MRI69 FR-890
FINAL REPORT
P1RTICUUTE EMISSIONS. PLUME
RISE, AM DIFFUSION FROM
A TILL STICK
VOLUME I TECHNICAL REPORT
by
Brand L. Niemann
Margaret C. Day
Paul B. MacCready, Jr.
to
Meteorology Division
National Air Pollution Control Administration
U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Durham, N. C.
Contract CPA 22-69-20
Meteorology Research, Inc.
464 West Woodburv Road
Altadena, California 91001
January 1970
-------
EM
Final Report
on
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS, PLUME
RISE, AND DIFFUSION FROM
A TALL STACK
VOLUME I. TECHNICAL REPORT
V,
°fc to
\_ Meteorology Division
National Air Pollution Control Administration
U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Durham, N. C.
% Contract CPA 22-69-20
by
Brand L. Niemann
Margaret C. Day
Paul B. MacCready, Jr.
Meteorology Research, Inc.
464 West Wnodbury Road
Altadena, California 91001
January 1970
MRI69 FR-890
*
-------
FOREWORD
The work was carried out as part of the Large Power Plant
Effluent Study (LAPPES) conducted by the National Air Pollution Control
Administration. Sponsorship was by NAPCA under Contract CPA 22-
69-20 and modifications.
We wish to acknowledge the help of NAPCA personnel in carrying
out this program, specifically Mr. Frank Schiermeier, LAPPES Field
Manager, and Mr. Larry Niemeyer and Mr. Charles Hosier of the
Division of Meteorology.
Many MRI personnel have been involved in the work, in addition to
the primary authors. Dr. Theodore B. Smith contributed to the evaluation
and writeup. Mr. Robin Williamson was in charge of the flight operations
and served as pilot. Mr. Alan Miller was flight observer and handled
the instrumentation. Mr. David Leavengood was field project manager.
Mrs. Ruby Wen and Mr. Gary Korell were responsible for the computer
programming. Mr. William Green was very helpful in the particle
analysis, as was Dr. Betty Behl.
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SUMMARY
The primary MRI field role on the LAPPES I experiment at the
Keystone Power Plant in Pennsylvania, October 1968, was to make
airborne measurements of the environment and of plume characteristics.
The special measurements were those of turbulence, taken with a
Universal Indicated Turbulence System (UITS) and particles collected
with a Moving Slide Impactor. In addition to the aircraft flights, MRI
made sequential photographs of the plume from a camera on the ground.
The resulting data have been reduced and are presented in
computer printout and computer plots in two extensive companion volumes
The data reduction techniques are described here, and samples of the
data are given.
This volume also contains a brief evaluation of much of the data.
The results of the particulate measurements are somewhat ambiguous .
The environmental variability was large, and tended to obscure the
superimposed plume characteristics. A scanning electron beam micro-
scope gave the most definitive results.
The aircraft-derived data and photogrammetric data on plume
rise and diffusion have been evaluated with two main aims in mind:
(1) to ascertain the usefulness of the turbulence system for diffusion
studies, and (2) to compare the observations with standard plume rise
and diffusion theory. It must be recognized that on this brief and
limited field program it was not possible to develop and apply rigorous
techniques throughout and so the conclusions cannot be based on the
desired statistical significance.
The UITS was very useful in delineating the height of the layer
throughout which the environmental mixing would eventually spread the
plume. This height was sometimes appreciably greater than might have
been inferred merely from noting stable regimes from temperature
soundings. The plume would usually rise still higher from its own
buoyancy and momentum. The plume diffusion even into the area of
fumigation appeared dominated by its own initial turbulent energy, rather
than by environmental turbulence. The aircraft flights did not provide
data in this early stage of plume growth, so there was no opportunity
to relate this diffusion quantitatively to theory. For subsequent
regions, the aircraft UITS data were evaluated to give effective ver-
tical exchange coefficients by the technique of relating the exchange
coefficient to the observed small-scale energy multiplied by the four-
thirds power of a dominant eddy scale. On the cases available for photo-
grammetric evaluation in this fumigation region, which started at a
11
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distance of about 1 km, the cloud generally filled the mixing layer and
so rate information could not be ascertained for comparison with the ex-
change coefficients . The UITS data were also used to estimate surface
shear and roughness; the technique shows promise, but requires the
use of flight trajectories established specifically for this purpose if
statistical significance is to be obtained.
The aircraft and photogrammetric data on plume rise were com-
pared with standard prediction methods. It was found that the plume rise
followed a power law with an exponent somewhat less than the 0.67 often
suggested. The observations were fitted to a ground concentration prediction
equation, and the resulting predictions of SC>2 concentration at the ground
were compared with observations. The data available on this program
were not suitable for quantitative study of the lateral spread of the cloud.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD i
SUMMARY ii
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. FIELD PROGRAM DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTATION 3
III. ESTIMATING TO AND z0 11
IV. THE DECAY OF THE TURBULENCE IN THE PLUME 16
V. PARTICULATE MEASUREMENTS 19
VI. METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT AND THE
TALL STACK PLUME 33
VII. PLUME RISE AND DIFFUSION 51
Vin. PRELIMINARY COMPARISON OF MODEL PREDICTIONS
AND OBSERVATIONS 66
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 72
REFERENCES 74
Appendix A, QUANTITATIVE PLUME DATA FROM GROUND
PHOTOGRAPHS
Appendix B. INDEX TO TYPE AND DATE OF DATA RUNS
Appendix C. STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF MRI AIRCRAFT,
ALTITUDE, AND TURBULENCE DATA
IV
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1 INSTRUMENTED AZTEC C 6
2 MOUNTING OF THE MSI IN THE AZTEC 8
3 STACK PRECIPITATE 21
4 DISTRIBUTION CURVES STACK PRECIPITATE, FLY
ASH, AND THE ENVIRONMENT 22
5 LIGHT SCATTERING PLOT 24
6 SLIDE #4-18, BLACK FIELD PHOTO-MICROSCOPY 26
7 SLIDE #4-18, STEREOSCAN ELECTRON MICROSCOPE 27
8 SLIDE #11-16, STEREOSCAN OF AMBIENT AJR 29
9 SLIDE #4-18, ADDITIONAL STEREOSCAN PHOTOS 30
10 NAPCA PIBAL WIND PROFILE AT KEYSTONE POWER
STATION (0900 EDT - 17 Oct 1968) 35
11 NAPCA PIBAL WIND PROFILE AT KEYSTONE POWER
STATION (1000 EDT - 17 Oct 1968) 36
12 NAPCA PIBAL WIND PROFILE AT KEYSTONE POWER
STATION (1200 EDT - 17 Oct 1968) 37
13 METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR PHOTO
PERIODS 1 AND 2 39
14 METEOROLOGICAL, ENVIRONMENT FOR PuOTO
PERIOD 3 40
15 METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR PHOTO 41
PERIOD 4
16 METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT i OR PHOTO
PERIOD 5 43
17 METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR PHOTO
PERIOD 6 44
v
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued)
Figure Page
18 METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR PHOTO
PERIOD 7 46
19 10-MILE TERRAIN-FOLLOWING RUN DOWNWIND
FROM CONEMAUGH STACKS 48
20 NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTER LINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 3 52
21 NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTER LINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 4 53
22 NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTER LINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 5 54
23 NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTER LINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 6 55
24 NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTER LINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 7 56
25 CENTERLINE GROWTH ABOVE STACK TOP 58
26 CENTERLINE GROWTH ABOVE STACK TOP 58
27 CLOUD GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS, PHOTO
PERIOD NO. 3 66
28 CLOUD GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS, PHOTO
PERIOD NO. 4 67
29 SO2 GROUND LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS, PHOTO
PERIOD NO. 3 69
30 SO2 GROUND LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS, PHOTO
PERIOD NO. 4 70
VI
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I. INTRODUCTION
NAPCA has a strong interest in studying the usefulness of large
stacks for minimizing high pollution levels. The Large Power Plant
Effluent Study (LAPPES) is a coordinated program involving NAPCA
personnel and contractors to study the subject, using for experimental
purposes the plume from the 245-meter high stack at the Keystone
Generating Station in western Pennsylvania. The particular goal of the
program is to refine and verify the predictive models used to estimate
pollutant concentrations from such high stacks. Present models have
been tailored to data primarily from much lower stacks, and where
complex terrain effects are not dominant. Thus one does not yet have
sufficient background in prediction of concentrations from high stacks,
especially in complex terrain, to have the desired confidence when
justifying their great expense.
In 1968, the LAPPES program involved two field experimental
periods. The MRI participation was during the second of these,
October 15-24. The primary MRI field role was to make airborne
measurements of the environment and of plume characteristics. One
special measurement was of particles in the plume, to ascertain
something about the concentration and size distribution for comparison
with the concurrent lidar observations being conducted by SRI. The
main other special measurement was of the turbulence intensity, within
and outside of the plume, using the UITS (Universal Indicated Turbulence
System). This gives a measure of e , the turbulent energy dissipation
rate, and the energy in the small-scale turbulent eddies; e is an
important input into certain forms of diffusion evaluations. There was
very little time to prepare for the MRI field measurements, oecause of
lateness of the start of the contract and due to prior commitments on
the use of the airplane elsewhere immediately preceding the LAPPES
operation. Nevertheless, on the whole the airborne measurements
yielded useful data. The most significant problem was that the particle
evaluations could not be made definitive with the techniques then available
for data acquisition and evaluation. A scanning beam electron microscope
became available only late in the program; it proved to be very helpful.
Questions remain as to the size distributions and concentrations of the
plume particles.
In addition to the aircraft observations, MRI operated a ground
camera sequentially photographing the plumes from the side. These
pictures have been reduced to provide plots of plume sizes and position
for comparison with theoretical predictions of plume rise, and for
comparison of the usefulness of the photographic technique with the lidar
method. The MRI role also included a brief assessment of the applica-
bility of various theories to these experimental data.
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The SRI lidar study has already been reported on completely by
Johnson and Uthe (1969). The Sign-X Laboratory results have been
presented by Proudfit (1969). The total MRI report consists of three
volumes. This one, Volume I, presents evaluations and summaries of
the data. Volumes II and III are extensive data supplements, available
in only limited supply from NAPCA or MRI. Volume II contains
summary listings, codes, and maps, and then for each program day:
ESSA Weather Map
Selected Tracings of Plume Photographs and True
Plume Profiles
Pibal Wind Profile Plots
MRI Aircraft Flight Track Maps
MRI Aircraft Data Plots
Volume III contains computer listings of aircraft data and smoke plume
photogrammetry data.
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t
II. FIELD PROGRAM DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTATION
Th» Overall Program
The October 1968 coordinated field observational program at the
Keystone Electric Generating Plant, designated LAPPES I, involved
personnel and equipment from NAPCA, SRI, Sign-X, and MRI. A brief
summary of the total data-taking plan is given below:
Plant Engineer:
Hourly readings of plant parameters for calculation of (1) exit
velocity, (2) heat emission, (3) SO2 source strength, and (4) fly ash
quantity and composition.
Meteorologists :
Pilot balloon launch every 30 minutes, double theodolite tracking.
Position read every 30 seconds.
Continuous ground level recordings of temperature, barometric
pressure, and relative humidity.
Rabal sounding at airport at noon each test day.
Airborne Activities:
Helicopter-mounted SOg sensor.
MRI instrumented aircraft
1. Universal Turbulence Indicator
2. Moving Slide Impactor (samples particles up to 10 |_tm)
3. Continuous Particle Collector (samples particles larger than
10 (_im)
4. Nephelometer (measures total light scattering of airborne
particles and aerosols)
5. Stationary nose-mount of 1 6 mm time-lapse camera set for
exposure every 2 seconds
6. 12-channel Brush oscillograph chart recorder for the following
parameters:
digital clock time heading
airspeed temperature
altitude e (turbulence)
7. Meteorologist-observer with voice recorder.
Ground Activities:
1. Stanford Research, Inc., van-mounted lidar (laser radar)
recording plume cross sections.
-------
2. 35-mm single camera color photos from ground sites nearly
normal to plume path taken at 2-minute intervals.
Unfortunately, an electronic malfunction developed in the Nephelo-
meter during its operation on the way to the site from California, and there
was insufficient time to rectify the problem in the field. The lack of this
device hampered the program by prohibiting us from making direct light
scattering measurements for comparison with lidar backscattering, and
by making it more difficult to delineate plume edges and cross-section
characteristics.
Data on the MRI ground photography are given in Appendix A.
The MRI flights with the instrumented Aztec C are summarized in
Table I. Appendix B goes into further detail, showing how the 110 distinct
data acquisition portions of the flights are put into coded categories.
Appendix C further explains the run labeling system and gives data on
altitudes and turbulence.
The program was scheduled to take place in the fall to take advantage
of the extreme stability that occurs during a stagnant high in that area at
that time of the year. All trials were conducted from 15 to 22 October 1968.
Plant Description
A map showing the topography and locations in the Keystone vicinity
is presented in Volume II. The topography around Keystone appears on
maps comprising Figs. 2 through 8 in Appendix A of this report.
The Keystone Power Station is 10 miles WNW of Indiana, Pennsylvania.
Its base is at 1010 ft MSL. The two adjacent tall stacks are 800 ft high, or
1810 ft MSL at the top. The two evaporative cooling towers which were in
operation are 325 ft high. They are about 700 ft E of the tall stacks. The
surrounding terrain is gently rolling farmland with trees and fields. Homer
City Power Station is 8-1/2 miles S of Indiana. Ground elevation at its base
is 1280 ft MSL with 800-ft high stacks. It is located on a hilltop with woods
and fields surrounding it. The Conemaugh Power Station is 17 miles SSE
of Indiana. Its base is at 1050 ft MSL in the narrow river valley of the
Conemaugh River, with its stacks towering 1200 ft above ground. This
valley runs roughly E-W at this point and the valley walls extend to over
2000 ft MSL. The local headquarters of the MRI operation were at Jimmy
Stewart Airport just E of Indiana.
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Flight
No. by
Date Day
15 Oct 68
16 Oct 68
17 Oct 68
17 Oct 68
18 Oct 68
20 Oct 68
20 Oct 68
20 Oct 68
21 Oct 68
21 Oct 68
22 Oct 68
22 Oct 68
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
Table I
MRJ DATA COLLECTING FLIGHTS
Flight of A/ C Strip
Entire Charts
Project Available
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
some rain
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
SRI cooperate
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
SRI cooperate
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
SRI cooperate
Turbulence and Temperature Flight,
CPC only
Field Mill and Turbulence Flight
Field Mill and Turbulence Flight
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
SRI cooperate
Turbulence run only
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
SRI cooperate
CPC and MSI Particle Collecting Flight,
SRI cooperate
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Aircraft and Its Instrumentation
Figure 1 shows the instrumented Aztec. This supercharged airplane
has been used primarily in cloud physics studies. Such studies require
particulate collections and turbulence measurements, which are important
factors in air pollution work. Thus this aircraft which had just come from
a cloud physics field program was ready, with slight modification, for the
LAPPES program.
The main variables recorded on the Brush oscillograph were air
temperature, pressure altitude, compass heading, turbulence intensity
(UITS), plus timing marks and special event marks. The observer-operator
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recorded voice notes on a magnetic tape recorder as well as keeping some
notes on a pad. The Integrating Nephelometer and potential gradient unit
were installed but not operated during the program.
