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PROTECTION
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PART II
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 Legislation
1.2 Scope of Report
^..3 Report Organization
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CHAPTER 2 - OVERVIEW OF GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCES
2.1 Background
2.2 Hot Igneous Systems
2.3 Geopressured Systems
2.4 Hydrothermal Systems
2.5 Geographic Distribution of
Geothermal Energy Systems
CHAPTER 3 - INDUSTRY PROFILE
3.1 Methodology
3.2 Exploration and Development
3 . 3 Electrical Power Production
3.4 Direct Use Applications
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CHAPTER 4 - SOURCES AND VOLUMES OF WASTE
1
2
3
6
9
12
14
19
20
21
32
46
4.1 Methodology 61
4.2 Exploration and Development Wastes 62
4.3 Geothermal Power Plant Wastes 67
4.4 Waste Generation from Direct Users 73
CHAPTER 5 - WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
5.1 Liquid Wastes 76
5.2 Solid Wastes 81
5.3 Analysis of Waste Constituents 91
5.4 Data Needs 92
CHAPTER 6 - WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
6.1 Current Practices 94
6.2 Alternative Disposal Methods 106
6.3 Regulatory Requirements 107
6.4 Damage Cases 108
CHAPTER "1 - ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
7.1 Cost Estimation Methodology 111
7.2 Costs of Current and Alternative 112
Practices
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CHAPTER 8 - ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES
PAGE
8.1 Methodology 114
8.2 Forecast of Future Profitability 115
^ for the Geothermal Industry
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CHAPTER 9 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 118
OLncomp|ei-«O
CHAPTER 10 - '
10.1 Abbreviations of Units and Scientific 120
Terms Used in the Figures and Tables
10.2 Glossary 121
CHAPTER 11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIES
A. Database Bibliography
B. Federal and State Geothermal
Regulations Summaries ' <
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FIGURES
CHAPTER 2 PAGE
II - 1 Concentric Layers of the Earth 7
II - 2 Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System 10
T& - 3 Hydrothermal Geothermal Reservoir 13
II - 4 Known and Potential Geothermal 19
Resources
CHAPTER 3
III - 1 Typical Rotary Drilling Rig and Mud 24
Circulation Arrangement
III - 2 Typical Hydrothermal Well 27
III - 3 Dry-Steam Schematic 33
III - 4 Flashed-Steam Schematic 38
III - 5 Binary Schematic ' f 39
III - 6 Geothermal Power Plants Capacity 45
Distribution by Process Type
III - 7 Geothermal Direct Users - 58
Site Distribution by Utilization
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TABLES
CHAPTER 3 PAGE
III - 1 Common Drilling Fluid Systems 29
Prevalent in Geothermal Drilling
III - 2 Summary of Geothermal Drilling 31
^ Activity by State Geothermal
Production, Injection and Wildcat
Wells (1981-1985)
III - 3 Production Statistics, The Geysers 37
Geothermal Steam Field
III - 4 Site Listing - Power Plants 44
III - 5 Fluid Temperatures Required for 48
Various Direct-Use Applications
III - 6 Site Listing - Direct Users 54-57
III - 7 Geothermal Direct Users - Site 60
Distribution by State
CHAPTER 4
IV - 1 Estimated Waste Volumes for Drilling 66
Activities Associated with Exploration
and Development of Geothermal Resources
IV - 2 Estimated Liquid Waste Volumes from 71
Both Binary and Flash Process Plants
IV - 3 Estimated Liquid Waste Volumes from 75
Direct Users
CHAPTER 5
V - 1 Power Plant Liquid Analysis Summary 77
V - 2 Direct Users Liquid Analysis Summary 78-79
V - 3 Liquid Waste - Test Well Brine Analysis 82
V - 4 Metals Detected in the Extracts of 83
Geothermal Brines
V - 5 Solid Waste - Bulk Composition 85
V - 6 Solid Waste Acid Extract - Bulk 86
Composition
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V - 7 Solid Waste Neutral Extract - Bulk 87
Composition
V - 8 Solid Waste Acid Extract - Trace 88
Analysis
V - 9 Solid Waste Neutral Extract - Trace 89
Analysis
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V -10 Metals Dected in the Extracts of 90
Geothermal Solid Wastes from the
Imperial Valley Area
CHAPTER 6
VI - 1 Waste Disposal Practices for Power 100
Generation Facilities
VI - 2 Waste Disposal Practics for Direct 104
Users
CHAPTER 7
VII - 1 Solid Waste Management Practices 113
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Legislative Background
^
Section 3001 (b)(2)(A) of the 1980 amendments to the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act temporarily exempted
from regulation as hazardous wastes several types of solid
wastes associated with geothermal energy. Specifically,
drilling fluids, produced waters, and other wastes generated
during the exploration, development, or production of
geothermal energy were excluded from regulation until the
Environmental Protection Agency reported to Congress on
these wastes. In Section 8002(m) of the amendments,
Congress directed EPA to report on the following elements:
1. The sources and volumes of discarded material generated
per year from such wastes;
2. Present disposal practices;
3. Potential danger to human health and the environment
from the surface runoff or leachate;
4. Documented cases that prove or have caused danger to
human health and the environment from surface runoff or
leachate;
5. Alternatives to current disposal methods;
6. The cost of such alternatives; and
7. ' The impact of those alternatives on the exploration
for, and development and production of, crude oil and
natural gas or geothermal energy.
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1.2 Scope Of Report
The types of wastes to be examined for this study include
those wastes originally exempted under Section 3001 (b)(2)
of the 1980 amendments. Using selection criteria derived
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fVom RCRA's language and the accompanying legislative
history, EPA has determined that the following geothermal
energy wastes are considered exempt under Section 3001(b)(2)
and are therefore within the scope of this study:
o Drilling media and cuttings;
o Reinjection well fluid wastes;
o Piping scale and flash tank solids (except for those
associated with electrical power generation);
o Precipitated solids from brirfe effluent; and
o Settling pond wastes.
Geothermal wastes that are not exempt and are not within the
scope of this study include the following:
o Wastes resulting from the generation of electricity;
such as
hydrogen sulfide wastes
cooling tower drift
cooling tower blowdown
o Waste lubricants;
o Waste hydraulic fluids;
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o Waste solvents;
o Waste paints; and
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o Sanitary wastes.
1.3 Report Organization
This report begins in Chapter 2 with a basic discussion of
the various types of geothermal resource systems. Included
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within this discussion are brief descriptions of hot igneous
systems, geopressured resources, and hydrothermal systems.
Chapter 3 profiles the geothermal industry by presenting a
complete listing by type of operation and geographical
location for all known geothermal commercial activities. The
types of geothermal activities that are profiled include
surface exploration and geothermal well drilling operations,
electric power generation from ^ both vapor-dominated and
liquid-dominated systems, and several direct-use
applications that are currently being practiced.
Waste sources and volumes that are generated from the
industries described in Chapter 3 are then discussed in
Chapter 4. The most significant wastes described in this
Chapter include drilling mud and cuttings from geothermal
exploration and development operations and reinjection
fluids and settling pond precipitated solids from electrical
power generation operations.
In Chapter 5, a limited number of chemical analyses the
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solid and liquid wastes described in Chapter 4 are given for
a range of constituents. The constituent concentrations of
the liquid wastes and liquid extractions from the solid
wastes are then compared to regulatory limits. Since data
characterizing geothermal wastes are lacking in most cases,
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Chapter 5 concludes by presenting a status of current data
availablity and by outlining suggestions for further data
gathering programs.
A presentation of current waste disposal practices and
alternatives to current practices is provided in Chapter 6.
Along with this presentation, geothermal regulations that
have been implemented by the states are reviewed. Finally,
this chapter also discusses the types of environmental
damages or threats to human health that have occurred, from
the perspective of geothermal waste management practices
that are in compliance with regulatory requirements as well
as waste management practices that are improper and not in
compliance with established regulatory requirements.
A methodology for determining the costs of current and
alternative geothermal waste disposal practices is provided
in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 describes a methodology where waste
disposal costs generated in Chapter 7 are used to forecast
protfable impacts on the geothermal industry resulting from
the use of the alternative waste disposal practices.
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Finally, in Chapter 9 conclusions and recommendations are
made.
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CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW OF THE NATURE AND OCCURRENCE OF
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES
The purpose of this section is to provide background
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information on the nature of geothermal energy resources by
briefly describing geothermal energy systems, where geothermal
energy systems are found, and how usable geothermal energy
pockets are naturally formed.
2.1 Background
The crust and the atmosphere of the earth account for
less than one-half of a percent of the total mass of
the earth. The remaining 99.5 percent lies beneath the
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crust, and scientific knowledge of the nature of the
material beneath the crust is largely a result of the
study of earthquake waves and lavas, and measurements
of the flow of heat from the interior towards the
earth's surface. Nevertheless, this indirect knowledge
has allowed geophysicists to construct a fairly clear
and consistent model of the internal structure of the
earth.
The currently accepted model of the earth's internal
structure consists of four concentric spheres; from the
outermost to the innermost they are the crust, the
mantle, the liquid core, and the innermost core, which
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is believed to be solid. This model is presented in
Figure II-l.
Temperatures and densities rise rapidly as the center
of the earth is approached.
The term "geothermal energy" is often defined to
include all of the heat contained in these four
concentric spheres (approximately 260 billion cubic
miles that constitute the entire volume of the earth)
(Chilinger, et al, 1982). The exploitable part of this
enormous energy supply, however, is represented by that
small fraction of the earth's volume in which crustal
rocks, sediments, volcanic deposits, water, steam, and
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other gases occur at usefully high temperatures and
accessible depths from the earth's surface and from
which useful heat can be economically extracted. Even
this small portion of the total is an enormous
reservoir of thermal energy. It is estimated that up
to 1.2 million quads (a quad is one thousand trillion
British Thermal Units) are available from geothermal
energy resources. The classification, location, and
recovery of this portion of the available thermal
energy are the subjects of this section.
Geologists and engineers classify geothermal energy
systems into three major categories:
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o Hot igneous systems;
- Hot dry rock
Magma
o Geopressured systems; and
o Hydrothermal systems
- Vapor-dominated reservoirs
Liquid-dominated reservoirs.
The first two categories may contain the largest amount
of useful heat energy, but are not economically and/or
technologically exploitable at this time. Advancements
in current technology would be required in order to
economically use these potential heat sources on a
commercial basis.
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The third category, hydrothermal energy systems, is
commercially viable and has received the most attention
because extraction technology exists for the economic
recovery of heat from these resources.
2.2 Hot Igneous Systems (Hot Dry Rock and Magma)
Hot igneous systems are created by the buoyant rise of
molten rock (magma) from deep in the crust. There are
two major types of hot igneous systems: hot dry rock
systems, where the rock is no longer molten (less than
650° C or 1200° F) and magmatic systems, where the rock
is still molten or partly molten (greater than 650° C).
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Figure II-2 presents a schematic diagram of a
representative hot dry rock system.
Because of the great depth (3 km) and high temperatures
(650-1200° C or 1200-2200° F) associated with magmatic
systems, the heat is not recoverable with current
technology. However, the scientific feasibility of heat
extraction has been demonstrated in the laboratory and on
a small scale basis by near-surface field experiments at
an encrusted lava lake in Hawaii. The engineering and
economic feasibility of using magma resources has not yet
been determined.
The hot dry rock systems, located on the margins of magma
chambers, are favorable candidates for heat energy
extraction. In order to accomplish heat extraction
efficiently, it will be necessary, in some cases, to
create a system of hydraulic fractures between special,
directionally-drilled wells to improve rock permeability
and provide circulation loops. This technology was
originally developed for the oil and gas industry, but a
research program at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in
New Mexico is underway to develop this technology for
geothermal applications. Heat has been extracted and
electricity produced from hot dry rock resources at
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Fenton Hill, New Mexico on a small scale. A heat
extraction system has now been completed which is of
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sufficient size and longevity to attract commercial
interest. The economics of using hot dry rock systems
remain uncertain, but use of these systems appears to be
an attractive mid- to long-term national energy option.
^
2.3 Geopressured Systems
Geopressured systems are characterized by the presence of
hot fluids under high pressure, usually found in deep
sedimentary basins where a low level of sediment compac-
tion has taken place over geologic time and where an
effective caprock exists. For example, wellhead
pressures in excess of 11,000 pounds per square inch
(psi) and temperatures up to 237° C (459° F) have been
recorded in some geopressured zones in Texas and
Louisiana (Chilinger, et al, 1982). Since there is no
deep circulation of the water, it only reaches moderately
elevated temperatures. Because geopressured reservoirs
are usually associated with petroleum, the water is
generally saturated with methane and other hydrocarbon
gases. Therefore, these reservoirs could represent an
important natural gas supply. There is still no direct
evidence that heat, natural gas,.or both can be extracted
economically from geopressured reservoirs, but large-
scale field experiments are now underway in Texas and
Eouisiana to investigate this possibility.
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13
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2.4 Hydrothermal Systems
Hydro-thermal systems are the geothermal resources of
current economic importance. These systems consist of
high-temperature water and/or steam trapped in porous and
permeable reservoir rocks. Because of the convective
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fractures, the heat is transported near the earth's
surface. The density difference between cool and heated
fluid causes cool water or steam to move downward and the
heated water or steam to move upward.
The heat that is available in the geothermal reservoir
rock is produced by bringing hot water and/or steam to
the surface. Figure II-3 presents a schematic diagram of
*
a simplified hydrothermal system.
There are two classes of hydrothermal systems: vapor-
dominated systems, which liberate mostly steam, and
liquid-dominated systems. Liquid-dominated sytems are
much more abundant than vapor-dominated systems. They
are usually found in permeable sedimentary rock or in
competent rock systems, such as volcanic formations, if
open channels along faults or fractures exist. A brief
discussion of both systems is presented below.
2.4.1 Vapor-Dominated Systems
If the caprock in a hydrothermal reservoir is not able to
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sustain the pressure level to prevent boiling, then pockets
of steam will form. When the pressure is relieved (for
example, by drilling a well into the pocket) , most of the
dissolved minerals are left behind in the formation, and
relatively pure steam is recovered. Except for a variable
cJontent of noncondensible gases (which could be methane,
carbon dioxide, radon, and hydrogen sulfide), the evolved
steam can be an economical energy source. Frequently, it is
used to drive turbines and generate electricity.
The existence of a large, bounded volume of rock within
which temperatures are high enough and pressures are low
enough to permit boiling within the cavity is rare; this is
why vapor-dominated systems are far less common than liquid-
dominated systems. Nevertheless, the technology for
utilizing energy from vapor-dominated systems is well
developed; the largest geothermal power plant development in
the world (at The Geysers in California) uses steam from a
vapor-dominated system (Chilinger, et al, 1982).
Power generation from vapor-dominated resources produces
relatively small quantities of solid wastes. This is
primarily due to the nature of the vapor transport mechanism
that carries the volatile components to the surface. Some
secondary waste components, however, are generated from use
of .the vapor or off-gas hydrogen sulfide (H,S) abatement
systems employed at some power plants. These solid wastes
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could include measurable levels of hydrogen sulfide treat-
ment by-products such as used Stretford solution (Stretford
solution is a component of H_S abatement systems; it breaks
the H,S into elemental sulfur and water using a vanadium
catalyst), elemental sulfur and cooling tower sludge along
w*Lth boric acid, arsenic, and mercury (US EPA, 1978) .
2.4.2 Liquid-Dominated Systems
In liquid-dominated systems, water percolates through
permeable rocks, encounters high-temperature crystalline
rock and, becoming less dense as it is heated, rises toward
the surface. If some geologic barrier prevents the water
from actually reaching the surface, an undergound reservoir
may form, within which the water will circulate convec-
tively. This slow circulation allows the water to
continuously extract enough heat from the lower part of the
reservoir to compensate for the heat that escapes upward
through the formation. Thus, an equilibrium may eventually
be reached in which the water temperature throughout the
reservoir is approximately uniform (this temperature may
range anywhere from slightly above ambient temperature to
350° C/6620 F or higher).
Hydrostatic pressure on the water is usually high enough to
keep it from boiling. Because of high temperature and
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residence time in the reservoir, the water can become saline
or saturated with the dissolved constitutents of the
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minerals with which it comes in contact. Since the solubi-
lities of a number of minerals increase with temperature,
the hotter geothermal waters generally contain greater
amounts of dissolved solids than water at ambient
temperatures. This condition is, however, strongly site-
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dependent because the mineralogical composition of rock
formations in geothermal reservoirs varies widely from site
to site (US EPA, 1978) .
Geothermal liquids range rather widely in hydrogen ion
concentration, with pH values generally between 2.0 and 8.5
(US EPA, 1978) . Most geothermal liquids have a pH value
above 7.0. Liquids of higher salinity generally have very
low pH values and can be highly corrosive to man-made
materials.
Noncondensible gases - those that do not condense at normal
operating temperatures - are environmentally important
constitutents of geothermal liquids. These may be free
gases, dissolved or entrained in the liquid phase. Hydrogen
sulfide traditionally has been the component of greatest
concern because of its toxicity. Noncondensible gases
usually comprise between about 0.3 percent and 5 percent of
flashed steam from geothermal liquids (US EPA, 1978).
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Radioactive elements are also occasionally found in geo-
thermal liquids in very low concentrations. Thse include
uranium and thorium isotopes, radium, and radon. Radon, a
radioactive gas and one of the products of radium decay, is
^
the most significant radioactive components in geothermal
liquids. EPA data covering 136 geothermal sites showed a
range of 13 to 14,000 pCi/L (picoCuries per liter), with a
median of about 510 pCi/L (US EPA, 1978).
Chemicals such as acids, bases, and various flocculants and
coagulants may be added to geothermal liquids to minimize
scaling and corrosion or to remove certain constituents.
Although these chemicals may not in themselves be of great
consequence as pollutants, consideration must be given to
interactions that might alter the geothermal liquid composi-
tion. This is particularly true of any metal compounds
which may be added during this process. Most such chemicals
will be acids and/or bases used for pH adjustments.
2.5 The Geographic Distribution of Geothermal Energy Systems
The locations of hydrothermal and geopressured resource
areas are shown in Figure II-4. Identified hydrothermal
systems with temperatures greater than or equal to 90° C
(194° F) are located primarily in the western United States,
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while low-temperature geothermal waters are found in the
central and eastern United States.
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CHAPTER 3
INDUSTRY PROFILE
Prior to discussing the types and volume of wastes generated
during ^geothermal energy activities, it is first necessary to
accurately describe and characterize, by location and type of
operation, the geothermal industry. The following sections
present analyses of geothermal exploration activities for the past
five years, current electrical power generation operation for both
vapor-dominated and liquid-dominated systems, and current direct-
user applications.
3.1 Methodology
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A review of information from pre-selected databases
indicates that available literature is limited in areas of
identifying and quantifying current operations, production,
operational characteristics, and management techniques for
specific wastes derived from geothermal activities.
Nevertheless, there appears to be enough data to formulate
fairly accurate conclusions regarding the types and
characteristics of current operations.
Abstracts and other data sources that have been searched
include:
o ^Chemical Abstracts;
o Enviroline;
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o U.S. Geological Survey Library;
o U.S. Department of Energy, Geothermal Division Reports;
o Cambridge Scientific Abstracts;
o Sandia National Laboratories Technical Publications;
o Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Publications;
o Proceedings of the Geothermal Resource Council;
o U.S. Bureau of Land Management;
o Oregon Institute of Technology, Geo-Heat Center; and
o Numerous State Regulatory Agencies
3.2 Exploration and Development Operations
3.2.1 Surface Exploration
The overall objective of any geothermal exploration program
is to locate geothermal resource systems from which energy
can be profitably extracted. Rapid, low-cost surface
reconnaissance techniques are employed in the early stage
of exploration to screen large land areas for commercial
potential. Surface reconnaissance may include geophysical,
geological and/or remote sensing surveys.
A wide variety of geophysical methods are used for surface
geothermal exploration. The objectives are to identify
certain geophysical characteristics, such as
electromagnetic or gravitational anomalies, or attenuation
of seismic waves, which arises from contrasts in rock
characteristics inside and outside of the geothermal
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systems (Hochstein, 1982) . The selected geophysical
methods depend primarily on the type of geothermal system
being explored. For example, the U.S. Geological Survey's
interpretation of a seismic refraction survey in the
Imperial Valley showed that most of the geothermal areas
are along axes of apparent seismic rifting (Reed, 1981).
Surface geological methods apply where leakage of liquids
through impermeable caps occur in natural geothermal
systems. These leaks and/or seeps may produce such
features as fumaroles, hot springs, warm springs, geysers,
mud volcanoes, or mud pots, and are the most direct and
obvious indicators of the presence of a geothermal
reservoir or system. Seeps can provide quantitative
information on the nature of the reservoir and the liquids
contained within.
Remote sensing technology, such as infra-red imagery, is
used on a broad scale to identify potential geothermal
resources. On a smaller scale, in areas of known
geothermal potential, remote sensing helps to identify
surface features such as faults and joints, and thus aids
in the design of more efficient drilling programs.
3.2.2 Geothermal Well Drilling
Well drilling operations are conducted after a potential
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geothermal resource is identified. Initial exploratory
drilling is undertaken to confirm the existence of a
geothermal resource and to determine the extent and
physical/chemical characteristics of the resource. When a
commercially producible resource if confirmed, further
^
drilling may be required to develop and utilize the
resource.
Methods and equipment used for geothermal well drilling are
similar to those used in petroleum and gas drilling. Major
differences between geothermal and oil and gas wells have
been described in the literature (Armstead, 1986) as
follows:
o Nearly all geothermal well. drilling is performed at
relatively low pressures, except for the geopressured
geothermal testing now underway in the Gulf Coast area;
o The majority of the geothermal wells are relatively deep
(about 2,700 mi.), with high formation temperatures;
o The rocks being drilled are mostly igneous and
metamorphic;
o Geothermal wells are usually 50-100° C (122-212° F)
hotter than oil and gas wells of comparable depths
(Armstead, 1983);
o Cooling towers are sometimes required to lower the
temperature of the geothermal drilling fluids; and
o Gas/drilling fluid separation is sometimes required for
geopressurized field drilling.
Figure III-l shows a typical drilling rig. In this
«-
instance a concrete cellar is shown housing the wellhead
valving. Beneath the valving system a steel casing or
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CD
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"conductor pipe" extends into the ground. A portion of
this casing is grouted to prevent blowouts from the
accidental ascension of gas or steam between the borehole
wall and the casing.
Rotary drilling, as depicted in Figure III-l, uses a swivel
head, kelly, rotary table and drill string (or "stem").
The swivel head allows free rotation of the kelly and drill
string. The kelly is an hexagonal steel pipe which passes
through and is turned by the rotary table to transmit
rotary motion to the drill string. As drilling advances,
additional sections of drill pipe, 20 or 30 feet long, are
added to the top of the drill string.
The terminus of the drill string is a drill bit. A wide
variety of drill bits are available and selection depends
on the nature of the rock being drilled. It is not
uncommon to change drill bits as different rock types are
encountered.
Drilling difficulties, such as low penetration rates and
short bit lives, result from elevated temperatures and hard
rocks encountered in typical geothermal reservoirs
(Varnado, et al, 1981). Federal research programs such as
the Geothermal Drilling and Completion Technology
Development Program and the Salton Sea Scientific Drilling
Program have contributed to the development of improved
hardware which is better able to withstand the harsh
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subsurface environment (Varnado, 1981; Wallace, et al,
1986). Such technological advances encourage deeper
drilling for better quality hydrothermal resources
(Wallace, 1986).
A variety of ancillary equipment is necessary for drill rig
operation. The derrick is a still framework tower that
supports a pulley system. The pulley system hoists and
lowers equipment used in drilling and completing the well.
Diesel generators provide power to electric motors that
drive the rotary table, winch, and mud pumps. Sections of
casing and drill pipes are stocked on racks.
One of the most important factors in the installation of a
production well is the provision of adequate, high quality
steel casings. The functional purpose of the casing is to
lend support to the borehole wall and to help prevent
ground-water contamination. Figure III-2 is a diagram of
a completed liquid-dominated hydrothermal well with
installed casing. As many as four concentric casings may
be installed in a single well. Each casing is rigidly
fixed with cement to the surrounding rock matrix.
3.2.3 Drilling Mud
The drilling fluid or mud is a formulation of clay and
chemical additives, such as caustic soda or other
materials, in a water or oil base. This fluid is pumped
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from a reservoir, pit, or tank down through the drill
string and circulated up through the annulus (between the
drill stem and the wall of the bore) . After removal of
drill cuttings, the mud may be directed to a cooling tower
if excessive heating has occured downhole. After coaling,
the mud returns to the reservoir (see Figure III-l).
Drilling mud serves multiple purposes. It cools and
lubricates the drill bit and flushes rock chippings out of
the borehole. Weighted drilling mud, with high specific
gravity additives such as barite, prevents blowouts by
maintaining hydrostatic pressure in the borehole to offset
excessive geologic formation pressures. The proper
selection and management of drilling fluid is essential in
geothermal drilling operations. The drilling fluid used
for both the vapor-dominated and liquid-dominated systems
may be similar. However, drilling into vapor-dominated
systems generally utilizes compressed air as a circulating
medium instead of mud so as not to kill the production zone
with a hydrostatic column of fluid. Liquid-dominated
systems are normally drilled with conventional drilling
muds. 90 percent of muds are composed of bentonite-water
and bentonite-lignite (Robinson, 1987). Various types of
drilling muds may be used and the type and composition of
the mud depends upon the drill site conditions. Some of
the more common drilling fluid systems are listed in Table
III-l.
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TABLE III-l
Common Drilling Fluid Systems Prevalent in
Geothermal Drilling
Bentonite-Water
Bentonite provides
fluid loss control.
viscosity and
Bentonite-Lignite
Lignite is incorporated in the
fluid to provide greater thermal
stability and better viscosity/
fluid loss cntrol than a simple
bentonite-water system.
Polymer System
Predominantly composed of polymers.
This results in bentonite extension
and flocculation of drill solids,
thus creating a low-solids mud
system.
Sepiolite System
Sepiolite clay is substituted for
bentonite because it does not
flocculate at high temperatures and
provides better viscosity control.
Modified polymers are added for
fluid loss reduction and caustic
soda for pH adjustment.
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Research is continuing to develop new muds for drilling
geothermal systems. McDonald, et al, (1978) state that
improved geothermal drilling fluids will reduce well
drilling costs by ten percent and reduce the costs of power
on-line three to five percent. Bufe (1982) reports that in
1981, drill-pipe corrosion was greatly reduced in tests
using nitrogen drilling fluids at Valles Caldera, New
Mexico.
When drilling operations are completed, the used drilling
fluids constitute the major waste source, and thus, are of
primary environmental importance. The waste aspects of
drilling fluids are covered in detail in Chapters 4 and 5
of this report.
3.2.4 Distribution of Geothermal Drilling Activity
Table III-2 presents data on the locations of geothermal
drilling activity in the United States during the years
1981 through 1985 (Williams, 1986). Thermal gradient
holes, which are inexpensive holes drilled to locate high-
temperature zones, are not included in this tabulation.
California has, by far, the greatest amount of activity;
The Geysers and Imperial Valley are the primary development
sites.
30
-------
TABLE III-2
Summary of Geothermal Drilling Activity by State
Geothermal Production, Injection and Wildcat Wells
(1981-1985)
NUMBER OF WELLS
Alaska
California
Colorado
Hawaii
Idaho
Louisiana
Montana
New Mexico
Nevada
New York
Oregon
Texas
Utah
Washington
81
-
55
1
2
6
1
-
6
14
-
3
-
-
_!
1982
4
67
-
1
-
-
1
3
2
1
-
1
2
1
1983
-
47
-
-
3
-
1
3
4
-
1
1
1
1984 1985 Total
4
88 64 321
1
3
9
1
2
12
3 3 26
1
1 5
2
2-5
- - 3
TOTAL EACH YEAR
90
83
61
93
68
395
Source: Williams 1986
31
-------
In 1986 development and scientific research continued at
identified geothermal fields. Two important research
projects are the Salton Sea Scientific Drilling Program and
the Cascades Thermal Gradient Program (Wallace, et al,
1986) . The Salton Sea Program, which is jointly sponsored
by the Department of Energy, the U.S. Geological Survey
and the National Science Foundation, completed a 3221-meter
(10,564 foot) well on March 17, 1986. Core holes drilled
by DOE/Industry Cascades Thermal Gradient Program went to
depths of 1372 meters (4500 feet) at Newberry Caldera and
1524 meters (5000 feet) at Breitenbush Hot Springs
(Wallace, et al, 1986).
3.3. Electrical Power Production Operations
There are economically viable methods for producing
electrical power using the two types of hydrothermal
systems. Vapor-dominated hydrothermal systems consist of
high-temperature steam which can be used directly to
generate electricity. Liquid-dominated systems contain hot
saline waters which can be converted to steam by a flashing
process. The following sections describe electrical energy
production using these two hydrothermal systems.
3.3.1 Vapor-Dominated Systems
Electrical power is generated in a vapor-dominated system
using the conventional steam cycle (see Figure III-3).
