906R92902
REPORT TO CONGRESS
United States
Gulf Environmental
Technical Assistance
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o
From January 27 - July 31, 1991
Under Public Law 102-27, Section 309
Printed on Recycled Paper
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PURPOSE
This report has been prepared pursuant to Public Law 102-27, Section 309 (b)(l), Persian
Gulf Environmental Technical Assistance of the Dire Emergency Supplemental Appropriations for
Consequences of Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Food Stamps, Unemployment Compensation
Administration, Veterans Compensation and Pensions, and Other Urgent Needs Act of 1991.*
The Environmental Protection Agency has prepared this report in coordination with the
Central Intelligence Agency, the Department of Commerce, the Department of Defense, the
Department of Energy, the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of the
Interior, the Department of State, the Department of Transportation, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, and the National Science Foundation.
The report describes U.S. government technical assistance activities in the Gulf and the U.S.
role within the overall international environmental response framework. The primary focus of this
report is the U.S. contribution, including U.S. government expenditures, to the international effort to
provide technical assistance in the Gulf region. In addition, the report briefly addresses the activities
of other governments, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations.
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'A copy of the relevant portion of the public law is located in Appendix E.
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FOREWORD
By William K. Reilly
Just over a year ago, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the environmental atrocities that
followed shocked the world. During the conflict and as Iraqi forces withdrew, they deliberately
released millions of barrels of oil into the Gulf and systematically ignited or damaged over 700 oil
wells. Coastal areas were mined, power stations, desalination plants, and sewage treatment facilities
were rendered inoperable, and the detritus of war was littered over the Kuwaiti landscape. The
magnitude of environmental destruction has been tragic.
For a time, the consequences of this environmental catastrophe aroused fear worldwide that
the fire plumes from Kuwait's oil wells could affect global climate. Fortunately, preliminary analysis
by U.S. scientists and technical researchers from other countries have found that global climate effects
seem unlikely under current conditions.
The United Nations International Action Plan comprises the core of a worldwide response,
and the United States has played a pivotal role in developing and implementing major components of
this U.N. Plan. We can take pride in the U.S. contribution to the environmental response efforts,
where U.S. agencies, at the request of the Kuwaiti and Saudi governments, have joined forces to
provide technical and scientific support to the countries hi the region hi responding to the disaster.
The United States Interagency Assessment Team (USIAT) was on scene within days of the first oil
discharge. This team included representatives from the Coast Guard, the Environmental Protection
Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Army Corps of Engineers.
This Team operated hi the Gulf area as hostilities continued, focusing on environmental assessment,
mitigation, and related efforts to protect the desalination plants from oil contamination. Our
emergency response team coordinated the first air pollution sampling soon after Kuwait City was
liberated by coalition forces.
I visited the Gulf hi early June, at the direction of President Bush to assess the environmental
consequences of the war and witnessed first-hand the assistance efforts and monitoring work
underway by U.S. scientists and experts from other countries. It was evident that clean-up and
restoration of the Kuwaiti infrastructure would be a daunting task. Both the United States and
international organizations have made great progress in repairing damaged systems. The U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, for example, has done exceptional work hi restoring crucial services, including
power, water, and transportation. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has helped
restore meteorological monitoring capabilities. Efforts by U.S. and international crews to extinguish
the fires have been remarkable — as of October 1, over 500 wells have been controlled — and oil has
been recovered from the Gulf hi unprecedented amounts.
Although response efforts to date have been monumental, there are many problems still to
tackle. Studies of possible long range effects on human health, wildlife, and the environment must
get under way. The Gulf coastline needs attention, especially the marshes, migratory bird nesting
areas and marine species affected by the oil discharges. The environmental effects on the fragile
desert ecosystem from the oil fires and the oil lakes will have to be assessed and remedied where
possible. Solid and hazardous waste issues will be challenging the country's capabilities for years.
To augment efforts of the United Nations and governments of the Gulf region, the United States is
continuing to provide scientific expertise and technical assistance on these and other matters, as
additional requests for assistance are made and resources permit.
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In the aftermath of the environmental disaster we have witnessed in the Gulf region, it is
worthwhile to learn all that we can from this experience. There would be no greater sin than to fail
to understand the lessons this scourge can teach us - lessons in ecological vulnerability, in techniques
of recovery, in measuring health impacts, and in assessing human and environmental exposure. If we
do this, then at least we will be better prepared, at home and abroad, to address future environmental
emergencies. In their intentional origin and in their size, the oil fires and releases in the Gulf were
unique. But lesser chemical accidents and oil spills have a dreary, almost routine familiarity, making
U.S. experience a valued resource, not just here but throughout the world. Making that experience
available, as we have in the Gulf, is one of the most welcome and benign expressions of U.S. foreign
policy.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE i
LIST OF ACRONYMS ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv
CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS IN 1991 vi
1. BACKGROUND 1
INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK 1
United Nations Environment Programme 1
International Maritime Organization 2
World Meteorological Organization 2
World Health Organization 2
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO 3
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment 3
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ROLE 3
2. UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ACUVniES 4
OIL DISCHARGE RESPONSE 4
Introduction 4
U.S. Interagency Assessment Team Discharge Response 7
International Response and Coordination . . . . 8
Assessment of Discharge Impacts 9
Characterizing the Extent of the Discharges 9
Establishing Priorities 10
Discharge Response and Containment 11
Shoreline Removal Operations 11
Potential for Further Impacts 12
Environmental Remediation 12
Environmental Restoration 13
OIL FIRES RESPONSE 14
Introduction 14
U.S. Interagency Air Assessment Team Response 14
Emergency Response 14
Existing Monitoring Network Assessment 17
International Response and Coordination 17
Assessment of Air Quality Impacts 18
Characterizing the Aerial Plume 18
Ground-Based Sampling 18
Aircraft Air Sampling 18
University of Washington and NCAR Aircraft Mission . . 19
DOE/Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory Aircraft Mission 20
Helicopter Missions 20
Modeling 20
Near Field Models 21
Local Scale Models 21
Regional Large Scale Models 21
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Global Models 21
Data Coordination . 24
Health Assessment 24
Initial Health Advisory 24
Initial Health Sampling, Planning, and Monitoring 25
WHO/EPA Human Exposure Assessment Locations Study 26
Department of Defense Efforts 26
Hazardous and Solid Waste 27
Water 28
Environmental Remediation 28
Environmental Restoration 28
3. U.S. EXPENDITURES 29
EXPENDITURES BY U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 29
APPENDICES 33
APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX B:
APPENDIX C:
APPENDIX D:
APPENDIX E:
APPENDIX F:
APPENDIX G:
APPENDIX H:
APPENDIX I:
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
AGENCY ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
TABLE OF AGENCY ACTTvTnES IN THE GULF REGION
OIL DISCHARGE AND FIRES RESPONSE PERSONNEL FROM THE
UNITED STATES
PUBLIC LAW 102-27, SECTION 309
UN INTERAGENCY ACTION PLAN ON THE KUWAIT OIL FIRES
EMERGENCY HEALTH PLAN OF ACTION APRIL-JUNE 1991
REPORT OF THE WMO MEETING OF EXPERTS ON THE
ATMOSPHERIC PART OF THE JOINT UN RESPONSE TO THE
KUWAIT OILFIELD FIRES
KUWAIT OIL FIRES: INTERAGENCY INTERIM REPORT
U.S. PRELIMINARY HEALTH ADVISORY RELATED TO BURNING OIL
WELLS IN KUWAIT
STATUS REPORT OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH IN KUWAIT AS OF
MARCH 21, 1991
KUWAITI MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH PLAN FOR PROTECTION
FROM THE HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EXPOSURE TO THE
BURNING OIL WELLS
UNITED STATES AIR STANDARDS AND ALERT SYSTEM
U.S. EPA NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
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PREFACE
This report describes United States government participation in the international response to
the Gulf oil discharges and oil fires hi Kuwait from January 27 (the departure of the first U.S. team)
through July 31, 1991. Chapter 1 summarizes the international framework under which the U.S.
response effort has been conducted. This section includes information on the participation of
international organizations including the United Nations Environment Programme, the International
Maritime Organization, the World Meteorological Organization, the World Health Organization, and
the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment.
Chapter 2 focuses on United States government activities in response to the discharge of oil
into the Gulf and to the oil fires hi Kuwait. This chapter includes information on the initial response
by the U.S. Interagency Assessment Team and subsequent international coordination of assistance
efforts. It also covers assessment and remediation of the discharges and restoration efforts. The oil
fires portion of the chapter addresses emergency assistance by the U.S. Interagency Air Assessment
Team, and long-term air quality assessment, including studies designed to characterize the aerial
plume and update models for use in predicting possible health threats caused by changes hi air
quality. This chapter also focuses on U.S. efforts relating to health, hazardous and solid waste,
water, and environmental remediation and restoration issues.
The appendices provide additional documentation of topics addressed in the report. Appendix
A is a summary of the major preliminary findings of the U.S. governmental agencies that participated
in the response. Appendices B and C illustrate U.S. government agency roles and responsibilities.
Appendix D contains a roster of all U.S. government employees who went on official travel to the
Gulf region to participate hi oil discharges and oil fires response efforts. Appendix E contains section
309 of Public Law 102-27. The remaining appendices contain documents and studies providing
supplemental information to this report.
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11
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ARAC Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability
ARAMCO Arabian American Oil Company
CDC Centers for Disease Control
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DNA Defense Nuclear Agency
DOC Department of Commerce
DOD Department of Defense
DOE Department of Energy
DOI Department of the Interior
DOS Department of State
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FWS Fish and Wildlife Service
GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring System
GRAMP Gulf Regional Air Monitoring Program
HEAL Human Exposure Assessment Locations
HHS Department of Health and Human Services
HAT International Interagency Assessment Team
IMO International Maritime Organization (UN)
IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO)
KFUPM/RI King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals/Research Institute (Saudi Arabia)
KPC Kuwait Petroleum Company
KWP Kuwait Working Party
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
MEPA Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (Saudi Arabia)
MOPP Mission Oriented Protective Posture
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research
NCP National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan
NCWCD National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development
NICT National Incident Coordination Team (EPA)
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NRT National Response Team (U.S.)
NSF National Science Foundation
OPRC International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response, and Co-operation,
1990
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PM10 Paniculate matter less than 10 microns hi diameter
ROPME Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment
SLAR Side Looking Airborne Radar
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
UW University of Washington
USAGE United States Army Corps of Engineers
USAEHA United States Army Environmental Hygiene Agency
USCG United States Coast Guard
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Ill
USIAAT United States Interagency Air Assessment Team (oil fires)
USIAT United States Interagency Assessment Team (oil discharges)
VOC Volatile organic compound
WHO World Health Organization (UN)
WMO World Meteorological Organization (UN)
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IV
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
o This Report to Congress describes the United States government contribution to response
efforts to the environmental crises in the Gulf caused by the actions of the Iraqi forces. The
international community immediately responded to requests from Gulf nations for assistance with
these crises, and the United States has played a leading role hi these response plans due to its
scientific and technical expertise. As these international efforts continue, the United States will
provide assistance as additional requests are made and resources permit.
o This was unlike any environmental situation previously experienced. Models for a disaster of
this scale and complexity were not available to guide the international response to this situation. The
international environmental community and the U.S. government extrapolated from previous
experiences with environmental destruction to respond to these disasters in the Gulf.
o Disasters of this nature and magnitude require responses from the international community.
The United Nations responded rapidly to technical assistance requests from the Gulf region. The
United Nations Environment Programme worked with other international organizations to set up a
framework to coordinate the technical assistance response effort.
o The United Nations technical organizations developed action plans for atmospheric monitoring
and modeling, environmental remediation and restoration, oil discharge response, health effects,
guidance, and training. Technical organizations include the World Meteorological Organization, the
World Health Organization, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the International
Maritime Organization, and the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment
have developed plans to address components in the overall international framework.
o The U.S. government has actively participated hi the development and implementation of
distinct components of the international action plans. The Department of State has assisted
Departments and Agencies with international logistical support and coordination among the regional
governments. The U.S. National Response Team (a permanent organization with representatives from
IS U.S. Departments and Agencies) provided technical assistance, guidance, and training to the Saudi
Arabian government to respond to the oil discharges. The Department of Transportation supplied
U.S. Coast Guard personnel and equipment to the Gulf nations following the oil discharges and
received assistance from the Department of the Interior, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and the Environmental Protection Agency. The Department of Defense is conducting
health monitoring studies regarding exposure to the pollutants and the effect on U.S. troops deployed
to the Gulf region and providing logistical support in the theater for domestic agencies. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration hi the Department of Commerce, the Department of
Defense, the Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, and the Environmental
Protection Agency have been involved hi characterizing the smoke plumes and analyzing the effects
from the oil fires. The Department of Health and Human Services has been working with the Kuwaiti
Ministry of Public Health to determine the acute health risks from the exposure to the air pollution
produced by the oil well fires. Extinguishing and controlling the fires and gushers has been the
responsibility of the Kuwaiti government and private companies.
o Several U.S. scientific missions went to the Gulf from May through July to gather data from
the smoke plume so that the impact of the smoke on human health and the environment could be
estimated. Data from these ah* and ground monitoring missions are still being analyzed.
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o Preliminary data from the various missions have shown generally consistent findings, but
further work, including peer review, needs to be completed. Also, preliminary findings are subject to
change as further analyses are conducted. The data clearly do rule out the "nuclear winter" scenario,
however, and indicate that the most environmental damage will likely be confined to the Gulf region.
Further, carbon dioxide emissions from the oil fires are not likely to have an important impact on
global climate. The medium and long-term effects of the fires and oil discharges on human health
and the environment are under review and study; to date, monitoring of hospital records, including
emergency room surveillance, has not indicated an acute health impact.
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VI
CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS IN 1991
RELATING TO THE GULF OIL DISCHARGE AND KUWAIT OIL WELL FIRES
DATE
January 19-30
January 24
January 27-28
January 29
February 5-6
February 6
February 15-17
February 16
February 16-20
February 20
February 26 - 27
February 28
Late February
March
March 10
March 11 - May
March 14-18
March 15
March 21
EVENT
Iraqi forces initiated several oil discharges into the Gulf from Kuwait and Iraq.
The Saudi Arabian government formally requested assistance from the U.S. government through the U.S.
Ambassador to Saudi Arabia.
Action took place to establish and dispatch an appropriate assistance team.
The U.S. Government Interagency Assessment Team (USIAT), led by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG),
traveled to Saudi Arabia to provide technical assistance for the oil discharge response.
The Saudi Arabian Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA) established an
Eastern Province regional office in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia to coordinate response efforts.
A United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) meeting was held in Geneva, Switzerland to develop an
interagency action plan.
The Saudi Arabian government requested USCG to provide an HU-25 Falcon aircraft with AIREYE oil
surveillance capability to assist in the oil discharge response. Air crews began receiving training and
preparing equipment for operations within Saudi Arabia.
The Iraqi Army systematically ignited oil wells in Kuwait.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Emergency Operations Center (EOC) staff and EPA's
National Incident Coordination Team (NICT) began to coordinate U.S. interagency response activities to the
oil well fires.
Members of Congress visited the Gulf region to inspect damage resulting from oil discharges.
The first HU-25 AIREYE overflight was conducted.
The Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) sponsored a meeting, in
Bahrain, to review information on marine and air pollution and to coordinate response efforts.
Kuwait City liberated; cessation of hostilities in the region.
Oil was reported leaking from facilities at Al Bakr and Sea Island Terminal (Mina Al Ahmadi) at an
estimated rate of 1,500 to 6,000 barrels per day.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began efforts to assist in reconstruction of power, water, and
transportation systems in Kuwait.
The Gulf Pollution Disaster Fund was established under the auspices of the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) for restoration projects.
The U.S. Interagency Air Assessment Team (USIAAT) was deployed to Gulf to provide technical assistance
in response to the oil fires.
The USIAAT conducted air sampling, health surveys, and aerial reconnaissance surveys of the fire plumes.
A U.S. Senate delegation traveled to the Gulf region to observe environmental damage.
UNEP Governing Council adopted an international plan of action in response to environmental effects of the
oil discharges and fires.
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) issued a Preliminary Health Advisory related to
burning oil wells in Kuwait.
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Vll
DATE
March 27
March - present
April
April 3
AprilS
April 10
April 22
Late April
April 26
April 27
April 27-30
May 1
May 6
May 14-16
May 16-June 12
May 23
May
May 31
May 31-June 5
June
June 20
July
EVENT
Two of three continuous monitoring stations in Kuwait City were reactivated and began collecting air quality
data from the oil fire plumes.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began on-site presence in the Gulf region to
provide logistical and scientific support to air sampling missions.
The Shoreline Cleanup Committee convened and issued a preliminary report.
EPA released the preliminary Interagencv Interim Report on the Kuwait Oil Well Fires.
DOE sponsored a workshop for federal research laboratories to identify new and innovative technologies and
equipment to control oil well fires.
