European Refuse Fired Systems Evaluation Of Design Practices Volume 1

3 21 Q> A C 0> •s 1 £ O> if to 0> •§ o X UJ #

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                                L-31
Sludge Drying Credit

          Of 30 refuse  burning systems  that Battelle researchers visited,
use the energy in the refuse to dry and/or destroy sewage. However, only at
Horsens  do  we have a clear and separably  reported sludge drying credit  — a
figure of $3.12 per refuse input ton.
Sale of Scrap Iron and Road Ash

          Ash residue is sold not only for revenue but also to eliminate  or
reduce the ash disposal  landfill expense. Therefore the  decision maker
should  add potential metal scrap and road aggregate revenue to the marginal
savings when less ash is landfilled.
          Unfortunately  we  do not have  enough economic data to conclude
that ash recycling is marginally beneficial or otherwise for the average
plant.   Where the refuse burning plant  is  located in a  steel producing
region that needs scrap for a melt or there is a shortage of conventional
road aggregate products the economics should be more attractive.
Interest on Reserves

          In a few systems more money is collected than spent. This results
in Contribution to Reserves which is akin to profit in a private enterprise
system.  This  figure is added to other expenses  so that total expenses equal
total revenues. This adding of "profit" to expenses is necessary to permit
comparisons among these varying plants with varying accounting systems.
          On the revenue side, interest on these previously collected and
invested reserves is added  in revenues.  In a few systems, this figure  is
surprisingly  high. When  averaged over  the four reporting plants,  the
average  is $3.01 per ton. But'when averaged over ten plants, the average  is
$.91 per ton.
          While mentioning  "profit",  we must  be careful.  Another way  to
view the numbers is to consider that  this public organization, owned  by
taxpayers, overcharged themselves. The extra recovery can:

          •   be invested  to produce  interest  revenue  which reduces net
              disposal costs
          •   be applied to dept reduction
          •   provide a cushion for future losses
          •   build a fund for addition of a new line or replacement of the
              entire facility.

Net Disposal Cost or Tipping Fee

          To use  a business  expression, the "bottom line" is the Net
Disposal Cost  or Tipping Fee. This is the resulting cost or burden borne  by
the  citizens, taxpayers and generators of waste. This is the figure used  to
compare techinical alternatives solid waste disposal (compost, landfilling,
materials recovery, waste-to-energy, etc.).

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                                L-32
         This  ranges upward from  a  low of $6.27 per ton at Paris: Issy.
However, this  is  not truly a comparable  figure  because  there  is no
depreciation expense shown since the plant is  owned by the city of  Paris.
Had normal  depreciation and  interest been included the net  disposal cost
would be well over $10 per ton.
         Uppsala, a refractory walled unit, (and not a water-tube wall)
shows the best net cost at $6.83 per ton for two reasons.  First, three of
the furnaces are old so the original capital investment cost to amortize is
small. Perhaps some equipment may be fully depreciated already. Then too,
many  claim that  original capital cost on the simpler refractory walled low
temperature energy systems are inherently lower than the complex water tube
wall-high  temperature steam  systems requiring expensive corrosion
protection.
         Second,  in addition to  having the lowest amortization costs,
Uppsala has the highest energy revenue per input  ton $11.70, of any visited
system.  This  is due to  the revenue  formula that parallels the cost of
foreign oil, storage costs,  50 mile transport costs and Swedish taxes. The
Swedes,  not having national energy  sources, have traditionally paid  more
for their energy.
         It is interesting to compare at this  point this "best" financial
result system  in our survey with  the U.S. system having the lowest net
cost. The  Babcock  and Wilcox - Detroit  Stoker system in Nashville,
Tennessee sells energy at about $35 per refuse input ton.  As a result, the
tipping  fees  need only  be  $.50 per cubic yard  or about $2.00 per ton. The
reader is cautioned not to overemphasize the Nashville results because of
the unique circumstances of its development, operating history, government
customers,  financing, promise to local taxpayers, etc.
         Comment should be made  on  the three highest  net cost systems.
Werdenberg-Liecetnstein's $48.25 per ton is the highest by far. The  vendor
knew  that  the  figure would be high  and so  stated to the community. The
community,  however,  considered  its scenic beauty  too  great to mar  witl
another  landfill. In addition, there was a most attractive Swiss federal
grant or low  interest loan program  that encouraged the community t<
participate.  The initial outside  funding for capital investment apparentl;
was emphasized  more than the long turn net disposal fees  needed to suppor
annual costs.
         We suggest that  the use of Federal and state legislation to tin
further objectives of resource  recovery take  into account the  discounter
long  term  effects of participation.   An analogy might be the wealthy fathe
who helps buy  his  17  year old son a Corvette  only  to later learn that th
son cannot  pay  the $500 per  year  insurance premium.
          A specific  reason for the high cost  at Werdenberg is  that cost
must  be divided by  only 120  ton  per day. This is  the only  plant surveye
that  we can clearly say suffers from diseconomies of  scale. A  single 12
tonne, (132 ton)  per day line with standby energy backup  is too  small.  Thi
is especially small  considering the diverse energy  uses (hot  water fo
district heating, steam for  the  chemical  plant and  electricity for tf
network).
 •  (1) Engdahl, R.  E. Nashville —
   (2) Lowe, R., McEwen, L. Nashville —

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                            L-33
         Despite the above economic pattern, these two researchers  love
the plant,  its community and complexity of system engineering. In a bold
manner we  state,  "There is no place in the world that you can see  more
intriguing  energy applications for a 132 ton per day  refuse input than
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein".
         Wuppertal with a $35.66  per ton net disposal cost is adversely
affected  today because of  concern  for the future capacity. Of its four
furnaces one  is  always down because of the Impact of sparce refuse supply
to the system. A second unit is'usually down for preventive  maintenance or
repairs. Thus the total costs for  this sophisticated electrical generating
plant with  four lines must  be supported with the activity in only two lines.
         Planners in other situations would have  built 3 units and left an
open bay  for a later 1th. Perhaps  refuse imput from a neighboring community
will increase  operations and spread  fixed expenses  over more tonnage.
         The  Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor  system  at  $22.55 per  ton has
unusually  high labor costs.  The  cost $11.95 per ton for operations and
maintenance labor and materials was the highest  in the  survey. A second'
observation was  that the  revenue of  $5.92 per ton from sale of energy  is  a
bit low.
         Zurich: Hagenholz achieved very reasonable and aceptable results
at  $12.66 per ton  for several  reasons.  Frankly  the  professional
administrative spirit of the Director is to be highly credited. A spirit of
pride  and  efficiency  pervades all activities.  Job positions must
continually  be justified. Total  operations and maintenance labor and
materials was  only $1.06 per ton,  the  lowest in the survey.  Comparatively,
the  interest  and depreciation  is  high at $15.31 per ton. This is consistent
with management's emphasis  favoring  purchase of what he considers to be the
best equipment to reduce  labor  and material needed  for  operations and
maintenance. Thirty-three (33)  separate design and  operation  decisions  were
identified specifically to reduce corrosion. As  a result,  the superheater
tubes have  suffered only 0.3 mm  (0.012 in) metal wastage  in five or six
years. Other  tubes have lost only 0.1 mm (0.004 in)  in  the same 30,000
hours. This is remarkable and has  proven that  high temperature steam, 788
F, can be  produced at a price with virtually no corrosion if proper design
and operation  decisions are made and carried through.
         Battelle staff have attempted to  analyze the wide variation in
results,  $6.27 up to $18.25 per ton, by manufacturer or prime vendor. While
averages can  be derived and arrayed, we feel that the local situations far
outweigh vendor importance. Besides  that, our sampling of only two  or three
plants per  vendor is not enough to develop significant conclusions.
         However,  it  should be  pointed out  that each of  the four
refractory wall systems performed better than the survey average. Yet the
two surveyed manufactures have not yet mounted an effective North  American
marketing  effort in recent times. At this  writing, Fall  1978, Brunn and
Sorenson has no North American representative.  Volund  has appointed a new
representative in Washington,  D.C.  It is our opinion that American resource
recovery competitions would benefit  by marketing efforts  also from  European
and  North  American manufactures of  refractory wall incinerator-waste heat
recovery boiler vendors.

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                               L-34
               Specific Comments About Expenses and Revenues
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

          The  detailed schedule of 1976 expenses  and revenues is presented
in Table L-13.
          These are important  financial numbers because they highlight
several facts. First, the plant  was built in part due to  the Swiss Federal
financing program that provided 70 percent of the capital investment.  Such
a gracious offering of funds  for  resource recovery spurred energy Swiss
communities to build systems that otherwise might not have been built.  Now
the law continues but the funds  have long been expended. This apparently  is
one  reason that construction of completely  new Swiss  systems to have
dramatically slowed.
          Second, researchers  were  told that the manufacturer had made it
clear to community officials that,  "This plant  is going to be expensive.
Citzens  hould expect to pay substantially more for resource recovery than
for open dumping."
          Third, the economics  of  scale of such a  small  120 tonne (132 ton)
per day plant  are poor.  Yet  the  plant design  is very  compact. It is  an
efficient way  to design and operate such a small sized plant.
          Fourth,  the amortization or  depreciation  of the  capital
investment alone is $24.04  per  ton. Adding interest  bring the total to
$35.61 per ton for principal and interest payments.
          Fifth, because  the plant  only operated during the 5-day week,
heating oil and gas must be used on weekends in the amount  of $3.35 per  ton
of incoming refuse.
          Unfortunately,  all expenses together result  in a $54.64 per ton
cost	the highest of visited  plants. The  sale  of  energy is only $5.80
per  ton which is slightly over  10 percent of total  costs. Here as at many
other co-generation  facilities,  the best economic decision is to produce
district heating energy  as  the  primary focus. Only  when  this demand falls
(as in the summer) does the focus  switch to electricity production.
          Waste oil processing produces 27,209 S.Fr.  ($11,101) revenue per
year. Selling  compost is almost  an  activity of  the past  because demand is
so low.  (This is not a  wine-growing region as at Biel, Switzerland). Sale
of scrap iron  brings in only $0.14  per refuse input ton.
          The end result is  a  net disposal  fee  of  $48.25  per ton, one of
the highest fees in  Europe.
          A more detailed picture  can be  seen  in  the  1977 estimate of
revenues as shown in Table L-14.   The tipping fee  assessed directly and
subsidized has been set lower  than  in 1976  due to anticipated lower costs.
This table of revenues showing the  12  sources of annual  revenues
dramatically portrays the revenue raising potential  for a single  120 tonne
per  day refuse  fired steam generator with  an oil-fired standby boiler.
Since the RFSG plant only operates  5 days  per week,  the  standby boiler is
regularly used. The  reader is again reminded that these  revenues  are for
the  total four-building complex. Dump fees for animal  waste and from sail
of compost are the only revenues not  tied  to  the RFSG.  Note that  revenues
are  expected to rise from  $54.64 (in 1976)  to $61.79 per  ton in  1977.

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                                            L-35

                   TABLE L-13.  OPERATIONS RESULTS  AT WERDENBERG-
                                  LIECHTENSTEIN FOR 197.6
                                                              1976 U.S.
  Operating expenses (labor)
  Building maintenance
  Equipment maintenance
  Compost facilities
  Refuse burning plant
  Animal incineration
  District heating lines
  Tools and furniture
  Truck maintenance
  Electricity
  Miscellaneous supplies
  Diesel oil
  Heating oil and gas
  Cleaning materials
  Lubricants
  Chemicals
  Scrap Iron disposal
  Gretschans landfill
  Buchserbert landfill
  Miscellaneous expense
  Special expense:  Canal  connection
  Insurance
  Administration
  Interest paid on loans
  Depreciation
  Budget planning
    TOTAL EXPENSES
                              3,832,817
  Traxarbeiten (?)                            244
  Abfur Fl+Sgs. (?)                          431
  Sale of compost                             468
  Sale of scrap iron                        9,555
  Used oil processing                      27,209
  Sale of heat (steam and hot water)       346,401
  Sale of electricity                      60,291
  General disposal fees                 3,384,849
  Balance (?)                               3,.363
    TOTAL REVENUES                      3,832,817
Example:
602.224 S.Fr.
  1 year
1 U.S. $
2.451 S.Fr,
   1 year   |  /1 Tonne ]
26,018 Tonne  I 1.1 Ton
                                                                -  $8.59/Ton
i.e.. Multiply all S.Fr./Year by  .0000142557  to obtain 1976 U.S. $/Ton

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                                      L-36
             TABLE L-14.  REVENUE ESTIMATE  FOR 1977 AT WERDENBERG

Unit Charge
Annual Old New
Volume (S.Fr.)(S.Fr.)
Dump Fee Household & Bulky
Waste 20,000 Tonnes 90 80
Dump Fee, Industrial Waste 3,000 Tonnes 120 100
Dump Fee, Animal Waste 300 Tonnes 150 150
Dump Fee, Scrap Iron 150 Tonnes 200 200
Subsidized Head Tax 76,685 People 12 10
Sale of Compost (1976 data)
Sale of Scrap Iron
Scale of Waste Oil
Sale of Warm Water (District Heating)
Sale of Steam (Chemical Industry Process
Sale of Electricity (1/2)
Internal Credit for Electricity (1/2)
TOTAL REVENUES
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Plant, Courtesy
Report, Widmer + Ernst (Alberti-Fonsar)
Example: 1,600,000 S.Fr. / 1 U.S. $ \
1 year [2.010 S.Fr.j


Steam) J
}
New
Revenue
(S.Fr.)
1.600,000
300,000
45,000
30,000
766,850
468
5,000
25,000
32,000
50,000
3.142,318
of the Society for Refuse Disposal,
1 year \ 1 1 Tonne]
23,450 ] 1 1.1 Ton]
- $31.463
1977 U.S.
$ Per
Ton
$ 31.46
5.90
0.89
0.59
15.08
0.01
0.10
0.49
6.29
0.98
61.79
1976 Annual

I.e., Multiply all  S.Fr./year numbers by .0000196645 to obtain 1976 U.S.  $/Ton

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                                L-37
Baden-Brugg

          Table L-15 shows that total revenue collected amounted to $25.25
per ton  in  1976.  This was $4.34 per  ton more  than expenses. This thus
results in a truer expense  figure of $20.91 per ton.
          Note that $18.63  per ton  was  collected  from  municipal
contributions. Perhaps this should be reduced by the above amount to $14.29
per ton  as  a  net  disposal fee to be  supported by the taxpayers. This
appears  most  impressive when one considers  that only 114 tonnes (125 tons)
per day are  processed over  the 365 day year.
          Some of  these expenses were to cover operations at the wastewater
treatment and  clarification plant. There were  other included expenses  to
cover waste  oil reception,  decantation and burning.
          With the exception of a small amount of  steam sent  to the
adjoining hazardous waste treatment  plant and the wastewater treatment
plant, the only real energy market is  electricity sale to the regional AEW
utility.  This  produced a $6.17 per tonne ($5.61 per ton) revenue.
          Assuming that 140,000 people  live  in the service area,  the net
cost  of  municipal solid waste disposal (not  including collection)  is
roughly $4.68  per person per year.
Duesseldorf

          The expenses  for 1975  shown in  Table  1-16 show  that the
combination of operations and maintenance about equals the amortization
expense; each being about 41  percent of the total $20.40 per  ton.
          A separate set of  1975  figures  show the  distribution of
maintenance into these three  categories:

          Maintenance by plant staff         23.5 percent
          Maintenance by outside contracts   51.1
          Maintenance materials              25.4
                                           100.0 percent

Management at Duesseldorf believes that maintenance costs can be minimized
by  supporting a minimal permanent  maintenance staff with heavy  use  of
outside contractors (51.1 percent).   A key  contractor is another  City
Department, the power plant.
          Revenue to the plant comes  from the sale of steam,  residue, and
scrap iron.
          The  city power system  considers the value of the steam received
to be 1.017 times the cost of the  coal  that would be needed to genereate
that  steam. In  1977, that amounted to 15  D.M./tonne ($6.30/ton) of steam
($2.86/1,000 Ib).
          Table  L-17 shows the plant  income  of 1975.  This table is most
important demonstration of resource  recovery revenues ratios. Without
hesitation, it  can be said of Duuesseldorf  that it has one of the most
advanced steel scrap and  ash processing systems in the world. Yet  steel
operations bring in only  10.8  percent of the total resource recovery
revenue (excluding tipping  fees)  while ash generates only 0.5 percent.