32
-------
UJ
en
UJ
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33
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Vapor-dominated systems generally maintain downhole
temperatures of around 240 F and vent steam at a pressure
498 psi (EPA, 1977); the steam is piped from the production
well to a manifold where it provides direct power to drive
the turbine generator.
Production wells are connected to a gathering system
composed of carbon steel pipes. A centrifugal axial
separator is located on the steam line, at the wellhead of
each well, to remove solids from the steam and prevent
fouling of the pipelines. Typically, seven wells are
connected to a gathering system, delivering one million
pounds of steam per hour. This amount is sufficient to
power one 55 megawatt plant (US DOE, 1980a).
The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in a
surface or direct contact condenser. The condensate is
then pumped to a cooling tower where it is cooled and
reused as a cooling medium. The cooling tower acts as a
concentrating unit for dissolved solids in the condensate.
The condensate is then transported to a settling pit so
that dissolved solids will settle out. The purified
condensate is reinjected into the geothermal reservoir and
the sludge from the pit is dewatered. The disposal method
for the filter cake from the dewatered sludge is determined
by"the applicable state regulations. Using The Geysers as
an example, California law requires that the concentrations
34
-------
of listed chemical constituents be determined for a given
waste sample by an extraction procedure. If the
concentration of any of the listed constituents exceeds the
established threshold value, the waste must be disposed of
in a Class I waste management unit (landfill, surface
impoundment, or waste pile) for hazardous wastes. If the
concentrations in the extracts do not exceed threshold
values, the waste can be disposed of in a Class II or III
waste management unit. (See Appendix, California State
Regulations Summary).
Noncondensible gases are removed from the condenser through
an off-gas ejector system. Before the gas mixture is
vented into the atmosphere, hydrogen sulfide is removed
using one of the following processes: incineration of the
hydrogen sulfide followed by sulfur dioxide scrubbing;
precipitation of hydrogen sulfide by an iron catalyst
(Ferifloc process); or the Stretford-Peroxide-Surface
Condenser (SPSC) System (California Division of Oil & Gas,
1985).
The Geysers in California is the largest geothermal
electrical generating complex in the world. It is also the
only known vapor-dominated hydrothermal reservoir under
commercial development and operation in the United States.
f
The electrical generating capacity exceeded 1000 megawatts
late in 1982 when Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E)
35
-------
Unit 17 began operation (California Division of Oil & Gas,
1983). In 1985, four power plants were brought on-line at
The Geysers geothermal field:
o PG&E Units 16 and 20 (each generating 113 megawatts,
net) ;
o The California Department of Water Resources Bottle Rock
Power Plant (generating 52 megawatts, net); and
o The Northern California Power Agency (NCPA) 2 (Unit 3,
generating 55 megawatts, net).
The four power plants raise the total electrical generating
capacity at The Geysers to 1718 megawatts, net, as of
December 31, 1985 (California Division of Oil & Gas, 1986) .
Unocal, one of PG&E's suppliers, is responsible for the
extraction of steam from The Geysers geothermal reservoir
and reinjection of any returned condensate (Morton, 1987).
Table III-3 presents production statistics from 1960
through 1986 for The Geysers geothermal field.
3.3.2 Liquid-Dominated Systems
Two processes are commonly used to produce electricity from
liquid-dominated geothermal reservoirs: the flash process
and the binary process. Figures III-4 and III-5 present
flow diagrams of these two processes.
The Flash Process
f
The flash process utilizes the conventional steam cycle in
36
-------
Table III-3
Production Statistics, The Geysers Geothermal Field
Year Plants
1960 PG&E
1963
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
Smudged
NCPA
1984 Oxy
1985 Bottle
PG&E
NCPA
1986 NCPA
Steam
Net Capacity Prod Inject1
Unit MWe CUM MWe 101 kg
Avg. No.
10 * kg
Prod. Wells
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
15
13
14
17
18
1
1
1
Rock
16
20
2
3
11
13
27
27
53
53
53
53
53
53
106
110
59
134
110
110
110
72
110
80
55
113
113
55
55
11
24
51
78
184
290
396
502
671
915
1025
1135
1207
1317
1397
1452
1565
1678
1733
1788
3.5
6.8
6.4
7.8
15.8
21.5
26.3
30.5
32.0
32.5
27.7
36.2
47.0
52.8
49.4
65.9
80.0
95.9
54.4
0.5
1
2
3
6
7
8
7
6
9
10
12.5
13.7
13.8
19.5
24.6
26.7
N.A
16
20
20
22
37
53
65
81
91
94
94
118
151
163
175
224
252
N.A
1 Injection amounts prior to 1981 are estimated from graphs.
Sources: Calif. Div. of Oil and Gas 1983, 1984a, 1986
Williams 1986
37
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which geothermal brine is "flashed" to produce the steam.
The flash process is the partial evaporation to steam of
the hot liquid brine by sudden reduction of pressure in the
system. The steam from the flash step is fed directly to
the turbine, with subsequent usage and disposal as
described in the subsection on vapor-dominated systems.
The Vulcan Power Plant in California's Imperial Valley,
owned by the Magma Power Plant, is an example of a liquid-
dominated system which uses a flashing process to generate
electricity. The Vulcan Power Plant is designed to produce
35 megawatts, net, of electricity from the high
temperature, highly saline geothermal fluid in the Salton
Sea area. A crystallizer-clarifier process, patented by
Magma, is used to produce the steam needed to drive the
turbine generator.
The brine supply to the Vulcan Power Plant comes from 12
production wells and is transmitted to the plant via four
brine headers. (A brine header is a pipe which distributes
fluid from a smaller series of pipes.) The two-phase
geothermal fluid mixture is combined at the plant and split
into two trains. The brine first goes through a high-
pressure crystallizer where the silica is seeded (caused to
crystallize) to prevent scaling of the pipe and tank walls.
The pressure in the containment vessel is reduced to flash
sufficient steam to drive the 29.4 megawatt turbine-
40
-------
generator. The remaining heavily seeded, unflashed brine
flows to a low-pressure crystallizer where the second
flashing step is undertaken to generate more steam to drive
the 9.4 megawatt turbine generator.
The unflashed brine from the low-pressure crystallizer
flows to a reactor-clarifier where the fully developed
crystals begin to settle. The crystals are pushed to the
center of the vessel by a rake mechanism to agglomerate and
thicken. Clarified brine flowing out of the top of the
clarifier is filtered to remove any remaining solid prior
to injection. The solids are drawn off the bottom of the
clarifier to a thickener. A portion of the sludge is
retained to seed the incoming brine. The rest is mixed
with the filtered solids and disposed of in a Class I waste
management unit if it is a designated hazardous waste, or a
Class II or III waste management unit if it is a non-
hazardous waste.
The steam exhaust from both turbines is stripped of the
non-condensible gases at the condensers. The condensate is
cooled in a counterflow cooling tower where heat is
rejected to the atmosphere. The condensate is used as
make-up to the cooling tower.
The non-condensible gases are brought into contact with the
f
brine to allow the hydrogen sulfide to react with the heavy
metals in the brine. The remaining gas mixture, composed
41
-------
mostly of carbon dioxide, is vented out of the low-pressure
crystallizer.
The Binary Process
The 45 megawatt Heber Demonstration Plant, also in
California's Imperial Valley, is the largest binary power
plant in the world (California Division of Oil & Gas,
1985). The Heber Plant uses a simple binary-cycle
conversion process which consists of three fluid loops: a
geothermal fluid loop, a hydrocarbon working fluid loop,
and a cooling water loop. The single-phase geothermal
fluid is withdrawn from the reservoir into the production
well. Production lines from thirteen production wells
connect to a common header. The combined geothermal stream
then flows to a desanding vessel and a metering station.
Next, the geothermal brine passes through two parallel
brine/hydrocarbon heat exchanger trains at the rate of
about 8 million Ibs/hour. The temperature of the brine at
Heber is approximately 182 C (359 F); the binary process
utilizes brines in the 150° C to 210° C (320-410° F) range.
The brine and the hydrocarbon are contained in separate
closed loops, allowing no direct contact with the
atmosphere. The saturated hydrocarbon mixture of 90 mole
percent isobutane and 10 mole percent isopentane is heated
from a liquid state at 38° C to a supercritical vaporous
«*
state at 152° C (305° F) by the heat transferred from the
42
-------
brine. The vaporous hydrocarbon expands through the
turbine which drives the 70 megawatt electric generator.
Spent brine is reinjected into the geothermal reservoir at
about 72° C (162° F) . The brine temperature must be kept
above 65° C (149° F) to prevent precipitation of dissolved
solids prior to reinjection.
The owners of the Heber Binary Facility (SDG&E) purchase
hot brine from Chevron (Morton, 1986). The hot brine is
pumped to Heber, the heat is extracted, and the spent brine
is returned to Chevron for reinjection.
3.3.3 Annual Production
Table III-4 lists geothermal power facility sites that are
either operating or are under construction in the United
States. This table lists a total of 25 sites. A site is
defined as a single power plant or multiple operating
units. For example, power generating facilities at The
Geysers are shown as four different sites, although these
four sites contain 25 operating units, owned by four
different power companies. Table III-4 also lists
information on capacity, location, ownership, and process
type. Figure III-6 graphically shows capacity
distributions of geothermal power plants by process type
and by state. 96 percent of geothermal power plant
43
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electrical capacity if in California alone; the other four
percent is distributed throughout other states.
3.4 Direct-Use Applications
In some areas of the country, it is often efficient and
economical to use geothermal energy as a direct source of
heat. This heat can be extracted from the condensate from
an electrical generating facility or directly from a
geothermal production well. Geothermal resources with low
to moderate temperatures, suitable for direct application,
are more widespread than electric generation sites. This
is because direct-use applications are less capital-
intensive and can be developed on a relatively small scale.
The high cost of transporting the available heat from
hydrothermal resources has limited the development of
multi-user direct heat systems to areas close to the
geothermal source. As a result, for hydrothermal direct
heat use to be economical, prospective users must be within
close proximity to the geothemal production well.
Direct-use systems consist of two basic types: those that
conduct the hydrothermal fluid directly through the entire
system, and those that utilize heat exchangers to transfer
hydrothermal heat to a secondary working fluid. Examples
of the various types of geothermal systems are discussed in
«-
the following sections.
46
-------
Table III-5 shows the various direct-use applications of
geothermal fluid corresponding to fluid temperature. Many
processes require fluid temperatures of 150° C (320° F) .
However, power generation is expected to dominate those
resources.
3.4.1 Downhole Heat Exchangers fKlamath Falls. Oregon)
Some 400-500 shallow wells are used for space heating in
the Klamath Falls and Klamath Hills geothermal areas
(Geonomic 1978; Lienau, 1986). Of these, only a few pump
geothermal fluid to the surface. The rest utilize downhole
heat exchangers consisting of one or two tube loops
suspended down the well in direct contact with the
hydrothermal fluid. Downhole exchangers have the lowest
investment cost of all types of heat exchangers.
In most cases, the water inside the heat exchanger cycles
thermally (thermo-syphon); therefore, pumps are not
required to move the water and the need for fluid disposal
is eliminated (Zimmerman, et al., 1984).
Downhole exchangers are feasible only where reservoir
depths are typically less than 500 feet (Zimmerman, et al,
1984). Wells in the Klamath Falls area are commonly less
than 700 feet deep; most are less than 250 feet deep.
r'
Presently, about 500 homes, offices, commercial buildings,
47
-------
TABLE III-5
Fluid Temperatures Required for Various Direct-Use Applications
C° Application
190+
180 Evaporation of highly concentrated solutions
Refrigeration by ammonia absorption
Digestion in paper pulp, kraft
170 Heavy water via hydrogen sulfide process
Drying diatomaceous earth
160 Drying fish meal
Drying timber
150 Alumina via Bayer's process
140 Drying farm products at high rates
Food canning
130 Evaporation in sugar refining
Extraction of salts by evaporation and crystallization
120 Fresh water by distillation
Most multiple-effect evaporation, concentrations of
saline solution
110 Drying and curing light aggregate cement slabs
100 Drying organic materials, seaweeds, grass, vegetables,
etc.
Washing and drying wool
90 Drying stock fish
Intense de-icing operations
80 Space heating
Greenhouses by space heating
70 Refrigeration (lower temperature limit)
60 Animal husbandry
Greenhouses by combined space and hot bed heating
48
-------
50 Mushroom growing
Balneological bath
40 Soil warming
30 Swimming pools, biodegradation, fermentations
Warm water for year-round mining in cold climates
De-icing
20 Fish hatching and farming
Source: Lienau, et al., 1979
49
-------
schools, churches, and greenhouses are heated by geothermal
water from the shallow wells (Lienau, 1986). Typically,
well temperatures range from 38° C to 110° C (100-230° F).
3.4.2. Surface Heat Exchangers
Unlike downhole exchangers, all types of surface exchange
systems require extraction of geothermal fluid from the
reservoir and subsequently some means of fluid or brine
disposal. Of the various types of surface exchangers
available, the plate type seems to be the most suitable for
hydrothermal systems (O'Banion, et al, 1981).
Applications of this type of energy system are numerous,
ranging from heating of private residences to various
commercial uses. One such application is the Pagosa
Springs Geothermal District space heating system, which has
successfully demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing
moderate temperature (60° C) geothermal fluid for direct-
use application (Goering, et al, 1984). This system
provides space heating to public buildings, school
facilities, residences, and commercial establishments at
significantly lower cost than conventional fuels.
At Pagosa Springs, geothermal fluid is withdrawn from the
production well at about 60° C (140° F) and is directed
through a plate heat exchanger where heat is extracted to
produce hot, recirculated city water. This city water
50
-------
exits the heat exchanger at about 58° C (136° F) and is
distributed via a closed loop system to individual users
who extract heat for space heating at the point of use.
Cooled water is recirculated back to the heat exchanger
where it is reheated by the geothermal fluid. The flow of
geothermal fluid from the well is controlled by the
discharge temperature of the circulating fluids. The spent
geothermal fluid is discharged from the heat exchanger at
about 40° C (104° F) directly to the San Juan River.
Space Conditioning
Hydrothermal fluid is a suitable heat source for
conventional forced air, hydronic space heat systems, gas
heat pumps, and refrigeration units (O'Banion, et al,
1981) . In a forced air system, air is blown from a heat
source and distributed by ducts to outlets. In a hydronic
system, hot water is used directly as a heat source in
radiant panels, convectors, and radiators. Heat pumps
operate by transferring energy from a low-temperature heat
reservoir such as a hydrothermal fluid to a warmer medium
such as indoor air. A gaseous working or energy transfer
medium such as freon is exposed to the hydrothermal fluid;
the cool gas absorbs heat and expands and then moves to a
heat sink where the gas condenses, driving off heat into
the sink or the air to be heated. The freon then
evaporates and is pumped back to the heat source for
recirculation. Hydrothermal temperatures as low as 10° C
51
-------
(50° F) can be utilized for heat pumps; however, the
feasibility of using low-temperature resources is dependent
upon cost-effectiveness, taking into account the price of a
pump and associated power.
No documented usage of geothermal energy for refrigeration
was found in the literature that has been reviewed,
however, several technologies exist. These technologies
include the ammonia-water and water-lithium- bromide cycles
which operate in the 110° C - 150° C (230° F-302° F)
geothermal fluid temperature range (O'Banion, et al, 1981).
Agricultural and Industrial Uses
Lower geothermal temperatures are applicable to
agricultural uses (O'Banion, et al, 1981) which can consist
of any of the following:
o Greenhousing - This application involves the raising of
plants in a controlled environment to improve yields and
enable harvesting of off-season crops. The basic
concept is to trap solar heat by enclosing the growing
area and to offset heat losses with a secondary source,
such as geothermal energy. Hydrothermal fluid can be
utilized as a secondary heat source via a forced air or
hydronic space heating system. The fluid temperature
can be as low as 32 C (90° F) (Lienau, et al, 1979).
o Mushroom Culturina - Direct heat applications in
mushroom culturing temperature requirements include:
54-60 C (129-140 F) for compost preparation; 22-24 C
(72-75 F) for fertilization; and 26° C (79° F) for
production. Heat is distributed by exposed hot pipes
"along the mushroom-house walls. Cooling may also be
hydrothermally driven if the fluid temperature is
adequate (Lienau, et al, 1979).
52
-------
o Livestock Raising - For this application, geothermal
heat is used to maintain an optimum temperature
environment. Good environmental control results in
lower mortality, faster growth, lower animal fat levels,
and easier disease control in livestock raising. The
mechanisms for environmental control range from floor
heating in open feed lots to a completely enclosed
system of raising hogs and chickens. The enclosed
system employs both radiant panel and forced air heating
and requires a minimum intake temperature of 32 C
(90 F) (Lienau, et al, 1979).
o Aquaculture - One location in Coachella Valley
(O'Banion, et al, 1981) uses water from three (3)
geothermal wells and five (5) irrigation wells to supply
sixty-one (61) aquaculture ponds. The supplied water
first flows to a series of prawn production ponds before
cascading through irrigation pipes to ponds growing
other species of fish. These aquaculture projects have
the advantage of year-round production. For these
applications, the fluid temperature ranges from 30° C to
40 C (86-140 F).
3.4.3 Annual Utilization
Table III-6 presents a site listing of direct-use
commercial and community applications that are currently
operating in the United States. This table includes
process type, owner, location, and daily flowrate.
Table III-6 is constructed from a database containing
numerous references. The primary reference (Lienau, 1986)
provided much of the flowrate and operational data. All
database references are listed in Section 11.2.
Table III-6 contains a total of 122 sites that have been
identified from the literature. Figure III-7 shows the
53
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breakdown of types of direct-user for 107 of the 122 sites.
Sufficient information to determine the exact application
of the other 15 sites is not currently available, but these
sites are believed to be space heating applications.
Table III-7 shows a distribution of direct-users per state.
The geographical location of direct-users is shown to be
much more widespread than that of electric power generation
facilities. This is due, in part, to the fact that direct-
use applications can use a wider range of temperatures (see
Table III-5) than electric power generation facilities.
59
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Table III-7
Geothermal Direct Users
Site Distribution by State
Percent of Total
State Number of Users
Alaska 3
Arizona 1
California 19
Colorado 5
Idaho 23
Montana 6
New Mexico 7
Nevada 12
New York 1
Oregon 11
South Dakota 3
Texas 2
Utah 3
Washington 2
Wyoming 2
Total 100
60
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CHAPTER 4
SOURCES AND VOLUMES OF WASTE
The previous chapter described the geothermal industry in
terms of three categories; (i.e., exploration and development
operations, electrical power production, and direct use
applications). This chapter continues the characterization of
these geothermal activities with a description of the geothermal
operations or processes that generate waste and a discussion of
the waste volumes. Where quantitative data are missing, a
methodology for estimating waste volumes is also presented.
4.1 Methodology
The geothermal industry profiles, described in the previous
chapter, were prepared from an extensive literature search
and a subsequent data compilation project. The data base
established by these activities provided a pool of informa-
tion from which a methodology for identifying waste sources
and estimating waste volumes was formulated. The applica-
tions of this methodology are discussed in detail in the
following sections.
In developing the data base, raw data from the literature
search was loaded into a computerized data management
program that flagged areas where information was deficient.
To correct these deficiencies, personal contacts with state
61
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and federal agencies, universities and selected authors
were made to obtain the required information.
During the data gathering process, certain limitations in
data availability became evident. These limitations are
summarized as follows:
o Very little site-specific information on waste
generation is available directly from the literature;
o Many of the references are old and the information
outdated; and
o Among the various references, there are many
discrepancies regarding names of geothermal sites,
owners, waste quantities, etc.
4.2 Exploration and Development Wastes
Well drilling activities generate the bulk of wastes from
geothermal exploration and development operations. In
general, wastes from well drilling fall within one of the
following two categories:
o Drilling fluid/mud and drill cuttings; and
o Small quantities of miscellaneous wastes.
4.2.1 Drilling Mud and Cuttings
During well drilling operations, large quantities of wastes
are generated that consist of discarded drilling muds and
residues from drilling mud cleaning processes. Used
drilling muds are cleaned by circulating the fluid through
solids removal equipment such as shale shakers, sand traps,
62
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hydrocyclones, and centrifuges. After the cleaning
process, the solids which consist of drill cuttings are
discharged as a waste residue, and the mud is recycled to
the drilling operations. Further treatment of the recycled
muds, in the form of additives, is required to control mud
characteristics such as pH and viscosity (loss of viscosity
reduces the usefulness of the mud). Drilling muds are
discharged to reserve pits for storage, disposal, or when
the drilling mud system must be purged due to a change in
drilling conditions.
Documentation of drilling mud and cuttings waste volumes is
very sparse. One study (US DOE, 1982), based on experience
of drilling 50 wells in the Imperial Valley, indicated that
about 600 metric tons of mud and cuttings resulted from the
drilling of a typical 1,500-meter well. Because of the
scarcity of actual waste generation data, a methodology was
developed to estimate waste volumes of drilling muds and
cuttings. For the annual drilling activity, shown in Table
III-2, average values for well depth and diameter have been
determined by geothermal resource area. These average
dimensions were calculated from -site-specific well data
contained in the data base. For states where no
information on well dimensions were available, a
determination of average well dimensions was made based on
63
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fluid flowrate, temperature, and intended application of
the well.
Cuttings volumes for specific geothermal areas were
calculated from the number of wells in the area and the
average depths and diameters. From the calculated cuttings
volumes, an associated mud volume was computed based upon a
cuttings/drilling mud conversion or correlation factor
derived from site-specific drilling information (Morton,
1986). In the preparation of Table IV-1, cuttings and
drilling mud waste volumes were combined, converted to
thousands of barrels, and summarized for the years 1981
through 1985.
4.2.2 Miscellaneous Wastes
Miscellaneous waste quantities are relatively small
compared to the volumes of mud and cuttings generated.
Miscellaneous wastes are generally categorized as follows:
o Deck drainings;
o Cooling tower wastes; and
o Maintenance and trash.
Typically, drilling operations generate deck drainings.
These wastes are composed of rig washdown, rinses, drilling
fluids, and other miscellaneous waste materials generated
64
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on or around the drill derrick.
Depending on the type of drilling operations, these volumes
can be substantial.
Some operations may necessitate that the drilling fluid be
cooled before being recycled into the well bore. Under
such circumstances, the drilling fluid is circulated
through a cooling tower. The tower requires occasional
cleaning of scale and other deposits that build up in the
tower.
65
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Table IV - 1
Estimated Waste Volumes for Drilling Activities
Associated with Exploration and Development
of Geothermal Resources
Total Mud and Cutting Volume
State
California
The Geysers
Imp. Valley
Other
Nevada
Idaho
Montana
Wyoming
New Mexico
Oregon
Washington
Utah
South Dakota
North Dakota
Hawaii
Total U.S.
1981
97.3
49.8
47.2
0.3
7.2
0.6
NA
NA
2.8
0.3
0.2
NA
NA
NA
5.1
210.8
1982
103.7
59.5
43.3
1.0
1.0
NA
0.1
NA
1.4
0.1
0.1
2.3
NA
NA
2.5
215.0
1983
51.2
46.2
3.9
1.1
2.0
0.3
0.1
NA
NA
0.1
NA
1.2
NA
NA
NA
107.5
1984
199.0
52.2
145.6
1.1
1.0
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
2.3
NA
NA
NA
401.2
1985
109.4
53.4
55.1
0.8
1.5
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.1
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
220.3
NA - No Activity
Source: See Appendix A.
66
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Other wastes produced in drilling operations consist of
empty containers, bags, broken tools, paint wastes, minor
spills and leaks of diesel fuel, hydraulic fluid, wood
pallets, solvents, and miscellaneous trash.
4.3 Geothermal Power Plant Wastes
Wastes generated from geothermal power operations include
spent brine, flash tank scale and separated solids from
pre-injection treatment of spent brines (Royce, 1985).
Depending on the nature of the geothermal fluid, scale
formed in process lines, valves, and turbines, must also be
removed and disposed. These wastes generally consist of
heavy metal salts. The amount and composition of these
wastes are highly dependent on site mineralogy and the type
of power production process used. Very little information
describing and quantifying these wastes was discovered from
the literature review. Most of the available information
was from areas such as The Geysers and Imperial Valley.
For estimating waste volumes from geothermal power plants,
different approaches were developed depending on the amount
of detail available per geothermal site.
Steam flows for all vapor-dominated electric power
generation facilities were estimated using operating data
(California Div. of Oil & Gas 1986) from 1985 for PG&E,
from which a "pounds of steam per MW" conversion factor was
67
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calculated. Also, ratios of steam usage to condensate
reinjection for vapor-dominated facilities were calculated
from historical operating data for The Geysers over the
past five years (Calif. Div. of Oil & Gas 1987). From the
ratios, steam condensate for these flows were calculated,
but values are not reported as fluid wastes since these
flows are likely to be considered non-exempt wastes.
Verification was received from PG&E that all condensate is
cycled through cooling towers prior to reinjection, making
these reinjection fluids part of the intrinsic power
generation cycle. By excluding these flows as waste
streams, it is assumed that the other vapor-dominated power
producers are operating in the same manner as all
geothermal power operations at The Geysers are non-exempt
and thus outside the scope of this report.
Brine flows for both binary and flash power production
processes were calculated from equations derived from a
plot of hydrothermal fluid requirements versus fluid
temperature (Zimmerman, 1984). The following equations
were generated from extrapolation of data points taken from
the above referenced plot.
Binary Process:
KG Brine/KWH = 583,903-4.141T+0.007611T2
Flash Process:
" KG Brine/KWH = 456.78-2.576T+0.003855T2
where T = temperature in degrees Celsius.
68
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KWH = kilowatt hour
KG = kilograms
Hydrothermal temperatures were obtained from four separate
sources (DiPippo 1985, U.S.Geological circular 790 1978,
and California Div. of Oil & Gas 1984 and 1985) and, were
coupled with site-specific power ratings (See Appendix A
for Development of Data) to calculate daily volumes of
brine throughput. From this daily flow throughput and by
applying an annual operating factor of between 90 to 95
percent, (depending on type of process, plant age, etc.)
brine volume was obtained for a particular facility in
millions of gallons per year. (See Table IV-2.) This
value is considered conservative since no loss due to
solids formation or evaporation prior to disposal is taken
into account.
The types of wastes generated from geothermal power
production are discussed briefly in the following sections.
4.3.1 Spent Brine for Injection
Spent brine from The Geysers is generated from steam
condensate which is used in the cooling tower before
reinjection. The condensate from the cooling tower is sent
to" a sump where some solids or sludge settles prior to
reinjection.
69
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Spent brines from operations in the Imperial Valley are
also reinjected (Morton, 1986) to the producing zone, but
in much larger quantities. Brines from binary systems are
maintained under set temperatures and pressure to prevent
precipitation of dissolved solids. This allows reinjAction
of almost 100 percent of the geothermal fluid. Brine
produced at the flash plants requires treatment prior to
reinjection due to a very high TDS content (Morton, 1986).
This treatment process consists of a series of
crystallization, clarification, and filtration steps
resulting in a solid precipitate that is hauled offsite.
80 to 90 percent of the brine is reinjected after this
treatment.
70
-------
Table IV - 2
Estimated Liquid Waste Volumes from both Binary
and Flash Process Plants*
Billions of
State Number of Sites Gallons per Year
California 9 43.70
Nevada 5 9.26
New Mexico 1 .24
Hawaii 1 .06
Utah 2 3.17
Total 18 56.43
*Plants that are currently operational; does not include the
estimated volume for the three facilities under construction.
Source: See Appendix A for Development of Data.
71
-------
4.3.2 Sludges from Brine Precipitation
One method of treating brine is via precipitation in spent
brine holding ponds. A holding pond is used at the East
Mesa site for treatment of spent brine. This holding pond
has sufficient residence time so that liquid withdrawn from
the end opposite the inlet is sufficiently clear to be
reinjected into the producing reservoir. Solids that
accumulate in the pond are dredged and then dried by
evaporation; the solids are disposed of at the type of
landfill prescribed by state regulations, based on the
characteristics of the waste. This method has been
successful in those cases where the salinity of the brine
is low. At the East Mesa site, the salinity of the brine
is low compared to other areas in the Imperial Valley. (US
DOE, 1982).
4.3.3 Estimate of Waste Volumes
Table IV-2 shows estimated liquid waste volumes for the 18
operational power generation facilities that utilize a
"liquid" type process. Of the estimated 56 billion gallons
per year (BGY), 62 percent are generated at "flash" process
facilities, and 38 percent at "binary" process facilities.
If the estimated production rates for the three facilities
under construction are included, the total waste volume
increases to 71.63 BGY.
72
-------
(See Appendix A for Development of Data.)
Due to the lack of data, no attempt was made to quantify
the solid waste generated from power generation facilities.
Several facilities in California (Morton, 1986) generate
solids using a patent clarification/thickening process.
Based on the literature review, these facilities are the
sole source of significant solids generation.