The President signed the Dire Emergency Supplemental Appropriations for the Consequences of Operations
Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Food Stamps, Unemployment Compensation Administration, Veterans
Compensation and Pensions, and Other Urgent Needs Act of 1991.
The Army chaired a Tri-Service work group to evaluate health effects of oil smoke on Department of
Defense (DOD) personnel.
Leaking oil terminals at Al Bakr and Mina Al Ahmadi no longer are considered a threat to the environment.
U.N. Interagency Office was established in Kuwait.
The USIAT performed its final AIREYE overflight of the oil discharges.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) held an international conference in Geneva, Switzerland to
address atmospheric issues related to the oil fires and develop an air monitoring and modeling program.
DOD's U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency (USAEHA) sent a team to collect samples and to
monitor health effects. Samples were sent to laboratories at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, MD.
The World Health Organization (WHO) and WMO agreed to collaborate on air monitoring investigation.
EPA released the complete Interagency Interim Report on the Kuwait Oil Well Fires including compiled
data, preliminary analyses, and proposed future programs.
DOC's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) sent a team to perform ground-based source
term (oil well fire) characterization measurements.
The National Science Foundation (NSF)-led research aircraft from the National Center for Atmospheric
Research (NCAR) and the University of Washington (UW) conducted air sampling and plume monitoring.
WMO Deputy Secretary General briefed Gulf countries on WMO plans.
UNEP and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission signed an MOU to take the lead on assessment
and analysis of extent of damage from oil discharges.
The Kuwait Working Party released "The U.S. Public Health Service Scope of Action Document."
EPA Administrator Reilly visited the Gulf region on a mission to observe the environmental damage and
inspect cleanup efforts.
Elements of the llth Armored Cavalry Regiment received baseline medical surveillance screening prior to
their tour in Kuwait.
An Intelligence Community Staff report was released.
The Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored aircraft air monitoring program began their characterization of
the plume to measure pollutant transformation/removal rates.
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vni
DATE EVENT
July 31 EPA and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center began DOE
funded experiments using helicopter based sampling to characterize the emissions from the oil well fires at
and near the sources.
USIAT returned to the United States.
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1. BACKGROUND
In the aftermath of the Iraqi invasion of August 1990, Kuwait and its neighboring states have faced a
major environmental disaster as a result of hundreds of oil fires and several massive oil discharges into the
Gulf. Iraq began releasing oil into the Gulf in January 1991; in February, the retreating Iraqi army ignited or
damaged over 700 oil wells after systematically placing explosives around each one.
As Kuwait was being liberated, the scale of the environmental damage became clearer. Kuwait had to
extinguish the fires, and Saudi Arabia and other potentially affected countries had to mitigate the effects of the
oil discharges on their territories and in the waters of the Gulf. In addition, assessments had to be made of the
potential acute and chronic effects on human health and the environment. These assessments were made more
difficult because most Kuwaiti scientific centers had been destroyed, facilities were stripped of equipment, and
health institutions were crippled, leaving the country without adequate means to measure, sample, or monitor
human and environmental effects, and project future problems.
At the requests of the governments in the region, the international community responded quickly to
provide assistance. The United Nations (UN) took the lead in establishing a framework for coordinating
international efforts and a system for responding to requests for technical assistance, assessments, and health
and environmental monitoring in the Gulf region.
INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) General Council, which was meeting at the time
of the Iraqi invasion in August 1990, expressed its concern about the environmental damage that could result
from the onset of hostilities. On January 26, 1991, the UNEP Director General called a meeting under UNEP
sponsorship to bring together various UN agencies, with their diverse capabilities, so that the UN system could
respond to requests for environmental assistance from member governments. The meeting took place in
Geneva, Switzerland, on February 5-6, 1991. Some UN organizations had already begun working with member
states affected by the conflict. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), in particular, had already taken
the lead in coordinating the international response to the oil discharges, and laid the foundation for the broader
issues covered by UNEP.
United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP took the initiative to begin coordinating international activities in response to health,
atmospheric, and environmental impacts of the oil discharges and oil fires. These activities included efforts
conducted by member governments under the auspices of various UN agencies, such as IMO and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), as well as the activities of the UN agencies themselves. In order to carry
out this function, UNEP maintained an office in Kuwait for several months at the headquarters of the Regional
Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), an organization created under the UNEP
Regional Seas Program to protect the Gulf environment. ROPME is beginning to take over the coordinating
role for the international responses.
The February 5-6, 1991 UNEP meeting helped serve as a catalyst for the development of action plans
to monitor the air quality in the areas affected by the smoke plumes from the oil fires. A subsequent meeting
was held in March 1991, where a UN Interagency Action Plan was developed. WMO called a meeting in
Geneva, April 27-30, 1991, where a comprehensive action plan was developed. The "Report of the WMO
Meeting of Experts on the Atmospheric Part of the Joint U.N. Response to the Kuwait Oil Fires," which
addressed atmospheric and meteorological concerns, also contained an overall work plan for assessing and
monitoring the air quality in the Gulf region.
The WMO air monitoring work plan recognized the need to obtain data at different times and locations
in order to predict the long and short-term effects of the smoke on human health and the environment. This
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priority scheme became the "WMO Plan," which is the framework under which the international community,
including the United States, is currently responding to regional requests for assistance.
The air monitoring effort was linked with the need to determine the impact of the smoke pollution on
the health of the population. The World Health Organization (WHO) took part in the April meeting and was
active in the development of the international air monitoring project which, in conjunction with WMO, outlines
the basic response to the environmental and health situation created in the Gulf region.
In addition to IMO, WMO, and WHO, several other international organizations have been actively
involved in responding to requests for assistance from the Gulf governments. The Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) made an important contribution to the oil discharge response, as did
ROPME. IOC is preparing a long-term study on the effect of the discharges on coastal areas. ROPME has
developed a plan outlining activities concerning the assessment and rehabilitation of the region's marine
environment.
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Together with the Saudi Arabian government and other Gulf state governments, the IMO played a key
role in organizing international assistance and laid the foundation for the broader issues covered by UNEP. The
basis for the IMO action was the recently negotiated International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness,
Response and Co-operation (OPRC), 1990. Responding to the oil discharges in the Gulf was the first major test
of the OPRC Convention. Almost immediately after the report of the oil discharges in the Gulf, the IMO began
marshalling resources and coordinating emergency response in accordance with the Convention. IMO
coordinators were situated in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, and they served as technical experts and advisors to the
Gulf states. These IMO representatives were instrumental in briefing the representatives of other international
organizations and in expediting the rapid assimilation of the UNEP and other international organizations into the
environmental response.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
The WMO has remained a focal point for the air monitoring effort since the Geneva meeting in April
1991, and the development of the WMO plan. The WMO plan addresses two issues: 1) air sampling and
monitoring of the plume at various altitudes, and 2) data analysis, coordination, and modeling for local,
regional, and global predictions.
The U.S. contribution to the monitoring effort, which has consisted of fixed wing aircraft, helicopter,
and ground-based air monitoring and model forecasts of plume transport and dispersion for flight planning and
mission support. This has all taken place within the context of the WMO plan.
World Health Organization (WHO)
In addition to its work with WMO, WHO has developed an international air monitoring effort. The
WMO/WHO plans outline the basic framework for response to environmental and health effects in the Gulf
region. WHO has also developed a World Health Response report in conjunction with the Ministry of Public
Health in Kuwait. This report addresses the status of health care in Kuwait and includes a plan of action for
Kuwait. The plan outlines several major objectives, including the restoration and restructuring of the Kuwaiti
health care system, surveying and monitoring for health effects from current environmental problems, and
restoration of systems to prevent community health impacts. It also addressed the need for equipment and
supplies, disease prevention and control, drugs, diagnostic facilities and blood banks, community education, and
a management and coordination system. All of these systems in Kuwait had been damaged or destroyed as a
result of the Iraqi invasion.
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Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (IOC)
At its Assembly meeting in March 1991, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of
UNESCO (IOC) adopted a resolution calling for a number of measures to assist the Gulf region. These include
establishment of a special research and monitoring program, establishment of a working group, and assistance to
the region to re-establish the Oceanographic infrastructure damaged by the war. The April UN Interagency
Action Plan called for the IOC to address matters relating to the coastal and marine environment. In May 1991,
the IOC signed a memorandum of understanding with UNEP to provide an assessment and analysis of the extent
of damage to coastal and marine ecosystems, analyze the impact of the oil discharges on living marine
organisms, and analyze the types and concentrations of various pollutants exchanged between the atmosphere
and ocean in the region. Short and long-term strategies have been developed. Implementation of these
strategies are underway in coordination with other UN and international organizations.
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME)
ROPME has coordinated various international activities concerning the oil discharges into the Gulf. In
February 1991, a meeting was held in Bahrain to develop an international plan to coordinate efforts of the Gulf
States in the region, as well as regional and international environmental agencies in the assessment of the
marine, atmospheric, and terrestrial environmental damage. The objective of this meeting was to develop
remedial measures for the restoration of the environment. ROPME continues its role in international activities
in response to the oil discharges, coordinating with UN agencies.
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ROLE
The United States has participated in and continues to contribute to fulfill aspects of the UN
Interagency Action Plan where its expertise and specialized experience can be most beneficial to the region.
The U.S. has been actively involved in all stages of the UN Plan, responding to scientific and special response
requests, and participating from the start in the development of international plans and activities. The U.S. has
equipment and scientific experts, and has made available special response, technical assistance, and scientific
teams to assist regional governments and scientists in the response, assessment, and monitoring of environmental
effects and impacts facing the region from the oil discharges and oil fires. In consultation with U.S.
Ambassadors in the region, U.S. agencies are cooperating to fulfill specific aspects of the international plan as
expertise and resources allow. Efforts are being coordinated through the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), the Department of State (DOS), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and
interagency work groups.
U.S. response efforts have focused on the most serious and immediate needs - providing assistance
concerning the oil discharges and responding to the problems associated with the oil fires. The U.S. has also
provided Saudi Arabia with supplementary monitoring equipment, and Kuwait with monitoring equipment to
replace equipment destroyed or removed; obtained air monitoring data at different altitudes through ground
measurements, fixed wing aircraft, and helicopter flights; and assessed various aspects of the health and
environmental situation in the region.
With regard to activities of the intelligence community, the Intelligence Community Staff prepared and
submitted a report to Congress, dated June 20, 1991, that addresses the activities and concerns of the U.S.
intelligence community. The report conveys findings of the Intelligence Community Task Force established
expressly to evaluate the capabilities of National Foreign Intelligence Program assets to contribute to U.S.
government activities addressing the nature, impact, and extent of environmental damages resulting from oil
fires and discharges in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
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2. UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES
This chapter focuses on United States government activities in response to the oil discharges and oil
fires in the Gulf region. The first section of the chapter describes the U.S. technical assistance provided by the
U.S. Intel-agency Assessment Team (USIAT), an oil discharge response group sent to the Gulf region in January
1991. In the region, the USIAT assisted in the establishment of a system to characterize the extent of the
discharges, and helped set priorities for response, containment, and remediation. This portion of the chapter
also focuses on the international response to the oil discharges.
The second section of the chapter addresses the response to the oil fires in Kuwait. The U.S.
Interagency Air Assessment Team (USIAAT) traveled to the region in March 1991, to provide technical
assistance and assess potential health and environmental effects of the fires. The USIAAT examined existing
monitoring networks and continued providing in-country assistance while international organizations were
creating a comprehensive monitoring and modeling program. Since emissions from the oil fires have had the
potential of causing acute health effects, much of the monitoring and modeling was designed to obtain
indications quickly about these potential acute impacts. This section of the chapter also addresses U.S.
assistance regarding hazardous and solid waste and water systems in Kuwait.
OIL DISCHARGE RESPONSE
Introduction
In late January 1991, the Iraqi government ordered a series of oil discharges from facilities and vessels
in both Kuwait and Iraq. These actions took place as part of the Gulf War and were probably done to slow or
prohibit an amphibious landing of coalition forces in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Between January 19 and 30, the
following events occurred during hostilities:
• Crude oil cargos of tankers anchored off Mina Al Ahmadi in Kuwait were pumped into the
Gulf;
• Crude oil began to be pumped into the Gulf through the Single Point Mooring Buoy and Sea
Island Terminal at Mina Al Ahmadi;
• Coalition aircraft released smart bombs that stopped much of the oil flow from the faculties at
Mina Al Ahmadi;
• Crude oil was discharged from a tanker near the Mina Al Bakr export terminal in Iraq;
• Crude oil was discharged from the Mina Al Bakr terminal in Iraq;
The refinery at Mina Abd Allah was damaged resulting in a discharge of refined product; and
• Crude oil cargos were pumped off tankers anchored in the channel northeast of Bubiyan Island
into the Gulf.
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As Silimiyah
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Estimates of the entire amount of oil discharged range between six and eight million barrels, or up to
30 times the size of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska (which was approximately
250,000 barrels or 11 million gallons). The main oil slick was probably between 0.5 to 3 million barrels. Most
probably, the emulsification process and the deposition of sand increased the bulk of the oil and that which was
not recovered eventually sank. The damage assessment task is an ongoing process, and it will take months or
years before the effects of the discharges are fully determined.
The bulk of the oil discharged from the multiple sources between January 19 and 30 merged, and
together with additional refined oil discharged from a small refinery attacked during the Battle of Khafji in
Saudi Arabia, formed a massive slick that slowly worked its way down the coast of Saudi Arabia, nearly coating
the coast from Khafji to Abu All Island. It is likely that some of the oil discharged from the Iraqi locations
took a different trajectory and went undetected until late February 1991, due to lack of access to the northern
Gulf because of the war; this oil dispersed into the Gulf, and no known impacts were reported except on
offshore islands. When access to the northern Gulf became available at the end of the war, and military
operations permitted, it was possible to investigate the magnitude of the remaining free floating oil there.
U.S. Interagency Assessment Team Discharge Response
On January 24, 1991, the Saudi Arabian government formally requested technical assistance from the
U.S. ambassador to Saudi Arabia. The request for U.S. assistance was due to the U.S. expertise in handling a
massive spill such as the Valdez spill and was an action consistent with the recently signed International
Maritime Organization (IMO) convention entitled the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness,
Response, and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC). The Department of State referred the Saudi request to the National
Response Team (NRT). In the United States, the NRT has the responsibility for developing and implementing
the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP). EPA and the United States
Coast Guard (USCG) (Chair and Vice-Chair, respectively, of the NRT) quickly identified NRT member
agencies critical to the response. The NRT agencies worked actively to assemble an assessment team capable of
managing the environmental response issues that might have to be addressed. The selected members of the
initial assessment team were located all across the country. The level of activity required to select
representatives to proceed into a combat zone for environmental concerns was monumental, yet a team was
quickly assembled, briefed, and departed via USCG aircraft for the Gulf area. Underlying rapid departure of
the USIAT were the logistical and administrative aspects associated with travel to the Gulf. This was further
complicated by the bulk of these activities taking place over a weekend when support services were not readily
available. On January 27, three days after receiving the request, the USIAT departed for Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,
and arrived in Saudi Arabia on January 28.
During this period, the oil slick continued to move southward. In addition to the Saudi government,
the governments of Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates also issued formal requests for the USIAT to
visit their countries and assist in the preparation of response strategies.
The initial USIAT was led by the USCG and consisted of representatives from EPA, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE). It was
later augmented to include a non-governmental response expert (the president of the Spill Contractors'
Association of America), a representative from the Department of Energy (DOE), a representative from the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the Department of the Interior (DOI), and an additional USCG liaison officer
to the lower Gulf States. While deployed, the USIAT was supported by its parent agencies and the NRT.
Various components of the USIAT, as necessary, maintained a presence in the Gulf region until the end of July
1991.
The NRT determined that the USIAT's mission should not be to clean up the discharges, but to assess
the magnitude and impact of the discharges on Saudi Arabia, to advise Saudi government representatives, to
recommend appropriate response strategies and techniques, and to train local responders. As regional
governments and other organizations implemented recommended cleanup programs, the USIAT's role became
one of discharge monitoring and evaluation; participating on the International Interagency Assessment Team;
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8
and later, documenting IMO sponsored projects in the field. Various USIAT members also served on the Saudi
Arabian Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA) Planning Committee and the King
Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals/Research Institute (KFUPM/RI) Science Committee to assist MEPA
with shoreline assessments, determine cleanup priorities, establish wildlife rescue and rehabilitation centers,
ensure the implementation of proper cleanup techniques, and develop practical shoreline rehabilitation programs
to put into place after the spill had dispersed. The USIAT also tracked and evaluated (e.g., discharge size, type
and thickness of oil) offshore free-floating oil in the Gulf and leaking oil in Kuwait.
Responding to an oil discharge in a war zone posed many logistical problems. The level of pressure
involved in working in a war zone was stressful, intense, and hampered response activities. For example,
personnel were required to carry gas masks at all times and full Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP)
gear when making field trips. This equipment was necessary to protect oil spill response personnel from the
constant threat of SCUD attacks, and the possibility of nerve or biological agents being carried in the warheads.
