to give a total rating
in each cell that represents its optical characteristic. Comparative anal-
ysis of preferred routes can then be made based on selected criteria (op-
tional location of route based on ecological criteria compared to optional
location of route based on visual criteria).
Analysis: "Visual Values for Highways" deals with the very specific prob-
lem of assessing visual quality as it relates to highway users; the range
of application is limited. Analyzed against the evaluation criteria,
Hornbeck's method demonstrates the strongest points under Criteria 2 and 3
(full range of aesthetic factors and appropriate to intended scale). Fac-
tors are determined at both corridor and right-of-way scale which are
directly relevant to highway planning. Man-made, natural and unique aes-
thetic attributes are considered within the range of factors.
The primary problem, states Hornbeck, is that "the way in which aesthetic
values can be and are significant and useful for the driving experience
has received little attention," He goes on to recommend "in-depth identi-
fication of driver behavior needs, at R.O.W. scale, to provide detailed
criteria for applied design with visual factors of aesthetic value." This
indicates that the visual needs of the drivers—the basic foundation for
the approach—are not yet well defined. The lack of appropriate references
to support the driver performance needs (e.g., especially emotional fac-
tors), and how to adequately assess the type of visual landscape necessary
to meet these needs, is the major weakness in the report. The organization
79
-------
DRIVER TAcik'9 AND APTIVITIF*?
TASK I: VEHICLE CONTROL
Activity A: Steering and Speed Control
Activity B' Maneuvering
TASK II: NAVIGATION
Activity A: Path Finding
Activity B: Orientation
TASK III: ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
Activity A: Sensing the Natural and
Man-Made Communities
Activity B1 Sensing Environmental
Composition
TASK IV: EMOTIONAL FACTORS
Activity A' Sense of Weil-Being
Activity B: Sense of Place
Activity C. Sense of Territory
Activity D Sense of Identity
TASK V AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE
Activity A: Specific Elements and
Settings
Activity B1 Qualitative Composition
RELATION TO SCALE
CORRIDOR
•
•
•
ROUTE
•
•
•
•
•
•
RIGHT OF WAY
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
(Hornbeck, 1970)
FIGURE 6 DRIVER TASKS AND DRIVER ACTIVITIES RELATED TO SCALE OF
SEEN SURROUNDINGS
80
-------
of the report itself hardly meets its objective of providing a "systematic,
procedured approach that can be used by others and communicated easily."
Material is repeated throughout with the result of losing the "clearly de-
fined methodology" somewhere in the pages. A precise definition of each
of the criteria never does appear. (This may be due to the fact that the
report reviewed is a summary.) According to the operations process, cells
are rated by the percentage of elements within the grid area and the way
the inventoried data satisfy the driver needs. The description of the way
these rates are determined is very sketchy—for instance it is stated that
an abundance of visual stimuli within a grid cell could be stressful, but
there is no indication of how "boring" and "stressful" limits are estab-
lished.
One final comment, narrowing the scope of visual concern to the view from
the road does not meet the requirement of the NEPA, and may, in fact, select
a highway corridor causing the greatest visual impact when the highway is
assessed from the surrounding community (view of the road). The grid map
illustrating a combination of different environmental factors for selecting
the preferred route provides the most useful information for the decision
maker.
Zube Ranking Systems
The ranking systems for the North Atlantic Regional Water Resources Study
(Appendix N, "Visual and Cultural Environment") was designed by Erwin Zube
et al. (1970), Research Planning and Design Associates, Incorporated.
The objectives for this study were to identify the quantity and quality of
visual and cultural environmental or resource values in a locational or
geographic context, to assess the needs within the region for quality
visual and cultural resources, and to relate the needs and the available
resources to the planning objectives and the planning time period set for
the study.
In the study, permanent and changeable landscapes were evaluated separately
for the 167,000-square-mile region. The permanent landscape was classified
into five landscape series ranging from mountains to flatlands. Changeable
landscapes were classified into eight units, determined by intensity of use,
ranging from center-city unit to forest wildland landscape unit.
The approach included four basic steps:
(1) A landscape inventory using visual indicators of both natural
components of the landscape, such as hills or mountains, and
man-made components, such as towns and farms.
81
-------
(2) Identification of visual and cultural qualities in the
landscape (natural and man-made components). Visual
qualities are related to the image or perceived landscapes,
the degree to which visual satisfaction and stimulation is
maximized, and to scarce or unique landscape resources.
Cultural qualities are related to opportunities for man's
use (recreation, sightseeing) and to the relationship of
the landscape to lifestyle and amenities as well as to
cultural artifacts (monuments, historic objects) in the
landscape.
These qualities are ranked high, medium, and low to the
extent possible (primarily subjective).
(3) The third step is the definition of needs and the assessment
of a general order of magnitude for visual and cultural needs.
The needs are only related to water and related land resources.
The permanent and changeable landscapes are evaluated separ-
ately. "Permanent" refers to characteristics such as moun-
tains, rolling, hills and coastline, a series of six basic
landscape types, and "changeable" refers to cityscape,
farms, forest, and so on.
(4) Step four addresses "devices" which can be employed to
bridge the gap between needs and resources and planning ob-
jectives and planning time period. Devices range from flood
walls and reservoirs to those dealing with cost and effec-
tiveness. Finally, devices are considered in terms of setting
of priorities for the planning time period.
Each landscape series is then evaluated for the quality of contrast, spatial
sequence, and water variables, and ranked high, medial or low according to
the relative abundance or scarcity of a given landscape. Criteria were also
established for a qualitative evaluation of subseries and units of the five
landscape series. Units represent the changeable landscape, e.g., center
city, farm, forest. Rankings of high, medium or low were assigned to units
also; these were subjective evaluations based on the extent of visual con-
trast and the diversity of spatial configuration created by the landform.
The greater the degree of contrast and the greater the variety in the spa-
tial configuration, the higher the value. "Variety in landscape pattern
is a product of the scale and distribution of open land-crop fields and
pastures, closed land (forest and woodlots), water surface (lakes), and
buildings. The distribution of these elements on the land determines the
richness or the monotony of the pattern."
82
-------
The method is basically nonnumerical but the author indicates that number
values could be assigned (e.g., 3-6-9) to the respective low-medium-high
rating and numerical weights could be assigned to evaluations.
Weighted values would be based on the hypothesis that "The more dominant
the form (series) the less important the pattern (unit) for high visual
value." The example cited was "pattern is not important for high value
in mountains but it is very important in flat land. In the case of the
latter, the pattern is the major variety or diversity generating element."
The second part of the approach is the assessment of visual and cultural
needs. These are primarily expressed in time and distance measurements
from a population being served by a particular landscape use. The author
speaks of needs in a general sense as they "relate to the requirement for
quality, opportunity, and diversity in life style and environment." He
goes on to outline these needs as follows:
(1) The need for the preservation of unique natural and cultural
landscapes.
(2) The need for a quality visual landscape, natural and man-
made .
(3) The need for landscape diversity, and protection of this
diversity where it is integral to the value of composite
landscapes.
(4) The need for improved water quality in and around major
population centers.
(5) The need for improved and increased urban amenities
(particularly as related to water use).
Which landscapes fulfill each need is determined from a number of sources.
Much of the information comes from materials that have already been gathered
for other purposes. Unique landscapes are identified through state pub-
lished inventories of natural features, travel guides, natural history books,
and, primarily, National Park Service publications. Visual quality is indi-
cated by the recreational demand for the landscape and relative freedom from
misfits. Landscape diversity is determined by the variation of landscape
units in the area. Finally, the availability of urban amenities is deter-
mined by the area's water-oriented resources.
The possible consequences of individual water resource management activities
are outlined and illustrated in terms of visual, cultural, and ecological
impacts. In this manner, the study provides a fairly complete background
for considering specific projects.
83
-------
Analysis: The "North Atlantic Regional Water Resources Study," Appendix lit,
by Zube et al. establishes a firm basis for assessing the quality of visual
impacts in the field of water management. The evaluations of aesthetics
come from both user surveys and professional inventories, providing a bal-
ance for the developers' biases.
A fairly full range of aesthetic attributes are considered under man's needs
in relationship to the environment. The importance of unique landscapes of
both man-made and natural features and the effect of misfits are all recog-
nized in this system. These are applied broadly, mainly in terms of domi-
nant features in a landscape. This method is considered quite appropriate
for regional planning purposes.
Some awareness of secondary as well as primary aesthetic impacts is shown
in the study. The visual and cultural needs defined include consideration
of the effects of development on livability (in urban areas) and usability
(in recreational areas) around a site, thus indicating areas particularly
sensitive to development either directly caused or induced by project acti-
vity.
The methodology can be applied and results communicated easily. The verbal
and pictorial illustrations of impacts of different project, types give the
planner a place to begin considering aesthetic impacts, and a format for
presenting the information once the impact has been assessed. While in this
study the impact assessment methodology is used for limited range of proj-
ects (i.e., water resources) the overall pattern could be easily adapted to
other types of development, on a regional scale.
The portion of the study reviewed for this report is limited to the Appendix
for Visual and Cultural Environment, therefore an evaluation of how aesthetic
characteristics were interrelated with other factors is not made here.
Summary of Nonnumerical Visual Analysis Methods
The above methods represent both comprehensive and independent visual anal-
ysis methods. Their similarity is evidenced in the fact that they do not
attempt to assign numerical values to aesthetic impacts. Table 3 summarizes
the review of these methods.
Category 2 Review—User Analysis Methods
Criteria for Analysis
The methods analyzed in this section were designed to assess user preference
to aesthetic (visual) stimuli; therefore, an appropriate set of criteria was
84
-------
rj
o "J
"? "^
G
-O Ji
;. — '
•S CO
CO
^ 01
« C
5 ^
£
^^
CO
H
s, '•£
~ ,d
u 2i
S a
y
ji
y
0 —
~j y
^^
d
H
rH
CO
4-1
H
U
w
0 >,
3 C
-P CD
O 3
y o
- CD O
Q 0
ft O
rH -^
CO C!
^ y
CD
d a>
i S ,a
E rH
d d
rH >
U d
^
$
Jw H
O T3
W 3
+ 01
-P CD
U
•o c
g 2
rH 9
CO =H
•+H CO
O -M
W ft
1 0
•>)
01 rH
•J C
fi -*
CO £
•o o
3 >
-P £
W H
•a
c
d
01
d
^ U ^
+ r,
^ C C
Jj 03
rH rH
CO CO
o —
& o
w
0
d
o
y
CO
s-
o
ft
o
y
,£>
3 K
ft CO
01
O H
01
•D ?H
o y
-p ft
ri o
?H rH
c: >
G G
O ~
rH
CD
.C
y
/—. Ul
+ CD
CD
c-
•o
-~- x
,C U
bo -P
^ o
t/3 01
d
+ G
^ -a
0
01
CO
w
rH
d
3
-1-
•— ' T3
CO
IS] 01
d co
-S £
D, 0)
E rH
W CO
CO
CO
-C
+ ^
o
u
(U
CO
-p
3
rH
ri
y
0
-P
0
cfl
SH
O
o
aC
C
C3
fa
S
a
.£ T3
d CO
Q. ^J
^ ft G
-— '
rH rH
d o
c >
G C
be ^
O 0
K C
•o
c
+ o
i- O
0
o c;
-*,
o
0
•a
0 U
O 01
d
I J3 "
"^ CO
C -P G
>. O
T3 01 d
CO 1 H
W O -H
d y d
ca a> >
T3
CO 1
CO -H
o tn
^^ y 01
T CO rH
C. rH y
a
y -P
01 H C!
rH 3 S
r-H -P
_3 C d
CO
4-1
2
ft
0
ft
ft
d
fO g
H G
d m
H >,
rH 01
0
"O
C CO
d in
c
rH rH
5 3
a
d O
S
01
CO
TJ T3
C C
rt d
r-H 01
1 3 O
"-' x a
H C
i-H
•u d
CO rH
'H -P
"H rH
O 3
Q y
c
c
1 >1
d
£
ft
1 >,
C
^
d
E
ft
CO
r-H
H
es
'^ ft
4- g
^s O
o
01
0
CO
fcC
-p -p
X! hC
+ C E
w c
01
>! G
d 3
rH C
ft H
>.
ri
"O *O
fl CO
U G
CO "D
en H
-o c
C 0
ri y
y 01
H -P
•p y
o d
A ft
-^ £
M H
O
d y
>, -p
r- G
E -P
!-, G
ft d
s
O
W
Ul
C
+ a
^ ' bC
d
-G 01
Cfi TJ
O I1
a d
s
0
"^ G
--v rt ri
1 CD
O -P
H
0 r. G
^ rH 01
01
01
o
G
H
^ U
+ d
d
rH
d
01
>
.—V +J
+ p
G H
-P rQ
01 d
1 ft
C £
y o
H CJ
fl
0
ft
rH
CJ
01
'7 co
i ^
O b£
rH 3
A S
bO O
ffi -P
•a
G
01
rH
d
-p
01
G
4-J
Jl
d
be
d
•a 01
G -P
rH fi
3 H
ai 0
d a
G
£ G
y
01 C!
-P G
y f-<
d G
ft 'w
£ O
uO
rj
QJ
rH
rf
+ H
^•^ d
O
OD
rt
W
•a
G
X2
^ CO U
1 N 'Jl
rH C T5
O M T3
ft C d
d
i d -o
•^ T3 G
N
•Jl -P
d 3
G ft
-> £
X 0
/-, d
1 'U
G 0
> H
en o
C G
G T-H
X O
w u
0 T3
-P G
d X3
'-* r4 U
O
C T3
01 rH
CO G
G 5
r— I
ifi
es
g
C "O
•-H O
-p y
H O
1U ft
•w> G
W r<
S
T3
^s G
^^ ri
y
01
G
G
--* C S
| H -1
£ 3
H C!
G 0
^ U
O
rH
ft
G
C
^v 'Jl
1 G 0
d -P
> rH
3
C O
G n
"C — i
T3 -H
s -a
G
+ >, r^
rH d
r, U
G H
> d
C 3
ft E
d o
01
G
d
d
"+ °
i G rH
01 £1
3 H
-P
d d
S E
3 O
S U
G
4-i
d
o
H
C,
3
E
E
o
y
H
01
d
CO
3
ft
0
8
85
-------
developed for evaluating the usefulness (or "workability") of the systems
with an attempt to parallel the criteria used for evaluation in Category 1,
The following criteria apply:
(1) The system should be designed to include as wide a range of
cross sections or cultural groups (age, nationality, economic
class, education) as possible and should specifically aim to
ensure that the biases of the developer are minimized in
structuring the system.
(2) The system should cover the full range of aesthetic attri-
butes in the environment including: natural and man-made
(built) characteristics, unique features, and misfits.
(3) The system should be theoretically sound (Boster, 1973).
The testing techniques should be well grounded in accepted
measurement theory. A technique should be valid in that it
measures what it claims to measure, and reliable in that it
yields consistently repeatable results. Experimental con-
ditions should be well documented.
(4) A good technique will be straightforward and easily repro-
duced by others. It should also be relatively inexpensive
to employ. Persons having similar skills and training and
those who develop a technique should be able to reproduce
and evaluate it (Fabos, 1971). Similarly, the complexity
of the technique and sophistication of the tools used in
the system should reflect the resources typically available
to the intended users (including manpower, budget, and hard-
ware) .
(5) Finally, the information generated by applying the techniques
should be easily translated by planners and decision makers
when using it for communication and decision making.
Review of User Analysis Methods
Landscape Preference Model
The landscape preference model developed by Elwood L. Shafer, Jr., and
James Mietz for the U.S. Forest Service is presented in a 1970 paper en-
titled "it Seems Possible to Quantify Scenic Beauty in Photographs." The
paper describes the development and application of the model in New York
State and in Utah to show that recreationists in both geographic locations
prefer the same kind of forest landscapes when the landscapes are depicted
by 8xlO-inch black and white photographs (Shafer and Mietz, 1970). The
objective of the model is to provide a quantitative index to the ways in
86
-------
which one landscape is generally preferred over another, as an aid to plan-
ners and resource managers when evaluating the aesthetic quality of dif-
ferent landscapes.
The basic approach defines eight different zones within a landscape photo-
graph (e.g., Zone A—sky and clouds, Zone B—immediate trees and shrubs,
through Zone G—distant features, and Zone J—water). The model uses
measurements in six of the eight zones (variables) to predict a landscape
preference score, Y, for each of the photos rated. The following model
was developed by rating 100 landscape photos:
Y = 184.8 - .5436 X - .09298 X + .002069 (X • X )
1 2 1 3
+ .0005538 (X • X ) - .002596 (X . X ) + .001634 (X • X )
_L Tt o O ^i o
- .008441 (X . X ) - .0004131 (X • X )
16 45
2 2
+ .0006666 X + .0001327 X
where:
X = perimeter of the immediate tree-and-shrub zone.
X = perimeter of intermediate other-features zone.
X = perimeter of distant tree-and-shrub zone.
X = area of intermediate tree-and-shrub zone.
4
X = area of water zone.
5
X = area of distant other-features zone.
6
The lower the Y value, the more preferred the landscape.
(Shafer, 1970)
Values for the independent variables were obtained by placing a 1/4-inch
grid over the photograph and tracing a landscape-zone area or perimeter
measurement by using the edges of the squares as boundary lines. All six
87
-------
zones will not necessarily occur in every photograph. A perimeter measure-
ment for the first three variables is the total number of grid edges along
the boundary of that particular zone. Zones occurring in different loca-
tions in the same photo are added by perimeter measurement. The area mea-
surement for variables 4, 5, and 6 is the sum of squares within a given zone.
The model was then tested on 50 day-users in the recreation area in Utah.
Interviews were restricted to local residents of the area who were 12 years
of age or older. For the test, 14 of the original 8xlO-inch photos were
selected randomly and sorted into two sets (A and B) of seven each. Each
person interviewed was asked to rank the seven landscapes in each set from
1 to 7 with the most preferred photo ranked first.
Using the ranked value of each of the photos by 50 respondents, the sum of
the 50 values was a photo's total preference score, Y-*-. The highest score
any one photo could receive was therefore 350. In actuality, scores ranged
from 128 to 265(A) and 138 to 278(B).
Next, the perimeter and area values for each of the 14 photos were computed
using the predicted preference model. Predicted scores for the photos
ranged from 71 to 174(A) and 99 to 212(B). When predicted and observed
scores were compared, there was "agreement far beyond what might be produced
by sampling variance." Thus the use of ranked values rather than numerical
scores was justified on the basis that the procedure helped eliminate biased
scores.
Limitations of using photos for landscape evaluation were admitted. For
example, the differences between the predicted and the observed scores for
some photographs are attributed to the fact that the photos did not ade-
quately stratify macro and micro landscapes in the environment (such as
the type and proportion of water in the landscape). It is suggested that
"by knowing what quantitative features in the photos of a landscape affect
its aesthetic appeal, resource managers and planners can begin to have a
factual basis, in addition to an intuitive one, for decisions about wild-
land aesthetics."
Analysis: The Landscape Preference Model, described in "It Seems Possible
to Quantify Scenic Beauty in Photographs" (Shafer and Mietz, 1970), is
theoretically sound, straightforward, and easily translated by planners.
However, an explanation of how the prediction model coefficients were ar-
rived at would be of value. Since the specific applications and testing
conditions are well described, a potential user is aware of the limited
application of the model. The method tests photos of natural landscapes
only, and primarily wilderness scenes. However, a similar model could
presumably be developed for measuring urban scenes. Verification of the
88
-------
preference model was limited to local people who were already familiar with
the area being rated, which does not give a very representative cross-section
of user preferences.
Judging from the photos presented in the paper, which all have spectacular
natural features of one form or another (waterfalls, mountain range, dense
forest), it would seem difficult to make a generalization about the pref-
erences expressed by such a limited sampling of observers. It does, however,
provide ample information concerning those characteristics in a wildland
landscape which are preferred, e.g., water, trees, hills.
Measuring Response to Road Design Features
Dr. Gary H. Winkel of the Environmental Psychology Program at City Univer-
sity of New York presents a user analysis method for road design in a 1970
paper entitled "Community Response to the Design Features of Roads—A Tech-
nique for Measurement."
This paper describes a method developed to determine user attitudes toward
the design quality of selected visual portions along urban arterials. The
technique utilizes a series of black and white slides showing sections of
roadside along a highway in Seattle, Washington. Selected segments repre-
sented typical "commercial" and "landscape" types of roadside development,
ranging from utility poles and overhead wires to billboards, trees, and
open space. "These two aspects of the roadside were selected as test dis-
plays because they exhibited variable backgrounds and a common overlay of
the kinds of physical objects typically placed along urban roadsides"
(Winkel, 1970). By using a photo retouching technique on slides of the
roadside it was possible to experimentally simulate the "removal" of se-
lected objects (e.g., telephone poles) while leaving the remainder of the
"environment" intact. The 80 observers were asked to rate the photos of
the existing environment on a set of 64 semantic differential adjectives
and rate the photos again after they had been modified. Thus, it was pos-
sible to detect changes in observer evaluation which might occur as the
environment is modified. Observers were also tested for patterns of eye
movement with a Polymetric Model V-1164 eye-mounted camera used to deter-
mine how patterns of eye movement shifted as a function of removal of var-
ious roadside objects. Additionally, a 95-itera questionnaire was construc-
ted to assess attitudes on a variety of urban problems to place the issue
of roadside aesthetics in some context. For this stage a set of 13 typical
urban problems (e.g., litter, junkyards, dilapidated buildings) were pre-
sented for observers to assign priorities for solution.
89
-------
The observer group of 80 consisted of 40 females and 40 males further di-
vided by educational level and income. They were generally representative
of a middle- to upper-class income group and had completed 12 to 15 years
of education.
Several surprising results came out of the testing. One surprise, which
was a consistent finding for both routes presented, was that the objects
least noticed upon removal were billboards. Instead, it was the absence
of utility poles and overhead wires that was detected. "The findings of
the present research point to the importance of being able to secure a
degree of experimental control over the elements which comprise a complica-
ted visual environment. The data clearly indicates that observer response
to selective changes in the roadside environment is neither random nor un-
predictable" (Winkel, 1970).
Analysis: In his article "Community Response to the Design Features of
Roads—A Technique for Measurement," Winkel presents useful information
to the decision maker (e.g., billboards are less noticed than utility poles,
and commercial arterials are uninteresting). However, although the method
is well documented and is exceptionally well designed for controlled experi-
mental testing, it tends to be quite technical and should be administered
by trained social psychologists. The testing procedure itself is a complex
three-phase method using some specifically designed equipment (eye-mount
camera), analytical tools (64 x 64 matrix of correlated coefficients), and
also requires a skilled staff for both operational and interpretative tasks.
However, even though the method is not readily adaptable to local testing
situations by planning offices, it does provide very useful information to
the planner and decision maker. In such cases, the professional psycholo-
gist must be relied on to conduct the testing, but with the objective of
providing useful reliable data to the information users.
"Scenic Resources: A Study of Scenic Preferences"
A professional paper prepared by Charles L. Jackson, graduate student at
Colorado State University, entitled "Scenic Resources: A Study of Scenic
Preferences" (1972) describes a third user analysis methodology. Jackson's
paper addresses the problem of analyzing how the variables and factors (or
descriptors) which make up a scene contribute to user preferences. The
objectives for the study were: "(1) to isolate those descriptors which
cause a scene to be attractive or unattractive; (2) to measure the user
preferences for a particular zone (after Litton, 1968) of a scene; and
(3) to determine if preference or non-preference for zones within a scene
is equal to the preference or non-preference for the scene without consider-
ation of any of its particular zones' (Jackson, 1972).