4.4 Waste Generation from Direct Users
The primary waste generated from direct-use applications
consists of the spent geothermal fluid remaining after
usable heat has been extracted. In most cases, this fluid
is of adequate quality to allow surface water discharge to
nearby water bodies. There are some cases where spent
geothermal fluids meets the drinking water standards, and
it may be discharged to the community water supply.
Waste generated by direct-use applications was calculated
in a similar manner to waste quantities for power
generation facilities. Time of operation factors for
industrial direct-users were estimated to be 80 percent
(292 days per year). It was estimated that all other types
of direct-users operate 25 percent of the time (91 days per
year), or less, depending on geographical location. By
multiplying daily flowrates by operating days per year,
73
-------
annual rates in millions of gallons per year were obtained.
No mention of significant solid waste generation is
contained in the literature for direct users. At this
site, barium sulfate is added to the cooled geothermal
fluid to precipitate radium prior to discharge into a
river. The quantity of this solid is unknown; however, it
is presumed to be small in quantity and handled as a
hazardous waste under state requirements.
Table IV-3 shows estimated liquid waste volumes for 104
direct users in 12 different states. This represents over
85 percent of the sites on Table III-5. These volumes are
calculated as described in Section 4.1.
74
-------
Table VI - 3
Estimated Liquid Waste Volumes
Estimated for Direct Users
State
California
Oregon
Idaho
Montana
South Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
New Mexico
Nevada
Colorado
New York
Washington
Totals
Number of Sites
18
14
27
7
4
4
3
8
10
6
1
104
Billions of
Gallons per Year
1.41
.60
3.02
.09
.78
.31
.15
.50
.61
.50
.01
.10
8.09
Source: See Appendix A for Development of Data
75
-------
CHAPTER 5
WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
To assess the potential environmental impacts due to wastes
generated from the geothermal industry, it is necessary to
characterize various waste streams resulting from exploration,
development, and production operations. The following discus-
sions contain a summary of the analytical data found in the
literature for both liquid and solid wastes. These data are
summarized in tables and are compared to current RCRA
characteristic thresholds, (ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity, and extraction procedure toxicity) for both solid and
liquid wastes.
5.1 Liquid Wastes
Tables V-l and V-2 contain temperature, pH, and chemical
constituent analysis summaries for selected power generation
and direct use application waste streams. These tables were
constructed from several references listed in Section 11.2.
Table V-l contains analyses of seven different power
generation facilities. Five of the seven facilities produce
power via the binary process. For these facilities, the
analysis parameters are shown for the incoming brine, with
the exception of the temperature, which is the actual
discharge value. Since there is no change of physical state
76
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of the geothermal liquid in the binary process, it is
expected that these results are representative of the
discharged brine.
This assumption is not necessarily valid, however, for power
plants utilizing the flash process. In these situations,
the various chemical constituents can be concentrated in the
liquid that remains after the progressive series of steam
generation steps.
Only one set of analyses (Salton Sea - Vulcan) is
representative of a fluid that remains after a flashing
process. The analysis for the other flash processes, at
Heber, CA, applies only to the incoming fluid. Comparison
of these two results provides an estimate of the increase in
concentration of constituents that can occur from the
flashing process. Table V-l indicates that there is about
one order of magnitude increase in concentration.
Table V-2 reports analyses of geothermal fluids for 43
direct users in 13 states. In general, the levels of
chemical constituents are much lover than for power plant
reinjection brines.
80
-------
Table V-3 contains analyses of three brine samples tested
for both major and trace constituents. These samples were
collected in Imperial Valley, CA, at three test well sites
in 1980 (Accurex, 1980) . This test data can only be
considered as preliminary since the chemical analyses have
not been verified through further testing. The first eight
elements reported under the trace element analyses column
are contaminants from the RCRA extraction procedure (EP)
toxicity test for determining whether a waste is hazardous.
Table V-4 (Morris, 1981} also contains analyses of three
sites, two of which are from the same sites as Table V-3.
All three are test well samples were taken from on-site
fluid pits or tanks. Again, the first eight elements shown
are the eight RCRA EP toxicity contaminants.
5.2 Solid Wastes
Very little site-specific data relating to the composition
of solid wastes from geothermal operations have been found
in the literature. Two references (Accurex 1980, 1983)
discuss the analyses of 33 samples of various solid and
liquid samples collected in 1980. As stated before, these
data can only be considered as preliminary at this time
since the results have not been verified or been subjected
to -a quality assurance procedure. These samples were
analyzed in considerable detail, including leachate analyses
81
-------
Table V-3
Location:
Site:
Owner:
Liquid Waste - Test Well Brine Analyses
Imperial Valley
East Mesa Niland Westmoreland
MAPCO
Republic
Geothermal
Republic
Geothermal
Bulk
Composition (mg/1)
Al
Ca
Fe
Mg
K
Na
Cl
F
Si02
S04
S
Trace Analysis (/
-------
Table V-4
Metals Detected in the Extracts of Geothermal Brines'
Ag
As
Ba
Cd
Hgb
Pb
Se
B
Be
Cu
Li
Ni
Sb
Sr
Zn
Al
Ca
Co
Fe
K
Mg
Mn
Mo
Na
Rb
Si
Sn
Ti
V
Imperial
Macrmamax
.1
25
250
<5
50
NA
600
<.2
5
130
<1
<5
400
200
<1
MC
<1
250
MC
100
400
<2
MC
10
300
<4
<.5
<4
Republic
Fee
.5
<5
400
<4
200
NA
400
<.4
10
2000
5
<10
800
1000
10
MC
<1
1000
MC
400
800
<4
MC
25
30
<4
<10
<4
MAPCO
Courier
w
20
1300
<3
130
NA
130
<.
< .
1000
<3
<7
1750
400
70
MC
<1
650
MC
250
250
<3
MC
17
20
<4
<10
<4
1 -
2
3
,1
a
b
Units - milligrams of constituent per liter of extract.
MC - Major constituent, ranging from approximately 2000 mg/1
to higher levels.
NA - Not applicable.
*
Determinations by opticla emission spectroscopy.
Preconcentration using CuS carrier prior to spectographic
analysis.
83
-------
for EP toxicity. Tables V-5 through V-9 list results of the
analyses for 11 of these samples which are applicable to
this study.
Table V-5, V-6 and V-7 lists concentrations for major
constituents contained in the 11 samples. These
constituents provide an indication of the mineralogy of the
sample. Results are reported for total constituent content,
neutral and acid extractable values, along with pH, percent
moisture, and radium concentrations.
Table V-8 and V-9 lists concentrations for 16 trace
constituents for the same 11 samples. Eight of these
constituents are EP toxicity contaminants.
In addition to the analyses for the eight EP toxicity
contaminants, tests were also conducted for eight other
metals. These metals (Sb, Be, B, Cu, Li, Ni, Sr, Zn) were
included because of being listed in the water quality
standards of several western states. Analytical results for
these metals are summarized in Table V-10. In general, the
measured concentrations of these metals are fairly low,
except for the levels of boron and zinc.
84
-------
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Table V-10
Metals^Setected in the Extracts o^Geothermal Solid
Wastes from the Imperial Valley Area*"
Well drilling Mud and Cuttings
Occidental. Occidental Republic MAPCO
Fed. Lease Neasham
Fee
Courier
Scale Brine
(GLEFr Prec.
(GLEF)
<.01 <.01 <.01 <.01 .01
.3 .5 3 25 3.5
<.02 <.01 <.03 <.03 <.02
<.l <.l .06 .1 7
<.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 Int.
.02
7
<.04
.07
Int.
Ag
Asc
Ba
Cd
Cr
Hgc
Pb
Sec
B
Bd
Cu
Li
Ni
Sb
Sr
Zn
Al
Ca
Co
Fe
K
Mg
Mn
Mo
Na
Rb
Si
Sn <.l <.l <.l <.l <.l <.l
Ti <.l <.l <.3 <.3 <.l <.l
V <.l <.l <.l <.l <.2 <.4
Units - Milligrams of constituent per liter of extract.
Int - Interference.
MC - Major constituent, ranging from approximately 5000 mg/L to
higher levels.
a Determinations by optical emission spectroscopy except as
noted.
b Values represent mean of 5 samples analyzed.
c As, Hg, and Se were determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. Interference on Hg precludes lower
detection level of Hg.
d GLEF - Geothermal Loop Experimental Facility.
Source:' Morris 1981
<
<
1
<
MC
<
2
5
10
<
MC
<
5
02
.003
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.02
.5
-1
.05
.03
.4
.03
. 1
<.
2
<
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<.
2
40
10
1.
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MC
30
1
003
02
04
1
1
6
03
3
03
15
2
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3
.1
10
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.2
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1
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10
4
.1
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1
10
6
<.01
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10
.2
25
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1
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15
10
<. 1
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2
3
4
<.
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5
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5
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1
2
007
7
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1
4
01
02
7
1
04
4
1
30
-------
One other study (Morris 1981) provided analyses of a similar
group of samples with both major and trace elements. The
results are presented in Table V-8 and V-9 and are based on
the acid extract from the six solid samples. Four of the
samples are from various drilling mud pits. The other two
are from the GLEF test facility. Two of the drilling
samples are the same as those shown in Tables V-5, V-6 and
V-7.
5.3 Analysis of Waste Constituents
A few of the geothermal wastes that were characterized in
the previous sections could be classified as hazardous under
RCRA because they exhibit hazardous characteristics. The
hazardous characteristics that are present include
corrosivity and EP toxicity for certain metals.
The corrosive characteristic applies to wastes with pH
values equal to or less than 2.0, or greater than or equal
to 12.5. Maximum concentration levels for EP toxicity metal
contaminants are as follows:
Maximum Concentration
Metal Contaminant (mg/L)
Arsenic 5.0
Barium 100.0
Cadmium 1.0
Chromium 5.0
Lead 5.0
- Mercury 0.2
Selenium 1.0
Silver 5.0
91
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Two of the three brine samples, characterized in Table V-3,
exceed allowable levels of RCRA hazardous characteristics.
The sample from the Niland site exhibits the corrosivity
characteristic with a pH of 1.6 and also exceeds the EP
toxicity concentration for barium. At the Westmoreland
site, the brine sample exceeds the EP toxicity limits for
metals; i.e., arsenic, cadmium, lead, and selenium.
Similarly, the three geothermal brine samples characterized
in Table V-4 also exceed allowable contaminant
concentrations for arsenic, barium, and lead.
Sufficient constituent data are not available to further
evaluate the other waste streams with respect to the EP
toxicity contaminant concentrations.
5.4 Data Needs
Sufficient data are not presently available to accurately
characterize or quantify wastes generated from power
production and drilling activities related to geothermal
operations. Waste information available in the literature
applies to only a few site-specific cases. Since
characteristics of geothermal wastes relate directly to the
geology and mineralogy of a resource area, additional site-
specific data are required to more fully characterize wastes
from" the geothermal industry.
92
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Presently, available historical data are insufficient for
making future projections of total volumes of drilling mud
and cuttings generated by the geothermal industry. To
predict future waste disposal requirements and associated
potential problems, it is important to establish an accurate
historical record from which to extrapolate. The type of
data needed is not generally published in the literature and
industry cooperation is essential. Information must be
obtained concerning volume, characteristics and chemical
constituents of mud pit solids, drill cuttings and
reinjection fluids. Waste treatment, handling and disposal
practices need to be established for each facility (or, at
the very least, for each geothermal region).
93
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CHAPTER 6
WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
This chapter describes current waste disposal practices for
wastes generated from geothermal exploration, development and
operations. Also explored are alternatives to current disposal
practices that may be required if geothermal wastes were to be
regulated under RCRA. Finally, a summary of state regulatory
requirements for geothermal operations requirements is presented.
Accompanying this summary is a discussion of the availability of
information documenting the potential danger to human health and
environment resulting from geothermal operations or waste disposal
practices.
6.1 Current Practices
The following discussions pertain to waste management
techniques that are practiced during geothermal drilling,
power production, and direct-use applications.
6.1.1 Disposal Practices for Drilling Wastes
A review of the literature indicated that only two
references addressed handling and disposal of wastes from
geothermal drilling activities. At Heber, Imperial Valley,
California, drilling wastes are discharged to a reserve
pit, and from there the wastes are collected for off-site
disposal (US DOE, 1980).
94
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One reference (Royce, 1985) describes the waste handling
and disposal methods employed at The Geysers. These waste
management methods reflect current regulatory policies in
California. At The Geysers, an on-site reserve pit is
constructed with a two-foot thick clay liner with a permea-
bility of less than 10 cm/s. If wastes within the pit are
tested and shown to be non-hazardous, according to the RCRA
characteristic test, then these wastes will remain in the
pit. « Wastes that are determined to be hazardous are
transported to approved hazardous waste disposal sites (For
more details on waste toxicity testing and approved waste
disposal facilities, see California Geothermal Regulations
Summary in Appendix B) . After the solids settle and the
liquid is pumped off for reinjection into the well, the pit
is capped. Pit dewatering consists merely of allowing
liquids to evaporate from the surface of the reserve pit
prior to back filling. A more complex technology involves
the use of alum and polymers as flocculants. After
separation, the water is discharged and thickened solids
are covered with backfill (Hansen, et al, undated).
Problems associated with this method involve potential
future liabilities that could result from waste sludge
remaining buried at the site (Hansen, et al, undated).
Land farming, another reserve pit disposal option, involves
the mechanical distribution and mixing of reserve pit waste
95
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into soils in the vicinity of the drilling site (Fairchild
1980, Hansen, et al undated). In the petroleum industry
this method of disposal is controversial because of the
high chloride content of drilling wastes in some
geographical locations (Tucker 1985, Hansen, et al,
undated).
In California, off-site waste disposal is used for
disposition of hazardous wastes from geothermal drilling.
However, instead of vacuum truck removal, the reserve pit
contents are allowed to desiccate and the solids are
transported to an approved disposal site.
Stringent permitting requirements and state prohibitions
limit the general application of annular disposal of
drilling wastes in the United States (Hansen, et al,
undated). When applied to geothermal drilling, this method
is not particularly applicable if it will have an adverse
effect on the development of the geothermal well.
Solidification of reserve pit wastes may be economically
attractive and is more environmentally acceptable than
backfilling of the wastes (Hansen, et al, undated).
Solidification methods typically involve mixing fly ash or
kiln dust with the drilling fluids to decrease the overall
moisture content of the mixture (Hansen, et al undated).
One reference (Hansen, et al undated) states that problems
96
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associated with this waste management method include the
potential for leaching toxic metals, organics and non-
metallicions (particularly chlorides) into groundwater, or
possible bioaccumulation of these constituents in plants
and the food chain.
The primary wastes from either geothermal or petroleum
drilling activities are drilling muds and drill cuttings.
Methods currently practiced by the geothermal industry for
handling and disposal of these materials have generally
been developed by the petroleum industry.
After completion or abandonment of a well, drilling mud and
cuttings remain within the reserve mud pit. The following
quote from Raferty (1985) is offered to provide some
perspective on the nature of the reserve pit.
"In the early days of drilling, the reserve
pit was used to remove drilled solids and
store the active mud system. As more
advanced solids control and drilling fluid
technology became available to the oil and
gas industry, mud tanks began replacing the
reserve pit as the storage and processing
area for the active mud system. Today's
reserve pit is little more than oversized
collection point for drill site waste, well
bore cuttings, and rainwater."
Fairchild (1985a) lists the following five methods for
handling of reserve pit contents:
o - dewatering of pit wastes with subsequent backfilling;
o land farming the wastes into surrounding soils;
97
-------
o vacuum truck removal and hauling to an off-site pit;
o pumping the waste down the well annulus; and
o chemical solidification of the wastes.
6.1.2 Waste Management Practices- Power Generation Facilities
Seven types of liquid waste disposal have been described in
the literature for power generation facilities. These
seven include:
1) Direct release to surface waters;
2) Treatment and release to surface waters;
3) Closed cycle ponding and evaporation;
4) Injection into a producing horizon;
5) Injection into a non-producing horizon;
6) Treatment and injection; and
7) Consumptive secondary use.
An international review of waste disposal methods showed
potential applications for each of these methods depending
on the legal, technical, and environmental aspects of the
different power generation sites (US DOE, 1980) . At least
one of the above mentioned disposal methods is being
practiced or will be implemented at the 25 power generation
facilities that are currently opeational or under
construction. These data are summarized in Table VI-1.
For the seven methods, a brief description follows, with
98
-------
discussion of sites where each type is practiced.
Direct release to surface waters is the most simple method
of disposal and consists of discharging the spent fluid to
a local drainage system. In the past, this method has been
practiced at some time at all power generation facilities
(US DOE, 1980). Current environmental constraints have
made this practice almost non-existent for facilities in
the United States. One small binary facility (Wendell-
Amedee, Wendell Hot Springs) has been identified as
performing surface discharge. (California Div. of Oil and
Gas 1985) . This situation is justified due to the good
high quality of the brine, as is indicated in Table V-l.
Treatment and release to surface waters can also be a
relatively simple process; however, it can become cost
intensive, depending on the type of treatment required.
Treatment can vary from simple settling and flocculation to
sophisticated physical/chemical processes (US DOE, 1980).
Currently, no power facilities have been identified as
using this type of brine treatment.
Closed cycle ponding and evaporation consists of cycling
the spent brine through one or a series of ponds where
salts can settle out and the liquid is able to evaporate.
Ponds can be either natural or man-made. Currently, there
are no power generation facilities utilizing this method,
but this method could be applicable in areas where the
99
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climate is arid and land is relatively inexpensive (US DOE,
1980).
Injection of liquid wastes into the producing horizon
consists of recycling the spent brine back into a different
location of the geothermal reservoir. This process has to
be carefully planned to ensure injection into an area that
is permeable enough to handle large volumes of liquid.
Also, the injection well should be far enough away from the
production well to keep from cooling the production brine.
Even with such constraints, 22 of the power generation
facilities practice this method of disposal (Source: See
Appendix A for Development of Data) . This is the most
often used liquid waste management practice for power
generation facilities located in the United States.
Injection into a non-producing horizon is identical to the
management practice previously mentioned, except the
reinjection well is drilled to a zone that is vertically
separated or laterally located from the production well (US
DOE, 1980) . This is primarily done in regions where the
production zone is fractured and can be easily contaminated
by the cooler injection fluid. Reinjection to a non-
producing zone has only been tested at one location. Tests
of injection into a non-producing horizon at the Roosevelt
Hot Springs flash facility in Utah proved successful in
1980 (US DOE, 1980).
101
-------
Treatment and injection is utilized in instances where
either the brine quality is so poor that potential plugging
is high, or in the case where a usable byproduct could be
recovered from the brine prior to reinjection. Several
examples of pretreatment to prevent plugging are currently
operational in the United States. The Heber flash facility
in Imperial Valley operates a crystallizer/clarifier
processing arrangement for silica removal prior to
reinjection. (Royce, 1985). The Salton Sea-Vulcan plant
uses this same process and is investigating turning the
silica solids product into a commercial product (Morton,
1986).
Consumptive secondary use of liquid wastes is utilized as a
waste disposal method when the spent fluid can be re-used
as part of the power generation process or by some adjacent
facility. Six of the facilities shown in Table VI-1 re-use
condensate or clarified brine as make-up water to the
cooling towers (Source: See Appendix A for Development of
Data). The Wabasha Hot Spring facility in Nevada
discharges warm water to a neighboring fish farm, where the
water passes through a series of fish ponds and is then
surface discharged (Lienau, 1986).
The solid wastes described in Section 4.3 can be managed by
either of two methods: on-site, or off-site disposal. In
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some instances, a combination of both alternatives is used.
Some facilities use brine holding ponds to accumulate
solids. Once these ponds are full, the material is
excavated and hauled to a landfill, much the same as
desiccated drilling mud. Facilities using the EIMCO
process (Vulcan-Magma Power) produce a solid material that
is filtered and then hauled to a California Class I, II, or
III landfill depending on how the waste tests with regard
to RCRA characteristics. (Morton, 1986). Small quantities
of waste generated, such as scale, are collected in 35-
gallon drums on site and then similarly hauled away
(Morton, 1986).
As previously indicated, all solid wastes generated from
geothermal power plants in California are handled as
hazardous wastes - if tests are positive for the RCRA
characteristics - and are disposed of in state-specified
waste management units. Solids disposal practices
implemented in each state are addressed in Appendix B,
State Geothermal Regulations Summaries.
6.1.3 Current Waste Management Practices - Direct Users
The seven methods of liquid waste disposal for power
generation facilities are applicable to, but not
neeessarily required by the direct users. Table VI-2
presents the waste disposal status for 104 direct users in
103
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12 states. Closed cycle ponding, and treatment and
injection have been eliminated as waste management options
from the table since no facilities that utilize these
methods have been identified. For each of the four methods
shown, at least one example of the waste disposal practice
has been found in the literature.
Direct release to surface waters is by far the most common
method of liquid disposal for direct users. (Refer to
Figure VI-1). 90 of the 104 direct users listed practice
surface discharge. (Source: See Appendix A for
Development of Data). This practice is justified due to
the low flowrates and high quality of the geothermal fluid
being used. Some states (i.e., Oregon) are starting to
encourage direct users away from surface discharge and
towards reinjection as an alternative since in certain
areas serious drops in aquifer levels have been
experienced.
Injection into the producing horizon is the next most
common method of disposal. 14 sites are currently listed
as using this method, with an increase expected in the
future.
Consumptive secondary use is used at two facilities (White
Sulfur Springs, MT, and Newcastle, UT) . Both facilities
105
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discharge into holding basins where the water is collected
for irrigation.
6.2 Alternative Disposal Methods
Very little information has been discovered for newly
developed disposal methods. Several refinements to
existing processes have been mentioned in the literature
and these are briefly discussed.
With the development of new geothermal resources, the
chemical constituents of the brine can vary considerably.
This chemical variation could lead to discovery of new
constituent recovery operations. As mentioned in Section
6.1.2, Magma Power Company is investigating the
marketability of the silica solid residue that is
crystallized from the spent brine prior to injection. They
are exploring the potential market for "Geocrete", a
business decision that could turn what is currently an
operating debit for disposal into a credit, or at the
least, reduction or elimination of the current waste
disposal cost.
Another example of potential resource recovery is currently
being considered at The Geysers. Here, it has been found
that elemental sulfur can be recovered from the residue
generated from the H-S abatement system. This operation
106
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could possibly provide a saleable sulfur product.
One new liquid waste disposal practice is included in the
October 31, 1986 Technical Report comments. (Lowes, 1987).
However, it is more suited to the Oil and Gas Industry.
The process, developed by Aquatech Services, Inc., consists
of a proprietary evaporation process for disposal of spent
brines. Stated evaporation capacities of 16,800 gallon per
day fall far below normal power plant flowrates; however,
there are some small direct users for which this flow range
is applicable. Since the process is stated as being
competitive with reinjection costs, it could have a
potential application for some direct-use operation.
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
State statutes and rules and regulations obtained from 35
different states have been examined for their applicability
to geothermal energy exploration and development. Fourteen
of these states have geothermal acts passed by the state
legislature mandating the implementation of geothermal
rules and regulations. Typically, these regulations are
very comprehensive and, in general, address permitting,
solid and liquid waste disposal, well design, well
plugging, and restoration of surface.
Of the states that do not have geothermal acts, 11 states
107
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have rules and regulations that pertain to some aspects of
geothermal exploration and development. Most of these
regulations are located in water quality control standards
or oil and gas regulations which address some areas of
geothermal development, especially drilling and injection
well requirements.
6.4 Damage Cases
A total of 42 state and local contacts were made in
connection with geothermal energy damage cases. No
significant existence of damages associated with the
exploration, development, or production of geothermal
energy was found. In fact, only three incidents relating
to potential damage cases were identified. Two reports of
pollution from geothermal waste in The Geysers area of
California were obtained from the California Division of
Oil and Gas. Also in California, another incident in the
Heber area of the Imperial Valley was described by the U.S.
Bureau of Land Management.
One of The Geysers incidents occurred in Lake County where
a waste sump containing drilling fluids and bentonite muds
was pumped and discharged to an adjacent gulley during a
period of high rainfall. This discharge caused a temporary
increase in the turbidity of a nearby stream resulting in a
small fish kill. The incident was written up in a local
108
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newspaper, but no official documentation or studies were
performed. This incident was exceptional because there are
procedures for reinjecting waste drilling fluids during
unusual rainfall events. In Sonoma County, a sump pumping
truck loaded with drilling fluids and brine illegally
dumped its contents along a roadside. This incident was
documented by the local Regional Water Quality Board.
At a Chevron well in Heber, a brine blowout occurred, but
the salt water migration was confined only to the pad area
of the operation. The discharged brine was eventually
collected and re-injected. County officials took no
actions regarding the blowout, but a report may have been
made to the local Regional Water Quality Control Board.
At present, there is a potential damage case evolving at a
site in California. This case is currently being
researched.
There are three possible reasons why no significant
geothermal damage cases were found.
1) There may not be any significant damage to the
environment from geothermal waste;
2) The regulations may not be properly enforced and thus
some damages may go unnoticed; or
3), The regulations may not be adequate for monitoring
potential damages.
109
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An additional study would be required to determine the
status of both the enforcement procedures and the adequacy
of the regulations now in place. As the status of the
regulations and enforcement sector now stands, however, no
significant documentation of damage cases from geothermal
activity exists.
110
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CHAPTER 7
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
This chapter outlines a methodology for estimating costs of
the current and alternative waste disposal practices identified in
the previous chapter.
7.1 Cost Estimation Methodology
After a thorough review of the published waste disposal
cost data, it was determined that actual producer cost data
would be required. The published data were not only out of
date (1975-1978) , but were primarily rough estimates of
waste disposal costs rather than actual costs. Also, most
publications dealing with waste disposal cost used one
article published in 1979 as the basis for discussions.
When actual waste disposal cost data are available, a cost
review and update technique will be applied. Cost
estimates can be constructed by reviewing the actual data
and then organizing the data into cost categories such as
capitalized investment costs and annual operation and
maintenance costs.
Each cost estimate will be normalized to account for
inflation, geographic location, geothermal production rate,
and similar factors that might tend to skew a comparison
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between existing and alternative practices. Similar cost
estimate categories will be used so that the same adjust-
ments can be made in order to determine total economic
impacts.
7.2 Costs of Current and Alternative Practices
The geothermal waste disposal practices in current use in
California, along with the possible alternatives, are shown
in Table VIl-l. The majority of geothermal operations use
reinjection into the producing horizon primarily to avoid
falling pressures and flows, as well as to prevent
subsidence. In most liquid geothermal areas, power
producers operate at conditions that avoid precipitation of
solids in order to eliminate the expense of disposal. Only
a small number of locations currently produce solid wastes
that require off-site disposal.
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Table VII-1
Waste Management Practices
Current Practice
Alternative Practice
Reinjection into a producing
horizon
Upgrade injection well to a
Class V level.
On-site earthen pit storage and
disposal
On-site disposal in a
Class II or III landfill
Use off-site Class I land-
waste management unit.
Use off-site Class III
waste management unit.
land-
Convert solids to a "Geocrete"
building material by-product
KEY;
Class V injection well
Class I waste manage-
ment unit
Class II waste
management unit
Class III waste
management unit
Federal Underground Injection Control
(UIC) Program classification for
geothermal injection well.
Most secure, double-lined landfill,
surface impoundment, or waste pile;
RCRA-approved facility.
Landfill, or surface impoundment class
designed for "designated wastes";
commonly used for drilling muds, fluids,
cuttings, sump solids.
on- or off-site landfill for non-
hazardous, non-designated wastes.
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CHAPTER 8
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
This chapter addresses the economic impact of the alternative
disposal methods, which were described in Chapter 6, concerning
the exploration, development, and production of geothermal
energy. First, a methodology for determining the economic impacts
is described. This presentation is then followed by a discussion
of how these impacts may affect the future profitability of the
geothermal industry.
8.1 Methodology
An economic impact assessment analysis will be conducted in
future work on a facility-by-facility basis. This assessment
will encompass evaluation of impacts on production costs and
profitability due to requirements for more stringent waste
disposal practices. The impact on plant profitability and
the likelihood of plant closure will be made using
computerized discounted cash flow techniques.
The cost of disposal practices evolving from the cost
analysis will provide both capital investment and opera-
tions/maintenance costs for both existing and alternative
waste treatment/disposal systems. The impacts of the
existing treatment/disposal systems will be subtracted from
the baseline financial data, and the cost of installing and
114
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operating the new system will be added. The impact of this
change will be reflected in a mills/kwh or similar measure
that can be compared to the estimated cost of alternative
energy. The impact on profitability is the final step of
determining the economic impacts. A closure analysis will be
conducted wherein the current liquidation value of the
facility will be compared to the present values of cash flow
over the remaining life of the facility. From this closure
analysis, the impact on employment, small business, and the
community can be estimated.
In order to account for uncertainty, sensitivity studies will
be conducted wherein major cost items and assumptions will be
varied to determine the impact. Ideally, these financial
comparisons will be conducted at the facility level so that
the economic impact on the geothermal facility can be
isolated and quantified.