One particle sampling device was the Continuous Particle Collector
(CPC). This is described in detail by MacCready and Todd (1964). A
film coated with a liquid plastic is continuously moved past a slit exposed
to the ambient air on an arm extending several feet outside the side of the
nose of the aircraft. Particles impact on the film, and are encapsulated
in the plastic which hardens in a matter of seconds. The deposit is then
preserved for evaluation: for viewing by projecting in a standard 16-mm
stop-motion movie projector, or for quantitative evaluation by taking
photomicrographs -which are examined on a semi-automated analog-digital
converter. One great virtue of the technique is that the shape of the
impacted particle is preserved as a. casting, even though it may contain
liquid which evaporates through the film. At typical flight speeds, some
particles down to 2 )jm diameter are collected, although questionable
collection efficiencies in this size range make it difficult to give quantita-
tive concentration results for particles below 4 or 5 ym diameter.
The main sampling device was the MRI Moving Slide Impactor (MSI).
This device and the associated evaluation techniques are fully described by
Goetz (1969). In this instrument, a deposit is continually impacted via a
vacuum system onto a very smooth metal slide. The slide is steadily moved
perpendicular to the impaction slit, yielding a time-varying deposit spread
out along the slide. The slit design permits good impaction with low
pressure drop, thereby disturbing the particles less than is the case with
standard impactor slits, and the design features a very sharp deposition
width, affording excellent time resolution on the slide. Evaluation was by
standard photomicrograph techniques. Most of the evaluation was per-
formed from pictures taken with dark field illumination; this permitted
counting (but not sizing) of particles considerably smaller than the wave-
length of light. For a few cases, a scanning electron beam microscope
was employed to give very accurate data for all particle sizes. A light-
scattering intensity meter was used for quick scans of the slides. With a
stronger vacuum than was used here, the MSI collects particles down to
about 0. 1 |jm diameter. For this project, the complete cutoff was at about
0.2 |jm. Some particles larger than about 10 (jm will tend to get deposited
in the inlet and entrance tubing. Figure 2 shows the location of the MSI in
the Aztec. The MSI had two slits depositing side by side on the slide. A
flow of 5. 2 liters/min was drawn through each slit. The air would take
about 2 sec from the time it entered the tube until it passed through the
impactor.
Turbulence was measured with the UITS described by MacCready
(1964a, 1966). High frequency pressure (airspeed) fluctuations are
-------
MSI sample drawn through 5'
of 1/Z" diameter Tygon tubing
as shown.
MSI
Fig. 2. MOUNTING OF THE MSI IN THE AZTEC
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measured with a pilot-static pressure differential system, and the turbu-
lent energy is found in a particular frequency range (the inertial subrange
of eddy sizes) where the transducer response is good and where the
aircraft provides a stable platform. The system automatically adjusts
system gain as a function of mean indicated airspeed and as a result is
able to yield an output which is a measure of turbulence intensity inde-
pendent of speed or aircraft type. The intensity value output, R, is
actually (ep/pg)1' where p is density, Po represents sea level condi-
2 3
tions, and e is the dissipation rate (cm sec" ). For the Keystone flights,
the altitude was always low enough so that the density ratio p/po could be
assumed to be unity to the accuracy required of the measurements. The
instrument time constant was set at 1 sec. Although the measurement
technique for e involves the inertial subrange of eddy sizes, and many
applications of e are made in the inertial subrange, knowledge of ~. is
also of considerable value in some processes involving far larger scales.
Such is the case in some diffusion instances and in the estimating of
surface factors from aircraft measurements, as are discussed later in
this report.
Test Procedure
A general schedule was made up for the various participants of the
program so everyone would have equal opportunity to complete their
contractual commitments.
MRI was scheduled to fly in the area of the Power Plant and to 8 mi
downwind of the stacks from 0850 to 1000 and 1135 until 1315 on a normal
operating day without interfering with any of the other measurements
that were being made. MRI could also operate in the plume at distances
downwind of the stack greater than 8 mi at times other than the scheduled
ones.
A typical flight is shown in Volume II. It went as follows:
I. Takeoff from Jimmy Stewart Airport and head west to the Power
Plant.
2. Make an upward spiral sounding upwind of the power plant for
meteorological conditions and background particle samples, from
1500 to 5000 ft MSL.
3. Proceed to 2 mi downwind - make five or six horizontal sampling
traverses across the plume for particles and meteorological condi-
tions. Sample at the center, top, and bottom of the plume to give a
vertical profile of conditions. If possible sample at the same time
as the lidar measurements.
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4. Proceed to five miles downwind and repeat the above sampling
crosswind traverses.
5. Proceed to 10 mi downwind and repeat the crosswind sampling
traverses.
6. Make a spiral sounding at 10 mi downwind for particle sampling
and meteorological measurements.
7. Fly an along-plume traverse from 10 mi downwind to the Power
Plant, attempting to stay along the centerline of the plume.
8. Return to the Airport.
9. Repeat the preceding steps in the late morning-early afternoon
scheduled period.
For some of the days of the program, the preceding flight plan
was modified to provide some background data for the Homer City and
Conemaugh Power Plant areas. After the along-the-plume sample was
taken from 10 mi downwind to the Keystone Power Plant, the aircraft
would proceed to Homer City. There another spiral sounding would be
made for meteorological variables and background particles. After the
sounding, a horizontal traverse down-wind of the stack -would be made
for about 5 mi. The aircraft would fly to Conemaugh and repeat the
foregoing procedure.
On a few of the flights, special particulate sampling runs were
made as requested by SRI to enhance the potential correlation between
the lidar and particle sampling.
10
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in. ESTIMATING T0 AND z0
The Basic Relationship
It is generally accepted that for neutral (adiabatic) stability, the
turbulent kinetic energy equation for a given level can be written
where T is the shearing stress, p is density, U is the wind speed,
z is altitude, and e is the rate at which turbulent kinetic energy is
dissipated into heat. For non-adiabatic cases, terms for the vertical
flux of heat and kinetic energy would have to be added to (1). In
adiabatic conditions over homogeneous terrain, the logarithmic wind
profile is valid
9U
where TO is the shearing stress at the surface, and k is the von Karman
constant. If we make the additional assumption that the shearing stress
is invariant between the surface and the level where (1) is applied, then
the two equations can be used to show
T0 = p(kze)2/ 3 (3)
Thus, from, a measurement only of e at some known height, TO can be
found.
The logarithmic wind profile, in integrated form, is
z _
Combining (4) with (3) gives
k2/ 3 U
Inz0 = Inz - 1/3 /3 (5)
Zj t,
Thus, z0 can be estimated from measurements of e and U at some
known height.
Range of Usefulness
The above relationships should be valid for steady-state conditions,
in neutral stability, over homogeneous terrain, throughout the layer
1 1
-------
where T is constant. In the real case, the conditions are not the
idealized ones, but the validity of the concept may be adequate for at
least qualitative estimates of T0 and z0. The validity can be studied
by examining the accuracy of (1) and (2).
Dr. Leonard Myrup (private communication) has pointed out that,
concerning (1), Hess and Panofsky (1966) have presented strong evidence
that under unstable conditions there is a strong tendency for energy
produced by buoyancy to be exported aloft. That is, the omitted terms
of (1) tend to balance even under rather unstable conditions. Thus the
simplified equation may be valid over a wider range than originally
thought.
As for (2), its accuracy depends on stability. One can use the more
accurate exponential wind profile introduced by Swinbank (1964)
where L is a measure of atmospheric stability which can be estimated
from knowledge of wind speed and temperature gradient. This more
accurate equation should be employed if the most accurate 1Q measure-
ments are desired, but it is much more complex than (2 ) and requires
additional observational data. Over land, we estimate (2) will usually
be accurate enough for altitudes of well above 30 meters for cases of
moderate instability, and altitudes exceeding 100 meters for cases close
to neutral stability.
As to the constancy of T -with height, in the practical case this
should be a reasonable assumption for an atmospheric layer deeper than
that for which (1) and (2) are valid.
The obvious approach to using airborne e measurements and U
observations for To and z0 calculations is to take advantage of the
cases where the relationships are most applicable. This -would be in
strong wind cases, in neutral or slightly unstable lapse rates. For stable
cases, the method seems unfeasible.
Observations
Observational data to use with the above approach for T0 and z0
estimates were obtained on the project on a low priority basis. The
flight measurements and notes were primarily made for other purposes,
but nevertheless can be used here to illustrate the technique.
For the calculation of TO by (3), the best method from the stand-
point of simplicity and statistical reliability is to fly at one constant,
12
-------
low altitude z and measure the average e. The existence of rolling
terrain made this difficult, as did the requirement to concentrate flight
observations at plume heights and also avoid lower elevations where
helicopters were operating. On the first day of the project, we did such
flights, since the helicopters •were not operating, and there were several
other instances during the program. In other cases, the best data are
derived from sporadic vertical soundings at several locations, where
data were obtained down to about 150 meters above the ground. Since
individual z£ values have no statistical validity, average z£ values
have to be used. For horizontal flight, the e averages were obtained
by eye. For the vertical soundings, the z £ averages throughout the
lowest observed several hundred meters were used. For estimating
these latter averages, overlays were prepared giving constant ;0 lines
as a function of z and e , for the scales used in the data presentation
of Volume II, the Processed Data Supplement. Estimated values of ;0
were read off the computer plots of e vs. z with the help of these
overlays. There is great variability to the e soundings, so the resulting
indicated T0 values must be deemed crude estimates only. Soundings
•were used only if some suggestion of an inverse z -
-------
Table HI
HORIZONTAL TRAVERSE DATA AND SURFACE ESTIMATES
Date Time Case Height* Turbulence Location Stability
1969 # z = £
(m) (cm2sec~3)
z0
(m/s) {dynes/cm2) (cm)
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
15
17
20
20
20
1407
1210
0943
1003
1008
58
80
81
82
110
160
160
110
160
50
70
70
0.4(1 st |)
4.0(2nd £)
100
Upwind
Keystone
5 Downw =
Keystone
2 Downw.
Keystone
10 Downw.
Keystone
1 0 Downw.
Keystone
?
Neutral
Neutral
Neutral
Neutral
~4
4.6
3.8
4. 1
4. 1
4.
7.
7.
1.
8.
9.
4
0
0
8
2
0
760
1400
2150
1500
550
2350
* Height is above ground.
** U estimated from pibals at 180 m above ground.
The estimates of T0 seem not unreasonable, most being in the range
2 to 8 dynes/cm2. Putting this in terms of u#, this means 41 to 82 cm/sec.
The z0 values are far more erratic, varying over more than three orders
of magnitude. It should be expected that the z0 computations would show
far more scatter because of two factors. First, an additional variable, U,
is required in their calculation, and the U is here derived from a spot
measurement at a location which may not be representative of the region
of the £ measurements. Second, the computation involves finding the
small difference between two large quantities (5), and so errors in U, e,
and z produce large uncertainties in zo- The calculated zo values
are mostly quite large. One might have expected values in the 30 to 300
cm range, from noting the generally rolling terrain, some trees, and the
large power plant complexes themselves. In all these interpretations, the
non-homogeneity of the turbulent regimes in time and space should add
appreciably to the scatter. One clear example of this is the double case
(#81) on Table III. For the first half of the horizontal run, e was low,
while for the second half it was high, hence yielding different T0 and z0
values. In the z0 calculations, the extreme values came from two of the
three "stable" cases, a not unexpected result since the air at the aircraft
observational altitude is effectively decoupled from the ground.
This attempt at deriving T0 and z0 from aircraft measurements
must be deemed as introducing the concept, not trying to use the concept
to obtain practical numbers. For proper exploitation of the method, the
flights should be lower (say, 100 m or below), height should be accurately
monitored (say, by radar altimeter in complex terrain situations), the
14
-------
observations should extend over distances or times affording a chance
for statistical significance, and cases should be chosen where the wind
is strong and the lapse rate close to neutral. Obviously the most
definitive tests would be over terrain where prior or present projects
established the To and z0 values for comparison.
Slade (1969) has derived z0 information for "rough and inhomo-
geneous terrain" around an instrumented tower located in the northwestern
section of Philadelphia. The data came from wind profiles in neutral
conditions. For northerly winds, ZQ was about 270 cm; for southerly
winds, it was considerably less than one meter. Data up to 175 meters
proved useful for the calculation. The z0 for northerly winds is com-
parable to some of the z0 calculations of Tables II and III. Checks of
the airborne instrument technique for deriving z0 would be especially
desirable at this tower location where z0 data have already been
established. The UITS should be helicopter-mounted for the required
low flight over the urban area.
15
-------
IV. THE DECAY OF THE TURBULENCE IN THE PLUME
The initial plume can be expected to contain strong turbulence.
This will decrease in time until the plume turbulence is indistinguishable
from the ambient turbulence. The distance, x*, -where the atmospheric
turbulence begins to dominate entrainment, must be a function of the
stack parameters, environmental stability, and environmental turbulence.
The significant environmental turbulence factor should be e, since the
size scale involved is of the same order of magnitude as the inertial
subrange. Briggs (1969) develops a formula for x*:
x* = 0.43 F^ 5 (p~3Ue~1)3/ 5 (7)
•with g = gravity, QH = heat emission of stack gases, cp is specific heat
of air at constant pressure, p is air density, and T is temperature.
For normal conditions,
F = 3<7.10-spnl/secl-|
Leal/sec J
3 is a non-dimensional coefficient of order unity
U is the mean wind speed.
By finding 3 = 1 empirically, and noting £ vs. U and z empirical
relationships, he further derives:
R / ^
x* = 0. 52 *> 5 ] F^ Shs3/ 5 (hs<1000 ft) (8)
x* = 33 a/ g j F 5 (hs>1000ft) (9)
where hs denotes stack height.
On the present project, there were cases where the plume turbulence
and environmental turbulence were sampled at 2, 5, and 10 miles. Thus
there may be a chance to see if the predictions of (7) are consistent with
the observations. Unfortunately, the data show extreme scatter --
especially, there are big variations in e at different altitudes, all still
at plume heights. The data are summarized in Table IV .
16
-------
Table IV
TURBULENCE VS. DISTANCE
Date Distance No. of e outside
(mi) Traverses
'in plume
in' eout
Oct. 15
Oct. 16
Oct, 17
Oct. 20
2
5
2
5
10
2
5
10
2
10
5
3
3
4
1
5
8*
2
6
1
17
33
8
3
2.3
1.8
0.6
1.9
1.7
9
68
32
20
19
11
11
1.9
15
4.8
114
4.
1.
2.
6
5
6
3
8
2.
13
0
0
5
8
*One strong turbulence traverse omitted.
Using (7) and a representative value of 30 cal/sec X 106 for QH ,
one finds
x* = 4100 m (2.6 miles) for e = 1 cm2sec
-3
* = 533 m (0. 3 mile) for e = 30 cm sec
-3
Comparing such numbers with the experimental data for October 17,
o r_ o
where the ambient turbulence is approximately e = 1 cm sec , we see
the prediction is decay to ambient in a bit over two miles, and the
evidence could be deemed consistent with this if we eliminate the odd
increase in the plume turbulence during one pass at 10 miles. Since
there was also one strong turbulence traverse out of eight at 5 miles,
perhaps the elimination of one data point at 10 miles is not improper.
For October 16, with light turbulence, the data suggest the plume turbu-
lence decays more slowly than (7) would have predicted. For October 15,
with moderate turbulence, the experimental evidence suggests the plume
turbulence is still present at 2 miles but the equation suggests the
ambient turbulence would have taken over completely some time earlier.