90
-------
The method utilized 35mm color slides of scenery from three different types
of landscapes to test preferences. One hundred individuals from five dif-
ferent local groups were asked to express their preferences for selected
factors by numerical ratings and written descriptions on questionnaires
which were keypunched and tabulated on a prepared computer program, Statis-
tical Package for Social Sciences (Nie et al., 1971). The methodology was
first pretested on a group of 87 students at Colorado State University, and
refined accordingly. Socio-demographic and other characteristics of indi-
viduals were collected but not analyzed in this study.
Three types of landscapes were depicted in the slides: a glaciated high
mountain valley, a river bottom valley, and a plains-foothills transition
zone. Slides were selected on the basis of whether or not they contained
three distance zones, and whether or not they were representative of the
area inventoried. R. Burton Litton's landscape inventory system was used
as a guide to record observer's position, distance, and scene composition.
"To isolate those descriptors which cause a scene to be attractive
or unattractive, color 35mm slides of scenes were projected one
at a time onto a 3x4-foot sheet of white paper on which the dis-
tance zones had been delineated. This was done for each of the
nine landscape slides. Observers were asked to indicate attrac-
tive or unattractive aspects of each zone by writing one- or two-
word descriptions in appropriate spaces on the questionnaire.
The descriptions were then analyzed and listed according to fre-
quency of use and correlation with slide preferences. Both
attractive-unattractive differences and ratios were then cal-
culated" (Jackson, 1972).
Respondents were also asked to indicate their zone preference within each
slide on a first, second, third rating. These preferences could then be
compared with zone rankings to indicate where the attention and interest
of the observer was directed.
Finally, a paired comparison of all nine slides shown in all possible com-
binations was made. Respondents were asked to rate them from most to least
preferred. Preference was determined by totaling the number of times either
slide of a pair was chosen. The Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient was
applied to measure the degree of agreement between the two user preference
ranks.
Analysis: Jackson's methodology, in "Scenic Resources: A Study of Scenic
Preferences," directly addresses the problem of determining what it is in
a landscape photo that makes it attractive or unattractive to the observer.
Although his respondents were mostly educated, middle-income level individ-
uals, and although the photos that were evaluated were scenes of natural
91
-------
landscapes only, the study provides information useful to the resource
planner. The method is well described in the paper and could be adapted
at local planning offices for a wider range of applications provided the
offices were equipped with the appropriate computer facilities and photo-
graphic equipment.
Modeling Human Response to the Visual Environment
George C. Peterson and Edward S. Neumann, in a 1969 paper entitled "Modeling
and Predicting Human Response to the Visual Recreation Environment," present
a method to "measure and analyze human preferences for the visual recreation
environment" (Peterson and Neumann, 1969). The approach is actually twofold,
first to model the individual preference process, and second to model inter-
personal differences. Thus, "while the model of the individual preference
process defines a system consisting of measureable components, the model of
interpersonal differences includes the richness of human variation."
To obtain data for the model, recreation environments were simulated by
photos and responses were classified by techniques of psychological measure-
ment. A variety of beaches along Lake Michigan in the Chicago metropolitan
area were simulated in a set of 14 8xlO-inch black and white photographs to
obtain response from over 200 beach users to determine which visual charac-
teristics of beaches most influence a user's satisfactions, and to see the
variety of preferences among users. Data acquisition proceeded in two stages,
beginning with free responses to the question: "What do you like or dislike
about the beach?" These descriptions were used to identify variables. Re-
spondents were then asked to rate preferences for each beach on a scale of
1 to 100, the higher number representing positive preference. (The technique
used is referred to as measurement by semantic differentials.) Next, people
were grouped by preferences using methods of numerical taxonomy. Peterson
found that variations in preference appeared to form a continuum, with in-
dividuals at one end expressing very high preference for most photos of city
beaches and very low preference for most photos of scenic natural beaches.
At the other end of the continuum, the opposite preferences were expressed.
These results supported the hypothesis stated in the study as follows:
(1) The visual environment can be described as a vector of
fundamental visual characteristics to which people respond.
Because the characteristics can be measured, it is possible
to describe the appearance of an environment in terms of
the quantity of specific characteristics. In the model the
characteristics are derived so that they are perceived in-
dependently—that is, a change in the perceived amount of
one characteristic does not change the perceived amount of
the other characteristics.
92
-------
(2) Preferences vary from person to person.
(3) Individuals can be aggregated into groups so that
differences in preferences and perceptions are sig-
nificantly greater between groups than within groups.
(4) Differences in preferences and perceptions between
groups can be explained by differences in socio-
economic, cultural, personality, experiential, or
other characteristics of members of the groups.
(5) Given the relevant characteristics of the individual,
his preferences are determined or influenced strongly
by the perceived characteristics of the environment.
(Peterson and Neumann, 1969)
Analysis: The Peterson-Neumann paper, "Modeling and Predicting Human Re-
sponse to the Visual Recreation Environment," was written, in part, for a
technical audience. The development of the model is described in consider-
able detail, showing mathematical equations and schematics of the preference
process. The methodology is well documented, describing experimental con-
ditions and statistical tools used in its application.
By far the most promising feature of this method is that it deliberately
considers differences in preferences and perceptions between groups, and
attempts to correlate these differences with socioeconomic, cultural, and
personality characteristics of members of the groups.
We agree with the author's conclusion that "this kind of research seems to
be a move in the right direction. Surely, if recreation facilities and en-
vironments can be analyzed in terms of those more fundamental attributes
to which people are sensitive, it will provide greater flexibility and ef-
ficiency in the provision of opportunities" (Petersen and Neumann, 1969).
Measuring Viewpoints of Urban Residents
The user analysis methods reviewed to this point have been systematic tech-
niques utilizing photographs to elicit preference ratings by selected ob-
servers. "Environmental Quality of City Streets: The Residents' Viewpoint'
by Donald Appleyard and Mark Lintell, presents another approach to user
analysis, one which relies on open response interviews and on-site observa-
tion. Appleyard's concern for assessing the quality of the urban environ-
ment from the user's viewpoint is the thesis of many other studies by
Appleyard, alone or with others. These include:"The View from the Road,
by Appleyard, Lynch and Myer (1963); "Styles and Methods of Structuring a
93
-------
City," by Appleyard; "High Rise Buildings in San Francisco—The Political
Conflict and Some Methods of Assessment," by Donald Appleyard and Lois
Fishman (1973).
In the above article a method for identifying the environmental concerns
(including aesthetic) of those who live on city streets was applied in a
pilot study in San Francisco. Residents living within a one-block area
on three different streets were interviewed. Criteria for selection of
three distinctly different streets was based on traffic levels. These were
categorized Heavy street, Moderate street, and Light street. The street
blocks selected for the study were of similar residential character (phys-
ical appearance) and contained a residential population relatively homo-
geneous in social class and income level (primarily residual Italian neigh-
borhoods with some other native-born white and some Orientals). Primarily,
residents differed in family composition, ownership, and length of residence.
The initial part of the study approach was a detailed interview (lasting
about one hour) taken with 12 residents (of three different age groups) on
each block. Persons interviewed were considered representative of about
30% of the block's residents, providing a small but relatively reliable
sample. The initial interviews were supported by systematic observations
by trained staff and some objective measurements of pedestrian and traffic
activity on the streets.
Five major categories of criteria were used to assess environmental quality
on each of the three blocks. These were used to "describe the character
and day-to-day use of the street as well as the concerns and satisfactions
of the residents."
The criteria categories were as follows:
(1) Traffic hazard—concerns for safety associated with traffic
activity;
(2) Stress, noise, and pollution—from noise, vibration, fumes,
dust, and feelings of anxiety concerning traffic;
(3) Privacy and home territory—the residents' responses to
intrusion from outside their homes, and the sense that part
of street itself was an extension of their personal territory
or turf;
(4) Neighboring and visiting—the degree to which residents had
friends and acquaintances on the block, and the degree to
which the street was a community; and
94
-------
(5) Identity and interest—the degree to which the respondents
of the 3 age groups were aware of their surroundings and
the strength of each street's identity and were concerned
for the external appearance of the buildings and the street
as well as the degree to which the residents of the street
felt that they were able to make adjustments and altera-
tions to the street environment through planting, construc-
tion, and other means.
(Appleyard, 1971)
Questions in the interview were related to one or more of the criteria.
Answers were rated by the interviewers on a 5-point scale of environmental
quality. Individual ratings were then aggregated by street for each ques-
tion. Responses were not weighted for overall importance, and ratings were
considered "rather abstract interpretations of the way people feel." The
report presented selected responses in the form of short quotes in cartoon
form of the blocks analyzed. In terms of visual quality, maintenance and
clean appearance were two concerns expressed by inhabitants of all three
streets. The difference was that on Heavy street the landlords were held
responsible for maintenance. "Because the street did not encourage people
to be outgoing, tenants were reluctant to accept responsibility for the
street itself, so they avoided picking up trash and were slow to defend
the street against vandalism and abuse" (Appleyard, 1971). Maintenance on
Light street was, however, considered a local matter. As one resident put
it, "The quality of the street is getting better in that people take great
care of their properties (some even planted trees), but worse in that there
is more traffic and more cars on the street" (Appleyard, 1971).
The study conclusions showed a high correlation between amount of street
traffic and perceived environmental quality as expressed by residents.
These were additionally correlated with residents' age and income and degree
of transience, showing a difference in attitudes between those who considered
the neighborhood n temporary living environment and those who were faced with
it as a permanent residence.
Appleyard goes on to discuss some policy implications in terms of proposals
and standards based on the study results. He states "The ultimate policy
aim of research in this field should be to set environmental standards of
livability for residential streets, established by a set of criteria that
might be termed Environmental Rights for those who live on residential
streets."
Analysis: In "Environmental Quality of City Streets: The Residents' View-
point," Appleyard sets forth a method representing empirical research based
on survey and observation techniques. Because the pilot study used a select,
95
-------
limited number of residents to interview, the data and conclusions are
somewhat limited in the generalized statements about residential attitudes
that can be supported. The implications of the responses, however, do in-
dicate specific areas of concern for the quality of the urban environment.
The method is broad enough in scope to cover the primary criteria categories
and yet, the study design is not complicated and could therefore be adap-
ted to many local planning situations. The graphic drawings (cartoons)
describing types of response to the interview questions provide very useful
tools for communicating the study results to decision makers and the public.
Summary of User Analysis Methods
The methods reviewed for user analysis are merely representative of the
total state of the art. Others belonging in this category, but not reviewed
in the text of the report, are included in the list of references under
"Additional Methodologies." Table 4 summarizes the methods reviewed here.
Summary of Methods
General Summary for Visual Analysis Methods
The methods reviewed are a select few of the total state of the art avail-
able. However, they do serve as representative models of the different
techniques developed to date. Several useful first approximations can be
drawn by reviewing the summary tables for both the Comprehensive Environ-
mental Analysis Methods arid the Independent Aesthetic Assessment Methods
(Tables 1,2, and 3) .
Evaluated with the criteria stated at the beginning of this section
(page 42) the Visual Analysis Methods can be summarized as follows:
• Criterion 1—The system should be generated from public
experience and as free as possible of the developer's biases.
Eight of the eleven methods reviewed demonstrated obvious
biases of the developers in both the selection of the vari-
ables to consider and in the valuation of impacts. Litton's
(1971) method was the only one that validated his approach
by stating cognizance of Craik and others' work in user
preference studies.
• Criterion 2—The system should cover the full range of aes-
thetic attributes in the environment. All of the methods
reviewed satisfied this criterion to varying degrees. The
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Study (Handley, 1973) was by
96
-------
73
ri
0
a
a
c
0
t-t
0
4-)
to
a.
c
o
01
o
rt
CD
0
03
CO
CJ
H
0
4-)
H
SH
O
be
a
•"" HI
E
CO
a
0 l
H 0
4-> -D
03 C3
Ei E
0)
73 01
H a
(/) 3
+ 0 !H C
— O bC H
0 0 P.
-P w £
03 rH 03
JH CD X
QJ >
43 H 0
H T3 bC
rH !H
O 'P CJ
ft 0 rH
CD
N
0
01
73 a
•—•• C 3
1 03 0
C C
QJ 0
73 H
3 -P
-P U
CO rt
CD
73
73
-H >-,
E r-H
1 73 O
•— ' CD
-P 0
w E
U 0
D O
0)
SH
0 >>
0 r-t
t, C
o
1 0 01
0
-P
1 CD
3 E
z a
1
H
1 CD
ri >>
E rH
E i
C3
-P rH
-v C O
1
^ to 01
H 4->
CO d
1
O
o
c
SH
O
+ [fl
^^ 73 0
Qj H
-P O
W C
0 CD
0 01
D- 01
73 O 73
+ rH -P
^ rH bC C
O C CD
SH H £
-p -P 3
C 01 0
C CU O
u -P -a
73 rH
rt 0
+ C C 73
--- H 0 O
-P H KJ
H T3 r-t
e c D,
tJ U 0
C H
3 73
01 0 73
O CD
>) •P
rH rH C
rH 03 O
03 -P E
O C 3
H 0 y
-PEG
0 H 73
SH SH
0 CD C
0 a o
A X -H
H CD -P
S
0
rt
•^ 0
-p
01
0
3
O
O
73
C
O
•p
+ 0
0
0
rt
rH 01
S-t H
r* -P
0
S-
73
W
s~^ C 0
+ O C
— HO
a
H 73
-H 0
U ^
O] rH
0 0
W
CD
3
cr
^ QJ
3 d
-P C
-p c
-P H
< -P
01
0
O
+ 73
H ai
rH O
0 01
2 ®
01
O 01
tn CD
rC O
CD C
^ 0
r-
01 0
CD <*H
4J 0
rt rl
o a
•H
C 0
S
OJ
r-v PL,
+ a
03
SH
5
1
0
a
CD
73
1 rH
OJ
C
01
01
0
&H -0
0 SH
C 0
+ c3 3
^ rH a
a E
X 0
OJ 0
rH 0
rH E
0 0
3: 01
1
0
SH
a
0 0
r-H H
E 01
o tu
CJ (M
01 X
-P 0
^ C
+ 0 0 d
•^ H E O
U O H
r_| rt
0 CD rH1
cj c a
"C
SH 3
c3 73
S 0
o a
tH 0
t* 01
CO 0
lO
73
0
+ 0] rH
0 H >>
O rH CD
-P >
13 1 3
CJ — ' 01
f-*- 01 -
>> C
r-l 01
CJ r-H
C 03
-p +J
Z X3
0 0
r-t 4-1
0 E
c a
a ty
0 E
0 0
CO 01
1
c
H- C C -P
-P -P c5
3 E CD
01 tH rH
0 O CD
& <*H SH
a
-' 0
73 H
-P Cj
H 0
E H
J P.
1
H
0 CJ
4^ 0
73
) -P C SH
Ki rt 0
O ^
^ C 0 E
3 C
E C CJ
£ c3 0
C! O rH H
I-H o a 01
CD
0 CD
4J -P
cs rt
97
-------
far the most comprehensive system for identifying aesthetic
attributes. The Battelle methodology (Dee, 1972) begins to
demonstrate the relationship of aesthetics to other environ-
mental factors, showing how aesthetics is an integral part
of a number of environmental considerations but they failed
to interrelate these factors in impact evaluation. We feel
that the interaction or network aspect of environmental anal-
ysis and assessment methodologies is of utmost importance.
• Criterion 3—The aesthetic factors and variables used should
be appropriate to the scale and purpose of the ranking system.
All methods reviewed satisfied this criterion. Most of the
methods clearly stated the intended scope of concern for
analysis and adequately described significant aesthetic fac-
tors to consider.
• Criterion 4—Secondary as well as primary aesthetic impacts
should be considered.
Only McHarg (1969) and the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
(Handley, 1973) showed vague concern for delineating areas
sensitive to impacts that may result from activities induced
by project development. Since many secondary aesthetic im-
pacts can be considerably more detrimental to a community
than primary impacts, this is a major weakness in research
in applied technology.
• Criterion 5—Impacts should be measured against an established
reference point.
A little over half (6 out of 11) of the methods satisfied
Criterion 5. Litton's method (1971) and Handley's (1973)
rate high in this area because they clearly described the
conditions for assigning a high or low ranking to each aes-
thetic characteristic considered.
• Criterion 6—A good technique will be straightforward and
reproducible.
Leopold's methods (Leopold, 1969; Leopold, 1971) were rated
exceptional in this area because they were considered adap-
table to most local planning offices. They utilized avail-
able resources (technical expertise, reasonable man-hours
for data collection and limited hardware-computers) thus are
considered economically feasible.
• Criterion 7—The output of the system should be easily trans-
lated and provide useful information to the planner and de-
cision maker.
98
-------
The fact that a number of the methods were value-laden re-
sulted in only 5 out of 11 methods being considered useful
to the decision maker. This is a basic criticism of avail-
able methodology and one that must be given appropriate
weight for continued research.
General Summary of User Analysis Methods
Methodologies reviewed in this section represent only a beginning in a con-
tinuing trend toward attempts to assess personal preferences and community
values concerning aesthetic characteristics of the environment. An inter-
esting observation made from reviewing the two categories of methodologies
was the repeated recognition of the need for establishing user preference
data to validate aesthetic assessment techniques. Yet, very few of the
visual analysis methods made any reference to obtaining feedback in this
respect. If environmental impact analysis is based on an interactive social
policy, individual attitudes and community values must be an integral part
of any method for environmental assessment.
Reviewed against the appropriate criteria the user analysis methods can be
summarized from Table 4 as follows:
• Criterion 1—The system should include a wide range of cultural,
social and economic groups.
Only one of the methods reviewed (Peterson, 1969) satisfied
this requirement. Most methods selected a small sampling of
the possible 'users' of a particular environment. The
majority of observers asked to respond to test material were
representative of the middle income, educated strata of soci-
ety. A much broader range is necessary to provide useful
information in situations where diverse populations apply.
• Criterion 2—The system should cover the full range of aes-
thetic attributes.
Methods developed by Appleyard (1971) and Peterson (1969)
were designed to cover a wide range of aesthetic attributes,
many of which were, identified by respondents. Other method-
ologies reviewed had a restricted scope of aesthetic con-
cern, considering only man-made or natural landscape features,
thus offering limited information to decision makers.
• Criterion 3—The system should be theoretically sound and
well documented.
99
-------
Most methods were carefully documented, with experimental
conditions and analytical tools sufficiently described for
satisfying this criterion.
• Criterion 4—The system should reflect the reasons for ex-
pressed preferences.
All methods reviewed did this.
• Criterion 5—A good technique will be straightforward and
easily reproduced.
Two of the five techniques required professional skills for
testing and interpretation, thus restricting their adapta-
bility. Winkel's methodology (1969) in particular was ex-
tremely complex, requiring special equipment (eye-mount
cameras) and trained psychologist staffing. Appleyard's
method (1971), on the other hand, was very adaptable to
resources available in planning offices.
• Criterion 6—Information should be useful to decision maker,
Four of the five methods reviewed provided very limited in-
formation on user preference because of the narrow scope of
concern. However, all methods transmitted information in
a useful manner—photos, cartoons or questionnaire tabula-
tions.
Review of Aesthetics in Basic Research
Environmental aesthetics as a field of study is primarily recognized as a
20th Century activity. However, a number of recurring themes from past
uses of aesthetic concepts have been interwoven into present day concepts.
Basic theory in environmental aesthetics covers a wide range of subject
matter which can best be described as studies directed toward understanding
the unquantifiable aspects of the physical environment—in particular, un-
derstanding the impacts of physical arrangements upon social arrangements
in the broadest sense, whether they are socio-physical or man-environment
studies. "Socio-physical technology is one of several labels that have
recently emerged to encompass issues of mutual concern to a number of de-
signers and social scientists attempting to understand, or modify, the
complex set of relationships that link individual and collective human be-
havior with features of the natural and man-made physical environment"
(Archea, 1971).
Considerable research, development and implementation related to socio-
physical technology has taken place recently in both private and public
100
-------
institutions. The Federal government plays an active role in the field by
initiating and funding man-environment research. "Figures from 1971 indi-
cate that the government funded 50 studies directly related to man-environment
research, with an overall investment of perhaps $30 million" (Ford, 1971).
The first study undertaken in this field was a survey of the Federal govern-
ment's role in man-environment research, which included a 2,000-entry bibliog-
raphy and summary of the status of projects both outside and within Federal
government.
This initial effort was spearheaded by architect Andrew Euston, principal
urban design program officer in the Environmental Planning Division of the
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), along with Thomas Thompson
and John Archea as principal researchers. This program is presented in a
seven-section review by Design and Environment, summer 1971 issues. Addi-
tional references include: "Socio-Physical Technology, a State of the Art
Report," by Archea et al. (1971); "Socio-Physical Technology Workshop Pro-
ceedings" (1968); and "Observations Regarding Man-Environment Studies—
Bibliography" by Amos Rapoport (1970).
Since aesthetics emerges as a predominant theme in much of the research of
man-environment studies, an overview of the work that has been done and work
that is currently under way is sketched here. The three areas of concern to
be addressed are theories developed in the area of the natural environment,
the social-psychological environment, and the man-made environment. These
theories often overlap, but for purposes of discussion they will be pre-
sented separately. Conference proceedings, prepared bibliographies and
literature reviews will be cited under each category. A detailed analysis
of the literature is beyond the scope of this study; however, references
will be made to research of particular interest to environmental aesthetics.
A few periodicals cover all three categories of basic theory. Articles in
these journals are written at various stages of detail and directed to a
more general audience: Design and Environment, Man-Environment System,
Futurist, Ekistics, The Journal of Aesthetic Education, The Journal of
Leisure Research, and the Journal of Regional Science. Conference proceed-
ings covering the broad scope of aesthetic concern come from: the annual
EDRA conferences (Environmental Design Research Association, Incorporated),
American Institute of Architects (AIA), American Institute of Interior De-
signers (AID), and Industrial Design Society of America (IDSA) conferences,
from the EPA conference on the quality of life, and from the annual 'Design
Assembly' sponsored by the National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities.
The following state-of-the-art review is categorized according to theories
where the focus is directed to more specific subject matter.
101
-------
The Natural Environment
The attitude toward nature has undergone significant evolution in America
since the first colonists landed. Nature in early Colonial days was often
an obstacle to civilization—something to be subjugated for human survival.
Today, with wild and natural areas becoming decreasingly available to the
everyday human experience, the "back to nature" theme is gaining popular-
ity (Nash, 1972). Aesthetics, once confined to the appreciation of the
fine arts, today takes on a more widely felt appreciation of the aesthetics
of nature. David Lowenthal (1962), in an article entitled "Not Every
Prospect Pleases: What Is Our Criterion for Scenic Beauty?" talks about
this evolution of attitudes toward nature and beauty, concluding that the
aesthetic impact of a natural scene will ultimately be biased by our pre-
vious experiences. Hugh Iltis (1966) sees nature from a human evolutionary
point of view and advances the hypothesis that the "urban, biologically
artificial environment" may have a profound influence on the mental health
and emotional stability of its inhabitants. He sees natural aesthetics as
more than a luxury. In his mind it is "a genetic need of the human animal"
(Iltis, 1966). In Design with Nature (1971) Ian McHarg devotes an entire
chapter, "Process and Form," to natural form (the appreciation of which
can be called aesthetics). In the widely read Sand County Almanac with
Essays on Conservation from Round River (1949), naturalist Aldo Leopold
expresses his love for nature and its beauty and the need for a land ethic
to protect natural beauty. In "Yosemite: The Story of an Idea" (1948),
Hans Huth discusses the nonutilitarian aesthetic emphasis (an uncommon one
in the late 1800s that was instrumental in the formation of Yosemite Na-
tional Park).