8.2 Forecast of Future Profitability for the Geothermal Industry
The recent drop in energy prices, with the reduced growth in
demand for electrical power and cutbacks in government
support and incentives has initiated a consolidation phase
for the geothermal industry. Development will continue at
The Geysers in northern California due to the favorable
economics of this area. Exploration for new resources has
dropped significantly with most new drilling occurring at
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currently operating fields. (Wallace 1986).
Geothermal energy production increased during 1986 primarily
due to increases in direct use projects and small scale
modular binary units for reduced cost electrical power
generation. Electrical power generation capacity for 1986
remained basically unchanged from 1985. Under the current
energy market conditions, future developments will be
restricted to expanding existing economic fields (Wallace et
al, 1986) . As existing older plants reach their economic
life and are phased out, it is quite possible that electrical
power generation capacity will actually decrease. This would
be due to the poor economics and higher economic risk of a
brand new facility over an existing one in the current energy
market. (Geothermal Resource Council, 1986). .
The future profitability of the geothermal industry is tied
directly to the price of energy available from other sources,
primarily hydrocarbon fuels. When the price of these fuels
rise again in the future, the level of new geothermal field
development will increase as well. For the majority of
current producers, the profit margins have been reduced
significantly in the past several years. (Geothermal
Resource Council, 1986).
116
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This is a very important consideration in any implementation
of more restrictive waste management practices, as any
increase in cost could have a very serious impact on the
industry.
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CHAPTER 10
ABBREVIATION OF UNITS AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED
IN THE FIGURES AND TABLES
10.1
BGY
G/cm
Kg
Km
MGD
Al
Alk
As
B
Ba
BaSO
Be
Ca
Cd
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
CuS
F
Fe
Ht.S
Hg
Zn
Billions of gallons per year
Grams per cubic centimeter
Kilogram
Kilometer
Millions of gallons per day
Aluminum
Alkalinity
Arsenic
Boron
Barium
Barium sulfate
Berylluim
Calcium
Cadmium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Copper sulfide
Fluorine
Hy'Sr'ogen sulfide
Mercury
Zinc
Mg/L
MW
pCi/g
pCi/s
Li
Mg
Mn
Mo
Na
Ni
Pb
Rb
S
Sb
Se
Si
SiO
Sn
SO
Tl
Milligrams per liter
Megawatts
Micrograms per liter
PicoCuries per gram
PicoCuries per second
Lithium
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Sodium
Nickel
Lead
Rubidium
Sulfur
Antimony
Selenium
Silicon
Silicon dioxide
Tin
Sulfate
Vanadium
TDS - Total Dissolved Solids
TSS - Total Suspended Solids
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10.2 GLOSSARY
CHAPTER 10
ANNULUS
BALNEOLOGICAL BATH
BAYER'S PROCESS
BINARY PROCESS
The space between the casing and
wall of a hole or between a drill
pipe and casing.
A therapeutic bath, usually asso-
ciated with hot mineral springs.
A process developed by the Austrian
chemist, Karl Josef Bayer, used
almost universally to extract
alumina from bauxite.
A geothermal conversion process
that utilizes a secondary working
fluid that has a boiling point less
than that of water. The heat from
the geothermal brine is transferred
to the working fluid via a heat
exchanger; the working fluid is
vaporized, then used to power the
turbine generator. The brine and
the working fluid are in separate
closed loops. The geothermal fluid
is maintained in the liquid state
by high pressure, and it is
reinjected into the reservoir after
use.
BRINE
An aqueous solution containing a
higher concentration of dissolved
salt than ordinary sea water (about
35,000mg/l, or 35%).
CASING
A steel pipe placed in an oil, gas,
or geothermal well as drilling
progresses to prevent the wall of
the hole from caving in during
drilling and to provide a means of
extracting petroleum or brine if
the well is productive.
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CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
CENTRIFUGE
CONDENSATE
CONDENSIBLE GAS
The force exerted as a material
moving along a curve reacts to the
body that constrains the motion and
is impelled by inertia to move away
from the center of curvature; the
force directed outwardly along the
radius of curvature.
A rotating device for separating
liquids of different specific
gravities or for separating
suspended colloidal particles by
centrifugal force.
The liquid obtained by the conden-
sation of a gas, vapor or liquid.
Gas that can be reduced to a denser
form, as from steam to water.
CONDUCTOR PIPE
COOLING TOWER BLOWDOWN
COOLING TOWER DRIFT
DERRICK
DIRECT-USE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
DRILL BIT
A relatively short length of steel
pipe, with slightly greater
diameter than that of the first
string of casing, inserted into the
drill hole to guide installation of
the casing.
The removal of liquids or solids
from a process vessel or line by
the use of pressure.
A fine mist of water droplets that
escape from the top or sides of the
tower during normal operation. Any
compound normally present in the
circulating water will be carried
out with the drift.
A large apparatus for lifting and
moving heavy objects, and for
supporting drilling machinery on a
drilling rig.
The utilization of geothermal
energy as heat without converting
it to another form of energy.
The cutting or boring element used
in drilling oil, gas, or geothermal
wells.
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DRILL CUTTINGS
DRILL STEM
DRILL STRING
EFFLUENT
EXTRACTION PROCEDURE
(EP) TOXICITY
Fragments of rocks dislodged by the
drill bit and brought to the sur-
face in the drilling mud.
The element that rotates the drill
bit and provides a passageway
through which the drilling fluid is
circulated.
A term used in rotary drilling for
the assemblage in a borehole of
drill pipes, drill bit and either
core barrel or drill collars,
connected to and rotated by the
drill machine.
An outflow of treated or untreated
liquid waste from an industrial
facility or from a holding struc-
ture, such as a pit or pond.
A solid waste exhibits EP toxicity
if, using the test methods as
described in 40 CFR or equivalent
methods approved by the Admini-
strator, the extract from a
representative sample contains any
of the contaminants listed in 40
CFR 261.24, Table I, at a concen-
tration equal to or greater than
the value given for that waste in
the table. If the waste contains
less than 0.5 percent filterable
solids, the waste, after filtering,
is considered to be the extract.
If a solid waste exhibits EP
toxicity, but is not listed as a
hazardous waste in 40 CFR, Subpart
D, an EPA hazardous waste number,
that corresponds to the toxic con-
taminant causing it to be hazar-
dous, is specified by statute.
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FERIFLOC PROCESS
(IRON CATALYST PROCESS)
FILTER CAKE
FLASH PROCESS
FLOCCULATION
FLY ASH
FORCED AIR SYSTEM
FREON
A process of hydrogen sulfide
emissions control developed by
Pacific Gas and Electric Co. as a
downstream system for retrofit to
existing geothermal plants that use
direct contact condensers. The
process has been modified signifi-
cantly since its introduction. The
improved system is known as the
Iron-Catalyst-Peroxide-Caustic
(ICPC) system.
The compacted solid or semisolid
material separated from a liquid
and remaining on a filter after
pressure filtration; the layer of
concentrated solids from the
drilling and left behind on the
walls of the borehole.
Partial evaporation of hot condens-
ed liquid by a stepwise reduction
in system pressure; vaporization of
volatile liquids by either heat or
vacuum.
Aggregation or coalescence of fine
particles to form a settled,
filterable mass.
Fine solid particulate, essentially
non-combustible refuse. Fly ash is
carried by draft out of a bed of
solid fuel and deposited in
isolated spots within a furnace or
flue, or carried out through a
chimney.
A space heat system where hot air
is blown from a heat source and is
then distributed by ducts to
outlets.
A trade name used for any of
various nonflammable gaseous and
liquid fluorinated hydrocarbons
used as refrigerants and as aerosol
propel1ants.
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FUMAROLE
A volcanic vent from which gases
and vapors are emitted.
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
GEOPRESSURED SYSTEM
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
GEYSER
HOT DRY ROCK
HOT SPRING
HYDROCYCLONE
HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)
The use of one or more of the
following geophysical techniques in
geophysical exploration: electri-
cal resistivity surveys, infra-red
surveys, heat flow monitoring,
magneto-telluric surveys, and
seismic monitoring.
Hot, high-pressure brines contain-
ing dissolved natural gases.
The rate of increase of the earth's
temperature with increasing depth.
The average gradient is approxi-
mately 1 deg C/30 meters (2 deg
F/100 feet).
A type of hot spring from which
columns of hot water and steam gush
into the air at more or less
regular intervals.
Non-molten hot rocks where the
geothennal gradient is above
normal, but neither steam nor hot
water can be produced economically.
A spring whose temperature is above
that of 98 F.
A device which separates a pulp
into coarse, heavy product and
fine, light product. The pulp
takes a circular path in a conical
vortex where centrifugal forces act
to separate the pulp into a coarse
fraction, which is discharged at
the apex, and a fine fraction,
which is removed by the vortex
finder.
A flammable, toxic, colorless gas
with offensive odor, commonly found
in petroleum fractions.
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HYDRONIC SYSTEM
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
A space heat system that uses hot
water directly in radiant panels,
convectors or radiators, either
singly or in combination with one
another.
The pressure at a point in a fluid
at rest due to the weight of the
fluid above it. Also known as
gravitational pressure.
IGNEOUS ROCK
KELLY
KILN
LAVA
LEACHATE
LIQUID-DOMINATED
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
MAGMA
MOLE
Rock solidified from molten or
partly molten materials. Examples
are granite, andesite and basalt.
The heavy square or hexagonal steel
pipe which transmits twisting
torque from the rotary machinery to
the drill string and ultimately to
the bit.
A large furnace for baking, drying,
or burning firebrick or refracto-
ries, or for calcining ores or
other substances.
A fluid rock which issues from a
volcano or a fissure in the earth's
surface; such rock when solidified
upon cooling.
A liquid that percolates through
soil, sand, or other media, usually
migrating from a pit or landfill.
A subsurface reservoir of hot water
or a mixture of liquid and vapor.
A naturally occurring mobile rock
material generated within the earth
and capable of intrusion and
extrusion. Igneous rocks are
thought to have been derived from
magma through solidification and
related processes.
The amount of pure substance
containing the same number of
elementary units as there are atoms
in exactly twelve grams of carbon.
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MUD
MUD POT
MUD VOLCANO
The natural drilling fluid circu-
lated through the well bore during
rotary drilling and workover
operations. The mud brings drill
cuttings to the surface, cools and
lubricates the bit and drill
system, protects against blowouts
by holding back subsurface pres-
sures, and deposits a coating on
the wall of the bore to prevent
loss of fluids to the formation.
Type of hot spring containing
boiling mud, commonly associated
with geysers and other hot springs
in volcanic areas.
An accumulation, usually conical,
of mud and rock ejected by volcanic
gases; also, a similar accumulation
formed by escaping petroliferous
gases.
NITROGEN DRILLING
ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
PERMEABILITY
PH
A drilling technique utilizing
nitrogen as drilling fluid. It is
used in drilling vapor-dominated
systems so as not to damage the
production zone with hydrostatic
columns of water. Nitrogen is
preferred over air because the
oxygen in air can promote corro-
sion.
A range of magnitudes of a quantity
extending from some value of the
quantity to some small multiple of
the quantity.
The capacity of a porous rock,
sediment or soil to transmit fluid
without damage to the structure of
the medium; a measure of the
relative ease of fluid flow under
unequal pressures.
The negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion activity; the degree
of acidity or basicity of an
aqueous solution. At 25*C, 7 is
the neutral value; acidity increas-
es with the decreasing value below
7 and basicity increases with
increasing value above 7.
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POLYMERIZATION
PORE PRESSURE
PRECIPITATION
PRODUCING HORIZON
The joining together of small
molecules to form larger molecules.
The stress transmitted through the
fluid that fills the voids between
particles of a rock or soil mass;
that part of the total normal
stress in a saturated soil that is
due to the presence of interstitial
water.
The chemical process of bringing
dissolved and suspended particles
out of solution; producing a
separable solid phase in a liquid
medium.
The rock stratum of an oil or
geothermal field that will produce
oil or geothermal fluid when
penetrated by a well.
REMOTE SENSING
RESERVE PIT
ROTARY DRILLING
ROTARY TABLE
SALINITY
The gathering and recording of
information about some property of
an object or area by a recording
device that is not in actual
physical contact with the object or
area being studied.
A pit in which muds and other
drilling fluids are stored, or an
excavated earthen walled pit used
for wastes.
A drilling method in which a hole
is drilled by a rotating bit to
which a downward force is applied.
The bit is fastened to and rotated
by the drill stem.
The geared rotating table that
propels the kelly and drill stem.
The total quantity of dissolved
salts in water, expressed by weight
in parts per thousand.
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SAND TRAP
SCALE
SCRUBBING
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
SENSIBLE HEAT
SHALE SHAKER
SLUDGE
A device for separating heavy,
coarse particles from the cuttings-
laden fluid overflowing a drill
collar; a trap separating sand and
other particles from flowing water
and generally including a means of
ejecting them.
A hard incrustation on the surface
of well and plant equipment formed
by the precipitation of dissolved
and suspended solids.
The process of separating soluble
gases with extracting liquids.
Rock resulting from the accumula-
tion of sediments or organic
matter. Examples are shale, sand-
stone, and limestone.
The heat transferred to or from a
body when its temperature changes.
A series of trays with sieves that
vibrate to remove cuttings from the
circulating fluid in a rotary
drilling operation.
A residue
or other
control.
from air
residues
or waste water
from pollution
SULFUR DIOXIDE
SUPERCRITICAL
SURFACE RUN-OFF
A toxic, irritating, colorless gas
or liquid compound formed by the
oxidation of sulfur. It dissolves
in water to form sulfurous acid.
Property of gas which is above its
critical pressure and temperature
and which makes it impossible to
liquify no matter how much pressure
is applied.
Water that travels over the soil
surface to the nearest surface
stream; the runoff of a drainage
basin that has not passed beneath
the surface since precipitation.
129
-------
SWIVEL HEAD An assembly at the top of the kelly
that allows free rotation of the
kelly while not transferring
rotation to the mud hose and hoist
cables.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS) The total content of suspended and
dissolved solids in a solution.
VAPOR-DOMINATED
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM A subsurface reservoir of high
temperature steam and gases.
VISCOSITY The resistance of liquids, semi-
solids and gases to movement or
flow.
VOLCANO A vent in the earth's crust through
which molten rock (lava), rock
fragments, gases, ashes, etc., are
ejected from the earth's interior.
130
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CHAPTER It
Report Bibliography
Accurex 1980. Identification of solid wastes in geothermal
operations. Final draft report to the EPA Technical
Project Monitor. Cincinnati, Ohio.
Accurex 1983. Analysis of geothermal wastes for hazardous
components. Cincinnati, Ohio: Industrial Environ-
mental Research Lab.
Armistead, C.H. 1983. Geothermal energy: its past,
present and future contribution to the energy needs of
man. 2nd ed. London: E&FN Span.
Bufe, C.G. 1982. Geothermal energy. Geotimes, Feb. 1982
pp. 37-39.
California Division of Gas & Oil 1983, Geothermal hotline
Vol. 13, No. 1
1984, Geothermal hotline Vol. 14, No. 1
1985a, Geothermal hotline Vol. 15, No. 1
1985b, Geothermal hotline Vol. 15, No. 2
1986, Geothermal hotline Vol. 16, Nos. 1 & 2
1987, Geohot computer printout: Total state
production and injection, 1982-1986. Retrieved
Jan. 17, 1987.
Chilinger, G.V. et al 1982. The handbook of qeothermal
energy. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
DiPippo, R. 1986. Geothermal power plants, Worldwide Status
- 1986. Geothermal Resources Council Bulletin, Vol.
15, No. 11, pp 9-18.
1985. Worldwide Geothermal Power Development.
EPRI Annual Geothermal Meeting. San Diego, California.
Fairchild, D.M. 1985. National conference on disposal of
drilling wastes, ed. D.M. Fairchild. Norman:
University of Oklahoma.
Fairchild, D.M., Knox, R. 1985. A case study of off-site
disposal pits in McCloud, Oklahoma. National
conference on disposal of drilling wastes, ed. D.M.
Fairchild. pp 47-67. Norman: University of Oklahoma.
Geonomic 1978. Geothermal environmental impact assessment:
Subsurface environmental assessment for four geothermal
systems. NTIS PB-300 851. Cincinnati, Ohio. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
131
-------
Monitoring and Support Lab.
Goering, S.W. et al 1984. Direct utilization of geothermal
energy for Pagosa Springs, Colorado. U.S. Department
of Energy, Division of Geothermal & Hydropower
Technologies.
Hansen, P.N., Jones, F.V. (undated). Mud disposal, an
industry perspective (received from IMCO Services by
RCRA docket, Dec. 15, 1986).
Hochstein, H.P. 1982. Introduction to Geothermal
Prospecting. Auckland, New Zealand: Geothermal
Institute, University of Auckland.
Lienau, L.J. 1986. Status of direct heat projects in
western states, pp.3-7. CMC Bulletin, Fall, 1986.
McDonald, W.J. et al 1978. Improved geothermal drilling
fluids. Geothermal Resources Council Transaction, Vol.
2.
Morris, W.F., Stephens, F.B. 1981. Characterization of
geothermal solid wastes. U.S. Department of Energy.
Morton, R.E. 1987. Salton Sea and Geysers geothermal area
trip report to Bob Hall, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Solid Waste.
O'Banion, K., Layton, D. 1981. Direct use of hydrothermal:
review of environmental aspects. U.S. Department of
Energy, Office of the Asst. Sec. for Environmental
Safety & Emergency Preparedness.
Rafferty, J. 1985. Recommended practices for the reduction
of drill site wastes. National conference on disposal
of drilling wastes, ed. B.M. Fairchild. pp.35-46.
Norman: University of Oklahoma.
Reed, M.J. 1981. Geothermal energy. Geotimes, Feb. 1981,
pp.35-36.
(Unpublished). Selected low-temperature (less
than 90°C) geothermal systems in the United
States; reference data for U.S. Geological Survey
Circular 892, open-file report 83-250.
Robinson, J. 1987. Unocal docket No. F-86-OGRN-FFFFF.
Royce, B.A. 1985. Impact of environmental regulations on
the safe disposal of geothermal wastes. Department of
Applied Science, Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Upton, New York.
132
-------
^r -^
Tucker, B. 1985. Soil applications of drilling wastes.
National conference on waste disposal of drilling
wastes, ed. B.M. Fairchild, pp.102-112. Norman:
University of Oklahoma.
U.S. Department of Energy 198Oa. Environmental data -
Energy technology characterization. Washington, D.C.,
U.S. Department of Energy Report DOE/EV-0077.
198Ob. Environmental assessment, geothermal
energy, Heber geothermal binary-cycle
demonstration project, Imperial County,
California.
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 790, 1978. Assessment of
geothermal resources of the United States - 1978
in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Varnado, S.G. et al 1981. Geothermal drilling and
completion technology development program plan.
Wallace, R.H. 1986. Geothermal energy. Geotimes, Feb. 986,
pp. 25-27.
Wallace, R.H., Schwartz, K.L. 1987. Geothermal energy.
Geotimes, Feb. 1987, pp.28-29.
Williams, T. 1986. DOE comments on the technical report
"Waste from exploration, development and production of
crude oil, natural gas and geothermal energy: An
interim report on methodology for data collection and
analysis."
Zimmerman, R.E. 1984. Environmental technology for
geothermal energy. U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho
Falls, Idaho.
133
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APPENDIX A
Data Management
An extensive literature search was conducted to obtain data
for this study. Raw data from this literature search was loaded
into a computerized data management program that automatically
flagged data areas where information was lacking or deficient.
To respond to these deficiencies, personal contacts with state
and federal agencies, universities and selected authors were made
to obtain the required information.
The data base established by the literature search and the
follow-up inquiries collectively produced a pool of information
that provided the necessary parameters upon which geothermal
waste volumes were estimated. Since waste volumes could not be
extracted directly form the literature, the information stated in
the data base was critical to the calculations leading to the
estimation of waste volumes.
The data sources that provided the input to the data base
are listed below.
11.2 Data Sources
Accurex 1983. Analysis of geothermal wastes for
hazardous components. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Industrial
environmental Research Lab.
Bloomquist, R.G. 1985. Evaluation and ranking of
geothermal resources for electrical generation or
electrical offset in Idaho, Montana, Oregon and
Washington, Vols. I-III. Portland, Oregon:
-------
Bonneville Power Administration, U.S. Department
of Energy.
California Division of Oil and Gas 1983a. Geothermal
hotline Vol. 13, No. 1.
1983b. Geothermal hotline, Vol. 13, No. 2
1984. Geothermal hotline, Vol. 14, No. 2
1985a. Geothermal hotline, Vol. 15, No. 1
1985b. Geothermal hotline, Vol. 15, No. 2
1986. Geothermal hotline, Vol. 16, Nos. 1 & 2
1987. Geohot computer printout: Total state
production and injection, 1982-1986. Retrieved
Jan. 27, 1987.
Cosner, S.R., Apps, J.A. 1978. A compilation of data
on fluids from geothermal resources in the United
States. U.S. Department of Energy.
DiPippo, R. 1985. Worldwide geothermal power
development. EPRI Annual geothermal meeting in
San Diego, California, June, 1985.
Ellis, P., Conver, M. 1981. Material selection
guidelines for geothermal energy utilization
systems. DOE/RA/27026-1.
Geological Survey Circular 790 1978. Assessment of
geothermal resources of the United States - 1978.
In cooperation with U.S. Department of Energy.
Geological Survey Circular 892 1982. Assessment of
geothermal resources of the United States - 1982.
In cooperation with U.S. Department of Energy.
Geonomic 1978. Geothermal Environmental Impact
Assessment: Subsurface Environmental Assessment
for Four Geothermal Systems. NTIS PB-300 851.
Cincinnati, Ohio. U.S. environmental Protection
Agency, Environmental Monitoring & Support Lab.
Goering, S.W. et al 1984. Direct utilization of
geothermal energy for Pagosa Springs, Colorado.
U.S. Department of Energy Div. of Geothermal &
Hydropower Technologies.
Greene, R. (Undated). Geothermal well drilling and
completion. Handbook of geothermal energy.
Harding-Lawson Associates 1979. Geothermal impact
assessment: ground water monitoring guideline for
geothermal development. Las Vegas, Nevada: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Environmental
Monitoring & Support Lab.
-------
Hooper, G. 1987. Geothermal electric power plants
operational in the United States. U.S. Department
of Energy.
Kroopnick, R.W. 1978. Hydrology and geochemistry of an
Hawaiian geothermal system: HGP-A. National
Science Foundation/Energy Research & Development
Agency.
Lawrence Berkely Laboratory 1986. Case studies of low
to moderate temperature hydrothermal energy
development. U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho
Operations Office.
Lienau, L.J. 1986. Status of direct heat projects in
western states. GHC Bulletin, Fall, 1986: pp.3-7
Meridian 1985. Directory of direct heat geothermal
projects in the United States. U.S. Department of
Energy Div. of Geothermal & Hydropower
Technologies.
Morton, R.E. 1986. Imperial Valley and The Geysers
geothermal area trip report to Bob Hall, US EPA,
Office of Solid Waste, Dec. 16, 1986.
O'Banion, K. , Layton, D. 1981. Direct use of
hydrothermal energy: review of environmental
aspects. U.S. Department of Energy Office of the
Asst. Sec. for Environmental Safety & Emergency
Preparedness.
Read, M.J. (Undated). Selected low temperatures (less
than 90°C) geothermal systems in the United
States; reference data for U.S. Geological Survey
Circular 892. Open-file report 83-250.
Royce, B.A. 1985. Impact of environmental regulations
on the safe disposal of geothermal wastes. Dept.
of Applied Science, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton New York.
Schultz, L.E. 1985. Recovering zinc-lead sulfide from
a geothermal brine. U.S. Department of Interior
Bureau of Mines RI8922. Washington, D.C. U.S.
Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Energy 1980a. Environmental
assessment, geothermal energy, Heber geothermal
binary-cycle demonstration project, Imperial
County, California.
1980b. State of the art of liquid waste disposal
for geothermal energy systems: 1979. DOE/EV-
0083.
-------
Varnado, S.G., Maish, A.B. 1948. Geothermal drilling
research in the United States: alternative energy
sources II.
Williams, T. 1986. U.S. Department of Energy comments
on the Technical Report, "Wastes from exploration,
development and production of crude oil, natural
gas and geothermal energy: an interim report on
methodology for data collection and analysis."
Zimmerman, R.E. 1984. Environmental technology for
geothermal energy. U.S. Department of Energy,
Idaho Falls, Idaho.
-------
APPENDIX B
FEDERAL AND STATE GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS SUMMARIES
Federal Regulations P, - I
Alaska B-10
California a |$
Delaware £~*2.
Georgia 6-35
Hawaii 6 - I &
Idaho £-*$
Illinois 6-5-1
Indiana 6"55
Iowa 6-kO
Louisiana 6~'*5
Maryland b - ir
Montana fe-li
Nevada &-11
New Hampshire £ -$3
New Jersey P - ?'/
New Mexico !i -
North Carolina 6-
Oregon 6>
South Carolina P>
South Dakota 0-
Texas 6 ,
Utah 6^
Virginia 6-12-5"
Washington > -'^/
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APPENDIX
FEDERAL REGULATIONS
REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Geothermal Steam Act, as amended (U.S.C. 1001-1025),
gives the U.S. Department of the Interior the authority to issue
leases for the development and utilization of geothermal steam
and associated geothermal resources. The implementing
regulations (43 CFR, Part 3200) are now administered exclusively
by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) except for royalty
functions administered by the Minerals Management Service (MMS).
BLM may issue leases on federal lands under its jurisdiction and
on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, with the
consent of the latter. In addition to leasing responsibility,
BLM evaluates and classifies geothermal resources on federal land
and supervises all pre- and post-leasing operations, including
exploration, development, and production.
GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES OPERATIONAL ORDERS
Geothermal Resources Operational (GRO) Orders are formal,
enforceable orders, originally issued by the U.S. Geological
Survey, to supplement the general regulations found in 43 CFR
Part 3200. They detail the procedures that lessees, and others
in the case of Notice of Intent (NOI) to Conduct Geothermal
Resources Exploration Operations permits, must follow in a given
area or region. The purpose of this arrangement is to allow
consideration of more area-specific operating and environmental
-------
conditions.
GRO Order No. 1 outlines the BLM requirements for conducting
exploratory operations on federal lands. According to GRO Order
No. 1, plans for exploratory operations for geothermal energy
must include "provisions for appropriate environmental protection
and reclamation of disturbed lands." Before any exploration can
begin, a Notice of Intent (NOI) to Conduct Geothermal Resources
Exploratory Operations must be submitted by the lessee to the
Area Geothermal Supervisor. Any proposed variances from the
requirements in GRO Order No. 1 must be submitted with the NOI.
Three categories of actions are considered exploratory
operations: casual use, geophysical exporation, and drilling of
shallow holes. Casual use, which is the only type of exploratory
operation that does not require an NOI permit is "any entrance on
the leased lands for geological reconnaissance or surveying
purposes." Spring water and well sampling for geochemical
analyses would fall into this category. Geophysical exploration
includes surface electrical resistivity surveys, seismic ground
noise surveys, and all other types of geophysical surveys,
including airborne techniques. Airborne operations do not
require an NOI. The third types of exploratory operation is the
drilling of shallow holes for the purpose of measuring
temperature gradients or heat flow. The NOI must include the
type of drilling system to be used, approximate depth of hole and
casing, type of drilling sump, and proposed method of abandonment
b-l
-------
of the sump and the hole itself and other itemized information.
There are Wipulations on depth of xne hole and return line
temperatures. There are also special provisions for proposed
drilling sites in known natural thermal areas, such as special
drilling and completion techniques, in order to protect
formations containing geothermal or other resources. When
drilling holes are abandoned, the Order requires that measures
are taken to prevent interzonal migration of fluids and
subsurface leakage. For example, the top 3 meters of tubing
below the surface must be filled with cement.
Upon cessation of exploratory operations, the lessee must
file a Notice of Completion of Geothermal Resources Exploration
Operations. The Notice of Completion must include any
information on drilling difficulties or unusual circumstances
which would be useful in assuring future safe operations or
protection of the environment. Some other protective measures
set forth in GRO Order No. 1 regarding exploratory operations
are: (1) drilling fluids and cuttings cannot be discharged onto
the surface where they could contaminate lakes and streams; (2)
excavated pits and sumps used in drilling must be backfilled as
soon as drilling is completed, and the original topography
restored; and (3) unattended sumps must be fenced for the
protection of the public, domestic animals, and wildlife.
6-3
-------
Other types of liquid wastes, such as toxic drilling fluids,
must be disposed of in a manner approved by BLM and in accordance
with federal, state, and regional standards.
Solid Waste Disposal
Solid wastes,such as drill cuttings, precipitates, and sand,
must be disposed of as directed by the BLM either on location or
at approved disposal sites.
Pits and Sumps
The lessee is required to provide and use pits and sumps to
retain all wastes generated during drilling, production, and any
other operation, unless other specifications are made by the
Supervisor. Pits and sumps containing drilling wastes must be
lined with impervious material and purged of environmentally
harmful chemicals and precipitates before backfilling. 43 CFR
3262.6-3 states that in no event shall the contents of a pit or
sump be allowed to contaminate streams, lakes, or groundwater,
and that there must be minimal damage to the natural environment
and the aesthetic values of the leased land or adjacent
properties. Pits and sumps which are unattended must be fenced
for the protection of wildlife, domestic animals, and the public.