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                                       L-38

                       TABLE L-15.  OPERATING RESULTS FOR
                                    1976 AT BADEN-BRUGG
Expenses
Attendance Fees
Directors salaries
S.Fr. /Year
1,840
12,008
Staff salaries (regular) 818,263
Staff salaries (auxiliary) 6,900
Social insurance
108,476
Tool and Equipment Purchases 3,843
Office Supplies
Cleaning materials
Operating materials
Heating materials
7,477
771
16,260
10,797
Electricity and Water (RFSG) 42,084
Electricity (clarification plant) 62,144
Maintenance of machines
& devices 89,285
Maintenance of tools & furniture 5,164
Maintenance of buildings 6,044
Maintenance of vehicles
Transport ash removal
Landfill charge for ash
Vehicle expenses
Other material expenses
Telephone
1,497
93,729
67,473
3,477
594
1,799
Liability & property insurance 48,640
Bank service charge
Interest on debt
Amortization
2
382,645
559,725
"Contribution to reserves" 487,363
TOTAL EXPENSES
Revenues
2,838,300

Withdrawals from revenues 0
Interest on reserves
Rentals and leases*
2,443
11,841
Unemployment compensation 2,377
Sale of electricity
Various receipts
Municipal contributions
TOTAL REVENUES
693,121
34,094
2.094,424
2,838,300
S . Fr . /Tonne
0.04
0.29
19.63
0.17
2.60
0.09
0.18
0.02
0.39
0.26
1.01
1.49
2.14
0.12
0.14
0.04
2.25
1.62
0.08
0.01
0.04
1.17
-
9.18
13.43
11.69
68.08

0
0.06
0.28
0.06
16.62
0.82
50.24
68.08
U.S. $/Ton
$ 0.02
0.11
7.28
0.06
0.97
0.03
0.07
0.01
0.14
0.10
0.37
0.55
0.79
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.83
0.60
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.43
-
3.40
4.98
4.34
$ 25.25

0
$ 0.02
0.11
0.02
6.17
0.30
18.63
$ 25.25
*Lease of former Compost building to Fairtec, the hazardous waste processing
Example: 1,840 S.Fr.
1 Year
1 U.S. $ \| 1 Year
2.451 S.Fr. 141,693 Tonnes
1 Tonne]
1.1 Tonj
Percent (2)
0.06
0.42
28.83
0.24
3.83
0.14
0.26
0.03
0.57
0.38
1.48
2.19
3.16
0.19
0.21
0.05
3.30
2.38
0.12
0.02
0.06
1.71
-
13.48
19.72
17.17
100.00

0
0.09
0.42
0.08
24.42
1.20
73.79
100.00
plant.
$0.04 per Tonne
i.e., Multiply all  S.Fr. numbers by .0000088961 to obtain 1976 U.S. $/Ton.

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                                       L-39
               TABLE L-16.  COSTS OF THE WASTE BURNING FACILITY
                            AT DUESSELDORF, 1975
                                                       D.M.
                U.S. 1975  Percent
                $ per Ton   (^)
Operating expense including 80 percent overhead
  on salaries and wages and 10 percent overhead
  on other costs

Maintenance expense with overhead

Miscellaneous expense with overhead

Operational fee surcharge of 5 percent without
   2,707,858.03  $ 3.16    16.19

   4,216,217.39    4.92    25.19

     763,636.37    0.89     4.56
electricity, water, or fuel
Management fee of Sanitation Department
Insurance
Electricity, water
Fuel
Ash and scrap hauling
Principal payback plus interest
TOTAL
256,511.93
321,157.70
130,190.00
1,267,719.68
2,152.85
126,695.16
6,944,611.78
16,736,650.89
0.30
0.37
0.15
1.48
-
0.15
8.10
$19.52
1.53
1.92
0.78
7.57
o.oi
0.76
41.49
100.00
Example:  2.707,858.03 D.M.
              1 Year
1 Year
1 U.S. $  \
2.622 D.M.I  | 297,359 Tonnes
 Tonne I
.1  Ton/
                        $3.16/ton
i.e., Multiply all D.M./year numbers by .0000011659 to obtain 1975 U.S.  $/Ton

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                                        L-40
                    TABLE L-17.  DUESSELDORF REVENUES FROM SALE OF
                                STEAM, BALED SCRAP STEEL AND PROCESSED
                                ASH IN 1975

Gross Weight Produced (Tonnes)
Net Weight Sold (Tonnes)
Net Weight Sold (Tons)
Revenue per Tonne of Product (D.M. /Tonne)
Revenue per Ton of Product ($ U.S. /Ton)
Total Revenue (D.M.)
Total Revenue ($ U.S.)
Percent of Total Revenue (%)
Revenue per Refuse Input Tonne (D.M. /Tonne)
Revenue per Refuse Input Ton ($/Ton)
Steam
590,814
560,002
616,002
14.51
5.03
8,125,629
3,099,019
88.7
27.32
9.47
Baled
Scrap Steel
9,180
9,180
10,098
107.51
37.28
986,987
376,425
10.8
3.32
1.15
Ash
105,092
48,000
52,800
1.01
0.35
48,596
18,534
0.5
0.16
0.06
Where:  1.0 Tonnes equals 1.1 Tons
        2.622 D.M. equals $1.00 in 1975
        The total revenue by calculation $3,493,978
        Refuse input tonnes  297,359
        Refuse input tons    327,095

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                             L-41
Here, as elsewhere,  the overwhelming income comes from energy sale	88.7
percent.
         However,  by such  through processing, the new weight  to be
disposed  on  land is very small  percentage of the refuse  input tonnage.
While not available at this time,  it  would be  interesting to comapre the
marginal  revenue with marginal expenses  associated with both steel  scrap
and processed ash.
Wuppertal

          The  plant was still under  construction in the scrubber  area in
1977. It was therefore operating on a reduced schedule of only half of full
capacity.  Long term costs  were thus not yet well  established. The estimated
net disposal cost for 1976  was 79.80 D.M./tonne ($33«77/ton)  after credits
are  taken  for sale of the residue and electricity. This rather high figure
is expected  to  decline  as moore  refuse is  burned and capacity is
approached. However, the cost of maintenance of the Government-mandated
scrubbers  could adversely effect total operating cost in later years.
          Local officials hope that  with the plant operating at  nominal
capacity in 1978, the cost  will decrease to 65 or  70 D.M./tonne ($31.92 or
3U.38/ton).
          Of the above total costs, they estimate a "fixed" operating cost
regardless of  throughput of 20,000,000 D.M. per  year.  This  fixed portion
would amount  to 50 D.M./tonne ($2U.56/ton) in  1978 if the expected three
units ran  at capacity 365 days per year. Thus fixed costs  are about 3/1 of
total cost.
          In 1976 the revenue from  the sale of electricity was 3,500,000
D.M. $1,481,000. Tipping fees totalled 16,500,000  D.M. $6,983,000. The  1976
throughput was 178,000 tonnes (195,800 tons). These totals translate to an
income of  112.36 D.M./tonne  (U3.23/ton). However, the actual tonnage in
1976 was much  less than capacity.
          Each household  served  pays an annual  fee of 230 D.M. for rental
of a 110  liter (29 gallon) container  that is  emptied  once  per week.
Estimated expected public  collection  in Wuppertal was  110,000 tonnes in
1976 but actual public collection  was only  94,000. Remschied collected
16,000. Private haulers  brought 68,000 for a grand total of only 178,000
tonnes (195,800 tons).
          Ash  residue income is 1.5/tonne ($0.58/ton) of residue.
Krefeld

          The only cash income  to the Krefeld plant  comes from the sale  of
the energy in hot water to a local railroad car plant at the rate of D.M.
0-35/Gcal (D.M. 7-8/GJ) $3.6 - $4.2/MBtu.
Paris;Issy

          Paris:Issy had  the  best 1976 operating results  (See Table L-18)
of  any  visited plant. A  per  ton total expense  figure  of $12.78 is an

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                                      L-42
              TABLE L-18.  OPERATING RESULTS FOR PARIS:ISSY DURING 1976
Total Expenses U

Operations Expenses
Maintenance - General
Maintenance Inspections
Maintenance - Specific
Testing and Verification
Revisions After Testing


Training and Safety
Purchased Services
General Expenses
Total Operating and Maintenance
Transporting Waste
Sales Expense
Amortization
Interest Charges
Share of Central Services
Total Other Expenses
TOTAL EXPENSES
Sales of Electricity and Steam
Sales of Road Ash and Scrap Metal
TOTAL REVENUE
NET RESULT (Effective Tipping Fee)
Example: 8,441,000 F.Fr. I 1 U.S
Thousands of
8,441
7,015
4,508
1,427
1,762
90
452
528
311
1,257
1,269
Expenses 27,060
921
25
7,813
491
4,815
14 f 065
41,125
.8. $
Percent
F.Fr. Per Ton (%)
14.34
11.92
7.66
2.43
2.99
0.15
0.77
0.90
0.53
2.14
2.16
45.99
1.57
0.04
13.28
0.83
8.18
23.90
69.89
(20,091) (34.14)
(828)
(1.41)
(20.919) (35.55)
20,200 34.33
. $ 1 / 1 Year
1 Year \4.970 F.Fr./ \ 588, 904 Tonnes
1 Tonne
1.1 Ton]
2.62
2.18
1.40
0.44
0.54
0.03
0.14
0.16
0.10
0.39
0.39
8.40
0.29
0.01
2.43
0.15
1.50
4.38
12.78
(6.25)
(0.26)
(6.51)
6.27
- $ 2.
20.53
17.06
10.96
3.47
4.28
0.22
1.10
1.28
0.76
3.05
3.09
65.80
2.24
0.06
19.00
1.19
11.71
34.20
100.00
(48.85)
(2.01)
(50.86)
49.12
62/Ton
i.e.,  Multiply all F.Fr.  numbers by .0000003108 to obtain  1976  $/Ton.

-------
                              L-43
accomplishment  for  which the staff of TIRU  can  be  most proud. Selling
electricity and district heating steam at $6.25/refuse input ton have
enabled TIRU to recover  about half of their costs.  Sales of road ash and
scrap metal bring in  only  $0.26 per refuse input ton but  do greatly reduce
landfill costs for  residue disposal.
         There are  several reasons  for  this excellent  financial
performance. Most of  the steam is sold for use  in district heating by a
separate  organization described later,  CPCU. The  refuse  burning
organization TIRU has none of the expenses  of network distribution.
Electricity, which  commands less revenue per refuse imput ton, is produced
in the summer so that little annual steam production is wasted.
         Practically speaking, however, it  may be  more difficult to
institutionally  develop a district heating market in  many cities. Pure
electrical production may be the only alternative. The reason for lower
revenues from electricity sale is that the RFSG plant  must compete with
conventional fossil fueled or nuclear power plants 100 times larger. In
most countries,  there is a national grid of economically produced power
that forces a low sale price for electricity.
         Figures  L-6 and  L-7 show the  unit  sale price pattern for
electricity and steam. The upper line shows the inflated current dollars,
while the bottom line shows  the same results but in constant  1962 dollars.
         Effects of the 1973 Arab oil embargo  are clearly  shown. The
constant unit sale price for both  electricity  and  district heating steam
had  gradually  been  falling from 1962 through 1973,  the unit prices
(especially the current price) began a steep rise; doubling by 1976. Thus,
assuming that costs continued to be contained, there  was  a  "windfall" gain
in revenues.
         A second reason for increases in revenues is  that a CPCU labor
settlement caused a sudden jump in steam sale price as  shown in  the dashed
lines.
         Another  credit for the excellent financial  results is due to the
stable, mature and intelligent staff as assembled by Mssr.  Defeche  at TIRU.
The  spirit of research and development cooperation  between his staff and
the staff of Martin has certainly contributed to improved methods.
         Total  expenses and revenue components are shown in the following
figures. Figure L-8a  shows current  dollars while Figure L-8b  shows 1976
constant dollars. These  figures parallel a Battelle observation about RFSG
revenues in both Europe and  in North America. Generally speaking,  a  system
that  has a heavy  load of district heating  (and  possibly  summer cooling)
will have greater revenue  than a system making  only electricity.
Hamburg;  Stellinger-Moor

          The  1976 operating results for both MVAI (Borsigstrasse) and MVA
II  (Stellinger-Moor)  are shown in  Table L-19. Separate figures  for
Stellinger-Moor were unavailable.
          The  net disposal or tipping  fee  is  $22.55 per ton. The  other
revenue producing activity is electricity sale in the amount of $5.92  per
ton. Together  they equal the total cost of $28.47 per ton.
          Part of  the reason  for  the relatively high costs  is  the
observation by  these  researchers of more men working at a more leisurely

-------
                                        L-45
        100
    (a)
    (b)   30
 OIL EMBARGO
 ADJUSTMENT
OIL EMBARGO
ADJUSTMENT
FIGURE L-8a and b. REVENUE AND EXPENSE  COMPONENTS  FOR THE FOUR TIRU PLANTS

-------
                                         L-46
     TABLE L-19. OPERATIONS RESULTS FOR 1976 AT HAMBURG:STELLINGER-MOOR
                 AND HAMBURG:BORSIGSTRASSE PLANTS (MVA I + II)
Annual
Results D.M. U.S. $
Thousands Per Per
of D.M. Tonne Ton
Labor 10,975 26.09 10.03
Material 3,817 9.07 3.49
External Fee- 2,729 6.49 2.50
Amortization 3,844 9.14 3.51
Overheads 1,561 3.71 1.43
Interest on Capital 8,206 19.50 7.50
31,132 74.00 28.47
Electricity Sales and
Internal Use Credit 6,478 15.40 5.92
NET Disposal or Tipping Fee 24,654 58.60 22.55
Example: 10,975,000 D.M. 1 U.<
1 Year 2.36
5. $ ( 1 Year \ (1 Tonne* _
3 1 420, 680 Tonnes ll.l Tonj
Percent
(%)
35.25
12.26
8.7/
12.35
5.01
26.36
100.00
20.81
79.19
$10.03/Ton
i.e., Multiply all D.M.  numbers by .0000009145
Source:   Annual Report for 1976, page 17 - Jahresbericht der Stadtreinigung

-------
                                 L-47
pace that had been observed at many other plants. The local municipal labor
union seems to wield substantial influence  on plant activities. Perhaps
this  parallels  the obviously needed influence that was necessary  to
implement the incentive  collection system.
Zurich;  Hagenholz