Open water skimming operations were extremely hazardous. Many of the impacted waters were laden with
mines, both submerged and floating on the surface. These pressures, and the inability to secure the source of
the oil discharges, further complicated the response effort.
The environmental response activities associated with the Gulf discharges were truly unique. At no
point in history has there ever been a mobilization of oil spill response forces within a war zone. Further
evidence of this hostile environment was the issue of travel restrictions throughout Saudi Arabia. Access to
waterfront facilities was difficult. Security check points and the requirement of specific identification
encumbered travel to incident sites. Communications were equally difficult since much of the data normally
readily available during an oil discharge, such as weather information, discharge trajectories, and aircraft arrival
times, were classified information during the continuation of Operation Desert Storm. Access to necessary data
was difficult since the military operations personnel were not used to dealing with a massive oil discharge
during wartime operations.
International Response and Coordination
As the magnitude of the discharges became more apparent, many countries began sending experts to
help Saudi Arabia cope with it. Experts quickly arrived from France, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and the
United Kingdom. The experts were integrated into both the USIAT and Saudi Arabian response organization as
advisors. Collectively the advisors became known as the International Interagency Assessment Team (HAT).
Due to the early arrival, operational experience, and organizational skills of the USIAT, the USIAT Team
Leader continued to serve as principal advisor to the MEPA Vice-President/On-Scene Coordinator, and
leadership of the HAT, consistent with the OPRC, was passed to the IMO representative.
USIAT members established a computer data base to catalog and quickly evaluate the offers of
commercial cleanup contractors and private vendors from around the world. More than 500 offers were
processed by the end of February 1991. Several proposals suggested new technologies such as in-situ burning
and bioremediation. These technologies were referred to the Scientific Committee at KFUPM/RI for evaluation
and recommendations for potential use. A key output of the Scientific Committee was development of a
protocol for testing various cleanup techniques.
The USCG Marine Environmental Protection Division acted as the initial clearinghouse for national and
international offers of assistance. The coordination of this effort was eventually passed to IMO representatives
in London for coordination with IMO representatives in the Gulf area. In addition, the USIAT became the
HAT, with USCG as the lead for the U.S. personnel. As offers of help began to arrive from governments
around the world, IMO established a Coordination Center in London to screen and categorize offers received.
During the first few days of the emergency, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the
United States, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics all offered assistance.
As MEPA began its response, resources from both international governmental and private organizations
began to arrive. The first of several planeloads of oil collection booms from Japan arrived on February 6,
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1991. Norway sent offshore boom, skimmers, and equipment operators. The Dutch donated some equipment
and sent several other planeloads of shoreline cleanup equipment.
In March 1991, the Gulf Pollution Disaster Fund was established and IMO received donations of $4.5
million from governments worldwide. Additionally, Luxembourg donated $500,000 in equipment. IMO's use
of these funds was for the protection and cleanup of environmentally sensitive areas. Some IMO sponsored
projects include cleanups at Karan Island (one of the main Green Turtle egg laying locations in the Gulf),
Safaniya Bay, Gurmah Island, Kuwaiti oil sources at Al Ahmadi Refinery, Mushararrabah Salt Marsh, and
Musallamiyah Bay.
Assessment of Discharge Impacts
Following the 1983-84 Nowruz spill in the Gulf of approximately 1.5 million barrels of oil, Saudi
Arabia developed a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan in which Saudi ARAMCO, the oil company owned by
the Saudi government, had the responsibility for oil spill response. In the interim and prior to the war, a new
Saudi Arabian Oil Contingency Plan had been developed. In this new plan, the authority for oil spill response
was transferred to MEPA. The responsibilities for oil spill response were delegated to the President of MEPA,
and the Vice President of MEPA was designated as the National Oil Spill Coordinator. This new plan went into
effect shortly before the Gulf invasion began. This left MEPA with little time to develop the spill response
expertise needed to manage one of the world's most catastrophic oil discharges. The vice-president and staff of
MEPA, Saudi ARAMCO officials, and representatives of the key industrial facilities had met throughout
January to discuss roles and assess the discharge response actions. Saudi ARAMCO and the Royal Commission
for Jubayl and Yanbu had response actions underway at their own facilities.
Characterizing the Extent of the Discharges
When the USIAT members arrived in Saudi Arabia on January 28, 1991, the leading edge of the
discharge was south of Ras Al Khafji, the scene of the first ground action of Operation Desert Storm. They
relied on Department of Defense (DOD) satellite imagery to provide initial indications of the overall extent of
the slick.
The USIAT advised the Saudis of the need for accurate daily overflight data and constant tracking of
the position of the oil slick. They recognized that they would not have access to the entire spill due to military
operations and airspace restrictions in the northern Gulf region. On January 30, using U.S. Navy aircraft, U.S.
and Saudi observers implemented daily overflights. The initial extent of observation for the overflights was
limited to areas south of Ras al Mishab and covered only the slick's leading edge. Eventually, Saudi observers
became fully trained and Saudi aircraft and personnel performed most of the coastal flights. Saudi Civil
Defense helicopters were used frequently to conduct daily overflights of the Saudi coastline. These overflights
provided the best means of tracking free floating oil and the daily observations from this flight helped to
confirm on-shore sightings.
It was evident from the outset that detailed mapping of the discharges and affected areas within the Gulf
was necessary to mount an effective response. Visual overflight and satellite data were unable to provide the
needed coverage, due to cloud cover, airspace restrictions, and other military and weather hindrances. On
February 6, 1991, the Saudi government requested the USCG to provide its HU-25 Falcon AIREYE oil
surveillance capability. AIREYE is an aerial surveillance information gathering and recording system installed
in certain USCG aircraft. AIREYE is composed of side looking airborne radar (SLAR) and infrared and
ultraviolet scanners. The SLAR provides film recordings of the exact position and nature of the discharges.
The U.S. provided two HU-25 Guardian Aircraft equipped with AIREYE oil surveillance systems and a USCG
Aviation Detachment (CG AVDET) to support the two HU-25's. The aircraft and support crews operated out
of Manama Airport in Bahrain.
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The first AIREYE overflight was conducted on February 20, 1991. By February 27, 1991, two daily
overflights were being conducted with different grid patterns flown on each flight both to confirm and provide
redundant data. At this point the coalition forces had achieved air superiority and there was safer access to
airspace for these overflights. There was still a significant concern over aircraft safety from missiles and other
hostile fire. Additionally, a Navy C-12 was used weekly to supplement and verify the SLAR flights'
information. This was a vital asset to improve the usefulness of the Kuwaiti and Saudi coastlines visual
surveillance. Navy SH-3s also flew two sorties for the USIAT and provided the best visual observations of the
spill sources in Kuwait. NOAA interpreted oil observation data from human and remote sensing platforms.
These data were incorporated into a NOAA computer model that was used to validate and predict future
movements of the slick. The combination of SLAR images and computer modeling became the basis for
managing die spill response. When the war ended, reliable information for the entire Gulf area became
available, and the MEPA On-Scene Coordinator was able to manage the response more accurately. AIREYE
operations were ceased on April 27, 1991, after most of the free-floating oil had washed up on the shorelines
along the Gulf.
Throughout March and April 1991, several facilities in Kuwait continued to leak oil, including the
offshore terminal at Mina Al Bakr in the northern Gulf, and another at the Sea Island Terminal in the vicinity of
Mina Al Ahmadi. Leakage from these terminals was estimated at between ten and several hundred barrels per
day. The more significant problem was the continued leakage from the Mina Al Ahmadi refinery complex.
The flow from the facility varied greatly from day to day. On one overflight a Saudi ARAMCO official
estimated that between 1,500 and 6,000 barrels were being discharged per day.
Establishing Priorities
Other initial undertakings of the USIAT were to assist Saudi Arabia in the development and
implementation of an organizational structure capable of addressing all aspects of the massive discharges, and to
establish an operations center from which to direct the response. Due to the wartime situation, USIAT
members planned around a worst-case spill scenario in which there would be a response effort consistent with
the battlefield conditions. This process had to include the immediate development and implementation of a
complete response infrastructure. After an initial assessment it became apparent that while Saudi Arabia was
well prepared to deal with routine facility discharges, the magnitude of the current discharges completely
overwhelmed its response capabilities. The MEPA Vice-President/On-Scene Coordinator immediately requested
further planning assistance from the USIAT, and was ready to implement all recommendations consistent with
available resources. Drawing on experience gained from the Exxon Valdez response, including the USCG
Catastrophic Spill Plan and the response organization for catastrophic discharges developed by the USCG's
Marine Environmental Protection Division, the USIAT assisted in developing an organizational structure.
MEPA adopted the basics of the recommended structure in early February 1991.
The first implementation step was the development of an overall national response strategy. Due to the
requirements of supporting the war effort, Saudi Arabia needed to establish the following response priorities:
• Protect high-priority industrial facilities and oil refineries (absolutely necessary to support the
needs of the coalition forces);
• Protect environmentally sensitive areas;
• Recover oil in strategic offshore locations to minimize shoreline impact; and
Remove oil from shoreline areas to prevent it from continuing its movement down the coast.
Due to the magnitude of the spill and the lack of funding and equipment, a priority ranking system was
developed for facilities and environmentally sensitive areas. The MEPA On-Scene Coordinator established a
national list, and the limited available equipment was moved to high priority sites to protect them from the
advancing oil discharges. The top priority was strategic booming and cleanup of shoreline areas to protect key
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facilities. According to the Saudi Arabian Oil Contingency Plan, industrial facilities were responsible for the
protection of their own facilities.
The desalination plant at Jubayl was the primary facility to protect in Saudi Arabia. This plant is the
largest in the world, producing more than 200 million gallons of water daily, and provides the Saudi capital of
Riyadh with 80 percent of its water. The USIAT assisted in developing a protection plan for the facility,
including diversionary booming around the mouth of the inlet areas, containment booming, and oil recovery
skimmers at several locations within the basin. The desalination plant operators lacked adequate equipment to
protect it and requested that MEPA provide additional equipment. As donated foreign equipment became
available, it was shipped to the desalination plant until the equipment demands were met; additional equipment
was shipped to the next priority site.
Discharge Response and Containment
The fundamental goal of all initial operations was the recovery of free floating oil. According to Saudi
ARAMCO, Martech (a U.S. contractor from Alaska) was collecting 25,000 barrels per day of free floating oil
from Manifah Bay until mid-April 1991. Lesser amounts were collected after mid-April because much had been
cleaned up already, and the oil was becoming increasingly viscous. Throughout the response, the majority of
Saudi ARAMCO's equipment was deployed to protect desalination plants, power plants, and oil facilities as the
Saudi contingency plan required. The migration of the oil resulted in only one threatened industrial facility in
northern Saudi Arabia, since the majority of their facilities are located well below Abu All Island, the southern
extent of the oil impact. The shape of the island, prevailing on-shore winds, and an adjacent reef prevented any
large amounts of oil from passing Abu Ali Island and moving far enough south to impact these facilities.
The primary shoreline remedial response took advantage of natural collection areas. The natural
collection points were determined by winds and currents that forced the oil into large pools for collection.
These collection points were enhanced through the construction of benns and jetties. Trenches were also dug
into the shoreline to collect oil in the incoming tide. The combination of enhanced natural collection points and
the collecting trenches optimized the shoreline cleanup effort. Pumps of every description were then used to
recover the collected or pooled oil. Due to the massive amount of oil that collected along the shoreline areas,
the limited equipment available had little effect. By the time the USCG departed Saudi Arabia at the end of
July, reports indicated that about 1.4 million barrels (approximately 58.8 million gallons, in comparison to the
entire Exxon Valdez spill of 11 million gallons) of oil had been recovered from the water and pumped into pits
onshore for natural separation and further recovery.
Three skimming vessels under contract to Saudi ARAMCO were deployed in the offshore skimming
operations in an attempt to remove as much oil as possible prior to its washing up on a shoreline. The largest
skimming vessel, the Norwegian Al Wassit, recovered more than 100,000 barrels of an oil/water mixture during
its first 30 days of operation. (The vessel's captain reported encountering oil slicks as thick as six inches that
emitted strong vapors for up to three weeks after the discharge.) Two smaller skimming vessels were also
effectively deployed offshore. Skimming operations were very slow due to the constant threat of striking a
mine.
Shoreline Removal Operations
During March and April 1991, the Royal Commission for Jubayl and Yanbu, using American and
Dutch contractors, made progress removing free floating oil in the Abu Ali area. Saudi ARAMCO had already
taken protective measures around all critical water intakes to coastal oil-producing, hydroelectric, and
desalination facilities, especially around the desalination plant in Jubayl. Saudi ARAMCO also had a small
cleanup operation in progress in Manifah Bay using an American subcontractor.
Once the top priority sites were protected from advancing oil, MEPA provided assistance to several
secondary facilities that were in the direct path of the migrating oil and closer to the discharges. For example, a
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dike was constructed across the mouth of an inlet pond that provided salt water for a Saudi communications
station desalination plant in the Ras az Zawr area.
The bulk of the discharge was located along the shoreline between Safaniya and Abu All Island.
Tarballs were found along the beaches. Where impact was heaviest, the oil mixing with the sand formed
asphalt (about a foot thick in some places). Three of the most heavily affected areas in the Gulf region were Al
Musallamiyah Bay, Dawhat Manifa, and Dawhat Ad Dafi. These areas include salt marshes, mangrove
swamps, and inter-tidal creeks and streams. MEPA, Saudi ARAMCO, and the Royal Commission all share
responsibility for the cleanup of these areas.
In late-March 1991, MEPA signed contracts with both Crowley Maritime Corporation and Bechtel to
begin the necessary cleanup operations. After signing the contracts, the MEPA Vice-President called for the
reactivation of the Planning Committee, a small, high-level advisory group that would determine future
discharge response strategies. The committee developed an organization to incorporate the roles of the HAT,
IMO, Bechtel, and Crowley. The Planning Committee, which included representatives from the USIAT, IMO,
and countries such as the Australia, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, also developed
a process to conduct shoreline assessments and develop a priority list for cleanup.
Potential for Further Impacts
Oil that had been collecting in land pools as a result of the damaged Ahmadi, Magwa, and Burgan oil
fields in Kuwait was identified as a major potential threat to the Gulf waters. Many of these wells and pools
were less than four miles from the coast. Saudi scientists at KFUPM/RI estimated that oil was accumulating at
the rate of 100,000 barrels per day for every million barrels per day of oil lost from the damaged oil fields.
By the end of April 1991, these sources were no longer considered to be a threat. This conclusion was
based on observations made by USCG personnel during a Navy SH-3 helicopter overflight and NOAA
representatives who visited these facilities from land. By that point, virtually no significant amounts of free-
floating oil remained in the Gulf and that there were no more substantial threats to the coastline of Saudi
Arabia. At that juncture, HAT and MEPA shifted their focus from emergency response to shoreline
remediation.
Environmental Remediation
The Saudi coastline has several wetlands, saltmarshes, mudflats, and mangrove swamps in the intertidal
zones which provide habitats and nesting areas to many migratory and native birds, including the flamingo and
the endangered Socotra Cormorant. The Gulf is the only area in the world where this cormorant lives. Some
areas in the Gulf are also home and nesting site to Green Turtles, dugongs (Gulf cousin of the manatee), and
active coral reef systems. Due to the remoteness of these areas and the lack of response equipment, many
sensitive areas were not protected and thousands of birds were casualties of the discharges.
Efforts to respond to and mitigate the damage to the coastal ecosystem began while the oil was still
moving southward. Wildlife rescue projects were established at Jubayl, Tanaqib, and Ras Tannurah, funded by
the Royal Commission, and staffed by volunteers. Several hundred birds have been rehabilitated at these
facilities. In April 1991, a Shoreline Cleanup Committee, consisting of representatives from the HAT, MEPA,
the National Commission for Wildlife and Conservation Development (NCWCD), Crowley Maritime
Corporation, and Bechtel, was convened.
Based upon a preliminary Bechtel report on the location of sensitive areas, a proposed response method
was developed for each section of impacted shoreline. The focus of that assessment was to:
• Determine and rank sensitive areas — NCWCD
• Provide a listing of cleanup methods available — USIAT
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• Recommend cleanup methods — Crowley
• Develop a list of priority areas and recommend cleanup techniques including required
secondary measures - USIAT
• Obtain approval from MEPA for preliminary action — Bechtel
• Conduct a field trip to verify accuracy of list, and expand the list when necessary — All
Submit final list to MEPA for approval - Bechtel
• Conduct cleanup according to list and funds available — Crowley
• Determine whether shoreline cleanup meets appropriate standards — Shoreline Action Team (a
subset of the full committee)
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provided valuable input to the Saudi government regarding setting
priorities for key environmentally sensitive areas included in the national priority ranking list.