When no longer needed, pits and sumps are to be filled and
covered and the premises restored, in a manner prescribed by the
BLM.
6-7-
-------
Pollution Inspection and Reports
Geothernral Resources Operational der No. 4 requires that
the lessee inspect drilling and production facilities daily to
safeguard against pollution. Preventive maintenance must be
performed as necessary to prevent malfunctions that could lead to
pollution. Wells and areas not under production must
nevertheless be inspected by the lessee, at intervals prescribed
by the Supervisor. All pollution incidents must be reported
within 18 hours to the BLM and a written report stating the cause
and corrective action taken must follow within 30 days.
UNDERGROUND INJECTION CONTROL PROGRAM
The Bureau of Land Management is in charge of most
geothermal waste disposal operations on Federal and Indian lands.
However, the Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-523) of 1974, as
amended, requires that the EPA establish a national program to
assure that underground injection of wastes would not endanger
subsurface drinking water sources. EPA implemented this mandate
by enacting the Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program for
Federal, Indian, State, and private lands. Under the UIC rules,
EPA has jurisdiction over the five categories of injection wells,
including Class II injection wells, which are often used to
retain drilling wastes from geothermal energy production. In
some cases, EPA gives primacy to the States regarding the UIC
Program. The Bureau of Land Management defers to EPA or the
primacy state the task of determining whether underground fresh
water sources are safe, and issues permits for Class II
B-3
-------
underground ^^inj ection wells. BLM^^does, however, retain
involvement in approval of wells drilled or converted for Class
II injection of Federal and Indian lands, mostly in order to
carry out other mandated responsibilities. BLM permits wells for
production rather than injection; in this case, BLM is
responsible for protection of subsurface water sources in the
vicinity of the well.
3-1
-------
-------
DEC has the authority under Alaska Statute 46.03-40, and
Alaska Admitstrative Code Title 18, Chapters 20, 40, 50, 60, 70,
72, 75 and 80 to control and regulate all aspects regarding
water, air, land and subsurface land pollution.
PERMITS
Department of Natural Resources
Under the Geothermal Regulations and Statutes of May 1983,
an operator must file an application for geothermal exploration.
An exploration bond may be required. Also, a drilling permit is
required before the drilling, redrilling, or deepening of any
well and before the re-entry of an abandoned well. 11AAC87.030,
11AAC87.050, and 11AAC87.070.
A well drilled for the purpose of injection of fluids into a
reservoir requires a permit. A separate permit must be obtained
from the Commissioner before any fluids are injected into any
underground reservoir. 11AAC87.230.
Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission
A permit must be approved by the Alaska Oil and Gas
Conservation Commission before drilling, redrilling, or deepening
an exploratory or development well or before the re-entry of an
abandoned well. 20AAC25.005. Approval is also required before
the abandonment of an existing well. 20AAC25.105(e).
6-H
-------
Department of Environmental Conservation
WastewRer Disposal Regulations crce addressed in Title 18,
Chapter 72. The department must issue a permit before anyone
disposes of nondomestic wastewater into or onto waters or lands.
The department also regulates and issues permits for disposal of
sludge resulting from a manufacturing or production process or a
nondomestic wastewater treatment works. 18AAC72.240.
Nondomestic wastewater is defined in 18AAC72.990, in part, as
"liquid or water-carried wastes resulting from ... development of
natural resources .... "
Water Quality Standards are set by the Department in Title
18, Chapter 70. In general, the water quality standards specify
the degree of degradation that may not be exceeded as a result of
human actions. 18AAC70.010(b). Short-term variances or re-
classifications may be requested in writing. 178AAC70.015 and
70.055.
WELL DESIGN
Department of Natural Resources
Extensive design requirements and testing procedures must be
followed as precautions against blow-out. 11AAC87.120 and
11AAC87.130.
-------
Alask Oil and Gas Conservation Commission
AOGCC also regulates well design under 20AAC25.030 through
.047. Extensive design requirements for casing and cementing
must be followed. Secondary well control and blowout prevention
equipment requirements are also stated. In addition/ a reserve
pit must be constructed or appropriate tankage installed for
drilling fluids and cuttings to prevent contamination of
groundwater and damage to the surface environment.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission
AOGCC regulates disposal of water and oil field waste fluids
under 20AAC25.250. Specifically, underground disposal of
freshwater, salt water, brackish water, or other waste fluids are
prohibited except as ordered by the commission in response to an
application for injection for underground disposal or storage.
The operator is required to dispose of or solidify in place all
pumpable fluids, and must leave the reserve pit in a condition
that does not constitute a hazard to groundwater. 20AAC25.017.
Department of Environmental Conservation
The Solid Waste Management regulations, Title 18, Chapter
60, require anyone owning or operating property where solid waste
is accumulated to store the waste in a neat, safe, and sanitary
way until it is removed to a permitted solid waste disposal site.
Contractual or other arrangements for the removal of accumulated
-------
REFERENCES
State of Alaska, Geothermal Regulations and Statutes, as
contained in the Alaska Administrative Code and the Alaska
Statutes, includes Title 27, Capter 5, Article 1; Title 38,
Chapter 5, Article 1 through 7, 11 and 12; Title 41, Chapter
6, Chapter 20; Title 46, Chapter 15; Title 11, Chapter 82,
Article 1 through 8; Chapter 84, Article 1 through 8;
Chapter 87, Article 1 through 5; Chapter 88 and Chapter 96,
Article 1 through 3.
State of Alaska, Title 20, Chapter 25, Administrative Code for
Alaska Oil and Gas Regulations and Title 31, Chapter 5,
Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Act, 1985.
State of Alaska, Title 18, Chapter 60, Solid Waste Management,
Department of Environmental Conservation.
State of Alaska, Title 18, Chapter 15, Permit Procedures,
Department of Environmental Conservation.
State of Alaska, Title 10, Chapter 70, Water Quality Standards,
Department of Environmental Conservation.
State of Alaska, Title 18, Chapter 72, Wastewater Disposal
Regulations, Department of Environmental Conservation.
State of Alaska, Title 46, Chapter 3, Water, Air, Energy, and
Environmental Conservation, Department of Environmental
Conservation.
Personal Communications;
Lynn Cochrane, Permit Information Specialist, Department of
Environmental Conservation (907) 274-2533.
Joseph M. Joyner, Chief Legal/Land Status Unit, Department of
Natural Resources (907) 465-2400.
-IT-
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APPENDIX
CALIFORNIA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
The following agencies regulate the geothermal industry in
California:
The Geothermal Section of the California Department of
Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas
The California Energy Commission
The California Public Utilities Commission
The California Water Resources Control Board, and the nine
Regional Water Quality Control Boards
The California Department of Health Services
- County Government agencies
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The following California statutes are either applicable to
or specific to geothermal energy operations:
1. The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA). The
requirements of CEQA must be fulfilled before drilling and
use permits can be issued. Under CEQA, government agencies
must consider environmental impacts that may result from the
implementation of certain geothermal projects. Since many
projects require permits from different agencies,
overlapping agency studies could result; to minimize
duplication of agency effort and unnecessary time delays, a
CEQA procedure has been established. This procedure calls
for a lead agency to prepare the environmental
documentation, and the remaining permitting agencies to
function as responsible agencies.
2. California Administrative Code, Title 14, Chapter 2:
Implementation of CEQA. This chapter of the Code defines
the scope of the CEQA regulations, designates the lead
agency, and sets guidelines for the CEQA process with regard
to geothermal exploratory projects.
3. California Administrative Code, Title 14, Chapter 4,
Subchapter 4: Division of Oil and Gas Statewide
-------
Regulations. This subchapter provides detailed guidelines
for drilling, blowout prevention, production , injection,
subsidence, and abandonment.
4. California Administrative Code, Title 23, Chapter 3,
Subchapter 15. This subchapter covers discharges of wastes
to land from sumps, ponds, landfills, and other waste
management units.
5. California Administrative Code, Title 22, Chapter 30. This
chapter establishes criteria for determining if a waste is
hazardous, designated, or nonhazardous.
6. The Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act, California
Water Code. This law covers discharges into the waters of
the state from many waste sources.
7. California Public Resources Code, Chapter 4, Division 3
(Publication No. PRC02, Jan. 1985): California Laws for the
Conservation of Geothermal Resources.
8. California Administrative Code, Title 20, Chapter 2,
Subchapters 1, 2, and 5: California Energy Commission,
Regulations Pertaining to Rules of Practice and Procedure
and Power Plant Site Certification.
9. California Assembly Bill No. 2948, The Tanner Bill. This
law requires local jurisdictions to prepare hazardous waste
management plans describing types of waste streams, waste
management practices and treatment.
The State Oil and Gas Supervisor must supervise the
drilling, operation, maintenance and abandonment of geothermal
resource wells. The district deputy in each district collects
information regarding the wells, which is kept on file in the
office of the district deputy of the respective district. Copies
are sent to the Director of Water Resources, the State Geologist
and the appropriate Regional Water Quality Control Board. The
Supervisor must notify the Department of Fish and Game, the
Department of Water Resources, and the Regional Water Quality
Control Board in the area affected, of the location, operation,
maintenance, and abandonment of all wells. (Sections 3714-
-------
3717, California Public Resources Code).
PERMITS
A Notice of Intention must be submitted for approval by the
appropriate district office for drilling and exploration,
development, injection or temperature observation well, and for
reworking, converting to injection, or abandoning an existing
well. Well type determines the permitting procedure required for
drilling, producing, injecting, and abandoning geothermal wells:
1. Exploratory Wells
The Division of Oil and Gas has been designated by the
California State Legislature (Section 3715.5, Public Resources
Code) as the lead agency for all geothermal exploratory drilling
projects occurring on private and state lands in California. To
be considered exploratory, a proposed geothermal well must be at
least one-half mile, surface distance, from any existing
geothermal well with commercial capability.
High-temperature exploratory wells - after the CEQA process
is completed, applications must be filed with the
appropriate county planning department. In addition, an
operator must apply for permits from state agencies,
including the Division of Oil and Gas.
Low-temperature exploratory wells - these wells require the
same CEQA documentation as high-temperature wells; the
differences between the requirements for the two well types
are in bonds, fees, and drilling procedures. Additional
differences may exist if the well is classified as
noncommercial.
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2. Development Wells
When a geothermal resource is discovered through exploratory
drilling, resource development may ensue. The city or county is
the lead agency for geothermal development projects. A Use
Permit must be obtained from the county or city where the project
would be implemented before any operations begin.
High-temperature development wells - development project
operators must adhere to county CEQA regulations in the
county where the well is drilled. After the CEQA
requirements are met, the county permitting processes are
the same as those for exploratory wells. County governments
issue land use, air, noise, and construction permits.
Low-temperature development wells - same requirements as for
low-temperature exploratory wells.
3. Injection wells
Injection wells may be drilled as new wells or converted
from existing wells. In either event, a project description must
be submitted to the proper division district office and the
project must be approved by the division before injection begins.
If a new well is to be drilled, a CEQA document, a county
use permit, and all other permits that are needed for high-
temperature exploratory wells are required.
If an existing well is to be converted into an injection
well, a Rework/Supplementary Notice must be filed with the proper
district office. Injection cannot begin until written approval
has been received from the Division of Oil and Gas. The Regional
Water Quality Control Board has 30 days to review the injection
-------
plan and make suggestions to the division before division
approval may be issued; generally, the Board only comments on
injection wells if underground sources of drinking water might be
affected.
4. Temperature Observation Wells
Procedures for permitting temperature-observation wells are
the same as those for permitting high- or low-temperature
exploratory wells, including the need to designate an agent and
secure a bond.
Other Permits;
The California Department of Conservation, Oil and Gas
issues Underground Injection Control (U.I.C.) Permits for
geothermal injection wells.
The California Resources Control Board issues NPDES permits,
and the nine Regional Water Quality Control Boards issue Waste
Discharge Permits within their respective regions for discharges
of produced waters and drilling wastes.
The local city or county governments issue Land Use Permits
for geothermal operations and for disposal facilities.
?
-------
WELL DESIGN
Extensive design requirements for all types of geothermal
wells are given in the California Administrative Code, Title 14,
Chapter 4. Design and testing procedures must be followed as
precautions against blowout and as prevention of damage to life,
health, property, and natural resources.
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
Disposal of nonhazardous solid and liquid wastes from
geothermal operations fall primarily under the jurisdiction of
the Department of Conservation in the Division of Oil and Gas and
the California Regional Water Quality Control Board; hazardous
geothermal wastes are regulated by the Department of Health
Services.
Licruid Waste Subsurface Injection
The Division of Oil and Gas is in charge of all geothermal
injection projects, whether for disposal of spent nonhazardous
geothermal fluids from power production or for reservoir pressure
maintenance. Geothermal injection wells are Class V under the
Federal U.I.C. Program. The Division is mandated by law to
ensure that no damage at the surface or subsurface occurs as a
result of injection projects. The Division makes decisions
whether to approve or disapprove an application for a project
-------
based on extensive data from the operator, including such
information as: a cross-sectional map with formation depth and
age; source and analysis of the injection water; analysis of
water in the injection zone; reservoir characteristics; method of
injection; precautions to ensure that the injection fluid is
confined to the injection zone; and well-drilling and abandonment
plans. Operators of proposed projects must give proof to the
Division that the reservoir will not suffer damage and freshwater
strata will not be infiltrated.
Project approval cannot be granted until an aquifer
exemption is granted by the Federal EPA, or until it is known
that the total dissolved solids content (TDS) of the injection
zone is greated than 10,000 ppm. Exemptions are not required to
inject into a formation with water that has TDS content over
10,000 ppm, and/or is proven to be unfit as a source of drinking
water. Procedures for obtaining an exemption to inject into an
aquifer that does not meet these criteria are outlined in the
Division's Geothermal Injection Handbook. If the EPA grants the
aquifer exemption and the appropriate agencies give the project a
favorable review, the District Engineer will approve the
application for the injection project. The Regional Water
Quality Control Board is the primary reviewing agency for
proposed injection wells. Injection wells must be inspected by
the District Engineer every six months to ensure that the well is
in good condition and there is no leakage. A Monthly Injection
Report must be submitted by the operator to the appropriate
-------
district office providing injection data and information on any
changes or remedial work.
Surface Disposal - Water
The Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act prescribes
waste discharge requirements as established by the Water
Resources Control Board. Operators must file a report with their
Regional Water Quality Control Board on the proposed discharge,
providing all information that the Regional Board may require.
If protection of water quality and precautions against pollution
and contamination appear adequate, the Board wil issue a Waste
Discharge Permit (California's NPDES permit) to discharge wastes
to the surface waters of the state. The Regional Boards must
implement requirements at least as stringent as those of the
State Board; some regions have established requirements more
stringent than those of the State Board. Surface discharge for
beneficial uses, such as agricultural uses, is allowed if water
quality meets the Regional Board's standards. Discharge permits
will specify the maximum chemical constituent values allowed for
beneficial uses.
Surface Disposal - Land
Land disposal of nonhazardous drilling wastes from
geothermal operations is under the jurisdiction of the Regional
Water Quality Control Board and the county in which the project
-------
is being implemented. Land disposal of nonhazardous solid wastes
from power production and hazardous wastes from either drilling
or power production is under the jurisdiction of the Department
of Health Services.
During drilling operations, all drilling wastes are
contained in sumps. The counties, which are the lead agencies
for geothermal resource development, issue Use Permits for each
site, into which county waste disposal requirements have been
incorporated. Waste Discharge Requirements issued by the
Regional Water Quality Control Board on a site-by-site basis
serve as the primary discharge permit.
At the end of drilling operations, state regulations require
that the materials in the sump be analyzed for listed chemical
constituents using the California Department of Health Service's
Waste extraction test. Total threshold level concentrations
(TTLC) and soluble threshold level concentrations (STLC),
established under California Administrative Code 23.3.15, are the
basis for determining whether a waste is hazardous.
Sump contents are generally considered hazardous is any of
the following chemical constituent lavels are exceeded:
-------
Constituent (mq/L) Of Extract
Arsenic 5
Cadmium 1.0
Chromium III 25
Chromium VI 5
Nickel 20
Mercury 0.2
Zinc 250
Boron 100
California Administrative Code 23. 3.15, Appendix III, lists
other chemical constituent whose presence in the waste would
result in hazardous classification. All hazardous waste must be
disposed of in a Class I waste management unit, which has the
highest level of containment ability of any class. Sump contents
which may contain any of the listed constituent, but in a lower
concentration than the hazardous concentration, are . called
designated wastes. Next drillings wastes are classified as
designated wastes. California Administrative Code Title 22,
Division 4, Chapter 30, establishes the waste extract
concentration differences between hazardous and designated waste
categories. Designated wastes can be disposed of either Class II
or Class I waste management units.
Solid wastes which do not contain any of the listed chemical
constituents are classified as nonhazardous and may be disposed
of at a class III, II, or I waste management unit. Drilling
wastes which fit the designated or the nonhazardous
classification are often dewatered and disposed of on-site. The
following table describes the various types of waste management
units used in California:
-------
SUMMARY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
FOR DISCHARGES TO LAND
Waste
Category
Liquid
Hazardous
Waste
Management Unit Primary
Contain-
Class Type ment
I Surface Double
Impoundment Liners
Siting
and
Geologic
Criteria
(a) Natural featun
capable of con
Solid
Hazardous
Dry
Solid
Hazardous
Landfill
Waste
Pile
Double
Liners
Double
Liners
Liquid
Designated
(including
underwatered
sludge)
Solid
Designated
Dry
Solid
Designated
II
Surface Double
Impoundment Liners
II
II
Nonhazardous III
Solid Waste
(including
dewatered
sludge and
acceptable
incinerator ash
Landfill
Waste
Pile
Landfil
Single
Liner
Single
Liner
None
(b)
(a)
taining waste and
leachate as backup
to primary con-
tainment.
Not located in
areas of unaccept-
able risk from
geologic or en-
vironmental ha-
zards.
Natural "features
capable of con-
taining waste and
leachate may
satisfy primary
containment re-
quirements .
(b) May be located in
most areas except
high risk areas.
(a) Consideration of
factors listed in
Subsection 2333(b)
(b) May be located in
most areas except
high risk areas.
Source: California Administrative Code, Title 23, Subchapter 15.
(rlfc
-------
Disposal of solid wastes, such as sludges and filter cakes,
from power production is regulated by the Department of Health
Services. The department requires plant operators to
periodically test production wastes at licensed laboratories for
the listed chemical constituents in California Administrative
Code 23.3.15 (the same list as for drilling wastes). TTLC and
STLC are again the criteria for hazardous waste designation;
Class I, II, and III designations apply, and each class of waste
must be disposed of in the corresponding class of landfill. Some
production wastes in California fall into the Class I
designation; for example, solid waste from the Geysers Power
Plant are generally treated as Class I wastes because of the
presence and concentrations of listed trace constituents.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
S3717 requires the State Oil and Gas Supervisor to notify
the Department of Fish and Game, the Department of Water
Resources, and the Regional Water Quality Control Board in the
area affected, of the abandonment of all wells.
Temperture-observation wells must be abandoned two years
from the date of completion.
Requirements for abandonment of an injection well are
determined by the District Engineer, based on subsurface
conditions and the casing and cementing record of the well.
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SURFACE RESTORATION
Title 14, Section 1776 of the Oil and Gas Regulations
establishes procedures for surface restoration. Concrete cellars
must be removed from the well site or filled with earth. Well
locations must be graded and cleaned of equipment, trash, and
other wastes, and returned to as near a natural state as
possible. Sumps must be filled with earth after removal of
harmful materials, and the surface graded and revegetated.
Unstable slope conditions created as a result of the project
operation must be corrected.
BONDS
An indemnity bond or a cash bond must be on file or
accompany a Notice of Intention to Drill a Well. Bond amounts
are based on resource types (low- or high-temperature) and well
depths:
High-temperature exploratory and development wells are
required to have a $25,000 bond filed for each well, or a
$100,000 blanket bond for a group of wells.
Low-temperature exploratory and development wells are
required to have a $2,000 bond for each well under 2,000
feet; and $10,000 bond for a well deeper than 2,000 but less
than 5,000 feet; a $15,000 bond for a well deeper than 5,000
but less than 10,000 feet; and a $25,000 bond for a well
10,000 feet or deeper.
A $100,000 blanket bond covers a group of low-temperature
wells regardless of depth.
-------
REFERENCES
Title 14, California Administrative Code, Chapter 2,
Implementation of the California Environmental Quality Act of
1970, Department of Conservation
Title 14, California Administrative Doce, Chapter 3, Section
1776, Well Site Restoration, Department of Conservation, Division
of Oil and Gas
Title 14, California Administrative Code, Chapter 4, Oil and Gas,
Department of Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas
Title 14, California Administrative Code, Chapter 5, Enforcement
of Solid WAste Standards and Administration of Solid Waste
Facilities Permits, Solid Waste Management Board
Title 20, California Administrative Code, Chapter 2, Subchapters
1, 2 and 5, California Energy Commission
The Porter-Cologne Water Quality Control Act, 1985, Water
Resources Control Board
California Department of Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas,
Lavs for Conservation of Geothermal Resources. 1985, Publication
No. PRCO2
California Department of Conservation, Division of Oil and Gas,
Drilling and Operating Geothermal Wells in California. 1986
Personal Communications;
Dan I. Daniels, California Regional Water Quality Control Board,
Central Valley Region, (916) 361-5666
Mark Dellinger, Geothermal Coordinator, Lake County, (707) 263-
2221
George Eowan, California Solid Waste Management Board, (916) 322-
1442
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APPENDIX
DELAWARE
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Control.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Control, State of Delaware, issued regulations governing
underground injection control, effective August 15, 1983, and
regulations governing the construction of water wells, effective
January 15, 1986.
The definition of a Class V well includes an injection well
associated with the recovery of geothermal energy for heating,
aquaculture and production of electric power. 122.22.
The Department of Natural Resources and Environmental
Control also regulates solid waste disposal.
PERMITS
Any underground injection except as authorized by permit
issued under the UIC program or otherwise authorized under these
regulations, is prohibited. A temporary emergency permit may be
issued if there is an imminent and substantial endangerment to
the health of the public. 122.30. When a new injection well is
constructed, the permittee must submit a notice of completion of
construction to the Secretary. 122.31(2)(i). Permits may be
modified, revoked and reissued, or terminated either at the
request of any interested person or upon the Secretary's
initiative. 124.4. A permit is also required for any well
installed for the purpose of obtaining geologic or hydrologic
information. (Section 1.02C of Regulations Governing the
-------
Construction of Water Wells).
A permit is required from The Department of Natural
Resources and Environmental Control before anyone manages land
for the purpose of disposing of solid waste.
WELL DESIGN
Extensive design requirements are specified for UIC
injection wells and water wells. 146.08 (Rules and Regulations
Governing Underground Injection Control and Section 5, Rules and
REgulations Governing Water Well Construction.)
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
Any underground injection is prohibited except as authorized
by permit. 122.23.
The Delaware Solid Waste Disposal Regulations address the
disposal of all solid waste into or the land. Solid waste is
defined, in part, as ... "any garbage, refuse, sludge from a
waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant or water
pollution control facility and other discarded material . . .
"Certain solid wastes are exempt. These include disposal of
dirt, sand, crushed rock, or asphalt debris, and disposal of
inert solid wastes. The regulations specify responsible
governmental agencies for providing facilities.
WELL PLUGGING
Any applicant for a UIC permit must submit a plan for
plugging and abandonment. 122.32(e).
Within 30 days of abandoning a water well, the contractor
must submit a well abandonment report to the Department. Section
9.OLD.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
A UIC permit requires the permittee to maintain financial
responsibility and resources to close, plug, and abandon the
operation in a manner prescribed by the Secretary. 122.32(f).
-------
SURETY BOND
The permittee must show evidence of financial responsibility
by submission of a surety bond or other adequate assurance.
122.32(f).
-------
REFERENCES
State of Delaware, Regulations Governing the Construction of
Water Wells, Department of Natural Resources and
Environmental Control.
State of Delaware, Regulations Governing Underground Injection
Control, Parts 122, 124 and 146, Department of Natural
Resources and Environmental Control.
Personal Communications:
Phil Cherry, Supervisor, Water Supply Branch, Division of Water
Resources, Department of Natural Resources and Environment
Control (302) 736-4793.
Rick Folmsbee, Solid Waste Permits, (302) 736-3688
6-34"
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APPENDIX
GEORGIA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
One agency in Georgia has jurisdiction over Class V
underground injection wells, which apply to geothermal energy:
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources,
Environmental Protection Division.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
Class V wells used for geothermal purposes are defined in
the Rules for Underground Injection Control (UIC), Chapter 391-3-
.13(3)(e): "An injection well associated with the recovery of
geothermal energy for heating, aquaculture, and production of
electric power." The UIC Rules include statutes for the drilling
of Class V wells for geothermal purposes. The Director of the
Department of Natural Resources oversees the regulatory
activities of the Department. The Director's duties include:
reviewing applications for well construction permits, approving
or denying applications for permits, taking enforcement action to
stop a violation of the rules, and taking emergency action if
there is a direct threat to the public water system as a result
of drilling or production activities. UIC 391-3-6-.13(11)(d).
PERMITS
Anyone who wants to operate or construct a Class V well must
apply in writing to the Director for an injection well permit.
The following information is required on the application: a map
of the proposed injection well, the proposed construction plan,
-------
injection rate and pressure, and the chemical, physical, and
radioactive characteristics of the fluid to be injected. Upon
receipt of the application, the Director shall: (1) determine if
it is in fact a Class V well, (2) assess potential adverse
effects on underground drinking water sources, and (3) determine
methods to protect drinking water sources. If the information is
sufficient and satisfactory, the Director shall issue a permit.
The Director may include conditions for monitoring, testing, and
reporting on the well site, if considered necessary. UIC 391-3-
6-.13(11) and (12).
WELL DESIGN
Class V wells must be constructed by a water well contractor
licensed in Georgia in accordance with the Water Well Standards
Act of 1985; Georgia Laws 1977, p.1509, (Georgia Annotated Code,
Sec. 84-7506). Casing depth specifications are given, and the
annular space around the casing must be grouted and sealed to
prevent migration and pollution. Special construction
requirements may be issued by the Director to prevent
contamination of an underground source of drinking water. A
method for evaluating the presence or absence of detectable leaks
is required; either monitoring of annulus pressure or pressure
tests with liquid or gas is acceptable. UIC 391-3-6-
.13(12)(c).
-------
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Although there are provisions in the regulations against
allowing well fluids from migrating to and polluting underground
drinking water sources, the problem of disposal of wastes
resulting from the drilling and operation of the well is not
specifically addressed. Well operators must, however, be able to
demonstrate that pollution of groundwater will not occur under
any circumstances.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
The Director may order a Class V well plugged and abandoned
by the owner when it no longer serves the intended purpose, or
when it poses a direct threat to underground drinking water
sources. It is the owner's responsibility to have all
exploratory, injection, and test wells plugged and abandoned by a
water well contractor before any drilling equipment is removed.
The entire depth of the well must be completely filled with
cement grout or another impervious material. UIC 391-3-6-
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed.
SURETY BONDS
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed.
-------
REFERENCES
Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Environmental
Protection Division. Rules for Underground Injection
Control, Chapter 391-3-6. Revised September 17, 1984
Personal Communication
Patricia Franzen, U.I.C. Program, Georgia Department of Natural
Resources. (404)656-3214
-------
APPENDIX
HAWAII
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two state agencies regulate the geothermal industry in
Hawaii:
Board of Land and Natural Resources
- Department of Health
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Board of Land and Natural Resources regulates the use of
the surface of the land. Geothermal Resource Subzones may be
designated within the State's urban, rural, agricultural, and
conservation land use districts. The use of a Geothermal
Resource Subzone within the State's Conservation District is
governed by the Board of Land and Natural Resource's Chapter 2 of
Title 13, Administrative Rules on Conservation Districts. The
use of a Geothermal Resource Subzone within the State's urban,
rural, or agricultural districts is governed by the "appropriate
county authority." In each county, the authority is the County
Planning Commission. Each County Planning Commission establishes
procedures for obtaining Geothermal Resource Permits. The
Planning Commission's approval of an application for a geothermal
resource permit does not in any way supercede state laws nor
abrogate the necessity of obtaining permits from the Board of
Land and Natural Resources or other state agencies, as required.
For the subsurface use of land within the Geothermal
Resource Subzone, the Board of Land and Natural Resource's
Chapter 183 of Title 13, Administrative Rules on Leasing and
Drilling of Geothermal Resources is the primary regulation. Some
of the State's Department of Health's regulations are also
applicable. These include Chapter 23 of Title 11, Administrative
Rules for Underground Injection Control; Chapter 55 of Title 11,
Administrative Rules for Water Pollution Control; and Chapter 58
of Title 11 Administrative Rules for Solid Waste Management
Control.