         A  separation of annual costs to operate the Von Roll Units No.  1
and No.  2 from operation costs for the Martin Unit No. 3 is impossible.
Annual  1976 costs,  totaling SF 14,414,893,  include costs of operations,
maintenance, interest,  and other costs,  and are portrayed in Table L-20.
         The  total  costs are reasonable at $23.91 per ton. The single most
expensive item is amortization at $11.38 per ton or 17.6 percent  of the
total.  This is  consistent  with top management's emphasis on obtaining the
best equipment available (regardless of initial capital investment  costs)
that will produce a. reasonably low net disposal fee for the taxpayer.
         Unit No.  3, especially,  has had  very  low maintenance
requirements.  In  fact all three  units  needed only $1.55 per  ton for
maintenance  expenditures (excluding labor wages).
         Another important  number is $3.14 per ton for wages. This is only
13.14 percent of the total costs. Apparently the managerial and plant  bonus
of 20,354 S.Fr.  ($8,304)  had, in part, contributed to controlling labor
costs.  Frankly,  the powerful and effective leadership provided by the
Director, Max Baltensperger is, in our opinion,  to be credited.  As an
example, management will appear at the plant unannounced at 2:00 a.m.  Those
employees  not  busy on necessary work will cause initiation  of a work
analysis program to determine if the position  is really needed.  As  a
result, this  plant  that processes up to 700  tonnes (770 tons)  per day has
only 39 employees for. the seven/day week.
         Figure L-9 shows  the history of  collection and disposal costs in
Zurich  since  1928.  Again,  this costs for all government solid  waste
operations have been well controlled since 1970.
         Annual 1976 revenues, also  totaling SF  11,414,893, include
tipping fees; sale of steam, hot water, electricity and unburned  ferrous;  a
large insurance settlement for a turbine; rent of a tire  shredder;  credit
for  repairs to  other City of Zurich vehicles  and other incomes. See Table
L-21.
         Dividing the tipping fee,  charged to  non-Abfuhrwesen  trucks, of
2,210,966 S.Fr.  by the annual tonnage of  94,000 tonnes, yields  a S.Fr.
23.46X  tonne  tipping fee. However, the public  tipping fee charged, and the
subsidy later  paid total of 5,417,988 S.Fr. divided by 121,559  tonnes,
yields a public Abfuhrwesen  collection tipping fee  per  ton of SF
44.57/tonne.
         The  question was  asked,  "Why would you charge outsiders only
23.46 S.Fr./refuse tonne and  charge your own taxpayers 44.57 S.Fr./refuse
tonne—almost  twice as much?" The answer  was  three-fold and is  paraphased
as follows:

         Answer 1.   "Hagenholz is an energy  plant and we need as much fuel
         as possible. Even though  the tipping fee is half, we  are still
         being paid to accept  fuel."

-------
                                  L-48
TABLE L-20.  ANNUAL  1976 OPERATING, MAINTENANCE, INTEREST, AND OTHER
              COSTS FOR ZURICH:HAGENHOLZ UNITS II.  #2, AND #3


Interest
Plant Amortization
Office Equipment Amortization
Spare Parts Amortization
Total Amortization
Office Wages

Plant Wages
Total Wages
Managerial Bonus
Plant Bonus
Tot.il Bonus
Overalls and Clothing
Cafeteria Subsidy
Cost of Living Pension Adj.
Planned Pension
Makeup Pension
Total Pension
Ac-oiden I and Sickness Insurance
Office Supplies
\sh Research and Treatment (net cost)
Other Department Services
Studies
Building
Chuie-to-Stack
Ash Tru.k (1)
Landscape on Old Landfill
Workman Clean-Vp Room
Plant Controls (esc.)
Boiler Cleaning (est-)
Cafeteria Repairs and Cleaning
Total Repairs (no wages)
Heating (est.)
Office and Repair Shops
CJ tailing -Supp] ies
Fuel Oil
EH-, tricif Purchase
Water
EleitncUt for Office
Total Vtilitles
Trurk TEA and Diesel Oil
Oil and Lubricants for Plant
Electrical Replacements (lamps)
ChemK .ils for Water Treatment
Offic-e Costs Burden
Propertv and Liability Insurance
Tax 0\ erpnvment
Hospital Itv
Da-j.iefS not covered b\ Insurance
GRAND TOTAL COSTS
Exanple: 2, 365. 967 S.Fr. 1 U.S. S
S.Fr, U.S. 1976 Percent

2,365,967 2,365,967 10.58 3.93 16.42
6,731,680
19,186
110,205
6,861,071 30.69 11.38 47.60
148,323
162 , 2 78
4 ,146
1,576,561
1,891,307 8.46 3.14 13.14
2,737
17,617
20,354 0.09 0.03 0.14
8,354 0,04 0.01 0.06
16,540 0.07 0.03 0.10
79,258
124,798
99,198
92 , 405
395,659 1.77 0.66 2.75
35,748 0.16 0.06 0.25
422 - -
1,374,782 6.15 2.28 9.54
14,825 0.07 0.03 0.10
994
60,271
680,809
1,077
60,697
4,989
42,629
80,000
5,008
935,483 4.18 1.55 6.49
3 ,000
2,973
5,973 0.03 0.01 0.04
11,861 0.05 0.02 0.08
19,217
105,949
201,821
184
327,173 1.46 0.54 2.27
790 - -
11,223 0.05 0.02 0.08
10,440 0.05 0.02 0.07
15,332 0.07 0.03 0.11
30,773 0.14 0.05 0.21
75,151 0.34 0.13 0.52
(3,465) (0.01) (0.01) (0.02)
2,849 0.01 - 0.02
4.096 0.02 0,01 O.Q3
14,414,893 64.47 S 23.91 100.00
1 Year 1 Tonne
             1 Year    "   2.45! S.Fr.  223,595 Tonnes   1.1 Ton
    i.e., Multinlv all S.Fr./vear numbers by .0000016588 to obtain S/Ton

-------
L-50
















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-------
                                 L-51
         Answer  2.   "The non-Abfuhrwesen waste typically has  a desirable
         higher heating value"  (bad  for Units No. 1 and  No. 2, good for
         Unit No. 3).

         Answer  3.  With more waste,  our fixed costs are spread over more
         refuse  tonnes and total unit costs will  be less.  The 44.57
         S.Fr./tonne  figure would  be higher if others were not to bring
         waste to Hagenholz.

         The  scrap  iron collected  in plant containers before burning is
sold for about $2.00  per ton, which is about one cubic meter.
         Neither the  revenue nor expense tables has an entry  for sale of
ash residue—either ferrous  or road building material. This is because the
ash processing is operated separately. The result is a "net cost" and that
is recorded in the annual cost table.
         Both the 1976 annual costs and revenues are summarized  below:

             Annual  Revenue              SF 14,424,262
             Annual  Cost                     14,411,893
                Net  Profit                SF     9,369

         A  net  profit figure is  somewhat fictictious because  of the
subsidy calculation designed to make net profit come out to near  zero.  This
deductive subsidy  figure appears  in the  revenue table as "portion of
general tax to dispose  of household refuse".
         As  is typical of RFSG plants that manufacture both  electricity
and district  heating; most of the  energy  revenues come from district
heating (35 percent) less from electricity  (7 percent) and very  little from
scrap metal pulled from the  refuse stream before burning.

         Comment:  As Battelle staff has viewed systems in many countries,
                   usually  energy economics  strongly favors sale of  energy
                   for  district  heating .(and perhaps  cooling  for the
                   summer load). This  is in contrast  to  the competitive
                   electricity prices normally held  down by  economical
                   production at very large  (100 times the mw size)  hydro,
                   fossil,  or nuclear power  plants.
The Hague

          Table L-22 presents summary costs and revenues for 1976  at The
Hague. The major  component of expense was the principal  and interest
payment amounting to $10.43 per  ton. Usually high  is  the maintenance
expense of $6.15 per ton. Reasons for this are included  in the previous
furnace wall and grate sections.
          The  sale of electricity  was $5.59 per ton,  a  very consistent
figure amoung plants that primarily sell electricity.
          Counting the identified  sources of revenue  of $9.06 per ton,
there results a net cost of  $12.37 which is to be made up by other means.

-------
                                   L-52
            TABLE L-22.  OPERATIONS RESULTS FOR 1976 AT THE HAGUE
Gl. U.
per Tonne
Operations
Maintenance
Water use and Ash disposal
Principal and Interest
TOTAL EXPENSES
Sale of Electricity
Monies from Private Haulers*
Monies from Suburban Communities*
Remainder from City of The Hague*
10.0
16.5
3.0
28.0
57.5
15.0
6.3
3.0
33.2
57.5 Gl. /Tonne
S. 1976 %
per Ton
$ 3.73
6.15
1.12
10.43
21.43
5.59
2.35
1.12
12.37
$ 21.43/Ton
Percent
(%)
17.4
28.7
5.2
48.7
100.0%
26.1
11.0
5.2
57.7
100.0%
The revenue received from each category is divided by the grand total refuse
tonnage received.  Thus, these figures are not to be confused with "tipping
fees".  Instead, the tipping"fees are as follows:
           Private Haulers
           Suburban Communities
           City of The Hague Public Vehicles
54 Gl./Tonne    $20.3/Ton
33 Gl./Tonne    $12.2/Ton
No direct assessment

-------
                                L-53
Dieppe

         The  accounting presentation  for the  Dieppe  plant is very
different from the other plants because this  (and Deauville) is the only
plant among the  15  studied  in detail owned by private  enterprise: As a
private  organization, they do not publish financial operating results.
         Instead,  they  have provided Table L-23 which is detailed revenue
schedule. It provides insight to communities considering the "private
enterprise-full service" mode rather than "municipal  ownership".
         This  is really a situation where  the community  supported the
)onds and maintains basic ownership of the facility.  In 1971, it was
lecessary for the plant  to obtain additional equipment.   It was decided
;hat  the operator Thermical-INOR would purchase the  equipment out of
company borrowed  funds. This elimated the  complexities  of public
-efinancing. Instead it  was agreed that the community would add an  extra
jayment  to cover the operator's loan as it matured  monthly. This totaled
75,873 F.Fr. ($15,266) in  1976.
         The revenue paid by the community for the refuse-sewage sludge
 .ctivity is calculated in  three parts  for operations  and  also for
 aintenance activities. The fees include a fixed plus variable charge. The
 .atter is a function of tonnes processed: there being  14,  892 tonnes in
 976.
         Thermical - INOR is a joint venture  wherein  INOR, Von Roll's
'rench  licensee  (of about 20 plants) contributes its  skill  in refuse
mrning to destroy sewage sludge. Thermical, however, contributes its  skill
 .n operations of the waste water treatment plant,  it  bills  the community on
 ; simple formula of 0.3189 F.Fr. per  cubic meter ($0.000243 per gallon) of
 ntering waste water. Thus the waste water treatment  revenues in 1976 were:

             1,740,190 m3 of waste water
                xO.3189 F.Fr. per m3
           554,946.59 F.Fr.

         Thus the total Thermical - INOR income in 1976 was:
             Waste water  treatment                       554,947
             Refuse plus  sewage sludge burning         1,366,099
                                                     1,921,046 F.Fr.
             or                                        $386,528

         The City of Dieppe adjusts taxes annually to pay  costs. The  other
 articipating  towns pay Dieppe in proportion to the amount of waste  water
 nd refuse handled.
         Private  haulers  pay  110  F.Fr./tonne  ($19.09/ton)  to
 hermical-INOR to deliver  refuse to the plant. Of this tipping fee, 8  F.Fr.
 re then paid  by Thermical-INOR to  the  city to  help retire  the city's
 idebtedness.
  jthenburg

          Operating  results  for  1976 are shown  in Table  L-24.
  ifortunately, a clear and  correct picture  of the year's operation was not

-------
L-54













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                              L-56
available.  Either the revenue was overstated or an expense has been omitted
amounting to 9,811,000 S.Kr.
          An added one-time  cost in 1976 was 3.5 million S.Kr. paid to the
district heating system for a one-third share of the cost of 1.5 km heating
line for a new hospital.
          About 30 percent  of the  total revenues, $8.17  per refuse ton,
•comes from sale of hot water for district heating. The remaining 70 percent
$19.35 per ton comes from tipping fees.
          From 1972 to 1976,  the standard tipping fee was  held constant at
85  skr/tonne. For 1977, it was increased to 110 skr/tonne ($23-50/ton), and
for ($31/ton), respectively.  These  high fees may be a  reflection of the
general concern in Sweden for environmentally clean waste disposal.

Uppsala

          The operating results at Uppsala are reasonable at $17.62 per
ton.  See Table L-25. There  appears also to be average interrelatorship
among  the  expense categories with amortization and  interest  payments
accounting for 37.16 percent of all  expenses.
          Unfortunately,  at this  writing,  1976 revenue figures are not
available. Therefore 1975 figures are shown that have similar totals i.e.
1976  expenses of 4,163,000  S.Kr.  compared with 1975 revenues of 4,591,000
S.Kr.
          As expense category interrelationship categories  are average, the
revenue categories are most unusual—to the  betterment  of the taxpayers.
Uppsala is both the northern most plant visited (1 hour north of Stockholm)
and the plant with the highest energy revenue per refuse input ton. Steam
sales were $11.70 per refuse input ton which equates  to  63.12 percent  of
total revenues or expenses. Only  $6.83 per  ton  needs  to be charged
taxpayers as a tipping fee 6r net disposal cost.
          A plant official discussed the impact of future  oil prices  on the
taxpayer's net disposal  fee for refuse treatment. He presented  Figure
L-lO.He hypothesized an OPEC oil price rise  gradually to 1979  or 1980.
Principal and interest payments would  remain the same. Other costs would  be
subject o normal Swedish inflation.  Total  costs would rise from  80
S.Kr./tonne in 1976 to 90 S.Kr./tonne by mid  1979.
          In November,  1975, the cost of oil  delivered at  the coastal
terminal at Gavle was 350 S.Kr./tonne  (about $12.69/barrel) Interest on the
storage of  1  year's oil supply was 40 S.Kr.  Tax was  50  S.Kr.  Thus, the
total effective oil cost then was 485 K/m3 ($17.58/barel) By 1979, it was
assumed for the calculation that the effective price of oil  had risen  to
600 S.Kr./tonne  ($21.75/barrel). At that  time the sale of steam would equal
all costs and the tipping fee or  taxpayer net disposal cost  could  be
reduced to zero. Thus  if the price of oil were to rise 24 percent,  the
refuse  disposal cost could be eliminated.
          We  hasten to  point out  that the exercise was  only the
calculations  of one person. We assume that  the material has  not been
approved by  management.  Finally all  should  understnad  that the simple
exercise does not  represent any system management's  promise  to  eliminate
tipping fees  when oil prices increase 25 percent. There are too  many other
 complicating factors.

-------
L-57
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                               L-59
          Table L-26 shows the projected operating budget  for 1977 and 1978
which is evidently based  on  the experience  of  previous years.  A  major
increase of expense for 1978  will be the added amortiation cost for the new
1.8 Km (1.1 mile) pipeline to  the older private  district heating system.
The  expected effect is a substantial increase in annual cost that are more
than offset by a tripling in revenues.