In addition to publications by the above authors, the subject of aesthetics
from a naturalist point of view has been dealt with in numerous symposiums.
The Forest Recreation Symposium, held at the New York College of Forestry
in October 1971, deals with aesthetics in nature from a recreation stand-
point. Of special interest is a paper given by Floyd L. Newby at the Rec-
reation Symposium entitled "Understanding the Visual Resource" (Larson,
1971). A workshop sponsored by Resources of the Future, in cooperation
with the University of Montana School of Forestry and the U.S. Forest Ser-
vice Forestry Sciences Laboratory at Missoula, Montana, resulted in a group
of papers published under the title Natural Environments—Studies in Theoret-
ical and Applied Analysis (Krutilla, 1972). In this book, two papers by
R. Burton Litton, Jr. and Kenneth H. Craik deal directly with the aesthetics
of natural environments. Additionally, Hugh Iltis and Sharon Decker at the
University of Wisconsin are preparing an annotated bibliography on "Man's
Needs for Nature," a project funded by the Horticultural Research Institute,
Incorporated.
102
-------
The Social-Psychological Environment
Research in the area of social and psychological implications of aesthetics
deals with a broad scope of study from individual perception to cultural
manifestations of visual quality. Periodicals specifically addressing this
subject are Environment and Behavior, Journal of Human Ecology, Architectural
Psychology Newsletter, Psychology Today, Urban and Social Change Review, and
Journal of Social Issues. A recent publication edited by Harold M. Proshansky,
W. Ittelson, and L. Rivlin, entitled Environmental Psychology, Man and His
Physical Setting contains a collection of papers which characterize the field
of environmental psychology. It represents one of the most comprehensive
collections available of up-to-date papers by established empirical scientists.
Independent research has been carried out on visual perception and the psy-
chology of art by Rudolf Arnheim (1964, 1966, 1969); on perception and cog-
nition by Gibson (1950, 1966), Festinger (1965), Saarinen (1969); on color
and semantics by Drechsler (1960), and Pickford (1972); on behavior and
spatial design by Lozar (1973), Preiser (1969), Acking (1967, 1969), Altman
and Nelson (1972), and Winkel (1969).
Bibliographies of references related to the psychological aspects of environ-
mental aesthetics are: "Environment and Behavior: A Bibliography" (Pastalen,
no date); "Space and Behavior: A Selected Bibliography" (Heyman, 1964);
"The Bio-Psycho-Sociological Effects of the Environment on Man: An Analysis
of Currently Available Information" (Sabaroff, 1966); Bibliography: Physical
Environment and Behavior (Spivak, no date); "Bibliography on Environmental
Perception" (Lowenthal, no date); "Perception of Environment" (Saarinen,
1969); and "Environmental Psychology-References" (Craik, 1970).
Social manifestations of the visual quality in man-made and natural environ-
ment are addressed in books by Michelson (1970), Bauer (1966), and Wohlwill
and Carson (1972), and in conference papers by Bechtel (1972). A journal
covering this subject would be Urban and Social Change Review. Individual
authors have written on the influence of social relationships in neighbor-
hoods by site and architectural plans, such as Cans (1961), Rosow (1961),
and Appleyard (1969); and on the ecological processes as a part of ongoing
social interaction (Altman, 1967, 1970, 1971). Aesthetics is also an inte-
gral part of research concerned with identifying definitive parameters for
measuring the 'quality of life' and for developing 'social indicators.'
Studies on these subjects have been published by: House (1972), EPA (1972),
Stanford Research Institute (1969), and New World Systems, Incorporated
(1972).
Bibliographies of references concerned with the social dimensions of environ-
mental aesthetics include: "Behavior and Environment: A Bibliography of
Social Activities in Urban Space" (Bell, 1970); "A Selected Bibliography of
103
-------
Writings on the Social Aspects of the Urban Physical Environment" (Michel-
son, no date) and "Social Implications of the Physical Environment with
Particular Emphasis on Housing the Neighborhood Characteristics: A Biblio-
graphy" (Sanoff, 1970).
The Urban Planner
The single discipline most responsible for considering the impacts of "phy-
sical arrangements on social arrangements" is urban planning. Urban plan-
ning journals likely to include articles on environmental aesthetics are
City, and the Journal of the American Institute of Planners and Urban Land.
A number of separate publications concerning urban forms with emphasis on
the visual quality of cities have been written by Lynch (1968), Appleyard
(1969), Mumford (1956), Wilson (no date), Okamoto and Liskamm (1967),
Le Corbusier (1933), and Solari (1969). Others dealing specifically with
the man-made environment are by Cohn (1970) and Reichek (1961). Publica-
tions concerned with land use planning have been written by Chapin (1965)
and EPA (1973). Finally, urban planning for specific cities has been dis-
cussed by Jacobs (1971) and by Wolfe (1970). These publications present
a few of the developing concepts in urban aesthetics.
Bibliographies of particular interest to the urban planner are included in
Planning the Man-Environment Interaction (Campbell, 1970); The Urban En-
vironment (Appleyard, 1972); and The Urban Landscape (Lynch, 1973).
The above listings represent a small sample of the available literature
concerning various concepts in basic theory for environmental aesthetics.
A complete information system similar to the one developed by John Martin-
son for the man-environment research survey would be a useful tool for
future work in the field of aesthetic research.
104
-------
VI AESTHETIC RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING PROCESS
This section of the report examines the current uses of aesthetic con-
cepts in planning procedures. Although the use of aesthetics remains at
an experimental level in Federal agencies , in state , regional and local
planning departments, and in private planning firms or departments, the
past few years have seen significant strides toward the development of
the art. Through examining current planning practices in a wide range of
procedures and decision settings , we can see how successful each has been ,
and what implementation problems have occurred in each case.
There is no existing standard or uniformly accepted framework for intro-
ducing aesthetic considerations into planning. The various agencies re-
viewed display a broad spectrum of approaches to the inclusion of
aesthetics in the planning process. Each approach, however, represents
only a portion of the planning possibilities. The NEPA and CEQ guidelines
have provided some direction, but in general, agencies have relied on
vague definitions and have not attempted to incorporate research method-
ologies into their programs. The following list has been developed to
provide a comprehensive view of the planning and decision areas where
aesthetic considerations may arise. It will serve as a tool for compar-
ing the approaches and suggesting further actions.
Areas in which aesthetic impact can be considered include the following:
(1) Planning goals and objectives specifically directed to aes-
thetics
(a) Defining the agency's general philosophical attitude
about aesthetic resources .
(b) Selecting the participants in the formulation of aesthetic
goals
• In-rhouse staff
• The public
• Outside authorities.
105
-------
(c) Specifying criteria used for judgment of aesthetic impacts.
(2) The agency's interpretation of Federal guidelines
In particular, the agency's response to the NEPA require-
ments of:
• Environmental design arts
• Interdisciplinary approach
• Aesthetics and visual quality
• Public involvement.
(3) The planning process as it includes aesthetics
(a) Level of experience of the staff members involved with
design problems
• Staff members with design background
• Staff members untrained in design
• Outside professionals
• Interaction with other disciplines.
(b) Defining the problem
• Specifying the comparative importance of areas consid-
ered in the impact analysis.
• Identifying the internal effects to be examined
(effects on project users).
• Identifying the external effects to be examined
(effects on the areas and people surrounding the
project) .
• Examining the definition of the problem in terms of
stated goals and agency attitudes.
(c) Assigning methodologies and planning tools to be used, and
specifying their communication value for decision makers,
staff and the public.
(d) Incorporating public involvement considering public inter-
ests
• Holding hearings (specifying timing, size, frequency).
• Incorporating other forms of involvement (e.g. , user
surveys) .
106
-------
• Presenting information.
• Recording feedback.
(e) The existing channels for interagency communication on
projects involving the interests of more than one agency.
(4) The evaluation process
(a) The decision-makers
• Are the decision-makers members of the planning staff?
• If not, is communication established with the planning
staff?
• Can the design arts staff stop a project?
(b) Outside pressures on the decision-makers , affecting the
consideration given to aesthetics .
(c) Assessing the weight given to aesthetic considerations in
comparison with political, environmental and budgetary
restraints.
(d) Integrating public participation
• Setting up communication channels between the public
and the decision-makers.
• Does the communication initiative come from the agency
or from the public?
(5) Exploring the implementation methods available to the agency
(a) Is the agency responsible for program implementation as
well as planning?
(b) Does the agency have any legislative powers?
(c) Can the agency use zoning powers, permit procedures, or
other ordinances to control aesthetics?
At this stage, an agency would not be expected to actively include aes-
thetics in all of these areas. However, each area could play a role in
the development of a more complete analysis framework.
The following includes a selective, rather than exhaustive sampling of
planning departments. The agencies reviewed have shown attempts to in-
corporate aesthetic concepts into their planning process. It was im-
portant to get a variety of planning types from private firms to Federa?
107
-------
agencies, to demonstrate the wide range of agency involvement in the en-
vironmental issues that are responsive to the NEPA. In examining one or
two examples from each level, needs, deficiencies, problems and possibil-
ities can be addressed for each stage in the development of the field of
aesthetic planning. A broad picture of the basic directions it can take
is important for determining future roles.
The information presented in this section is a result of personal inter-
views with agency staff members responsible for environmental planning
and project design.
Planning at the Federal Level
The National Environmental Policy Act had its most direct and immediate
effects on agencies of the Federal government. The requirement that "All
agencies of the Federal government shall review their present statutory
authority, administrative regulations, and current policies and procedures
for the purpose of determining whether there are any deficiencies or in-
consistencies therein which prohibit full compliance with the purpose and
provisions of this Act" (NEPA Sec. 103) placed an immediate charge on
Federal agencies to reorganize their planning programs in the direction
of environmental analysis.
Aesthetic considerations began to appear in these reorganized planning
processes , particularly in agencies whose actions have direct and power-
ful effects on the physical appearance of the country. Four agencies
that consider aesthetics in their planning and program activities are
the Department of Transportation, the U.S. Forest Service, the National
Park Service , and the National Endowment for the Arts.
Each of these agencies shows an awareness of some of the issues of environ-
mental impact, particularly in terms of visual effects. In examining the
programs each is developing to deal with the aesthetic implications in
its area of responsibility, differing environmental concerns appear.
There is a tendency among agencies to concentrate on aesthetics solely
within the format of traditional duties, e.g., aesthetics is one more
factor to include in selecting a timber stand for cutting. Some may need
to broaden their scope of interest to be able to do a complete, environ-
mentally acceptable job of managing available resources, as traditional
planning methods often fail to consider impacts outside the immediate
project area--e.g., a flood control project. A study of the individual
programs that are being tried, and the gaps each leaves unexamined, will
108
-------
give evidence of the influence Federal agencies may have on aesthetics
through their planning effort, and how each agency might further its
awareness of its planning implications.
National Endowment for the Arts
While the issue of aesthetics has become particularly apparent since the
NEPA produced requirements for environmental impact considerations in
planning, concern with aesthetic factors in development in the United
States was anticipated on a Federal level by earlier legislation founding
the National Endowment for the Arts as a branch of the National Foundation
for the Arts and the Humanities. The National Endowment for the Arts, as
an agency, affects planning and design through the financial aid it allo-
cates for design purposes. Its philosophy for funding the arts is not
standardized, and the agency acts as an example of continued support of
individualism. Its purpose is primarily to encourage new cultural develop-
ments in the United States. This purpose is based on Congressional find-
ings, as stated in the second section of the National Foundation for the
Arts and Humanities Act of 1965, which included:
(1) that the encouragement and support of national progress and
scholarship in the humanities and the arts, while primarily
a matter for private and local initiative, is also an appro-
priate matter of concern to the Federal Government;
(2) that a high civilization must not limit its efforts to
science and technology alone but must give full value and
support to the other great branches of man 's scholarly and
cultural activity in order to achieve a better understanding
of the past, a better analysis of the present , and a better
view of the future;
(3) that democracy demands wisdom and vision in its citizens
and that it must therefore foster and support a form of
education designed to make men masters of their technology
and not its unthinking servant;
(4) that it is necessary and appropriate for the Federal Govern-
ment to complement , assist, and add to programs for the
advancement of the humanities and the arts by local, State,
regional, and private agencies and their organizations;
(5) that the practice of art and the study of the humanities
requires constant dedication and devotion and that, while
109
-------
no government can call a great artist or scholar into existence,
it is necessary and appropriate for the Federal Government to
help create and sustain not only a climate encouraging freedom
of thought, imagination, and inquiry but also the material con-
ditions facilitating the release of this creative talent;
(6) that the world leadership which has come to the United States
cannot rest solely upon superior power, wealth, and technology,
but must be solidly founded upon worldwide respect and admira-
tion for the Nation's high qualities as a leader in the realm
of ideas and of the spirit; ...
The goals of the National Endowment for the Arts are encompassed in the
above purposes and serve as the basis for aesthetic considerations within
the agency. This is a case of an agency serving the goals laid out en-
tirely by an outside authority, the U.S. Congress. Some indirect public
participation may have occurred in writing the act through citizen contact
with individual Congressmen, however, there is no official provision for
general public involvement in decision-making or in activities sponsored
by the National Endowment for the Arts.
The basic duty of the National Endowment for the Arts is to fund projects
that will induce national progress and scholarship in the arts . Criteria
for selection of projects are limited to definitions of the nature of
projects that might be funded. These are included in section 5(c) of the
Act:
(c) The Chairman, with the advice of the Federal Council on the
Arts and the Humanities and the National Council on the Arts ,
is authorized to establish and carry out a program of con-
tracts with, or grants-in-aid to, groups or, in appropriate
cases , individuals of exceptional talent engaged in or con-
cerned with the arts, for the purpose of enabling them to
provide or support in the United States —
(1) productions which have substantial artistic and
cultural significance, giving emphasis to American
creativity and the maintenance and encouragement of
professional excellence;
(2; productions, meeting professional standards or stan-
dards of authenticity, irrespective of origin, which
are of significant merit and which, without such
assistance, would otherwise be unavailable to our
citizens in many areas of the country;
110
-------
(3) projects that will encourage and assist artists and
enable them to achieve wider distribution of their
works , to work in residence at an educational or
cultural institution, or to achieve standards of
professional excellence;
(4) workshops that will encourage and develop the apprecia-
tion and enjoyment of the arts by our citizens;
(5) other relevant projects, including surveys, research,
and planning in the arts.
No concise standards appear, however, for selecting projects that will
serve to meet the desired ends. Knowledge of what constitutes "substantial
artistic and cultural significance," "standards of authenticity," or of
"professional excellence," or of what is needed to "develop the apprecia-
tion and enjoyment of arts by our citizens is left to the decision-makers.
The funding decisions in this case rest in the hands of the National Council
on the Arts (Sec. 6(b)) . This group consists of a chairman and 26 members
appointed by the President . The members are to include selected private
citizens "who are widely recognized for their broad knowledge of or ex-
pertise in, or for their profound interest in, the arts," and professionals
working in the arts, "so as collectively to provide an appropriate distri-
bution of membership among the major art fields." Further advice may come
from the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities, whose members in-
clude the Chairman of the National Endowment for the Arts and the National
Endowment for the Humanities, the United States Commissioner of Education,
the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the Director of the National
Gallery of Art, the Chairman of the Commission of Fine Arts, the Archivist
of the United States, and a member designated by the Secretary of State.
Through this group some interdisciplinary interchange is encouraged, if
not required.
While the chairman of the National Council on the Arts is delegated the
final decision power, he is responsive in all cases to the recommendations
of the Council on the Arts . Decisions appear to be made entirely by rep-
resentative "experts" in the fields of the fine arts. This is one method
of providing a knowledgable ad hoc decision-making group where definite
standards are difficult to devise.
The National Endowment for the Arts is in a peculiar position in relation
to the projects produced. While the funding and therefore the decision
powers rest entirely within the council, planning is the responsibility
111
-------
of individual outside groups on a project basis. Thus no definitive out-
line exists for directing planning methods. Some implicit values can be
seen from the type of projects that have been funded, although funding
may indicate support of a plan offered to the agency in the absence of
competing plans , rather than one chosen by the agency from a field of
possibilities.
One study funded by the NBA provides aesthetic values for designers, if
not for the NEA's own decision-makers. This is a publication entitled
The Design Necessity , which describes the directions of study of the First
Federal Design Assembly. The conclusions resulting from this work are
worth examining, as they provide one general value guide that describes
aesthetics in planning. This approach is a practical one, delineating
the advantageous effects of design without discussing the question of in-
herent aesthetic values:
The Assembly program discussed the necessity of design in visual
communications, in interiors and industrial design, in architec-
ture, and in the landscaped environment. Design was considered
as an instrument of organization, a medium for persuasion, a
means of relating objects to people , a method for improving
safety and efficiency, and a way of coping with the complexity
of contemporary Federal Agency assignments.
The Assembly's emphasis, then, was on design performance in
response to human needs. (Chermayeff et al . , 1973)
The approach to aesthetics is pragmatic. The problem faced is how to use
design effectively. The purpose of examining specific projects is to
document ten points in favor of design:
(1) That there are sound, proven criteria to be applied in
judging design effectiveness.
(2) That design is an urgent requirement, not a cosmetic
addition.
(3) That design can save money.
(4) That design can save time.
(5) That design enhances communication between people.
(6) That design simplifies use, simplifies manufacture,
simplifies maintenance.
112
-------
(7) That the design necessity is recognizably present in
projects ranging in scale and complexity from a postage
stamp to a national highway system.
(8) That the absence of design is a hazardous kind of design.
Not to design is to suffer the costly consequences of
design by default.
(9) That, on any given project, designers and Government
officials are committed to the same basic goal: performance.
(10) That effective design of public services is itself an
essential public service. (Chermayeff et al., 1973)
There are no criteria for how the design process is accomplished. The
emphasis of the study is on the final products. The programs reviewed
reflect this approach. Projects ranged from a mini-folder program of the
National Park Service to environmental design on the scale of schools ,
offices, apartment cooperatives, and an airport. Most design was con-
ducted on a completely professional level, although a few projects in-
cluded outside citizen input. One example was the Acorn School project,
where both the initiative and the goal preparation came directly from
the parents , although many of the actual design decisions were made by
professionals. In all cases, the design of the project had significant
influence on its value to the users.
In encouraging an interest in visual design, the National Endowment for
the Arts is taking a large step toward giving aesthetics a place of im-
portance in the public domain. However, the direction it offers nation-
ally is as yet undeveloped. The contribution to environmental analysis
stems primarily from the emphasis placed on the importance of design.
From an objective standpoint, in terms of the goals, objectives, and
guidelines stated in the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humani-
ties Act of 1965, the NEA is following the functions assigned to it. Its
basic purpose is educational and this function seems well served. More
specific aesthetic criteria could be developed, but these might limit
innovation by artists and designers individually and in agencies where
new ideas are of great importance. The real mission of NEA is to en-
courage the cultural development of the arts, and it does appear to be
doing that.
Guidelines for evaluating impacts are particularly important in agencies
responsible for physical changes affecting the environment on a national
scale. The Department of Transportation, the U.S. Forest Service, and the
113
-------
National Park Service have well-defined areas of responsibility for
directly controlling project impacts and resource development. Because
aesthetic changes are more easily definable when tied to a specific site
or problem, more definitive guidelines can be considered. Attempts at
developing more specifically worded guidelines for planning have been
developed by the following three Federal agencies.
Highway Planning in the Department of Transportation
The role of the Department of Transportation at the Federal level is
mainly directive and advisory. Actual project planning occurs on the
state or local level. The Department of Transportation sees its role as
one of encouragement for considerations of aesthetic values through its
departmental guidelines and procedural directives for environmental im-
pact statement review and in the Federal Highway Administration by re-
quiring each state highway division to accept the responsibility for im-
pact analysis and document this process in the State Action Plans.
The Federal Highway Administration, more than any other single agency,
has invested considerable effort in the task of considering aesthetic
effects of highways. Over the past three years in particular, a great
deal of effort has gone into developing guidelines and directives for
this activity. Papers, seminars and memoranda during this period often
discussed the problem of aesthetic impacts in highway construction and
use .
The official DOT guidelines for environmental impact review follow the
Council on Environmental Quality guidelines closely, offering nothing
further to delineate aesthetic concepts. On the October 1971 Order on
Procedures for Considering Environmental Impacts, aesthetic effects
appear only implicitly as a subset of possible "consequences adverse to
the environmental goals set out in Section 101(ta) of the Act" (DOT
5610.1A, p. 11) .
Guidelines for developing State Action Plans offer little more aesthetic
guidance. The strong environmental effects of transportation systems are
recognized with aesthetics as one area of impact consideration. This is
provided for in the Federal Aid to Highways Act of 1970:
Key provisions of section 109(h) direct the Secretary of Trans-
portation to submit to Congress by July 1, 1972, guidelines to
assure (a) that possible economic, social, and environmental
effects relating to proposed highway projects are fully considered
114
-------
in developing highway projects, and (b) that final decisions
on highway projects are made in the best overall public inter-
est taking into consideration:
(1) Need for fast, safe, and efficient transportation.
(2) Public services.
(3) Costs of eliminating or minimizing adverse effects.
Certain adverse effects are listed in section 109(h):
(1) Air, noise, and water pollution.
(2) Destruction or disruption of manmade natural resources,
esthetic values, community cohesion, and the availability
of public facilities and services.
(3) Adverse employment effects , and tax and property value
losses .
(4) Injurious displacement of people, businesses, and farms.
(5) Disruption of desirable community and regional growth .
(Manheim, 1972)
Provision is made in the guidelines for a general approach to the con-
sideration of impacts. The process description in the directive for
State Action Plans gives more explicit direction to planning by requir-
ing evidence of methodologies for assessing, controlling and monitoring
environmental conditions, along with an adequate outline of the procedure
for environmental assessment.
The Report to Congress on Section 109(h), Title 23, United States Code,
of August 1972, discusses the development of the guidelines on economic,
social and environmental effects of highway projects. Originally,
attempts were made to include detailed guidelines applying to particular
effects. However, in the course of preliminary studies, the conclusion
was reached that:
... the whole range of material must be considered with respect
to each project , and this could impose an unduly burdensome re-
quirement for official guidelines (Manheim, 1972).
As a result, in-department memoranda give a more detailed picture than
the legislated guidelines of the DOT's concerns with aesthetics. Because
of their often unofficial status, the suggestions do not necessarily lead
to action. Nevertheless , they are valuable as indicators of directions
in which DOT planners are thinking.
115
-------
Before discussing these developments , some mention should be made of the
overall planning process of the DOT. As has already been stated, the
major planning effort occurs on a state or local level. Most decision-
making occurs there as well, with the exception of controversial cases.
The DOT's Federal Office may review state decisions where a state or
local government has failed to follow procedural recommendations, and
further planning work may be demanded.
Public participation in plan formation is required as an integral part
of the planning process. This concept was emphasized by Marvin Manheim
in his work in the decision-making field. In the Report to Congress
previously cited, one set of principles upon which the Process Guidelines
are based is:
Full consideration of economic, social, and environmental effects
as well as decisions in the best overall public interest, depends
to an important degree upon involvement of the public. Highway
agencies should, therefore, work to search out differing view-
points and to secure the participation of a wide variety of
groups . Failure to do so could result in a distorted picture
of public reaction, perhaps overemphasizing either support or
opposition. Furthermore, many highway effects can be judged
only in relationship to local values which will differ from
place to place. Thus, a community's degree of attachment to a
local landmark within a potential right-of-way might be known
only to neighborhood residents. Or a highway's stimulus to
community growth could be welcomed by city A but opposed by
city B (Manheim, 1972).