The October 20 data beyond 2 miles seem spurious; the existence of
some excess turbulence at 2 miles is not inconsistent with (7).
Using (8), with hs = 245 meters, gives
much smaller than suggested by the data.
x* = 237 m (0. 15 mile),
17
-------
In summary, the data as analyzed show considerable scatter and
so cannot be used to establish an equation's validity. However,
acknowledging the scatter, they are at least not Lncons istent with the thought
that for weak turbulence (7) represents a good starting point but perhaps
somewhat underestimates the distance for the plume turbulence to
decay to the ambient value.
18
-------
V. PARTICULATE MEASUREMENTS
The Three Methods
Particles were directly measured in three ways on the MRI
program.
The first method involved the use of the Charlson Integrating
Nephelometer (Charlson, Ahlquist, Selvidge, and MacCready, 1969).
This was installed on the aircraft with the intention of making measure-
ments on the ferry flight to and from Pennsylvania, as well as during
the experiments at Keystone. The instrument was an airborne unit
borrowed from Dr. Charlson at the University of Washington. It
suffered an electronic failure on the initial ferry flight when about 800
miles from the West Coast and could not be repaired during the course of
the field program. The program had been designed to be able to proceed
without this instrument, but the equipment failure was certainly dis-
appointing because, with its fast response time, this sensor would have
clearly identified the plume position on the aircraft instrument chart
records, and it also would have provided quantitative total scattering
data for comparison with the SRI lidar. After the field program was
completed, the instrument was quickly repaired and it has worked
reliably since, as have other versions of the nephelometer which have
been employed in mobile service in automobiles and aircraft.
The second two-particle measurement methods were aimed at
collecting particles during aircraft traverses through the plume, pri-
marily for comparison with the lidar observations. The methods involved
collecting small particles (in the 0.2 to 10 ^m range) with the Moving
Slide Impactor (MSI), and collecting a larger range of particles (2 to 100
|_im) with the Continuous Particle Collector (CPC). The samples were
collected for subsequent evaluation in the laboratory. The overlap in the
size ranges covered by the instruments was to afford an opportunity for
cross calibrations. In spite of a considerable investment in evaluation
effort, the CPC data were not of particular value to the program. The
main light scattering •was apparently from smaller particles than the
CPC handles, and the few larger particles were difficult to identify on
the film amidst a background of a small number of spurious particles.
The MSI collects particles appropriately over the 0.2 to 10
range, with perhaps some small loss of particles at the large end of this
range due to removal in the tubing prior to the MSI, and a low collection
efficiency at the lower end of the range. The main problem turned out to
be evaluation, not sampling. It was anticipated that the mean particle
size would be 2 or 3 M.m, large enough for at least crude assessment by
means of ordinary microscopy. However, from some preliminary looks
19
-------
at the slides it appeared that the preponderance of particles from plume
regions were smaller than this. Consequently, dark field illumination
photomicroscopy was employed in the main evaluation. This technique
permits counting of particles down to the minimum size being collected
here, although the small particles cannot be sized. The apparent size
depends on illumination -- and various amounts of illumination were
employed so as to try to extract the best possible information from the
technique. To obtain definitive information about the particulates,
scanning electron microscope photos were made of a few slides. These
photos only became available very late in the program. Details on
these approaches are given later in this section.
The Fly Ash
We obtained a sample of the stack particulate through Mr.
Schiermeier of NAPCA. Figure 3 shows this fly ash. Almost all of
it has been fused into clear glassy spheres or globules. There is
relatively little small material. The size distribution of this sample
is given in Fig. 4. This distribution was obtained with normal micro-
scope illumination, not dark field. Mr. Keller of the Keystone Plant
stated the burner runs between 1650 to 1690°C. Almost all the
expected minerals in the effluent melt before this temperature, which
accounts for the fused appearance.
Evaluation of the MSI Samples
There were 84 MSI slide samples taken on this program. The MSI
slides were moved during collection at rates which were varied for different
slides depending on the anticipated density of deposit. There were six
speeds available, from 12 to 384 seconds per slide traverse. During
evaluation, each slide was divided into 18 increments covering the collec-
tion period. Size distributions were measured, and also relative light-
scattering values. The impacted samples proved to be extremely stable,
allowing the samples to be reprocessed as desired.
To obtain the size distributions, photomicrographs were made under
dark field illumination and projected onto a Benson-Lehner OSCAR S-2,
from which IBM cards were punched with a human operator. Initially, the
particles were sized into 2. 5 |j.m intervals, but when it became apparent
that there was a preponderance of small particles, the evaluation technique
was shifted to give 0.5 (am size intervals. Figure 4 shows an example:
the size distribution for MSI sample Slide #4-18, a sample from the plume
10 miles downwind of Keystone. The left-most of the two adjacent curves
20
-------
440 X
Fig. 3. STACK PRECIPITATE
21
-------
10s
MSI Slide 4-18
Position 2
Roll 1 Frame 24,25, & 26
Exposure 0.1,0.2,0.5 sec
Type of Sample Across plume,
10 mi downwind of Keystone
Time 1009 EDT
Altitude 3100' MSL
100% = 1281 particles
Particles lost due
to photographic
definition (13%)
0. 1 sec
exposure
0.5 sec
exposure
Apparent growth
of particles due
to overexposure
of photograph
Distribution of
fly ash from bin of
precipitator
(grouped data)
100% = 899 particles
U
10°
Background particulates
from Conemaugh includ-
ing only particles <1. 5
(jm dia., derived from
Stereoscan.
Slide #11-16.
100% = 1068 particles.
io-]
10° 101
Observed Particle Size (|jm)
Counts Grouped in 0.5 |_m Increments
Fig. 4 . DISTRIBUTION CURVES STACK PRECIPITATE, FLY ASH,
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
22
-------
is deemed the more correct since the shorter exposure decreases the
halo effect on the film. This effect is described in greater detail later.
As will also be described, the distributions handled this way still make
the small particles appear larger than they really are. Thus the Slide
#4-18 curves of Fig. 4 should not be considered accurate; a somewhat
flatter slope should be closer to the truth. Twenty such size distribution
compilations were made, but they are not presented here because they
are considered misleading.
For a quicker assessment of the spatial variation of particle light
scattering, light scattering of the MSI slide deposit was measured by
the method of Goetz (1969). Figure 5 is an example of the resulting
plots. All such plots are given in Vol0 II, the Data Supplement. There
is no absolute calibration available relating this to light scattering in the
atmosphere. If the Integrating Nephelometer had been operable, a crude
calibration would have been achievable. The calibration would vary
somewhat with particle size distribution and material. Even without an
absolute calibration, the light scattering plots are helpful in delineating
the plume as long as particle concentrations are appreciably above the
background noise. In a qualitative way, they should correlate reasonably
with the lidar scattering observations.
The total numbers of particles, rather than the size distributions,
are considered valid. Table V summarizes these concentration data.
Light Microscope Vs. the Scanning Electron Microscope
The two photographs, Fig. 6, are prints of original negatives of
the sample of particulate on Slide #4-18 prepared by the dark field
illumination method. One can clearly see the apparent growth of the
particles as a function of film exposure; the "halo" caused by light
scattering makes it impossible to size the smaller particles accurately.
The photographs are suitable for determining the number of particles;
just a few more are visible in the 1/2-second exposure than in the 1/10-
second exposure.
The series of photographs on Fig. 7 are pictures of exactly the
same particle sample (but a slightly different portion) taken through the
Engis Stereoscan Electron Microscope through the courtesy of Mr. John
Devaney of the Cal Tech Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The second photo
in this sequence has the same magnification (525 X) as the photos on
Fig. 6. The crude "C" shown on the first Stereoscan picture was etched
into the sample on the slide to allow return to the area of interest if
desired. The picture at 525 X still does not answer the question as to the
exact size of the smallest particles. Therefore, magnification was
increased geometrically to 5, 250 X until these smallest particles could be
measured with high confidence. From Fig. 7 it can be observed that the
23
-------
H
O
J
OH
O
z
I—I
Pi
w
H
H
•<
u
w
H
E
O
n
•4
24
-------
Table V
PARTICLE CONCENTRATIONS
SJide # Increment Sample Code Concentration
(particles /cc]
5-16
2-17
16-17
22-17
23-17
24-17
26-17
1-18
4-18
6-18
1-21
4-22
6-22
7-22
8-22
12-22
2
4
10
17
2
12
5
8
17
5
3
2
7
5
10
18
13
13
2
7
01
01
03
02
02
02
02
02
02
19
03
03
03
09
01
01
01
01
01
30
740
495
433
86
102
163
193
146
93
2,815
107
252
293
137
95
36
105
95
80
615
See Volume III for key relating Slide Number to specific time and
location.
Abbreviated 01 2 mi downwind
Sample Code 02 5 mi downwind
Key 03 10 mi downwind
09 Ascending spiral upwind
19 In knee of plume
30 In plume over lidar
25
-------
Film Exposure 1/2 sec
100
Film Exposure 1/10 sec
Fig. 6. SLIDE #4-18, BLACK FIELD PHOTOMICROGRAPHY
Representative sample of the effluent 10 mi. downwind of Keystone.
26
-------
H H
1000 ^m
2. 100X
5.250X
h
10
•10
Fig. 7. SLIDE #4-18. STEREOSCAN ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
27
-------
smallest particles in the sample are of the order of 0. 3 |jm in diameter,
and the sample contains a large percent of particles well below 1 urn.
Figure 8 is an equivalent series of electron microscope photographs
of Slide #11-16. This sample was taken during a spiral sounding over
Conemaugh, more than 50 miles from Keystone. It represents a typical
Pennsylvania background environment. The MSI slide movement was
slower in taking this sample than it was for the sample in Fig. 7 . To
compare the 525 X magnification photos on Figs. 7 and 8, the Fig. 8
deposit should be decreased by a factor of 16. Even taking this into account,
it can be seen that the background environment may constitute a consider-
able percentage of the small particles in the plumes shown in Fig. 7 .
The approximate particle size distribution derived from Fig. 8 is
indicated on Fig. 4 . Particles larger than 1. 5/jm diameter were not
counted for the Fig. 4 size distribution, but in any case they represented
only a small percentage of the number.
The Stereoscan photographs of Fig. 9 are included for subjective
inspection. They are also from Slide #4-18, in the plume. Of special
importance is the lower left photo. It distinctly shows that the particle
was large and probably liquid when it impacted, and then subsequently
evaporated to the final form.
Figure 8 shows what might be impaction patterns around the larger
particles. These may be indicative of impaction of larger liquid droplets
and subsequent evaporation, or, less likely, they may be a polarization
phenomenon whereby electrical forces help orient particles. The late
Dr. Alexander Goetz and his staff examined the photo and felt that no
definitive conclusion could be drawn solely from the present evidence.
The satellite patterns around the larger particles resemble those some-
times observed with sulfate particles.
It is to be noted that the photos of Figs. 7, 8, and 9 show a fairly
distinct cutoff below 0. 2 or 0. 3 (j.m. It seems probable that this is
caused by collection efficiency characteristics of the MSI. This small
end of the particle size spectrum is not of particular importance here
because it contributes in only a minor way to light scattering.
Further Comments
The CPC operated appropriately throughout the program, and much
effort was devoted to evaluating the 6334 feet of film obtained. Neverthe-
less, no quantitative data were obtained from it. Fly ash smaller than
5 um could be observed, but the less common larger fly ash could not be
definitely established. One problem is that the CPC film tends to pick up
spurious dust particles during evaluation which confuses the evaluation.
This causes no particular problem when the CPC is used for its original
role, collecting cloud droplets -which exist in high concentrations, or
28
-------
525X
2, 100X
5,250X
21.000X
Fig. 8. SLIDE #11-16, STEREOSCAN OF AMBIENT AIR
29
-------
540X
10, 800X
H h
]0,800X
10,800X
Fig. 9 . SLIDE #4-18, ADDITIONAL STEREOSCAN PHOTOS
30
-------
collecting ice crystals -which are larger and distinctly shaped. It did
cause a problem in the present study.
Things would be simple if one could say there is a particular concen-
tration and size distribution of particles representing the background air,
and an additional particular size distribution of particles representative
of the stack effluent which can be superimposed on the background in
amounts depending on the dilution. Unfortunately, reality is far more
complex.
Concerning the fly ash size distribution, the distribution found for
the precipitator (Fig. 4) analyzed from microscopy with standard illu-
mination, gives some hint of the particles being mostly large. However,
these are what are precipitated, and the distribution may not be repre-
sentative of what is emitted when some precipitators are shut down as was
the case in our airborne sampling. The best evidence should be from the
sample taken in a strong portion of the plume. Slide No. 26-17 (see
Table V) was taken in a "zip through the knee of the plume" and had an
order of magnitude higher concentration than the other samples, so it
should show the true fly ash spectrum. As analyzed with dark field
illumination, with a correction for light intensity, half the particles were
under 1. 0 um and 85 percent under 1. 5 n,m. The number of large particles,
say 10-20 fjrn, was very small. Other samples from areas where the
plume was less dense gave lower counts and a preponderance of some-
what larger sizes --butthe distributions would be mostly representative of
ambient conditions, and not shed light on the plume particulates. The
plume was slightly colored, but this would be expected even with particles
this small.
Concerning the background particles, Table V shows many cases
of low concentrations in the plume at all distances (down to 36/cc) meaning
the background would be as low or lower. There were also higher counts
(615, 740/cc). The airplane observer in some instances noted strong
systematic variations, in the vertical, of the haziness of the atmosphere.
In summary, large background variations are to be expected, as a function
of both space and time.
As to measurements specifically in non-plume regions, Table V
shows Slide No. 6-18 to have 137 particles/cc. The "corrected" dark
field size spectrum put 80 percent of the particles between 0. 5 and 2. 5^m,
with the maximum around 1. 3jum. For the ambient case near Conemaugh
evaluated by the stereoscan electron microscope, the photos are on Fig.
8 and the size distribution for particles below 1.5 [im is given in Fig. 4.
In trying to put all of the above together, one must realize that there
were various evaluation methods and various data from atmospheric cases
with high variability. One must conclude that the dark field illumination
technique, as applied, probably indicated particles at all sizes to be some-
what larger than actual, although perhaps total counts of all deposited
31
-------
particles may be fairly accurate and relative sizes between samples
should be valid. The size distribution of the airborne fly ash is in
doubt. One conclusion is quite evident: systematic evaluation of all
slide samples with the stereoscan electron microscope would have
answered most of the questions in a definitive manner.
It was beyond the scope of this project to consider relative humidity
effects. A large portion of the natural aerosols are typically hygroscopic,
so the increased water vapor in the plume can result in a visible cloud,
an increase in light scattering, even if no particles •were being emitted.
Such particles would evaporate on the sampler slide, so only the solid
residue would be measured. The same effect would be true if the
effluent particles were hygroscopic. The large ones are probably not.
Thus one must conclude that the best correlation of airborne measurements
with lidar would derive from light scattering measurement devices on the
aircraft, such as the Integrating Nephelometer, not from particulate
collections for subsequent laboratory assessment.
32
-------
VI. METEOROLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE TALL STACK PLUME
The topics of interest in a consideration of the tall stack plume
meteorological environment are the magnitude and directional wind shears,
the height and frequency of occurrence of. inversion transitions at plume
altitude, the variation of turbulent mixing in the vertical as a function of
meteorological and topographical conditions, and the variation in vertical
mixing along the plume trajectory over complex topography. A definitive
study of each or all of these topics is beyond the scope of this program;
however, the field program was designed to obtain some data on each of the
above aspects, and subsequent analyses did reveal interesting results as
will be described in this and subsequent sections by drawing sample cases
from Volume II.