Copenhagen;Amager

          Annual costs and revenues are distributed as shown in Table  L-27.
          Depreciation and interest  account  for the largest expenses at
42.45 percent or $9.50 per ton.
          Amager results  include operations  not only at the refuse fired
steam generator but also activities at the adjoining transfer station  and
the  distant landfill. An unusual expense is government taxes since the
plant is owned by a unit  of  government. In  total, these expenses  total
16.19 percent of total expenses.
          On the revenue  side, transfer station and landfill tipping fees,
interest earned on current assets and excess office space rent total  12.47
percent of total revenues. Apparently, the refuse - energy plant partically
subsidises transfer station and landfill operations by about $1 per ton.
          The tipping fees and the  general  head tax provide most  of the
revenue. The revenue from district heating, originally planned  to be
2,200,000 D.Kr.  in this  year, actually turned out to be more than  double
that at 4,878,000 D.Kr. By definition of a "not-for-profit organization",
the  expenses must equal  revenues.  In this  case,  they are both equal to
36,305,000 D.Kr.
          Because tipping fees and the heat, tax is substantial, monies were
set aside for a future ash processing plant. Also $1.29 was returned  to the
asset account.
          Table L-28 presents the annual costs and revenues per tonne for
almost 5 fiscal years. Note that increased revenues from the sale of heat
have offset increases  in operating costs  so  that the  net cost  to the
taxpayer has remained relatively steady for 5 years.
          Revenues  from  tipping fees and  community head taxes totaled
$11.59 per ton or 64.75  percent of  total revenues in 1976. Sale  of hot
water  for district heating  was $6.78 per ton  or 24.17 percent of total
revenues. The detachable containers placed near the plant  entrance  before
the scales yielded $.15 per refuse input ton or 52 percent.
          An unusual source of revenues was $2.58 per ton  or 9.22 percent
of revenue for interest  earned. Apparently  the system collects revenues
prior to incurring expenses and loan payments.  This cash is invested  at the
bank and in short term securities.

Copenhagen;West

          As with most preceeding plants,  the  largest expense items are
depreciation and interest  amounts to $13.52 per ton or 48.21 percent. The
operating personnel costs t $3.20  per ton  appear most reasonable as  does
maintenance costs at $1.08 per ton.

-------
                L-60
TABLE L-26.   OPERATING BUDGET FOR HORSENS PLANT,
             1977-1978 (COURTESY OF CITY OF
             HORSENS, MR FINN LARSEN)

Expenses
Administration
Staff salaries and benefits
Utilities and supplies
Property taxes, building repairs,
maintenance
Residue hauling, truck maintenance,
repair
Residue tipping costs
Tools
Equipment maintenance, repair, including
outside labor
Administrative supplies, advertising
Chemical analysis
Amortization of principal, interest
Total Operating Expense
Income
Fees from Geved community
Tipping fees (industrial waste)
Sludge dewatering, drying fee
Sale of heat
Total Income
Net Operating Cost
Number of households
Net cost per household
Budget
1977,
Dkr

70,650
732,600
359,000
103,000
14,000
6,000
20,000
280,000
14,000
5,000
786,200
2,390,450
130,000
368,000
246,000
0
744,000
1,646,450
16,700
98.59
Budget
1978,
Dkr

91,900
971,650
452,000
107,170
14.73C
9.00C
29.06C
321, OOC
16,65(
5,25(
1,904,30(
3,922,71
150,00
410,00
442,00
1,327,00
2,329,00
1,593,71
17,11
93.1

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L-61
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-------
                                 L-64
          Despite this  being a not for profit public service organization,
property taxes are paid.
          Of note are the loan repayments to groups of  communities.  The
reader is encouraged  to review the Finance chapter discussion. Perhaps
neighboring American communities can loan funds to the plant's host city.
          Finally, after  all revenues and expenses have been accounted for,
"there is a "put aside" amounting to 13 percent of the total.

                           Finance General Comments

         Table L-30  presents modes of  financing.  There was no real
financial pattern between countries. In all cases, the  plants were built
and financed and are owned by the municipality or solid waste authority.
This includes Issy, operated by T.I.R.U. but owned by the City of Paris  and
also Dieppe operated by  I.N.O.R.-Thermical and owned by the City of Dieppe.
         Interestingly this municipally controlled financing is in contrast
to the  latest  (starting in 1971*) fashionable practice in the U.S.  of
private enterprise ownership and finance. John Kehoe of  Wheelabrator-Frye
has been  a leader toward private  financing as compared with publicly
controlled financing.
         The availability of tax  free bonding for private enterprise to
develop public service environmental services will continue to affect  not
only detailed financing decisions but also basic decisions about ownership
and operations.
         Of note was  that the vendor VKW at Wuppertal and I.N.O.R.  (Vor
Roll) at Dieppe made modest  company loans to the customer for purchase of
scrubbers, a  crane,  a  weigh station, furniture, an ash  truck, etc. None o
that which was financed  was  a "manufactured product" of these two companies,
         The  only relatively common  mode (7 plants out  of 15) of financi
was to use the bank  loan.
         The  detailed financial  structure of the  15  plants visited i
presented in Table L-31.

                    Finance  Comments About Visited Systems
 Wer denberg-L i echt ens tein

         Based on a Swiss law  passed during the early 1970's financing wa
 achieved from banks and the three levels of government as  follows:

      Grant from Government of Switzerland and EPA (Amt fur Umweltschutz)
      State of St. Gallen Water District (Gewasserschutzamt)
      Country of Liechtenstein
      Bank Loans

         The bank loan was for 15 years at 9 percent.

 Baden-Brugg

         The  total cost  of  the plant (16,500,000 S.Fr. ($6,650,000) w
 financed by a  regular bank loan  of  10.4 million S.Fr. plus joint  financi

-------
                 L-65
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L-69
of the 6.1 million S.Fr. remainder by Federal and Cantonal grants in the
amount of 2.5 million S.Fr. from the Federal Government and 3.5 million
S.Fr. by the canton of Aargau.
The interest on the debt ranges from 5.25 to 6 percent and the
loan is tax exempt. As of 1977, the original loan of 10.4 million S.Fr. has
been reduced to 6.6 million S.Fr.
Wuppertal

The plant cost 126,000,000 DM ($48,000,000) in 1975. This was
financed as follows:
Millions of Millions of
1975 DM 1975 $
State Grant (N. Rhein - Westphalia) 21 9.2

7.5$, 18-yr loan, Municipal Savings Bank 40 15.3

6$, 18-yr loan, Federal Bank 20 7.7

7%, 4-yr loan, Vereinigte Kesselwerke 12 4.5

Commercial loan to be arranged for scrubbers 12 4.5

Commercial loan for final payment to VKW 12 4.5

Prefinancing from cities of Wuppertal, Remscheid j6 2.3

Total 126 48.0

Paris; Issy

The 110,000 Frfr ($22,450,000) was financed by the City of Paris'
larger general obligation bond sold to insurance companies and other large
investors. Payments on the 20-year bond began in 1964 at a 6.5 percent
interest rate. The rate has fluctuated and is currently 8 percent.

Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor

Funds not accumulated in the City of Hamburg's general funds were
borrowed from local banks. Plant life was estimated to be 20 years and
presumably some of the loans were for that period of time. In 1976, the
city paid 1,166,000 DM ($466,400) as principal and interest.

Zurich; Hagenholz

The original 1969 development of 56 million S.Fr. ($12,970,000)
*as financed by three sources of funds as follows:
-------
L-70
70* by the City of Zurich
15* by the Kanton (state) of Zurich
15* by the Federal Switzerland Government

The City of Zurich for its 70% portion put up cash on hand and
.also borrowed money from local banks as general obligation bonds. Usually
the term is five years. The interest rate varies. Having started at 1-1/2*
in 1973 for Unit #3, it was 1-3/4 in 1976. The building is amortized over
25 years and the mechanical equipment is amortized in 11 years.
Borrowing from the Swiss Federal Government carries a small but
important risk. The only way that the Federal funds will be released to the
City is after the plant has been built and the environmental portion of the
compliance test has been successfully passed.
At Hagenholz, the acceptance test was run after 1,000 hours and
before cleaning to ensure performance even under adverse conditions. As was
stated, and we paraphrase again, "Anyone can make a unit be acceptable
immediately after cleaning. The trick is to make it acceptable after a half
year's operation with no cleaning and overhaul".

Nashville. Had the Nashville, Tennessee, system been built under
such a financial scheme, the Federal funds for the plant built basically ir
1973 would have been released, half in 1976 and half in 1977. These are tin
dates for retrofit completion with electrostatic precipitators. But thii
may only be academic. Had such a financing scheme been in effect, loca!
officials may not have taken the gamble with low energy water spra;
scrubbers.

The Hague

All of the funds needed to build the plant were borrowed by th
city on a 25-year loan within uniform payment and declining balance. Th
equipment life is estimated at 25 years, building at 10 years.

Dieppe

The total cost of 11,380,000 F.Fr. ($2,061,000) was financed i
1970 as follows:
State 30-year Debentures

Federal Grants

Borrowed from National
"Caisse des Depots"

Dieppe Tax Reserve

TOTAL
French Francs

2,170,000

3,202,528

5,000,000

1.000.000

11,372,528
1970 U.S. Dollars

393,000

580,000

906,000

182.000

2,061,000
The loan from Caisse des Depots was a 30-year loan at 1.5 percent.
-------
L-71
In 1971, additional purchases were made of a second crane, weigh
station, furniture, ash truck, refuse containers, and workshop and tools
for about 700-800 F.Fr. This money was advanced by INOR to be paid back
over 20 years at an annual charge for principal and interest of 75,873
F.Fr. ($14,591).
Gothenburg: Savenas

The cost of the system in 1972 was about 120 million S.Kr.
($25,300,000). In 1969, the communities represented in GRAAB raised 4.5
million S.Kr. ($949,000). On the basis of this commitment, GRAAB borrowed
90 million S.Kr. for 20 years from a major pension fund at 7.3 percent
interest. After 10 years, this interest can be adjusted depending on
interest trends at that time. Communities which borrow such large sums must
first have approval of the Swedish Government.
Because the final cost of the system nearly doubled over the early
estimates, additional money was borrowed on similar terms in order to
complete construction.
Uppsala

Of the total 11.05 million S.Kr. ($2,763,000 § 5 S.Kr./$) original
capital cost, 3-4 million S.Kr. was borrowed from commercial lending
sources. An additional 6.7 million S.Kr. was financed from reserves from
previous operations of the heating system. Out of present operations, it is
planned to build up a reserve for the community of about 3 million S.Kr.
The refuse burning plant is to be amortized over 15 years at a
nominal interest rate of 10 percent. Plant staff remarked that they would
find it difficult to imagine operating the facility as a private enterprise.
Horsens

The initial plant cost in 1973 of 11,094,423 D.Kr. was
self-financed out of bonds and reserves. In future financing, the plan is
to build up the reserves again to the point that private borrowing can be
avoided because the interest rates for such money is not 18 percent. If
community reserves are used, the internal opportunity interest cost is
about 10 to 12 percent.
At present, the total Horsens community budget is 225 million
D.Kr. About half of that is spent for education. Thus, the 18 million D.Kr.
spent so far for the waste-to-energy system is a relatively small item. In
presenting the project to the public, it was estimated that it would
involve a daily per-capita cost of- about 1.5 D.Kr./day (25 cents/day). The
new wastewater treatment plant costs about the same. The citizens readily
ccepted this cost of a cleaner environment which daily totaled less than
the 12 to 14 D.Kr. ($2.00 to $2.33) cost of a pack of cigarettes!
-------
L-72
Copenhagen; Amager and West

The financial arrangements were straightforward. The 12
municipalities put in money based on population. The remainder was borrowed
at local banks. The payoff period is variable as well as the interest rate
that has averaged about 8 percent.
-------
M-l

ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL

The section on organization and personnel is organized into the
following parts.
• System Ownership and Governing Patterns
• Personnel Categories
• Education, Training and Experience
• Organization and Personnel at Visited Systems

System Ownership and Governing Patterns

Private enterprise owned none of the 30 systems visited. In all
cases solid waste disposal and resource recovery are public matters. Of the 15
plants studied in detail, operation was turned over by the City of another
organization twice.
Paris: Issy, while owned by the City of Paris is operated by
T.I.R.U., a subsidiary of the "Federal utility, Electricitie de France.
Secondly, the City of Dieppe has given an operations contract to the Von Roll
French licensee, I.N.O.R. Interestingly, the only privately operated plants
out of 15 visited are in France.
The total pattern of ownership is presented in Table M-l. Cities own
8 plants while public authorities own 6 plants.
The number of communities served varies extensively. The small
Werdenberg 132 ton per day single-line plant has 76 delegates to the annual
Society for Refuse Management meeting: one delegate per 1000 people served.
Paris: Issy's M. Defeche would likely report to one executive within the very
large Electricitie de France.

Personnel Categories

Over 120 job titles are to be found in the fifteen trip reports.
feny are duplicative as exemplified below:
• Maintenance worker
• Repair crew
• Artisan
• Relief maintenance.
To provide a meaningful list of possible jobs, these job titles have
seen collapsed into 55 personnel categories as shown in Table M-2. In no way
is it recommended that any plant have all of these jobs. This table is
Dresented simply as a shopping list or check list of possibilities.
The previous Economics Section mentioned that there is little economy
3f scale in refuse to energy plants because of a tendency to add optional
jquipment to the larger plants. Similarly, planners for larger plants believe
;hat they can afford more personnel.
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein, processing 132 tons per day, has a plant
anager, an assistant, and a bookkeeper, who is the manager's wife. Wuppertal,
icwever, at 1,140 tonnes (1,584 tons) design and 624 tonnes (686 tons) actual
3er day has the following executive categories:
Commercial Manager
Commercial Supervisor
-------
M-2

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-------
M-3
TABLE M-2. PERSONNEL CATEGORY LISTING FOR REFUSE FIRED ENERGY PLANTS
• Administrative/Engineering (Often Downtown)
Board Members/Directors/Delegates/Councilmen
President/Chief/Director
Financial/Commercial Manager
Technical/Engineering Manager
Personnel Manager
Public Relations Manager
• Office Functions
Data Processing Supervisor
Accounting Supervisor
Technical Consultant
Construction Engineer
Plant Engineer
Landfill Engineer
Office Supervisor
Economist
Purchasing Agent/Buyer
Secretary
• Management (Always at the Plant)
Plant Manager
Operations Supervisor
Maintenance Supervisor
Shift Foreman
• Routine Cleaning
Janitor/Office Cleaner
Plant Cleaner
• Refuse Control and Handling
Gate Guard
Scale Operator
Shear/Shredder Operator
Tipping Floor Controller/Sweeper
Crane Operator
-------
M-4
TABLE M-2. (Continued)

Energy Production Operations
Furnace/Boiler Room- Operator
Turbine Room Operator
Standby Boiler Operator
Control Room Operator
Maintenance
Boiler Cleaner
Brick Layer
Electrician/Meter and Control Technician
Greaser
Laborers
Machinist
Mechanic
Pipefitter
Repair Crew
Tool and Parts Storeroom Clerk
Welder
Relief/Reserve/Vacation Replacement Maintenance Worker
Ash Handling and Recovery
Discharge Mechanic
Crane Operator
Truck Driver
Reclamation Operator
Special Operations
Lawn Care/Landscaper
Pathological/Hospital Waste/Dextrose Incinerator Operator
Sewage Sludge Processing Operator
Canteen Lady
Waste Water Treatment Plant Operator
Waste Oil Solvent Receptor and Processor
Hazardous Waste Receptor and Transfer
-------
M-5

Technical Manager
Technical Supervisor
Financial Manager
Personnel
Purchasing
Assistant to the Commercial Supervisor
Data Processing
Accounting
Operations Economics
Chief Engineer
Potential economics of scale from the larger plant are nullifed by a large
staff. This observation holds true not only for managerial functions but also
operations personnel. One example is the chemical worker at Duesseldorf.
The above is not mentioned as criticism. Perhaps the technican
worker is necessary. Looking back to the Nashville, Tennessee unit, if
excessive scale build up inside the tubes would have been det^ctred earlier.
Instead, scale built up until major tube sections burst, causing may thousands
of dollars of damage and downtime. The damage cost could have equaled a
chemical analyst's salary for several years. They now have an analyst.
Battelle is not arguing that every plant should ne'cessarily have a
analyst. Only one of 15 plants surveyed had an employee analyst. Many others
used outside testing laboratories. This leads to another personnel point.
Rather than hire permanent employees, many plants use outside
services extensively. Some common services are shown in Table M-3. This is
practiced extensively in Zurich.
Education, Training and Experience

Training varies widely among countries. Germany seems to have the
most vigorus program. This usually involves schooling, navy or merchant marine
boiler room experience, more schooling, more sea experience, etc. for up to 16
years. Often between ages 30 and 40, the man will leave the sea to become a
stationary power boiler operator. Eventually he moves to a refuse fired energy
plant.
Switzerland, a land locked nation of^-ten uses former employees of
Brown Bovari, Sulzer, etc. who formerly made or installed boilers around the
world. Max Baltensperger of Zurich perfers extensive on the job training.