A Shoreline Action Team was established to determine priority sites for remediation purposes. The
team was composed of members from IIAT, Bechtel, Crowley, the European Economic Commission,
KFUPM/RI, MEPA, and NCWCD. The team drew upon many response and cleanup methodologies that were
pioneered during the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska. The team took a seven-day trip in May to assess the
coastline and covered approximately 600 miles of shoreline. One hundred and twenty-seven sites were
recommended for review. As a result, the group produced a computer data base which will ultimately be used
as a means to direct shoreline remediation and to make financial decisions. Decisions on additional shoreline
remediation efforts are under consideration by the Saudi Arabian government. When the USIAT completed all
its tasks it was recalled to the United States on July 31, 1991.
Environmental Restoration
The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) is taking the leadership role for the short-
term and long-term research on the impact of the oil spill, cleanup response, remediation, and restoration work
focusing on the effects of the spill and the ecology of the area. Their efforts are being coordinated under the
UN Interagency Plan of Action.
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OIL FIRES RESPONSE
Introduction
The retreating Iraqi army set fire to or damaged over 700 oil wells, storage tanks, refineries, and
facilities in Kuwait. The most recent estimate from the Kuwait Petroleum Company indicates the following:
Total Damaged or on Fire
749
Total Fires
610
Total Controlled2
441
Total Remaining
Uncontrolled
308
Ai of September, 1991
The majority of fires were centered in the Al Burgan oil field south of the Kuwait City airport.
U.S. Interagency Air Assessment Team Response
Emergency Response
The United States participated in the oil fires response at the request of the Saudi Arabian government.
The Saudi government requested U.S. technical assistance in addressing potential health and environmental
effects of the fires. The U.S. Embassy in Saudi Arabia concurred with this request, and voiced additional
concerns about the potential health effects of the fires on the U.S. troops in the region and American citizens
residing in the Gulf countries. The Kuwaiti government expressed similar health concerns. The USIAAT
consisting of representatives from EPA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the
Department of Health and Human Services/Centers for Disease Control (HHS/CDC) was convened, and
deployed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait on March 10, 1991. This team was assisted by representatives of the
USCG, DOD, and DOE already in Saudi Arabia assisting in response to the oil discharges. No contingency
plan existed to guide atmospheric monitoring and health assessment programs.
With the assistance of the Saudi and Kuwaiti governments, the USIAAT conducted air sampling, health
surveys, and aerial reconnaissance surveys of the fire plumes from March through May 1991. The USIAAT's
primary objective was to obtain preliminary, short-term data on the emissions from oil well fires at a variety of
locations, in order to:
• Determine if hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter — three toxic pollutants
which might be expected to come from burning oil wells — were posing an acute health threat;
• Identify and quantify the gaseous and particulate by-products being produced from the burning
oil wells;
• Determine if materials associated with the fires could affect geographic areas where people
might be exposed; and
• Assess the potential extent of the health effects related to the emissions from the fires and
related aspects of the Kuwaiti and Saudi health services infrastructure.
Samples were obtained directly from the Kuwait oil fields, as well as from Kuwaiti and Saudi Arabian
locations where embassy officials, U.S. troops, and U.S. citizens were working and residing. Additionally, the
2"Controlled" includes extinguished/capped fires, capped "gushers," and repaired leaking wellheads.
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USIAAT interviewed health officials to evaluate the extent of acute respiratory problems related to smoke
exposure.3
The invasion and occupation of Kuwait caused the departure of large numbers of health care
professionals and disabled the health care system. In addition to the work of the USIAAT, DOD developed a
plan to bring in food, water, and medical supplies to Kuwait after its liberation and to restore the Kuwait
governmental infrastructure, including the public health system. Subsequently, HHS assigned two officers to
explore options for restoring the public health system and advise the Kuwaiti government and the public health
service on a variety of issues ranging from sanitation to health services.4
Initially, the regional governments provided the USIAAT with air monitoring information covering the
past several years in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Bahrain. These data provided a useful baseline for evaluating
the emissions from the oil fires. The USIAAT concurred with the Saudi government's view that the Saudi
public and private sector air monitoring systems would need to be supplemented with support and technical
assistance. The Kuwaiti air monitoring system also had to be supplemented, especially due to the initial lack of
electricity in Kuwait City and the disruption of Kuwait's governmental and scientific infrastructure.
The USIAAT also completed the following activities with the cooperation and support of the host
governments:
• Collected and analyzed meteorological observations and reviewed existing monitoring data5;
• Produced daily forecasts and recorded visual observations of the smoke plume;
• Installed a ground-based sampling network of portable equipment at 15 to 20 locations to
measure PMIO (participate matter less than ten microns in diameter), determined the ratio of
the less than ten micron particles to total participate load, and undertook limited organic
analyses.6
The USIAAT's preliminary findings (in February and March) were as follows:
Limited sampling did not reveal the existence of high concentrations of sulfur dioxide or
hydrogen sulfide near the burning wells or in populated areas in the path of the oil well fire
emissions.
• High levels of total participate matter were found in the air from ground-based monitoring.7
• The results of the monitoring findings and health interviews with medical personnel in the
affected areas suggested that susceptible population groups, such as individuals with asthma
and chronic obstructive lung disease, might experience exacerbation of their symptoms.
Special health concerns, warnings, advisories, and precautions seemed clearly warranted for
3EPA released the initial assessment in an Interagency Interim Report of April 3, 1991. EPA released the compiled data
in May (Appendix G).
4HHS "Status Report of Public Health in Kuwait as of March 21, 1991," can be found in Appendix H.
'Plume observations were obtained via satellite daily, and were supplemented by periodic on-scene aerial transects
designed to characterize the overall geometry of the plume.
"This was done because particles of this size range are known to cause respiratory and other health effects.
'It is important to note that pre-war Kuwait total suspended paniculate measurements were among the highest in the
world due to contributions from wind-blown sand.
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these individuals. This situation did not appear to be life-threatening under the current
exposure conditions but, if meteorological conditions were to change (e.g., due to poor air
mixing or plume touchdown), there could be adverse health effects.
• The long-term health effects were not readily ascertainable due to insufficient data on the
populations exposed, the composition of the smoke plume, the impact of oil pools, and long-
term meteorological patterns. Aggravating the problem was the severe damage to the scientific
infrastructure of Kuwait that limited in-country analytic capabilities. Both the Kuwaiti and
Saudi health communities expressed interest in obtaining training, equipment, and other
support from the U.S. medical community.
In addition, the USIAAT worked with the Saudi Arabian MEPA to develop an air monitoring plan for
the Gulf region that would provide a comprehensive method for assessing the impact on Saudi Arabia of the oil
fires burning in Kuwait. The plan was developed at the request of the Vice-President of MEPA. The Saudis
presented the final plan, entitled the Gulf Regional Air Monitoring Program (GRAMP), at the April 1991 WMO
meeting in Geneva, Switzerland. This plan was a collaborative U.S. and Saudi effort and mirrors the
USIAAT's regional Gulf air monitoring plan released by the EPA in an Interagency Interim Report in May
1991. It also provided the basis for much of the U.S. response. The WMO plan incorporated many
international programs into its overall work plan developed in April 1991.
Initially, in the emergency response phase, the USIAAT performed a preliminary assessment of acute
health threats. As regional and international plans under WMO and WHO, and the Saudi MEPA's GRAMP
were developed, the U.S. moved into the second phase of its response and participated in various portions of the
health monitoring and modeling programs.
As the USIAAT continued its activities under the GRAMP and international plans, there was a shift in
response efforts, under an international framework, from the emergency phase to the long-term response phase.
Broad missions were distributed among federal and non-governmental agencies and organizations within the
U.S. with the best resources to complete the tasks. The U.S. undertook the following responsibilities in the
region:
• Continued assessing the air quality conditions through air sampling and monitoring in oil fields
and other areas;
• Began to determine long-term potential health effects;
• Continued reviewing the relevant health services infrastructure;
• Determined the capability of the region to handle the health threat through air monitoring and
appropriate corrective action;
• Continued to provide technical assistance; and
• Considered appropriate follow-up action.
NOAA maintained a continuous meteorological monitoring presence in the Gulf subsequent to the
departure of part of the USIAAT. This on-site capability was intended to advise local authorities on
meteorological matters related to the plume and its dispersion, support continuing meteorologic scientific
missions, and subsequently to set up an early warning system in Kuwait.
Atmospheric models were in place at the end of the war, having been applied to assist in forecasting
the drift of the oil slicks in the Gulf. Immediately after the fires were ignited, these models were redirected to
address the new problem. In particular, the predictive wind field models developed by NOAA Air Resources
Laboratory, which uses wind fields developed by the National Weather Service, were employed to produce
predictions of where the plume would go. These predictions were hampered by the lack of local meteorological
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data as many meteorological systems in Kuwait were destroyed during the war. Specific NOAA contributions
were (a) the provision of a vertical temperature measuring system for Kuwait (through WMO), (b) the setting
up of a meteorological system (with the assistance of DOE/Oak Ridge National Laboratory) intended to help
drive an early warning system (for providing warnings of perceived or possible high exposure), (c) the
development and subsequent refinement of new models for taking local terrain effects into account, (d) the
development of a system to archive all relevant meteorological data, and (e) the provision of a specifically
detailed subset of meteorological data for addressing questions related to local air quality in Kuwait.
In addition, early observational programs forecasted the transport and dispersion of the plume,
especially its rise and radiative consequences. Detailed studies were made, by NOAA scientists on the scene, of
the effects of the plume loft on ground level atmospheric conditions.
Existing Monitoring Network Assessment
The USIAAT gathered information on existing air monitoring networks in the region operated by
MEPA, Saudi ARAMCO, Kuwait, Bahrain, and the Royal Commission for Jubayl and Yanbu. It then reviewed
the spatial distribution of the existing network in the region to identify site locations, air pollutants and
meteorological variables monitored at each site, and the overall quality of the existing data. This review
determined that the existing network needed to be expanded to include other air pollutants and meteorological
variables, and that establishing additional air monitoring stations was necessary to clarify the effects of the oil
fires.
The principal pollutants from the burning oil not measured by the Saudi and Kuwaiti networks were
PM,0, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). PM10 are the
particles most likely to penetrate deeply into the lungs and cause health problems. Because of the importance of
this particular pollutant, and the extensive particulate matter resulting from the oil fires, the USIAAT
recommended that special efforts be made to gather PM10 data and determine the constituents of PM,0, including
trace metals and hydrocarbons. The PM10 data collection effort was supplemented with collections of PAH
samples and air samples for VOC analysis.
The development and deployment of a coordinated and standardized monitoring network accomplished
several objectives: it assured data consistency throughout the region; it provided better data to assess the
immediate health risks and the potential for long-term health risks; it could be used to initiate, test, and refine
forecast models; it can provide information for the development of location and condition-specific alerts,
including special advisories for populations at risk under specific meteorological conditions; and it provides a
better basis for scientific understanding and knowledge of important regional atmospheric conditions and
contributes to the assessment of possible long-term consequences of the fires.
The USIAAT assessed analytical laboratory support for air monitoring by KEPD, MEPA, KFUPM/RI,
and Saudi ARAMCO from the beginning of the response. The Kuwaiti laboratory capability to analyze air and
particulate matter samples was left largely intact after the war. Quality control, quality assurance samples, and
support for the network had to be developed within the available laboratories but also supplemented from
external sources.
The level of technical competence within all of the facilities visited by the USIAAT during the period
(MEPA, KFUPM/RI, Saudi ARAMCO, and KEPD) indicated that additional equipment, the implementation of
standards, and training were needed at all facilities in order to support, in-country, the sampling and analysis
required.
International Response and Coordination
Under the umbrella of the United Nations Interagency Plan to assess the environmental effects of the
Iraqi invasion, the WMO sponsored a conference on April 27-30, 1991, in Geneva, Switzerland, to assist in the
development of a strategy for international efforts in the Gulf and to coordinate international activities related to
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atmospheric issues including monitoring, modeling, and weather. Representatives from several U.S.
government departments and agencies attended. A coordinated international plan of action was adopted to
address atmospheric issues in the Gulf region. The USIAAT continued its assistance within this international
framework.
Assessment of Air Quality Impacts
Characterizing the Aerial Plume
The WMO Plan addressed the need for atmospheric studies of several kinds, primarily for the
following reasons:
To develop an Early Warning Health System for the Gulf region to respond to air pollution
resulting from the oil fires. The system would provide for health advisories to the affected
populations so they would be able to minimize their exposure to high pollution levels.
To track the air pollution from the Kuwait oil field fires over time to assess potential long-term
health, ecological, and climate effects. The proposed air measurement network was
coordinated with a parallel health monitoring information system development effort.
• To collect samples of airborne particles to perform toxicity testing and dose response
assessments.
• To facilitate evaluations of models used to predict local and regional scale behavior of the
emissions from the oil fires. Air quality and meteorological data from the expanded Gulf
Regional Air Monitoring Network were important for these evaluations.
Characterization of the aerial plume is being carried out through both ground-based and aircraft-based
air monitoring programs.
Ground-Based Sampling
A team from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) obtained measurements of
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, particle size, elemental and
organic carbon, metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and acid aerosols close to the fires. These
measurements are part of NIST's source term characterization effort detailed later in this report. The overall
goal was to determine the amount of smoke and attempt to characterize and categorize emissions from individual
well fires. This information will be used together with the energy release rates of a large number of oil well
fires to estimate the total production of smoke, other participate matter, and gases from all of the fires in
Kuwait.8
Aircraft Air Sampling
Aircraft provide an effective method of measuring plume dispersion, composition, and radiative effects.
Largely under NOAA leadership, WMO developed a coordinated plan for aircraft studies as part of its report.
A sequence of multi-agency and multi-national aircraft investigations were planned with initial U.S. exploration
by a combined University of Washington (UW) and a National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) team,
to be followed by a study coupling the facilities of the DOE/Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory aircraft with
the near-field probing capabilities of the fire-product sampling team from NASA/EPA. The earliest
experimental studies were conducted by an English aircraft (C-130, UK Meteorological Office). A German
*Mulholland, G.W., Benner, B.A., Fletcher, R.A., Steel, E., Wise, S.A., May, W.E., Madrzykowski, D., and Evans,
D.D., Analysis of Smoke Samples from Oil Well Fires in Kuwait, NIST (U.S.) Report of Test PR 3985; June 1991.
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aircraft (Piper, German Environmental Protection Authority) also made measurements during the period that the
UW and NCAR aircraft were in the Gulf region.
University of Washington and NCAR Aircraft Mission. The National Science Foundation (NSF)
coordinated resources to mount a research aircraft program to obtain data for the assessment of the smoke's
environmental and health effects. DOD, DOE, and NOAA provided support for this effort.9 The National
Geographic Society also supported the research aircraft program. The program involved approximately 35
scientists from seven U.S. universities, NCAR, and NOAA.
The scientific goals were:
• To characterize regional emission rates of smoke particles and trace gases;
• To measure the chemical composition of the plume, and determine how the composition
changes with time;
• To measure radiative properties of the smoke particles and net radiative effects of the plumes,
with attention to how the degree of their radiation affects the altitudes of the plumes and the
surface temperature;
To measure the characteristics of the smoke particles, including determining if the particles are
hydrophilic (i.e. having a strong affinity for water), or acquire such a component through
chemical transformations, thereby accelerating their removal from the atmosphere by cloud and
precipitation processes;
• To search for direct evidence that the smoke particles are removed from clouds and determine
the effects of the smoke on the composition and radiative properties of clouds; and
• To study regional weather anomalies associated with these smoke emissions.
The primary tools used were the NSF research aircraft (Lockheed Electra) operated by NCAR and the
aircraft (Convair C-131A) operated by UW. The aircraft were in the Gulf region from May 16 through June 12
in the first phase of the program. NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory tailored its modeling facilities to provide
plume predictions to guide the aircraft program, together with interpreted satellite data. DOE's Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory also provided its Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability (ARAC) model
forecasts of plume transport and dispersion for flight planning and mission support. Such forecasts have also
been provided, at WMO request, to several Gulf region environmental and meteorological agencies. This
support will continue through fiscal year 1991.
The aircraft gathered the following data in a combined total of 35 flights: measured the sizes and mass
distributions as a function of size of the smoke particles; measured trace gases10; took multi-wavelength
radiation measurements to measure the effects of the smoke (the unique radiative property data collected in these
airborne studies will provide inputs to numerical models that can be used to predict the effects of the smoke on
health, weather, and climate); took remote sensing LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) measurements of the
distribution (horizontally and vertically) of the smoke for flux determinations and dynamic observations;
measured the characteristics of the smoke particles, including light extinction, scattering, and absorption
properties of particles and their activity as cloud condensation nuclei; and measured cloud properties (drop size
distributions, liquid water content, cloud interstitial aerosol, and cloud nucleus material).
*This wag done through the Federal Coordinating Council for Science and Engineering and Technology/Committee on
Earth & Environmental Sciences/Subcommittee on Atmospheric Research.
llyrrace gases include sodium dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen
oxides, ammonia, nitric acid, non-methane hydrocarbons, and caibonyl sulfide.