This idea of the importance of the public voice reaches further concrete
dimensions in a recent article by Manheim on "Reaching Decisions about
Technological Projects with Social Consequences: A Normative Model"
(Manheim, 1973). In it, he develops the concept of a planning team as
a tool for achieving substantial effective community agreement on a
feasible, equitable and desirable course of action. The role of the
technological team is to clarify the issues of choice, to assist the
community in determining what is best for itself" (Manheim, 1973).
Process strategy is divided into four stages , and each is based on the
type of citizen input required. The first stage consists of initial
surveying by the technical team, collecting basic data on the interests,
needs, and desires of all potentially affected interest groups, and
should result in an initial statement of issues and goals. In the second
stage, issues are analyzed through a program of direct interaction with
116
-------
the community. This is succeeded by a stage of design and negotiation,
in an attempt to produce substantial agreement among interest groups on
a single alternative. Finally, either the agreement is formalized or
the technical team makes a recommendation based on its knowledge of the
conflicts, leaving the final decision to the legal authority.
In this type of planning procedure, aesthetics issues can be expected to
appear at all stages. The purpose of aesthetics analysis by experts in
the department would be to clarify the issue implications for the in-
volved community. The work that has been done so far in the DOT towards
analyzing aesthetic impacts has not been directed toward public informa-
tion and participation. Instead, it tends to be complex and sophisticated,
relying on advanced state-of-the-art hardware and knowledge for communi-
cation .
Methods will no doubt be developed consistent with Manheim's philosophy
and adopted policy to reflect the emphasis on public involvement.
The following approaches for considering aesthetics appeared mainly in
memoranda within the Department of Transportation, as preliminary ideas
for Action Plan Guidelines. Further work may have been done since then,
with the result that some gaps mentioned here may now be covered. The
summary is not intended as a criticism of current practices in the DOT,
but as an analysis suggestive of the process to date for impact assess-
ment .
The discussions on aesthetics have focused on two basic problems: (1) the
place of aesthetics in transportation planning (particularly for high-
ways) , and (2) an outline of specific impact elements related to aes-
thetics and of a procedure for considering them. The first provides a
foundation for further planning; the second begins to approach the
problem of assessment and communication tools.
The Highway Research Board Environmental Workshop in July 1971 outlined
five recommendations for the place of aesthetics in the planning process:
(1) Aesthetics is the responsibility of all design professionals.
(2) Beauty should be treated as a real human need.
(3) The highway can offer a sense of completeness.
(4) Aesthetics must be considered at all stages, and inter-
disciplinary teams should be used at all levels of
planning with the affected communities involved at various
stages .
117
-------
(5) Aesthetics is a part of the need for adequate right of
way. (Klein, 1971)
This supports a general approach to aesthetic analysis as a responsibility
of* the DOT planning staff.
The problem is considered in more depth by individual members of the DOT
staff. The approach is broad, with mention of general concepts, but with-
out reference to the current theoretical research developments.
In a statement on Environmental Guidelines for Aesthetics, Ms. Mickey Klein
wrote that "To achieve harmonious and graceful functional visual relation-
ships with the built and natural environment, aesthetic resources and pos-
sibilities shall be identified and evaluated at each phase of the planning
effort" (Klein, 1971). Harmony and grace are accepted as necessary consid-
erations in highway planning. This supports the idea that the highway
can offer a sense of completeness or fulfillment. ' The points where beauty
becomes a concern in highway design can then be delineated . These include
location, alignment, cross-section, scale, environmental impact, architec-
tural detailing, and landscape development. For each of these areas, the
existing situation can be compared with alternatives for development and
changes affecting aesthetic resources can be assessed.
Design is recognized as affecting two impact zones. One is the highway
zone, which is composed of the area perceived from the roadway. The other
is the neighborhood zone, the area from which the highway can be perceived.
Both areas must be considered, and "in especially significant cases, the
use of a design review board is recommended, representative of the highest
professional judgment in the affected community (Klein, 1971).
This approach used for defining the physical areas considered in aesthetic
impacts begins to define the problem of the total effects of a highway
system, but still leaves unconsidered the area of secondary effects—the
type of development that will be induced in areas served by the highway
and the ensuing aesthetic impacts. In the continuing discussions among
DOT staff on the subject of visual impacts, this consideration never
appears. Yet once recognized, it cannot be denied as an important area
in weighing the costs and benefits of a project.
The integration of aesthetic and visual values into the development process
is important, whichever impact areas are considered. Some thought has gone
into what aesthetic elements work as forces on a highway. These are well
presented in a report on "Guidelines for Incorporating Factors of Aesthetic
and Visual Impact into the Planning Process of Transportation Systems" by
Martin Redding. The use of these elements can be expanded at any time to
allow for consideration of broader impact areas.
118
-------
Four steps are identified in the process of relating visual factors with
values of aesthetic merit:
(1) Inventory, to identify visual components.
(2) Analysis, to determine the degree of relevance of each
element (this would involve both local input on the impor-
tance of each element to the community, and some analysis
of how the elements affect the driver's needs).
(3) Evaluation, to summarize the environmental values involved
in the plan.
(4) Interpretation, to develop a strategy "to maximize the
amount and distribution of relevant values which meet
objectives for highway planning. (Redding, 1971)
Some directions for inventory and analysis are discussed in detail. For
the most part, these deal with the highway user.
The importance of aesthetics to the driver is very practical . The visual
factors of a highway landscape are essential to the driver's performance.
Visual components are related to several aspects of driving. These include
elements affecting the tasks of the driver, such as vehicular controls,
navigation, environmental awareness, and aesthetic and emotional experi-
ence; the visual scales associated with driver activity, such as the fore-
ground (right of way) , middleground (route) , and background (corridor) ;
and the driver's objective, which "sets out the plan that leads to tools
and techniques to link drivers' tasks and needs operationally with environ-
mental factors for their solution" (Redding, 1971).
Sequences are not developed for considering impacts on the highway neighbor,
but they could be a useful addition to the preceding method for analysis.
The report assumes that "when considering the view of the highway as from
the highway neighbor, the highway is generally aesthetically acceptable
when it conforms to the natural landscape." To compensate for the sub-
jective values upon which this depends, recommendation is made for the
development of relative values of aesthetic merit. The values would con-
sider the intended use of the highway, the regional areas's visual charac-
teristics, what the driver sees and reacts to, and attempts to identify
the optionally significant elements over each phase of development. Evalu-
ation procedures involve graphic methods and techniques emphasizing
sequential and comparative values.
These merits will have limited applications, as the method is applied to
only one area of neighborhood impact—the direct view of the road . To
get a complete picture of the aesthetic impacts of highways, considerations
119
-------
would need to be broadened , to include the secondary effects of highway
development on the livability of surrounding areas. Many, but not all,
secondary effects are visual ,
The analytical tools suggested are not limited to graphics. Three-
dimensional models are mentioned as an important method of viewing an
affected area, in terms of both existing impacts and the alternative plans.
Both graphics and models serve the purpose of public communication as well
as professional analysis, when applied in that area. Actual application,
however, lies with the highway departments of the states, and will be dis-
cussed further under the pertinent heading.
The preceding recommendations have had no formal channels for implementa-
tion. To see how much aesthetics influences actual decision making, it
would be valuable to look at actual cases or projects, and the related
official documents covering planning recommendations (see Appendix) .
In practice, highway planning could still develop much further toward in-
troducing aesthetics into its planning process and determining how aesthet-
ics values should be recognized and weighed . Part of the problem seems
to lie with the difficulty of coordinating the suggested evaluation pro-
cedures for a specific problem, such as aesthetics, with the other technical
management practices, such as those proposed by Manheim. Some framework
may be needed to coordinate department recommendations at either end of
the planning process. The inventory procedures, relating to impacts, that
have been mentioned could be developed further, with more specified con-
nection to citizen input in information gathering. Some help in this direc-
tion could come from the theoretical research methodologies which have been
developed recently. Much of the implementation of these methods is left
to individual states, but technical assistance from the Federal level could
make the results more successful.
All of the direct actions of the DOT seem to be based on the idea of man's
impact on nature. Aesthetics is considered in terms of how the environ-
ment can be used for man's benefit without producing man-made structures
that are incompatible with the natural environment. Aesthetics enters
here primarily as a practical value, serving man. This is a natural re-
sult of the developmental orientation of the DOT. The highway is inevitably
an intruder into an already established territory. Adjustment of trans-
portation needs to the complete development setting will continue to be an
important consideration in future policies .
120
-------
The U.S. Forest Service
Aesthetics, in the context of visual quality, is a primary topic for
concern by the U.S. Forest Service. The Forest Service was originally
set up to manage the use of timber resources on Federal lands, including
lumbering activities. John R. McGuire, the Forest Service chief, has
stated that "We have to pay attention also to a new consideration—esthet-
ics. If clear-cutting is the most profitable and convenient way of har-
vesting for the lumberman, but will be a blot, on a formerly fine landscape,
the clear-cutting will have to be overruled by esthetics" (Bloomfield ,
1972) . This attitude expresses a response in part to the increased rec-
reational use of national forests, and their value as a scenic resource
to surrounding communities and visitors. The criteria for receiving fund-
ing for preservation rather than marketing purposes generate from this
change in attitude. "The basic philosophical approach to managing the
U.S. National Forests reflects a trend toward subordinating human activ-
ities to nature, with emphasis on preserving the natural quality for human
appreciation. Man is considered an actor in the environment, rather than
the director" (Mittman, 1973).
Design considerations in the U.S. Forest Service are a part of every plan-
ning decision. This is accomplished through active participation by a
representative of the design arts (usually a landscape architect) on the
planning team for the proposed project. Project proposals originate at
the level of the individual National Forest, in most cases, where planning
teams are composed of members from each of the relevant disciplines (this
often depends on the type of project being considered) ; usually including
a geologist, hydrologist, plant biologist, and landscape architect. (There
are almost 200 landscape architects covering 150 National Forests.) Many
of the larger forests have representatives of these disciplines on their
staff, but if they don't, each National Forest region has a headquarters
staff of specialized personnel who are assigned to serve particular forests
in the region when needed . Planning activities are thus conducted by in-
terdisciplinary teams and the plans are submitted to the Regional Forester
for approval. At this stage, each proposed project is reviewed by an
interdisciplinary team (of which at least one landscape architect is a
part) and recommendations are made. The Regional Forester in this case
is the decision maker, but he is in a direct line of communication from
his staff, thus providing an opportunity for considerable influence from
trained team members, including landscape architects.
One of the major concerns of the design arts specialists is landscape
design and visual assessment of proposed activities within the National
Forest environment. Some detailed approaches for this have been developed,
providing a direct means for including visual concerns in forest management
121
-------
Following the passage of the NEPA, the Forest Service developed an Action
Plan to incorporate the values expressed in the Act into its approach to
three main responsibilities.
(1) To develop, manage, and protect the National Forest System.
These public lands include 187 million acres in 154 National
Forests, 19 National Grasslands, ana other areas located in
44 States and Puerto Rico. Resources on all of these units
are managed directly by the Forest Service.
(2) To conduct basic and applied research in forestry and re-
lated fields. This work is conducted at 80 locations
throughout the United States, often in cooperation with
university and other research agencies.
(3) To cooperate in programs designed to improve the protection,
management, and use of forest lands and resources in State
and private ownership through technical and financial assis-
tance to State forestry organizations and other cooperators .
(USDA-FS Action Plan, June 1972, p. i)
Actions were proposed in a framework of thirty recognized problems occur-
ring in the management of timber productivity.
Four of the problems identified have direct aesthetic application, and
describe the visual goals of forest management in some detail:
Problem 1: To increase Forest Service sensitivity to aesthetic values
in planning and executing timber harvest, road construction,
and site preparation' (p. 5) . Actions needed in this area
include training personnel to recognize aesthetic values,
considering these values in planning functional activities,
and establishing guidelines for protection.
Problem 2: "To recognize these areas where timber will not be harvested
because there is no suitable alternative to clearcutting
and environmental impacts make clearcutting unacceptable '
(p. 7). To serve this end, the crucial areas need to be
identified. Training is again important, as well as data
collection. Furthermore, there is to be no harvesting in
areas where the impact will be unacceptable and no alter-
native methods are feasible.
Problem 3: "To design and apply silviculture treatments to selected
road foregrounds that will perpetuate appropriate species
in good health and provide an attractive roadside" (p. 9).
122
-------
Action in this area requires a statement of aesthetic and
other objectives for the area, and directed use of the
road foregrounds accordingly.
Problem 4: "To develop within the Forest Service special sensitivity
to the need to manage resources, including timber, adjacent
to wilderness or lands having special scenic and recrea-
tional attributes with recognition of the recreation values"
(p. 49). The proposed approach to this problem works
toward scheduled participation in interdisciplinary plan-
ning, training in resource examination and prescription
development , and the identification of areas that will re-
quire multiuse planning .
These four problems provide the framework for consideration of aesthetic
values.
Personnel training and area identification play a major role in the recom-
mended actions. Steps have been taken by the Forest Service towards pro-
viding the analytical and informational tools needed by landscape personnel
for their assessment. This is handled in the area of landscape management.
The purpose of landscape management is to achieve a balanced use of the
natural resources for providing both utilitarian benefits to satisfy man's
perceived physical needs and the cultural benefits serving psychological
needs. The program works through using detailed visual analysis of land-
scapes and applying definitive decision-making guidelines (see Appendix) .
Visual Analysis Tools
Analytic methods applied to visual resources are described in manuals put
out by the U.S. Forest Service. Elements considered can be divided into
several categories, including the components of visual resources, the
seeing process, and variable factors.
The components of visual resources concentrate mainly on elements in
nature—flora, fauna, land, water, and air. Artificial objects are con-
sidered as a sixth component. The importance of each of these to the
landscape can be analyzed in terms of its effects on the seeing process,
as manifested through the following features: color, surface, texture,
slope, form (shapes and edges), and interspaces.
Depending upon the particular landscape, any one of the elements of seeing
may be dominant. An analysis to determine which element is dominant is
123
-------
directed by the consideration of several principles: contrast, sequence,
axis, convergence, codominance, and enframement. Once the method of dom-
inance has been determined, the impacts of proposed actions become clari-
fied, and recommendations can follow.
Before the process is complete, further analysis is included to determine
the effects of variable factors on the dominant landscape element. A
landscape changes appearance depending on motion, light, atmospheric
conditions, season, distance, observer position, scale and time. Once
the landscape has been defined by these factors as well as by visual
components and seeing elements and principles, a firm basis of knowledge
is provided for ensuing decisions.
Impact Determination and Decisionmaking Guidelines
Impact on the visual resource is analyzed on two levels, first in terms
of the complete visual effects and second in coordination with other
resources .
The U.S. Forest Service outlines seven basic alternatives for managing
visual resources—deterioration, destruction, preservation, enhancement,
retention, modification and rehabilitation. These follow R. B. Litton's
approach to landscape inventory. A proposed development may be described
in terms of which of these visual effects is produced. In general, dete-
rioration and destruction are to be avoided if at all possible, while the
acceptability of other alternatives depends in part upon coordination
with other resources.
Broad bases for design decisions are provided through a method of illus-
tration and weighting of cultural and utilitarian considerations. Dif-
ferent possible harvest procedures are considered against different types
of landscapes, and the expected effects in each case are illustrated by
sketches. Positive and negative effects are outlined for both cultural
and utilitarian benefits. Finally procedural recommendations are made
for the area of application of each method.
The decision process receives further modification when other resources
are included for consideration. A basic outline is provided describing
the types of resources that would be subordinate to visual considerations,
and important enough to bypass visual considerations. Mining and the
exchange and purchase of land may be overruled by visual resource pro-
tection. Recreation, timber and soil use are expected to coordinate
124
-------
fairly well with visual qualities when planning occurs in a multidisci-
plinary arena. Fire control, water quality, and range and wild life are
considered important enough to overpower any conflicting visual consid-
erations. This gives specific direction to decisionmaking (Cal . Region,
U.S. Forest Service, March 1973).
The developed methodology is applied to individual projects by the land-
scape architect, as part of a management team. As outlined earlier
design decisions go through the district ranger, to the forest supervisor,
and finally to the regional forester. Final decisions are made at a
regional level, and the landscape architect may extend his advice directly
to that level if he feels that it has not received adequate consideration
by the district (see Appendix) .
The U.S. Forest Service has begun to produce valuable material in the
field of aesthetics, in both project analysis and implementation. The
dominance of the natural environment in the goals and objectives of the
agency produces a strong interest in aesthetic resources, thus setting
the scene for its consideration in planning.
Because public involvement is not an obvious inclusion in stated guide-
lines and seems to be minimal with most projects, decisions are made
within the Forest Service staff, with the advice of its design profes-
sionals. Thus many decision conflicts which plague other agencies are
avoided.
Citizen or user input is not provided for in any of the assessment plans,
and-does not appear in the planning projects on any regular basis. This
is due in part to the lack of much public orientation towards many of the
small issues that may arise. There may be strong reactions when a well
known area is threatened by substantial change. However, the forest
management team is still faced with the problem of recognizing what users
value in a National Forest. This type of recognition cannot come solely
from professionals in design and planning. Some efforts are beginning
for analyzing wilderness use by survey methods (Lucas, 1971) . These could
be expanded towards the goal of providing scales of user preference to
work in conjunction with the visual analysis that is already well estab-
lished .
125
-------
The National Park Service
The National Park Service has developed a procedural, rather than an
analytical, set of guidelines for park development.
The National Park Service believes in the individual creativity
of its employees and consultants. Moreover, units of the
National Park System are so diverse in size, purpose, visita-
tion, and resources that few standards, in the usual sense of
the word, apply. Hence, in place of rigid manuals prescribing
how a person should do his job, or what a particular activity
should entail, the Service develops broad functional standards.
These standards prescribe the conditions that will exist when
the various activities have been accomplished satisfactorily.
This philosophy of management is particularly applicable to
professional services, for manuals cannot stimulate or replace
creative planning, design, and engineering solutions (National
Park Service, Denver Service Center, April 1973).
This supports a philosophy of bold, imaginative design. The development
that occurs may serve an artistic as well as utilitarian purpose, and
may stand out as an addition to the natural area.
The Park Service is divided into six regions, consisting of 290 park
areas. A master plan is required for each area. Park administration
occurs on three levels, local, regional and national. The regional
director is responsible for approving the master plans for his region.
Planning or special design needs originate at the local park level . The
forest ranger notifies the regional director and the Denver Service Center,
All planning, design and construction supervision takes place at the
Denver Service Center, where professional design input comes from 46 land-
scape architects. Outside consultants are often hired in addition. They
are not selected by competitive bidding, but on subjective elements such
as competence, design excellence, sensitivity to environmental factors,
and strong philosophical understanding of National Park values and prob-
lems. Interdisciplinary planning occurs at this level, with engineers
and ecologists working with designers on individual projects.
A preliminary handbook for the Denver staff is being prepared, in-house,
that consists of proposed planning and design standards for:
126
-------
(1) Descriptions of the plans required for each project;
(2) The procedures necessary in the development of each plan; and
(3) Additional design materials necessary for communication
purposes .
The required planning steps are carefully outlined through the combina-
tion of these three types of approaches.
Park planning begins with recognition of an area as nationally signifi-
cant. "National significance is ascribed to areas which possess excep-
tional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the natural and
cultural heritage of our nation" (NFS, DSC, April 1973). Aesthetics
would enter into the selection process as a basic measure of quality.
However, decisions on quality are not directed by many standards, and
are left to the members of the Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic
Sites, Buildings and Monuments. After the significance study, a Master
Plan is developed .
A master plan is the conceptual planning document which, con-
sistent with congressional and administrative policies, estab-
lishes the guidelines for the overall use, management, and
development of an area in the National Park System or proposed
for inclusion in the System. It identifies the purposes of the
area; its resource values; its relationship to regional environs;
what human needs it should meet; the objectives for its manage-
ment; management category; a land classification plan; and the
general land use plan for its management, development, and inter-
pretation (Handbook draft) .
The Master Plan is a synthesis of background data and previous studies
to give a context for future development. It should include an analysis
of the resources in terms of their environmental setting, local, regional
and national needs, the ecological, social and developmental limitations
or visitor use, and internal and external factors that might threaten
the park resources. It serves mainly as a statement of goals and objec-
tives for the area.
Project planning procedures follow in the action plans. This category
includes five different plans: a Wilderness Plan, Legislative Support
Data, Interpretive Plan, Concessions Management Plan, and Development
Concept Plan. These five plans work in conjunction with the Master Plan
to form a Comprehensive Plan for the area, which covers the concerns of
a broad range of disciplines.
127
-------
An Environmental Impact Statement is prepared while the Action Plans are
being developed. The National Park Service has directed the impact assess-
ment process towards working as an integral part of this planning system.
These environmental assessments are required by the National
Environmental Policy Act for any proposed action significantly
affecting the environment or which may be controversial . To
comply with the spirit, as well as the letter, of that Act,
the Service prepares environmental impact statements on all
basic planning products when basic environmental decisions and
alternatives are being weighed, rather than on individual proj-
ects. Moreover, the Service views environmental impact in the
broadest sense—social and economic, as well as ecological. In
addition, the Service insists that these environmental assess-
ments be conducted concurrent with, not as an afterthought to,
the planning process (Handbook) .
The National Park Service's EIS process provides an entrance for public
participation into the planning process. Generally, an informal public
meeting is held with no official notice; official hearings are held for
all wilderness areas.
No provision is made for aesthetic criteria in the impact assessment
process . Although the action approved by the responsible manager is
taken only after all environmental factors have been considered," there
is no checklist or other method provided for defining the environmental
factors that should be considered . There is no evidence that visual
elements are considered comprehensively at all, until after Action Plans
have been developed. Aesthetics on a broader scale of culture' may
enter for consideration in terms of historic preservation. The mere
fact that about two-thirds of the units of the National Park System are
managed as historic areas underscores the importance of identification,
preservation, and interpretation of cultural resources. Moreover, prac-
tically all other areas of the System, natural and recreational, contain
cultural resources of varying value. Accordingly, standards for preserva-
tion of archeological , historical, and architectural resources are estab-
lished to guide the Service's planning and design activities. Beyond
this, design considerations do not appear until the preliminary planning
procedures are completed.
A phase of comprehensive design follows the Comprehensive Plan.
This activity is concerned with design of all physical develop-
ments within a park developed area, or a cohesive, unified
128
-------
portion thereof. For a small park, this may involve the whole
park. Not only does a comprehensive design deal with architec-
tural components, but utilities, roads, and landscape develop-
ment as well. Thus, these designs attempt to pull together all
such elements to insure maximum visitor enjoyment, economical
and functional relationships, and esthetic and "spiritual"
continuity (Handbook).
The comprehensive design must provide definite direction for the con-
struction that will follow. It must respect the site conditions, present
alternatives with recommendations, reflect the spirit of the preceding
planning decisions, complement the visitor experience, both physical and
social, ... commensurate with the quality and spirit of the park," inter-
relate facilities in a "tasteful, honest, harmonious, and nonimitative
way," determine materials, sizes, finishes and other elements as a basis
for construction drawings, estimate costs, and provide a clear graphic,
complete presentation towards decisionmaking. The comprehensive design
is meant to fulfill very specific purposes towards directing develop-
ment. The standards of value chosen to direct each step are left en-
tirely to the design team.