The meteorological environment of the tall stack-large power plant
plume is really that of the so-called planetary boundary layer of the atmo-
sphere whose depth is on the order of one kilometer under near-neutral
conditions of stability and one to three kilometers under conditions of strong
instability. The depth of the planetary boundary layer under stable and
inversion conditions is more difficult to define and is presently a subject of
active research as is the planetary boundary layer problem in general.
The tall physical height of the stack itself plus the large amount of
effluent with a considerable exit velocity and excess temperature cause
the plume to be at altitudes between about 300 meters and 1000 meters.
This is a region considerably above that for which the large amount of
research to date on the meteorological environment of plume rise and
diffusion on conventional stacks has been done.
The distribution of the wind in the planetary boundary layer is
undoubtedly the subject which has received the most study to date. In this
regard, our best quantitative understanding is still confined to conditions
of neutral stability and flat, uniform terrain. There exists some qualitative
understanding of the effects of non-neutral stability and terrain roughness
on the characteristics of the "Ekman spiral" type wind distribution. The
situation of a strongly stable planetary boundary layer, however, in which
adjacent layers become decoupled in their behavior from one another, so
to speak, or where single or multiple inversion layers may exist, and
where large terrain inhomogeneities or artificial roughness elements, like
large power plant stations themselves, are present is indeed beyond all
but our most meager qualitative understanding. At present it appears the
problem area in greatest need of good observations under neutral and non-
neutral stability conditions is over complex terrain. Fortunately, in the
program under consideration, efforts were made by NAPCA to document
the wind distribution affecting plume transport and diffusion by taking
double theodolite pibal observations every half hour in the vicinity of the
33
-------
Keystone Power Station. Examples of these observations which document
some of the complexities alluded to above are presented in Figs. 10 to 12
All of the pibal data are also given in Volume II. Figs. 10 to 12 show the
considerable changes in the magnitude and direction of the mean wind from
the ground to plume top and the wind shears which exist over the time
period of interest (early morning to mid-afternoon) relative to predicting
ground level particulate and sulfur dioxide concentrations. It may be
noted in these figures as well as similar ones for the other days in the
October 1968 series that the time and vertical extent of inversion break-up
transition from strongly stable conditions to near-neutral in the lower
layers can be determined fairly easily from the directional wind shear
characteristics. In this case on 17 October, the transition occurs about
1000- 1030 EDT to at least 600 meters (MSL). This altitude,
obtained from changes in directional wind shear characteristics,
is consistent with that determined from directly measured vertical profiles
of turbulence, before, during, and after transition which will be shown later
in this section. It should also be noted in Fig. 12 that by 1200 the magnitude
wind shears have been almost completely eliminated by the strong
vertical exchange from convective processes.
From a consideration of the position of the mean plume altitude
in the planetary boundary layer as well as the preceding examples of
directly measured pibal wind profiles it is evident that the directional
wind shear should have a significant influence on plume rise and hori-
zontal diffusion. In addition, the magnitude wind shear which is normally
rather small in this region appears to be rather large under certain
conditions at Keystone, probably due to local terrain effects with certain
mean wind directions. The complexities of wind directional shear on
plume rise and horizontal diffusion have generally been ignored for con-
ventional stack-concentration prediction problems and correctly so since
the plume diffusion is occurring in a region of smaller or zero direc-
tional shear except under very special topographical conditions. The
complexity of magnitude wind shear has generally been handled by adop-
ting the convention of using the wind at stack top or vertically averaged
over the plume depth. The wind directional shear values and characteris-
tics are summarized in Table VI for the MRI photo periods in the October
1968 series. It may be noted that the difference in wind direction is
typically large and reflects local topographical effects in the immediate
vicinity of the Keystone Power Station. In order to aid in visualization of
the transport and diffusion meteorology of the plume environment,
Figs. 13 to 18 are presented. In these figures, the directional wind shear
over the range of plume altitudes is shown along with the temperature
profile from MRI aircraft observations and the vertical-time average of
the wind speed. Plume dimensions derived photographically are also
shown.
34
-------
o
o
C\J_
D
O
CD
O.
a
o
•
a.
T)
- 0
Oo
•
~ c\i_
CO
^o
LUo
0
D
•
U3_
CD
a
•
ao_
o
c:
0900 EOT 17 OCT 1968
4. DO 8-00
SPEED(MPS)
12.00
^ RO
j i—* i_J
DIRECTION(DEG)
Fig. 10. NAPCA PIBAL, WIND PROFILE AT KEYSTONE POWER STATION
(0900 EDT - 17 Oct 1968)
35
-------
1000 EDI 17 OCT 1968
5 .50
1 - F r p ' >-l P n
i - *^
3 .50
191
Fig. 11. NAPCA PIBAL WIND PROFILE AT KEYSTONE POWER STATION
(1000 EOT - 17 Oct 1968)
36
-------
o
o
CD
o.
o
a
•
o.
en
o
o
- cC_|
LULD
\—
UJ
a
o
CD
en
o
o
o
CD
120Q EOT 17 OCT 1968
"b.oo 4'.oo B.OO
SPEEDIMPS)
I " " i i 1 ! 1 1 ; 1 1 1 r
90 180
DIRECTION*DEG)
Fig. 12. NAPCA PIBAL WIND PROFILE AT KEYSTONE POWER STATION
( 1200EDT - 17 Oct 1968)
37
-------
Table VI
DIRECTIONAL SHEAR VALUES AND
CHARACTERISTICS FROM GROUND TO PLUME ALTITUDE
Depth
Photo A 8 of Layer
Period Date Time Period (in degrees) (inmeters MSL) Characteristics
1 10/16 1000-1110 100 sharp veering to
850m; then sharp
backing aloft
2 10/16 1110-1130 30 backing to 650m;
then slow veering
3 10/17 0930-1030 70 1100 veering
4 10/17 1200-1400 50 1600 veering
5 10/18 0840-0945 70 850 veering
6 10/20 1300-1400 50 2100 sharp backing to
600m; then veer-
ing
7 10/21 0840-0945 40 950 veering
Note: Altitudes are references to MSL and the stack base is 308 meters
MSL
38
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The variation of turbulent mixing in the vertical as a function of
meteorological and topographical conditions is difficult to evaluate
quantitatively in a simple, inexpensive manner for the large vertical
depths and horizontal area of interest in planetary boundary layer diffusion
problems. In this program, the horizontal area of interest included not
only that in a 20-mile radius of the Keystone Power Station depending on
wind direction, but also the nearby Homer City and Conemaugh Power
Station sites which will become operational within the next few years.
The MRI airborne turbulence unit, UITS, was used here to obtain a pre-
liminary turbulence climatology of the three plant locations.
One hour prior to Photo Period 3 on October 17, there was very
low turbulence in the lower layers below 1300 m MSL, corresponding to
the observed strong temperature stability. Turbulence increased above
1300 m, which was above the region of principal interest. As time of
day increased (e.g. Fig. 14), the stability in the lower levels decreased
to more closely approximate the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Correspondingly,
the turbulence values increased first in the lower levels and finally up to
about 1200 m just before Photo Period 4.
At 9 a.m. on October 20, there was a strong temperature inversion
(~1°C/50 m) which extended above the top of the stack to 800 m. The tur-
bulence increased with height within the inversion, reaching a maximum
at a level well below the top of the inversion. This maximum corresponded
to the level of a wind velocity maximum of about 8 m/s. Wind shear below
this level produced significant turbulence in spite of the strong temperature
stability. Above the level of the wind maximum, the turbulence decreased
again to a relatively low value.
In the morning of October 21, Photo Period 7, there was strong
stability in the lower layers. A strong wind shear existed to a level of
about 570 m MSL at 0830 EDT . Both above and below this level the
turbulence was highly variable with altitude. This structure is typical
of a stratified environment with turbulence occurring in layers intermixed
with layers with almost no turbulence. By 1040 EDT, the turbulence had
increased in the lower layers due to surface heating and showed a less
erratic profile as might be expected in a well-mixed layer. Above 800 m,
the turbulence continued to show the variable characteristics previously
seen.
In areas of complex terrain, measurements of environmental con-
ditions at one location may not be representative of the plume environ-
ment a few miles downwind. Figure 19 is an example of a 10-mile
terrain-following flight made by the MRI aircraft on 20 October. The
principal terrain feature was Laurel Hill, downwind of the Conemaugh
47
-------
1046 EOT 20 OCT 1968
10-MILE TERRRIN-F0LLOW1NG RUN DOWNWIND FROM CDNEflflUGH STRCKS
•fa
54.0 2416.0 477B.O 7140.0 9502.0 11864.0 14226.0 165(38.0 1B950.0 213fe.O
| DISTflNCE IN METERS
Conemaugh t
Electric [ Conemaugh, Pa.
Generating Laurel Conemaugh Morrellville (So. Fork,
Plant Hill River Conemaugh River)
Fig. 19. 10-MILE TERRAIN - FOLLOWING RUN DOWNWIND FROM
CONEMAUGH STACKS
48
-------
plant. The flight path, together with temperature and e values, are
shown in the figure. Turbulence values increased in passing over Laurel
Hill and did not return to their original values in the lee of the hill even
though the windward and leeward flight altitudes were the same. It is
indicated by the data that turbulence is generated by the hill and trans-
ported downwind in a slowly decaying manner.
It has been possible, on a very limited basis, to compare tur-
bulence environments at each of the power station locations. This has
been accomplished by the use of aircraft soundings made at nearly com-
parable times. Although unknown variations in space and time interfere
with an accurate comparison, the data in Table VII suggest certain
relations between stations. These data were determined as averages over
100-200 m depth of the recorded e values.
Table VII
COMPARISON OF TURBULENCE VALUES (e in cm2sec~3)
Date
16 Oct
20 Oct
22 Oct
Elev.
500 m
750
1000
1250
500 m
750
1000
1250
500 m
750
1000
1250
Homer City
52 (1053 EDT)
24
5
-
35 (1015 EDT)
1.5
0.1
0.1
28 (0856 EDT)
0.4
0.2
0.2
Conemaugh
45 (1115 EDT)
27
6
5
4.5 (1037 EDT)
3.5
0.1
0.1
Keystone
30 (1150 EDT)
18
3.5
2.6
7.5 (0918
0.2
0.2
0.2
5.5 (0843
0.6
0.2
0.2
EDT)
EDT)
In spite of the limited data, it would appear that turbulence at Homer
City exceeds that at Keystone at least to a level of 500 m and occasionally
beyond. At higher levels, there is little difference between the two sites.
Conemaugh appears to be comparable to Keystone in turbulence character-
istics and probably exhibits somewhat lower values in the low levels than
Homer City. Data for Conemaugh were unavailable for the 22 October case.
49
-------
VH. PLUME RISE AND DIFFUSION
Numerous plume rise theories exist, based primarily on empirical
data. A recent review by Briggs (1969) has summarized the current state
of this field. Since prior observational data have come from smaller
stack heights than at the Keystone Power Station, the current program
affords a unique opportunity to extend the previous work. The program
also involves complex terrain, and includes cases with strong magnitude
and directional shear -- all of which provide interesting but complicating
aspects to the study.
The data obtained were not adequate for a comprehensive treatment
of this complex subject. The program design was such that the data could
only be expected to answer certain limited questions. The turbulence data
did cover the appropriate air volume to some extent, but there were two
important deficiencies. First, the plume turbulence was not measured
really close to the stack, which is the place where the turbulence would
be expected to relate most directly to plume diffusion. Second, the tra-
verses at various altitudes and locations were not so numerous that an
environmental summary could be prepared with the desired statistical
significance for a particular period. In the region where fumigation was
operating, turbulence data were available; but the other half of the problem,
i. e. the diffusion rates and concentrations, was not covered thoroughly.
The primary diffusion data derived on this program came from the
photogrammetric analysis of the time lapse pictures of the plume. These
do seem quite useful. Sequences of 35-mm photos were obtained by MRI
on seven days of the program. Photogrammetric analyses were carried
out for five of these days, using the techniques described in Appendix A.
The results are presented pictorially in Figs. 14-18, and numerically as
well as pictorially in the data supplement. In the written evaluation,
each photograph was treated individually so that a time sequence of the
plume behavior would be obtained. Plume dimensions were then averaged
over groups of photos on the basis of similarity in meteorological condi-
tions and plume behavior. This permitted the identification of downwind
regions where fumigation occurred and provided details of the transitional
stages leading to fumigation.
The field program was conducted so that plume altitude data could be
obtained from aircraft observations. It was therefore possible to verify
the accuracy of a portion of the photogrammetric data and to extend the
plume rise data much farther downwind than is usually possible with
photographic observations. The aircraft data used in the plume analyses
were those cases when the aircraft was approaching the plume from the
right-hand side (looking downwind) and when the aircraft observer reported
50
-------
a good penetration of the centerline of the plume. Aircraft data plotted in
subsequent figures are the mean of two or three successive traverses.
Figures 20-24 show plotted plume data for the three photo periods
which have been analyzed. Top and mean centerline of the plume are
given in the figures. Vertical and downwind distances have been plotted in
terms of the non-dimensional expressions x/ Si and z/£ where:
* = -?• do)
u
with u = wind speed and F = "flux of buoyancy" in units m4 sec"3.
F = W0 R2g Tg"T* (11)
1 A
and is related to the stack parameters by the terms:
Wo = stack exit velocity
R = radius of stack
g = acceleration of gravity
Tg = temperature of the exit gas
TA = temperature of the ambient air.
This type of normalization is discussed by Briggs (1969) who was able to
coalesce a variety of experimental cases together rather effectively by
this method.
It is possible in Figs. 20-24 to identify three distinct downwind
regions of plume behavior: (a) no fumigation, (b) intermittent, and (c)
continuous fumigation. The distinguishing feature of region (b) is that the
downwind distance to the intersection of the cloud and the ground varies
with time.
The plume rises are first examined here without regard to the
meteorological environment, except to the extent the environment is in-
volved in the normalizing procedure of Eqs. (10) and (11). The non-
fumigation regime is considered initially.
It has been customary to express the rise in the mean height of the
plume in terms of a power law:
Ah
51
-------
October 17, 1968
ZT and z" are referenced to stack base
1000
1000
to
0)
to
a
0)
6
•i-i
:oo
MRI aircraft
° altitude data
100
Zf/Ji Top
z7-£ Centerline
H = 1.819 m
tops
1
x/^ (dimensionless)
i i i
1000 Tops and means of:
00000}
_a_> Slide 7 at 0945
^_"^_\ Slide 13 at 1006
JLV— [ Slide 21 at 1030
to
to
I—I
G
O
S
ri
IN "-
N
No fumigation
(mean of 21 photos)
100
Intermittent
fumigation
(selected photos)
means
"Complete fumigation beyond
here, with mean of 21
photos providing data to
o
Airplane-observed
center lines
10
100
It, (dimensionless)
1000
10,00
Fig. 20. NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTERLINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 3
52
-------
October 17,1968
ZT and z" are referenced to stack base
500
CD
CD
cu
•a
o
•rH
CO
c
0)
£
100
(dimensionless
MRI aircraft
altitude data
zT/4 Top
"z/ £, Centerline
"°°°) Slide 4 at 1208°°
o J
Slide 9 at 1215
10
- 6.041
I I
100
-No fumigation-
(mean of 14 photos)
.^.Intermittent
fumigation
I
(selected
photos)
Complete
f umi g ati o n
Number of photos
•13— - - 6 - •
-------
October 18, 1968
ZT and ~z are referenced to stack base
z7
Top
Centerline
...... I Slide 17 at 0927
- e - f
Slide 19 at 0930
= 0.5903
7
innn
03
"** CD
\ . — — "'~ * ~ ~"
"~ — — — — — — •" ~~ ™
—
—
*^— •
— • — ^" — ' • — — '
_^_ ... ^ "^ ~~~ — , . -. . i— • — ~~ "*
(mean of 21 photos) |
1 1 1 1 1 1 11
20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
«•*••*"
<^^,
*~"X
"""""" /~* ^ 1 j.