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DOE/Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory. Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory Aircraft Mission. DOE's Pacific Northwest Laboratory owns the twin-
turboprop Gulfstream (G-l) aircraft that operated in the region as part of the WMO research aircraft plan.
DOE financially supported the UW and NCAR aircraft and subsequently made more funds available for the use
of the G-l aircraft. Instruments aboard the G-l can measure gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
ozone, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. It can also measure hydrocarbons; the number, size and
composition of airborne particles; light absorption and scattering by particles; solar radiation; temperature; and
humidity.
Operations started in late July 1991, and the data gathered during these flights is still being analyzed
and will complement the data acquired during the NSF organized missions, because they were obtained under
different meteorological conditions. The G-l flights were also coordinated with the NASA/EPA helicopter
mission sampling close to the plume sources. ARAC provided specialized forecasts of discrete plume particle
age groups in support of the G-l sampling program.
DOE's scientific approach accomplished three primary program objectives: it measured the pollutant
transformation/removal rates in the Kuwait oil fire plume; it characterized the chemical and physical state of the
plume over a range of distances from the source; and it applied these measurements for the quantitative
evaluation of global atmospheric-chemistry models and associated models of radiant transport through aerosol
plumes.
Helicopter Missions
NASA's Langley Research Center and EPA conducted a DOE-funded experiment using helicopter
based sampling to characterize emissions from the Kuwait oil fires at their source. These missions, involving
NASA, EPA, NOAA, Saudi, and Kuwait research scientists, focused on determining concentrations of both
gaseous and aerosol (particle and liquid phases) emissions to be used as source terms for combustion and
dispersion models. A Royal Saudi Air Force helicopter was used to collect smoke samples during seven
independent missions spanning the period of July 31 to August 7, 1991." Trace gases such as carbon
monoxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and non-methane hydrocarbons were found at lower than anticipated
concentrations relative to combustion produced carbon dioxide except over the large pool oil fires. Very high
concentrations of particles, relative to carbon dioxide, were observed in all "black smoke fires." Surprisingly
elevated levels of sodium chloride were measured in the "white smoke plumes." Sulfur dioxide concentrations
of several hundred micrograms per cubic meter of sample were determined in most smoke plumes. These
concentrations are not at levels that could pose chronic health effects, except for those persons with pre-existing
chronic conditions. Analyses to determine heavy metal, PAH, and other specific chemical compound
concentrations and interpretations of the significance of these results, will be forthcoming.
Modeling
In addition to ground-based and aircraft missions, the WMO plan also addressed the need for modeling
to predict environmental and health effects. Unfortunately, to date, no models have been tested against data
obtained in a disaster of this magnitude. Therefore, all experimental model programs attempt to refine
scientists' understanding of factors critical to improving the predictions of: (a) the effects on human health; (b)
the consequences to local and regional ecosystems; and (c) the effects on the atmosphere on all scales, from
local to global. To date, most of the experimental effort has been by U.S. teams working with Saudi Arabian
and Kuwaiti scientists, but considerable involvement from other countries has begun as well.
Near field, local scale, regional large scale, and global models all may be used to study the fires'
influences. It is expected, however, that the model components now available will need to be refined on the
basis of newly obtained data and data now being sought. Further, early sampling results indicated that site-
"This mission is included in this report because it began in July even though it was completed after the July 31, 1991
cutoff date for the report.
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specific models are needed to forecast where the plume(s) will be most intrusive, warn of periods of likely high
exposure, and guide measurement programs. A number of models of different complexities were developed,
refined, and applied by NOAA. Some of these models continue to be used to predict plume'dispersion and
form the basis for the early warning system now being completed.
Numerical models will provide the best assessments of the fires' consequences. As there are many
potentially applicable models, a wide range of numerical outputs should be expected. Both predictions of grave
environmental consequences and of little damage have been made. For example, some predicted that the levels
of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide would lead to acute health impacts. Thus far this has not been the case.
In order to extract the most useful predictions, a program of field measurement has been generated using
different model spatial scales.
Near Field Models f 1 - 10 km) - the Source Term. All models require accurate source term ("near the
source") data. Determining the heat release rate of the fires is critical to determining the rate of input of
chemicals into the atmosphere. A fire acts as a pump; air is pulled into the fire, and some portion is used for
combustion. The rest is heated, expanded, and injected into the atmosphere and carries away the combustion
products.
NIST performed ground-based source term characterization measurements in cooperation with the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers. By making measurements of the fire, thermal radiation emitted, and/or flame
height, the heat release rate can be determined. From the heat release rate, emission and near field smoke
plume flow can be computed. Coupling the smoke production rate with quantified smoke samples can provide
the needed chemical input rate for the atmospheric and health effects models. This data is needed for analysis
of near and far field smoke samples.12
Local Scale Models (10 - 100 km) - the Merging Plumes. Individual plumes from the separate well
fires merge as they rise through the atmosphere. The "merging plume" region is one in which the plumes from
the wells lose their individual identity and their heat and reach a height that may be considered as the "effective
height of input" for regional large scale numerical models. Studies are needed in this region to ensure that
correct effective source terms are driving global models and to test for the effects of the plume on the
transmission of sunlight through the atmosphere. Aircraft studies of the merging plumes are integrated into
WMO's overall aircraft program, and data for these models are being obtained from the previously described
aircraft air sampling missions.
Regional Large Scale Models (100 - 400 km) - The Super Plume. The WMO plan also proposes
measurements of the large-scale plume affecting areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, and other countries in the region.
The recommendations call for a strategy of extended investigations of the plume and its composition throughout
the period when the fires are being extinguished. Acquisition of these data is the primary goal of the various
fixed-wing aircraft missions. ARAC and NOAA have been providing plume assessments on this scale
continuously since April. These forecasts allow aircraft flight planners to optimize air time in and near the
plume. NCAR, NSF, and several U.S. universities will be doing modeling with the data that have been
collected.
Global Models. Global models can be used to look at the large scale dispersion of pollutants from the
fires and their possible climate impact. Initial analyses of measurements indicated that smoke from the Kuwait
fires may have increased the normal background concentrations of black carbon or soot (very slightly) as far
away as Mauna Loa, Hawaii. It was also tentatively identified in air over Wyoming. Initial global model
calculations from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory were consistent with the increased concentrations of
soot at Mauna Loa for typical springtime meteorology, but indicated that the concentration levels should
12Madrzykowslti, D., Evans, D.D., Mulholland, G.W., Bryner, N.P. Baum, H.R., Benner, B.A., Fletcher, R.A., Steel,
E., Wise, S.A., May, W.E., and Haynes, G.A., Preliminary Study of the Kuwait Oil Well Fires, NIST (U.S.) (To be
published).
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decrease throughout the rest of the year.13 This model also showed that concentrations of soot and sulfates
from the fires were elevated over background levels throughout a large area surrounding the Gulf region. These
initial simulations did not predict large changes in climate, but also did not account for the correct emissions or
emission altitude. Re-analysis using more recent data is desirable.
The diagram on the following page has been developed to illustrate the dissipation of the smoke plume
as it travels away from the fire source. The plume has been measured at heights between 1,500 feet to 19,000
feet, but is generally at heights of 1,500 feet to 13,000 feet. As indicated, the plume does not rise into the
stratosphere (even over great distances) and therefore, global effects are not likely.
"Penner, Joyce. "Global Model Simulations of the Long Range Transport of Soot and Sulfur from the Kuwait Oil
Fires," paper prepared for the Expert Meeting on the Atmospheric Part of the Emergency Response to the Kuwait Oilfield
Fires, WMO, April 27-30, 1991. (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Report UCRL-JC-107737,1991)
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23
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Data Coordination
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals/Research Institute designed the first system to provide
access to data related to the fires. Data transmission capability was established enabling image, graphics, and
text exchange among participants in the monitoring, forecast, and health elements of the program. In the short
term, a temporary archive was developed to avoid loss of key data sets.
As part of a WMO agreement, NCAR recently began assembling and will maintain a full data archive
that will include all available atmospheric data sets. NCAR is also developing a software system to extract and
display the data. Regional archive centers will be established through WMO auspices in various Gulf nations.
Full access to these data will be available to scientists worldwide. These data will be used for health
assessments, weather and climate impact studies, and air quality and atmospheric chemistry studies.
Meteorological data for the Gulf region are being archived by the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory. A
specially detailed data set has been produced which covers several months to provide a more firm foundation for
testing model predictions against the findings of aircraft sampling programs.
Health Assessment
The Office of International Health, Public Health Service, HHS, at the suggestion of DOS, requested
the preparation of a health advisory to be transmitted to the U.S. Embassies in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia and the
Department of Defense Central Command in Saudi Arabia. HHS issued the "Preliminary Health Advisory
Related to Burning Oil Wells in Kuwait, March 21, 1991." It addressed the potential health threats posed by
soot and toxic products form burning and damaged oil wells, the signs and symptoms of exposures to selected
hazards, and the public health measures that might be recommended, including advice that the governments of
the respective countries could give to health workers and to their people.14
The Preliminary Health Advisory stated that, "persons residing in areas thought most likely to be
affected by the traveling plume and changing meteorological conditions should be advised on measures they
could take to reduce their exposures. These included limiting outdoor activities, keeping windows shut, and
monitoring changes in their own health status." The Advisory recommended that, "assessment be made of
resources and facilities to provide health alerts and information to local residents as the need arises."
Initial Health Advisory
At the request of the EPA and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Committee to
Coordinate Environmental Health and Related Programs, the Kuwait Working Party (KWP) — a group
composed of members of various HHS agencies and other governmental agencies met, beginning in April, to
identify public health issues, strategies, and approaches related to the oil pools and oil well fires burning in
Kuwait.
Initially, persons with asthma or pre-existing pulmonary disease (chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease), and possibly infants, children, and elderly adults were at risk of exacerbation of their
conditions due to acute exposure to the oil well fires. This situation will continue until most of the fires are
controlled. It is not now known if chronic exposure to oil well fires will be associated with an increased
incidence of pulmonary disease.
"The "Preliminary Health Advisory Related to Burning Oil Wells in Kuwait, March 21, 1991" is located in Appendix
H.
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Initial Health Sampling, Planning, and Monitoring15
An initial assessment of the health situation in Kuwait was documented by an epidemiologist with the
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Public Health Service, HHS, who was attached to the U.S.
Army's 352nd Civil Affairs Command and who entered Saudi Arabia on February 15 and Kuwait City on
March 1.
Emissions from oil fires have the potential of causing health effects of both an acute and chronic nature
although there is considerable uncertainty as to the extent of the threat. Chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide, as well as carbon monoxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are often found along with
particulate matter in oil fires. While only limited assessments were performed by the USIAAT, they did not
detect these chemicals in any significant quantity in populated areas (based on EPA's National Ambient Air
Quality Standards for such chemicals); further, preliminary analysis of particulate matter did not reveal any
chemicals at levels of concern. Additional testing continues to discover whether or not other toxic materials are
associated with the high levels of particulate matter. Preliminary surveys of the local hospitals by a Centers for
Disease Control (CDC) epidemiologist on the initial USIAAT did not show increased admission rates for
respiratory complaints, and more detailed analyses are underway to understand more fully the potential health
threats. Most of the experience in the U.S. with chronic exposure models assumes exposure throughout a 70
year life span. Therefore, there are inherent limits in applying these models and standards to short-term
intermittent exposures such as those that have occurred in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Although the fires are
burning nonstop, exposure changes frequently due to changing wind patterns. The U.S. Public Health Service
Scope of Action Document was developed and released on May 31, 1991.
A CDC epidemiologist participated in the Geneva WMO meeting, and then proceeded to Kuwait to join
the USIAAT. While in the Gulf region, the CDC epidemiologist collaborated with the Kuwait Ministry of
Public Health Environmental Protection Department (KEPD) to develop a health plan for protecting individuals
from the hazards associated with exposure to the burning oil wells in Kuwait. Key elements of the plan are:
• Initiating a health alert system to warn the population when potentially dangerous
concentrations of air pollutants are reached;
• Providing medical information and advice to physicians regarding environmental health
concerns;
• Providing general information and advice to the public regarding environmental health
concerns;
Collecting and comparing recent mortality data with the same months in 1990;
Initiating an emergency room surveillance system to monitor respiratory diseases;
• Initiating a longitudinal study of asthmatic patients;
• Designing and implementing a cohort study of presumably highly exposed populations; and
Implementing the WHO/EPA Human Exposure Assessment Locations (HEAL) Program.
"DOE's Sandia National Laboratories prepared two reports after the war, building on their January 9, 1991 study
entitled, "Potential Impacts of Iraqi Use of Oil as a Defensive Weapon." The post-war reports were "Assessment of Effects
on Human Health from Kuwaiti Oil Field Fires" (March 29, 1991) and "Kuwaiti Oil Field Sampling Overview" (May 23,
1991). The first report on human health effects provided estimates of the potential health impacts due to the number of fires
burning and the meteorological conditions experienced in the region. The overview gave measurement and sampling design
needs for a through scientific monitoring of air pollution in Kuwait and the Gulf region.
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The Kuwait Ministry of Public Health is developing an implementation plan for the health alert system.
Meteorological and air quality data have been combined to predict days of potential alerts. Kuwaiti and Saudi
physicians were provided with a five-page document describing the known health effects, the presenting
symptoms, complications, and the management of diseases associated with each of the major air pollutants.
Information was collected by the CDC USIAAT member about age, gender, and diagnoses of persons
seeking emergency room care at two local hospitals in Kuwait (Mubarek and Sabeh) during the period from
January through April 1991. The data suggest that there was no documented increase in the proportion of visits
to these hospital emergency rooms for acute upper and lower respiratory infections or asthma during the period
after the oil well fires were ignited. A new surveillance form was also developed to be used at five health
clinics for a 3-month period. Emergency room visits for gastrointestinal illnesses, heart disease, psychiatric
illnesses, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchiectasis increased during the period after the oil wells were
ignited.
The CDC epidemiologist collected blood samples from 14 volunteers on June 1, 1991 in Kuwait City.
The samples were tested at the CDC for various volatile organic compounds. Although not all 34 VOCs tested
were expected to be constituents of the plume from the oil fires, they were run as part of an automated battery
of tests done on each sample. The volunteers' blood had, on the average, about the same amount of VOCs as
that of typical persons in the United States.
WHO/EPA Human Exposure Assessment Locations Study
At the request of Kuwait government officials, WHO proposed a study to determine human exposure to
inhalable particles (PM10) created by the oil fires. WHO asked for assistance from EPA in designing the study
as part of the Human Exposure Assessment Locations (HEAL) - Global Environmental Monitoring System
(GEMS). The goals of this study are to:
Estimate the frequency distribution of exposures to PM10 of residents of Ahmadi and Kuwait
City; and
Determine the impact of the oil fires and the possible protective effect of remaining indoors on
personal exposure to PM)0.
Two EPA scientists traveled to Kuwait to organize the initial phase of the experiment. In the second
phase, a sample of individuals will be selected from each city and the degree of personal exposure to, and
ambient indoor and outdoor, PM10 concentrations will be measured. Exposures to, and indoor concentrations
of, nicotine will also be measured to detect the influence of cigarette smoke on personal exposures.
Questionnaires will be administered to determine participant activities during the two consecutive 12-hour
monitoring periods.
Department of Defense Efforts
At the request of Department of Defense (Health Affairs), the Army is chairing a Tri-Service medical
working group to evaluate the potential health effects of oil smoke on DOD personnel. This group met several
times between April and July 1991. DOD (Health Affairs), DOD (Environment), Veterans Administration, and
medical personnel from each military service attend the meetings. This group is acting to:
• Evaluate acute, mid-term, and chronic health effects to DOD personnel;
• Recommend policies or special studies to better identify any adverse health effects attributable
to chemicals in smoke generated by the Kuwait oil fires; and
• Closely monitor the Department of Army's health risk assessment team sampling, analysis, and
medical surveillance of the llth Armored Cavalry Regiment, and the Department of Navy's
study regarding potential health effects on Marines.
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27
As part of this effort, on May 1, 1991, the U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency (USAEHA)
sent a team of preventive medicine professionals to collect samples and monitor health effects in South West
Asia and subsequently to analyze thousands of air and soil samples at their certified laboratory at Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland. The team will conduct sampling in Kuwait until at least early November. As of
August 1991, 2,500 samples have been collected from U.S. troops. Initial sampling results do not indicate a
significant likelihood of long-term health effects. The working group will recommend establishment of a
registry or special notation on medical records if the scientific assessment indicates significant risk of long-term
health effects. Returning soldiers did have theater specific medical screening which is a permanent part of their
medical records. Elements of the llth Armored Cavalry Regiment received baseline medical surveillance
screening during June 1991 in Fulda, Germany before beginning their Kuwaiti tour. Army Medical Department
personnel from USAEHA and Walter Reed Institute of Research administered health status questionnaires,
performed pulmonary function tests, and collected blood. The blood analysis and study are being done in
cooperation with Johns Hopkins University, the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, and the CDC. Follow-up
medical and continuing environmental exposure surveillance on llth Armored Cavalry Regiment personnel will
be performed in Kuwait in August 1991 and will also be done after they return to Germany.