Both survey and graphic techniques are described in some detail. Surveys
are limited to photographs from the air. They may be needed at any stage
of the park management process. Graphics serve the important purpose of
communication. Efforts are made to keep the presentations clear, simple
and directly related to the plan or design being discussed. They are
"produced for the broadest application possible" and thus support the
flexible nature of National Park Service's approach to planning.
The National Park Service's planning process is notable for its deliberate
attempt to eliminate all rigid standards from its environmental assess-
ment procedures. There are no methodologies recommended to the planner
for use in environmental assessment. This is in direct contrast to the
U.S. Forest Service's strict standards for forest development.
This approach can have two possible effects on aesthetic considerations.
First, by providing an open field for development, it may permit positive
innovations and developments that are otherwise stifled by strict stan-
dards. However, it may also hide the aesthetic import of plans that
develop for economic or other reasons. A balance of aesthetic values
with other elements of import to society will be difficult to achieve in
this type of planning, because no comparative measures have been
developed .
129
-------
Imagination and sensitivity are useless to the planner if he has no method
of analyzing the basic material which he must work with. The distinction
must be made between directing design developments to the point of dull-
ness, and providing a basis for analyzing the environment, and thus deter-
mining why park areas are different, and how these differences might be
enhanced.
The Federal agencies discussed to this point are concerned mainly with
impacts of proposed activities on the natural environment. Two Federal
agencies involved with planning activities in the urban environment are
the General Services Administration (GSA) and the Department of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD). Both of these agencies are directly respon-
sible for building construction where aesthetic concerns become important
factors in the landscape and architectural design of the facilities.
Although neither of these agencies has fully developed its respective
environmental analysis procedure (as evidenced by the guidelines) nor
assumed much responsibility for aesthetic considerations directly, both
agencies have demonstrated considerable concern for social and economic
considerations that could possibly be tied to aesthetics. A review of
their limited involvement follows.
General Services Administration
The General Services Administration (GSA) was formed for the purpose of
managing government property, from office supplies to Federal buildings.
The Public Building Service (PBS), as one of the four GSA services, is
involved in environmental planning through its real property and building
responsibilities . PBS is responsible for both development of new Federal
buildings and upkeep and reconstruction of older ones. GSA has responded
to the requirements of the NEPA by considering the importance of a build-
ing's effect on a total environment, in terms of social and economic, as
well as physical effects. Evidence of this is demonstrated in both en-
vironmental impact assessment procedures and research model development
for impact assessment. Aesthetic criteria, and visual standards in
general, do not appear in either assessment procedures or current research,
Social and economic effects remain the major consideration for development
analysis. One site evaluation model now being developed for impact assess-
ment is based almost entirely on available census tract data (Kachura,
1973) . Urban areas are delineated in an effort to determine where Federal
buildings might maximize social and economic benefits. Little attention
is given to aesthetic considerations in the proposed model (primarily due
to the lack of quantitative data amenable to modeling) which might in-
fluence the final location decision or subsequent construction.
130
-------
Design decisions are made primarily at the Regional level . The central
PBS office provides little guidance or review in this area. Proposed
new buildings are designed by local architects selected competitively
by community design boards. Most reconstruction and additions to older
buildings, however, are designed within PBS central offices. There are
no uniform design criteria or systematic review procedures for regions
or local architects to follow. While GSA's basic policy in the design
of public buildings is that due consideration will be given to ex-
cellence of architecture and design" (GSA, 1973), the evaluation of
design quality is left to the discretion of local review boards, with
little guidance from the Federal level. For an agency responsible for
the design and design supervision of some 1,200 projects a year, the
lack of any design standards seems to indicate a failure on GSA's part
to fully recognize their responsibility for the visual quality of the
urban environment.
Department of Housing and Urban Development
The Department of Housing and Urban Development is concerned primarily
with funding housing developments throughout the country. It provides
no planning guidelines for these projects on a Federal level. In general,
the planning decisions are left to the discretion of local planning agen-
cies. The Federal Housing Administration applies to HUD projects that
require minimum property standards and building codes, but these deal
largely with hardware, safety, health and other specific requirements
established by FHA.
Aesthetic considerations do not appear in the published environmental
impact guidelines. However, there is an incentive program that includes
aesthetic considerations for individual projects. This is a "Design
Award Program," where projects are judged by a jury picked from the
private sector. Awards are made yearly for outstanding project design.
More work has been indicated by HUD staff in the future, towards the
development of standards and guidelines for better design. The incentive
originated from Operation Breakthrough, where four professional archi-
tects were hired to coordinate a project of volume-produced housing.
Operation Breakthrough was concerned with developing quick, competitively
priced housing techniques, through the use of prefabricated building
modules . The major considerations in the development of this project
seemed to be economic and social. However, it also brought to the archi-
tects involved an awareness of the need for broad design standards. The
131
-------
same staff members are now developing research to further the formulation
of design standards for HUD projects.
HUD, perhaps more than any other federal agency, has the opportunity of
influencing the visual quality of the daily living environment in the
urban areas of the United States. Encouraging an aesthetically pleasing
environment would prove valuable economically and socially as well as
psychologically. HUD has in the past been in a position (i.e., as a
funding source) where it could have influenced design by requiring certain
standards for funded projects. This possibility may no longer exist as
revenue sharing passes many of HUD's responsibilities over to state and
local agencies; therefore HUD will have to redefine the scope of its in-
fluence in urban design.
Planning at the State Level
The individual state governments have limited influence for ensuring that
aesthetic considerations are incorporated into planning procedures. Leg-
islation and planning guidelines are the two main tools available to
states. These are often very broad in scope and only vaguely defined.
Little planning or actual project development takes place at the state
level. The implementation of aesthetic criteria is primarily left to
regional or local agencies.
The first major step some states have taken has been to pass Environ-
mental Quality Acts, echoing the NEPA requirements and expanding their
application. Two states, California and Wisconsin, have been reviewed
in some detail for this study.
Wisconsin's Environmental Quality Act directs agency consideration of
environmental impact within the state to "include in every recommendation
or report on proposals for legislation and other major actions signifi-
cantly affecting the quality of the human environment, a detailed state-
ment, substantially following the guidelines issued by the United States
council on environmental quality" (Chapter 274, Laws of 1971). The NEPA
102C procedures are required at this level, with an additional statement
on the short- and long-term beneficial aspects of the project.
A series of seminars at the University of Wisconsin attempted to identify
further areas for state direction of planning. Aesthetics is mentioned
briefly in this process, in terms of objectives and of guidelines, but
it is never defined . The recommended guidelines are to direct analysis
132
-------
and project development in counties and local agencies. The most specific
recommendation for aesthetic considerations is evidenced in a set of ques-
tions for assessing impact, such as What individuals are affected aes-
thetically? (e.g., in terms of who, how many, how are they affected, when)'
(Kusler and Alston, Dec. 1972).
The state government's most active role is in the actual review of en-
vironmental assessment. Even at this stage, its power over regional and
local planning agencies is not clearly defined:
The [Wisconsin] act provides that copies of the Statement be
made available to the Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
and the Governor. However, the act does not clearly set out
the roles of the DNR or the Governor in terms of their review.
The DNR could object to a project but it would have no politi-
cal and budgetary power to stop it. Presumably the Governor
could exercise considerable influence in preventing projects
believed undesirable (Kusler and Alston, Dec. 1972).
The State of California is similarly limited in its powers affecting plan-
ning. The California Environmental Quality Act of 1970 has adopted the
NEPA standards for application at the state, county, and city level, as
well as private developments of significant size that require public per-
mit. The impact assessment procedures are those of Section 102C of the
NEPA, with mitigation measures for adverse impacts, and the expected
growth inducing impacts included as additional considerations.
State agencies in California provide some additional input to particular
planning problems in the form of guidelines. The California Department
of Transportation, for example, is in the process of developing an Action
Plan to guide the development of highways and other transportation
facilities throughout the state. However, most planning and project
developments related to this type of plan occur on the regional or local
level. The effectiveness of the guidelines for actual implementation will
be discussed in the regional and local planning reviews.
Regional Planning
The interdependence of cities for such exercises as environmental planning,
land-use planning, and transportation planning has greatly increased the
importance of regional planning offices. California is a good example of
a state which has delegated almost all of its planning responsibilities
to regional or local offices .
133
-------
The extent of aesthetic considerations at the regional level will be re-
viewed by analyzing three planning agencies in California — the San
Francisco Bay District of the California Department of Transportation,
the Metropolitan Transportation Commission of the San Francisco Bay
counties, and the Comprehensive Planning Organization of San Diego .
San Francisco Bay District, California Department of Transportation
A preliminary Action Plan has been developed by the State of California
to submit to DOT outlining the state's transportation planning process.
In it, authority for both major planning decisions and environmental im-
pact assessment lie with the regional transportation districts. Some
directions for environmental analysis are given in the State Action Plan.
The remaining decisions for analysis are left to the discussion of the
regional planners. Regional planners are intended to interact with other
interest levels:
State legislation places major emphasis on planning decisions
at the regional level, but also requires that local communities
have adequate control over future transportation development in
their area. It is necessary that regional plans be based on sub-
regional and community plans and that Statewide plans be based on
regional plans (California Department of Transportation, Action
Plan, 1973) .
The Action Plan emphasizes planning procedures, requiring:
(1) Early identification of economic, social and environmental
issues which must be considered in arriving at transporta-
tion decisions;
(2) Utilization of a systematic interdisciplinary approach in
the identification, analysis and evaluation of issues and
problems;
(3) The development of alternative courses of action including
different modes of transportation and the no transportation
facility alternative;
(4) The involvement of other governmental agencies and the
public early in the process and in a manner which will
contribute toward effective participation in the process .
(Action Plan)
134
-------
In this, the environmental impact assessment process and the project
planning process become merged into a single problem-solving approach.
An important phase in decision-making comes with the evaluation of alter-
natives. These are to be compared in a number of areas, including the
project's effects on "man-made and natural resources, esthetic values,
community cohesion, and the availability of public facilities and services.'
Public hearings are required during this phase, 'for the purpose of ob-
taining community expressions regarding the alternatives being considered
and to test the corridor study findings in a public forum (Action Plan) .
Each transportation district has an Environmental Analysis Unit and an
Environmental Technical Unit. In San Francisco these work together in
the Environmental Planning Department, covering the social and economic
factors and the physical systems that must now be considered in the project
design.
No formal instructions are provided for consideration of aesthetics in
project development and environmental assessment. This is left to the
planning staff. The Environmental Planning Department employs about
eighty of the 2,500 people working in District 4 (the nine Bay Area
counties). These include technical specialists in physical systems, ex-
perts in environmental analysis from several disciplines, including soci-
ology, landscape architecture, economics and statistics, and associates
from widely varied backgrounds who must have the following capabilities:
(1) To interact with the multidisciplinary team
(2) To know, understand and appreciate the project development
team (a group separate from the environmental planning
team)
(3) To interact with the public
(4) To translate the environmental impact assessment process
into a written statement.
Neither associates nor experts are given any written instructions beyond
those in the NEPA, the California Environmental Quality Act, and the
California Action Plan, Major issues are defined separately for each
project, at an initial meeting where the planning program and division
of responsibilities are defined .
The environmental evaluation process allows consideration of aesthetics
at many points. It is basically the responsibility of the landscape
135
-------
architect in the department to include his input at these points. This
is a full-time (but never completed) task, since the District 4 Environ-
mental Planning Office employs only one landscape architect (and the
other transportation districts have no landscape architect or equivalent
visual design specialist on the in-house staff) . The Environmental
Planning office considers the EIS as a public disclosure document that
will show what a project will do without judging whether it is good or
bad. For aesthetics, this means largely a description of the visual
effects on roads and views.
Because of the limited staff and the large number of projects to be con-
sidered , analytic methods for aesthetics have not been developed or tested
in the regional offices. The landscape architect follows a general pro-
cedure of identifying important visual points, considering views from
(and of) the road, photographing areas of visual impact, and sketching
the expected effects of the impact. After these areas have been identi-
fied, a time-sequence analysis of the route is used to determine how im-
portant the view is to the driver. When a road goes through a populated
area, the importance of affected views to the people in the area is con-
sidered at public hearings. Public participation is encouraged in evalu-
ating alternatives of visual designs and mitigation measures. The major
portion of visual analysis takes place after the route has been selected.
Visual criteria generally are not weighted strongly in the route selec-
tion. This is due in part to the fact that major transportation corridors
are often already established, limiting the amount of choice left to the
planner.
Any consideration of aesthetics in the San Francisco Bay Region becomes
involved with engineering, political , and economic constraints. Trade-
offs occur in final planning with all of these factors. While the politi-
cal climate for aesthetics is fairly good in the Bay Area, with a strong
movement towards conservation of remaining natural areas, engineering and
economic considerations seem to predominate in decision making. Aesthetics
is still applied as an afterthought or cosmetic attempt rather than as a
serious design consideration.
The need for more complete process of aesthetic evaluation in the Dis-
trict 4 Environmental Planning Department was expressed in a personal
interview with the district landscape architect. As an initial step,
within the constraints of staff and budget, the department hopes to de-
velop a data base of visual factors to be communicated through photo-
graphic and infrared imagery. This would provide material for communicat-
ing with groups both within and outside of the Department of Transporta-
tion, and perhaps encourage advisory input. Some further interaction
136
-------
with the public may come as a result of anticipated research on proximity
impacts of a transportation system on adjacent residents, possibly in-
cluding some investigation of individual preferences. However, in terms
of decisions on design standards, the Environmental Planning Department
tends to reserve aesthetic judgment as a responsibility of the design
professional rather than the general public.
The Metropolitan Transportation Commission
The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (M.T.C.), as a designated
Regional Transportation Planning Agency, has developed a Regional Trans-
portation Plan for the San Francisco Bay Area (M.T.C., June 1, 1973). Its
efforts are directed toward the development of a comprehensive plan for
transportation in the Bay Area, rather than toward the development of in-
dividual projects.
The plan is policy oriented. It outlines the factors that should be
considered , but not how they should be measured or what final weight they
should be given. The policies are guided by some broad objectives laid
out for regional transportation and specific objectives for individual
issues. Basically,
•
it is the desire of the Commission that transportation planning,
policies and decisions that are found to be in conformance with
the Regional Transportation Plan minimize disturbance to the
natural systems and environment of the Bay Area, and that, to
the extent possible, regional transportation systems generate
noise, air, water and visual pollution only within those limits
indicated by responsible agencies in these fields. ... In de-
veloping, maintaining and implementing the Regional Transporta-
tion Plan, the Commission will cooperate and work closely with
local, state and federal jurisdictions, in order to satisfy the
goals of transportation policy at all levels (M.T.C., June 1, 1973).
Transportation development is given broad guidance by the problem oriented
policies and objectives. Mass transit as a substitute for widespread use
of the automobile is urged in the Bay Area. Aesthetics enters as a factor
in several policies:
Policy 1.20 - "efficient, convenient and economical interface
among different transportation modes and safe ,
comfortable and attractive facilities at princi-
pal transfer locations shall be fostered."
137
-------
Policy 2.5 - decisions regarding transportation programs shall
protect natural resources and environmental and
social values of the region."
Policy 3.5 - "facilities for transportation shall not impinge
upon irreplaceable resources such as the Bay and
its shoreline, important open space lands, rec-
reational areas, historical sites, and prime
agricultural areas , unless there are no feasible
alternatives which comply with other M.T.C.
policies." (M.T.C., June 1973)
No direction is given for public participation specifically within aes-
thetic concerns, but one specific objective requires that "public partic-
ipation shall be an integral factor in the preparation, maintenance and
employment of the regional transportation plan."
Specific areas for consideration within the region are outlined in terms
of corridors. Planning issues for each case are evaluated by a number
of factors, including travel demands, land value, and air and noise
quality, but visual aesthetics are not considered.
The M.T.C. plan is very limited in the overall considerations that it
offers to aesthetics. It is more a statement of purpose than a usable
directive. The commission itself represents public officials and agen-
cies . Specialized planning may need to be left to other agencies which
have some in-staff design expertise. However, this implies that imple-
mentation will rest largely with groups external to M.T.C., who will be
able to apply their own interpretations to the broad outlines supplied
by the regional plan,
Comprehensive Planning Organization of the San Diego Region
The cities of the San Diego region have recently begun to coordinate
efforts on regional planning. The Comprehensive Planning Organization
(C.P.O.) was formed as a result of a joint-powers agreement among cities
to work towards developing a comprehensive land use and transportation
plan for the region in addition to other planning activities of regional
importance. The organization is currently evaluating a number of alter-
natives , prior to writing a final planning draft.
One significant written document available states the goals and objectives
for the San Diego Region (Regional Goals Committee, November 1972). These
138
-------
were developed by a committee of over 70 citizens meeting with a number
of planning professionals. Citizen participation, on a selective level,
is being incorporated into the planning process at the outset.
Five broad areas of goals are outlined, concerning human needs, growth
and the economy, the form of the region, environment, and implementation.
Aesthetics is stated as a concern related to the form of the region and
the general environment through influences of transportation, and open
space planning.
Several factors govern growth with respect to physical form—the inte-
gration of urban growth with the natural environment, rather than the
imposition of development upon it; encouragement of creative design
through incentive regulations; enhanced appearance by landscaping all
developments; and the preservation of the pattern of distinct, identi-
fiable communities.
The task given transportation is to maintain, upgrade, or develop exist-
ing and future transportation systems as a public service in a manner
that renders them safe, feasible, flexible, environmentally acceptable,
and aesthetically pleasing.' Aesthetic considerations in this area are
concerned with the planning and design of the natural terrain and of the
community.
Open space is an effective element of form of the region. It includes
some aesthetic aspects in terms of providing community amenities and
preserving areas of significant natural beauty.
Goals for the environment extend aesthetic concern to the broad areas
of conservation and enhancement. Guidance of aesthetic concerns appears
both in the protection of wildlife and vegetation for its own beauty,
as well as for its other benefits to man and the elimination or regula-
tion of "signs, billboards, wires, antennas, buildings, and land uses
that detract from the attractive topography and physical setting of the
San Diego region.
The C.P.O. staff is beginning to prepare regional plans which incorporate
the objectives stated by the goals committee into several alternative
growth policies. Some background material was gathered by the C.P.O.
staff in January 1972 on environmental quality and natural resources
in the San Diego region. This included some user preference surveys
related to aesthetics, specifically in terms of visual pollution.
139
-------
Respondents were asked if they noticed visual pollution, and if so, in
what form. This brought out a list of noticeable elements, including
litter and trash, run-down buildings, signs and billboards, junkyards,
smog and haze, telephone equipment, abandoned cars, and ocean and beach
contamination. From this list, some aspects of visual quality are de-
termined .
Standards might be developed from this research, but nothing of this
type has been applied to the preliminary regional plans. The only plan
where visual elements appear substantially is the Initial Coastline Study
and Plan. Vistas have been mapped and incorporated as an important coast-
line feature in development consideration. However, in this case, vistas
have been identified by professionals from surveys of highway routes.
Elements important to residents have not been considered. The Preliminary
Open Space Element might be another place for consideration of aesthetics,
but at the moment, decisions are based on other criteria—recreational
needs, conservation, and guiding the location and timing of urban develop-
ment .
C.P.O. acts only on an advisory level. The staff may review proposals
and environmental impact reports, but it does not prepare any. Its main
review strength lies in projects involving federal funding and in the
allocation of gas tax money for transportation services. In all other
cases, decisions rest with the individual city and county governments.
While some of these do consider aesthetics in their planning processes,
no county-wide standards have been developed for considering aesthetics.
Aesthetics at the regional level of planning in San Diego is at the mercy
of a currently fragmented system of planning. Each stage of the planning
process, from goals through implementation, is governed by a different
planning body.
No authorized criteria exist as a framework to clarify and compare
decisions at each level. The current political climate in the region
has worked against any institutionalization of aesthetic values into land
use. Land speculation and development interests put strong pressure
against any move towards preservation or limits of land use. Yet other
citizens in the region are beginning to express an interest in controlling
and directing growth, towards protecting current amenities in the area.
If these interests are to be considered along with economic interests,
some further evaluative work is needed to identify aesthetic values and
means for their enhancement.
140
-------
City Planning
Aesthetic considerations take on new dimensions at the city level. While
Federal, state and even regional agencies are often limited, by choice
or legislation, to policy formulations presented in general guidelines
and directives, city planning agencies are directly responsible for
guiding physical appearance. Through zoning ordinances and building
codes, a city becomes involved with design problems ranging from the
skylines image at a distance to small-scale visual details.
The aesthetic problems that arise in a city are similar to those that
developed in the traditional sphere of art and culture. Aesthetics is
often a product of individual taste. Man's relationship with his past
endeavors and his natural surroundings is approached in a peopled setting,
where any creative efforts face approval or disapproval by the city in-
habitants .
American city planning began as a physical design effort. Therefore, an
awareness of visual aspects has been present in the planning process of
cities well before the NEPA. The standards and guiding principles for
design developed by a city over the years are now applied in the NEPA
context of environmental impact evaluation. These standards and principles
in many cases are the basis for establishing visual quality criteria in
project evaluation.
The California Environmental Quality Act of 1970 requires local agency
involvement in environmental impact report procedures. Section 21151 of
the Act states that "All local agencies shall prepare, or cause to be
prepared by contract, and certify the completion of an environmental
impact report on any project they intend to carry out or approve which
may have a significant effect on the environment. Furthermore, Section
21082 requests that "all public agencies shall adopt by ordinance, resolu-
tion, rule or regulation, objectives, criteria and procedures for the
evaluation of projects and the preparation of environmental impact reports.
As a result of this legislation, and also citizen concern for the visual
quality of their surroundings, California cities have begun to incorporate
environmental analysis into their planning procedures . The results of
the incorporation in each city are influenced by the planning considera-
tions that are already established. Aesthetics in San Francisco and
San Diego, as two examples, may receive very different treatment because
of the difference in planning guidelines.
141
-------
San Francisco
In response to requirements in the California Environmental Quality Act
(CEQA) San Francisco has drafted an amendment to the San Francisco Ad-
ministrative Code, Chapter 31, on Environmental Quality (February 22,
1973). This chapter directs environmental impact considerations, with
the stipulation that "To the extent feasible, the Department of City
Planning shall combine the evaluation of projects, preparation of en-
vironmental impact reports and conduct of hearings with other planning
processes, and shall coordinate environmental review with the capital
improvement program, the Master Plan and the City Planning Code." The
environmental impact report serves as an addition to the planning process,
not a separate procedure. It is "an informational document providing a
detailed statement of environmental effects and considerations for use
by public decision-makers in considering a project. Such a report also
informs the general public, and provides an opportunity for public partic-
ipation and for comments by other interested public agencies ."
The aesthetic considerations of the environmental assessment procedure
can be expected to be those outlined in the Master Plan, These are spec-
ified as items of the Urban Design Plan, an element of the San Francisco's
Master Plan, written in 1971. The development and implementation of this
plan define the role of aesthetics in guiding the San Francisco environ-
ment .
The approach to urban design problems in the city required definitions of
goals and objectives. These were obtained through contact with citizens.
Professional consultants conducted neighborhood interviews, park user
surveys and a street livability survey to determine the issues of greatest
importance to the citizens. The identified issues were modified by ques-
tionnaires and public hearings as well as by the consultants' own inter-
pretation of the responses. The issues found to be important were then
used as the basis for the study.