PERMITS
Board of Land and Natural Resources
State and Reserved Lands
An exploration permit is required to conduct any exploration
activity on state or reserved lands for evidence of geothermal
resources. All applications are subject to the approval of, and
-------
the terms and conditions set by, the Board of Land and Natural
Resources. The Board may also grant geothermal mining leases on
state and reserved lands. A plan of operations is required
before drilling commences. Section 13-183-7 through 13-183-19,
and Section 13-183-55.
Other Lands
The Board of Land and Natural Resources must issue a permit
before any person drills, modifies, modifies the use of, or
abandons a well. A supplementary application must be filed if
there is any contemplated change in the original approved
application.
The Board of Land and Natural Resources also issues a permit
for the modification of any existing well for injection purposes.
Section 13-183-65, 13-183-66, and 13-183-77.
Department of Health
Title 11, Department of Health, Chapter 23, Underground
Injection Control, states that no injection well shall be
constructed until a construction application is made for a UIC
permit and the department has approved the start of the
construction. Approval of the start of the construction shall
not be construed as approval for the operation of that injection
well. No injection well shall be operated, modified or otherwise
utilized without a UIC permit issued by the department. 11-23-08
and 11-23-11.
The director may issue UIC permits for wells which propose
to inject into exempted aquifers on the following basis:
1. Existing or new injection wells that do not or will not
endanger the quality of underground sources of drinking
water.
2. Existing or new injection wells that are designed and are or
will be constructed or modified to operate without causing a
violation of these rules or other applicable laws.
3. Proposed injection wells that are designed and built in
compliance with the standards and limitations stated in
sections 11-23-07 to 11-23-10.
The issuance of a UIC permit for wells which propose to
inject into USDW are basd upon the evaluation of the
contamination potential of the local water quality by the
injection fluids and the water development potential for public
or private consumption. 11-23-16.
Title 11, Department of Health, Chapter 55, Water Pollution
Control, states that a NPDES permit is required before any person
discharges any pollutant, or substantially alters the quality of
-------
any discharge, or substantially increases the quantity of any
discharge.
County Planning Commissions
A study of each County Planning Commission's regulations was
not done. However, for the County of Hawaii, a geothermal
resource permit is required from the Planning Comission before
any person may conduct geothermal development activities on land
that is located within a geothermal resource subzone and located
within the Agricultural, Rural, or Urban State Land Use
Districts. The Planning Commission determines whether the
geothermal development activities would have an unreasonable
adverse health, environmental, or socioeconomic effect on
residents or surrounding property. 12.3 and 12.6(a).
WELL DESIGN
Board of Land and Natural Resources
Extensive design requirements and testing procedures must be
followed as precautions against blowout. Section 13-183-71,
Section 13-183-76.
Department of Health
Underground Infection Wells
Section 11-23-10 gives provisions for artesian aquifer
protection. A NPDES permit may be issued only if the treatment
works are designed, built and equipped in accordance with the
best practicable control technology or the best available
technology economically achievable, for point sources other than
publicly owned treatment works. 11-55-15. The director may
issue a permit to an existing facility not in compliance only if
the permit includes a schedule of compliance. 11-55-15(d).
County Planning Commissions
In the County of Hawaii, the applicant must submit to the
Planning Director final plans for monitoring environmental
effects of the project before construction is initiated. 12.8.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
The Board of Land and Natural Resources
Section 13-183-87 requires the operator of any well to
comply with all applicable federal, state, and local standards
with respect to air, land, water, and noise pollution, and the
disposal of liquid, solid, and gaseous effluent. The disposal of
well effluents must be done in a manner that does not constitute
a hazard to surface or groundwater resources.
6-J.-
-------
Department of Health
Title 11, Department of Health, Chapter 58, Solid Waste
Management Control, defines "solid waste" in part as "garbage,
refuse, and other discarded solid materials, including solid
waste materials resulting from industrial and commercial
operations ...." Section 11-58-6 specifies that a person owning
or operating a business or industry has the responsibility of
removing accumulated solid waste to an approved solid waste
disposal facility.
Section 11-23-06 addresses classification of injection
wells. Wells in Classes I through IV are prohibited. Only Class
V wells are permissible. 11-23-06(b). The Department of Health
currently interprets geothermal wells as being "Class V Subclass
B," since they are not defined elsewhere. ll-23-06(b)(3)(A).
Subclass B is defined as "injection wells which inject non-
polluting fluids into any geohydrologic formation, including
nonexempted aquifers."
If the operation of the injection wells is aditionally
regulated by other pollution control programs, e.g., National
Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), the adherence to
their monitoring and reporting requirements will be considered a
requirement of this chapter. Section 11-23-18(b).
County Planning Commissions
In the County of Hawaii, the applicant for a geothermal
resource permit must include information on existing and the
proposed uses and locations of disposal systems and methods for
disposing of well effluent and other wastes. 12.3(c) and
12.3(g).
WELL PLUGGING
Board of Land and Natural Resources
Any person proposing to abandon a well must first file an
application for a permit to abandon with the Board of Land and
Natural Resources. The mehthod of abandonment must be approved
by the Board. Section 13-183-81.
Department of Health
Underground Injection Wells
Any owner who wishes to abandon an injection well shall
submit an application containing the details of the proposed
abandonment. Section 11-23-19(a).
The department may order an injection well to be plugged and
abandoned when it no longer performs its intended purpose, or
when it is determined to be a threat to the groundwater resource.
-------
Section 11-23-19(b).
Water Pollution Control
A NPDES permittee roust report to the director within thirty
days after permanent discontinuance of the treatment works or
waste outlet for which the NPDES permit had been issued. Section
11-55-18.
County Planning Commissions
In the County of Hawaii, an application for a geothermal
permit must include a written description of the proposed well
completion program. 12.3(e).
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Board of Land and Natural Resources
For Leased Lands
Within 90 days of revocation, surrender, or expiration of
any mining lease, the lessor or surface owner may require the
lessee to restore the land to its original condition insofar as
it is reasonable to do so, except for roads, excavations,
alterations or other improvements which may be designated for
retention by the surface owner. The Board or State agency has
the authority to require that cleared sites and roadways be
replanted with grass, shrubs or trees by the lessee. Section 13-
183-63.
For Other Land
Equipment must be removed and premises at the well site must
be restored as near as reasonably possible to its original
condition immediately after plugging operations are completed,
except as otherwise authorized by the Chairperson of the Board of
Land and Natural Resources. Section 13-183-82(b).
Department of Health
Underground Injection Control
Any owner who wishes to abandon an injection well must
submit an application containing the details of the proposed
abandonment. Section 11-23-19.
County Planning Commissions
In the County of Hawaii, the application for a geothermal
resources permit must include a statement addressing how the
proposed development would mitigate or reconcile any effects to
residents or surrounding properties in the areas of health,
environmental and socioeconomic activities. 12.3(k)(i).
-------
SURETY BONDS
Board of Land and Natural Resources
State and Reserved Lands
Exploration permits - Section 13-183-8 requires a $10,000
bond for each exploration permit, or a $150,000 blanket bond.
Other Lands
Section 13-183-68 requires a $50,000 bond for each well to
be drilled, re-drilled, deepened, or abandoned, or a $250,000
blanket bond.
-------
REFERENCES
State of Hawaii, Title 11,Chapter 23, Underground Injection
Control, Department of Health
State of Hawaii, Title 11, Chapter 55, Water Pollution Control,
Department of Health
State of Hawaii, Title 11, Chapter 58, Solid Waste Management
Control, Department of Health
State of Hawaii, Title 13, Chapter 2, Administrative Rules,
Department of Land and Natural Resources
State of Hawaii, Title 13, Chapter 183, Leasing and Drilling of
Geothermal Resources, Department of Land and Natural Resources
Planning Commission, County of Hawaii, Rule 12, Geothermal
Resource Permits
Personal Communications:
Albert Lono Lyman, Planning Director, Planning Department, County
of Hawaii
Dean Nakano, Board of Land and Natural Resources (808)548-7541
Dennis Lau, Department of Health (808)961-8288
6-44-
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APPENDIX
IDAHO
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
In Idaho, two agencies regulate the geothermal industry:
Department of Water Resources
Department of Lands
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The following state rules and regulations are specific to
geothermal activities in Idaho:
The Geothermal Resources Act of 1971 (Idaho Code, Chapter
40, Sec. 42-4001 through 42-4015) . This act was passed to
encourage development of geothermal resources for the
benefit of the people of the state while minimizing damage
and costs that could occur.
- Rules and Regulations: Drilling for Geothermal Resources.
The state of Idaho adopted these rules and regulations
governing geothermal drilling operations in 1972, and
revised them in 1975 and 1978. The Geothermal Resources Act
gives the Idaho Department of Water Resources regulatory
authority for all drilling operations, as well as operation,
maintenance, and abandonment of all geothermal wells in the
state.
Rules and Regulations Governing the Issuance of Geothermal
Resources Leases. Adopted in 1974 and amended in 1978,
these rules cover all aspects of geothermal activities on
leased lands. The Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners
has the authority to promulgate these rules and regulations.
PERMITS
The Department of Water Resources must issue a permit before
the production of or exploration for geothermal resources or the
construction of an injection well. The Department must also
issue a permit before any person may deepen or modify an existing
well. If an owner plans to convert an existing geothermal well
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into an injection well, approval must be received from the
Department. The owner of a proposed injection well must provide
the Director with information necessary to evaluate the impact of
the injection on the geothermal reservoir and other natural
resources. Permits may be amended subject to Department
approval. (Rules 4.2 and 7.1)
Leasing - Application to lease state lands must be made to
the State Board of Land Commissioners. Prior to drilling for any
purpose to 1,000 feet or deeper, the lessee must submit to the
Director, for approval, a plan of operations. This plan must
include the methods that the operator .intends to use to dispose
of waste material. Rule 3.
WELL DESIGN
Section 6 sets forth extensive design requirements and
testing procedures to be implemented as precautions against blow-
out.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Disposal by Injection
The operation of a proposed injection well must provide all
information that the Director deems necessary for evaluating the
impact that the well would have on the reservoir, other natural
resources, and the environment. Rule 7.2.1 requires that an
owner of an injection well must demonstrate to the Director that
the well casing has complete integrity, using a test approved by
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the Director. Rule 7.2.7 requires that the owner make sufficient
surveys into a well to prove that all the injected fluid is
confined to .the intended zone of injection. The Director may
order a representative to be present, or if in the Director's
opinion such tests are not necessary, a waiver may be granted.
Surface Disposal
Rule 16 of the Idaho State Board of Land Commissioners,
states that the lessee must be in compliance with all federal,
state, and local waste disposal and pollution control laws.
Specific methods for disposal of wastes must be included in the
lease agreement, subject to approval by the Director of the
Department of Lands.
There are regulations for surface discharges promulgated by
the Idaho Water Quality Standards and Wastewater Treatment
Standards.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
For leased lands - Section 16.10 requires the lessee to
promptly plug and abandon any nonproductive well in conformance
with abandonment procedures promulgated by the Idaho Department
of Water Resources.
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For all land - The Department requires a notice of intent to
abandon geothennal resource wells 5 days prior to beginning
abandonment procedures. A history of geothermal resource wells
must be filed. The abandoned wells must be monumented to the
description included in the history of well report. Injection
wells are required to be abandoned in the same manner as other
wells.
Specific plugging and abandonment procedures are given in
order to block interzonal migration of fluids. Heavy drilling
fluid must be used to replace water in the well hole and to fill
parts not plugged with cement. Cementing requirements are based
on casing and aquifer locations. Casing must be cut off at least
5 feet from the surface. Rules 8.1 - 8.2.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
For leased lands - Lessee must reclaim all State lands in
accordance with applicable reclamation procedures contained in
Sections 47-1509 and 47-1510, Idaho Code.
For all land - The Director may correct or stop any person
who is operating any well in a manner that causes damage to life
or property and to mitigate any injury caused by such practice.
Rule 13.1
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SURETY BOND
For leased lands - Upon execution of the lease, the lessee
must pay the Director a $2,000 bond. Prior to drilling any well
to 1,000 feet or deeper, the bond must be increased to $10,000,
or the lessee may pay a blanket bond of $50,000. Rule 26.1 and
Rule 26.2.
For other lands - A $10,000 bond is required for each
individual well. Rule 4.4.1.
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REFERENCES
State of Idaho, Geothermal Resources Act of 1971, Chapter 40,
Sec. 43-4001 through 42-4015, Department of Water Resources
State of Idaho, Rules and Regulations: Drilling for Geothermal
Resources, Department of Water Resources
State of Idaho, Rules and Regulations Governing The Issuance of
Geothermal Resources Leases, Idaho State Board of Land
Commissioners
State of Idaho, Title I, Chapter 2, Water Quality Standards and
Wastewater Treatment Requirements, Department of Health and
Welfare
Personal Communications
Leah V. Street, Geologist, Department of Water Resources
(208)734-3578
Mr. Koenig, Department of Health and Welfare
(208)334-5839
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APPENDIX
ILLINOIS
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
One agency regulates the oil and gas industry in Illinois:
Department of Mines and Minerals, Division
of Oil and Gas.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Department of Mines and Minerals operates under "An Act
in Relation to Oil, Gas, Coal, and Other Surface and Underground
Resources". These regulations may be applicable to geothermal
energy as an underground resource. Section 3.
Section 3 gives the Mining Board the duty of enforcing the
Act and all rules, regulations and orders promulgated in
pursuance of this Act.
PERMITS
The Mining Board must issue a permit before any person may
drill a geological or structural test hole or water supply well
in connection with any operation for the exploration or
development of oil or gas. Rule II (4). The Mining Board also
requires permits for salt water disposal or for gas, air, water,
or other liquid input wells. Rule 11(4). Approval must be
obtained from the Department of Mines and Minerals before any
subsurface injection or disposal project can begin. Rule II
A(l) . Rule II A(3) sets forth the information required in the
application for approval of the disposal operations. Rule II
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connection therewith to file a 2,5000 individual well bond, or a
$25,000 blanket bond to ensure compliance with plugging and
abandonment requirements.
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REFERENCES
State of Illinois, An Act in Relation to Oil, Gas, Coal and Other
Surface and Underground Resources and Rules and Regulations,
Department of Mines and Minerals, Division of Oil and Gas,
Revised Edition, 1984
Personal Communications;
John Morgan, Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals
(217) 782-4970
B-5-t
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Rev. 4/19/87
APPENDIX
INDIANA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Oil
and Gas, regulates the oil and gas industry in Indiana.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
There are no regulations specific to geothermal energy in
Indiana. However, some sections of the Oil and Gas Laws are
applicable; Section 310 IAC 7-1-1 of the Oil and Gas Rule defines
a "well for oil and gas purposes" as "a hole drilled for any
purpose for which a permit is required under 1C 13-4-7, including
a permit for a seismographic test crew or a permit to drill,
deepen, or convert an oil, gas, or test well; a geological or
structural test well; an enhanced recovery well; a disposal
well..." The Oil and Gas Division of the Department of
Conservation was created pursuant to 1C 13-4-7-1, and thereby
charged with the duties of carrying out and enforcing the
provisions of the Oil and Gas Laws. The Department of Natural
Resources Division of Oil and Gas is authorized under 1C 4-22-2
to obtain primary enforcement authority for and implementation of
Class II wells under the Underground Injection Control Program,
promulgated under part C of the Safe Drinking Water Act. A
Natural Resource Commission was created under 1C 14-3-3-3, to
adopt rules, regulations, and orders necessary for the Oil and
Gas Division to administer the Oil and Gas Laws.
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PERMITS
An application must be filed for permits to drill, deepen,
or convert any type of well. Detailed surveying requirements are
required, which include location and spacing of wells. For a
disposal or enhanced recovery well, a detailed plan of operation
for the proposed well must be included with the application for
permit to drill. 310 IAC-7-1-21.
WELL DESIGN
Casing, tubing, and drill pipe must be run and set in
conformance with the standards set forth by the American
Petroleum Institute. There are specifications for casing string,
surface casing, and cementing. The well operator must use more
than one string of casing where necessary to protect underground
drinking water sources. 310 IAC 7-1-42.
Before commencing to drill, at least one proper and adequate
slush pit must be constructed for the reception of mud that can
be reused when the hole is plugged. 310 IAC 7-1-40.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
The disposal of solid wastes from drilling activities is not
addressed. There are regulations for disposal of salt water and
liquid wastes. To prevent surface or underground waste,
contamination, or pollution, only those disposal methods approved
by the Commission are permitted. Salt water, sulfur-bearing
B-SV
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water or other waste liquids from drilling operations may be
injected into^P subsurface formation if ^Ppermit has been issued
by the Commission. Evaporation pits are prohibited. Holding
pits are permitted for gathering of saltwater for injection and
disposal, or for emergency use. If a pit is used for emergency
purposes, the liquid in the pit must be purged as soon as the
emergency ceases. 310 IAC 7-1-38.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
A well must be immediately plugged and capped where the well
is incomplete one year after issuance of a permit, and is not
afforded temporary abandonment status. A cement plug must be
placed to 100 feet above the top of a formation. Where
insufficient casing has been set or the casing not cemented, the
production string of casing must be removed 50 feet below the
deepest aquifer containing potable water. 310 IAC 7-1-22(g) and
310 IAC 7-1-33.
SURFACE RESTORATION
Upon completion of a well, pits must be filled and leveled.
Within 6 months of plugging and abandoning a well, an operator
must clear the area of any refuse and equipment, drain and fill
excavations, and restore the surface to as near its condition
prior to drilling as possible. 310 IAC 7-1-40(c) and 310 IAC 7-
1-33(b).
5-5?
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SURETY BONDS
A surety b"ond, certificate of deposi£7 or cash in the amount
of $2,000 covers one well. A blanket bond of $30,000 covers a
group of wells.
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REFERENCES
Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Oil and
Gas. Oil and Gas Law, 310 IAC 7-1, Revised 1986.
Personal Communications;
Gary M. Fricke, Division of Gas and oil. (317)232-4055
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W APPENDIX
IOWA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Department of Natural Resources
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Department of Natural Resources regulates water quality
standards. Chapter 61, Water Quality Standards gives the
Commission authority to protect and enhance the quality of the
water of the State of Iowa by attempting to prevent and abate
pollution to the fullest extent possible consistent with
statutory and technological limitations.
The Department of Natural Resources also regulates the
production and utilization of oil, gas, and other minerals.
Chapter 84 gives the Department the authority to promulgate and
enforce rules and orders to effectuate the purposes and intent of
the chapter. Section 84.1, declaration of policy, requires that
the underground and surface water of the state be protected from
pollution.
PERMITS
A permit from the Department of Natural Resources is
required for water withdrawals. 455.B.269. Aquifers are
considered to be waters of the state. 455.B. A permit from the
Department of Natural Resrouces is also required before a
discharge may be made into an aquifer. 455.B.186.
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All wastes discharged to the waters of the state must be of
such quality that the discharge will not cause the narrative or
numeric criteria limitations to be exceeded. 61.2(3). There are
also temperature limitations on water added to streams, lakes, or
other bodies of water. 61.3(3).
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REFERENCES
State of Iowa, Chapter 93, Energy Development and Conservation.
State of Iowa, Chapter 305, Geological Survey, Department of
Natural Resources.
State of Iowa, Chapter 84, Oil, Gas and Other Minerals,
Department of Natural Resources.
State of Iowa, Chapter 61, Water Quality Standards, Department of
Natural Resources.
Personal Communications:
Keith Bridson, Iowa Department of Natural Resources
(515) 281-8868.
Pete Haniin, Iowa Department of Natural Resources
(515) 281-8852.
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APPENDIX
LOUISIANA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Office of
Conservation has jurisdiction over geothermal operations in the
State of Louisiana.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
Louisiana has legislation specific to geothermal energy;
Statewide Order No. 29-P adopts rules and regulations governing
the drilling for and production of geothermal energy. The
Commissioner of Conservation derives authority from Title 30 of
the Louisiana Revised Statutes to issue and promulgate rules
regarding geothermal operations.
The definition of geothermal resources, given in State Order
No. 29-P, includes steam, hot water, hot brines, and geopressured
waters, either indigenous to or artificially introduced into
geothermal or geopressured water formations. The provisions in
State Order No. 29-P apply to all drilling and operational
aspects of geothermal exploration, production and injection
wells.
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PERMITS
All applications for permits to drill or convert an existing
well to a geothermal well must be sent to the Department of
Conservation District Office for approval by the District
Manager. The application must include a location plat, detailing
all pertinent lease and property lines and other wells of any
kind. A well location certificate must be included with the
plat. Rule II.
WELL DESIGN
There are extensive specifications for surface casing and
production casing in all geothermal wells, based on the total
depth of the contract. Intermediate casing is to be used as
required by the District Manager. Casing tests must be conducted
before operations proceed. Rule II.
All drilling wells are required to have a master gate and
blowout preventer, together with a flow valve of recommended size
and working pressure. Rule VI.
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
Any rubbish or debris that might constitute a fire hazard
must be removed to a distance of at least 100 feet from any
tanks, wells, or pump stations. All wastes and produced fluids
must be disposed of in such a manner as to avoid creating a fire
hazard or polluting streams and fresh water strata. Salt water
and related liquid waste material may be sorted into pits which
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have been approved by the Commissioner of Conservation. Salt
water can be injected into a subsurface formation; a permit is
required for this form of disposal. Disposal of all
geothermal/geopressure operation waste material into surface
waters must be done pursuant to regulations set forth by the
Stream Control Commission or other appropriate state or federal
regulatory agency. Rules VIII, XIV.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
If an owner/operator intends to cease production or
injection activities, a notification of intention to plug must be
given to the District Manager in writing. A schedule of
abandonment must be set. There are different plugging
requirements for wells with different types of casing and lining,
but in general, a cement plug must be placed at least 150 feet
immediately above the uppermost perforated reservoir. If
freshwater zones are exposed, a cement plug must be placed at
least 50 feet from the base of the aquifer. A 30-foot plug at
the top of the well is also required. Rule XVI.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed.
SURETY BONDS
A reasonable bond with good and sufficient surety may be
required by the Commissioner to ensure proper well plugging. An
exact dollar amount is not stated. Rule XVI.
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REFERENCES
State of Louisiana, Office of Conservation, Statewide Order
No. 29-P. May 4, 1978.
Personal Coitonvmication
Jim Welsh, Office of Conservation. (504)342-5540.
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APPENDIX
MARYLAND
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two agencies regulate geothermal operations in Maryland:
- The Department of Natural Resources (DNR), which issues
permits for oil, gas, and geothermal well drilling, and
promulgates rules and regulations for well construction
and drilling practices.
- The Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DHMH),
which is responsible for protection of water quality
and disposal of solid and liquid drilling and
production wastes.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Maryland Geothermal Resources Act, Annotated Code of
Maryland, Subtitle 8A, gives authority to the Department of
Natural Resources for geothermal energy regulation and defines
DNR's powers and duties. Maryland Well Construction Regulations
Code of Maryland 10.17.13, establishes standards and procedures
applicable to well construction, and integrates DNR's and the
Department of Health and Mental Hygiene's programs into a unified
regulatory program. The regulations in this chapter apply to
well construction activities from initial ground penetration
through development, equipment installation, and final approval
of the well for production.
The Maryland Health-Environmental Article, Sec. 9-217,
regulates pollution of water by industrial wastes. It provides
authority for the Secretary of DHMH to issue discharge permits or
prohibit discharges. Other sections of the Health-Environmental
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Article provid^ authority for solid wast^^management (10.17.11)
and standards for water quality and water pollution control
(10.50.01).
PERMITS
As mentioned before, a permit must be obtained from DNR
before any drilling operation commences. A permit to construct a
well will only be granted to those persons licensed by the
Maryland state Board of Well Drillers. The licensed person to
whom a permit is issued is responsible for construction of the
well in accordance with DHMH's safety standards.
The DHMH has authority to issue NPDES and Underground
Injection Control permits for waste discharges.
Permits must be issued by DHMH for discharge of any
pollutant into the waters of the state. Details on the
permitting process are included in the section on solid and
liquid waste disposal.
WELL DESIGN
Well design requirements in Code of Maryland 10.17.13 are
written for groundwater wells, but are applicable to geothermal
wells. Specifications are given for types and installation of
well casing grouting and grouting materials.
5-ka
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DHMH also^pecifies construction st^dards in 10.17.13 for
wells installed for the purpose of injecting water, wastewater,
and other liquids into a subsurafce formation or aquifer.
Standards may include requirements for testing, casing
specifications, grouting material, and well-head pressure
monitoring devices.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Any discharge or disposal of waste waters into the surface
or underground waters of the state requires the approval of DHMH.
If DHMH determines that the proposed activity will not cause a
violation of the standards in Code of Maryland 10.50.01, the
Department will issue water quality certification. Issuance of
water quality certification does not relieve the applicant of
responsibility to comply with all federal and state laws. By
agreement with either federal or state agencies in order to
facilitate the certification process, DHMH may develop a joint
application for a federal license or permit and state water
quality certification. A separate state discharge permit or
NPDES permit is required for discharge of leachate from a
landfill, pit, or sump to surface or groundwater. Pits must be
lined with impervious material to prevent groundwater
contamination. Materials in the pit must be removed and disposed
of at a permitted disposal facility, in or out-of-state. Unlined
pits must have groundwater discharge permits. Permit approval is
granted by DHMH on a site-by-site basis.
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An underground injection permit issued under Code of
Maryland 10.50.04 constitutes a discharge permit under this
regulation. All injection wells must be maintained in a
condition to protect groundwater standards.
Liquid wastes and wastes containing free liquids may only be
disposed of at a solid waste acceptance facility that has been
specifically authorized by DHMH to handle such waste. The
presence of free liquids is determined by the free liquid test,
FR Vol. 47, 38.
On-site, nonhazardous industrial waste landfills must be
permitted and meet the following DHMH requirements (10.17.11.07):
the waste must be spread in uniform layers and compacted to the
smallest practical volume before covering. The disposal site
must be graded and drained to minimize runoff and prevent erosion
and ponding. Features and systems to protect groundwater from
any leachate are required.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
A well must be abandoned when it is in a state of disrepair,
when use is impracticable, or when it is not productive. Well
abandonment procedures are specified in 10.17.13.11.
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Before filing the hole, casing afl| any obstructions to
filling must be removed. A well must be filled with clay, silt,
sand, gravel, or a mixture of these materials, and sealed with
concrete or sodium-base bentonite clay. All wells must be sealed
and abandoned in such a way that no interchange of waters of
varying quality may occur.
SURFACE RESTORATION
The objective of standards described in 10.17.13.11 is to
restore as nearly as possible those surface conditions which
existed before the well was constructed.
SURETY BOND
A surety bond in the amount of $2,500 per well is required.
General 6-105. In practice, a blanket bond of $1,000 may also be
issued. Although bonding procedures are not specified in the
regulations, the legal section of the Department of Natural
Resources may enter into a contractual arrangement with the
owner/operator, (General law 6-105).
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REFERENCES
State of Maryland, Title 10, Subtitle 17, Chapter 13, Well
Construction, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
State of Maryland, Title 10, Subtitle 17, Chapter 11,
Installation and Operation of Systems of Refuse Disposal for
Public Use, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
State of Maryland, Code of Regulations, Subtitle 50, Chapter 1,
Water Management, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.
Personal Communications
John Lawther
Dept. Health and Mental Hygiene
Solid Waste Division
(301) 225-5659
Ken Schwarz
Dept. of Natural Resources
Environmental Geology and Mineral Resources Division
(301) 554-5525
B-72.
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APPENDIX
MONTANA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two state agencies regulate oil and gas activities in
Montana:
- The Montana Department of Natural Resources and
Conservation, Oil and Gas Conservation Division.
The Montana Department of Health and Environmental
Sciences, Water Quality Bureau.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
There are no regulations specific to geothermal operations,
but sections of the General Rules and Regulations Relating to Oil
and Gas Administrative Rules of Montana, Part 36, Ch.22 outlined
below may apply. Title 82 of the Montana Annotated Code places
certain restrictions on geophysical exploration, but these appear
to apply only to geophysical exploration for oil and gas
resources.
PERMITS
A notice of intent to drill a stratigraphic test well or
core hole must be submitted to the Board of Oil and Gas
Conservation before any drilling may commence. If the notice is
approved by the Department, a permit will be issued for drilling.
The notice of intent to drill must be accompanied by a survey
plat, certified by a registered surveyor. Section 36.22.601-602.
A permit for waste discharges must be obtained from the
Department of Health and Environmental Sciences. Montana has
primacy for the issuance of NPDES permits.
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WELL DESIGN
Suitable WKL safe surface casing isViguired for all wells.
In areas where pressure levels and formation characteristics are
unknown, surface casing must be run to reach a depth below all
potable fresh water resources that are accessible for domestic or
agricultural use. Surface casing must be set and cemented in an
impervious formation. Blowout-prevention equipment is required
on all drilling wells, and should be used according to
established practice in the area. Adequate slush pits for the
reception of drilling muds must be constructed before any
drilling commences. Section 36.22.1001-1002.