Air samples were analyzed for PAHs, volatile organics, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, inorganic
acids, metals, and particulate matter levels. Soil was analyzed for metals, PAHs, and semi-volatile organics.
Sample results are undergoing quality assurance/quality control verifications before being utilized in the health
risk assessment protocols.
Sampling sites have included all the former major fixed troop locations and are currently located at
several specially selected sites in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. In September 1991, USAEHA expects to close all
but two sampling stations in Kuwait and one in Saudi Arabia. They plan to maintain the remaining monitoring
sites as long as DOD continues to have significant troop deployments in Kuwait. Sampling plans have been
coordinated with the Navy and Air Force and include coverage of all major fixed DOD troop locations from the
time the oil fires started. The USAEHA continues to work closely with EPA and NOAA to ensure that all data
collected are comparable and not part of duplicate efforts.
The Navy conducted an epidemiological study of 2,700 Marines in theater to see if sick call rates
correlated to potentially greater exposure. Although self-reported questionnaires indicated slightly increased
levels of respiratory symptoms for Marines closer to the fires, it does not appear that sick call rates increased
with proximity to the fires. Navy analysis of the data continues and a report is expected by October 1991.
Hazardous and Solid Waste
EPA provided a specialist to survey and assist the Kuwaiti government in assessing the Kuwait waste
situation and recommend programs for rehabilitating the waste management system. EPA is preparing a
recommended plan of action for UNEP.
The Army Corps conducted an environmental survey of all locations occupied by U.S. forces, based on
applicable Host Nation and Third Nation laws, identified any necessary cleanup action, and identified priority
areas requiring cleanup. The Corps also provided collection and removal of hazardous waste generated by U.S.
forces from various locations in Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab
Emirates. This included establishing collection sites, transporting waste to disposal locations, disposal of waste
materials and waste containers, and close out of collection sites. The Army Corps also is establishing a
hazardous waste collection site in Dhahran. The site will be operational initially for a period of three months
with an option to extend the operation for an additional three months.
During the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait's sanitation system was damaged and sewage flowed directly into the
Gulf, bypassing all pump stations and treatment plants. As a result, the electrical and mechanical systems in
these facilities required major maintenance work. The Army Corps participated in emergency work to clean
and flush the network, repair pump stations, procure three combination flusher/cleaner vehicles, Clean pipes,
and perform a damage survey to the sanitary system on Falaika Island. Significant Corps accomplishments
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28
include the following: completion of a system review and analysis; completion of 27 damage surveys on 77
facilities; restoration of six major pump stations to operational status.
Water
The fresh water system in Kuwait consists of underground and elevated reservoirs and pump stations.
Most of the reservoirs were emptied during the occupation, although some have recently built back to about 50
percent capacity. Pipelines between pump stations and reservoirs sustained various amounts of damage.
Ongoing work by the USAGE has focused on repairing the pressurized network. The USAGE has assisted in:
repairing breaks within the Kuwait water line, cleaning up and weather proofing of the Al Zour pump station;
repairing the water line at the Kuwait naval base; restoring water to all sectors of Kuwait; and making
temporary repairs to the Mina Abdullah pump station.
Environmental Remediation
DOE Deputy Assistant Secretary for Export Assistance worked closely with the American companies
Kuwait hired to control the damaged wells and extinguish the fires. He served as their primary interface with
DOE and other federal agencies. His activities included providing assistance in obtaining logistical support for
the rapid and sustained deployment of well control and fire-fighting equipment to Kuwait. Additionally, he
served as the primary U.S. government point of contact for inquiries and information on the well fires in
Kuwait and oil control technology.
In April 1991, DOE hosted a seminar for representatives of DOE, DOD, and NASA research
laboratories to review well control technology and procedures. The participants sought to identify technologies
or equipment developed through federal research efforts that could be applied to solving some portion of
Kuwait's oil well control and fire problems. Similarly, as DOE's technical liaison to the Kuwait Petroleum
Company (KPC), he and his staff agreed to assist with the review and provide technical comments on proposals
for new and innovative methods for responding to the oil well fires. The KPC agreed to review expeditiously
any proposal forwarded through this channel. To date, over 2SO proposals have been reviewed; none have met
KPC's operating criteria.
Environmental Restoration
The meteorological network in Kuwait City, which was severely damaged, has been restored by
NOAA.
The U.S. government, as of July 31, 1991, was not directly involved in environmental restoration
efforts. The primary focus of the international environmental response was in the assessment and remediation
phase at the time of this report's printing.
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29
3. U.S. EXPENDITURES
EXPENDITURES BY U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Expenditure data has been submitted to EPA by each individual U.S Agency that has been involved in
environmental technical assistance efforts in the Gulf. Some agencies were able to submit a breakdown of
expenditures which included salaries and benefits, while other agencies were not able to provide this information
until after the end of fiscal 1991.
This chapter includes a graph representing the overall expenditures by the U.S. government on
technical assistance to the Gulf region between January 27, 1991 and July 31, 1991. The second portion of this
chapter contains a table which illustrates: 1) a categoric breakdown of Agency expenditures, 2) funds
designated from one Agency to another for technical assistance activities, and 3) funds which are allocated in
Agency budgets for reimbursement of technical assistance activities conducted by another Agency.
Each Department and Agency has made these emergency assistance and response funds available within
its own FY 1991 budget and without supplemental appropriations.
Saudi ARAMCO agreed to support the funding of the clean-up effort and seek reimbursement from the
Saudi Arabia Ministry of Finance after the fact.
While host nations have supported U.S. government personnel with logistical assistance with passports,
office space, communications, and some transportation, there have been no substantial payments made to
reimburse the U.S. government for health and environmental assistance.
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30
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
APPENDIX B: AGENCY ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
APPENDK C: TABLE OF AGENCY ACTIVITIES IN THE GULF REGION
APPENDIX D: OIL DISCHARGE AND FIRES RESPONSE PERSONNEL FROM THE UNITED STATES
APPENDIX E: PUBLIC LAW 102-27, SECTION 309
THE FOLLOWING APPENDICES (F, G, H, AND I) ARE PUBLIC DOCUMENTS AND AVAILABLE
UPON REQUEST. THEY ARE NOT INCLUDED IN THIS VERSION OF THE DOCUMENT DUE TO
THEIR LENGTH. PLEASE WRITE TO THE FOLLOWING ADDRESS IF YOU WOULD LIKE COPIES
OF THESE DOCUMENTS.
THE GULF TASK FORCE
C/0 THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
MAIL STOP A-150/ROOM NEMLC 013
401 M STREET, S.W.
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
APPENDIX F: UN INTERAGENCY ACTION PLAN ON THE KUWAIT OIL FIRES
EMERGENCY HEALTH PLAN OF ACTION APRIL-JUNE 1991
REPORT OF THE WMO MEETING OF EXPERTS ON THE ATMOSPHERIC PART OF
THE JOINT UN RESPONSE TO THE KUWAIT OILFIELD FIRES
APPENDIX G: KUWAIT OIL FIRES: INTERAGENCY INTERIM REPORT
APPENDK H: U.S. PRELIMINARY HEALTH ADVISORY RELATED TO BURNING OIL WELLS IN
KUWAIT
STATUS REPORT OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH IN KUWAIT AS OF MARCH 21, 1991
KUWAITI MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH PLAN FOR PROTECTION FROM THE
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EXPOSURE TO THE BURNING OIL WELLS
APPENDK I: UNITED STATES AIR STANDARDS AND ALERT SYSTEM
U.S. EPA NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
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A-l
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
FINDINGS
IMPORTANCE
Oil Discharge
In January, 1991, 6 to 8 million barrels of oil were
discharged into the Gulf. The main oil slick was
probably between 0.5 to 3 million barrels.
The amounts of oil that deposited on beaches,
settled to the Gulfs bottom, and evaporated are
unknown. The Saudi Arabian coast from Khafji to
Abu Ali Island was coated with oil.
1.4 million barrels of oil were recovered from the
water and placed in pits.
By the end of April 1991, no more substantial
amounts of oil were discharged. Oil skimming was
not required by the end of July.
This discharge is one of the largest in history (up to
30 times larger than the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in
Alaska).
The degree of remediation necessary to restore
ecological functions is not known.
The pits are awaiting remediation.
The USCG completed its work in the Gulf and
departed the area at the end of July 1991.
Burning Oil Fields
The retreating Iraqi army damaged over 749 oil
wells (of which 610 were ignited), storage tanks,
refineries, and facilities. The initial oil well
burning rate was about 4 ±2 million barrels per
day. As of September 22, 1991, 441 burning wells
had been controlled.
These oil well fires constitute 50% of the total
number in the history of the world's petroleum
industry.
Global Climate Effects
The smoke plume is generally at heights between
1500 and 13,000 feet and was never detected above
19,000 feet. The smoke particles are easily
attached to water (hydrophilic).
In June 1991, these fires emitted about 2 million
metric tons of carbon dioxide per day (roughly 3 %
of worldwide emissions from fossil fuel burning).
The smoke should have no measurable effect on
weather or climate outside of the Gulf region
because of its relatively low altitude and short
residence time due to capture by water vapor.
The carbon dioxide emissions are diminishing
steadily as the burning wells are brought under
control. Thus, they are not likely to have a
detectable impact on global wanning.
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Regional Weather Effects
The smoke plume widths range from 10 to 100
miles for distances of 0 to 600 miles from the fires.
The smoke plume may strongly reduce the sunlight
amount, visibility, and temperatures at ground
level. For example, Bahrain had the coolest May
in 35 years.
The smoke plume may be the cause of changes in
the regional weather.
Meteorology
The spring and summer regional high winds
("shamal") have been strong and mainly from the
north/northwest.
Analysis of the Kuwait City Airport meteorological
records for 1986-90 shows that the frequency of
occurrence for daytime inversions increases from
late September to December. Also, the frequency
of occurrence of fresh breezes from the Gulf will
decrease during this period.
The high winds have been effective in dispersing
pollutants, causing the concentrations of pollutants
to be much less than they would have been if winds
had been calm.
The meteorological potential for acute health
impacts may increase during this period, acting in
opposition to the progress in controlling the fires.
The specific occurrence or probability of
occurrence of an air pollution episode cannot be
predicted.
Plume Concentrations and Chemistry
During shamal conditions: within the airborne
plumes, peak concentrations of particulate mass
generally exceeded the U.S. OSHA standards for
maximum allowable 8-hour exposure.
During shamal conditions: within the airborne
plumes, peak concentrations of ozone, nitrogen
oxides, and carbon monoxide were below the U.S.
OSHA standards for maximum allowable 8-hour
exposure. However, sulfur dioxide occasionally
exceeded the standards.
The plume is not photochemically active.
During shamal conditions: mixing downward of
plume to ground level may cause concentrations of
particulate matter to exceed OSHA workplace
standards.
During shamal conditions: mixing downward of
plume to ground level is not likely to cause
concentrations of criteria gases to exceed workplace
standards, except for sulfur dioxide occasionally.
Regional ozone episodes should not occur.
Ground-level concentrations
From May through July 1991, the concentrations of
total particulate mass in Kuwait City, which did not
. exceed historical levels, did exceed U.S. ambient
air quality 24-hour standard. The fraction of
particulate mass due to the fires is not yet known.
For this period, there is the concern that total
particulate mass concentrations may impact health.
However, there is no evidence, to date, that it is.
(See "Health Impacts" discussion below.) Total
particulate mass from the fires may lead to acute
health effects during calm periods, especially from
September through December 1991.
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A-3
From May through July 1991, the ground-level
concentrations in Kuwait City of sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and ozone did
not exceed U.S. ambient air quality standards.
The atmospheric particles have concentrations of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and
metals such as nickel, chromium, and vanadium,
that compare to urban-industrial areas in the U.S.,
Europe, and Japan. The samples are not very
mutagenic.
Both aircraft and ground sampling data indicate that
hydrogen sulfide is present in low concentrations.
Acute Health Impacts
In Kuwait City levels for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, and ozone have not
exceeded U.S. alert levels; however, particulate
levels have.
Through July 1991, there was no documented
increase in the proportion of visits to hospital
emergency rooms for acute upper and lower
respiratory infections or asthma compared to the
period before the fires were ignited.
Chronic Health Impacts
Serum taken from U.S. troops, six weeks after
locating in Doha, Kuwait, show no increased
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) compared to
troop serum levels taken in Germany prior to
coming to Kuwait.
For this period, there is no concern that pollutant
gases due to the fires may impact health. Sulfur
dioxide may lead to acute health impacts during
calm periods, especially from September through
December 1991.
PAHs and trace metals do not appear to be a
concern for chronic health impacts.
Hydrogen sulfide is present in amounts below
health threat levels. However it will remain a
concern until all known sources are confirmed to be
either capped or burning.
For similar conditions in the U.S., for which
particulate mass exceeds "warning level," we would
expect general health effects to be limited to
significant aggravation of symptoms in persons with
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma.
Short-term exposure to oil fire SB oke at current
concentrations does not appear to cause acute health
impacts in healthy adults. However, it could
exacerbate symptoms of persons with pre-existing
lung disease.
At this time VOCs do not appear to be a concern
for chronic health impacts.
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Environmental Activities in the Gulf Region
Agency Roles and Responsibilities
Assistance to the Gulf States in dealing with the environmental consequences of Iraqi hostilities is being
provided by an international effort in which the United States is participating. The United States has been
working with the international community and with the governments of the region to channel its technical
assistance through the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and
other United Nations organizations working in the Gulf.
The Environmental Protection Agency is the designated coordinator and spokesperson for the overall U.S.
program supporting the environmental crisis in the Gulf region, in consultation with the Secretary of State to
assure consistency with U.S. foreign policy objectives.
DNA
Coordinate the DOD Logistics Support to the interagency atmospheric effects research program.
Collaborate with NSF, NOAA, NIST, DOE, and NASA in the atmospheric effects research program.
Provide technical support, as required, to the interagency working groups.
DOE
In collaboration with NOAA, NIST, and NASA conduct planned atmospheric sampling missions to the
area.
Conduct analyses/assessments of impacts of air pollution on human health.
Capability to update and modify dispersion model using data collected by NOAA, NIST, and EPA in
order to accurately predict exposures.
Provide point of coordination regarding oil well control technologies and inquiries.
Ongoing development and adaptation of technologies for explosive ordnance disposal and extinguishing
and capping wells.
DOS
Provide overall guidance to other agencies on all foreign policy-related aspects of U.S. environmental
activities in the Gulf region, including relations with international organizations.
Serve as conduit for policy and other official communications with U.S. foreign service posts in the
Gulf region as well as with area governments.
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EPA
Established and Chairs a high-level coordinating council addressing the environmental problems in the
Persian Gulf.
Council is composed of DNA, DOE, DOS, EPA, HHS, NASA, NOAA, NSF, OSHA, and
USCG.
Council will provide guidance to all efforts in the area and review overall progress.
Consult with the Department of State to assure overall program is consistent with U.S. policies in the
Middle East.
Provide liaison to DOD regarding logistics and military activities.
Convened an interagency working group to consolidate and maintain a current operational plan for all
activities. The atmospheric components of the plan have been compiled by NOAA and the health
components by HHS and EPA. This framework will be used to include other components of the work.
With the active participation of other agencies, coordinate a communications plan which shall, among
other things, describe activities, timing of press announcements, notification of pertinent agencies of
press-related activities, and provide periodic updates. Provide central coordination for Congressional,
press and citizen inquiries. EPA will refer specific questions to key individuals designated by the
agencies for preparation of response, as appropriate. Coordinate and work with other agencies to
publish press releases detailing status of activities.
In collaboration with other agencies, prepare special reports mandated by Congress.
In collaboration with NOAA, coordinate with DOS the agencies' missions to the region, their purpose,
individuals travel, and requests for country clearance. Assist DOS in briefing host governments and
embassies concerning these missions and plans.
Coordinate with non-governmental organizations interested in the regional environment.
In collaboration with the other agencies, coordinate the preparation of an integrated research program
plan.
Develop budget plan for EPA and coordinate development of an interagency budget plan to assess
overall U.S. level of effort, and actively pursue funding options, including international assistance and
work under the Kuwaiti-Army Corps reimbursable agreement.
Provide technical support and training, as required, in ground and aerial monitoring and other in
environmental areas such as solid and hazardous wastes, drinking water, ground water, and information
management.
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FWS
Coordinate all wildlife efforts in an effective manner through development of a Wildlife Response Plan.
Conduct assessments of contaminated or potentially contaminated habitats, providing remedial
techniques, as well as protective measures and prioritization of implementation.
Participate as a member of Planning Committee of the Oil Spill Response Group.
Provide technical expertise for the development of natural resource damage assessments.
HHS
Coordinate U.S. activities related to WHO work in the Gulf. Serve as liaison to WHO. This includes
compiling and maintaining current a list and descriptions of active and proposed projects covered under
the WHO plan.