Aesthetics is a central problem in the Urban Design Plan. While specific
issues concerning citizens centered around factors of safety, comfort
and recreation, judgments of the physical manifestations of these items
focused on measuring quality:
Urban design planning is a response to human needs. It is
part of the process of defining quality in the environment,
and quality is based upon human needs. Quality means degree
of excellence, and when applied to cities it depends upon
pleasing physical relationships, a fitting together with
142
-------
scale and interest and without jarring contrasts. Over time,
quality means cultural heritage, and things and values that
last. For the city's residents it means a good life, and the
ability to take for granted a certain measure of security,
health, comfort, enjoyment and convenience, and freedom from
over-congestion and pollution. Quality in life must also in-
clude a chance 1'or privacy, for interesting activity and for
achievement.
(San Francisco Department of City Planning, 1971)
The purpose of the Urban Design Plan was to define this quality, as a
usable framework for guiding the future development of the city.
The plan goes beyond the environmental assessment procedures of the NEPA
and the CEQA by providing definite judgments on good and bad design.
If a plan for urban design is to define quality, it must deter-
mine what exists that is good, what needs to be improved, and
in what respects the changes should be made. Once agreed upon,
through adoption of the plan, such a definition of quality will
be a basis for protection and enhancement of the environment,
provided there is sufficient public will to see that the plan
is carried out.
***
In The Urban Design Plan that follows the four categories of
concern, City Pattern, Conservation, Major New Development and
Neighborhood Environment, are each covered in turn. In each
case, human needs are identified and an overall objective rela-
tive to those needs is stated . Then fundamental principles
concerning important urban design relationships are described ,
and policies are established as a guide for public and private
actions toward realization of the overall objective .
(San Francisco Department of City Planning, 1971)
Design elements are described in detail in the plan, and their implica-
tions for good or bad visual effects are described in detail within each
category of concern. City pattern is strongly visual, defined by major
views, topography, street pattern, buildings, landscaping, open space,
and street features—basically elements of man's modern influence on the
city. Conservation deals with elements to be preserved—natural areas,
landmarks of historic, architectural or aesthetic value, the visual
character of an area, and spaces in the building pattern that provide
light and air. Elements directing major new development provide mainly
143
-------
for the promotion of harmony in visual relationships and transitions
between new and old buildings. Neighborhood environment is most con-
cerned with safety features, but also emphasizes the visual elements of
the first three categories in terms of human scale and interest.
Guidelines for the application of these elements, in the form of policy
statements, vary from broad, general statements to very specific standards.
Detailed height and bulk limits are outlined for the entire city; strict
standards for street vacation permits (permits to build into a street
area) virtually eliminate future street vacations (which usurp space,
light and air) ; recommendations and sketches describe the visual variety
that may come from street furniture designs. On a broader scale, recom-
mendations include the avoidance of extreme contrasts in color, shape and
other characteristics which will cause new buildings to stand out in ex-
cess of their public importance, promotion of large-scale landscaping and
open space that define districts and topography, the removal of obscure
distracting and cluttering elements , and many others ,
The overall strength of the design standard varies with the implementa-
tion methods. Some now exist in the form of legal ordinances, while
others remain as policy measures .
Two ordinances having definite effects on the visual character of the
city have been enacted since the Urban Design Plan, largely for aesthetic
purposes. First, height and bulk standards have been issued over the
entire city. These come in part from the design needs of city pattern as
analyzed by professional consultants and in part from expressed inter-
ests in neighborhood preservation. Thus one major design recommend-ation--
that "Clustering of larger, taller buildings at important activity centers
(such as major transit stations) can visually express the functional im-
portance of these centers —gave way to the protests of neighborhood
groups. The current height and bulk limits tend to represent the aes-
thetic values of the citizens of San Francisco (brought out in public
hearings) as well as of a professional design staff.
A second ordinance, an amendment to the planning code, regulates building
projections over streets and alleys, almost entirely on aesthetic grounds,
with direct reference to the Urban Design Plan. Street projections are
permitted only if they provide certain benefits, one of which is greater
visual variety and development of building facades to a more human scale.
These are definitive legal steps toward providing "the small-scale visual
qualities that make the city a comfortable and often exciting place in
which to live .
144
-------
Where the plan does not serve as a background for legal measures, it acts
as a communication device similar to San Francisco's version of environ-
mental impact reports:
Ultimately, the Plan can be described as a form of communica-
tion, a common language, or a system of reference points that
will enlist community agreement. Most simply put, it is a
definition of quality in the San Francisco environment.
(San Francisco Department of City Planning, 1971)
Through an integration of environmental concerns and traditional planning
techniques, the San Francisco Department of City Planning has succeeded
in incorporating a large number of aesthetic factors into its planning
process. The Urban Design Plan gives a broad foundation from which further
analytical techniques may develop. At the moment, many final judgments
rest on a combination of subjective advice from planning officials and free
decisions by developers. The planning department (like the National Park
Service, at a different level) is attempting to balance a need for definite
aesthetic standards with an atmosphere of freedom of creativity.
Urban design planning does not seek rigid order in the city;
rather, it seeks balance and compatibility. Therefore, design
implementation is directed not toward sameness and sterility,
but toward complementary patterns in which diversity, variety
and even randomness may be welcomed . This means that all
feasible latitude should be given to the design professionals
for individual projects , within the context of overall design
planning. To the extent possible, each case should be con-
sidered on its own merits.
(San Francisco Department of City Planning, October 1970)
The City of San Diego
The City of San Diego has begun to consider aesthetic design issues,
though not to the same degree of detail as San Francisco. San Diego's
general plan is being rewritten, but is not yet completed. The plan
is based on eight issues that have been identified for the city—
industry, housing, commerce, parks and recreation, transportation, con-
servation, open space, and public services and facilities. None of these
factors are directly aesthetic, though some might include visual elements
145
-------
Some portions of the zoning ordinance relate to aesthetic problems, though
generally as a small factor among several issues. One example is the land
conservation zone, which applies to all areas of 25% slope or greater. In
these areas, certain standards must be met in development, including the
minimization of land form change (an effort to preserve the physical
attractiveness of the community).
The city's Environmental Quality Department has developed an environmental
review process in accordance with the California Environmental Quality Act.
Aesthetic concerns are mentioned in the relevant ordinances (Nos. 10952
and 10961) at a very general level. They gain further consideration through
the department's "Guidelines for Implementation of California Environmental
Quality Act and for Processing Environmental Impact Reports and Negative
Declarations .
Under the ordinances, significant effects can include irrevocable harm to
the aesthetic amenities of an area or resource, or disruption or altera-
tion of the appearance or surroundings of a historical or archeological
site. Moreover, an environmental assessment form is required listing ex-
pected effects by categories, including the extent of alteration to unique,
natural features and the effects of construction on views.
7
According to the guidelines for implementing the legal requirements, an
environmental impact analysis is required on Any project which will ad-
versely affect a natural, historical, or aesthetic resource (San Diego
Environmental Quality Department, March 1973). The description of en-
vironmental impact is to include scenic quality. Furthermore, in con-
sidering adverse, unavoidable impacts, the decision maker is instructed,
"DO not neglect impacts on any aesthetically valuable surroundings or on
human health.
An Environmental Assessment Form is filed for a project before the de-
cision is made as to whether to require an Environmental Impact Report
or a Negative Declaration. Several of the assessment areas within this
form definitely consider aesthetic problems. The assessment must include
a physical description of the lot and plans, with drawings. Objects of
historical, aesthetic or archaeological significance must be identified.
Finally, visual impacts are considered in several ways: (1) the project's
effect on scenic views that may be enjoyed by passers-by, nearby residents,
or employees of nearby establishments, (2) the contributions the project
will make to visual aesthetics, and (3) how the design of the project
(architectural and landscaping) is coordinated with the design of the
existing community.
146
-------
The results that can be expected from these requirements are now limited
by the areas of application of the environmental review process, Develop-
ment permits are affected more than the general planning process . Cur-
rently, if the project is within the existing ordinances (zoning and build-
ing codes) , no environmental impact report is needed , no matter how
"significant" the project is.
There are no standard criteria that may be used by the city in judging
aesthetic values. Attempts by city staff to draft an ordinance control-
ling scenic quality have been unsuccessful, because of the subjective
nature of the evaluation involved.
Citizens participate in city planning to some degree through citizen ad-
visory groups from each community. These groups draft community plans,
which are considered in writing the city's general plan. Many of these
plans include aesthetic issues, such as height limitations, though these
are not required considerations.
Citizens may comment in the environmental assessment process as well, at
Environmental Impact Report hearings. As in community planning, this is
only an advisory role , and will not necessarily be effective .
As in the Greater San Diego Region, the City of San Diego faces strong
political and economic pressures which work against immediate attempts
at aesthetic protection. The city may need stronger guidelines and proces-
ses if visual controls are to be successful .
Planning in the Private Sector
The Pacific Gas & Electric Company
Government agencies control much of the large scale development throughout
the country. However, a large amount of detailed planning is carried out
by the private sector. Utility companies, for example, play a major role
in planning as their facilities and services usually extend over a large
territory.
The Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E) in California is a utility
company and as such it owns, maintains, and operates transmission lines,
substations, and other facilities. In planning such facilities, the
approach adopted by PG&E in the environmental and aesthetic sphere is
to attempt to minimize environmental and visual effects .
147
-------
PG&E services extend to both urban and nonurban areas, each posing sig-
nificantly different planning issues. Densely populated areas are avoided
whenever possible; however, when it is necessary to traverse such areas,
transmission structures which harmonize with the surrounding environment
are considered. The overall architectural treatment for substations and
other facilities depends upon the surrounding terrain, the use of com-
patible materials, and the architectural style prevailing in the area in
order that the facility be integrated with its surrounding environment.
In rural areas, the visual effect created by transmission lines is in
general more varied . In relatively undeveloped and open areas, the
visual effect created by these lines is dependent upon (1) the method of
treatment employed, (2) who is affected, and (3) what is seen.
The procedural steps in the transmission line planning process can be
outlined as follows:
(1) Definition of need for energy in an area. This involves a
system planning decision and population and consumption projec-
tions .
(2) Identification of the power source. The source may either be
from the PG&E system or power purchased from some other system.
(3) Regional analysis, to determine a path for the power from
source to termini.
(4) Detailed corridor analysis.
Regional analysis includes some aesthetic considerations along with many
others. The staff defines a study area for possible routes in terms of
land use, population, economics of the region, the existing infrastructure,
natural elements in the environment, historical and archaeological sites,
recreation, and scenic values. A detailed inventory of these factors is
compiled and maps of the area are produced . For major projects computer
techniques are utilized. "Planning value" maps which depict sensitivities
are then computed for each of the environmental elements and a final
"suitability map," which is a composite of all factors, may be synthesized.
These sets of data are utilized in generating feasible alternatives for
transmission line corridors which minimize environmental effects con-
sistent with engineering, economic, construction, and operation require-
ments .
Detailed visual analysis takes place after the alternatives have been
defined, as a part of the investigation process required in comparing
148
-------
alternatives. An analytical model for visual analysis is currently being
developed in a cooperative effort within the Company by the departments
of Land, Architecture, Environmental Quality, and Transmission Engineering
The procedure is outlined in a short report on visual analysis (S. R.
Kaderali, 1972):
The main components in a visual impact analysis are: What is seen? How
easily is it seen? How much can be seen? By whom and how many is it
seen?
These questions can be investigated by determining:
(1) Whether the view is clear or obstructed (topography,
vegetation) .
(2) The position of viewing (elevation) .
(3) The distance of the viewer from the subject (the range
of viewing).
(4) Whether the viewer is standing still or moving (land use) .
(5) The attractiveness of the subject.
(6) The viewer's concentration on the view.
(7) The time of day.
(8) Weather conditions.
(9) The number of persons viewing the subject (activity,
population).
In order to evaluate the visual impact, it is necessary to determine
which areas are seen by a large number of viewers, the land use or
activity of the identified areas, and the degree of attractiveness of the
area.
The information gleaned as answers to these questions can be weighted to
some degree by a visual integration matrix, which considers the visual
absorption capacity of a landscape. Broad definitions are rated from low
absorption capacity to high:
(1) Flat topography [l°w]
No vegetation
(2) Rolling topography
No vegetation
149
-------
(3) Flat topography
Light vegetation
(4) Rolling topography
Light vegetation
(5) Closed topography
No vegetation
(6) Closed topography
Light vegetation
(7) Flat topography
Heavy vegetation
(8) Rolling topography
Heavy vegetation
(9) Mixed development
Light vegetation
(10) Mixed development
Heavy vegetation
(11) Closed topography [high]
This has been adapted from a photographic matrix of development in land-
scape by Jacobs and Way, in "A Systems Analysis Model of Urbanization and
Change," Steinitz and Rogers, MIT Report #20, 1970.
The depth of visual analysis required depends upon the length and location
of the transmission line being considered. For a short line, the most im-
portant effects are those on the resident community. Factors usually con-
sidered are the areas from which the line can be seen, the number of people
exposed, and the overall integration level of the line.
With the longer line, the view of the line is usually considered from popu-
lation centers, major roads, activity centers, and points of high and low
elevation. To scan for visibility, the analyst visits all areas of high
elevation that are accessible to the public. The use of video techniques
to document visual data are being developed, and in the future much oi
the visual data may be recorded by video tape for analysis and reference
purposes.
A new process is being investigated to estimate the possible visual effects
of a transmission line on a regional scale. Computer techniques for
scanning data are being considered as a process of defining avenues
150
-------
of vision. The comparison of alternative corridors involves the con-
sideration of various factors, including environmental, visual, engineer-
ing, economic, construction, and maintenance criteria. All city, county,
state, and Federal agencies with interest in a study area are notified at
the initiation of the project and they are consulted to assist PG&E in
determining the most compatible route. City and county planning commis-
sions, for example, often become involved in evaluating proposed trans-
mission lines .
Public information meetings usually occur in the later planning stages
and special meetings with interest groups are arranged as appropriate
or by request. Constructive comments and suggestions from concerned
individuals have been difficult to obtain in the past, but the Company
is investigating formal methods for public participation.
PG&E, as a private company, has financial and professional leeway, not
always available to government agencies, that encourages experimental
approaches. Techniques developed and put to use in the company might be
considered as well by public agencies for possible future use.
The Private Consultant
If experimentation is apparent in private companies, it is even more
present among private consultant firms. Much of the work done by con-
sultants is for public agencies which lack the manpower or other re-
sources to conduct a complete planning job on their own. Consideration
of aesthetics often increases with the amount of time allotted to the
job. The work of Kevin Lynch and Sasaki, Dawson & Demay Associates, Inc.,
for the Vineyard Open Land Foundation, is an example of an approach to
aesthetics separate from guidelines and weighted criteria (Lynch et al.,
1973) .
"Looking at the Vineyard" is a visual study of Martha's Vineyard. The
study was funded in an effort to ' promote the preservation of the natural
beauty and rural character of the Island of Martha's Vineyard." The con-
sultants provided a highly subjective and professional analysis of the
island's features, while at the same time probably coming close to defin-
ing the most important aspects of the island for the people who wish to
see it preserved .
Completely free from superimposed guidelines and requirements, the con-
sultants were able to attack the problem of the "character" of a place.
This began with two separate inventories on the island . One consisted of
151
-------
defining the major physical features (land forms and vegetation) that work
toward producing the total island landscape. The other attempted to dis-
cover the island features most important to the users.
The island user study was limited by time and money. For the most part,
for the lack of more thorough survey of this kind, this report has nec-
essarily been based on the analysis of the island as seen by the survey
team. An adequate analysis of the image of the Vineyard, as held by
those who use and know and love it, remains to be done. However, some
recognition of frequented places and valuable features did emerge from
the survey. This type of study rarely appears in government analytic
methods, even as a very limited survey. Yet the inhabitant of a place
is probably the person best capable of describing its essential character.
The land form-vegetation inventory of the island served the purpose of
providing a comprehensive portrait of the appearance of the island .
Eight types of landscape are identified—salt lands, bluffs, moors, hilly
thickets, wooded moraine, open plains, flat thickets and wooded plains.
These are described verbally and by interpretative sketches.
In the "planning" portion of the document that follows, guidelines and
controls are suggested for the future development and use of each area.
These are developed by the consultant designers, without outside input,
mainly in terms of how much growth each area can be expected to absorb
without suffering changes in character.
In this private study, future growth is determined by the visual frame-
work present. While the consultants recognize that other factors affect
development as well, there is no doubt that visual quality is retained as
an important element from the beginning of the planning process . The
document produced in this case is not decisive, in that the consultants
have no power for implementing their standards. Yet consultant work can
be extremely valuable in providing new perspectives for viewing a plan.
Some concentration on the uniqueness of each area is necessary as well as
the use of universal quality standards, for much of the field of aes-
thetics is based on diversity. This type of concern has little oppor-
tunity of appearing in public agencies, though some have begun work in
this direction.
152
-------
Summary
The review of a few representative planning agencies demonstrates the
wide range of responsibility assumed for aesthetics in environmental
planning at various levels of planning activity. Though responsibilities
are rarely clearly defined, it appears that Federal, state, regional,
city and private agencies have begun to map out general areas of concern
for aesthetics within their planning procedures. It seems relatively clear
from the preceding review of agency involvement that a number of general-
ized conclusions can be made about the state of the art of aesthetics in
the planning process. These are:
(1) Many of the agencies reviewed, i.e., Federal Highway Adminis-
tration, Park Services, U.S. Forest Service, have been concerned
with the subject of aesthetics since long before the NEPA. The
basic philosophical approaches that have developed over time
demonstrate the diverse direction that each agency is taking.
For instance, the primary objective of the Federal Highway
Administration has centered around developing natural resources
for the purpose of providing a pleasurable experience for high-
way users. Thus, highway beautification and aesthetics in
general reflect an attitude of development, with considerable
attention given to cost/benefit analysis and the idea of minimiz-
ing, wherever possible, visual impacts to the surrounding en-
vironment. This often means trying to camouflage the project
(i.e., the "cosmetic attempt ) or attempting to design visually
attractive facilities (e.g., retaining wall, clover leaf), none-
theless supporting the philosophy that man's desires come first.
The research funded by the highway administration, i.e., method-
ologies by Steinitz, Hornbeck, University of Wisconsin-REMAP,
further support this assumption by the very way they characterize
aesthetic factors and establish criteria for evaluation of this
importance. Aesthetic factors are identified by their usefulness
to the driver and evaluated by their cost to the developer.
The National Park Service and (to some extent) the U.S. Forest
Service appear to be more conservation oriented, attempting to
subjugate man's activities to nature. Though the Park Service
recently adopted a philosophy of 'bold" design, their basic
aesthetic consciousness is reflected in their preservation of
natural resources rather than development of them. Still, man's
enjoyment is of primar}' concern. The Forest Service emphasizes
the subordination of man's desires to the goal of conserving
153
-------
natural resources. Any activities planned or reviewed by the
Forest Service must be responsive to the guidelines firmly
established for visual analysis of proposed projects. This
often results in costly, time consuming efforts on the part of
the planner, and in some cases, a total re-evaluation of the
need for the activity in general (an example of this is cited
in the Appendix) .
The significance of this discussion lies in the fact that there
appears to be little, if any, attempt by any Federal agency
for establishing aesthetic criteria at the national scale for
resource development. The problem becomes acute when more than
one agency is involved in development in a single area. Often
either philosophical approach could apply, but the coordination
of two different sets of values is difficult.
(2) Another point illustrated in the planning review is the lack of
any clearly defined aesthetic responsibility at different levels
of planning activity. There seems to be no indication of exactly
who or what is involved in aesthetics in environmental planning.
The rather vague generalized statements in Federal and state
guidelines as to the disciplines included under design arts
(they could be anyone from engineers to potters) and the area
of aesthetic concern (i.e., what constitute aesthetic resources,
natural amenities, historical and unique areas) offers little
guidance to responding planning agencies. Additionally, the
lack of any established social policy for aesthetics leaves it
open for agency interpretation. As it stands, aesthetic quality
is often determined by an elite few with very little public partic-
ipation or public feedback in the design process . The tools that
are used by planning agencies for obtaining public opinion on
proposed activities are, at best, in their infancy, yet, the
Federal Highway Administration seems to be the only agency
seriously attempting to develop this aspect of planning (i.e.,
Manheim's work).
The responsibilities for aesthetic or visual quality have sifted
down to the city and private planners, placing a tremendous
responsibility on this level of concern for protecting the aes-
thetic resources of an entire nation. Other than a few very
specific acts (i.e., the Scenic Rivers Act, the Wilderness Act,
Highway Beautification Act, the NEPA), there are no controls for
preserving aesthetic quality in this country. The private sector
and city planning agencies, however, are beginning to assume their
154
-------
responsibility for aesthetics by investing both time and money
in establishing objectives for development and outlining appro-
priate aesthetic criteria. The problems encountered with this
approach are reflected in the fact that these agencies have a
limited scope of control (i.e., zoning, ordinances, building
codes) and are often dependent on the function of other planning
activities. The need for coordinated planning is especially
strong at the regional level, where activities (i.e., transporta-
tion) cross many geographic boundaries. At the moment, this is
one scale of planning that has uncertain impacts, as implementa-
tion powers lie at other government levels .
(3) The third and final point to make about aesthetics in planning
is that there was very little indication among the agencies
reviewed that any of the aesthetic assessment methodologies are
actually being used. Most planners interviewed for this study
either had never heard of the methods available or found them
useless for their work (i.e., a typical complaint was that they
were too subjective, too time-consuming in data collection, not
flexible enough for diverse planning situations, and too ex-
pensive) . Only the private sector of planning seemed to con-
sider aesthetics important enough to spend the staff time and
money to develop extensive assessment tools (i.e., PG&E) and
seriously weigh aesthetic impacts in project evaluation. Per-
haps public pressure on the public image has initiated this
concern, but regardless, many lessons can be learned from
attempts that have been made recently by private corporations
in the area of aesthetics in environmental planning.
155
-------
-------
VII WHERE WE NEED TO GO FROM HERE
We are only beginning to understand the importance of the quality of our
perceived environment. A recent survey (Euston, 1971) shows that the
Federal commitment to man-environment research has grown considerably in
the past few years. However, much more is needed. All indications point
to the conclusion that research in the area of aesthetics is proportionately
less than other areas of environmental concern (e.g. air quality, land
use planning, water quality) and yet, aesthetics is the one that is most
closely tied to the appreciation and acceptance of a project. The need
for variety, diversity, and freedom of individual choice is important to
the American way of life. But a growing population with diverse interests
and needs places unusually heavy demands on a world of limited resources.
In order to protect the aesthetic rights of both present and future gen-
erations we need to formulate a social policy for environmental aesthetics
and define our goals.
The need for some nationally recognized criteria for aesthetic considera-
tions is apparent, particularly at the Federal agency level. Since basic
aesthetic philosophies differ among single-purpose planning agencies com-
prehensive planning for large geographic areas is extremely difficult, if
not impossible. The following outline delineates suggested areas for
future research based on the material in this paper defining "where we're
at"—we now need to define "where we need to go from here."
An Improved Understanding of Aesthetics for Environmental Quality
The following research projects are suggested:
(1) At the micro-scale, research for defining man's aesthetic needs
in his socio-physical environment:
• Physiological needs—Establish human tolerance levels as
stimuli are perceived through the senses. Relate these to
air quality, noise, odor and other environmental factors.
How do these affect man's ability for aesthetic experiences?
Also, research to understand man's genetic tie to the natural
environment, and how man's physiology may change due to a
lack of exposure to the natural element.
157
-------
• Socio-physchological needs—Define man's need for space, na-
ture, variety, safety, tranquility, expression, belongingness
and so on. Relate to aesthetic conditions of environment.
How are attitudes and values identified?
(2) At the macro-scale, research to define societal needs and influence
of these on aesthetics:
• Economic—The effects of capitalism on man's activities, i.e.,
leisure, recreation, work, consumerism, artists' creativity.