Organization and Personnel at Visited Systems

Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

Seventy-six (76) delegates are chosen (one for each 1000 inhabitants)
to represent them on the Vereins fur Abfallbeseifigung (Society for Refuse
Management). These 76 delegates elect an operating Board of Directors. The
Board of Directors hires the Plant Manager, who turn, hires the remainder of
the staff.
The plant is managed by Robere Giger and his assistant. The Plant
Manager's wife performs bookkeeping and secretarial duties as a part-time
employee. The plant operates 5 days per week with only two operators on each
-------
M-6
TABLE M-3. OUTSIDE CONTRACTED SERVICES FREQUENTLY USED
1. Janitorial Office Cleaning
2. Boiler Cleaning
3. Brick Laying
4. Pipefitting/Boiler Repair
5. Ash Processing and Recycling
6. Canteen or Cafeteria Service
7. Air Pollution Compliance Testers
8. Welding/Mechanical Work/Plumbing, etc.
9. Lawncare/Landscaping
10. White Goods/Electric Motor/Tire etc., Recycling
11. Meter and Control Instrument Calibration
-------
M-7

of three shifts plus a weight-scale operator in the day shift. A "fourth
shift" exists for vacation and sick leave replacement. In addition to the
refuse fired steam generator building activity, the two managers are
responsible for the compost plant and the separate Incinerator I - now the
community's pathological incinerator.
Figure M-l shows the organization for the RFSG only. During
weekends, when only the standby oil boiler is fired,one of the shift bosses
must be ready to respond to an automatic alarm in his home. In other words,
the plant produces hot water, steam, and electricity continuously on weekends -
but with no personnel routinely on duty.
Approximate monthly take-home pay is as follows:
• General Manager - 3500 Sw Fr. ($1400)
• Shift Boss - 2600 Sw Fr. ($1040)
• Crane Operator - 2500 Sw Fr. ($1000)

Vacations are given in accordance with the age as follows:
• Age under 45 - 3 weeks
• Age 45-50 - 4 weeks
• Age 50+ - 5 weeks
The shift boss is expected to have a Federal icense as a mechanic or
electramechanic.
Baden-Brugg

The plant is owned and operated by the Zweckverban Kerichtverwertung
Baden-Brugg. The president of the organization, Dr. Zumbuhl, hires the Plant
Manager, who in turn, hires the remainder of staff. The governing board
(Vorstand) and council meet about twice per year to make major decisions.
The plant now operates 5 days per week with only three operators on
each of three shifts plus a standby operator. The Plant Manager, E. Leudi, has
an assistant. The administrative and maintenance stafff works 5-1/2 days (44
hours) per week. One maintenance worker is full-time and three others are
part-time. When not working on maintenance these men can fill in on other
jobs. In January 1978 the plant was to have begun a 7-day week operation. The
total plant staff is now 18 and the manager indicated there should be more.
The manager is also responsible for the operation of the adjacent sewage plant.
Total wages and salaries for 1976 were 825,163.65 Sw Fr ($332,541). This is an
average of $1535 per worker per month. Benefits in addition were 108,475.55 Sw
Fr ($43,716) per year. An extensive annual report is prepared with the
assistance of local government accountants.
Each of the plant staff receives brief training except the scale
operator and custodian. No federal boiler operator's licese is required. This
plant has a unique source of skilled personnel in that the world headquarters
of the Brown-Boveria Company is located in Baden. Hence three of the current
shift foremen have had extensive prior experience in building and assembling
heavy power-generating machinery.
New workers are first assigned to the assistant plant manager for 3
or 4 days per week to become familiar with the overall plant. Then they are
gradually transferred to work along side the current operator on the job to
which they will be assigned. After 4 or 5 weeks they are expected to be able
-------
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M-9
to handle the task alone except for some assistance during start-up and
shut-down.
The Swiss Federation of Large Boiler Operators provides lectures and
training and also issues certificates for general boiler operation. The Widmer
& Ernst Company has provided operation and maintenance instructions on each
plant component.
Duesseldorf

Table M-1 shows the organization of the 83 persons who constitute the
plant staff. The plant operates on a four-shift per day basis with the average
work week 43 hours. Normally there are nine workers handling the operation per
shift. Job descriptions are published annually and key workers have an
organization handbook.
The following principal operators are connected by an
intercommunication system:
Crane Operator
Boiler Operator
Shear Operator
Shredder Operator
Tipping Floor (2 locations)
Education and training of Duesseldorf operators is quite structured.

Crane Operator. One year general plant training plus 1 year special
training is followed by examination for an operator's license. No special
prior education or experience is required.

Boiler Operator. An effort is made to recruit those havinng
mechanical training from a 3-year apprenticeship. At this plant he starts as a
boiler operator's apprentice for 2 years. There additional training is given 6
hours per week. Then the Technische U Verrein provides a 6-month course, 3
hours per week to prepare for examination for a boiler operator's license.
Separately the VGB (Verein des Gosellschaft B ) (Society for
Large Boiler Owners), conducts an on-the-job training program for power plant
operators. A prequisite for this training is 6 years experience on boilers,
turbines, coal handling, water treatment or similar power-oriented work.
The VGB course total 1500 hours. Without prior training this course
must be matched by 8 years experience. Then successful completion of a
VGB-administered examination qualifies him as a Kraftwerker (Power Plant
Worker). Shift foremen must have this rank. After 1 year of additonal
experience he becomes eligible for a 1-year course at the VGB school in Essen,
at the successful conclusion of which he becomes a Kraftwerkmeister (Master
Power Plant Worker).
Pay scales are developed in negotiation with the workers union.
Following are the approximate montly pay rates including 28 to 30 percent for
pension and taxes:

1976 DM 1976 U.S. $
Shift Supervisor DM M600 191*?
Shift Workekrs DM 3300 1396
Crane Operator DM 3300 1396
-------
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M-ll

Foremen DM 3400 1439
Boiler Cleaner DM 3200 1351
Senior Boiler Operator DM 3050 1291
Apprentice Boiler
Operator DM 2800 1185
Power Plant Operator DM 3150 1333
Ash Handler DM 2600-2800 1100-1185
Electician DM 2300 973
Shop Foreman DM 2600 1100
The Boiler Cleaner is paid a relatively high rate because it is
difficult, odd-time work.
For the average worker at DM 3000/month, less 30 percent for pension
and taxes, his annual take-home pay is 25,000 DM ($10,584 at $0.42/DM).
Juppertal

Figure M-2 shows the organization chart for the Wuppertal plant.
The plant operates 24 hours per day three shifts, 7 days per week.
The individual work week is 40 hours.
There are 100 employees. The average shift workers are paid DM
25,000/yr including fringe benefits ($ll,000/yr at DM 2.27/$). The total
mnual payroll is 37,000,000 DM ($16,250,0000.
The commercial managerr and supervisor have additonal off-site
duties with the Wuppertal City Administration. Mr. Masanek is also responsible
'or Wuppertal's Transportation Department. Mr. Hilkes, the Commercial
Supervisor, only works for the plant 60 percent of the time.
Data processing is done on a Niksdorf System 8000 located at the
slant.
Irefeld

The plant operates 24 hours per day, three shifts, 7 days per week.
The individual work week is 40 hours.
'aris; Issy

Electricitie de France (E.D.F.) is France's national electric company
and is owned by the Federal government. In 1946, E.D.F. established the
Service du Traitment Industriel des Residus Urbans (T.I.R.U.) for the purpose
3f operating refuse-fired steam generators.
Products from the T.I.R.U. plants were to be:
• Electricitysold to T.I.R.U.'s sister company, C.I.M.E., which is
E.D.F.'s electricity distribution subsidiary.
• Steam sold to a separate organization, Compagnie Parisimne de
Chauffage Urbain (C.P.C.U.).
-------
Commercial Manager
Volkswirt Horst Masanek
Commercial Supervisor
Herr Hilkes
Personnel
Purchasing
Assistant
M-12

GMbH Board of Advisors

12 people appointed by two towns

Autsichtsrat
\
Technical Manager
Edgar Bucholz
Financial Manager
Peter Ahrens
Technical Supervisor
Sedat Temelli
Data Processing
Accounting
Oper. Economics
Chief Engineer
Master Boiler Operators
3
Shift Foremen
5
Shiftworkers
40
Repair Crew
Scale Operator
2
FIGURE M-2. WUPPERTAL ORGANIZATION CHART
-------
M-13

It is important to understand how all of these large organizations
relate. With that understanding, the personnel and management situation of
T.I.R.U. and it's Issy plant can be placed in its proper perspective. As
indicated earlier in the report, toe City of Paris has a parallel contractual
relation as do 54 other metropolitan communities.
The T.I.R.U. organization chart is shown in Figure M-3. Mr. Defeche
is the Chief of the Services T.I.R.U. The plant managers report to him as does
Mr. Jullien, Director of the Technical Department. The other positions are
shown includinng Mr. Finet, head of the Pollution Control Section.

Hamburg; Stellinger-Moor

The organization chart shown in Figure M-4 describes the organization
structure of Stellinger-Moor. Herrs, Opperman, Rossi, Grosstueck, and VonBorck
have city-wide responsibility and their offices are located near
Borsigsrtrasse. Mr. Arndt has about 70 people on the payroll within plant
gates. Many employees are used for vacations and sickness replacements as
shown below:

Maintenance and
Operations Administrative Total

Sickness 11 4 15
Vacation 5 6 11
26

Thus, on a typical 24-hour day, 26 people wwill be away from work for sickness
or vacation and 44 will be actively working.
Employees are remunerated by a basic wage. This is supplemented by a
bonus that is a function of steam and electrical production.

Zurich: Hagenholz

Figure M-5 displays the city of Zurich's organization. The Hagenholz
plant itself is part of the Abfuhrwesen (Waste Disposal Organization) which
reports to Gesundheits - und Wirtschaflsamt (Health and Cleansing Department).
Note that the Abfhrwesen Heizamt (city's heating organization) and the
Elekrizitatswerk (electrical works) are each in different departments. This
makes more impressive the attitude of Max Baltensperger, Chief of the Waste
Disposal Organization, that the Hagenholz RFSG is primarily an energy facility
and secondarily a waste disposal facility.
The waste collection, Hagenholz, Josefstrasse, and rendering plant
relationships are shown in Abfuhrwesen organization chart: Figure M-6. The
activities above the dash line are performed at City Hall.
Compared to other European RFSG plants, the plant level organization
chart is less precise. There are no shift specialists. Each man gets to do
all the jobs around the plant. The philosophy is that the men should take more
interest in the overall plant operation. Changing assignments also tend to
inhibit formation of cliques and selfish attitudes.
Each of the 39 men work a 44-hour week. There are four operators per
shift as follows: shift foreman, crane operator, maintenance man, and control
-------
M-14

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M-15
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-------
M-16
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M-18
room operator. Services contracts with outside firms permit a limited staff
size.
While the plant staff has walkie talkies, they are seldom used. The
crane operators and the control room operators frequently talk by telephone.
Switzerland, being a landlocked nation, does not have as many former
seamen running their boilers. Instead, some of the people come from industry
such as Brown Boveri, Sulzer, etc. Often a young man will start as an
apprentice machinist or pipefitter. Training is primarily on the job as
compared with the rigorous schooling/experiency program in Germany.
Accordingly, promotion is based on merit and actual contribution to the plant
operations and not based on formal progression through a schooling/experience
program.
The total number of personnel (collection, disposal, administration,
rendering plant, etc.) since 1911 is shown Figure M-7. Notice the 100 person
drop from 1970 to 1976. When asked for reasons, the main response was that the
new attitude specified that all employees should be busy on necessary jobs.
Featherbedding is not permitted. If the person performing a job is not active
enough, the position may be eliminated.
Plant staff stated that the change from garbage cans to paper and
plastic bags greatly reduced the manpower requirements for collectors. The
third reason for keeping manpower levels low, costs low, and efficiency high,
is the bonus. In 1976, management shared SF 2,737 while the plant people
shared SF 17,617. A fourth reason is the 50 percent of the people are in the
local union. But these are primarily the older workers. The young are not
joining in such large numbers and the labor union is thus not as effective in
adding workers.
At one point, a comparison was made between Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor
and ZurichiHagenholz. Both plants are operated by municipal governments. At
Hamburg, the primary objective is "clean disposal of waste". The main
difference was that Stellinger-Moor is casually operated as a well-run
municipal department with an influential labor union. Hagenholz however is
lean and efficient and is operated as if it were private enterprise.