^ Complete-*-
fumigation
^—^_- — — •*
w*^"™"
Intermittent
fumigation
9
Number
6|54
1
* of photos
1 1 1 1 1 1
10
100
(dimensionless) 100°
10,004
Fig. ZZ .
NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTERLINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 5
54
-------
October 20, 1968
ZT and z" are referenced to stack base
----- zT/4 Top
--- ~zl Si Centerline
ooo^o \ slide 4 at 1300
'' \ Slide 33 at 1400
= 2.518
1000
100
w
M
<0
1 — 1
o
(n
ft
-------
October 21, 1968
ZT and z are referenced to stack base
MRI aircraft altitude data
zT/l Top
~z'/i Centerline
1000
(dimensionless
•^
IN
T)
a
ni
«*}
i-
Nl
100
I Slide 6 at 0902
" '^\ Slide 11 at 0925
-
-•
-
1 1 1 I I 1 1 I
— '-^-' ^*~"
(mean of 1 1 photos)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
'-
x/ —
z£T
U. 4V4
s~' ®
Complete fumigation
(mean of 1 1 photos)
Intermittent
fumigation
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 100 1000 10,OOC
Fig. 24. NON-DIMENSIONAL PLUME RISE (TOP AND MEAN
CENTERLINE) FOR PHOTO PERIOD NUMBER 7
56
-------
if the distances are expressed in dimensionless form and where Ah is the
height above the top of the stack, and a, n are empirical constants.
Slawson and Csanady (1967),among others, suggested that:
3 x 2/ 3
2/ 3
Ah = 2.3 £L/ 3 X *' J (13)
or
in dimensionless form was appropriate for near-neutral conditions where
H is the length scale of buoyancy . Murthy (1968) suggested that the
value of n should be reduced in the case of vertical wind shears (velocity
shears) in accordance with the following:
where p is the exponent on the wind profile power law:
Keystone data were analyzed in two separate regions: no fumigation,
and continuous fumigation. Data for the no-fumigation region are shown
in Figs. 25 and 26 {two separate figures being used for clarity). Non-
dimensional heights of the plume centerline above the stack are plotted
against non-dimensional downwind distances. The first plume height
observation has been entered in the plots at a downwind distance of x/^ = l.
It can be seen in the figures that a straight line through the down-
wind points does not pass through the initial plume observation point at
x/l=l. In addition, Az /& has finite and non-zero values at x/jfc = 1 which
can be taken as the stack location for all practical purposes, a and n
values (Eq. 12) were calculated from Figs. 25 and 26 as shown in the
following table.
57
-------
loorr
1
100
10
x/X (dimensionless)
Fig. 25. CENTERLINE GROWTH ABOVE STACK TOP
100
to
CO
-------
Table VIII
PLUME RISE PARAMETERS - NO FUMIGATION
AJh*
Photo Period a n I H Ah*
3 11. 0
4 4. 1
5 7.6
6 6.0
7 2.4
.388
.477
. 506
.405
.656
1.8m
6.0
0.6
2.5
0.5
2.2
0. 5
11. 0
2.6
8.8
4. Om
3. 0
6.6
6. 5
4.4
* Ah refers to vertical distance between first observational point and
virtual source of plume as defined by straight-line extension of downwind
points (Figs. 25, 26). It is assumed that this distance is a manifestation
of the initial stack momentum which is quickly dissipated by mixing, after
which the buoyancy effects dominate.
Table VIII shows that n values for the five photo periods are generally
le ss than the 0. 67 value suggested by Slawson and Csanady (1967).
An attempt was made to calculate wind shear values for the various
photo periods shown so that Murthy1 s modification of the 2/3 power law
could be evaluated. Exponents a and |3 in the following power laws were
calculated from the wind profile data:
/ z-,^&
u(zs) = u (z,) f-2 ! (16)
KZ
,
z ^
6 (z2) = 9 (z,) i -a '< (17)
where u is the pibal wind speed, 6 is the wind direction and the two
heights z, and z2 are 100 and 600 meters above ground. Rate of change
of speed and direction were also calculated as follows :
Q = - — between z and z2
A z
A fl
^ = - — between z. and z2.
Az '
Table IX shows the results of the calculations.
59
-------
Table IX
WIND PROFILE SHEAR PARAMETERS
CORRESPONDING TO PLUME RISE DATA
Photo Date Pibal
Period 1968 Launch
Time
3
4
5
6
7
Oct. 17 0930
1000
1030
Oct. 17 1200
1230
Oct. 18 0830
0900
0930
Oct. 20 1230
Oct. 21 0830
0900
0930
a
dimension-
less
1.9
1.3
0.8
29.4
16.6
1.3
1.2
1.3
0.6
10.9
0.9
12.7
0 Q
dimension- per sec
less
3.5
1.2
8.1
6.3
10.9
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
19.8
19.8
24.8
0.012
0.013
0.015
0.001
0.001
0.012
0.017
0. 016
0.011
0,003
0.017
0.010
*
deg. per
meter
0.158
0.048
0.074
0.082
0.050
0. 152
0. 120
0. 102
00 144
0.056
0.060
0,048
Values of the power law exponents are unusually large and variable
in Table IX and it was concluded that insufficient data existed for the appli-
cation of Murthy's suggestion. Such large values may be the result of the
hollow in which the Keystone plant is located which reduces the low level
wind values and either increases or leaves unmodified the wind at higher
altitudes. The data in the table indicate that large shear values in both
speed and direction are likely to occur at the site and it is not unreasonable
to expect, on this basis, that the n-values in Table VIII would come out to
be less than 0. 67.
Now we turn to centerline plume growth in the regime of complete
fumigation. As noted before, z / JL data were plotted as a function of down-
wind distance x/jfc. Here, height of the centerline was arbitrarily defined
as one-half of the distance from the ground to the plume top. At such
large downwind distances, the plume resembles a ground point-source
cloud, with base limited by the ground surface but with the top able to grow
upward due to diffusion. For this reason, zl i was measured, in this case,
with reference to the base of the stack rather than the stack top. This
permitted comparison of the growth with standard point source data at large
downwind distances.
60
-------
Table X shows the values of n calculated from the region of complete
fumigation (x/4 between 1000 and 7000):
Table X
PLUME RISE PARAMETERS - COMPLETE FUMIGATION
Photo Period
Time
n Centerline Height at 2 km
(above stack height)
3
4
5
6
7
0945
1208
0927
1300
0902
. 120
.207
. 117
.439
.246
350m
530
280
500
290
In contrast to the data shown in Table X, corresponding power law
growth values from standard diffusion estimates (o~z) are n = 1.07, 0. 92
and 0.62 for stability categories B, C and D, respectively. The low
values of n in Table X indicate that the plume (except in Period 6) had
reached nearly to the top of the mixing layer and that an asymptotic value
for the top height was being approached. Considerable upward growth
still existed in Period 6 at the large downwind distance. The effect of
time of day is clearly seen in the table -where the centerline height for the
two mid-day periods far exceeds the early morning heights.
We now consider the interrelation between turbulence (and larger
scale convective motions) and the diffusing plume. The simplest approach
is to note that soundings of the turbulence meter can quickly delineate the
general regions of turbulent mixing. 6 profiles for the cases here typi-
cally show high values, corresponding to good mixing, near the ground,
decreasing to low values at some elevation of the order of 700- 1500 m
above the ground. Clearly, such soundings show the level to which mixing
can diffuse material rapidly. The height of the "lid" increases from early
morning to afternoon.
Table XI shows the depth of the mixing layer obtained from e profiles
compared to the observed top of the smoke plume at some distance down-
w ind of the plant.
61
-------
Table XI
MIXING LAYER DEPTHS (MSL)
Photo Period
3
4
6
7
Time
0930-1030
1200-1400
1300-1400
0840-0945
Top Cloud
1000 m
1600
1500
2000
950
Downwind
Distance
2km
2
2
5
2
Top Mixing
Layer (e)
800m
1350
1000(at 1037)
700(at0856)
800(atl040)
Avg. e
50cm /sec
6
3
15
Table XI shows that the mixing layer depth derived from the e profile
is slightly lower than the top of the smoke plume. This is to be expected
with a huge, buoyant plume. The variations in depth are satisfactorily
portrayed. It should be noted that the plume measurements for Photo
Period 6 were taken three to four hours after the sounding data at which
time it might be expected that the mixing layer would have increased
beyond the depth shown by the £ profile.
There are several ways in which e data may be used to help predict
diffusion beyond the simple box-model discussed above. The first involves
diffusion in the inertial subrange.
d
A
= cet
(18)
where ar is some characteristic dimension of the plume cross-section, c
is a dimensionless constant of order unity, and t represents a time
beginning when the expanding cloud is very much smaller than when it is
subsequently observed. See MacCready (1964b) for background on applica-
bility. Although it is not rigorous, this predictive technique may be help-
ful in the non-fumigation stage. It is unsuitable for later stages, for then
vertical meandering will cause a difference between absolute diffusion
(long-time averaging) and the relative diffusion for which Eq. (18) can fit;
and also the cloud will be getting large compared to inertial subrange
scales. In the present program, e was not measured in the plume in the
main non-fumigation region and so the technique is inapplicable. In
order to grow a cloud to 200m diameter in 30 seconds, as is the case at
the Keystone Power Plant, Eq. (18) shows e would be several thousand
cm2 sec3 , which constitutes extreme turbulence for airplane flight. To
examine the points further, note that Hoult, Fay, and Forney (1968) have
shown that atmospheric environmental turbulence is relatively unimportant
62
-------
compared to the plume turbulence for plumes from high stacks reaching
up to their equilibrium heights. This was found valid to distances ten
times the stack height, hence here beyond 2 km and beyond the typical
non- fumigation regime. In summary, turbulent observations appropriate
to the early plume must be made in the plume.
The other techniques for applying e to vertical diffusion prediction
involve calculating, empirically, the diffusing capability for large eddies
from the e value which pertains to small eddies. There are two approaches.
For one, we obtain the value of
-------
needs to be taken into account, and b) the initial spread is dominated by
the plume turbulence rather than by environmental turbulence. The
a300 and Kz computations are not given here because it can be seen they
are not really applicable. They would be expected to be applicable beyond
several kilometers, but for the cases studied this is into the fumigation
and the box model areas. When the base of the plume is at the ground and
the top is limited by an inversion, the vertical diffusion process -within
the layer is of only secondary concern and is unobservable by the photo-
graphic method.
During the evaluation, we employed another way of deriving km
1 /3
for Hanna's Kz formula. This was to note the variations of the e ' trace
at one-second intervals and get a time (and hence space) scale from the
autocorrelation curve. The results were comparable to (but slightly
larger than) the km predictions by Hanna's method. Novikov and Stewart
(1964) have investigated e fluctuation spectra as indications of intermit-
tency, and found they do not follow the same spectral relationships as do
the normal turbulent motions. Thus, using this method to obtain km must
be approached -with caution. Hanna's method of Kz calculation, coupled
to the estimation of km by the e fluctuations does constitute an intriguing
technique for deriving possibly meaningful data on the diffusing capability
of the air from simple airborne measurements. This sort of method
does seem to have worked quantitatively on another MRI study of shore-
line diffusion, but, as noted earlier, the Kz method does not seem to
be really useful in the present program.
The discussion so far has pertained to vertical plume rise and
diffusion, since the available data are the photographic cross-sections.
Turning briefly to the horizontal spread of the cloud, we must first note
that photographic data are not available. Also, although observers'
notes and particle deposits on the Moving Slide Impactor give some indi-
cation of plume -width during cross-wind traverses, such data are crude.
Some such data are shown in the next section. The best data available
are those few detailed cross-sections obtained with the lidar -which are
presented in the SRI report. As to theory, the airborne turbulence
measurements are not able to give information on the directional shears
which do the main broadening of the plume. Thus, we cannot say any-
thing quantitative about the horizontal spread of the smoke. In a quanti-
tative sense, for Photo Periods, -we find a rather strong directional
shear at plume level and also find a wide plume, ten times as wide as
it is deep. For Photo Period 7, there is less directional shear, and
much less lateral spread.
64
-------
VIII. PRELIMINARY COMPARISON OF MODEL PREDICTIONS
AND OBSERVATIONS
The ultimate value of the plume rise and diffusion data is to provide
a means for calculating downwind concentrations. Validation of the
concentration model would permit simulation of a range of environment
and stack conditions and, hopefully, frequency of occurrence of various
concentration levels.
Most of the attempts to relate calculated and observed concentrations
have made use, to some extent, of calculated values of various of the
parameters required in the model calculations. Data obtained in the
Keystone program permitted use of observed data on stack conditions,
meteorological environment, and plume behavior in the model calculations.
Stack data, plume size, and height as well as meteorological conditions
were all measured and available for use.
Hogstrom (1968) gives the downwind concentration as:
Q exp(-v2/2ay3) r r (z-h)3 n r (z+h)2 -p, . .
y = —-—c _ y— i exp - — g~ i + exp - — g- if (23)
* 2nayazu I FL 2az2 j PL 2az2 JJ "
where \ = concentration (units/m3)
Q = rate of emission (units/sec)
y = horizontal crosswind coordinate (m)
z = vertical coordinate (m)
h = height above ground of plume centerline (m)
u = wind speed (m/sec) at level h
Gy = plume standard deviation (m) in horizontal crosswind direction
-------
METEOROLOGY RESERRCH,[NC-
PRRHCLE RND TURBULENCE STUDY
KEYSTONE,PENNSYLVRNTR
0930-1030 Oct. 17, '68
a obs.
Wind Shear
"-~ = 0.093 deg. per m
Centerline height
(photo & aircraft data)
Centerline height
(assumes constant at
last photo height)
obs.
'10°
— 1 —
2
r1
3
i
4
r r
5 6
r- r T— >
7 8 9 '
101
1 r
2
— i —
3
4
~T — r
5 6
7 8 9 "l Q2
DOWNWIND DISTflNCEfKni
Fig. 27. CLOUD GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS, PHOTO
PERIOD NO. 3
66
-------
o
METEOROLOGY RESERRCH,[NC-
PRRTECLE RND TURBULENCE STUDY
KEYSTONE,PENNSYLVRNfR
1200-1230 Oct. 17, '68
.A0
Az
Wind Shear
= 0.066 deg.per m
Centerline height
(photo & aircraft data)
10
2 3 456789 '] Q* 2 3 456709'} ft'
DOWNWIND DISTflNCEfKM )
Fig. 28. CLOUD GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS, PHOTO
PERIOD NO. 4
67
-------
that OV was considerably increased by directional wind shear. This was
particularly noticeable in aircraft traverses when one edge of the plume
was quite sharp and distinct while the other was quite diffuse.