Oversee and coordinate with work of EPA, NOAA, and other agencies in public health epidemiology
and health research including food safety.
Provide technical support and training, as required, to host governments regarding toxicology, food
safety, epidemiology, exposure and disease surveillance, computing health data, and public health
infrastructure.
In collaboration with NOAA and EPA, initiate the development of a public health and public
health-related environmental data management systf n.
Evaluate and develop, as appropriate, quality assurance protocols for data collection, data management,
and evaluation for heath related studies.
Act as liaison to DOD regarding health studies.
Develop, as appropriate, studies on U.S. citizens exposed to smoke who have returned from the Gulf
region.
Develop, as appropriate, a library of documents of public health and public health-related
environmental data applicable to the Gulf region.
NASA
In collaboration with NOAA, conduct planned atmospheric sampling missions to the area.
NIST
In collaboration with NOAA, conduct planned near-field fire source characterization and plume
sampling missions to the area.
Work with NOAA on "merged plume" trajectory modeling techniques.
Evaluate protocols for QA/QC of sample analysis in coordination with EPA, NOAA, and HHS.
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B-4
NOAA
Provide interagency coordination for U.S. activities relating to the WMO Plan of Action for the Kuwait
Oil Fires and the IOC Plan of Action for the Gulf Oil Spills.
In collaboration with EPA, coordinate with the Department of State and appropriate agencies missions
to the region, their purpose, individuals travelling and requests for country clearance. Assist DOS in
briefing host governments and embassies concerning these missions and plans.
Coordinate U.S. activities related to WMO work in the Gulf. Serve as liaison to WMO. This includes
compiling and maintaining current a list and descriptions of active and proposed projects covered under
the WMO plan.
Coordinate work of EPA, NASA, MIST, NSF, and other agencies on air quality monitoring and
modeling and the preparation of an evaluated interagency research program. Provide scientific
oversight of aerial sampling program, and provide scientific and technical program integration,
including convening scientific meetings to discuss atmospheric and marine findings.
Provide continuing plume trajectory modeling and assist Kuwait and Saudi Arabia in establishing and
operating an early warning system. Assist Kuwait in restoring meteorological capabilities.
Coordinate with EPA and HHS to assure air quality work and health effects work are integrated in
U.S. activities and in the WMO plan
Provide technical support and training, as required, to host governments regarding modeling and
atmo ipheric issues.
Provide technical support and training, as required, to host governments regarding the effects of the oil
spill in the marine environment.
In collaboration with NSF and HHS, initiate the development of a data management system for all
atmospheric and health information.
NSF
Coordinate university and National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) participation in the aerial
sampling and modeling programs.
Work with NOAA, NASA, NIST, DOE, DNA, HHS, and EPA to develop an interagency atmospheric
effects research program.
Coordinate agency support, as appropriate, of university and NCAR participation in the atmospheric
effects research program.
Collaborate with NOAA in the development of a data management system for the aerial monitoring
program.
OSHA
Provide technical support and training, as required, to host governments regarding worker protection
and safety.
Provide technical assistance and information on occupational health hazards to federal agencies planning
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B-5
missions in the Gulf region.
USCG
Coordinate U.S. activities related to IMO work in the Gulf.
Through the end of July, continue OSC presence in-country. After that, technical support and training,
as required, will be provided by IMO to host governments regarding contaminated and mitigation of oil
spills.
Encourage and work with ROPME and GCC to achieve a better preparedness for oil spills in the Gulf.
Based on the experience gained in the response to the oil spills, oversee and define specific research
needs for containment and cleanup activities, and assure that experience and findings are available to
relevant U.S. agencies.
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U.S. Government's Functions and Current Activities in the Gulf
Agency Health Data
Collection/Analysis
Environmental Data
Collection/Analysis
Management and
Operations
EPA Interagency Agreement with NOAA
to provide real-time sulfur dioxide
and particulate monitors for the
early warning systems in Kuwait
City
In conjunction with WHO, establish
protocols, surveys, and training for
Kuwaiti scientists to measure 24-
hour personal exposures to indoor
and outdoor concentrations of PM10
to determine the potential human
impact from exposures
Sample and data analysis of joint
NASA and EPA helicopter
experiments to characterize oil fire
emissions near the source
Provide technical support and
training, as required, in other areas
such as solid and hazardous wastes,
drinking water, and information
management
Provide technical support and
training, as required, in ground and
aerial air quality monitoring
Analyses of air quality samples from
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia at EPA
research laboratories
Continue to provide technical support
and training, as required, in areas
such as solid and hazardous waste
management, drinking water,
bioremediation, and Geographic
Information Systems
Supply assistance, as required, to
international environmental damage
assessment efforts
Interagency Agreement with NSF to
analyze aircraft data obtained by
University of Washington and the
National Center for Atmospheric
Research
Coordinate interagency
communications plan
Collaborate with other agencies to
prepare reports for Congress (60-Day
Report, March 92 Report)
Coordinate integrated research
program plan
Coordinate development of
interagency budget plan
Coordinate with DOS agencies'
missions to Gulf region
Chair high-level coordinating council
Coordinate overall U.S. Government
technical assistance to Gulf nations
through the EPA Gulf Task Force.
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C-2
Agency Health Data
Collection/Analysis
Environmental Data
Collection/Analysis
Management and
Operations
NOAA Provide continuing plume trajectory
modeling and »ssi«t Kuwait and
Saudi Arabia in establishing an
early warning system
In collaboration with NSF and
HHS, develop a data management
system for all atmospheric and
health information
Provide technical support and
training, as required, to host
governments regarding modeling and
atmospheric issues, and the effects of
the oil spill in the marine
environment
Coordinate air quality and
meteorological monitoring and
assessment program under the
international UN World
Meteorological Organization (WMO)
plan
Erected a network of 16
meteorological towers provided by
DOE/Oak Ridge National Laboratory
to measure atmospheric conditions
surrounding Kuwait City, to model
the lofting and dispersion of the
smoke, and to transfer data to an
analysis center in Kuwait City for the
Early Warning System
Continue to coordinate the WMO air
monitoring and assessment plan
Continue to assist the Saudi and
Kuwaiti governments with
meteorological technical assistance
Output* from the 16 meteorological
centers are used to guide the
interpretations of forecasts generated
by NOAA in the United States
Coordinate interagency activities
relating to WMO plan for Kuwaiti oil
fires and IOC Plan of Action for the
Gulf oil spills
Coordinate EPA, NSF, MIST,
NASA, and other agencies' work on
air monitoring and modeling
Provide scientific oversight of aerial
sampling program
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C-3
Agency
Health Data
Collection/Analysis
Environmental Data
Collection/Analysis
Management and
Operations
HHS
Provide technical support and
training, ai required and funds
permit, to host governments
regarding toxicology, food safety,
epidemiology, exposure and disease
surveillance, computing health data,
and public health infrastructure
Develop, as appropriate and funds
permit, studies on U.S. citizens
exposed to smoke who have
returned from the Gulf region
Collaborate with NOAA and EPA
to develop a public health and
public health-related environmental
data management system as funds
permit
Evaluate and develop, as
appropriate and as funds permit,
quality assurance protocols for data
collection, data management and
evaluation for health related studies
Develop, as appropriate and as
funds permit, a library of
documents of public heal' i and
public health-related environmental
data applicable to the Gulf region
Prepare and revise public health
advisories related to burning oil
wells in Kuwait
Work with the Kuwait Ministry of
Public Health to determine the
health risks from exposure to the air
pollution produced by the oil well
fires
Oversee and coordinate EPA,
NOAA, and other agencies' work in
public health epidemiology and health
research, including food safety
Act as liaison to DOD regarding
health studies
DOE
Prepared a report, entitled,
"Assessment of Effects on Human
Health from Kuwaiti Oil Field
Fires' (March 29, 1991), which
estimated the human health effects
caused by the oil well fires using
the meteorological conditions
experienced in the region
Conduct analyses and assessments
of impacts of air pollution on
human health
Funded NASA/EPA helicopter
monitoring of emissions
Collaborate with NOAA, NET, and
NASA to conduct planned
atmospheric sampling missions to the
Gulf region
Financially supported the NSF
atmospheric research effort aboard
the University of Washington's
aircraft and the NSF's Lockheed
Electra
Capability to update and modify
dispersion model using data collected
by NOAA, NET, and EPA to
accurately predict exposures
Coordinate oil well control
technologies and inquires
Ongoing development and adaptation
of technologies for explosive
ordnance disposal and extinguishing
and capping oil wells
-------
C-4
Agency
Health Data
Collection/Analysis
Environmental Data
Collection/Analysis
For one month, suiting July 22,
DOE will fly a series of missions to
measure plume
transformation/removal rates and to
characterize the chemical and
physical state of the plume over a
range of distances. This research will
complement the NSF mission by
studying a different weather regime
and the longer distances from the
Three DOE laboratories are involved
in the one month DOE aircraft
mission. Lawrence Livennore
National Laboratory provides real
time forecasts of plume behavior for
the NSF-led mission, the DOE effort,
and will continue to provide these
forecast* to Gulf nations as required.
Management and
Operations
Providing assistance in obtaining
logistical support for the rapid and
sustained deployment of well
control/fire-fighting equipment
Reviewing and providing technical
comments on proposals for new and
innovative methods for responding to
the oil well fires.
OSHA
Assessment of potential worker
safety needs for U.S. government
personnel and civilians working in
the Gulf region
Provide technical support and
training, as required, to host
governments regarding worker
protection and safety
Provide technical ariistance and
information on occupational health
hazards to federal agencies planning
missions in the Gulf region
NSF
Coordinate university and National
Center for Atmospheric Research
(NCAR) participation in the aerial
sampling and modeling
Collaborate with NOAA in the
development of a data management
system for the aerial monitoring
program
Collaborate with NOAA in the
development of a data management
system for the aerial monitoring
program
Collaborate with NOAA, NIST,
NASA, DOE, DNA, WHS, and EPA
to develop an interagency
atmospheric effects research program
NASA
Collaborate with NOAA to conduct
planned atmospheric sampling
missions to the area
Participated in U.S. airborne
observations aboard University of
Washington's C-131A aircraft, using
multi-wavelength scanning
radiometers to measure the upwelling
and downwelling of solar radiative
fluxes, visual depths, and scattering
properties of aerosols
-------
C-5
Agency Health Data
Collection/Analysis
Environmental Data
Collection/Analysis
Performed near-field source sampling
using helicopter sampling equipment
with EPA funded by DOE
Management and
Operations
NIST
Collaborate with NOAA to conduct
planned near-field fire source
characterization and plume sampling
missions to the area
Evaluate protocols for QA/QC of
sample analysis in coordination with
EPA, NOAA, and HHS
Collaborate with NOAA to develop
"merged plume* trajectory modeling
techniques
DOS
Provide guidance on all foreign
policy-related aspects
Serve as conduit for policy and other
official communications to Embassies
and international organizations
Facilitate U.S. country clearances
and general coordination activities
DNA
Coordinate the DOD logistics support
to interagency atmospheric effects
research program
Collaborate with NSF, NOAA,
NIST, DOE, and NASA in the
atmospheric effects research program
Provide technical support, as
required, to the interagency working
groups
USCG
Lead agency for USIAT oil discharge
emergency response efforts. Lead
international team for HAT discharge
response efforts.
Technical support and training with
IMO to host governments regarding
mitigation of oil spills
Coordinate IMO work in the Gulf
Work with ROPME and GCC to
achieve a better preparedness
for oil spills in the Gulf
-------
D-l
OIL DISCHARGE AND FIRES RESPONSE PERSONNEL FROM THE UNITED STATES
NAME
EPA
William Reilly
Gordon Binder
Dave Cohen
Dale Jerome
Jim Makris
KenStroech
BUI Hunt
Willie McLeod
Phil Campagna
Alan Humphrey
Dr. Tim Oerrity
Andy Bond
FredStroud
Bob Caron
Hal Kibby
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Administrator
Chief of Staff
Special Assistant
Special Assistant
Director, Chemical
Emergency
Preparedness and
Prevention Office
Chief, General
Preparedness Programs
Chief, Monitoring and
Reports Branch
Chemist, Environmental
Monitoring Lab
Chemist, Safety and Air
Surveillance Section
ERT Environmental
Scientist, Site
Investigation Section
Chief, Human
Dosimetry Section of
the Clinical Research
Branch, Human Studies
Div.
(ORD/OHR/HERL)
Chemist, Environmental
Monitoring Lab
Senior On-Scene
Coordinator, Reg. 4
On-Scene Coordinator,
Region 3 (Philadelphia)
DURATION OF TRIP
5/31-6/5
5/31 - 6/5
5/31 - 6/5
5/31 - 6/5
3/10 - 3/22
5/31-6/5
4/15 - 5/6 (Saudi
Arabia)
3/12-4/11
5/31 - 6/5
4/15 - 5/5
3/10-3/26
3/10 - 3/26
3/10 - 3/26
5/31 - 6/5
3/10 - 4/13
5/1 - 6/5
1/27-2/28
3/18 - 4/26
PURPOSE
Official Visit
Official Visit
Official Visit
Official Visit
EPA Team Leader
Official Visit
EPA Team Leader
Provide technical
assistance and guidance
to Gulf nations in
response to fires
Official Visit
Air monitoring
Provide technical
assistance and guidance
to Gulf nations in
response to fires
Provide technical
assistance and guidance
to Gulf nations in
response to fires
Provide technical
assistance and guidance
to Gulf nations in
response to fires
Provide technical
assistance and guidance
to Gulf nations in
response to fires
EPA Team Leader
Assist USIAT in spill
assessment
Advisor to KFUPM
Science Committee;
provided tech. advice to
MEPA; took place of
FWS rep. after he'
departed
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
Senate Testimony 6/1 1
N/A
N/A
N/A
Interagency Interim
Report
Senate Testimony
Interagency Interim
Report
Interagency Interim
Report
Interagency Interim
Report
Interagency Interim
Report
Interagency Interim
Report
Interagency Interim
Report
Interagency Interim
Report
-------
D-2
NAME
Matthew Naud
(contract support)
Jon Schweiss
Joe Pinto
Bob Stevens
Steve Levy
DewayneKnott
NOAA
Dr. Sylvia Earle
John Robinson
Cmdr. Fnncesca Cava
Dr. J.R. Spradley
Peter HU1
Dr. Barbara Bailey
George E. Start
Will Pendergrass
Jeff McQueen
Jerrold F. Sagendorf
Lisa Symons
TITLE/EXPERTISE
EPA Emergency
Operations Center
contract support, ICF
Inc.
Research Scientist
Research Scientist
Special Assistant,
Municipal and
Industrial Solid Waste
Div., OSW
Biologist
Chief Scientist
Director, NOAA Gulf
Program Office
Special Assistant to the
Under Secretary for
Oceans and
Atmosphere, DOC
Counselor to the Under
Secretary for Oceans
and Atmosphere, DOC
Gulf Program Office
Scientific Coordinator
NOAA/ARL/FRD
Meteorologist
Director, NOAA Field
Office - Scientist, Oak
Ridge National Labs,
Regional Coordinator,
NOAA Field Office,
Kuwait City
NOAA/ARL
Meteorologist
Director, NOAA Field
Office
Gulf Program Office
DURATION OF TRIP
4/25 - 6/6
4/1 - 4/21
7/22 - 8/12
7/22 - 8/12
7/9 - 7/24
5/1 - 5/22
3/13 - 3/17
5/31-6/5
8/19 - 8/29
5/6 - 5/13
6/3-6/9
8/19 - 9/3
5/7 - 5/13
8/19 - 8/29
9/23 - 9/27
5/7 - 5/16
8/18 - 9/2
8/18 - 8/31
3/11 - 4/8
4/3 - 5/22
6/4 - 8/29
9/11 - 10/2
5/15 - 6/4
8/23 - 9/30
8/10 - 9/30
PURPOSE
Technical and
administrative support
Install portable PMU
monitor system
Perform near-field
helicopter plume
measurement*
Perform near-field
helicopter plume
measurements
Assess solid and
hazardous waste
management practices
in Kuwait
Meet with officials and
discuss oil spill and
fires
Field visits
Meet with officials and
discuss oil spill and
fires
Meet with officials and
discuss oil spill and
fires
Meet with officials and
discuss oil spill and
fires
NOAA Team Leader
NOAA Team Leader
NOAA Team Leader
NOAA Team Leader
Assistant to NOAA
Team Leader
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
Not yet written
Not yet written
On file
-------
D-3
NAME
Pun Bondeson
(contractor)
Dr. Robert C. Clark
Steve Leamann
Dr. Gordon Thayer
David Auble
Frederick Weldon
Kenneth N. Clark
J. Randall White
Dr. Richard M.