The Hague

The plant was built by the city and is under the overall management
of the Director of Utilities who also oversees the operation of the adjacent
200 Mw power plant and gas and district heating facility. That combined
facility has a staff of 1500 workers. Major repairs of the refuse plant are
handled by the maintenance staff from the main power plant. Mr. Postma, plant
manager, gives a report each day on his plant's operation to the manager of the
utilities plant.
The plant staff numbers 54, including the manager and assistant
manager. There are 33 operating personnel divided over four shifts as follows:
4 Mechanics
M Machinist-Turbines
4 Boiler Operators
M Crane Operators
8 Relief Mechanics
2 Slag Crane Operators
2 Electricians
2 Meter and Control Technicians
3 Pipefitters
2 Operators for Hospital Refuse
4 Laborers Burner
5 Reserve Shiftworkers • 1 Janitor 7 Outside Maintenance Staff
-------
-------
M-20
records.
15 years,

requires:
The work week is MO hours. All jobs are described in available plant

The key staff all have marine experience: the chief engineer - 10 to
the assistant engineers - 8 to 10 years.
Attainment of a marine chief engineer's status in the Netherlands
12 years through high school
2 years marine school
1 year at sea
3/1* year training as third class engineer
2 years at sea
1 year training as second class engineer
3 years at sea
1-1/2 to 2 years training as chief engineer.
Although marine training is obviously not crucial to the operation of
a waste-burning power plant, this type and extent of experience is essential in
preparing the principal operating staff for successfully coping with the
problems of waste burning and producing energy.
Dieppe (Similar to Deauville 50 Miles Away)

M. Jeane Fossey, Dieppe Plant Manager, is an employee of INOR S. A.
(Societe de construction d'usines, pour 1'incineration des ordures menageres)
(Firm for Construction of Facilities for the Incineration of Community Refuse),
the Paris industrial organization which built and, along with Thermical,
operates the plant for the city of Dieppe.
M. Fossey had experience in the merchant marine. His assistant
manager has pressure vessel experience and can also serve as a mechanic and
welder. They direct the work of 1U other staff as follows:
3 control room and crane operators*
3 furnaces room operators*
1 electrician*
1 scale operator
1 mechanic*
1 assistant mechanic
2 aides (for cleaning and housekeeping)
1 driver (loads and hauls clinker)
3 furnace room operators.
Originally, the work week was M8 hours. Now it is 42. There are
usually six men on a shift. French law requires that wherever high pressure
steam is used, at least two men must be on duty.
The total annual staff cost in 1976 was about 850,000 FFr ($178,500 t.
4.76 FFr/$). To this must be added social benefit costs which total about 5C
to 55 percent.
*Can also serve as shift foreman.
-------
M-21

Gothenburg

Mr. Bengt Rundqwist, the Plant Director, reports to the Board of
GRAAB. He prepares the agenda for the Board's working committee which meets
about twice per month. His total staff is 18. There are four shifts, four
workers per shift: foreman, crane operator, furnace man, and control room
operator. Formerly, the work week for shift workers was 10 hours, but now it
is 32.3 hours because it is demanding work. The maintenance staff works a
10-hour week.
The salary of the shift foreman is 5,600 to 5,800 S.Kr./mo ($1,120 to
$1,160), including social benefits. The crane operator earns 1,800 S.Kr./mo.
Workers receive free working clothes, special shoes once per year, subsidized
cafeteria service and coffee, and use of the sports club equipment, maintenance
of which costs 3,000 to 1,000 S.Kr./yr. Free classes and training are
provided. The plant participates in a cooperative education program.
Many workers are recruited from the navy and merchant marine and
nearby refineries. All workers have had 9 years normal schooling. A boiler
operator must have 1 year of special schooling plus 10 weeks of practice.
The workers' union has the right to review all questions that affect
workers before they go to the Board for consideration. If the planned-for
eventual fourth unit is considered, it must have union approval.
Figure M-8 shows the spacious control room with comfortable rest
center at rear left.
Uppsala

Chief Engineer, Hans Nyman, directs the overall plant through his
staff, Han Nordstrom, plant Engineer, and Karl-Eric Berg, Works Engineer, and
his assistant works engineer.
The plant does not now operate on weekends. The work week is now
38.5 hours with 170 hours per month. Every ninth week, each worker works for
shorter days. The regulation 1-week vacation will be extended to 5 weeks in
1978.
On the three daily shifts, there are five workers as follows:
• Crane Operator
• Slag and Residue Handler
• Boiler-Furnace Operator
• Scale Operator (day shift only)
• Mechanic (and on call for scale).
There is a possibility that more refuse will be coming from
leighboring cities. To handle the extra volume, 7-day operation will be
slanned for which it is expected nine additional workers will be needed, three
"or each of three weekend shifts.
iorsens

Erling Peterson is Director of Solid Waste Management and Wastewater
'reatment for the Horsens area. Actual operation of both plants is managed by
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M-22
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53
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-------
M-23

Finn Larsen whose office is in the town hall.

Copenhagen; Amager

The Amager operations are managed by representives from the five
communes listed in Figure M-9. Note that 18 people attend the annual general
meeting (community stockholders meeting).
More frequent meetings are held with the management committee of six
representatives; a chairman, and the borgomiester from each commune.
Finally, the day-to-day administrative director is the focal point
for the communities with the plant personnel.
Amager's personnel structure is based on five shifts: early mornings,
days, nights, weekends, and replacements. Each shift has four key men — the
supervisor, boiler tender, furnace tender, and crane operator — for a total of
20 operating men.
Another 23 m«n are utilized in maintenance, repairs, and cleaning.
Two men are used at the scale house and two are used on the tipping floor.
The administration personnel number six people: director, operating
manager, office manager, two office employees, and a canteen lady.
Realizing that the plant runs 2M hours per day, 365 days per year,
many of the above personnel are used as vacation, holiday, and sick
replacements. Considering this, the total plant staff numbers 53 employees.

Copenhagen; West

The 12 communities have two large organizations that are responsible
for West general operation and important policies. Figure M-10 shows the many
representatives to the General Meeting held once per year.
The actual managing board is comprised of one of these persons per
community. Thus the board has twelve community representatives plus the plant
manager.
About 56 people work at the plant on its three shifts, 7 days per
week. Details of the job title, shift, hours/day, days/week, and duties are
shown below:
• Adminstration - One shift = 8 hours/day, 5 days/week
- One managing director (part-time)
- One technical consultant
- One plant manager
• Bookkeeping - One shift = 8 hours/day
- One manager
- One bookkeeper/cashier
- One clerk (telephone attendant/typewriting)
- One clerk (part-time) (typewriting)
- One office boy
• Cleaning - One shift = 8 hours/day, 7 days/week
- Two women for cleaning offices and canteen
• Refuse cranes - Three shifts = 24 hours/day, 7 days/week
- Three crane operators
- Two reserve'operators for holidays, vacations, and sickness.
-------
M-24
1975-76
"n
COMMUNES
Drag0r kommune
Frederiksberg kommune
Hvidovre kommune
K0benhavns kommune
Tarnby kommune

REPRESENTATIVES TO THE ANNUAL COMMUNITY SHAREHOLDERS MEETING
Borgmester Alb. Svendsen
Viceborgmester Chr. Lauritz-Jensen
Landsformand Arne Ginge
Borgmester Svend Aagesen
Kommunalbestyrelsesmedlem Jens Kristensen
Kommunalbestyrelsesmedlem Alf Christensen
Borgerrepraesentant Gunnar Ulbaek
Borgmester Lilly Helveg Petersen
Borgmester A. Wassard
Forretningsf0rer Andreas E. Hahsen
Overborgmester Egon Weidekamp
Overlaerer Kit Falbe Hansen
Skoleinspekt0r Niels J0rn Hougard
Typograf Kurt Kristensen
Havnemester Elhardt Madsen
Borgmester Tork. Feldvoss
Generalaudit0r Jens Harp0th
journalist Marcelino Jensen

MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
Borgerrepraesentant Gunnar Ulbsek (formand)
Borgmester Lilly Helveg Petersen
Viceborgmester Chr. Lauritz-Jensen
Borgmester Tork. Feldvoss
Borgmester Svend Aagesen
Borgmester Alb. Svendsen

ADMINISTRATIVE DIRECTOR
Willy Brauer (administrerende direktor)
FIGURE M-9. MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF COPENHAGEN: AMAGER
-------
M-25
Members of West General Assembly and Board of Directors Chosen
for the Period of April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1978

BALLERUP KOMMUNE
Borgmcsier. cand. jur. Kaj H. Burchardt,
forniand for bestyrelsen
Chauffer Helge Hansen
Postvagtmester Skjold Jacobsen
TV-tekniker Arne Maischnack
Skatteradsformand Gudrun Petersen
Fabrikant Knud Pedersen
Typograf Knud 0. Rasmussen

EIRKER0D KOMMUNE
Trafikkontrollor Poul E. Frederiksen
Byradsmcdlem Birthe Larsen
Major H. Sondergaard-Nielsen
Byradsmedlem Hans Rasmussen,
bestyrelsesmedlem

FARUM KOMMUNE
Sognepra;st T. Gudmand-Hoyer
Politiassistent Villy Hansen. best.medlem
Adjunkt Eva Meller

GENTOFTE KOMMUNE
Skoleinspektor Erik Gruno
Viceskattedirektor Bent Kristensen
Fuldmsegtig, cand. jur. Birthe Philip
Kommunalbestyrelsesmedlem Inge Skafte
Husholdningskonsulent Ellis Tardini
Vicedirektor Steen Vedel. best.medlem
Adm. direktor Bjarne Lehmann Weng

GLADSAXE KOMMUNE
Postbud Kaj Bruhn Andersen
Redakter Ole Andenen
Husholdningslaerer Kirsten Beck
Lasrer Lauge DalgSrd
Skolebetjent Tage Hansen. best.medlem
Fabrikant Otto Marcussen
Laerer Lars Nielsen

GLOSTRUP KOMMUXE
Forretningsferer Borge Jansbol
Direktor Leo Lollike
Borgmester Martin Nielsen.
bestyrelsens na-stformand
Bygningssnedker Bent Wolff
—

'
'
.
f
i
',"
M
~

HERLEV KOMMUNE
Borgmester Ib Juul
Ingenier Erik Breith
Afdelingsgeolog Henning Kristiansen,
bestyrelsesmedlem
Kommunalbestyrelsesmedlem Hans Ohlsen

K0BENHAVNS KOMMUNE
Forretningsferer Andreas E. Hansen
Kontorchef H. Thustrup Hansen
Overlzrer Niels Jergen Hougaard
Typograf Kurt Kristensen
Borgmester Lilly Helveg Petersen
Borgerrepraesentant Gunnar Ulbaek,
bestyrelsesmedlem
Overborgmester Egon Weidekamp

LED0JE-SM0RUM KOMMUNE
Borgmester Eigil Paulsen, best.medlem
Salgschef Ib Petersen

LYNGBV-TAARB^K KOMMUNE
Ekspeditionssekretser Carlo Hansen
Borgmester Ole Harkjaer
Typograf Vivi Henriksen
Fagforeningsformand Birgil Cort Jensen
Civilingenior Palle Levdal
Direkter Kaj Kramer Mikkelsen.
bestyrelsesmedlem
Cand. polit. Inge Schjodt

R0DOVRE KOMMUNE
Direkter Chr. Helmer Jergensen
Typograf Ebbe Kristensen
Grosserer Tage Nielsen
Advokat Bent Osborg, best.medlem
Lagerarbejder Hans Rasmussen

V^RL0SE KOMMUNE.
KommunalbestyTelsesmedlem
Nette Holmboe Bang
Kommunalbestyrelsesmedlem
Elo Christensen
Borgmester E. Ellgaard, best.medlem
FIGURE M-10. ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING PARTICIPANTS
-------
M-26
One of the operators will always be free as each operator has
8 extra free hours (1 day) for each MO hours work. The other
reserve operator works half a day with the reserve crane
cleaning the silo entrance ports and half a day for cleaning
and removing the clinkers in the ash silo.
- One reserve operator (day time) for lubricating and cleaning.
(This reserve will be in full work as soon as more than two
crane operators are free and on sick leave.)
Ash cranes - One shift = 8 hours/day, 5 days/week
- (One reserve operator from the refuse crane will help clean the
silo in the afternoon.) The crane operator is free on
Saturdays and Sundays.
Control Room, Furnaces, and Boilers - Three shifts = 24
hours/day, 7 days/week
- Three foremen. Their duties are to sample the water for the
boilers, start for testing the emergency generator, control the
water on the air conditioning system, control level of hot
water tank and changing (repair) of instruments.
- Three boiler attendants. These attendants take care of the
boiler and help the foremen with their duties.
- Three furnace attendents. These attendants watch the furnace
equipment, clean the boilers and take care of general cleaning
of the plant.
- Three reserve foremen
- Three reserve boiler attendants
- Three reserve furnace attendants. The reserve crew is used for
sick leave, vacation, and free days, and when not in full use,
help the duty crew with their duties.
Workshop - One shift = 8 hours/day, 5 days/week
- One foreman
- Two electricians
- six artisans
Cleaning - One shift = 8 hours/day, 5 day/week
- Three unskilled workers. These workers help in the workshop
and the plant in general and take care of the general cleaning.
Weighing Bridge - Two shifts = 16 hours/day
- Three attendants. There first attendant works from 6:00 a.m.
to 12:30 p.m. The second attendant works from 12:30 a.m. to
9:00 p.m. The third attendant works from 8:00 a.m. to 4:00
p.m. The third attendant will be on the first or the second
shift in case of sick leave or vacations. Every third weekend
one of the attendants is on duty, Saturdays from 6:00 a.m. to
3:00 p.m. and Sunday from 6:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.
Refuse Reception Hall - One shift = 8 hours/day, 5 days/week
- One unskilled worker. Directs the traffic in the hall, taking
care that no large pieces of iron or similar are discharged
into the refuse silo.
Refuse Crusher - One shift = 8 hours/day, 5 days/week
- One unskilled worker. Operates the crusher.
Ash Diposal
- For this purpose, the plant contracts a lorry with driver for
transport of the ashes to a close-by disposal area.
-------
M-27
Education and Experience

When staffing the plant, education and experience are desired as
listed below:
• Managing Director
- The title should explain the qualifications required to manage
the plant
- The managing director is only employed part-time as the plant
has a technical consultant who takes care of the daily problems.
• Technical Consultant
- Mechanical Engineer degree or the equivalent
• Bookkeepers
- The personnel is defined by the degrees indicated and positions
held
• Crane Operators
- Artisan or unskilled worker trained at the plant
• Foreman
- Engineer (marit.) with electrical installation
• Boiler Attendant
- With official certificate as boiler attendant
• Furnace Attendance
- Artisan or unskilled worker trained at the plant
• Electrician
- Qualified as electrician
• Weighing Bridge Attendant
- Clerk training as the jobs require checking of accounts and
other administration work.
-------
APPENDIX
-------
REFERENCES

FOR

SPEC REPTS 1 & 2

(These references are also listed
at the point of use in the
individual chapters.
They are assembled again
here for easy access.)
-------
Andritsky, M., "Mullkraft werk Muenchen", Brennstoff-Warme-Kraft, May 1962,
213-237.

Balstrup, T., and Pedersen, S.D., "Cinders and Reuse" Danish Geotechnical
Institute and Water Quality Institute, Copenhagen 1975.

Brown, K.H., Belong, W.B., and Auld, J.R., "Corrosion by Chlorine and by
Hydrogen Chloride at High Temperatures," J. Ind. Eng. CHem., V01. 39, 19^7,
p. 839-8411.

Brunner, D.R., Keller, D.J., "Sanitary Landfill Design and Operation", U.S.
EPA, 1972.

Christensen, A., "Furnace with Grate for Combustion of Refuse of and Kind",
U.S. Pat. 2,015,8U2, October 1, 1935.

Dirks, E., "Ten Years Incineration Plant Frankfurt", Proceedings,
Conversion of Refuse to Energy (CRE) Montreaux, Switzerland, November 1975,
580-588.

Eberhardt, H., European Practice in Refuse and Sewage Sludge Disposal by
Incineration, Proceedings, 1965 National Incinerator Conference, ASME, New
York, May, 1965, pp. 124-1^3.

Engdahl, R.B., "Identification of Technical and Operating Problems of
Nashville Thermal Transfer Corporation Waste-to-Energy Plant, Report No.
BMI-19^7 to U.S. Energy and Development Administration, February 25, 1976.

Feindler, K.S., "Refuse Power Plant Technology - State of the Art Review",
Unpublished paper presented to the Energy Bureau, Inc., New York, December
16, 1976.

Feindler, K.S., and Thoemen, K.H., "308 Billion Ton-Hours of Refuse Power
Experience", Energy Conservation Through Waste Utilization, Proceedings
1978 National Waste Processing Conference, Chicago, May 1978, 117-156,
published by ASME, New York, 1978.

Fryling, G., "Combustion Engineering", Combustion Publishing Co., New York,
1966.

Hirt, R., "Die Verwendung von Kehrichtschlake als Baustoff fur den Strassen
ban" (Use of Processed Incinerator Ash for Road Building) Report to City of
Zurich, Switzerland from Technical University of Zurich, October 1975.
-------
Hotti, G., and Tanner, R., "How Europena Engineers Design Incinerators",
American City, June 1969.

Kaiser, E.R., "Refuse Composition and Fuel-Gas Analyses from Municipal
Incinerators", National Incinerator Conference, ASME, New York, 1964, p.35-51.

Krause, H.H., Vaughan, D.A., Miller, P.O., "Corrosion and Deposits from
Combustion of Solid Waste, Part II, Chloride Effects on Boiler Tube and
Scrubber Metals", ASME Paper 73-WA-CD4, November, 1973.