• Political—Social policy of agencies predictive interactive or
reactive. Special emphasis on environmental policy and laws.
• Environmental (physical)—Implications of limited resources,
land use, and urban development.
Research for Applied Theory
The following research projects are suggested:
(1) Develop criteria for evaluating methodologies designed to assess
aesthetic impacts—special emphasis on objectivity, secondary im-
pacts%, and aesthetics as an interrelated aspect, of all environ-
mental elements. Also should include aesthetics as perceived by
all senses, not just visual.
(2) Increased emphasis on user preference studies for understanding in-
dividual attitudes and group values about aesthetic characteristics
in the environment.
(3) Develop aesthetic quality indicators for different levels of concern
(national, state-regional, community-local) and devise monitoring
techniques.
(4) Develop tools for communicating aesthetic effects of changes resulting
from planned activities—simulation labs for visual and auditory
impacts.
(5) Develop an information system for source material on aesthetic research,
158
-------
Research Directed Toward Improving Aesthetic
Considerations in the Planning Process
Research aimed at defining the responsibilities for ensuring aesthetic
quality at the major levels of planning:
(1) At the Federal level
• Guidelines of Federal agencies for aesthetics must be more
explicit and should be consistent with other agency guide-
lines .
- identify staff members termed 'design arts'
- expand scope of concern to include secondary impacts
• Initiate cooperative research in aesthetics with other Fed-
eral agencies, particularly pertaining to research for im-
proving an understanding of aesthetics.
• Define levels of aesthetic freedom and develop appropriate
standards to protect these.
(2) At the state and regional level
• Provide guidance to local areas by developing aesthetic goals
and criteria in comprehensive planning guidelines.
• Analyze available data sources.
(3) At the local level
• Develop guidelines for ensuring interactive social policy
for planning.
• Analyze controls available to local government for ensuring
aesthetic quality and protecting aesthetic freedom.
159
-------
-------
Appendix
EXAMPLES OF WORK DONE BY FEDERAL AGENCIES THAT INCORPORATE
ATTENTION TO AESTHETIC IMPACTS
161
-------
-------
Appendix
EXAMPLES OF WORK DONE BY FEDERAL AGENCIES THAT INCORPORATE
ATTENTION TO AESTHETIC IMPACTS
Department of Transportation
The Department of Transportation has prepared a memorandum on a proposed
Environmental Impact Statement and has put out two publications, one on
park and recreation facilities and the other on highway joint development
and multiple use, that show DOT recognition of aesthetic principles and
attention to aesthetic impacts.
DOT Memorandum TES-70
A DOT memorandum (TES-70) on March 12, 1973 reviewed the Environmental
Impact Statement proposed for the Glenwood Canyon/Cottonwood Pass project
in Colorado. Criticism of the EIS centered around the failure to consider
location and design in a single multidisciplinary setting.
We commend the commitment of the Colorado Department of Highways
and FHWA to a goal of minimizing harm in the Canyon through the
use of a design concept team of recognized experts in engineering,
architecture and environmental design. However, after a careful
review of the relevant documents as well as comments from other
agencies and the general public, we do not believe that the lo-
cation and design decisions can be separated in this case,
because how the highway is to be designed is as important as
which corridor is selected. Moreover, it is uncertain whether
a satisfactory design can be developed in Glenwood Canyon that
preserves the existing environmental values. Accordingly, we
cannot recommend approval of a Section 4(f) determination/final
environmental impact statement of a Glenwood Canyon location
for the route until a more detailed comparison of design alter-
natives is made for the two principal alternatives (Davis 1973).
The reconsideration of alternatives is directed towards consideration of
the effect of placing Interstate 1-70 in Cottonwood Pass or Glenwood
Canyon on the multiple use of the highway corridor for transportation and
recreation; access to recreation and to particularly scenic areas without
163
-------
derogating from the quality of these areas; natural terrain and undulations,
vistas and special landscape features; housing patterns and availability;
businesses and commercial development; architectural quality; historic
sites; noise; rivers and streams; wildlife migration in the area; erosion;
and traffic, including origins and destinations served by the highway.
At least half of these have direct aesthetic impact. This list incorporates
some purely visual values into the planning requirements, in the form of
maintaining the quality of scenic areas, vistas and special landscape
features. Other requirements involve maintenance of visual quality as
one purpose among several, particularly with architectural quality, his-
torical sites, and rivers and streams.
The NEPA requirements for interdepartmental involvement in decision making
are upheld by the suggested review procedures for this EIS. A review
board is recommended, to include representation from the Colorado Highway
Department, the Glenwood Canyon Advisory Committee, established by the
Colorado General Assembly, the Colorado Land Use Commission, representatives
of four affected counties, the U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of Outdoor
Recreation, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the Federal Highway Admin-
istration, the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety,
and Consumer Affairs in the U.S. Department of Transportation, and the
Council on Environmental Quality. The board would determine design and
location alternatives, as well as advising on the final decision.
This is one example of the use of environmental impact procedures to en-
courage design evaluation in the main stream of plan formulation. Meth-
odology for assessing impact, however, is left entirely to the Colorado
Division of Highways planners and the review board.
DOT Report
Interdepartmental work is encouraged in a DOT publication on "Park and
Recreational Facilities," of March 1971, discussing the consideration of
parks "as an environmental factor influencing the location and design of
a highway." The work develops a framework for the consideration of con-
flicts between highway and park locations. It is an attempt to point out
the necessary areas of knowledge for decision making. The decision process
divides into several areas—data acquisition, highway impact areas, park
classifications, and suggested design criteria.
The procedure for data acquisition recommended is the use of the Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation Inventory Forms. These describe each park in terms
of acreage, types of use (recreational, activities, and others), facilities,
164
-------
special problems, and features of the land. The importance of determining
the "before" value of the land is emphasized as a precedent to evaluating
the highway impact.
Highway impact evaluation is to be made by both highway and park personnel,
and unspecified "other interests"--an opening for other public agencies
or private individuals, but with no minimal input standards required. The
impact zone to be considered has two aspects:
(1) The distance on either side of a roadway when the noise,
sight, and smell of traffic, and traffic as a physical
barrier are detrimental to adjacent park uses.
(2) The distance on either side of a roadway that is necessary
to solve the detrimental impact (Isaacson and Peterson, 1971).
The degree of impact and possible solutions are considered in these terms.
Other effects such as increases in park use, or a change in park uses
induced by highway development are not considered.
The position is taken that the importance of an impact varies with the
type of park. Parks are divided into six types, by size and use: mini-
parks, playgrounds, neighborhood parks, miscellaneous active recreation
areas, large parks, and parkways. The impact criteria depend upon the
park use. Aesthetic criteria appear for only half of the park types.
Mini-parks, playgrounds and active recreation areas are judged entirely
by how the presence of the highway will affect the utilitarian values of
the park, without considering aesthetics or visual quality as a part of
park use.
Aesthetics seems to get more consideration in the larger parks. For
neighborhood parks, noise, air and visual pollution are criteria as well
as effects on natural park edges and screening. Some physical design and
planting recommendations are made in this area for reducing impacts. The
visual effect is considered important in this case as the park may be a
city's only contact with nature. Definite encroachment limitations are
outlined for large parks, which may contain unique natural areas or
primitive areas that should be preserved purely for their aesthetic values.
Finally, parkways exist in part for their aesthetic value of displaying
the natural environment, and as such follow parkway design standards.
Aesthetics appears to have very specific, limited areas of application
to highway planning in this report. The only aesthetic standards that
appear are those connected with the natural environment. Beauty in the
manmade environment is not considered. Furthermore, aesthetics is left
entirely out of the utilitarian parks, yet it must be a factor of park
use there as well.
165
-------
In another report, highway development is discussed in terms of joint
development in the right of way. Specific projects are at the discretion
of the State Highway Departments. However, the U.S. Department of Trans-
portation has put out a publication on the subject in conjunction with
several other agencies, covering "Highway Joint Development and Multiple
Use" (February 1970), with the purpose of encouraging State Highway
Departments to continue planning in this area.
The report is directed towards several ends:
(1) Presentation to the highway building organizations-—
examples of what their sister organizations have accom-
plished.
(2) Presentation to the public sector—efforts currently under-
way either by or through the State highway organizations.
(3) Presentation to the private sector—the possibilities that
may exist for development and growth (compatible and coor-
dinated) in conjunction with a highway project.
(4) Presentation to the general public—efforts being taken in
the highway development process to integrate a highway
facility with the environment through which it passes.
(5) Presentation to the educational institutions—the current
status of effort as it serves as input to the growing
number of individual and group research studies in this
subject area. (p. 2)
As such, it is an example of a versatile communication tool. The value
of joint development projects is described briefly in words, and then
through pictorial examples:
Highway joint development projects have been carried out for
a multitude of purposes, but basically the objective sought
has been a higher measure of compatibility between the high-
way facility and its environment. This attainment may be
measured in terms of savings and replacements as to land,
money, public facilities, time, land uses or in terms of area
improvements to be made at the opportune time of highway con-
struction, (p. 2)
This type of highway development is almost entirely for practical purposes.
Even where some aesthetic considerations are mentioned, as with Route 280
in California, it is "envisioned as a highway corridor of utilitarian
beauty, and was planned to recognize, respect and enhance the natural
166
-------
and manmade beauty of the San Francisco 'Peninsula,'" (p. 8). Serving
an educational or recreational purpose, however, other planning procedures
encouraged may allow further aesthetic considerations, as the joint plan-
ning policy recommendations do recognize that "The joint development
reconaissance work should be done cooperatively with local governments
and other recognized planning resource organizations and groups repre-
senting the people of the affected areas" (p. 116). Each area may then
incorporate its own aesthetic values.
U.S. Forest Service
Some effects of the U.S. Forest Service concern with design criteria can
be seen in actual results of interdisciplinary planning. Two cases are
discussed below, which show contrasting applications of design standards.
Case 1
Planning considerations for winter sports resort development are developed
by the U.S. Forest Service and the National Ski Areas Association in the
form of a policy statement. The majority of planning considerations are
based on the value of the area to the skier, and how his needs can be
met. Some visual considerations are included as additional factors:
Skiing is but one of many recreation uses of the National
Forests. Although it is one of the fastest growing sports in
the nation, it represents only a small portion of the total
recreation use. The public has become more aware of and con-
cerned about the environment and the developments on and ad-
jacent to the public lands.
Many of the potential winter resort areas are readily visible
from major highways and from other heavily used recreation
areas. The amount of landscape modification permitted will
vary greatly with slope, aspect, vegetation color and texture,
type of terrain and distance from the viewer.
A variety of methods to lessen impacts should be considered
in planning. Runs can be shaped and natural openings used to
minimize straight line effect. Feathering and scalloping of
trail edges, thinning or glading of timber, creating natural
appearing openings, are effective methods. Lift lines can be
blended into ski runs, topography and natural openings. Roads
can be minimized, eliminated, or designed and screened in a
manner that will not detract from the esthetics.
167
-------
Areas of high and low visual impact can be mapped, using con-
tour maps and sign lines from key viewing areas. Photographs
from the air and from viewing areas can be used to identify
situations and relate them accurately to locations on the
ground.
These are still based on the recreational use of the area, not on preser-
vative criteria. The importance of an aesthetically pleasing environment
to the skier is not mentioned at all.
Case 2
The U.S. Forest Service has worked with the Mountain Bell Telephone company
in "a concerted effort to make such facilities as microwave antenna towers
and equipment buildings more compatible with their natural surroundings"
(U.S.D.A.-Forest Service-Mountain Bell). Landscape architects and con-
servationists from the Forest Service are responsible for selecting sites
where construction of necessary facilities can be adapted to the landscape.
This is followed by a joint effort architectural design program to minimize
impact on the terrain physically and visually. Visible features such as
radio towers are designed to reflect the natural environment as much as
possible. This requires detailed analysis of alternative design and
construction methods for a facility, in an effort to minimize visual
impacts at all stages. Special aids to construction may be needed (heli-
copters, to bring materials, manual rather than machine labor) in areas
where the vehicles and machinery that would normally be used would harm
the environment. Such approaches may be expensive and time consuming,
and seem to be used more often when private as well as public agencies
are involved in the project and costs may be shared.
168
-------
REFERENCES
Section IV
Aesthetics Broadly Defined
Rudolf Arnheim, Visual Thinking, University of California Press,
Berkeley, Calif., 1969 (p. 5).
Constance McLaughlin Green, The Rise of Urban America (Harper and Row,
New York , 1967).
August Heckscber, The Quality of American Culture", in Goals For
Americans , The American Assembly, Columbia Univ. (Prentice Hall,
Inc. , 1968).
Dr. Ernest Klein, A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the
English Language, Vol. 1, p. 544 (Elsevier Pub. Co., N.Y., 1966).
Kevin Lynch, "The City as Environment," Cities (Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.,
N.Y. , 1970) .
Thomas Munro, Aesthetic Inquiry: Essays on Art Criticism and the
Philosophy of Art, p. 43, Edited by Monroe C. Beardsley and
Herbert M. Schueller (Dickenson Pub., Inc., Belmont , Calif., 1967),
Harold Osborne, Aesthetics and Art Theory, an Historical Introduction
(E .P . Dutton & Co . , Inc. , N .Y. , 1970) .
Herbert Read, Art and Alienation, The Role of the Artist in Society,
(The Viking Press, N.Y., 1969).
Joseph T. Shipley, Dictionary of Word Origins , p. 21 (The Philosophical
Library, N.Y. , 1945) .
Frank Sibley, "Aesthetic Concepts," in Cyril Barrett (ed.), Collected
Papers on Aesthetics (Barnes and Noble, N.Y. , 1966).
169
-------
Administrative and Statutory Aesthetic Concepts
"Aesthetic Nuisance: An Emerging Cause of Action," New York University
Law Review, Vol. 45:1975 (November 1970).
Robert Broughton, "Aesthetics and Environmental Law: Decisions and
Values," Land and Water Law Review, Vol. VII, No. 2 (1972).
Department of the Interior Guidelines to NEPA, F. R. Vol. 36, No. 192,
pp. 19343-347 (Saturday, October 2, 1971).
Andrew F. Euston, Jr., "The Role of Design in HUD Programs," HUD
Challenge, pp. 18-21 (December 1972).
Federal Highway Administration Guidelines to NEPA, F. R. Vol. 36, No. 239,
pp. 23696-702 (Saturday, December 11, 1971).
The Federal Register, Vol. 38, No. 84, pp. 10856-10866 (Wednesday,
May 2, 1973) .
HUD Guidelines to NEPA, F. R. Vol. 37, No. 204, pp. 22673-677 (Friday,
October 20, 1972) .
Leighton L. Leighty, "Aesthetics As a Legal Basis for Environmental
Control," Wayne Law Review, Vol. 17, No. 3 (July-August 1971).
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Public Law 91-190,
83 Stat. 852-856.
United States Forest Service Guidelines to NEPA, F. R. Vol. 36, No. 239,
pp. 23669-672 (Saturday, December 11, 1971).
Cases Cited by Broughton, Leighton,
and New York University
Burke V. Smith
69 Michigan 380, 37 Northwest 838 (1888)
Parkersburg Builders Material Co., V. Barrack
118 West Virginia 608, 191 Southeast 368 (1937)
People V . Rubenfeld
215 New York 245, 172 Northeast 485, 486 (1930)
Berman V. Parker
348 United States 26 (1954)
170
-------
Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference V. Federal Power Commission
345 F. 2nd 608 (2nd Cir. 1966)
Other Selected Readings
Archie J. Bahm, "is a Universal Science of Aesthetics Possible?"
Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism (Fall 1962).
S. J. Cyril Barrett, Collected Papers on Aesthetics (Barnes and Noble,
New York, 1966) .
S. H. Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art (Dover Publica-
tions, Inc. , 1951) .
M. Cohen and E. Nazel , An Introduction to Logic (Harcourt , Brace &
World, Inc., New York, 1962).
John Dewey, Art as Experience (Putnam, New York, 1959).
Thomas Munro, Scientific Method in Aesthetics (W.W. Norton & Co. Inc.,
New York, 1928) .
George Santayana , The Sense of Beauty, Bring the Outlines of Aesthetic
Theory (Charles Scribners' Sons, New York, 1936).
Section V
The Use of Aesthetic Concepts in Applied Theory
Visual Analysis Methods
"Research Outlook, Planning Today for Tomorrow's Environment,"
Battelle Research Labs., Columbus Laboratories (November 2, 1972),
Ron S. Boster, "On the Criteria for and the Possibility of Quantifying
the Aesthetic Aspects of Water Resource Projects ," in Toward a
Technique for Quantifying Aesthetic Quality of Water Resources,
pp. 6-19, edited by Perry J. Brown (Utah State University, Logan,
Utah, February 1973).
Herbert D. Burke, et al. , "A Method for Classifying Scenery From a
Roadway," reprinted from Park Practice Guideline (March 1968).
171
-------
Norbert Dee et al,, Environmental Evaluation System for Water Resource
Planning," Final Report to the Bureau of Recreation, U.S. Depart-
ment of Interior, Prepared by Battelle-Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus , Ohio (January 1972) .
Gary H. Eisner, "Comparing Visible Areas From Proposed Recreation
Developments...a Case Study," USDA Forest Service, Research Note
PSW-246 (1971) .
Julius Gy. Fabos , "An Analysis of Environmental Quality Ranking Systems,"
pp. 40-55 in Recreation Symposium Proceedings , Northeastern Forest
Experimental Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Upper Darby, Pa. (1971).
Rolland B. Handley , "An Environmental Quality Rating System," Northeast
Region Staff, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (1973).
Henry A. Harrison, "Coordinator Problem—Dispersed Areas," paper pre-
sented at U.S. Forest Services Timber Management Recreation meeting,
Bend, Oregon (July 16-20, 1962).
William W. Hill, "A Review of Selected Materials Relevant to Environmental
Impact Assessment," Chapter 3, in Analyzing the Environmental Impacts
of Water Projects, Leonard Ortalano (ed.) , Institute for Water Re-
sources Report 73-3, pp. 3-1 to 3-69 (March 1973).
Peter L. Hornbeck, et al., "Visual Values for Highway," Volume 1, a
Resume of the Technical Report of the Same Name, study done for the
Department of Transportation by Landscape Architecture Research Of-
fice, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts (September 1970).
Thomas M. Krauskopf and Dennis C. Bunde , "Evaluation of Environmental
Impact Through a Computer Modelling Process," in R. B. Ditton and
T. L. Goodale (eds.), Environmental Impact Analysis: Philosophy
and Methods , University of Wisconsin, SEA Grant Publication,
Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 107-125 (January 1972).
Luna Leopold, "Quantitative Comparison of Some Aesthetic Factors Among
Rivers ," U.S.G.S. , Circular 620, Washington D .C . (1969).
Luna B. Leopold, et al., "A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact,
U.S.G.S. , Circular 645, Washington, D.C. (1971).
Philip H. Lewis, Jr., "Quality Corridors for Wisconsin," Landscape
Architecture, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 100-108 (January 1964).
172
-------
R. Burton Litton, et al., "An Aesthetic Overview of the Role of Water in
the Landscape," Prepared for the National Water Commission by the
Department of Landscape Architecture, University of California,
Berkeley (July 1971) .
Ian L. McHarg, Design With Nature (Natural History Press, Doutaleday &
Company, Inc., Garden City, New York, 1969).
Dale D. Meredith and Ben B. Ewing, "Systems Approach to the Evaluation
of Benefits from Improved Great Lakes Water Quality," Conference
Proceedings, 1969: 843-870, International Association of Great
Lakes Res.
Allen H. Miller and Bernard V. Niemann, "An Interstate Corridor Selection
Process-The Application of Computer Technology to Highway Location
Dynamics , Phase I ," Environmental Awareness Center and the Depart-
ment of Landscape Architecture, University of Wisconsin (1972).
Erwin Zube, et al., Research Planning and Design Associates, Inc., "Visual
and Cultural Environment ," Appendix N in North Atlantic Regional
Water Resources Study for the N.A.R.W.R.S. Coordinating Committee
(November 1970).
Other Readings Not Reviewed
Nicholas H. Coomber and Asit K. Biswas "Evaluation of Environmental In-
tangibles, Review of Techniques," Ecological System Branch, Research
Coordination Directorate, Policy Planning, and Research Service,
Canada (June 1972) .
Kenneth H. Craik, "Appraising the Objectivity of Landscape Dimensions,"
in Material Environment , Studies in Theoretical and Applied Analysis ,
pp. 292-346, edited by John Krutilla (Resources for the Future, Inc.
Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland 1972).
Peter Jacobs and Douglas Way, Visual Analysis of Landscape Development.
Landscape Architecture Research Office Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts (1968) .
Philip H. Lewis, Jr. and Assoc., "Upper Mississippi River Comprehensive
Basin Study, Appendix B-Aesthetic and Cultural Values," Upper
Mississippi River Basin Coordinating Committee (1969) .
173
-------
R. Burton Litton, Jr., Forest Landscape Description and Inventories: a
Basis for Planning and Design, p. 171, Research Paper PSW-49, Pacific
Forest and Range Experiment Station, U.S.D.A. Forest Service,
Berkeley, California (1968).
"Monitoring the Environment of the Nation," prepared for the Council on
Environmental Quality, Mitre Corp., McLean, Virginia (April 1971).
Marie Morisawa , "Evaluating Riverscapes ," pp. 91-106, in D. R. Coates ,
Ed., Environmental Geomorphology, Proceedings of the First Annual
Geomorphology Symposium Series, State University of New York,
Binghamton, New York (1971).
J. J. Nightswanger , "A Methodology for Inventory Evaluation oi the Scenic
Quality and Related Recreational Value of Kansas Streams," Commerce
Report #PB 199190 16-72-05645.
Carl Steinitz, Timothy Murray, David Sinton , and Douglas Way, A Comparative
Study of Resource Analysis Methods Department of the Army , New England
Division, Corps of Engineers, Waltham, Mass. (1969).
Carl Steinitz and Douglas Way , "A Model for Evaluating the Visual Conse-
quences of Urbanization," in Steinitz, C., and P. Rogers, Qualitative
Values in Environmental Planning: A Study of Resource Use in Urtaan-
izing Watersheds. Office , Chief of Engineers , Department of the Army,
Washington, D.C., 20314 (1969).
"interstate Highway 84 in Rhode Island," (Vol. 2, Chapter 6, "Visual Qual-
ity") , Draft Environmental Impact Statement, Steinitz Rogers Asso-
ciates Inc., for Department of Transportation, State of Rhode Island
and Providence Plantations (May 1972).
Douglas Way and James Knode, "Visual Color Absorptive Levels in Typical
Vegetative Associations," in Steinitz, C., and P. Rogers, Qualitative
Values in Environmental Planning: A Study of Resource Use in Urban-
izing Watersheds. Office, Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army,
Washington, D .C . , 20314 (1969).
User Analysis Methods
Donald Appleyard and Mark Lintell, "Environmental Quality of City Streets:
The Residents Viewpoint," Highway Research Record #356 p. 170 (1971).
174
-------
Ron S. Boster , On the Criteria for and the Possibility of Quantifying
the Aesthetic Aspects of Water Resource Projects," in Toward__a
Technique for Quantifying Aesthetic Quality of Water Resources,
Edited by Perry J. Brown, Utah State University, Logan, Utah
(February 1973) .
Charles L. Jackson, "Scenic Resources, A Study of Scenic Preferences,"
Master of Science Professional Paper, Colorado State University
Department of Recreation Resources , Fort Collins , Colorado (1972).
George L. Peterson and Edward S. Neumann, "Modeling and Predicting Human
Response to the Visual Recreation Environment," Journal of Leisure
Research, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Summer 1969).