Eckman
Dr. Charlei Henry
LCDR. David Kruth
LCDR. Michael
Henderson
LT Robert S. Pape
CMDR. Todd Baxter
LT John Miller
Joseph Talbott
George Frank
Jacqueline Michel
(contractor)
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Contractor-NCAA
Research
Oceanographer, NOAA
National Marine
Fisheries Service
NOAAHAZMAT
Scientific Support
Coordinator
Acting Director, NOAA
National Marine
Fisheries Service
Restoration Center
NOAA/ARL/ATDD
Engineer
National Weather
Service
National Weather
Service
NOAA/ARL/ATDD
Computer Scientist
NOAA/ARL/ATDD
Meteorologist
Professor, Louisiana
State University
Logistics Officer,
NOAA Corps
NOAA Corps
NOAA Corps
NOAAHAZMAT
Scientific Support
Coordinator
NOAA HAZMAT
Scientific Support
Coordinator
NOAA computer
programmer
NOAA
Hazmat/Research
Planning Inc.
DURATION OF TRIP
7/7 - 8/13
5/9 - 5/20
5/11-6/15
5/9 - 5/16
5/11 - 5/21
5/29 - 7/15
5/29 - 8/14
5/28-6/26
8/10 - 8/28
8/8 - 8/18
5/12 - 5/30
July/August
6/1 - 8/8 (Kuwait)
9/14 - 9/30
5/25 - 7/2 (Bahrain)
7/18 - 9/6 (Bahrain)
6/11 - 7/29 (SA)
7/28 - 9/1 (Kuwait)
7/27 - 8/29 (SA)
8/5 - 9/4
5/9 - 6/4
PURPOSE
Assistant to NOAA
Team Leader
USIAT primary advisor
to Environmental
Assessment subgroup of
the Scientific Group
Met tower planning
Met tower installation
Met tower installation
Met tower installation
Met tower installation
NASA/EPA chemical
composition of plume
Point of contact for
coordination purposes
Point of contact for
coordination purposes
Point of contact for
coordination purposes
Scientific advisor on
shoreline cleanup
Scientific advisor on
shoreline cleanup
Point of contact for
coordination purposes
Setting up part of the
hazardous warning
system
Address oil spill related
environmental issues -
salt marshes,
mangroves
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
-------
D-4
NAME
Dr. William J. Lehr
Dr. Jerry A. Gait
LCDR Gary Petrae
GaryOtt
Anthony Geidt
Jay Rodstein
CDR Van Den Berg
ACE
Jerry Greener
Bob Hopman
Capt. Carey Hill
FWS
Don Kane
NASA
Joel Levine
Francisco Valero
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Oceanographer, NOAA
Hazmat
NOAAHA2MAT
NOAA Scientific
Support Coordinator
NOAA Scientific
Support Coordinator
NOAA Attorney
NOAA Scientific
Support Coordinator
NOAA Scientific
Support Coordinator
USIAT, Primary
advisor to Offshore
Skimming Group
USIAT, Primary
advisor to Offshore
Skimming Group
Fish and Wildlife
Biologist
Chief, Atmospheric
Physics Research
Branch
DURATION OF TRIP
2/2-3/5
5/9 - 5/21 (SA)
1/27-2/3
9/24 - 9/24
9/22 - 9/26
1/27-2/28
3/18 - 4/24
5/9 - 5/16
2/21 - 3/25 (SA)
4/15 - 5/20 (SA)
1/27-2/3
2/3-2/28
3/18 - 4/26
1/30-3/31
5/9 - 5/17
5/7 - 6/10 (Bahrain)
PURPOSE
USIAT - Primary
advisor to Spill
Modeling and
Forcasting Subgroup of
the Scientific Group
USIAT - Primary
advisor to Spill
Modeling and
Forcasting Subgroup of
the Scientific Group
USIAT - Primary
advisor to
Environmental
Assessment Subgroup
of the Scientific Group
USIAT - represented
NOAA, interpreted
SLAR data, provided
NOAA with input for
maps, advisor to
KFUPM Science
Committee
USIAT primary advisor
to Environmental
Assessment subgroup of
the Sc< ntific Gro;.p
USIAT primary advisor
to Environmental
Assessment subgroup of
the Scientific Group
.
USIAT - Provided
liaison with
CENTCOM and Army
activities
Develop wildlife
response plan and
conduct natural
resource damage
assessment
:
Study effects of oil fires
on atmosphere
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
-------
D-5
NAME
Peter FSlewsfcie
Warren J.Y. Gore
Dr. Michael D. King
Wesley (Randy) Gofer
m
EdWinstead
(contractor)
DaaSebacber
(contractor)
DOE
JakeHalea
Peter Daum
KenBuioeM
Robert Hannigan
CarlBentrom
Mike Warren
Stan Tomich
HHS
Dr. Ruth Etzel
Dr. John Andrewi
Dr. Paul Seligman
Uoyd Johnson
USCG
Capt. Donald Jenaen
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Reaearch Sciential,
Atmospheric Physics
Reaearch Branch
Electronic Eagiaeer,
Atmoapheric Phyaica
Reaearch Branch
Climate and Radiation
Branch, NASA
Goddard Space Flight
Center
Senior Reaearch
Sciential
Reaearch Sciential
Reaearch Sciential
Department
Manager/ Atmospheric
Chemiatry
Reaearch
Sciential/ Almoapheric
Cbemiatry
Development
Engineer/ Aircraft
Instrumentation
•••—•""•• ••
Chief Pilot
Aircraft Mechanic
Co-pilot
Development
Engineer/ Aircraft
Computer Syitema
Medical Epidemiologist
Medical Epidemiologiit
Medical Epidemiologiat
Superviaory Chemist,
FDA
USCG Research and
Development Center
DURATION OF TRIP
5/7 - 6/10 (Bahrain)
5/7 - 6/10 (Bahrain)
5/7 - 6/10 (Bahrain)
7/18 - 8/12
7/18 - 8/12
7/18 - 8/12
7/24 -8/3
7/24 - 8/28
7/24 - 8/28 '
7/21 - 8/30
7/21 - 8/30
7/21 - 8/30
7/24 - 8/28
5/1 - 6/2 (Kuwait City)
2/15-3/21
3/10-4/1
5/10 - 5/15
1/27 - 2/28
PURPOSE
Study effect* of oil firea
on atmoaphere
Study effecta of oil firea
on atmoaphere
Study effecta of oil firea
on atmoaphere
•k
Perform near-field
beticopter plume
measurements
Perform near-field
helicopter plume
measurement*
helicopter plume
meaaurementa
Perform aircraft plume
meaaurementa
Perform aircraft plume
meaaurementa
Perform aircraft plume
meaaurementa
Operate G-l aircraft
Maintain G-l aircraft
Operate G-l aircraft
Perform aircraft plume
Aaaeaa air pollution
health effecta
Aaaeaa health hazards
Aaaeaa air pollution
health effecta
• -
Chief- USIAT;
Primary advisory to Dr.
Tawfiq; spokesperson
for USIAT
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
Not yet written
Not yet written
Not yet written
Report on file
Report on file
Interim Report
after action report
-------
D-6
NAME
Capt. Luchun
LCDRKeane
CDR Donohoe
CDR Schriner
LCDR Glenn Wiltshire
CWORickMeidt
PA1 Kalnbach
LCDR Jack Kemerer
LCDR Henderson
DC1 Schultz
LT Howard White
LTJG Michael A.
Megan
CDR Whipple
MK1 Wyan
LCDR Jeny Kirchner
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Chief, Second
Contingent USIAT
Executive Officer,
Pacific Strike Team
Commanding Officer,
CG Marine Safety
Office (Memphis)
IMO Liaison Officer,
Caribbean section
USCG Commanding
Officer Atlantic Area
Strike Team
USCG Public
Information Assist
Team
USIAT Public Affairs
Specialist and primary
advisor to Public
Information Staff
Officer
Executive Officer,
Pacific Strike Team
Chief, USIAT
USIAT
USIAT Air Liaison
Officer
USIAT Air Liaison
Officer
Commanding Officer,
Atlantic Strike Team
Member, Atlantic Strike
Team
Commanding Officer,
Gulf Strike Team
DURATION OF TRIP
2/22 - 4/9
2/22-3/9
2/3-2/28
1/27 - 2/28
1/27-2/3
2/4-2/28
5/23 - 7/31
3/18 - 4/26
3/18 - 4/26
3/18 - 4/26
3/18 - 4/26
4/19 - 5/23
5/18 - 7/1
5/18 - 7/1
PURPOSE
Chief -USIAT;
Primary advisory to Dr.
Tawfiq; spokesperson
for USIAT
Operations Officer,
second USIAT
contingent
USIAT liaison to
P«Krain, Qatar, and
UAE
Executive Officer,
USIAT
USIAT NSF
representative and
primary advisor to
Chief, Response
Operations Department
USIAT Public Affairs
Specialist and primary
advisor to Public
Information Staff
Officer
Executive Officer,
USIAT
Directed US activities;
conducted liaison
w/gov't. agencies;
advised Tawfiq,
spokesperson for
USIAT
NSF rep. and advisor to
MEPA op. officer,
logistics, daily reports,
documentation, oil spill
response training
Planned and
coordinated all air
operations
Planned and
coordinated all air
operations
Executive Officer,
USIAT
NSF representative to
MEPA operations-
officer
Chief, USIAT
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
-------
D-7
NAME
LT Christopher J.
Stickney
CWO3 Stephen Kibner
AMC Frank E. Rankin
AT2 Frederick S.
Baker
CDR Thomas Sechler
LCDR Gary T. Blore
LT Robert J. Paulison
LT David M. Singer
LTJG Edward M.
Hayes
LTJG John E. Ludlum
CWO2JohnK.
McGuire
ADC Ronald L.
Kenipes
ATC Brad T. Smith
ADI Randall Coyne
ATI John Semersheim
AM2 Paul A. Pitcher
AE2 William N.
Clinton
AT2 Vincent C. Seidl
AE2 Stuart W. Stryker
AT2 Bruce D.
Verfaillie
AM3 George V.
Beckham
AD3 Stephen A.
Casale
YN3 James A. Clancy
AT3 Kenneth D.
McAuley
ADS Christopher J.
Wendt
LT Howard E. White
AE2 William K. Reid,
Jr.
LCDR Joseph M.
Touzin
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Yeoman
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Officer
Right Crew
Flight Crew
DURATION OF TRIP
2/16-4/11
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/9
2/16 - 4/16
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/9
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/9
2/16 - 4/9
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/3
2/16-4/11
2/16-4/11
2/16 - 4/9
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/9
2/16-4/11
2/16 - 4/9
2/16-4/11
2/16 - 4/3
2/16 - 4/9
2/16 - 4/9
2/21 - 4/16
2/16-4/11
4/3 - 5/5
PURPOSE
Clerical Support
Flight Officer assigned
to coordinate air
operations w/USIAT
and HAT ' .
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
-------
D-8
NAME
LCDR James A.
Peoples
LTJG Michael A.
Megan
LT Timothy J.
Cunningham
LCDR Robert C.
Boetig
AE3 Joel R. Allen
AM3 Roger D. Boone
AMI Edward D. Bums
YN3 Donald R.
Chenevert
ADI Gary Connolly
AE2 Richard A.
Couture
ATS Sam I. Dube
AMC Joseph E.
Ferguson
AT3 Robert T. Hodges
AD3 Bion I. Holbrook
AT2 Robert L.
Johnson
AD3 James C.
Mosiman
ADI Donald R.
Peterson
ATCS Barry P.
Philippy
AM3 Charles E.
Sexton
AE1 Donald H. Taylor
DOD (USAEHA)
Lawrence D. Clark
John Cockayne
2LT Emil J. Dzuray
Robert Flory
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Flight Crew
Flight Officer
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Yeoman
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Flight Crew
Analytical Chemistry
Atmospheric Scientist
Sanitary Engineer
Program Coordinator
and Facilitator
DURATION OF TRIP
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
4/3 - 5/5
5/23 - 7/31
5/10 - 6/10
5/8 - 7/19
5/10 - 6/2
PURPOSE
Assigned to coordinate
air operations w/USIAT
and DAT.
Clerical Support
Quality assurance and
supervision for sample
accession
Planned and
coordinated air
operation
Operated ambient air
monitoring station*
Planned and
coordinated air
operations
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
N/A
N/A
-------
D-9
NAME
Mymuth B. Fortune
Charles Gallaway
John Guest
Jack M. Heller
1LT Brian W. Higgins
1LT John A. lames
SGT William B. Jones
CPT Elmer S. Kaiser
LTC WendeU C. King
1LT David B. Martin
1LT Kenneth R. Mead
LTC George R.
Murnyak
Daniel G. Noble
Lieutenant Colonel
Vayl Oxford
MAJ Lester Y. Pilcher
SPC Shawn L.
Pinsonneault
CPT Roger I. Rudolph
PFC Brian Rudyk
CPT Brian G. Scott
Nathan A. Shero
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Industrial Hygiene
Program Manager -
weapons effect
Scientist - Radiation
effect
Team Chief -Health
Risk Assessment
Sanitary Engineer
Sanitary Engineer
Medical Lab Specialist
Environmental Science
Ah- Pollution
Engineering
Sanitary Engineer
Sanitary Engineer -
Industrial Hygiene
Environmental Science
- Industrial Hygiene
Chemistry
Military Assistant to
Deputy Director
Sanitary Engineer
Medical Laboratory
Specialist
Environmental Science
Preventive Medicine
Specialist
Physician -
Occupational and
Environmental
Medicine
Lab Technician
DURATION OF TRIP
5/8 - 6/22
5/10 - 6/2
5/16 - 6/10
5/2-5/25
5/2 - 7/10
7/23 - present
7/2 - present
7/23 - present
7/23 - present
5/8 - 7/10
5/8 - 6/19
5/2 - 6/17
5/9 - 7/10
5/10 - 6/2
5/2 - 7/10
7/23 - present
5/2 - 6/27
7/23 - present
5/2-5/25
5/16 - 7/10
PURPOSE
Quality assurance and
technical support for
sampling
Planned and
coordinated air
operations
Radiation measurements
Design and direct health
risk assessment
monitoring
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Theater Team
Chief/direct and control
operations
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Quality assurance and
technical support for
sampling
Quality assurance and
technical support for
sampling (supervisory)
Quality assurance and
supervision for sample
accession
Coordination of air
operations
Theater Team
Chief/direct and control
operations
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Medical advisor.to
Health Risk Assessment
Team Chief
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
N/A
Data analysis in
preparation
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
-------
D-10
NAME
Michael Snapp
Anthony D. Wagner
CPT Clark H. Weaver
Keith I. Williams
Kenneth E. Williams
2LT Delton Willis
1LT Robert C. Craft
MAJ Charles E.
Goodman
Richard S. Price
CPT D. Gustavison
SSG D. Harris
CPT B. Scott
MAI R. Broadhurst
Dr. V. Kalasinsky
SGT R. Conway
PFC B. Larman
NET
Dr. D.D. Evans
Daniel Madrzykowski
Dr. G.W. Mulholland
OSHA/DOL
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Meteorologist
Chemistry
Environmental Science
- Industrial Hygiene
Environmental Science
Chemistry
Environmental Science
Environmental Science
Environmental Science
Medical Item Disposal
Instruction System
Physician (Resident),
Occupational Medicine
Toxicology Technician
Physician, Occupational
Medicine
Physician (Resident),
Occupational Medicine
Environmental
Toxkologist
Practical Nurse
Medical Lab Specialist
Head, Fire Suppression
Research, Building &
Fire Research (BFRL)
Mechanical Engineer,
BFRL
Research Chemist,
BFRL
DURATION OF TRIP
5/10 - 6/7
6/10 - 7/26
5/16 - 7/30
7/2 - 8/30
5/2 - 6/17
5/16 - 7/30
9/6 - undetermined
9/6 - undetermined
9/6 - undetermined
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
8/6 - 8/17 (Kuwait)
5/11-5/17
5/11-5/17
5/11-5/17
PURPOSE
Forecasting
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Quality assurance and
supervision for sample
accession
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Theater Team
Chief/direct and control
operations
Operated ambient air
monitoring station
Associate Investigator
Non-commissioned
Officer incharge of
quality assurance
Associate
Investigator/Project
Officer
Medical Testing
Associate
Investigator/Medical
Testing
Medical
Testing/Courier
Medical Testing/Sample
Preparation
Perform ground-based
near field flame
measurements
Perform ground-based
near field flame
measurements
Perform ground-based
near field flame '
measurements
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
June 1992
Jure 1992
June 1992
June 1992
June 1992
June 1992
June 1992
November 1991
November 1991
Report of Test FR
3985 June 1991
-------
D-ll
NAME
Earl Cook
Thomas Marple
TITLE/EXPERTISE
Industrial Hygienist on
Health Response Team
OSHA Manager
DURATION OF TRIP
5/8 - 5/23
5/8 - 5/23
PURPOSE
Evaluate safety and
health aspects of
conditions related to
Desert Storm and oil
fires
Evaluate safety and
health aspects of '
conditions related to
Desert Storm and oil
fires
TRIP
REPORT/FINDINGS
yes
yes
-------
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