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
All solid wastes that accumulate during drilling operations
must be contained and disposed of in an appropriate manner. The
waste must either be removed from the well site or buried at the
well site to a minimum depth of 3 feet below the restored
surface. Section 36.22.1005.
Salt or brackish water may be disposed of by injection into
the strata from which it was produced or other salt-water bearing
strata. Salt or brackish water may also be disposed of by
evaporation in pits that are underlain by tight soil, such as
heavy clay or hardpan. Section 36.22.1227-1228.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
Plugging is required for any well that is no longer used for
the purpose for which it was drilled or converted, with limited
exceptions. Section 36.22.1303.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
All operators are required to restore the surface area to
its previous grade and productive capability, unless the Board
approves a different plan of restoration. Section 36.22.1307.
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SURETY BOND ^
A $10,00^^or $25,000 surety bond !^ required to indemnify
owners of property within the state against damages caused by
geophysical exploration. The Board requires, from any operator
proposing to drill or acquire any oil, gas, or service well on
private or state lands, a plugging and restoration bond in the
sum of $5,000 for one well, and $10,000 for more than one well.
If the Board deems it necessary, they can increase the amount of
the bond. The bond remains in force until the well plugging and
surface restoration has been approved by the Board. Section
36.22.1308.
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REFERENCES
Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation, Oil
and Gas Division. General Rules and Regulations Relating to
Oil and Gas. Administrative Rules of Montana, Part 36,
Chapters 22, Revised July 1984.
Personal Communications;
Tom Richmond, Oil and Gas Division. (406)656-0040.
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APPENDIX
NEVADA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two agencies regulate the geothermal industry in Nevada:
- Department of Minerals,
- Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources, Division of Environmental
Protection (for underground injection
control).
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Nevada Commission on Mineral Resources adopted
regulations specific to geothermal activities on August 16, 1985,
and filed the regulations with the Secretary of State on November
12, 1985. Authority to make and adopt regulations is derived
from Section 534A.090 Nevada Revised Statutes and authority to
adopt rules of practice and procedure is derived from Sections
233B.040 to 233B.0617 Nevada Revised Statutes, the Administrative
Procedures Act.
New underground injection control regulations have been
adopted by the State Environmental Commission. These regulations
are administered by the Division of Environmental Protection, but
do not replace or in any other way affect the regulations and
rules of practice and procedure administered by the Nevada
Department of Minerals as they apply to Class II injection wells
and Class V geothermal wells. Permits must be obtained from each
agency.
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PERMITS
The Department of Minerals divides geothermal wells into
three categories: (1) domestic wells (used for domestic purposes
or by a commercial user who does not produce geothermal heat for
sale or the generation of power); (2) commercial wells (used to
provide geothermal resources on a commercial basis for purposes
other than the generation of power); and (3) industrial wells
(used to operate power). Section 16 (NAC 534A.170).
A permit must be obtained from the Department of Minerals
before any person drills an observational or thermal gradient
well for observational purposes. Authorization is also required
from the Department for deepening or plugging any geothermal
well. Section 36 (NAC 435A.370).
Unless the director approves an alternative method of
disposal, all fluids derived from geothermal resources must be
reinjected into the same reservoir from which the fluids were
produced. Section 41.1 (NAC 534A.420). The operator must file
with the Department an application for a permit to inject
geothermal fluids. No re-entry is allowed except for routine
clean-out or repair work until an application has been filed with
and approved by the Department. Section 22 (NAC 534A.230).
If any water is consumed in the process, a permit to
appropriate water must be obtained from the Division of Water
Resources. The Division of Water Resources may also recommend
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conditions for Department of Minerals permits to ensure
compliance with the purposes of Chapters 533 and 534 Nevada
Revised Statutes.
WELL DESIGN
Section 25. (NAC 534A.260 - NAC 534A.2300) sets forth
extensive design requirements as precautions against blowout.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE
Effective February 2, 1987, an application must be submitted
to and a permit obtained from the Division of Environmental
Protection to comply with UIC regulations. As stated in the
section on permits, unless the Director approves an alternative
method of disposal, all fluids derived from geothermal resources
must be reinjected into the same reservoir from which the fluids
were produced. There are also reporting and notification
requirements for injection. Section 41.1 (NAC 534A. 420),
Section 45. (NAC 534A.460), and Section 44.1 (NAC 534A.450).
Currently, Nevada does not require any solid wastes to be
transported off-site. Solid waste which may be hazardous must be
deposited at a land disposal site only if provisions for such
disposal were required by the solid waste management authority.
Solid waste management authority is defined as "the officers and
agents of the division of environmental protection, any district
board of health or any other entity given specific authority by
the division." In general, the solid waste management authority
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must approve a system for the handling, processing, salvage, or
disposal of hazardous waste before the system may be placed into
operation. However, the method of handling or disposing of solid
waste may not be done in a manner which creates a health hazard
or impairment to the environment. 444.624-444.646.
Each municipality implements a plan for the management of
solid wastes within its jurisdiction. Jurisdictions are
contained within the boundary of each county, except where a city
develops its own plan or several municipalities develop a
combined plan. In general, the storage, collection, or
transportation of solid waste is regulated by the city, town, or
county where the services are performed. However, the method of
storage, collection, or transportation may not be done in a
manner that creates a health hazard or impairment to the
environment. 444.660-444.658.
WELL PLUGGING
The Department must grant permission before any person
abandons a well. Section 46.1 (NAC 534A.470).
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
The surface must be restored as near as practicable to its
original condition. Section 47.3 (NAC 534A.480).
SURETY BOND
-------
Section 24.1 (NAC 534A.250) requires a bond not less than
$10,000 per individual well, or a $50,000 blanket bond to insure
compliance with plugging and abandonment requirements.
-------
REFERENCES
State of Nevada, Chapter 534 A, Geothermal Resources, Department
of Minerals
State of Nevada, Regulations and Rules of Practice and Procedure
Adopted Pursuant to NRS 534 A, Department of Minerals
Underground Injection Control Regulations, January 1987,
Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division
of Environment Protection
Nevada Annotated Code 444.570 through 444.748, Solid Waste
Disposal
Personal Communications;
Richard L. Reyburn, Executive Director, Department of Minerals
(702) 885-5050
Dan Gross, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources,
Division of Environmnetal Protection (702) 885-4670
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APPENDIX
NEW HAMPSHIRE
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
The State of New Hampshire Water Supply and Pollution
Commission sets regulations for any activities which affect
groundwater in the state.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
There are no regulations specific to geothermal energy;
however, some sections of the New Hampshire Codes of
Administrative Rules WS 410 may be applicable. The definitions
of "well", "injection", and "fluid" given in WS410.04 are written
in such a way that geothermal resources could be included. Part
WS410 of the New Hampshire Code derives authority from RSA 149:8,
III(a); its purpose is to protect groundwaters as potential
sources for drinking water.
PERMITS
A groundwater permit issued by the Commission is required
for operation of any facility which may significantly and
adversely affect groundwater. Applications for a groundwater
permit must contain a complete description of the facility,
including environmental assessment, groundwater monitoring plan,
design plans, and closure plans. Anyone planning to inject fluid
must include information on the type of fluid being injected,
-------
depth and diameter of the well, and injection rate. (WS 410.06
and .08).
WELL DESIGN
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Discharge or injection into groundwater of any hazardous
waste is prohibited. Injection of a fluid below drinking water
aquifers is prohibited. Disposal of solid or liquid waste from
drilling or production of any type of well is not addressed in
the regulations which were reviewed.
-------
REFERENCES
New Hampshire "Water Supply and Pollution Control Commission, Part
Ws 410 of Ntl Code of Administration Rules: Protection of
Groundwaters of the State.
-------
APPENDIX
NEW JERSEY
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
One agency regulates well drilling of all types in New
Jersey:
The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection.
(Division of Water Resources and Division of Solid
Waste Management).
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
New Jersey's water quality and water supply regulations,
N.J.A.C. 7:9-7.2, set general standards and establish procedures
for construction, permits, installation and modification of all
types of wells. Specific regulations for geothermal wells are
found in N.J.A.C. 7:9-8.6. The Well Drillers and Pump Installers
Act, N.J.S.A. 58:4A, provides authority for these rules, and also
establishes a Well Drillers and Pump Installers Examining Board
to issue licenses and make recommendations to the Commissioner of
the Department.
PERMITS
No drilling or any other type of construction on a well is
allowed without an approved well permit. Permits are valid for
one year. Applications for permits must provide complete,
accurate information about the proposed well site and the
operation of the well. For geothermal wells, a site plan must be
submitted with the permit application, showing location of the
proposed well, drawings of distances from the proposed geothermal
-------
wells to potable wells, potential sources of contamination and
pollution, and all proposed structures.
There are well driller and pump installer licensing and
certification procedures and requirements. There are extensive
eligibility requirements in order to become licensed. No
drilling or construction of a well is allowed by anyone without a
license. (7:9-7.2 and 7:9-8.6)
WELL DESIGN
Specific procedures apply for the construction of vertical
loop geothermal systems. When installing a vertical loop
geothermal system, the borehole must be sealed in order to
protect the quality of water present in the geological
formations. A geothermal well must be constructed a minimum of
50 feet from any potable well. The geothermal well installation
must be sealed from the bottom up under pressure to prevent
groundwater contamination, maintain the hydrostatic head of
aquifers encountered, and prevent mixing of waters of varying
quality. The well casing must be at least 6 inches in diameter,
Schedule 40 steel, weighing 19 Ibs/foot. Casing installation
requirements vary from one environmental Region to another;
Regions are established by the New Jersey Department of
Environmental Protection.
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WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
There are specific requirements governing the sealing of all
types of wells. Some wells, such as those that present a direct
risk of groundwater contamination, may not be sealed without
departmental approval. A detailed written description must be
filed with the Department after each plugging operation. (9:7-
9.1) .
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
No treatment or discharge of any pollutant may occur without
a New Jersey Pollutant Discharge elimination System (NJPDES)
permit that has been issued by the Department. The NJPES permit
covers discharge of pollutants to all surface and ground waters,
and discharges of pollutants into wells (Underground Injection
Control). The permitting process is extensive and includes
provision for all conceivable wastes types.
New Jersey has primary for its Underground Injection Control
Program; its rules are clearly preventative and provide specific
regulatory controls for five classes of injection wells. In New
Jersey, geothermal wells are Class III if used to produce
electric power, and Class V if used for direct heating or
aquaculture. No U.I.C. authorization shall be given for
injection of any fluid with containants which may cause a
violation of any primary drinking water standards. Details are
given in N.J.S.A. 7:14 for selecting appropriate formation for
injection.
-------
Disposal of solid waste is regulated by the Division of
Solid Waste Management in the Department of Environmental
Protection. All solid wastes must be disposed of at State-
approved facilities in a manner consistent with New Jersey
regulations.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed.
SURETY BONDS
A $5,000 bond must be filed with the Department prior to
construction, installation, replacement, repair, or modification
of any well. New bonds must be submitted to the Department prior
to the expiration or cancellation of the bond or insurance
policy. (7:9-7.3).
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REFERENCES
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of
Water Resources. N.J.A.C. 7: 9-7, 8, and 9. Water
Quality and Water Supply. 1986.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of
Water Resources. N.J.A.C. 58.10A, Chapter 14A, the New
Jersey Pollutant Discharge Elimination System.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of
Solid Waste Management, N.J.A.C. 7: 26-1 through 6, 14, and
15.
6-50
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APPENDIX
NEW MEXICO
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two agencies regulate the geothennal industry in New Mexico:
- Oil Conservation Division of the New Mexico
Energy and Minerals Department
- Oil Conservation Commission
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Geothermal Resources Conservation Act of 1978 gives the
Oil Conservation Commission and the Oil Conservation Division of
the Energy and Minerals Department authority over matters
relating to geothermal resources. Specifically, the division is
authorized to enforce the Geothermal Resources Conservation Act
and any other laws of the State relating to geothermal resources.
The Commission is given concurrent jurisdiction and authority
with the Division to the extent necessary for the Commission to
perform its duties.
Under the Oil Conservation Division Geothermal Rules and
Regulations of 1983, the Division has the duty of enforcing all
statutes, rules, and regulations of the State relating to the
conservation of geothermal resources. In general, all geothermal
operations, exploratory, drilling and producing must be conducted
in a manner that will afford maximum reasonable protection to
human life and health and to the environment.
-------
PERMITS
Rule G-102 (a) requires that the owner or operator of any
proposed well to be drilled for geothermal exploration,
production, observation, or thermal gradient, or for injection or
disposal purposes, obtain a permit from the Division before
commencement of operations. Notice of such intention to drill
must be given to the governing body of any city, town, or village
within the corporate limits of which the well will be drilled.
Rule G-102(b). Evidence of this notification must accompany the
permit application. Rule G-102(b).
WELL DESIGN
Extensive design requirements and testing procedures must be
implemented as precautions against blowouts. Rule G-601* Rule
G-107.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Rule G-116 requires that disposal of highly mineralized
waters produced from geothermal resource wells be made in a
manner that will not constitute a hazard to surface waters or
underground supplies of usable waters. The practice (although
not stated in the regulations) is to dump the cuttings in reserve
pits and bury them.
-------
WELL PLUGGING
Prior to plugging/ notice must be filed with the Division.
Rule G-30.2. Before any well is abandoned it must be plugged in
a manner that will permanently confine all fluids in the separate
strata originally containing them. Rule G-303.
SURETY BOND
Plugging bonds are required prior to drilling any geothermal
resource well. Bonds may be either one-well bonds or multi-well
bonds. The amount of the bond depends on the depth of the well.
Rule G-101.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed.
6-73
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REFERENCES
State of New Mexico, Geothennal Resources Rules and Regulations,
Department of Energy and Minerals, Division of Oil
Conservation, 1983.
State of New Mexico, Geothennal Resources Conservation Act, 1978.
Personal Communications:
Roy Johnson, State of New Mexico Department of Energy and
Minerals (505) 827-5800
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APPENDIX
NORTH CAROLINA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
One agency regulates injection wells in North Carolina:
Department of Natural Resources and Community Develop-
ment.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
North Carolina Administrative Code, Title 15, Chapter 2,
Subchapter 2C, and Section .0200 contain criteria and standards
applicable to injection wells. At .0209, Classification of
Injection Wells, Class II wells are defined as including wells
which injectfor recovery of geothermal energy to produce electirc
power. Class V wells are defined as including geothermal wells
used in heating and aquaculture.
Solid waste disposal is regulated by the North Carolina
Department of Human Resources, Division of Health Services,
Environmental Health Section.
PERMITS
A permit must be obtained from the Director of the Division
of Environmental Management prior to construction, operation, or
use of any well for injection. Where the individual injection
wells in the well field will be essentially similar in construct-
ion, operation, reporting, and abandonment, and are of the same
type, the director may issue an area permit. No permit will be
granted for the injection of wastes or contaminants. All
applications for a new permit or renewal, modification or
transfer of an existing permit must be filed in sufficient time
prior to construction and operation or expiration, modification
or transfer to allow compliance with all legal procedures.
-------
Injection may not commence until construction is complete, the
permittee has submitted notice of completion or construction to
the director and the director has inspected or otherwise reviewed
the injection well and found it in compliance with the permit
conditions. If the permittee has not received notice from the
director of intent to inspect or otherwise review the injection
well within 10 days after the director receives the notice, the
permittee may commence injection. A permit may not exceed 5
years. However, the permittee may file for an extension. Also,
a permit may be modified, revoked and reissued, or terminated for
cause. .0211.
No one may establish a solid waste management facility
unless a permit for the facility has been obtained from the
Division of Health Services of the Department of Human Resources.
A permit is issued only after site and construction plans have
been approved and the Department determines that the facility can
be operated in accordance with the requirements set forth in the
Solid Waste Management Rules, 10 NCAC 10G.
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
As stated above, waste disposal wells are prohibited. NACA
Title 15, Chapter 2, Subchapter 2C, Section .0200.
The Solid Waste Management Rules stipulate that solid waste
must be disposed of at a solid waste disposal site. No waste
that is hazardous, liquid, or infections may be disposed of at a
solid waste disposal site, except as may be approved by the
division.
A solid waste generator is responsible for (1) the
satisfactory storage and collection of solid waste and (2)
ensuring that the waste is disposed of at a site or facility
which is permitted to receive the waste.
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WELL DESIGN
Extensive design requirements and testing procedures are
allowed for prevention of blow-outs. .0213(d) and .0213(3)(A).
WELL PLUGGING
Any injection well which has been abandoned, either tempora-
rily or permanently, must follow procedures as stated in the
regulations or other alternatives as specified by the Director.
.0214.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Not addressed.
SURETY BOND
The permittee must maintain financial responsibility and
resources, in the form of performance bonds or other equivalent
forms of financial assurances approved by the Director, as
specified in the permit, to close, plug, and abandon the injecti-
on operation. .0208.
References
North Carolina Administrative Code, Title 15, Chapter 2, Sub-
chapter 2C, Section .0200.
Personnel Communications:
Nathanel Wilson, VIC Program Hydrogeologist,
Groundwater Section, Department of Natural Resources and
Community Development (919) 733-3221
Carl Bailey, Department of Natural Resources and Community
Development (919) 733-3221
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APPENDIX
OREGON
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
In Oregon nine agencies regulate or are authorized to review
and approve geothermal activity:
- State Department of Geology and Mineral Industries
Department of Water Resources
Department of Environmental Quality
- Department of Land Conservation and Development
Division of State Lands ( on state lands)
Department of Fish and Wildlife
Division of Parks and Recreation
Energy Facility Siting Council
The County affected
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
Oregon Revised Statutes (ORS) Chapter 522 gives the
Department of Geology and Mineral Industries the authority to
adopt rules governing the drilling, redrilling and deepening of
wells for the discovery and production of geothermal resources.
The Department also has the authority to adopt rules which govern
disposal, by reinjection or other means, of geothermal fluids
derived from geothermal resources from wells of 250 or more
degrees Fahrenheit bottom hole temperature.
ORS Chapter 537 gives the Department of Water Resources the
authority to adopt rules for the development, use and management
-------
of any groundw^ter, used for its geotherj«l properties, that is
irjul
:r
(low-temperature geothermal resources).
found in wells with bottom-hole temperatures less than 250° F
Geothermal power plants greater than 25 MW require a site
certificate from the Energy Facility Siting Council. Operation
of such plants and disposal of production wastes, is provided for
in ORS Chapter 469. Local governments can site plants under 25
MW in size.
The Department of Land Conservation and Development is
responsible for ensuring that geothermal activities are
consistent with Statewide planning goals.
Other agencies that may regulate geothermal resources
include (1) the Division of State Lands for development on state
lands; (2) the Bureau of Land Management for development on
federal lands; (3) the U.S. Forest Service for development on
national forest lands; and (4) the Health Division of the Human
Resources Department for any heating system connected to a public
or community water supply system, although at this time, no
community has such a system.
Other regulations that may apply regulate air and water
pollution control permits for geothermal well drillings and
operations, and exploration, mining, and processing of geothermal
resources in areas zoned for farm use. ORS 468.350 and 215.213.
E-fl
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PERMITS
The State Geologist must issue a permit before anyone drills
a prospect well (less than 2,000 feet deep) or a geothermal well
(greater than 2,000 feet deep). Well drilling permits, even on
federal land, are issued by the Department of Geology and Mineral
Industries. Protection of groundwater through well construction
is included. Copies of both permit applications are circulated
by the Department of Geology to the agencies cited on the first
page of this Appendix. These agencies may suggest conditions for
issuing permits. ORS.522.
The Department of Environmental Quality may require a
National Pollution Discharge Elimination Systems Permit for
effluent disposal to the surface (except for irrigation
purposes).
The Department of Environmental Quality must issue a Water
Pollution Control Facilities permit before reinjection whenever:
(1) the reinjection is to a different aquifer than the producing
aquifer; or (2) the receiving aquifer is of higher quality than
the producing aquifer; or (3) contaminants are added to the
effluent. The permit requirement may be waived for reinjection
into the reservoir from which the fluid came if standards are met
and tests are done to ensure that the fluid is uncontaminated.
In general, it is state policy to inject spent fluids into
-------
production reservoir. The Department of Geology and Mineral
Industries, tl^r Department of Environmeraal Quality, and the
Water Resources Department all work together on injection.
The Department of Environmental Quality issues disposal site
permits. Section 459.205. The permits may be renewed. Section
459.270.
Energy facilities 25 MW and greater require an Energy
Facilities Siting Council (EFSC) Site Certificate. EFSC is
intended to be "one-stop" siting process. All above-cited state
permits are issued as a part of a Site Certification. ORS
Chapter 469.
Standards for the siting, construction and operation of
geothermal power plants under EFSC are being developed. Adoption
is likely later this year. Issue of wells as supporting
facilities is resolved with DOGAMI given lead agency status for
such.
EFSC sends application copies to state agencies and any
local governments affected by the application. This coordination
with other agencies makes siting a one-stop process for the
applicant to satisfy Oregon requirements. The agencies must make
provisions that they would normally make in their own permitting
process. Any stipulations must be included as site certificate
conditions, and once a site certificate is granted, the agency
-------
permits or licenses must be granted as a matter of course. The
applicant, howaBlr, does need to apply di^ltly for the necessary
permits and licenses. The permitting agency retains the
authority to enforce the requirements of the license.
A site certificate authorizes the applicant to construct and
operate a geothermal plant under conditions set forth in the
certificate. The signed certificate binds the state and all
affected political subdivisions to approval of the site for
construction and operation of the plant. All necessary permits
and licenses must be issued, subject only to the conditions of
the site certificate. EFSC can only initiate changes on a site
certificate based upon a clear indication of danger to the public
health and safety.
WELL DESIGN
Oregon Administrative Rules (OAR) 633-20-175 sets forth
extensive requirements and testing procedures for well design.
There are special low-temperature geothermal rules in OAR Chapter
690, Division 65. However, all rules in Chapter 690, Division
60-63 pertaining to well construction, maintenance, and
abandonment also apply to low temperature geothermal wells.
DISPOSAL OF LIQUID AND SOLID WASTES
Two agencies, the Department of Geology and Mineral
Industries and the Department of Environmental Quality, share
S-/02,
-------
responsibility through a memorandum of understanding which gives
lead agency ro9s to each for different aWas.
The Department of Geology and Mineral Industries has
authority for regulating reinjection of geothermal fluids derived
from geothermal resources. OAR 632-20-150(1).
The Department of Environmental Quality has authority for
regulating other methods for disposal of fluids and wastes
derived from geothermal operations. OAR 632-20-150(1).
Local government has the primary responsibility for planning
solid waste management. Where the solid waste management plan of
a local government unit has identified a need for a landfill
disposal site, the state Department of Environmental Quality has
responsibility for assisting local government and private persons
in establishing the site. ORS 459.017 and ORS 459.047. As
stated above, the Department of Environmental Quality also issues
disposal site permits. ORS 459.205. When solid waste is no
longer received at the site, it must be closed according to
statutory requirements and any other requirements imposed by the
department. ORS 459.268.
WELL PLUGGING
The State Geologist issues a permit before geothermal well
are abandoned. The owner or operator must notify the State
Geologist at least 24 hours before the proposed date for
-------
beginning abandonment procedures. The mel^^d of abandonment must
be approved by the Department. OAR 632-20-125.
After discontinuance of use, a waste disposal well must be
immediately plugged and sealed to prevent the well from being a
channel for vertical movement of water and a possible source of
contamination of the groundwater supply. 340-44-040.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
The State Geologist must determine that the site has been
restored as near as possible to its original condition, prior to
granting approval for final abandonment of any well drilled for
geothermal resources. OAR 632-20-125(2)(b).
SURETY BONDS
For prospect wells - Not less than $5,000 for each hole to
be drilled or a blanket bond of $25,000 for all prospect wells
which are included in the application. OAR 632-20-035(2).
For geothermal wells - A $10,000 bond for each well or a
$50,000 bond for all wells to be drilled. OAR 632-20-035(1).
For reinjection wells - The operator must post a bond in
compliance with OAR 632-20-035.
Bonds are conditioned upon compliance with proper
abandonment procedures. OAR 632-20-035(3).
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REFERENCES
Forcella, Lauren S., Low Temperature Geothermal Resource
Management. Oregon Water Resources Department for Oregon
Department of Energy, 1984.
State of Oregon, Chapter 522, Geothermal Resources Act, 1981,
Department of Geology and Mineral Industries.
State of Oregon, Chapter 632, Division 20, Geothermal
Regulations, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries.
State of Oregon, Water Resources Department, Low Temperature
Geothermal Resources. 1984.
State of Oregon, Chapter 459, Solid Waste Control, Department of
Environmental Quality.
State of Oregon, Chapter 340, Division 61, Solid Waste
Management, Department of Environmental Quality.
Personal Communications;
Alex Sifford, Geothermal Program Manager, Resource Development
Division, Oregon Department of Energy (503) 378-2778
Ernie Schmidt, Solid Waste Permits Division, Department of
Environmental Quality (503) 229-5630
Marshall Gannett, Department of Water Resources, (503) 378-2778.
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APPENDIX
SOUTH CAROLINA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two agencies regulate the geothermal industry in South
Carolina:
- South Carolina Water Resources Commission
Department of Health and Environmental Control.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
Chapter 43 of Title 48, of the Code of Laws of South
Carolina regulates oil and gas exploration, drilling, production,
and transportation. Section 48-43-315 makes the above-referenced
statute generally applicable to geothermal resources. Section
48-43-315 states "All provisions of this article regulating the
leasing for, exploration for, drilling for, transportation of,
and production of oil and gas and their products apply to
geothermal resources to the extent possible. The provisions of
this article do not apply to wells drilled for water supply
only."
The Water Resources Commission's regulations implement the
statutes. Although these regulations do not specifically address
geothermal resources, these regulations would be applied to the
extent possible as required by Section 48-43-315. Section 48-
443-30 gives the Commission jurisdiction and authority to
administer and enforce this Chapter.
The South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental
Control regulates standards for industrial solid waste disposal
sites and facilities in PC-SW-2. These regulations are
promulgated pursuant to the authority contained in Sections 63-
195 to 63-195.36, South Carolina Code of laws and cummulative
supplement thereto.
-------
The Pollution Control Act (Section 7) requires the South
Carolina Pollution Control Authority to promulgate rules and
regulations for the control of pollution. The Pollution Control
Authority finds that improper disposal of solid waste pollutes
the air and water within the meaning of the Pollution Control
Act.
This regulation adopts the definitions set form in the
Pollution Control Act of 1970 and adopts the following definition
of Solid Waste: "Solid Waste includes garbage, refuse, litter,
rubbish, or any waste material resulting industrial, commercial,
agricultural, or residential activities not disposable by means
of a sewerage system operated in accordance with State of South
Carolina regulations."
Section 48-43-520 gives the Department of Health and
Environmental Control the power to require containment and
removal of pollution resulting from the transfer of pollutants
and to otherwise deal with the hazards posed by such transfers.
The Department of Health and Environmental Control has also
applied for and received primacy from the EPA for the Underground
Injection Control Program for all classes of Injection wells.
Regulations for classes of injection wells are contained in R61-
87. In addition, the Department regulates all wells (except as
otherwise specified by State law) under the provisions of R61-71.
PERMITS
No one may explore for oil or gas without first obtaining an
exploration permit from the South Carolina Resources Commission.
121-8.4. A well being drilled under an existing permit may be
deepened if the existing permit is amended. A new well drilling
permit is required to reopen and deepen a plugged and abandoned
well. 121-8.5C. No well drilling permit can be issued within
the corporate limits of any municipality until the governing
-------
authority of the municipality has approved the activity. 121-
8.5D.
No system for land disposal of solid waste may be operated
without a written permit issued by the State Board of Health.
The Board may issue a special permit for disposal of essentially
unit materials which do not contribute to pollution and which do
not create vector problems or public health nuisances.
No system for the disposal of industrial solid waste may be
operated in South Carolina without a written permit issued by the
Pollution Control Authority. Applications for permits must be
accompanied by an appropriate plan, where applicable, which must
be in sufficient detail to support a judgment that the operation
of the disposal system will not violate the Pollution Control
Act.
Disposal of waste sludge and slurries must be done with
special consideration of air and water pollution, and the health
and safety of employees. Provisions acceptable to the Pollution
Control Authority must be madew for the handling of these waste
materials on a case by case basis.
A permit must be obtained from the Department of Health and
Environmental Control prior to constructing, operating or using
any Class V.A. well for injection. R61-87.13. Class V.A. wells
are defined, in part, as "...(f) injection wells associated with
the recovery of geothermal energy for heating, aquaculture or
production of electric power..." R61-87.11E(f).
No well drilling permits are required under Well standards
and Regulations, R. 61-71. However, the water Resources
Commission's Regualtions require well drilling permits for any
well, as well as defined in those regulations. R.121-8.5.
-------
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
In addition to the above, the Water Resources Commission's
regulations at R.121-8.26, require that after a well has been
abandoned, all the drilling mud remaining in the pits must be
returned to the well on location or an acceptable adjacent well,
or removed to a lawfully approved landfill, or disposed of as
directed by the Commission within 90 days of completion of the
well, except as otherwise approved by the Commission.