Elwood L. Shafer, Jr. and James Mietz , "it Seems Possible to Quantify
Scenic Beauty in Photographs," U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research
Paper NE-162 , Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Upper Darby,
Pennsylvania (1970) .
Gary H. Winkel, "Community Response to the Design Features of Roads,
A Technique for Measurement," Highway Research Record, No. 305
(1970).
Other Readings Not Reviewed
Donald Appleyard, "Styles and Methods of Structuring a City," Environment
and Behavior, Vol. 2, No. 1, June 1970, pp. 100-17.
Donald Appleyard and Lois Fishman, "High Rise Buildings in San Francisco—
The Political Conflict and Some Methods of Assessment ," University
of California at Berkeley (unpublished), 1973.
Donald Appleyard, Kevin Lynch and J. Myer , The View From the Road,
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1965).
Donald Appleyard, G. McKechnie, and H. Older, "Traveller Attitudes to the
Highway Environment," unpublished paper dated 1971.
Tridib Banerjee and Kevin Lynch , "Research Guide for and International
Comparative Study of the Impact of Economic Development on the
Spatial Environment of Children," unpublished mimeo dated September
1971.
175
-------
John Coller, Jr., Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method,
(Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York 1967).
Robert E. Coughlin and Karen A. Goldstein, "The Extent of Agreement Among
Observers on Environmental Attractiveness," RSRI Discussion Paper,
Series #37, Regional Science Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pa. (1970).
Edmond Costantini and Kenneth Huff, "Environmental Concern and Lake Tahoe:
A Study of Elite Perceptions, Backgrounds, and Attitudes," Environ-
ment and Behavior, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 209-242 (June 1972).
Kenneth H. Craik, "The Comprehension of the Everyday Physical Environment,"
Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 34 (January 1968).
R. G. Hopkinson, "The Quantitative Assessment of Visual Intrusion," Journal
of the Town Planning Institute, Vol. 7 #10 (1971).
Robert Kates, "The Pursuit of Beauty in the Environment," Landscape 16 (2),
21-24 (1966-67).
"Response to the Roadside Environment," A. D. Little, Inc., Outdoor Adver-
tising Association of America (1968).
Lowenthal and Riel, "Publications in Environmental Perception," Nos . 1-8,
American Geographic Society, New York (1972).
Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City (Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Press , 1960) .
Edward S. Neumann, "Evaluating Subjective Response to the Recreation En-
vironment," (Ph.D. dissertion, Northwestern University, 1969).
George Peterson, "A Model of Preference: Quantitative Analysis of the
Visual Appearance of Residential Neighborhoods," Journal of Regional
Science (Summer 1967).
Carla B. Rabinowitz and Robert E. Coughlin, "Analysis of Landscape Char-
acteristics Relevant to Preference," RSRI Discussion Paper, Series
#38, Regional Science Research Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. (1970).
Van Der Ryn and Boie , "Value Measurement and Visual Factors in the Urban
Environment," Mimeograph, College of Environmental Design, University
of California, Berkeley (January 1963).
176
-------
W. D. Wenger, Jr. and R. Videbeck, Pupillary Response as a Measure of
Aesthetic Reaction to Forest Scenes," State University of New York,
Syracuse, New York, College of Forestry, Report No. 1, Project K
(September 1968).
Wilson, "Livability of the City: Attitudes and Urban Development," in
Chapin and Weiss, Eds . , Urban Growth Dynamics (no date)
Joachim F. Wohlwill, "Amount of Stimulus Exploration and Preference as
Differential Functions of Stimulus Complexity," Perception and
Psychophysics 4(5): 307-312 (1968).
Aesthetics in Basic Research
Carl-Axel Acking, The Perception of An Interior As A Function of Its
Colour, Section of Architecture Lund Institute of Technology, Lund,
Sweden, 1969. (Translated 1970).
Carl-Axel Acking, "Translation of a Preliminary Research Report 20.12.
1967 Concerning Visual Perception of the Environment," Department
of Theoretical and Applied Aesthetics, Section of Architecture,
Lund Institute of Technology (1967) .
Irwin Altman and William W. Haythorn , "The Ecology of Isolated Groups ,"
Behavioral Science, Vol. 12, No 3 (May 1967).
Irwin Altman, "An Ecological Approach to the Functioning of Social Groups,"
paper presented at NATO symposium on Man in Isolation, Rome, Italy
(October 1969).
Irwin Altman and Evelyn E. Lett, "The Ecology of Interpersonal Relation-
ships: A Classification System and Conceptual Model," Social and
Psychological Factors in Stress (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
1970) .
Irwin Altman, "Territorial Behavior in Humans: An Analysis of the Concept,'
Spacial Behavior of Older People (The University of Michigan—Wayne
State University Press, Michigan, 1970)
Irwin Altman, Dalmus A. Taylor, Ladd Wheeler, "Ecological Aspects of
Group Behavior in Social Isolation," Jour, of Applied Social
Psychology 1, 1 (1971).
177
-------
Irwin Altman, Patricia A. Nelson, Evelyn E. Lett, "The Ecology of Home
Environments," Final Report pursuant to a grant with the Office of
Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
(January 1972) .
Irwin Altman, "Some Perspectives on the Study of Man-Environment Phe-
nomena ," Representative Research in Social Psychology 4, 1, (1973) .
Donald Appleyard, "City Design and the Pluralistic City," in Rodwin ,
Regional Planning for Development (Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology Press , 1969) .
Donald Appleyard, "The Urban Environment: Selected Bibliography Supple-
ment," (December 1972).
John Archea, "HUD International Information Sources Series," U.S. Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development , Office of International Af-
fairs (September 1971) .
John Archea et al., "Socio-Physical Technology—A State of the Art Re-
port," University of Pennsylvania (1971).
Rudolf Arnheim, Visual Thinking (University of California Press, Berkeley,
California , 1969) .
Rudolf Arnheim, Toward a Psychology of Art (University of California Press,
Berkeley, California, 1966).
Rudolf Arnheim, Art and Visual Perception (University of California Press,
Berkeley, California, 1964).
Raymon A. Bauer, Editor, Social Indicators (Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Press, 1966).
Robert B. Bechtel, "Societal Goals Through Design: A Half Process That
Needs to be Made Whole," paper delivered at The American Institute
of Planners Conference , Boston , Massachusetts (October 9 , 1972) .
Clive Bell, Art (Chatto and Windus , London, 1916).
Gwen Bell and Paula MacGreevey, "Behavior and Environment: A Bibliography
of Social Activities in Urban Space," Council of Planning Librarians,
Monticello, Illinois (April 1970).
178
-------
Robert D. Campbell, Lawrence Schlesinger, Betty Jane Schuchman, "Planning
the Man-Environment Interaction," Matrix Research Corporation,
Alexandria, Virginia (April 30, 1970).
F. Stuart Chapin, Jr., Urban Land Use Planning (University of Illinois
Press , 1965) .
Sidney Cohn , Optimizing the Man-Made Environment, Department of City and
Regional Planning, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N .C. ,
May 8, 1970.
Kenneth H. Cralk, "Environmental Psychology—References," New Directions
in Psychology , 4, Theodore M. Newcomb Ed. (Holt, Rinehart , and Winston,
1970) .
R. J. Drechsler, "Affect-stimulating Effect of Colors," Journal of Ab-
normal and Social Psychology, Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 323-328, 1960.
"The 'Quality of Life' Concept," Environmental Protection Agency, Sym-
posium held August 29, 30 and 31 at Arlie House, Warrenton, Virginia
(1972) .
"A Review of State-of-the-Art and Guidelines Derived to Assist in Develop-
ing Environmental Indicators," Environmental Protection Agency,
Summary Report (August 1972).
Land Use and the Environment, An Anthology of Readings, Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, B.C., (1973).
Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford University
Press, Stanford, California, 1965).
James Marston Fitch, "7 Experiential Bases for Aesthetic Decision," in
Harold M. Proshansky , William H. Ittelson, Leanne G. Rivlin , Environ-
mental Psychology—Man And His Physical Setting (Holt , Rinehart and
Winston, Inc. , 1970) .
Barbara Ford, "The Federal Government in Man-Environment Research," De-
sign and Environment (Summer 1971).
Herbert J. Cans, "Planning and Social Life: Friendship and Neighbor Re-
lations in Suburban Communities," Journal of the American Institute
of Planners, Vol. 27, No. 2 (May 1961).
James J, Gibson , The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems (Houghton-
Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts, 1966).
179
-------
James J. Gibson, Perception of the Visual World (Houghton-Mifflin
Boston, Massachusetts, 1950).
Mark Heyman , "Space and Behavior: A Selected Bibliography," Landscape,
13, pp. 4-10
Kenneth E. Hornbeck and Robert W. Shaw, Jr., "Toward a Quantitative Mea-
sure of the Quality of Life," Report on a study conducted under a
grant contract from EPA (Summer 1972).
Peter W. House, "How Do You Know Where You Are Going (Measuring the Quality
of Life," paper presented at a seminar on Multiple Criteria Decision
Making, University of South Carolina (October 26 and 27, 1972).
Hans Huth, "The Aesthetic Emphasis," (1948) in Roderick Nash. Ed.,
Environment and Americans—The Problem of Priorities (Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1972).
Hugh H. Iltis, "The Meaning of Human Evolution to Conservation," Wisconsin
Academy Review, 13(2) (Spring 1966) .
Hugh H. Iltis, "The Optimum Human Environment and its Relation to Modern
Agricultural Preoccupations," The Biologist, Vol. L., No. 34. (June
1968).
Hugh H. Iltis, "Corn and Cows Are Not Enough! The Uses of Diversity,"
First National Congress on Optimum Population and Environment,
Chicago (June 1970).
Alan Jacobs et al. , San Francisco Department of City Planning, The Urban
Design Plan, May 1971, and Preliminary Report No. 4: Existing Form
and Image, San Francisco (1970).
John V. Krutilla , Ed., Natural Environments—Studies in Theoretical and
Applied Analysis (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Mary-
land, 1972).
The Forest Symposium, E. vH. Larson, Ed., USDA, Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station, Pennsylvania (1971)
LeCorbusier, The Radiant City (The Orton Press, New York, 1933).
Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac with Essays on Conservation from
Round River (Oxford University Press, Inc., 1949).
180
-------
V. Lowenfeld, The Nature of Creative Activity (Kegan Paul, London, 1939).
David Lowenthal, "Bibliography on Environmental Perception," American
Geographical Society, New York City (no date).
David Lowenthal, "Not Every Prospect Pleases: What Is Our Criteria for
Scenic Beauty," Landscape , Vol. 12:1, pp 19-23 (1962-63).
Charles C. Lozar "A Methodological Investigation of the Use of the Semantic
Differential and Timelapse Photography to Measure Attitude and Be-
havior in a Military Dining Hall at Chanute AFB," Dept. of the Army,
Construction Engineering Research Lab., Champaign, Illinois (January
1973) .
Charles C. Lozar, "initial Report on the Survey of Occupant-Environment
Interaction Measurement Techniques to Identify and Relate Behavioral
and Physical Design Parameters," Department of the Army, Construc-
tion Engineering Research Lab., Champaign, Illinois (February 1973).
Kevin Lynch, "City Design and City Appearance," in William J. Goodman,
Ed., Principles and Practice of Urban Planning, Washington, D.C.
(1968) .
Kevin Lynch, "A Selected Bibliography on the Sensous Form of the Large-
Scale Environment ," The Urban Landscape (Spring 1973).
Ian McHarg, Design With Nature (Doubleday/Natural History Press, 1969).
W. Michelson , Man and His Urban Environment: A Sociological Approach,
(Addison-Wesley Press , 1970).
William Michelson , "A Selected Bibliography of Writings on the Social
Aspects of the Urban Physical Environment ," University of Toronto
(no date) .
Lewis Mumford, The Urban Prospect (Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. , New
York, 1956) .
Roderick Nash (Ed,) , Environment and Americans--The Problem of Priorities
(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972).
"Experimental R&D Incentives Program Background Study on Social Indicators,"
New World Systems, Inc., prepared in accordance with National Science
Foundation Contract No. 72-744 (July 1972).
181
-------
Rai Okamoto and David Liskamm, Appearance and Design—Principles for the
Design and Development of San Francisco Bay, September 1967.
Leon A. Pastalan "Environment and Behavior: A Bibliography," unpublished,
(under grant from the Educational Facilities Laboratories).
George L. Peterson, "A Model of Preferences: Quantitative Analysis of the
Perception of the Visual Appearance of Residential Neighborhoods,"
Journal of Regional Science, Vol. 7 , No. l.(1967).
R. W. Pickford, Psychology and Visual Aesthetics (Hutchinson Education
Ltd. , London , 1972).
Wolfgang F. E. Preiser , "Behavioral Design Criteria in Student Housing —
The Measure of Verbalized Response to Physical Environment," Research
Report Series No. 1, Environmental Systems Laboratories, College of
Architecture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute (1969).
Harold M. Proshansky , William H. Ittleson , Leanne G. Rivlin, Environmental
Psychology—Man and His Physical Setting (Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc. , New York, 1970).
Amos Rapoport, "Observations Regarding Man-Environment Studies— Bibli-
ography," Man-Environment Systems, P-l (January 1970).
Jesse Reichek, "On The Design of Cities," Journal of the American Insti-
tute of Planners , Vol. 27, No. 2 (May 1961).
Irving Rosow, "The Social Effects of the Physical Environment," Journal
of the American Institute of Planning, Vol. 27, No. 2 (May 1961).
Thomas F. Saarinen, "Perception of Environment," Association of American
Geographers, Washington, D.C . (1969).
B. J. Sabaroff "The Bio-Psychosociological Effects of the Environment
on Man: An Analysis of Currently Available Information, National
Bureau of Standards (April 1966) .
Henry Sanoff, "Social Implications of the Physical Environment with
Particular Emphasis on Housing and Neighborhood Characteristics:
A Bibliography," Council of Planning Librarians, Monticello,
Illinois (August 1970) .
Paolo Soleri , "The City in the Image," (Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, Cambridge, Mass., 1969).
182
-------
Mayer Spivack, Bibliography: Physical Environment and Behavior,
Laboratory of Community Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School (no date),
Toward Master Social Indicators, Stanford Research Institute, paper pre-
pared under grant from U.S. Office of Education, Menlo Park, Califor-
nia (February 1969) .
Svenson, "Differential Perception and Behavioral Response to Change in
Urban Spacial Form," Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology (1967).
Wilson, "Livability of the City: Attitudes and Urban Development," in
Urban Growth Dynamics, Chapin & Weiss, Ed. (no date).
Gary H. Winkel , Roger Malek, Philip Thiel , "The Role of Personality
Differences in Judgments of Roadside Quality, Environment and Be-
havior , Vol. 1, No. 2 (December 1969).
J. Wohlwill and D. Carson, Eds., Environment and the Social Sciences:
Perspectives and Applications, American Psychological Assn. (1972).
M. R. Wolfe and R. D. Shinn, "Urban Design Within the Comprehensive
Planning Process," University of Washington, Department of Urban
Planning (April 1970) .
Steven Zlutnick and Irwin Altman , 'Crowding and Human Behavior," (sup-
ported in part by a grant from the Office of Education, Department
of Health, Education and Welfare), University of Utah (no date).
Proceedings of the Second Annual Workshop on So^io-Physical Technology,
November 1968, The American Institute of Architects (1970).
Section VI
Howard Bloomfield , 'Quest for Quality: An Interview with Forest Service
Chief John R. McGuire," American Forests (October 1972).
California Action Plan for Transportation Planning, Final Draft, (unap-
proved) , California Department of Transportation (June 1973) .
Ivan Chermayeff et al. , The Design Necessity (Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Press 1973) .
183
-------
California Environmental Quality Act of 1970, Public Resources Code,
Division 13, Sections 21000-21174.
"Background Material on Environmental Quality and Natural Resources,"
Job 2900, Comprehensive Planning Organization, San Diego (January
1972) .
"Policies and Recommendations for Determining Regional Significance and
Prematurity of Development," Comprehensive Planning Organization,
R-5, San Diego (February 1973) .
"The Regional Model System and the Planning/Decision Making Process:
A Non-Technical Description," Comprehensive Planning Organization,
San Diego (April 1972).
"Summary of Findings and Recommendations , Coastal Area Planning and
Management Policies," Initial Coastline Study and Plan, Comprehensive
Planning Organization, Job Number 4901, San Diego County (June 1973).
"Working Paper: Coastal Vistas," Initial Coastline Study and Plan,
Comprehensive Planning Organization, Job Number 4901, San Diego
County (December 1972).
Goals and Objectives for the San Diego Region," Comprehensive Planning
Organization, Regional Goals Committee, San Diego (November 1972).
"Public Buildings and Space," General Services Administration, ADM P
1000.2B CHGE 1, Washington, D.C. (May 1, 1973).
Jacobs and Way, "A Systems Analysis Model of Urbanization and Change,"
in Steinitz and Rogers, MIT Report 20 (1970).
Boris Kachura, "Development of the PBS Environmental Assessment Procedure:
Status Report," Public Buildings Service, General Services Adminis-
tration, Washington, D.C. (July 19, 1973).
Shiraz Kaderali , "A Visual Analysis Model," Pacific Gas and Electric
Company, San Francisco (November 1972).
Marilyn W. Klein, "Highway Research Board Environmental Workshop, National
Academy of Sciences, July 7-9, 1971," Department of Transportation
Memorandum TEU-12 , Washington, D.C. (July 28, 1971).
Marilyn W. Klein, "Participation in Environmental Guidelines Committee,
Pursuant to Section 136b of the 1970 Highway Act, Aesthetics Team,"
Department of Transportation Memorandum TEU-12 (May 27, 1971).
184
-------
Jon A. Kusler, Farnum Alston, Environmental Impact Evaluation Procedures,
Some Recommendations for Wisconsin," University of Wisconsin , Insti-
tute for Environmental Studies, Madison, Wise. (December 1972).
Robert C. Lucas, "The Challenge and the Response to Forest Service Wilder-
ness Management in the Rockies," Naturalist (Minneapolis), Vol. 22,
No. 3 (1971).
Kevin Lynch, Sasaki, Dawson & Demay Associates, Inc., "Looking at The
Vineyard," Vineyard Open Land Foundation, Martha's Vineyard (1973).
Marvin L. Manheim , Reaching Decisions about Technological Projects with
Social Consequences: A Normative Model (Elsevier Scientific Pub-
lishing Company, Amsterdam, 1973).
Marvin L. Manheim, "Report to Congress on Section 109(h), Title 23, U.S.
Code—Guidelines Relating to the Economic, Social and Environmental
Effects of Highway Projects" (August 1972) .
Regional Transportation Plan for the San Francisco Bay Area," Metropolitan
Transportation Commission (June 1, 1973).
"The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969," Public Law 91-190,
January 1, 1970.
"National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act of 1965," Public
Law 209—89th Congress, as amended through July 20, 1970.
"Criteria for Selecting Consultants," National Park Service, Denver Service
Center (April 1973) .
Planning and Design Process," National Park Service, Denver Service Cen-
ter (April 1973).
Planning and Design Standards,' National Park Service, Denver Service
Center (April 1973).
Martin J. Redding, Guidelines for Incorporating Factors of Aesthetic and
Visual Impact into the Planning Process of Transportation Systems,"
U.S. Department of Transportation (August 1971).
Environmental Impact Report Procedural Ordinance, City of San Diego, Ordi-
nance No. 10952, November 24, 1972, amended by Emergency Ordinance
No. 10961, December 22, 1972.
185
-------
Guidelines for Implementation of California Environmental Quality Act
and for Processing Environmental Impact Reports and Negative Declara-
tions ," City of San Diego Environmental Quality Department, San Diego
(March 1973).
"issues San Diego," City of San Diego Planning Department, San Diego (1972)
"City of San Francisco, Environmental Quality, San Francisco Administrative
Code, Chapter 13 (Draft)," (February 22, 1973).
"San Francisco Urban Design Study Preliminary Report #7," San Francisco
Department of City Planning, San Francisco (October 1970).
"The Urban Design Plan of the Comprehensive Plan of San Francisco," San
Francisco Department of City Planning, San Francisco (May 1971).
"Action Plan," U.S. Department of Agriculture-Forest Service (June 1972).
"National Forest Landscape Management," Volume I, U.S. Department of
Agriculture Forest Service (February 1973) .
"Visual Resource Management Guides , Visual Quality Standard Determination
and Application," U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service,
California Region (March 1973).
"Forest Landscape Management," Volume I, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service, Northern Region (February 1973).
"Order on Procedures for Considering Environmental Impacts," U.S. Depart-
ment of Transportation, Memorandum 5610.1A (no date).
"Process Guidelines (Economic, Social and Environmental Effects on High-
way Projects)," U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Policy and Procedure Memorandum 90-4 (September 21,
1972) .
State of Wisconsin, Environmental Quality—Governmental Consideration,
Assembly Bill 875, Chapter 274, Laws of 1971.
Appendix
Benjamin O. Davis, "Proposed Final Environmental Impact Statement and Sec-
tion 4(f) Determination—1-70 (Glenwood Canyon/Cottonwood Pass),"
U.S. Department of Transportation Memorandum TES-70 (March 12, 1973),
186
-------
Larry Isaacson, Barry L. Peterson, Park and Recreation Facilities, U.S.
Department of Transportation, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. (March 1971).
"Northwest Colorado Radio System," U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Mountain Bell
(informational pamphlet, no date).
"Planning Considerations for Winter Sports Resort Development," U.S.D.A.
Forest Service, National Ski Areas Association (1973).
Highway Joint Development and Multiple Use, U.S. Department of Transporta-
tion, Environmental Development Division, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. (February 1970).
4U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1973 546-313/170 1-3 187
-------
-------
SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
t Tut
AESTHETICS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
£^:**w,.
i^W^i^i*"1' , ! " T'S! ,%» *
%r«^
Slfe^^ic: :•
^.o?>iw
»• ' '?!, ; -V"-^ "ji
'• ' '•-". .** "''.' ' V ' -i ,;, .
,fi" ;-'".; -M;..,. -".'.. -T,;,;''
•f, f "=;"""" ,f
Bagley, Marilyn D.; Kroll, Cynthia A.; Clark, Kristin
Stanford Research Institute
Operations Evaluation Department
SRI Project
EGU(820)-2658
802441
Environmental Protection Agency report
number EPA-600/5-73-009, November 1973.
This report addresses the relationship of aesthetics to environmental planning.
The primary emphasis of the research is on the man/environment interaction, with the
ultimate goal directed toward improving the understanding of aesthetic concepts and
the implication of using those concepts in research and planning activities.
The historical development of the Western concept of aesthetics is explored with
the aim of showing the relation of the concept to the particular set of attitudes
at each period, to illuminate the way in which present concepts relate to today's
world.
Methodologies for measuring or quantifying aesthetics are reviewed, as well as
a review of the state of the art of research in basic theory for understanding the
unquantifiable. A similar review of selected planning agencies guidelines and
procedures for integrating aesthetics into the planning process is followed with an
outline of suggested future research needs.
Aesthetics, Environmental Effects, Quality Control, Decision Making, Design Standards,
Design Criteria, Planning, Federal Agencies, Federal Reservations, Regional Analysis,
City Planning, Beautif ication, Scenery.
17b. Idpntifiurs
Environmental Management, Measurement and Quantification of Aesthetic Quality,
Assessment Methodologies.
rtjtr jftr ein&
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
US DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON D C 2O24O
Marilyn D. Bagley.
Cynthia A. Krbll
Stanford Research Institute
-------
------- | |