Predicted SOa concentration data are compared with helicopter
observations in Figs. 29 and 30. Observed SOs concentration data peak
in the neighborhood of 3-5 km downwind which falls in the fumigation zone.
For this reason, observed peak concentrations are not modeled well by the
calculations from Eq. (23). This is particularly true in the morning
period (Fig. 29) where the normal diffusion equation substantially under-
predicts concentrations at 3-5 km. Eq. (23) gives the right order of
magnitude for the SO2 concentration when the atmospheric mixing
properties are relatively large (Fig. 30).
68
-------
o
O
cn-
UD-
r--
10-
JO-
rn-
c\i-
O
CD
CD
ID
' ' LD
ZI
Q_
CL m.
CO
CNJ-
O
•7
. O
en
or
o
CJ
r\i -
ro
O
CD
CD-
r-.
ID-
LT3 -
m-
O
hETEOROLOGY RESERRCH,ENC-
RND TURBULENCE STUDY
[NNSYLVRNffl
0930-1030 Oct. 17, '68
--- Observations
/ \/ \
A \ /\\
/ \ \ I \\
/ 1042-1045 \1045-1052
' \
/ 1 *—1057-1104
//
;\
i \
1033-1037
/
/
.Prediction. Assumes constant
plume height beyond where
photo data available
0925-0939 should be zero.
Zero values are plotted at
2-10" for convenience
10° 2 3 456789 TQ1 2 3 ^561Q^\r^
DOWNWIND DISTflNCEfKH]
Fig. 29. S02 GROUND LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS, PHOTO PERIOD NO. 3
69
-------
METEOROLOGY RESERRCH,[NC-
PRRHCLE HND TURBULENCE STUDY
KEYSTONE,PENNSYLVRN[fl
1200-1230 Oct. 17, '68
1129-1132 1117-H26
Predictions
Observations
'1104-1112
i L; Z 3 45670 9101 2 3 45678CII]C2
DOWNUIND DISTRNCEf^ni
Fig. 30. SO2 GROUND LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS, PHOTO PERIOD NO. 4
70
-------
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This program has demonstrated the use of the airborne UITS
for handling various of field programs in diffusion. The instrument was
used to map the environmental turbulence field, and in particular ascer-
tain the top of the mixing layer. It was used also (1) to derive vertical
exchange coefficients to explain the vertical transport of the plume in
final stages of development, (2) to provide data for estimating TQ and z ,
and (3) to help monitor and explain the decay of the turbulence in the
initial plume. For all three of these items the use of the UITS seems
valid but the experimental setup did not permit one to get a definitive
test of the technique. For the first two items there were not adequate
other data against which to make comparisons, and for both the second
and third items the flight trajectories used with the UITS did not let
one obtain turbulence information adequate for a resolution of the problem.
The technique of doing plume height and characteristics analyses
from 35 mm slides from a single camera is demonstrated to be effective.
Collecting particulates with the MSI to help delineate across-plume
particulate characteristics also proved useful. Finally, the methods
employed to handle all the data by digital computer techniques have been
shown to be valuable. Hindsight clearly shows how the field experiment
could have been improved. There were gaps in the data because of
equipment malfunction; not having the Integrating Nephelometer was
particularly troublesome. The evaluation techniques for the particulates
could have been far more effective if the knowledge acquired by the end
of the program had been available at the start -- but such is the case in
almost all programs. Flight trajectories could have been designed to
be more effective in answering particular questions, considering the
constraints of flight coordination with other aircraft and balloons.
The main technical conclusions are given in the appropriate sec-
tions throughout the report. Certainly more can be done with the data
than was possible within the limited scope of this program, but the
total data from the aircraft and ground cameras probably do not warrant
extensive further evaluation. A complete field program can be based on
the long term compilation of gross data, or on a case study method
whereby a few events are observed with such extensive instrumentation
that all the dominant mechanisms are quantitatively delineated . This
program involved the case study method but was too limited in time and
scope to provide the complete data which would be necessary for getting
definitive answers. The problem of lateral diffusion is especially
interesting. The data available here on turbulence (from aircraft and
sounding balloons), from the SRI lidars, and from aircraft traverses
with the Moving Slide Impactor may be adequate to apply to a study of
71
-------
this subject. The Nephelometer cross-section data, if available, would
have been very helpful for this, as would e / readings in the early
portion of the plume.
The LAPPES field program, with NAPCA, SRI, Sign-X, and MRI
all cooperating, constitutes a good example of the benefits of cooperative
work. The benefits far outweigh the difficulties involved in the coordina-
tion and the problems of conflicting responsibilities.
Various special recommendations are given in the appropriate
chapters of this report. The overall recommendations are that:
(1) the present data not be evaluated more thoroughly by itself,
although it constitutes an appropriate supplement for the other
data on the program for general studies.
(2) an equivalent program be developed for plume studies in another
region, presumably a coastal area. This program would draw
on all the experience gained in the LAPPES program so far. It
should be very carefully planned. It should strongly emphasize
the case study approach, bringing together whatever techniques
are required for adequately describing the time-varying environ-
ment and plume to considerable distances.
(3) The UITS applications which are introduced here deserve further
evaluation on simple field experiments designed specifically for
that purpose. All the applications described are deemed promising.
Of special importance is the use of the UITS to obtain total
vertical exchange coefficient data by combining direct el/3
measurements with a scale factor derived from e*' ^ variability.
This study should take advantage of a thoroughly instrumented
aircraft for complete turbulence measurements (several are
available) for providing definitive comparison data. The program
would work most effectively if dovetailed into an area-diffusion
experiment.
72
-------
REFERENCES
Briggs, G. A., 1969: Plume rise. Prepared for Nuclear Safety Infor-
mation Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, by U. S. omic
Energy Commission, Div. of Technical Information, 81 pp.
Charlson, R. J. , N. C. Ahlquist, H. Selvidge, and P. B. MacCready,
Jr. , 1969: Monitoring of atmospheric aerosol parameters with
the Integrating Nephelometer. J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. , 19,
12, 937-942.
Cramer, H. E. , G. M. DeSanto, K. R. Dumbauld, P. Morgenstern,
and R. N. Swanson, 1964: Meteorological prediction techniques
and data system. GCA Rept. , Contr. No. DA-42-007-CML-552,
252 pp.
Goetz, A. , 1969: A new instrument for the evaluation of environmental
aerocolloids. Environ. Sci. and Tech. , _3, 2, 154-160.
Halitsky, J. , 1961: Single-camera measurements of smoke plumes.
Intern. J. Air and Water Poll. , 4, 314, 185-198.
Hanna, S. , 1968: A method of estimating vertical eddy transport in the
planetary boundary layer using characteristics of the vertical
velocity spectrum. J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 1026-1033.
Hess, G. D. , and H. A. Panofsky, 1966: The budget of turbulent energy
near the ground. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. , 92, 277-280.
Hogstrom, U. , 1968: A statistical approach to the air pollution problem
of chimney emission. Atmos. Environ., 2, 251-271.
Hoult, D. P. , J. A. Fay, and L. J. Forney, 1968: A theory of plume rise
compared with field observations. Publ. No. 68-2, Fluid Mechanics
Lb. , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Inst. of
Technology
Johnson, W. B. , Jr., and E. E. Uthe, 1969: Lidar study of stack plumes.
Final Rept. for NAPCA, Stanford Research Inst. , Menlo Park, Calif.
Contr. No. PH 22-68-33, 116pp.
MacCready, P. B. , Jr. , 1964a: Standardization of gustiness values from
aircraft. J. Appl. Meteor. , 3, 4, 439-449.
73
-------
MacCready, P. B. , Jr. , 1964b: Comments on diffusion in the inertial
subrange. Proc. Conf. on Diffusion of Toxic Materials into the
Atmosphere and the Underlying Theory, 23-24 March, USAERDA,
White Sands, New Mexico, pp. 79-88. Reprinted in Atmospheric
diffusion in the inertial subrange, Phase I, by P. B. MacCready,
Jr. , B. L. Niemann, and L. O. Myrup, Interim Kept, to Public
Health Service, Atmospheric Research Group Rept. 67 IR-478.
MacCready, P. B. , Jr., and H. R. Jex, 1964: Turbulent energy measure-
ments by vanes. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 90, 384, 198-203.
MacCready, P. B. , Jr. , and C. J. Todd, 1964: Continuous particle
sampler. J. Appl. Meteor. , 3_, 4, 450-460.
MacCready, P. B. , Jr. , 1966: Operational application of a universal
turbulence measuring system. Paper pres. AMS/AIAA Conf. on
Aerospace Meteorology, Los Angeles, California, March 28-31,
13pp.
Murthy, C. R. , 1968: Wind tunnel modelling of chimney plumes. Rept.
68-78, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario, 50pp.
Novikov, E. A., andR. W. Stewart, 1964: The intermittency of turbu-
lence and the spectrum of energy dissipation fluctuations, Izv.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofis. , 408-413.
Pasquill, F. , 1962: Atmospheric Diffusion. D. VanNostrand Co. , Lib.
of Cong. Card No. 61-13476, 297 pp.
Proudfit, B. W. , 1969: Plume rise from Keystone Plant. Final Rept.
by Sign-X Laboratories, Inc. , Essex, Connecticut, Contr. No.
PH 86-68-94.
Scorer, R. S. , 1968: The determination of stack height. Atmos. Environ. ,
2_, 3, 225-226.
Slade, D. H. , 1965: Dispersion estimates from pollutant releases of a
few seconds to 8 hours in duration. Tech. Note 2-ARL-l, Air
Resources Lab. , ESSA, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington,
D. C. , 23 pp.
Slade, D. H. , 1969: Wind measurement on a tall tower in rough and
inhomogeneous terrain. J. Appl. Meteor. , 8_, 293-297.
Slawson, P. R. , and G. T. Csanady, 1967: On the mean path of buoyant,
bent-over chimney plumes. J. Fluid Mech. , 28, Part 2, 311-322.
74
-------
Slawson, P. R. , 1967: Observations of the mean path of buoyant bent-over
plumes from large industrial stacks. Ph. D. thesis, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. 117pp.
Swinbank, W. C. , 1964: The exponential wind profile. Quart. J. Roy.
Meteor. Soc. , 90, 119-135.
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1968: Full-scale study of plume rise at
large electric generating stations.
Veress, S. A., 1969: Study of the three-dimensional extensionof polluted
air. Final Tech. Rept. , Univ. of Washington to Natl. Center for
Air Pollution Control, Bureau of Disease Prevention & Environmental
Control, PHS Cont. AP-00661-01.
Wasko, P. E. , and H. Moses, 1961: Photogrammetric technique for
studying atmospheric diffusion. Photogrammetric Eng. , March,
92-98.
75
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Appendix A
QUANTITATIVE PLUME DATA FROM GROUND PHOTOGRAPHS
by
Margaret C. Day
A-l
-------
Introduction
During the October 1968 field program at the Keystone Power Plant,
a large number of data-gathering activities were conducted simultaneously
by several groups. One of the MRI activities was to make sequential
photographs of the plumes from a camera set on the ground well off to the
side. The main goal of the photographic work was to obtain data on the
plume rise and plume characteristics, to serve as a framework for the
interpretation of data from the aircraft, and to serve for the verification
or upgrading of plume motion predictive equations.
Another aim of the photographic experiment was to gain experience
with the usefulness of technique in the general area of plume studies, so
that design of future experiments could be aided. As with any observa-
tional technique, there are both good and bad features of the photographic
method. On the good side, observations are inexpensive and simple to
make, and the series of photographs contain a tremendous amount of
information on the spatial and time-varying properties of the plume. One
limitation which is troublesome in many instances is that the plume being
studied must contain enough particulates to make it visible, and the
background conditions and lighting must also be such as to make the plume
stand out. Another limitation is that each photograph gives only integrated
two-dimensional information about the plume. Nevertheless, by carefully
choosing the geometry of the setup, the derived data on plume dimensions
and location can be very useful. The camera technique is basically good
for delineating plume edges, not for directly indicating concentrations,
but the edge statistics are often quite helpful in permitting the analyst to
derive information on concentrations.
The main body of this report and this appendix demonstrate that very
useful data can be derived from the photographic method, even with rather
simple techniques. The value on other projects can be even greater if
more refined techniques are employed -- the greater use of automation in
data reduction, better optimizing of contrast factors, stereo photogrammetry,
etc. The advanced techniques and equipment of photogrammetry, now
extensively used in other fields, would make very significant contributions
to air pollution research and control.
This appendix examines the methods used on this project to derive
data, and gives illustrations of the resulting data. Figure 1 is a flow chart
showing the steps involved. Subsequent sections of this appendix give
explanations for each block on Fig. 1.
A-2
-------
Field
photography
Edit and log
photos at MRI
Prepare
calibration
plastic templates
Prepare
controlled
tracings
Digitize plume
dimensions in camera
plane from tracings
Calculate mean
winds per group
of photos
Calculate incremental
downwind distances for
each photo period
(function of angle between
mean wind and camera
plane through source)
Fig. la. ANALYSIS OF GROUND PHOTOS. SYSTEM FLOW CHART
A-3
-------
i
Perform computer analysis
of variances and changes in
plume outline over a time
period
Perform
manual
analysis
Are
results meaningful
meteorologically
No
Yes
Redefine
time periods
1
Plot mean
( i
plume
path and its standard
deviation on plan
map of Keystone
Plant for determin-
ing of possible inter-
action of cooling
tower steam and
particulate plumes
. i
Plot camera
site, mean
plume path
and lidar
profiles when
available on
USGS maps
i
Plot true plume
profile and stan-
dard deviations
along with wind
and temperature
profiles
Fig. lb. SYSTEM FLOW CHART (Continued)
A-4
-------
Field Photography
The ground photography was done with an Argus C-4 35-mm camera,
having a 50-mm lens. Kodachrome II film was used, with an ultraviolet
filter. Picture series were made, with one frame every 2-3 minutes
when the atmosphere was unstable and every 3-5 minutes under stable
conditions.
It has been demonstrated by the Tennessee Valley Authority (1968)*,
Scorer (1968), Halitsky (1961), Wasko and Moses (1961), Slawson (1967),
and others that oblique ground photos can be used for retrieval of quanti-
tative data when proper controls are applied. The following were
considered in choice of camera setup for the ground photography:
(1) A camera site which would put the camera axis as nearly normal as
feasible to the plume and far enough away to give a high probability
that the true top of the plume is seen (note that aircraft observations
were sometimes used to establish top conditions more accurately).
(2) The camera site, along with visible features seen in the camera's
view, would be accurately identifiable on a large-scale U. S. G. S.
map.
Figures 2 through 8 summarize the camera locations, winds, and other
data for all the series.
Editing of Photos
Raw film was developed without cutting film strips to retain their
sequence and preserve detail to the edge of every frame. These were
edited and logged using a 35-mm projector modified by MRI to accept
film strips.
All of the photographs were found to be of excellent quality. During
two of the periods, there were high, thin altocumulus clouds behind the
plume, but the plume dimensions were discernible due to its different
nature. Higher resolution of the difference could be obtained in future work
with the use of a double camera mount for stereo-measurement when back-
ground clutter becomes a problem. The success of this study demonstrates
that consideration should be given to future photographic studies using
engineered camera arrangements and automated stereo-reduction equip-
ment. The desired transport and diffusion information could be obtained
quickly and cheaply.