WELL DESIGN
Adequate blow-out preventers and high pressure fittings for
keeping the well under control must be attached to anchor and
cement casing strings. R.121-8.15. Production testing procedures
are required. R.121-8.19. Design requirements for injection
wells also apply. R.121-8.22.
Construction, development and materials specifications are
outlined in Well Standards and Regulations R.61.71.6 and
R. 61-71.7
WELL PLUGGING
When any well is temporarily abandoned, it must be sealed
with a watertight cap or seal. The well must be maintained so
that it does not become a source or channel of contamination.
When the well is permanently abandoned, it must be filled with
sand or gravel to within twenty feet of the surface and the
remainder filled with cement grout or compacted clay for bored
holes. R.61-71.10.
The Underground Injection Control Regulations specify that
180 days advance notice must be given to the Department prior to
plugging or abandoning any injection well. A plugging plan must
be submitted to the department. Prior to receiving final
-------
approval to abandon the 'injection well, the permittee must
demonstrate that movement of fluids between underground sources
of drinking water will not occur R61-87.15.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
All pits and sumps must be properly filled, compacted and
leveled, in such a manner so as to be returned to a near natural
state. 121.8.26.D.
The UIC regulations specify that the permitte must take all
reasonable steps to minimize or correct any adverse impact on the
environment resulting from noncompliance with the permit.
R61-87.13X.(2).
SURETY BOND
The Water Resource Commission's regulations require a
reasonable performance bond before a well drilling permit is
granted. The amount of the bond is based on the proposal depth
of the well as follows:
Depth In Feet Amount of Bond Required
0 - 10,000 $20,000
10,000 - 15,000 $30,000
15,000 - 20,000 $40,000
20,000 or more $50,000
Alternatively, ablanket bond of $100,000 may be allowed.
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REFERENCES
South Carolina Well Standards and Regulations R.61-71, Department
of Health and Environmental Control.
South Carolina Underground Injection Control Regulations R61-87.
Code of laws of South Carolina Chapter 43 of Title 48, 1976,
Water Resources Commission
Personal Communications:
Paul S. League, Legal Counsel, Water Resources Commission (803)
737-6550
Michael E. Rowe, Department of Health and Environmental Control
(803) 734-5000
Don Duncan, Director, Groundwater Protection Division, Department
of Health and Environmental Control (803) 734-5332
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APPENDIX
SOUTH DAKOTA
One agency regulates potential geothennal activity in South
Dakota:
- South Dakota Department of Water and Natural Resources
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
There are no injection wells used in conjunction with
geothermal activities in the State of South Dakota. However, any
use of injection wells in conjunction with geothermal energy
would be treated as Class V wells and would be regulated by the
South Dakota Department of Water and Natural Resource's Board of
Water Management. Any geothermal use of water, if more than 18
gallons per minute, would be regulated by the South Dakota Board
of Water Management's Division of Water Rights. Solid waste
disposal is regulated by the South Dakota Department of Water and
Natural Resource's Office of Air Quality and Solid Waste.
Well construction and plugging procedures are outlined in
the South Dakota Well Construction Standards.
PERMITS
A water permit is required from the South Dakota Board of
Water Management for use of water, except that no permit is
required for water distribution systems diverting 18 gallons per
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minute or less or for geothennal heat for a single household.
SDCL 46-1-15,46^5-9, 46-5-10.
A permit must be obtained before construction of a well for
which a water permit is required. 74:02:04:21. In this
situation, the well owner must obtain a permit for use of water,
as specified above. No other construction permits are required.
In general, local governments are responsible for waste
management. Standards and liabilities for nonhazardous solid
waste management are defined by the local or regional authority.
Section 74:27:02:02.
WELL DESIGN
The Well Construction Standards for the State of South
Dakota specify minimum cement grouting requirements for wells;
(74:02:04:28); other construction standards concerning well
casing (74:02:04:42); and pump installation (74:02:04:60). Also,
wells must be developed by a method which will remove drilling
mud or other aquifer material that will pass through the screen
openings or casing perforations.
The Water Rights Law, Section 46-6-10, specifies that wells
must be constructed to prevent underground leakage of waters into
other reservoirs. The Water Management Board may specify methods
of construction or other control devices necessary to prevent
waste.
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DISPOSAL OF LIQUID AND SOLID WASTES
As previously stated, solid waste disposal is regulated by
local governments. Standards and liabilities for frequency of
collection, temporary storage solid waste specifications, and
maintenance of storage containers are defined by the local or
regional person in charge of solid waste management. Section
74:27:02:02. Political subdivisions or regions may apply for
solid waste grants for the purpose of developing and implementing
an approved solid waste management system plan. Section
74:27:06:02.
Class V wells may inject subject to the provisions governing
the prevention of pollution of the waters of the state. Section
74:03:12:03.
WELL PUGGING
The Well Construction Standards for the State of South
Dakota specify requirements for plugging artesian wells and test
holes with cement grout. Section 74:02:04:67 and Section
74:02:04:68.
The Water Rights Law Section 46-6-18 specifies that any
abandoned or forfeited well must be plugged by its owner so that
no leaking of its waters occurs underground or over the surface.
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RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Not addre^^d in the regulations
SURETY BOND
Not addressed in the regulations reviewed,
-------
REFERENCES
State of South Dakota, Article 74:27, Solid Waste, Chapter
74:27:01, Administration, Department of Water and Natural
Resources.
State of South Dakota, Chapter 34A-6, Solid Waste Disposal,
Codified Laws, Department of Water and Natural Resources.
State of South Dakota, Article 74:02, Water Rights, Chapter
74:02:01, General Rules, Department of Water and Natural
Resources.
State of South Dakota, Chapter 1-40, Water Rights Law, Sections
1-40-15 through 1-40-20, Chapters 43-17 and 46-1 through 46-
10A, 1986.
State of South Dakota, Article 74:03, Underground Injection
Control - Class I, IV and V wells, Chapter 74:03:12,
Department of Water and Natural Resources.
State of South Dakota, Chapter 74:02:04, Well Construction
Standards, 1985.
Personal Communications;
Barbara K. Hershly, Hydrologist, Office of Water Quality,
Department of Water and Natural Resources (605) 773-3296.
Ron Duvall, Natural Resources Engineer, Water Rights Division,
Department of Water and Natural Resources (605) 773-3352.
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APPENDIX
TEXAS
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Texas Railroad Commission, Oil and Gas Division,
regulates most areas of the geothermal industry in Texas. The
one area which lies outside the Railroad Commission's
jurisdiction is the use of groundwater heat pumps, which is
regulated by the Texas Water Commission.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The following sections of the Texas Annotated Code (TAG)
apply to oil, gas, and geothermal wells in Texas:
16 TAG, Section 3.5 provides guidelines for the
application to drill, deepen, or plug back a well.
16 TAG, Section 3.13 gives well design requirements,
specifically for casing, cementing, drilling, and well
completion.
16 TAG, Section 3.8 related to water protection,
defines the types of pits that can be used and
operational requirements for the pits.
16 TAG Section 3.9 sets regulations for injection wells
used for disposal.
16 TAG Section 3.46 sets regulations for fluid
injection into productive reservoirs.
16 TAG Section 3.14 establishes well plugging and
abandonment procedures.
The Texas Railroad Commission promulgates and enforces all
of the above rules.
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PERMITS
An application is needed to drill, deepen, or plug back any
oil, gas, geothermal, exploratory, or fluid injection well. The
application must be made to and filed with the Railroad
Commission on an approved form. Operations may not commence
until the permit is granted by the Commission. 16 TAG 3.5.
Permits from the Railroad Commission are required for anyone
who engages in fluid injection operations in reservoirs
productive of oil, gas, or geothermal resources. 16 TAG 3.46.
Oil, gas, or geothermal resource wells drilled for
exploratory purposes shall be governed by provisions of statewide
or field rules applicable to drilling, safety, production,
abandoning, and plugging of wells. 16 TAG 3.8. Since Texas does
not have NPDES jurisdiction, NPDES permits must be obtained from
EPA for waste discharges.
WELL DESIGN
There are extensive requirements for well casing, cementing,
drilling, and completion. In all instances, casing must be
securely anchored, with usable-quality water zones sealed off to
prevent contamination, and potentially productive zones isolated
to prevent fluid migration. Casing must be hydrostatically
pressure-tested steel. Wellhead assemblies are required to
maintain surface control. A blowout prevention unit or control
head is also required. Surface, intermediate, and production
-------
casing are all required; specifications for type, installation,
and testing apply. 16 TAG 3.13.
Several types of pits can be used during drilling
operations:
Reserve pits, used in conjunction with the drilling rig
for collection of spent drilling fluids, cuttings,
sands, silts, and wash water used for cleaning the
drill pipe and other equipment at the well site.
Mud circulation pit, used for storage of drilling fluid
currently being used in the drilling operation.
Drilling fluid storage pit. used for storage of
drilling fluid which is not currently being used, but
which will be used in future drilling operations.
Drilling fluid storage pits are often located centrally
among several leases.
Drilling fluid storage pits require a permit; mud
circulation and reserve pits do not. 165 TAG 3.8. Other types
of pits for solid and liquid waste storage and disposal are
described in the following section.
SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE DISPOSAL
Disposal of geothermal resource fluids, mineralized waters,
brines, and drilling fluids, by any method, is not allowed
without a permit.
The following types of pits can be used for storage and
disposal of liquid and solid waste, as specified:
-------
Collecting pit, used for storage of saltwater prior to
disposal at a tidal disposal facility, disposal well,
or fluid injection well.
Drilling fluid disposal pit, used for disposal of spent
drilling fluid.
Completion/workover pit, used for storage or disposal
of spent completion fluids, workover fluids, drilling
fluid, silt, debris water, brine and other materials
which have been cleared out of the well bore.
Saltwater disposal pit, used for disposal of produced
saltwater.
Saltwater disposal pits, collecting pits, and drilling fluid
disposal pits require a permit from the Railroad Commission.
Completion/workover pits do not require a permit; an operator
may, without a permit, dispose of wastes in a completion/workover
pit, provided the wastes have been dewatered, and they are
disposed of at the same well site at which they are generated.
Other types of disposal methods which are authorized without
a permit are: disposal of freshwater condensate, disposal of
inert wastes (such as glass and concrete), low chloride drilling
fluid (less than 3,000 mg/L), drill cuttings, sand, and silt.
These types of wastes can be landfilled, provided the landfill is
on the site where the wastes were generated and the operator has
written permission of the landowner. Water-base drilling fluids
with more than 3,000 mg/L chloride, but which have been
dewatered, may be disposed of by burial in the same way.
There are extensive dewatering, backfilling, and compacting
requirements for the wastes, depending on the classification of
6'
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the pit. 16 TAG 3.8.
Saltwater may be disposed of by injection into nonproducing
zones of oil, gas, or geothennal resources bearing formations
that contain water mineralized by processes of nature to such a
degree that the water is unfit for domestic, stock, irrigation,
or other general uses. Before such formations are approved for
disposal use, the applicant must show that formations are
separated from freshwater formations by impervious beds. The
applicant must submit a letter from Texas Department of Water
Resources stating the above. 16 TAG 3.9.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
Notification of intention to plug any well drilled for oil,
gas, or geothermal resources or for any other purpose must be
given in writing to the Railroad Commission five days prior to
plugging. The notification must include the proposed procedure
and complete casing record.
The landowner/operator may file an application to convert an
abandoned well for usable-quality water production operations,
provided he is willing to assume responsibility for eventual
plugging.
General plugging requirements are as follows: Cement plugs
must be set to isolate each productive horizon and usable-
quality water strata. Plugging must proceed according to
-------
American Petroleum Institute Standards. Specific plugging
procedures may apply when well fluids are high temperature,
highly saline,and/or corrosive. A ten-foot cement plug must be
placed in the top of the well, cut off three feet below the
surface. Mud-laden fluids must be placed in all portions of the
well not filled with cement. Additional specific requirements
apply for wells with surface, intermediate, and/or production
casing, and open-hole completions. 16 TAG 3.14.
SURFACE RESTORATION
Requirements for surface restoration are not addrssed
specifically in the regulations; they are usually included in the
lease agreements.
SURETY BOND
Bonds are not required before wells are drilled. However, a
bond will be required for an extension of time to plug an
inactive well. A one-year extension may be granted beyond the 90
day time limit for plugging an inactive well if the
owner/operator posts a bond in the dollar amount equal to $1.50
per foot times the total depth of the well. Statewide Rule 14-B.
-------
REFERENCES
State of Texas, Statewide Rule 9, Disposal Wells, Railroad
Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division
State of Texas, Statwide Rule 8, Water Protection, Railroad
Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division
Texas Annotated Code 16, Section 3.14, Plugging, Railroad
Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division
Texas Annotated Code 16, Section 3.13, Casing, Cementing,
Drilling, and Completion Requirements, Railroad
Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division
Texas Annotated Code 16, Section 3.5, Guidelines for Drilling,
Railroad Commission of Texas, Oil and Gas Division
Personal Communication;
Richard Ginn, Texas Railroad Commission (512)463-6796
Richard Buerger, Administrative Chief, Legal Enforcement
Section (512)463-6796
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APPENDIX
UTAH
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
One agency regulates the geothermal industry in Utah:
The Division of Water Rights, Department of
Natural Resources.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Geothermal Resource Conservation Act of 1981 assigns
regulatory authority regarding the development of geothermal
resources to the Division of Water Rights.
The Rules and Regulations of the Division of Water Rights
for Wells Used for the Discovery and Production of Geothermal
Energy in the State of Utah gives the Division of Water Rights
the authority to regulate all wells for the discovery and
production of water to be used for geothermal energy. These
rules and regulations are in the process of being revised and at
this time, they are not available in draft form.
The Utah State Department of Health, Division of
Environmental Health regulates solid waste disposal. The
regulations are based on statutory authority conferred by Section
26-14, UCA, as amended, and are enforceable throughout the state.
The regulations are designed for adoption and enforcement by
local health departments in cooperation with the State Department
of Health for the purpose of establishing minimum requirements
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for the disposal of solid wastes. The term "solid wastes" is
defined as garbage, trash and other wastes generated by daily
living processes and also includes those produced in commercial,
industrial and agricultural operations.
PERMITS
Before drilling an exploratory or production well, an
applicant must submit a plan of operation to the State Engineer
for approval. These plans must include the methods that the
applicant intends to use for disposal of waste materials. Rule
2-1-2. If the owner plans to deepen or modify an existing well,
an application must be filed with the Department and written
approval received, except in an emergency where the owner must
take action to report damage and report his action to the
Division as soon as possible. Rule 2-1-3. A permit is also
required to convert an existing geothermal well into an injection
well. Rule 2-1-4. Permits may be amended upon approval by the
State Engineer. Rule 2-1-5. Rule 6-2 requires a permit to
abandon a geothermal resource well.
WELL DESIGN
Extensive design requirements and testing procedures must be
implemented as precautions against blowout. Rule 2-7 and Rule 3.
-------
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
As stated above, the plan of operation must include the
methods that the applicant will use for disposal of waste
materials. Rule 2-1-2. The owner or operator of a proposed
injection well must provide the Department with information
necessary to evaluate the impact of injection on the geothermal
reservoir and other natural resources. Rule 5-1.
The Utah Code of Solid Waste Disposal specifies that is is
unlawful to deposit any solid waste in any place except at a site
which has been designated by a city, county, district, or other
properly designated agency, and approved by the Utah State
Department of Health.
WELL PLUGGING
A notice of intent to abandon must be filed with the
Division five days prior to beginning abandonment procedures.
Rule 6-2a. A history of geothermal resource wells must be filed
within 60 days after completion of abandonment procedures. Rule
6-26. All abandoned wells must be marked and the description of
the marker must be included in the history of the well report.
Rule 6-2c. Marker and plugging specifications are required.
Rule 6-2c - 6-2k. Injection wells must be abandoned in the same
manner as other wells. Rule 6-21.
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RESTORATION OF SURFACE
The owner is required to rehabilitate disturbed lands. Rule
9-7. Also, a bond is required for proper abandonment in order
to:
a. Prevent contamination of fresh waters or
other natural resources;
b. Prevent loss of reservoir energy;
c. Prevent damage to geothermal reservoirs, and
d. Protect life, health, environment and
property. Rule 6-1.
SURETY BOND
Rule 2-3-1 requires a surety bond of $10,000 per individual
well, or a $50,000 blanket bond for all wells, to ensure
compliance with plugging and abandonment procedures.
6-123
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REFERENCES
Utah Code of Solid Waste Disposal Regulations, June 20, 1981,
State Department of Health, Division of Environmental Health
Utah Geothermal Resource Conservation Act, 1981
Utah Rules and Regulations of the Division of Water Rights for
Wells Used for the Discovery and Production of Geothermal
Energy in the state of Utah, 1978
Personal Communications;
Earl Staker, Apropriations Engineer, State of Utah Department of
Natural Resources (801) 533-7169
Robert L. Morgan, State Engineer, State of Utah Department of
Natural Resources (801) 533-6071
Stanley Green, Directing Appropriations Engineer, State of Utah
Department of Natural Resources (801) 533-6071
William J. Sinclair, Manager Permits Section, State of Utah
Department of Health, Division of Environmental Health
6-12.4-
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APPENDIX
VIRGINIA
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy
regulates geothermal operations in Virginia.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
The Geothermal Energy Regulations, adopted by the Director
of the Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy are the primary
regulatory guidelines for the exploration, development, and
production of geothermal energy. The regulations are promulgated
pursuant to Title 45.1, Chapter 15.1, Code of Virginia, and in
accordance with the provisions of Title 9, Chapter 1.1:1,
Administration Process Act. The regulations cover geothermal
resource conservation, permits and fees, plans for operation,
well construction and maintenance, well plugging and abandonment,
and environmental protection.
PERMITS
Section 3.B of the Virginia Geothermal Energy Regulations
requires that geothermal operators obtain a permit for any
exploration, production, or injection activities. Along with the
application for a permit for exploration, the application must
include an inventory of local water resources in the area of
proposed development.
-------
A notice of intention to proceed with geothermal production
or injection must be filed with the Department, in accordance
with the provisions of Section 4. The notice of intent must be
accompanied by: (1) an operations plan, (2) a geothermal fluid
analysis, and (3) a proposal for injection of used geothermal
fluids. The operations plan must consist of detailed information
about the site and proposed activities, such as a map of the
site, geologic report, method for erosion control, and methods
for disposal of all liquid and solid wastes.
WELL DESIGN
Requirements for well construction and maintenance are
contained in Section 5 of the regulations. There are extensive
requirements for casing and cementing of both projection and
injection wells. There are also provisions for the protection of
underground freshwater zones. Developers are required to use
drilling mud and pressure valves to prevent blowouts. When
working pressures on the wellhead connection exceed 1,000 psi,
blowout preventers must be used during drilling. Because of the
rarity of high-pressure zones in Virginia, more sophisticated
blowout-prevention equipment is not required. The regulations
require operators to keep well logs during every phase of
drilling and production. Logs must identify each well, and
include a record of casings, formations encountered, deviation
tests, cementing procedures and downhole geophysical information.
-------
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
Plans for disposal of all wastes resulting from geothermal
operations must be included in the operations plan. All wastes
must be handled in such a way as to prevent fire hazards or
pollution of surface and groundwater, in accordance with state
and federal laws. Geothermal fluids must be injected into the
same formation from which they were drawn using a method
specified in the regulations. Drilling muds must be removed from
the drilling site when the well is completed, and disposed of as
specified in the operations plan. All methods of disposal must
comply with applicable state and federal laws and regulations.
WELL PLUGGING
Notice of intent to abandon any exploration, production, or
injection well must be given at least one day before beginning
plugging operations. Specific plugging procedures apply. If
drilling operations are suspended for 60 days, the well shall be
plugged unless permission for temporary abandonment is given by
the Inspector. A written report must follow any plugging
operation.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
The operations plan must present the intended plan for
reclamation of land at the production and injection sites. The
drilling site and any associated pits must be reclaimed within
one year after drilling ceases.
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SURETY BONDS
A $10,000 completion bond from a surety company is required
for each exploratory and injection well, and a $25,000 bond for
each production well. Blanket bonds of $100,000 may be granted.
Return of the bonds are conditional upon plugging and
abandonment, reclamation, and general compliance with
regulations. Land stabilization bonds of $1,000 per acre are
required, and are held until drilling and reclamation is
completed.
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REFERENCES
Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy. Geothennal
Energy Regulations. May 1, 1984.
Personal Communications
Katherine Pearsall, Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy
(804)257-1310
Bill Edwards, Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy
(804)257-6898
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APPENDIX
WASHINGTON
STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
Two agencies regulate the geothermal industry in Washington:
- The Washington State Department of Natural Resources
administers and enforces most regulations on geothermal
activities.
The Washington State Department of Ecology administers
and enforces regulations relating to discharge of
produced formation fluids.
GEOTHERMAL REGULATIONS
Washington has specific legislation for geothermal
operations in the form of the Geotherraal Resources Act (GRA) of
1974. The Act was passed to "further the development of
geothermal resources for the benefit of all of the citizens of
the state while at the same time fully providing for the
protection of the environment." There are provisions for
exploration, drilling, production, and abandonment operations, as
well as for prevention of damage due to wastes generated from
geothermal resources, and for the protection of underground and
surface waters, land, and air.
The regulatory authority of the Department of Natural
Resources is stated in the introductory paragraph of the
Geothermal Resources Act. The regulatory code which the
Department promulgates and enforces is in Chapter 332-17 WAC,
Geothermal Drilling Rules and Regulations. General rules are
statewide in application unless otherwise stated.
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PERMITS
Written applications must be filed for a permit to commence
drilling, redrilling an abandoned hole, or deepening a hole.
Application details must include proposed drilling and casing,
survey plat, methods of disposing of waste materials, and a
narrative statement describing proposed measures to be taken for
protection of the environment. Any well drilled for production
is subject to fees, public notice, and possibly a public hearing.
A well drilled only for the purpose of obtaining geothermal data
must be permitted, but is not subject to fees, notice, or a
public hearing, unless the hole is more than 750 feet deep, or in
the event that a geothermal zone is discovered. No well will be
permitted that will unreasonably decrease access to groundwater
for which prior water rights exist. WAC 332-17-100 and GRA Sec.
7,8.
WELL DESIGN
All wells must be equipped with casing and safety devices,
as approved by the Department. Specifications are given for
surface, intermediate, and production casing, as well as the
cementing of the casing. Blowout equipment must be installed,
tested immediately, and properly maintained until the drilling
operation is complete. The various components required for the
blowout prevention unit are described in detail. Sufficient
drilling fluid to ensure well control must be maintained in the
field area readily accessible for use at all times. The drilling
-------
hole must be reasonably full at all times, and a drilling fluid
monitoring system is required. Mud cooling techniques must be
used as necessary, and mud testing and treatment is required
daily. WAG 332-17-110, -120, -130, and GRA Sec. 9.
The owner or operator must provide pits or sumps of adequate
capacity and design to retain all fluids and materials necessary
to drilling, production, and related operations. There are no
specific requirements for lining. When no longer needed, the
pits and sumps must be pumped out and the contents disposed of at
approved sites. The pits cannot be allowed to contaminate any
fresh water bodies, groundwater, cause harm to the environment,
persons, or wildlife, or adversely affect the aesthetic value of
the area. WAC-332-17-460.
DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTES
The application for permit to commence drilling, redrilling,
or deepening requires a written plan including a method for
disposal of wastes. Waste disposal is then addressed
specifically by the affected county, usually through the
Department of Public Health, and the Department of Ecology under
the State Environmental Policy Act, and disposers are subject to
the rules and regulations of each of those agencies.
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Surface Disposal
The Department of Ecology sets conditions under which it
will grant a categorial exclusion for a class of waste: the
class must be exempt under RCRA, and either (1) the class has
been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt to pass all DOE's tests
for designation as dangerous, or (2) the class has been
identified by DOE as one which would be inappropriate to
regulate, due to considerations which demonstrate that the waste
class does not pose a threat to public health and the
environment. A temporary exclusion was initially provided for
oil, gas and geothermal waste. However, due to a lack of
sufficient information on drilling fluids, produced waters, and
other wastes associated with oil, gas, and geothermal activities,
these wastes are now subject to dangerous waste designation tests
under WAC, Chapter 173-303. Under DOE's procedures, a waste may
be designated a dangerous waste by way of three mechanisms:
1) Dangerous Waste Lists (WAC 173-303-081 through 173-303-
084) ;
2) Characteristics of Dangerous Wastes, including EP
Toxicity Test (WAC 173-303-090)
3) Damgerous Waste Criteria (WAC 173-303-101 through 173-
303-103).
Wastes must be checked against the various lists and
characteristics for chemical constituents and their
concentrations to determine if they are designated wastes.
Produced wastes from geothermal operations generally are not
designated dangerous waste. Some drilling fluids have been
designated by charateristics of EP Toxicity, notably high
6-/33
-------
concentrations of barium and chromium.
Concentrations higher than the threshold values for primary
drinking water standards (arsenic, barium, cadmium, hexavalent
chromium, lead, and mercury) can also result in designation as a
hazardous waste. DOE has set concentrations for other chemical
constituents found in drilling fluids which could result in
dangerous waste designation:
Concentration* in Waste Which
Compound Could Cause Book Designation
Sodium Chloride 10%
Calcium Hydroxide 10%
Sodium Pentachlorophenate 0.01%
Sodium Hydroxide 1.0%
Sodium Bichromate 1.0%
Sodium Bicarbonate 10%
Ammonium Nitrate 10%
Ammonium Bisulfate 10%
*Concentration would be a weight/weight ratio.
Any wastes which are designated as dangerous will be subject
to applicable waste management standards. Current management
practice for non-hazardous wastes are either to backfill them in
6-134-
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practice for non-hazardous wastes are either to backfill them in
a pit, or to landspread them and incorporate them into surface
soils. These practices are permissble under the state's
dangerous waste regulations, but the conditions are more
stringent. Liners and caps for disposal pits, groundwater
monitoring, and financial assurances for well closure are all
required. Management standards provide for less stringent
requirements if geothermal wastes are identified by DOE as
moderate risk.
Subsurface Disposal
DOE is the primary regulator of liquid waste disposal by
injection, although the Department of Natural Resources and the
Oil and Gas Conservation Commission provide technical and
enforcement assistance to DOE for permit and compliance
assurance, and corrective action.
Geothermal injection wells are Class V for the state. A
State Waste Discharge Permit must be issued by DOE. Any permit
issued by the Department must specify conditions necessary to
prevent and control injection of fluids into the waters of the
State, and conditions necessary to preserve underground sources
of drinking water. WAC-173-218-090.
WELL PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT
Plugging and abandonment are required when: (1) it is not
technologically practical to derive energy to produce electricity
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commercially, or (2) usable minerals cannot be derived, or owner
has no intention of deriving usable minerals. Before proceeding
with any plugging and abandonment operations, the owner/operator
must file a Notification of Abandonment with the Department for
approval of methods. Adequate measures to protect the
environment and aesthetic qualities of the disturbed areas are
required. All wells to be abandoned must have cement plugs
placed in the well as prescribed in the regulations. Open holes
must have cement plugs placed across fresh water zones and
geothermal resource zones, to isolate formations and to prevent
migration and contamination of fluids.
In the event that the abandoned well will be converted to a
water well, jurisdiction over the well may be transferred to the
Department of Ecology, if that department is willing to assume
responsibility for it. This relieves the owner of further
compliance with the Geothermal Resources Act, but now makes the
owner subject to applicable laws and regulations for groundwater
wells. WAS 332-17-200, -300, -310, and GRA Sec. 10.
RESTORATION OF SURFACE
Cellars, pads, structures, and other facilities related to
geothermal operations must be removed. The surface must be
restored to its natural condition, or to such a condition as
prescribed by the Department of Natural Resources. Surface
grading and revegetation is the responsibility of the owner or
operator. WAG 332-17-300 and GRA Sec. 3(13).
6'
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SURETY BONDS
A performance bond, cash deposit, negotiable securities, or
an assignment of a savings account is required. A $15,000 bond
is required for one well; a $50,000 blanket bond covers a group
of wells. Termination or cancellation of any bond will not be
permitted until the well, or wells, for which the bond has been
issued have been properly abandoned or another valid bond for
such well or wells has been submitted and approved by the
Department. WAG-332-17-160.
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REFERENCES
WAC, Chapter 173-303, Dangerous Waste Regulations. Amended June
1986. State of Washington, Department of Ecology. Olympia,
WA 98504
WDOE Position Paper: Discussion of Bases for Not Excluding Oil,
Gas, and Geothermal Exploration, Development and Production
Wastes. March 1984.
State of Washington, Substitute House Bill No. 135, Geothermal
Resources Act. January 24, 1974.
WAC, Chapter 332-17, Geothermal Drilling Rules and Regulations.
WAC, Chapter 173-218, Underground Injection Control Program.
Personal Communications;
Denis Erickson, Department of Ecology. (206)459-6274
Bill Lingley, Department of Natural Resources. (206)459-6372.
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