Krings, J., French Experience With Facilities for Combined Processing of
Municipal Refuse and Sludge, Proceedings, CRE-Conference on Conversion of
Refuse to Energy, Montreaux, Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975.

Lindberg, L., "Survey of Existing District Heating Systems", Nuclear
Technology, Vol. 38.

Lowry, H.H., "Chemistry of Coal Utilization", First Edition, Vol. 1, p. 13^,
Table 1.

Nowak, F., "Corrosion of Refuse Incineration Boilers, Preventive Measures", Ash
Deposits and Corrosion Due to Impurties in Combustion Gases, R.W. Byers,
Editor, Hemisphere Publishing Co., Washington, 127-136. (Proceedings
International Conference on Ash Deposits and Corrosion from Impurties in
Combustion Gases, New England College, Henniker, N.H., June 1977.

Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook, Fifth Edition, p. 911, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1973.

Tanner, R., "The Development of the Von Roll Refuse Incineration System"
Sanderdruck aus Schweizer 1 schen Bauzeitung, 83 Jahrqanq, Heft 15, 1965.
(Origin German, later translated to French, English and Italian).

Theomen, K.H., "Contribution to the Control of Corrosion Problems on
Incinerators, with Water-Wall Steam Generators", Proceedings 1972 National
Incinerator Conference, New York, N.Y., p. 310-318, ASME, New York, N.Y., 10017.

Thoemen, K.H., "Review of Four Years of Operation with an Incinerator Boiler of
the Second Generation", Proceedings ASME Conference on Present Status and
Research Needs in Energy Recovery from Wastes", p. 171-181 Hueston Woods, Ohio,
September 1976, ASKE, New York, N.Y. 10017.
-------
Vaughan, D.A., Krause, H.H., and Body, W.K., "Corrosion Mechanisms in Municipal
Incinerators Versus Refuse Composition", Proceedings ASME Conference on Present
Status and Research Needs in Energy Recovery from Wastes, Hueston Woods, Ohio,
September 1976.

tfahlman, E., "Conversion of Heating systems in U.S. Buildings, Proc. Swedish
)istrict Heating Workshops, Swedish Trade Commission, 333 N. Michigan Avenue,
:hicago, 60601, 1978.

tfahlman, E., "Energy Conservation Through District Heating and A Step by Step
.pproach", Proc. Swedish District Heating Workshops, Swedish Trade Commission,
333 N. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, 60601, 1978.

SPA: "Solid Waste Management Guidelines", 1976.

Hainburg, City of, "Workers' Payment Plan for Household Wastes, Street
Cleaning and Truck Parking", prepared by Hainburger Studt Reinigung (Hainburg
Sanitation Office).

'erein Deutsche Ingenieure - Richtlinen, Messen Von Partikeln, Staub Messeungen
.n Stromenden Gases, Gravimetrishche Bestimmung der Saubbe-ladung (VDI -
Juideline, Measurement of Particles, Dust Measurement in Flowing Gases, Weight
etermination of Dust Loading VDI 2066, October 1975).

.mager-forbraending Interessentskab (Amager-refuse incinerator for the public
•elfare). A colorful public relations description of the plant from all
spects.

/S Amager-forbraending. The 1975-1976 Annual Report of plant financial
•esults.

Affaldsbehandling (Refuse Treatment-Volume Reduction by Different Treatment
ethods"), A Volund publication.

alch, E., "Plants for Incineration of Refuse" published by A/S Volund. An
xcellent 25-page technical paper telling how Volund and its competitors build
efractcry, water-tube wall, and rotary kiln furnances for refuse distruction
nd energy production.
-------
LIST OF PERSONS CONTACTED
Persons and Titles

The Battelle investigators are please to acknowledge the very
competent, energetic and generous assistance which we received from the
following.

Werdenberg - Liechtenstein

Robert Giger, Plant Manager
Hansruedi Steiner, Widmer & Ernst
Peter Nold, Widmer & Ernst
Theodor Ernst, Widmer & Ernst
Robert Hardy, U.S. Representative, Widmer & Ernst

Baden-Brugg

Herr E. Leundi, Assistant Plant Manager
Herr Zumbuhl, President, Zweckverband Kericht-Verwertung Region
Braden-Brugg
Peter Nold, Engineer, Widmer + Ernst
Theodor Ernst, President, Widmer + Ernst
Robert Hardy, U.S. Representative, Widmer + Ernst
Duesseldorf
Stadtwerke Duesseldoft
- Karl-Heinz Thoemen, Works Manager
- Uwe Anderson, Assistant Works Manager
Vereinigte Vesselwerke
- Dr. Werner Schlottman
Grumman Ecosystems, Inc.
- Klaus Feindler
Stadtreining v. Fuhramt
- Dr. Helmut Orth
-------
Wuppertal
Werner Schlottman, Vereinigte Kesselwerke
Hans Norbisrath, Project Engineer, Vereinigte Kesselwerke
Sedat Temelli, Assistant Plant Manager and Chief Engineer
Klaus Feindler, Grumman Ecosystems, Inc.
Peter Ahrens, Plant Financial Manager
Edgar Buchholz, Plant Technical Manager*
Volkswirt Horst Masanek, Plant Commercial Manager*
Krefeld
Werner Schlottman
Hans Norbisrath
Klaus Feindler
Jurgen Boehme
Wilhelm Korbel
Heinz Stogmuller
Paris: Issy
M. Defeche
M. Jullien
M. Rameaur
M. Cherdo
Walter J. Martin
Sid Malik
George Stabenow
M.J. Collard.eau
M. Finet

K. Monterat
Vereinigte Kesselwerke, (VKW), Dusseldorf
Vereinigte Kesselwerke, (VKW)', Dusseldorf
Grumman Ecosystems, Inc., Bethpage, L.I., NY
Vereinigte Kellelwerke, (VKW), Dusseldorf
Krefeld Plant Manager
Vereinigte Kesselwerke, (VKW), Dusseldorf
T.I.R.U. Offices, General Manager
T.I.R.U. Offices, Manager of Technical Services
T.I.R.U. Plant, Plant Manager
T.I.R.U. Plant, Assistant to the Plant Manager
J. Martin Gmbtt, Munich, W.G.
Universal Oil Products, Chicago USA
Consultant to UOP, E. Stroudsburg PA. USA
Head of the Division "Residus Urbains" (Urban
Waste) French Ministere de la Culture et de
1'Environment
T.I.R.U. Head of the Division of Pollution
Control
City of Paris, Assistant to the Chief of the
Cleaning Service
* Mr. Buchholz was interviewed on a previous October, 1976 trip.
** Mr. Masanek was not interviewed but should be mentioned because of
his responsibilities.
-------
Hamburg; Stellinger-Moor
Karl Heinz Arndt
Igor Schmidt
Hans Rudolf Timm
Klaus Von Borck
Weiner Gossteuck
George Stabenow
Heinz Weiand
Zurich; Hagenholz
Max Baltensperger

Erich Moser
R. Hirt

Herr Lackmann
Herr Widmer

Heinz Kauffmann
George Stabenow

Wettman
Herr Puli
The Hague
Johan G. Postma

John I'. Kehoe, Jr.

Beat C. Ochse

Richard Scherrer
Stellinger Moor, Plant Manager
Stellinger Moor, Operations Manager
Stellinger Moor, Maintenance Supervisor
City of Hamburg, Landfill Engineer
City of Hamburg, Chief Construction Engineer
Consultant to UOP, E. Stroudsburg, Pa., USA
Projects Manager, Martin, Munich, W. Germany
Chief of Waste Disposal and Cleaning
(Abfuhrwesen) for City of Zurich
Technical Assistant Chief
Professor at Zurich Technical Institute
(Conducted study of ash disposal)
Hagenholz Operations Manager
Hagenholz Engineering Manager or Administratio
Manager
Projects Manager, Martin, Munich, W. Germany
Consultant to UOP, East Stroudsburg,
Pennsylvania USA
7
Hagenholz Assistant Operations Manager
The Hague, Plant Manager, Gemeentelijk
Energiebedrijf Vuilverbranding, The
Hague, Netherlands
Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc., Energy Systems
Division, Vice President and General
Manager, Hampton, NH, USA
Von Roll, Ltd., Environmental Eng.,
Zurich, Switzerland Div., Poject Engineer
Von Roll, Ltd., Environmental Eng.,
Zurich, Switzerland Div., Project Engineer
(now of Widmer & Ernst)
-------
Dieppe (and Deauville)
M. Jean Fossey
M. Bernard Montdesert
M. Aime Marchand

M. Hervee
Beat C. Ochse

John M. Kehoe, Jr.
David B. Sussman

Gothenburg: Savenas

Bengt Rundqwist

Gian Rudlinger

Beat C. Ochse

Kurt Spillman
Uppsala
Niels T. Hoist
Dieppe Plant Manager
Dieppe Plant Chief Engineer
Director, General des Services
techniques, Dieppe
Asst. Manager, Deauville Plant
Project Engineer, Von Roll, Ltd.,
Environ. Eng. Div., Zurich
Vice President and General
Manager, Wheelabrator-Frye
Inc., Energy Systems Div.,
Hampton, N.H.
Project Monitor, U.S. EPA,
Resource Recovery Div.,
Washington, D.C.
Director, Gothenburg (Savenas)
Plant
Chief Operating Engineer,
Gothenburg (Savenas) Plant
Project Engineer, Vol Roll, Ltd.,
Zurich
Project Engineer, Vor. Roll, Ltd.,
Zurich
Brunn and Sorensen A/S
The Waste Treatmment Department
Aaboulevarden 22
8000
Aarhus C, Denmark
Telephone: (06) 12 l»2 33
Telex: 6-*45 92
-------
Horsens
Bengt Hogberg

S. A. Alexandersson

Hans Nordstrom
Hans Nyman
Karl-ErickBerg
Hans Nomann
Hans Sabel
Erling Petersen

Flinn Larsen
Harry Arnurn
Holger Sorensen
Nels Jurgen Herler
Niels T. Hoist

Paul Sondergaard-
Christensen
Allan Sorensen
Brunn and Sorensen A/S
Stockholm Representative
Brunn and Sorensen A/S
Manager, Waste Treatment Dept.
Uppsala Plant Engineer
Uppsala Kraftvarme AB
Sopforbraenningsanlaggningen
Bolandsuerket
Bolandsgatan
Box 125
S-75104
Uppsala, Sweden
Telephone: (018) 15 22 20
Uppsala Chief Engineer
Uppsala Works Engineer
Uppsala Managing Director
Uppsala Works Director
City Director of Solid and Water
Waste Management
Horsens Plant Manager
City Engineer, Korsens
Burgomeister, City of Horsens
Engineer, Horsens Plant
Vice President, Bruun and
Sorensen, Aarhus
Engineer, Bruun and Sorensen,
Aarhus
Engineer, Bruun and Sorensen
Aarhus
-------
Copenhagen; Amager

Gabriel Silva Pinto

H. Rasmussen

Evald Blach
Jorgen Hildebrandt
Per Nilsson

Thomas Rosenberg
Architect
Consulting Building
Engineers
Consulting Mechanical
Copenhagen: West

Mr. G. Baltsen
Gabriel S. Pinto

M. Rasmussen

K. Jensleu

e. Blach
Project Manager, Main Plant
Layout, Volund
Chief Engineer, Sales Activities
Volund
Former Chief Engineer, Volund
Plant Manager-, Amager Plant
Chief of Development Department
Civil Engineer- of the
Renholdnings Selskabet
Sales Manager, International
Incinerators, Inc., Atlanta,
Georgia, Builder of Volund-
type systems in North America
J. Maglebye Architectural Office

Ramboll & Hannemann
Copenhagen Gas and Electricity
Services
Director of Copenhagen: West
Project Manager, Main Plant Layout,
Volund
Chief Engineer, Sales Activities,
Volund
Civil Engineer, I/S Vestforbraending,
Ejbymosevej 219, 2600 Glostrup,
Denmark
Former Chief Engineer, Ex-Volund
-------
Addresses and Phone Numbers

Refuse Fired Hot Water Generation Plant
Amager Forbraending
Kraftvaerksuej
2300 Kobenhauns
Denmark
Tele: Su 351
Vendor Headquarter
Volund
11 Abildager
Glostrup 2600
Denmark
Tele: 02-H52200
Telex: 33150
Collection Organization
Renholdnings Selskabet
Since 1898
Forlandet, 2300 Kbh. S
Amager Island
Copenhagen
Denmark
Danish Boiler Manufacturer's Association

WEKA-VERLAG Gmbh
8901 Kissinng
Augsburgerstrasse 5
Hillerup
Denmark
Tele: 08233-5171
-------
waste Management, inc.
900 Jorie Boulevard-Oak Brook,Illinois 60521 -312/654-8800
July 30, 1979

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Resource Recovery Division A-W 462
Washington, D.C. 20460

Attention: David B. Sussman

Re: Contract No. 68-01-4376

Dear Mr. Sussman:

We at Waste Management, Inc. appreciate being given the opportunity to
review the draft of the extensive report prepared by Philip Beltz and his
staff at Battelle.

Prior to offering our comments, two statements must be made and accepted.
Firstly, that Waste Management, Inc., through its license agreement with
Volund, is committed to the concept of mass-burning of municipal refuse using
refractory-walled furnaces, and is thus necessarily biased in its judgement,
and secondly that the Battelle staff, while having spent a considerable
period gleaning information from the constructors and operators of energy
conversion plants, have nevertheless colored the content of the report to
reflect their own conclusions and opinions. No one can inspect so many
operations without developing a preference for a certain system and cer-
tainly the editorialising and definitive statements within the report
reflect this.

Insofar as the folks at Battelle have been contracted to do just this,
it would be inappropriate to argue with their preference, except where state-
ments made in the text are either incorrect or need considerable qualification.
This is where we have tried to be of assistance in rendering this report to
be the valuable, accurate reference book that it should be.

Specifically, our comments are these:

Ref. p. A.I. par. 3 and 5. "The early units were refractory-walled and
thus the steam quality (temperature and pressure) was limited." and "the
water-tube wall furnace/boiler" has the refuse combustion section surrounded
by vertical or sloping steel tubes in parallel generate a major fraction
of the steam produced. This increases efficiency and allows a much higher
quality steam to be produced.

Steam is generated by the transfer of heat from flue gas (the product
of the refuse combustion) to water, via the metal walls of boiler tubes.
The efficiency of the boiler is a function of the gas flow pattern and the
tube metal surface area. The quality of steam produced is determined by
the feed-water pressure, tube wall thickness and location and size of the
superheater.

Whether a furnace utilizes a refractory-walled or water-walled combus-
tion chamber is of absolutely no consequence in the final quality (temperature
and pressure) of the steam.
-------
Page 2

Most European incinerators incorporate Eckrohr boilers and it is these
devices alone which determine the steam quality, not the combustion system.

The question of whether or not there may be advantages from an efficiency
point of view between the two systems is discussed in the attached paper writ-
ten by Gunnar Kjaer of Volund U.S.A.

Ref. p.A.27. The refractory wall furnaces are generally less expensive
and would have technical difficulties raising steam temperatures to much above
260C (500F).

Until the nineteen-fifties, refractory-wall furnaces were the major sys-
tem utilized throughout the world for raising steam, using all fuels from
refuse to coal and oil. Steam temperatures and pressures were determined by
the design of the boiler alone and are not in any way affected by the nature
of the combustion zone construction.