'-^References are collected at the end of the main body of the report.
A-5
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
-------
i /r*-^*--^^A;
H H
n p
W W
-------
-------
During this initial qualitative editing, the effects of the steam from
the cooling towers became apparent. At times, it was noted that the
steam seemed to be rising through the plume, causing creation of small
cumulus clouds which separated themselves from the plume and continued
to rise because of their own buoyancy. It was decided to include analysis
of the relative paths of the two plumes as one goal of quantitative
reduction procedures. The study of the merging of the plumes is
especially important with respect to evaluating particle data relative to
direct collection and to the lidar. The high humidities should affect
hygroscopic particles. Since the operative coolers and the stack are
roughly in an E-W line, from Figs. 2 to 8 it can be seen that October 20
should represent such a day. Data on this subject are examined more
completely in the main report.
Preparation of Calibration Templates
A goal of ±10 meters of accuracy for top and bottom plume boundaries
was set as needed for valid delineation of plume behavior over distance.
A 5 x 7 black and -white print was made of selected typical examples
of the photos. These were used for photo interpretation and accurate
identification of known features: roads, railroads, terrain details. A
power line became identifiable on the 1:24,000 U.S. G.S. map. Relative
position, height, and dimensions of the Keystone stacks and cooling towers
were used to confirm calculated distances on the camera plane through the
source.
Exploratory work on these photos was feasible because only two
camera sites were used over the seven photographing periods. Each
additional camera site compounds the calculations formidably when
calibrations are calculated by hand, as they were in this case, with an
Olivetti-Programa 101 Desk Computer as the only aid. The method is
now straightforward and clearly defined; therefore, it could easily be
computerized to allow a freer choice of camera sites for future work.
Vertical calibration:
See Fig. 9.
Parameter accuracy:
Stack dimensions are published and surveyor accurate.
Measurements from 1 :24, 000 U. S. G. S map:
1. Horizontal - measured in kilometers from map scale.
100 percent confidence at ±50 meters.
2. Vertical - (20-foot contour intervals) 100 percent
confidence at ±3 meters.
A-13
-------
Keystone Calculations
Camera
Site East
Camera
Site South
Stack height (h)
Camera elevation
Horizon elevation
Stack base
b
c
tan 9 (b/c)
Distance from camera
244 m
320 m MSL
335 m MSL
308 m MSL
15 m MSL
1360 m MSL
0. 011029
244 m
297 m MSL
335 m MSL
308 m MSL
38 m
2370 m
0.016033
to stacks
e (d tan
a
f (e - a)
(d)
9)
Visible stack height (g)
tan a (^
a
; + e ">
d y
2540
28
-12
40
204
0
5
m
m
m
m
m
camera
above
stack
base
. 09133
°13
i
i
3870
62
+11
51
193
0
3
m
m
m
m
m
camera
below
stack
base
. 06589
°46
i
Fig. 9. VERTICAL CALIBRATION FACTORS AND GEOMETRY
A-14
-------
Elevation of stack base MSL known exactly.
Elevation of camera site interpolated from map contours.
Elevation and relative distance of horizon between camera
and stacks established after drawing an engineer's terrain
profile along the line of sight from camera to stacks.
The angle, a, to the top of the stack could be calculated from known
parameters. Using this as an anchor point, the template-inches/vertical
degree were assumed to be related linearly to the tangent of each even
vertical angle. Parallax at the edge of the photo was not considered because
the plume was near stack top at the source edge and plume boundaries were
seldom measured to the downwind side of the photo. The camera was set up
to place the stack top almost at the vertical center of the photo where
vertical parallax is absent or negligible. Until parallax is considered, there
will be a small but increasing error in measurements on the downwind half
of the photo.
Horizontal calibration:
See Fig. 10.
The camera has a known horizontal angle of ~40°, accuracy of which
never had to be determined because horizontal distances were never measured
to either the right or left edge of the photo. Known features such as the stacks,
a horizon power pole, terrain features, and landmarks were used to deter-
mine the location of the vertical center line of the field of view. All hori-
zontal measurements were made either to the right or left of this line. The
known distance from the stacks to this vertical plane was then divided into
convenient increments (Camera site East: A0 = 50 meters, Camera site
South: A0 - 100 meters) with AQ remaining constant downwind from the
vertical center line. The horizontal distances were calibrated in absolute
distances because only two camera sites were used and only two plastic
templates were required and a further mathematical conversion could be
avoided. For the case where many camera sites are used, the calibration
would be done in degrees right and left of center to create a universal tem-
plate and conversion to absolute distances would be part of the computer
program. These would be, of course, a function of distance of the camera
from the source and would require uiat more be known about the camera
angle and lens parallax.
A grid was photographed with the camera used in this study. It was
found that lens distortion was minimal, well •within the accuracy of the other
parameters. The apparent tilt of the stacks near the edge of the photo was
confirmed as giving an accurate measure of this. The vertical lines were
allowed to converge by this small amount and otherwise; for expediency,
A.15
-------
-------
no other correction was applied for lens distortion. A careful quality
control was applied to the templates. It was found that they would give an
accuracy of ±3 meters at the mean distances to be considered. Encouraged
by this success, the work was continued. Preparation of final templates
was delayed until the projector setup was known and its geometry established.
Scales were chosen which would allow the easiest reading of incremental
plume dimensions. It was found that preparation of final templates using
the constant projector-screen relationship eliminated the need for a complex
examination of real-life-to-camera plane-to-film-to-projector-to-screen
relationships (Halitsky, 1961).
Controlled Tracings
See Figs. 11 through 15. These are examples of the cases for a
variety of circumstances. More complete presentations are in the data
volumes and main body of this report.
The photo package contains 170 35-mm color slides divided into seven
photographing periods. Each slide was projected onto a screen from a
constant projector setup. For this study, an individual tracing was made
of the visible plume top and bottom for each slide. The behavior of the
winds had not yet been analyzed; therefore, it was not known what the final
time-grouping would be. Note •was taken of
(1) High-confidence sharp plume dimensions (no guesses were attempted
when the outline could not be seen clearly).
(2) Conditions of fumigation when smoke was clearly being transported
to the ground; therefore, no bottom outline was visible except its
path from the stack to the ground.
(3) Trajectory of the steam plume from the cooling towers and the outline
of its apparent mingling with the plume.
(4) Any abrupt change of plume behavior during each series.
(5) Location of known features (stack, roads, power poles, even clumps
of trees or buildings), to allow proper registration of the plastic
template on each tracing,
A possible great saving of time should be considered for a new study
of this kind. The work of preparing these tracings could be eliminated if
a universal template were used on the projection screen whereby the
dimensions of the plume could be digitized directly from the projected slide.
The more laborious method of the tracings was used for this study to obtain
a hard copy of the data for analysis.
A-17
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A-22
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Digitization Vertical Profile of Plume
A data form was prepared for each camera site keyed to the known
horizontal distance in the camera plane from the vertical photo center
to each vertical line of the templates (the distances "o" - Fig. 10).
A vertical angle accurate to the nearest 0. 5° was read to the plume
top and plume bottom at each horizontal increment. These data were
transcribed onto the data form. Appropriate data flags were used to
denote when one plume edge could not be seen (always the bottom edge in
this study) or when fumigation was occurring. The possibility of both
occurring was not accepted. Fumigation was not defined if it could not
be clearly detected visually.
The "o" values along with vertical angles from the data form were
then key-punched for input to a FORTRAN IV computer program designed
to calculate the true dimensions of the plume profile. These were held
until wind analysis was made (see Flow Chart, Fig. 1).
Calculation of Mean Wind per Photo Period
See Fig. 16.
It can easily be seen that 6, the angle between the camera plane
and the path of the smoke to be measured, is critical to calculation of
acceptable plume dimensions.
Every 30 minutes during this field program, pilot balloons (pibals)
were being launched from the base of the stack and tracked by two theodo-
lites. The raw theodolite readings were processed through a standard
double theodolite pibal computer program. Wind vectors were calculated
and listed at the end of every 30 seconds of flight, then interpolated and
listed for every 50 meters of altitude. This computer program calculates
and lists error factors, rho and delta, which show the relative disagree-
ment between readings of the theodolites. Analysis of these allows
detection of wind speed or direction values attributable to incorrect
theodolite readings instead of atmospheric behavior. Close study was
made of all pibal data associated with the photographing periods. All
questionable data were eliminated. Pibal data finally used for this study
are listed in Tables I through VII.
A starting point for this work was Single-Camera Measurement of
Smoke Plumes by James Halitsky, 1961. Mr. Halitsky's section,
Experimental Procedure, describes clearly the obvious effects of wind
fluctuations over altitude and time on the transport of stack effluent and
its position relative to the camera plane. In recognition of the fact that
A-23
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A-24
-------
Table I
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 16, 1968
Height
m
50
100
150
?00
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1000
WS
m/s
0.8
1.9
2.7
3.3
3.9
3.5
3.8
4.8
6.5
7.4
5.6
6. 0
5.2
4. 5
4.2
3.5
2.9
2.4
2.0
2.2
2.3
1.8
EDT
WD
Azi
92°
91
100
117
144
150
157
167
176
183
199
189
180
172
168
163
155
145
120
109
115
111
1030
WS
m/s
1. 1
2. 1
2.4
3.3
3.5
4.1
5. 1
6.1
6.0
6.5
6.2
5.0
4.4
3.4
3.4
4.0
3.2
3.3
3.8
3.8
2.8
EDT
WD
Azi
79°
90
106
122
132
146
157
164
175
184
190
189
176
157
144
137
127
114
110
110
104
1100
WS
m/s
1.7
2.0
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.6
5.3
5.7
6.1
7.0
6.9
6.7
5.7
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.8
4.1
4.6
4.0
4.2
3.8
EDT
WD
Azi
87°
101
119
132
136
135
147
153
158
162
178
180
177
166
155
145
127
124
120
102
103
101
Mean
WS WD
m/s Azi
1.2
2.0
2.4
3.0
3.5
3.7
4.7
5. 5
6.2
7.0
6.2
5.9
5. 1
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.3
3.3
3.5
3.3
3. 1
2.8
86°
94
108
134
137
144
154
161
170
176
189
186
178
165
156
148
136
128
117
107
107
106
Mean 4.4 m/s Std. Dev. 1.3 m/s
Mean 148° Std. Dev. 27°
A-25
-------
Table II
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 16, 1968
Height
m
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
1130 EOT
WS WD
m/s Azi
3.0
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.0
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.8
3.6
4.1
4.2
5.2
157°
154
153
151
146
139
133
134
134
137
141
144
142
143
145
154
Mean 3. 56 m/s Std. Dev. 0.722 m/s
Mean 141° Std. Dev. 6.1°
A-26
-------
Table III
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 17, 1968
Height
m
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
0930
ws
m/s
0.8
1.9
2.8
4. 1
6.2
6.9
7.9
8.5
8.9
9.2
9.4
9.8
10.4
9.6
9.1
9.0
7.2
7.4
8.3
8.2
EDT
WD
Azi
95°
115
126
140
152
160
164
171
179
185
189
192
192
195
197
197
195
192
193
198
1000 EDT
WS WD
m/s Azi
1.2
2. 0
2.7
4.2
4.6
5. 1
5.9
6.1
6.6
7.5
8.3
9. 1
9.9
10. 1
10. 1
9.6
7.8
5.1
5. 9
7.2
131 °
147
160
162
158
153
150
153
159
166
172
179
189
194
196
195
192
200
203
203
1030
WS
m/s
0.8
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.5
3.4
3.7
4.5
5.9
6.8
7.3
7.9
8.6
8.7
8.4
8.0
7.4
6.0
7.0
8.3
EDT
WD
Azi
154°
155
156
156
149
144
161
183
179
186
188
191
195
197
197
195
194
199
199
198
Mean
WS WD
m/s Azi
0.9
1.8
2.4
3.4
4.4
5.1
5.8
6.4
7.1
7.8
8.3
8.9
9.6
9.5
9.2
8.9
7. 5
6.2
7. 1
7.9
127°
139
147
153
153
152
158
169
172
179
183
187
192
195
197
196
194
197
198
200
Mean 7. 5 m/s Std. Dev. 1.6 m/s
Mean 183° Std. Dev. 16.8°
A-27
-------
Table IV
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 17, 1968
Height
m
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
1200 EDT 1230 EOT Mean
WS WD WS WD WS WD
m/s Azi m/s Azi m/s Azi
2.5
4.3
4.7
4.6
4.4
4.5
4.2
4.0
4.3
4.8
4.8
4.4
4.2
3.9
4.3
4.2
4.6
5.2
1?5° 2.7 131° 2.6 128°
139 4.2 134 4.25 136
140 4.0 138 4.35 139
136 4.6 154 4.6 145
138 3.9 158 4.15 148
151 4.9 151 4.7 151
157
162
160
165
165
166
160
159
164
171
174
175
Mean 4. 4 m/s
Mean 163°
Std. Dev. 0. 36 m/s
Std. Dev. 7.8°
A-28
-------
Table V
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 18, 1968
Height
m
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
0830 EDT
WS WD
m/s Azi
1.4 86°
3.3 102
4.7 114
5.9 125
7.2 136
8.1 144
8.4 150
8.6 153
9.3 152
0900
WS
m/s
1. 5
2.6
3.5
4.6
5.7
6.9
8.1
8.9
9.9
10. 3
10. 1
10.3
11.9
12.6
13. 1
12.4
13. 0
14. 0
11.6
11.7
9.4
10.3
EDT
WD
Azi
90°
104
120
136
146
151
156
156
154
160
165
170
173
177
182
191
192
190
200
198
204
204
0930 EDT
WS WD
m/s Azi
0.8
2.1
3. 5
4.8
5.7
6.4
7.0
7.8
9.2
9.2
10.8
12.2
12.8
11.4
13.7
16.7
13.8
16.4
18. 1
19.3
11.3
14.6
18. 1
7.6
9.4
98°
121
133
142
146
150
153
156
159
163
165
166
167
174
175
176
188
187
188
188
203
195
190
205
195
Mean
WS WD
m/s Azi
1.2
2.7
3. 9
5. 1
6.2
7. 1
7.8
8.4
9.5
9.8
10.4
11.2
12.3
12. 0
13.4
14.5
13.4
15.2
14.8
15. 5
10.3
12.4
91 °
109
122
134
143
148
153
155
155
162
165
168
170
175
178
183
190
188
194
193
203
200
Mean 11. 3 m/s Std. Dev. 2. 9 m/s
Mean 173.5° Std. Dev. 18.6°
A-29
-------
Table VI
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 20, 1968
Height
m
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
1230
ws
m/s
2.2
3.0
3.0
2.6
2.2
2.1
2.6
3.1
3.6
4.2
5.1
6.0
7.0
7.1
8.1
9.5
EOT
WD
Azi
310°
309
307
284
262
248
248
251
264
273
275
275
275
274
282
289
Mean 5. 0 m/s Std. Dev. 2. 5 m/s
Mean 268° Std. Dev. 13.4°
A-30
-------
Table VII
KEYSTONE MEAN WINDS
PIBAL DATA
October 21, 1968
0830 EDT
Height WS WD
m m/s Azi
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
'100
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
2.7
4.7
6.3
7.8
8.4
8.7
8.7
8.4
8.5
9.0
9.2
7.5
8.4
9.6
8.6
9.4
8. 1
7.3
8.9
10.9
5.8
10.5
11.3
284°
288
294
300
305
309
312
317
323
326
329
331
326
322
322
321
322
324
323
323
326
323
323
0900 EDT
WS WD
m/s Azi
1.5
3.3
5.0
6.1
6.8
9.2
10. 5
8.2
8.3
8.6
8.5
7.7
8.4
8.4
8.4
8. 1
8.8
10. 0
11. 6
8. 1
6.2
8. 8
9. 1
7.2
278°
286
291
296
308
305
305
312
318
322
324
323
322
325
326
326
326
325
324
328
328
326
326
328
0930 EDT
WS WD
m/s Azi
1.7
3. 1
4.5
6.1
7.4
7.9
7.5
7.6
7.9
7.4
7. 1
7.5
8.1
8.7
8.1
8.5
8.8
9.1
10.2
9.8
9.6
9.8
8.3
288°
295
304
310
314
316
316
317
318
318
319
322
325
327
329
329
329
327
326
326
326
327
325
Mean
WS WD
m/s Azi
2.0
3.7
5.2
6.7
7. 5
8.6
8.9
8. 0
8.2
8.3
8. 3
7.6
8.3
8.9
8.4
8.7
8.6
8.8
10.2
9.6
7.2
9.7
9.6
7. 2
283°
289
296
302
309
310
311
315
320
322
324
325
324
325
326
325
326
325
326
326
327
325
324
328
Mean 8. 5 m/s
Mean 322°
Std. Dev. 0. 8 m/s
Std. Dev. 5.9°
A-31
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these fluctuations could introduce error, careful consideration was given
to Mr. Halitsky's section, Evaluation of Errors. His calculation of
errors was based upon a single ground-level wind direction recorder.
Since Keystone stack is 244 meters high and effluent is known to be trans-
ported to >1000 meters above the ground, a four-dimensional study was
indicated for true photographic error analysis. Such a temporal and
spatial experiment could lead to higher order and more significant photo-
graphic measurement of plume transport and diffusion.
Since the work herein described was still at the feasibility stage,
it was decided to repeat Mr. Halitsky's assumption of a mean wind speed
and direction for each photographing period. Immediately, it was
obvious that the accuracy of the true vertical dimensions of the plume
profile is critically dependent upon the calculation of the mean wind
vector. Since pibal data •were grouped over time periods, it was neces-
sary to ascertain that pibal data were grouped into time periods during
which atmospheric conditions were relatively constant. This partially
explains the iterative loop "A" in the system flow chart (Fig. 1). The
transitional periods of atmospheric change are not instantaneous and it is
during these periods that plume behavior is most unpredictable. The
photogrammetric technique along with high-order wind data and ground
sampling could yield new insights into diffusion of effluent during transi-
tion for a small cost. Predictive plume models are, at present, confined
primarily to constant, known atmospheric conditions. The models would
benefit from knowledge of the probabilities of ground pollution during
highly transient meteorological conditions.
From the pibal data, mean wind speed and direction along with their
standard deviations (Table VIII) were calculated for each photo period
covering the atmosphere from stack top to estimated plume top. No
winds below stack top were used in calculation of mean wind but they are
displayed for each photo period along with temperature and plume profiles,
as we will see later. It should be noted that because winds well aloft
were finally considered important and a storm front passed over the area
during the days of this field -work, some sizable standard deviations
resulted. This was applied as a confidence factor. Also, pibal data do
not yield the vertical wind vector (z and sigma z) for inclusion. Accurate
high-quality field measures of the z component could serve as a basis
for interesting future work as it is considered by meteorologists to be an
important diffusion factor.
Incremental True Downwind Distances
(See Fig. 17 for graphic definition of variables. )
When a mean wind plane is established for a given time-series of
photographs, the angle, 6, can be calculated and the translation of
A-33
-------
The following distances relate to
the calibrated horizontal distances
on the plastic templates:
r = rn
o =
ND.
n
i
n
max
omax -
DWD = DWDn
ND = ND
n
Other values are constant for
each photo period.
DWD
max
Incremental nadir distance
in mean wind plane
DWD from stack to nadir
plane
Horizontal distance from
the camera axis to the
stacks in the film plane
through plume source
Longest visible DWD per
photo period
Fig. 17. HORIZONTAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC GEOMETRY
A-34
-------
horizontal distances in the camera plane through the source as measured
by the plastic template to actual downwind distances (DWDn) is a simple
trigonometric calculation. All azimuth angles are referenced to true
north (TN) for consistency*.
Procedure for calculation of true incremental downwind distances
1. tan0n = — and tan rn = -^ (1,2)
n a
2. o'n = ktan rn (3)
To calculate NDn from the vertical nadir plane in the upwind direction:
3A. Since $n = 180° - (^ + 8) (4)
and sin $n = sin [180° - (0n + 0)]
and sin $n = sin (180° - $n)
then sin (180° - $n)= sin [180° - (^ + 0)]
and sin $n = sin (0n + 0)
therefore sin $n = sin !/Jn cos 0 + cos 0n sin 0 . (5)
To calculate NDn for incremental distances from the vertical nadir plane
in the downwind direction:
3B. Formula (4) above becomes
$n = 180° - [0 + (180° - !/)n)]
then sin $n = sin (0n - 0)
therefore sin $n = sin j/)n cos 0 - cos 0n sin 0 . (6)
NOTE: 3A and 3B apply to the geometry as shown in Fig. 17. It must be
remembered that for the case when the mean wind is transporting
It should be noted that lidar geometry is referenced to magnetic north.
There are six degrees of magnetic declination at Keystone, Pennsylvania.
A-35
-------
the plume closer to the camera site than the film plane through the
source rather than away from it, as was the case in photo period #7,
these formulas must be used in reverse order. (6) applies to up-
wind half and (5) applies to downwind half of photo.
4. By the Law of Sines, then:
NDn _ o'n
sin i/)n " sin $n
.'. NDn = n "" "n (?'
11 sin $n
5. True incremental downwind distances from the stacks to the center
of the photo are computed:
DWDn = NDmax - NDn
6. True incremental downwind distances from the center of the photo to
the last downwind calibration:
DWDn = NDmax + NDn
The calculated true downwind distances were key-punched to be used
as input to a computer program in the next step of the analysis. In all, the
loop "A" in the system flow chart, Fig. 1 , was iterated three times. The
above DWD 's were recalculated each time as the time periods were
redefined. Forms were designed for rapid recalculation. Many of the
values remained constant, only those dependent on the angle (3 changed,
thus great flexibility in looking at the effects of the time factor on the mean
wind plane was possible,,
The necessity for this iteration loop could easily be eliminated in
future work if three things were done (Slawson, 1967):
(1) Detailed observer's notes kept by a meteorologist at the camera
station.
(2) Complete and accurate four-dimensional measurements of atmospheric
parameters, temperature, wind speed and direction, pressure,
humidity, etc. , from the ground to at least a predetermined distance
above the top of the plume at frequent intervals.
(3) All data precisely keyed to time and location.
A-36
-------
Computer Calculation and Statistical Analysis of Plume Profile
See Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21 for typical output.
Calculation of the incremental vertical plume profile per photo
period was the final mathematical operation needed. Since there were
170 digitized tracings each containing as many as 35 increments and it
was planned to redefine the time periods for repeated runs if the results
were not meaningful meteorologically, a simple computer program was
written for economy.
Inputs:
d in meters, one for each camera site.
sin g, one for each time period.
DWDn, one set for each time period.
o in meters
Elevation angles from
digitization of tracings
(Jn, Fig. 16)
one set for each photo
The following calculations were made and listed (Fig. 22) for each photo
during a series. (See Table IX)
Adn = DWDn sin 0
D+DDn= d + Adn
Each increment has two values for qn, qtop *s the height of the visible
plume top, and qbottom is the height of the visible base of the plume above
the camera elevation at the same true downwind distance (DWDn)
qn = D + DDn tan Jn
These incremental plume dimensions are listed by the computer in both
feet and meters. A "999" flag was used when a part of the plume outline
could not be detected on the photos and data were ended when both plume
dimensions faded. The key for visible fumigation was use of a very small
angle based on the mean angle to the horizon for each camera site, 0. 1 °
for Site East and 2.0° for Site South.
Input data as well as processed results are listed in the output of the
computer program. All of the qtop and ^bottom values were saved on
magnetic tape. This was used as input to a second phase of the computer
program which, when instructed how to group the photos, computes a
A-37
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temporal mean q^op an<^ mean ^bottom al°ng with their standard devia-
tions over a series of pictures at each downwind distance (DWD). These
were studied and, when necessary, plotted next to the wind and temperature
profiles. Then, it could quickly be determined whether the wind data had
been grouped into periods of definable meteorological conditions or whether
a transition such as stable to unstable had occurred which would cause
wild standard deviations in the plume outline introducing an intolerable
error in measurement of the transport and diffusion of stack effluent.
Table IX
VALUE OF VARIABLES FOR EACH PHOTO PERIOD
1968
Constants
per photo
period :
d
Ad0
°max
B
k(d+Ad0)
Calculated
tan g
cos 8
sin F
NDmax
DWDmax
Oct. 16
1000 to
1110 EDT
Period 1
2380 m
1500 m
850 m
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-------
Data Displays
This photogrammetric analysis was undertaken primarily to provide
graphic displays of true plume behavior for meteorological analysis of
the stack effluent diffusion. It was hoped that plots could be drawn from
which the calculations of computer plume models could be confirmed or
denied. There was need to know the mean plume center line, mean plume
rise, evidences of "overshoot" in the profile, and determine confidence
in this calculated mean center line.
The data output from the computer statistical analysis was plotted
at a large scale (1" = 100 m). These working plots were simply photo-
reduced for inclusion in this report (Fig. 23 is a representative example).
Display of the mean plume top and its incremental standard deviations
was straightforward. Behavior of the bottom profile required a subjective
analysis of each calculated profile in a time period. Each plot is annotated
with information considered germane to the profile displayed. The
standard deviations of the visible base of the plume were individually
studied because the real-life diffusion became obscured over some time
periods through grouping of data. Standard deviation of the movement of
the plume base is displayed on these plots only to the point where all
effluent could be confirmed as being airborne, a short distance downwind
of the stacks in most cases (see computer output, Figs. 18 through 21).
Beyond this point, individual profiles are shown and identified as to time
in order to retain the nature of the movement.
Due to the limitations of photography used for this study, it is not
expected to attain a high degree of correlation between instantaneous
plume base and values for low or ground level sampling of pollutants. If
the field photography were improved and with better coordination of field
activities, a good correlation of these values should be attainable.
Locations of lidar profiles were not plotted on camera geometry
base maps (Figs. 2 through 8) because of time limitations. This set of
figures illustrates why the data for photo periods #1 and #2 on October 16,
1968, was not considered reliable enough for inclusion. The smoke •was
blowing almost away from the camera and the angle between the plume
and the camera plane became too great for photogrammetric confidence.
MRI has been studying the photographic-microdensitometer method
for measurement of airborne matter as designed by Dr. Sander Veress,
University of Washington (1969). Through the use of well-controlled
photography, i.e., film, developing, lens, camera, light polarization,
etc. , Dr. Veress has been able to achieve 0.89 correlation with visibility
measurements of the nephelometer and define the dimensions of layers
of polluted air far more accurately than visible detections. The value of
this method is currently being explored by researchers in several aspects
A-44
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A-45
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of remote sensing (Journal of Photogrammetric Engineering, October
1969). Results seem to indicate that it may soon be possible to produce
pollution concentration maps and profiles of high quality inexpensively
with photography alone.
A-46
-------
Appendix B
INDEX TO TYPE AND DATE OF DATA RUNS
The 110 distinct portions of the data acquisition
missions of the airplane are put into consistent
categories, labeled by a code number.
B-l
-------
INDEX
TYPE AND DATE OF DATA RUN BY SEQUENCE NUMBER
Code
#
H = data plotted horizontally as a function of distance flown.
V = data plotted vertically as a function of altitude.
01-H Across the plume, 2 miles downwind of Keystone stacks. Eight
sections of precipitators off.
Oct. 15 1,2,3,4,5,6
Oct. 16 17, 18,28,30
Oct. 17 37,38,39,40,41,42
Oct. 20 75,76,77,78,79,80
Oct. 21 89,90,91
51-H Two miles downwind of Keystone stacks. Precipitators on for
20 minutes before this series.
Oct. 22 95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102
02-H Across plume, 5 miles downwind of Keystone stacks. Eight
section of precipitators off.
Oct. 15 7,8,9
Oct. 16 15, 16, 31, 32,33
Oct. 17 43,44,45,46,47,48,57,58,59,60,61,62
03-H Across plume, 10 miles downwind of Keystone stacks. Eight
sections of precipitators off.
Oct. 16 13, 14
Oct. 17 49,50,51,52
Oct. 18 67,68,69,70
Oct. 20 81,82
04-H Along plume downwind from Keystone stacks.
Oct. 15 10
Oct. 16 19
Oct, 18 73
05-H Along plume upwind to Keystone stacks.
Oct. 15 11
Oct. 16 34
B-2
-------
Code
#
06-V Descending straight traverse of plume 2 miles downwind of
Keystone stacks.
Oct. 16 20
07-V Descending straight traverse of plume 5 miles downwind of
Keystone stacks.
Oct. 16 21
08-V Descending straight traverse of plume 10 miles downwind of
Keystone stacks.
Oct. 16 22
09-V Ascending spiral upwind of Keystone stacks.
Oct. 17 36,56
Oct. 18 72
Oct. 20 74
Oct. 21 87, 92
Oct. 22 94
10-V Descending spiral upwind of Keystone stacks.
Oct. 16 27
11-V Ascending spiral abeam the stacks at Keystone.
Oct. 22 103
12-V Descending spiral 10 miles downwind of Keystone stacks.
Oct. 16 35
Oct. 22 106
13-V Ascending spiral 10 miles downwind of Keystone stacks.
Oct. 15 12
Oct. 17 53
Oct. 18 71
Oct. 22 105
14-V Ascending spiral sounding over Conemaugh stacks.
Oct. 16 26
Oct. 20 85
B-3
-------
Code
#
15-V Descending spiral over Homer City.
Oct. 16 23
Oct. 21 88
16-V Ascending spiral over Homer City.
Oct. 20 83
17-V Straight ascending sounding from Keystone to Homer City.
Oct. 17 54
18-H Particle collecting pass through a puff of Keystone effluent.
Oct. 16 29
19-H Zip-zip through a knee of Keystone plume.
Oct. 17 63,64
20-H Terrain-following run from Homer City to Conemaugh.
Oct. 22 107
21-H Through pollution over Johnstown.
Oct. 22 108
22-H Ten-mile downwind run toward Conemaugh stacks.
Oct. 16 25
23-H Background at 5000 feet (MSL).
Oct. 17 65
Oct. 22 104
24-H Background at 6000 feet (MSL).
Oct. 17 66
25-H Background near Keystone.
Oct. 16 24
B-4
-------
Code
#
26-H Downwind run from Conemaugh over New Florence.
Oct. 17 55
27-H Straight and level sounding downwind from Homer City stacks.
Oct. 20 84
28-H Ten-mile terrain-following run downwind of Conemaugh stacks.
Oct. 20 86
29-H Straight and level background sounding from Indiana to Homer City.
Oct. 21 93
30-H In plume over lidar.
Oct. 22 109, 110
B-5
-------
APPENDIX
STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF MRI AIRCRAFT
ALTITUDE AND TURBULENCE
DATA
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