Steam temperatures in excess of 1000 F are commonplace in boilers with
refractory walled furnaces.

The major consideration in refuse-fired furnaces is the quality of the
flue gas (which is the same regardless of whether refractory or water wall
furnace is employed.) When tube-metal temperatures exceed 700 F, extensive
chloride corrosion occurs so that a selection must be made between high steam
temperatures (and the attendant high turbine efficiencies) or low maintenance
costs associated with low-temperature operations.

There is no technical difficulty whatsoever in generating high temperature
steam with a refractory-wall furnace. It is simply poor practice, as the re-
peated failures in operating water-wall units has demonstrated.

Ref. p.A-53. Pit Doors
It is our opinion that this section should also address the common Euro-
pean practice of piling the refuse above the level of the closed doors in orde
to further utilize the available hopper capacity.

Ref. p.A-58. Kockum-Landsverk was a Swedish company (formerly a licensee
of Volund) and is no longer in the incineration business.

Volund is represented in the United States solely by Volund U.S.A. (VUSA),
with whom Waste Management, Inc. has a marketing agreement.

Ref. p.A-103 par. 5 and 6 infer a clear division between the capabilities
of refractory-wall and water-wall furnace systems.

In fact, some waterwall manufacturers have chosen to offer units generat-
ing high-pressure steam, while some refractory wall manufacturers have preferi
to offer only low temperature systems. The decision, as discussed in earlier
pages, is based soley on economic implications - higher temperature steam
means higher tube failure rate and thus higher operating costs regardless of
which system is used.

Within Secion B, Gunnar Kjaer of Volund U.S.A. has identified a number o
specific errors in the inventory tabulation which are listed below:

The following comments serve to correct some of the inaccuracies in the
list of Refuse-Fired Energy Systems. The corrections apply primarily to
-------
Page 3

Denmark and Sweden, in which countries I have intimate knowledge of the refuse-
incineration market. However, it may be assumed that other geographical areas
of the world also need further scrutiny before the lists and the book are suf-
ficiently correct to justify publication.

The comments relate to the plants as numbered on the attached copy of
the list.

DENMARK

Plant No. 1, 2 and 3 (Aalborg); This is one plant with two lines, in-
stalled in the buildings of a former compost producing plant. Line No. 1 was
designed and installed by E. Rasmussen in 1968 using a Flynn & Emrich grate
design. The technical data given under plant No. 1 are correct. E. Rasmussen
incinerator division was acquired by Bruun & Sorensen in 1970. Since 1973,
line No. 1 has been on stand-by only. Line No. 2 was designed and installed
by V^lund in 1972 and the technical data given nnder plant No. 2 in the list
are correct. Plant No. 3, Aalborg, does not exist, but is a (partly erroneous)
duplication of the information under (1).

A completely new plant, Aalborg II, is presently being installed and will
be operating in 1980. It is designed, manufactured and constructed by V^lund
and will have 2 lines, each 8 M.T./hr. and will produce high pressure hot
water for district heating. The building, now near its completion, will have
room for a total of 4 lines, each with 10 M.T./hr. capacity.

Plant No. 5 and Plant No. 39 are the same plant. Correct "date begin
operation" is 1969. Location: City of Aarhus in an area within the city known
as Tilst.

Plant No. 7; Correct name of location: Br^ndby. Second line of same
capacity begins operation in 1979.

Plant No. 12, Frederiksberg; Heat medium - steam for district heating
(each boiler 7.5 t/hr., 12 bar, 190 C, 17000 lbs./hr., 178 psi, 375 F).

Plant No. 14, Gentofte: Heat medium - steam for electricity generation
(each boiler 7.5 t/hr., 14 bar, 350°C, 17000 lbs/hr., 210 psi, 660°F).

Plant No. 17, Herning; The first 3 t/hr. line was installed in an exist-
ing gas work building and began operation in 1964. It was closed down and
demolished in 1971 following the start of operation of the first line of a
completely new plant in a different location, Herning II. This new plant
had one line, capacity 3 t/hr., to be followed in 1973 by a second line, cap-
acity 4 t/hr.

Plant No. 19 is the same as plant No. 38. Location: Taastrup. Technical
data given under No. 19 are correct.

Plant No. 21, Horsens; Capacity 5 t/hr., 120 M.tpd,

Plant No. 26, Nyborg (Kommunekemi); No electricity production, but use of
steam for internal use with balance being sold to the hot water district heating
scheme via a heat exchanger.

Plant No. 28, Odense-Dalum; Closed down in 1972.
-------
Page 4

Plant No. 33 and 34 are two lines in the same plant. Technical data are
correct. However, the first line, 3t/hr., was installed by B & S in 1970 and
the second line, 4 t/hr., was installed by V^lund in 1973.

Plant No. 36 and 37 are two lines in the same builing.

Plant No. 40, Weston; Energy - high pressure hot water for industrial use

It should finally be mentioned that Danish environmental standards dis-
tinguish between plants with refuse handling capacities over and under 5 metric
t/hr. For plants handling more than 5 M. t/hr., particulate emission is limitei
to 0.065 grains/dscf at 7% CO,,. This standard can not be met by the mechanical
type filter (multicyclones, etc.) installed in many smaller plants built before
the present guide lines were introduced in 1974.

Therefore, many of the smaller plants are restricted, even where duplicate
lines have been installed, to operate one line only, at any given time in order
to keep hourly throughput below the 5 M.t/hr. limit. This applies to plants
No.'s 1, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 25, 27, 30, 31, 33-34 and 36-37.

On this basis, daily rated capacity per system for these plants perhaps
should be that of one unit.

SWEDEN

Plant No. 1, Boras; Heat medium - steam, 10.3 + 10.3 + 16.5 M.t/hr., 10
bar, 285QC (22700 + 22700 + 36500 lbs./hr., 150 psi, 545°F) . Cogeneration of
electricity and H.P.H.W. district heating.

Plant No. 8 and 9, Linkoping, are three lines in the same plant.

Plant No. 10, Stockholm-Lovsta; Built by V^lund-Landsverk in 1938. Re-
fractory wall furnace, refuse-fired hot air generator. Plant burns H, C, LI.
Capacity: 4 lines each 7.5 M.t/hr, Originally electricity generation. Line
No. 5, 12.5 M.t/hr, installed in 1965 by V«5lund-Landsverk. In 1968 two lines
were fitted with rotary type dryers for thermal drying of non-dewatered, diges
sludge. Designer/Manufacturer: AB Torkapparater, Stockholm.

Plant No. 11, Lulea: Duplicate information. For correct information, se
plant No. 12.

Plant No. 12, Lulea; Is correct with the following additions: In additi
to the production of hot water for district heating this plant uses the combus
tion gases to dry undewatered sludge in rotary type dryers supplied by AB Tork
apparater, Stockholm.

Plant No. 14, Sodra Sotenas; Location in the Gothenburg Archipelago. To
the best of my knowledge, there is no energy utlization.

Plant No. 21 and 22, Stockholm-Solna are the same plant: Two lines have
been refurbished by B & S as mentioned under Plant No. 22. Total capacity,
3x4 Mt/hr.

Plant No. 25, Sundsvall; Steam is used for electricity production and
industrial process steam.
-------
Page 5

UNITED KINGDOM:

Coventry: Unless recent modifications have taken place, no electricty is
generated, but steam is used for internal use, driving fans, hydraulic pumps,
etc. via individual direct drive steam turbines. In addition, energy is sold
for indutrial space heating for the nearby Chrysler car factory.

FRANCE:
Paris-Ivry; The furnace capacity of this plant has been downrated from
2 x 50 M.t/hr to 2 x 40 M.t/hr. following modifications of the water wall fur-
naces.

Finally, please note that Table A-25 incorrectly informs that Copenhagen
Amager and Copenhagen West produce steam.
•
The succesive sections relate to actual information received from local
contacts during the survey, and are beyond our perview to comment.

We would caution, however, that such comments as appear on page X-16;
The appearance of the stack plume was extremely clean and attractive and the
stack plume was usually invisible, are necessarily subjective and while we do
not question the interpretation (on a two day visit with periodic observation)
we cannot help believing that these statements color and prejudge actual long-
term performance of the systems.

We hope that our comments together with those of our Danish collegues
(being sent direct) are helpful to you in finalizing the report.

Regards,
_
Gunnar Kjaer
President, Volund U.S.A.
/V Peter J. Ware'
Director of Enginering
Waste Management, Inc.
cc: Philip R. Beltz
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Please note also the attached comments, Ref. page A-103, paragraph 7,
-------
June 28, 1979

Waterwall Furnaces vs. Refractory Lined Furnaces
The advantages and disadvantages of waterwall copied incinerators
compared with refractory lined incinerators has been debated in
Europe for nearly two decades. Prior to the late 50's refuse
incineration furnaces were, as a matter of course, built with
refractory lined walls. It was widely accepted that the primary
purpose of the refuse incinerator was to dispose of refuse. That
refuse incineration is best accomplished in a refractory lined
furnace has never been disputed. This is because the high heat
capacity of the refractory lining keeps the combustion process
going, even when charges of low heat value refuse (due to high
moisture or high ash content) are fed into the furnace.

The radiation heat from the furnace walls enable the incinerator
to handle portions of refuse which are not, in themselves, auto-
combustible. The result is the maximization of volume reduction
and a residue with a minimum content of putrescible matter and
unburned carbon.

The refractory lined furnace was to some extent, perhaps, more
necessary in the 40's and 50's than today because of the lower heat
value of the refuse at that time and the different composition.

Refuse in the Western industrialized world has changed considerably
since the 40's and 50's, in quantity as well as in composition.
The ash and putrescible content has been reduced. The considerable
increase in refuse quantities that has taken place is, generally,
in the form of highly volatile material, i.e. paper and plastic.
The result is a much higher overall heat release from.each.ton of
refuse. However, with so much of the heat value tied up with the
high volatile matter, the stabilizing effect produced by refractory
brickwork in the furnace is desireable in order to burn the less
combustible portion.

Another result of the increasing refuse quantities in the late
50's and 60's has been a demand for larger units. In Europe energy
utilization from the refuse has been a matter of course ever since
the Vtflund company built the world's first continuously operating
incinerator in Denmark in 1930. This unit produced electricity from
the refuse. V01und and most of its licensees as well as newcomers
-------
- 2 -
to the European incineration field have generally subscribed to the
idea of heat utilization from the refuse. However, Vtflund was for
a long time the only company with in-house expertise and experience
in both boiler design and manufacture as well as in incinerator
design and manufacture.

As a result, most other incineration plant designs have been based
on experience gained from boilers for conventional solid fuels and
not on experience with solid waste. Thus, we find that these systems
tend to reflect primarily traditional boiler design requirements
such as:

— High efficiency

-- High pressure stability, i.e. the ability to withstand
the required static pressure on the water/steam side
with minimum use of material in boiler tube walls.

— Good steam quality without water droplets.

Only rarely, however, has adequate consideration been given to the
special thermal conditions applicable to the incineration of domestic
refuse. This became even more evident as larger incinerator units
were required which began to approach the size of small power station
boilers.

This has resulted in essentially conventional power plant boilers
been constructed with an incineration grate included. Serious
corrosion problems have plagued many of these systems along with
problems resulting from slagging and sintering of ash and clinker
on the boiler surface after only a few years of operation.

Dew point corrosion, in plants with heat utilization is rare in
boilers or in auxiliary equipment, i.e. gas ducts, electrostatic
precipitators or I.D. fans. The exhaust gas temperature can easily
be maintained well above the dew point temperature for the acids
and the flue gases.

High temperature corrosion, on the other hand, presents a serious
threat to the availability and also to the operational efficiency
of the plant.

The reasons for high temperature corrosion are, today, well under-
stood, and it is generally agreed that the following conditions
should be avoided:

~ The presence of local streaks of incompletely burnt
gases in -the gas passages of the boiler.
-------
- 3 -
-- Boiler
350-400
wall temp'eratures (metal temperatures) exceeding
i° C. (650-750° F.)
— The presence of a layer of flyash or clinker in a melting
phase on the boiler surface.

Recent investigation indicate that the most dangerous conditions are
caused when incompletely burned-out gases come in contact with the
boiler walls thereby causing fluctuation between oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres in the presence of high temperatures and corrosive gases.
If these streaks of reducing atmosphere can be avoided then the
metal temperature in itself seems less important.

The occurence of melting temperatures in the flyash and clinker
layer, too, is often caused by this local combustion of unburned
gases raising the temperature locally above the melting point.

It is, therefore, very important to avoid the streaks of reducing
atmosphere in the boiler. This problem must be solved before the
gas reaches the boiler rather than in the boiler itself.

Despite all efforts to mix the waste properly before it is fired
into the furnace, waste remains a very heterogeneous fuel which
burns with varying velocities and oxygen requirements. Therefore,
local streaks of unburned gases with high carbon monoxide content
as well as temperature fluctuations will occur immediately above
the grate, despite the presence of excess air. These conditions
are further promoted by the very wide grate areas necessary in high
capacity incinerators.

Gases only mix effectively when they are of the same temperature.
Therefore, the combustion gases must be retained in the combustion
zone long enough to ensure that the gases are completely burned out
and properly mixed so that a homogeneous oxidizing atmosphere is
created prior to entering the boiler..

Vtflund's two-way gas system and the special after-burning chamber
allows the time, temperature and turbulence necessary for complete
combustion of the gases before they enter the boiler.

The flyash particles consist mainly of easily meltable clinker.
which remain "soft" down to a temperature of approximately 600 C.
(1100 F.). Even after the surface of the flyash particles is
cooled below that temperature, the center remains soft for some time,
increasing the risk of the particles sticking to the boiler surface
when they flatten on impact.
-------
- 4 -
The degree of clinker slagging and sintering is often the decisive
factor in determining when an incinerator must be taken out of
operation for maintenance. Therefore, it is important that flyash
particles are burned out completely and are effectively cooled down
before entering the convection part of the boiler, where the boiler
tubes are positioned.

The first objective is achieved in the after-burning chamber. The
second is met by designing the gas passages to allow sufficient
time in the radiation zone of the boiler.

These objectives, we believe, are best achieved through a design
incorporating a separate furnace and boiler. Compared with the
integrated boiler design (water-wall furnace) the separate furnace
and boiler design generally requires a marginally higher investment
and, in addition, the heat recovery is, in theory, of marginally
lower efficiency.

However, when operating costs are considered, the economics change
dramatically. The ultimate decision is between marginal theoretical
efficiency — and reliability and availability.

Today, few, if any European incinerator designer/manufacturers still
offer a pure water-wall furnace for incineration of urban refuse.
Furthermore, specification for maximum steam outlet temperatures
from incinerators are frequently being downgraded to 650-750 F
following the many incidents of serious superheater corrosion
experienced over the last 10 years or so.

Existing water-wall furnaces in operation in Europe have experienced
severe erosion and corrosion problems in the water-wall sections.
This has largely been a result of the previously mentioned fluctuation
between oxidizing and reducing gas atmospheres in the furnace.
Theoretically, the water-wall incinerator furnace can be operated
with less excess air than the refractory wall incinerator because
no air cooling is required for the furnace walls. It is this
theoretical reduction in excess air that has produced the marginally
higher fuel-to-energy efficiency.

However, the problem of corrosion of the water-walls has caused the
plant operators and designers to increase substantially the amount
of excess air, resulting in the elimination of this marginal boiler
efficiency. Unfortunately, in most cases, increasing the excess
air has not been sufficient to solve the corrosion problem.
-------
- 5 -
Water-wall manufacturers, therefore, have now begun to install
refractory linings inside the water walls in the furnaces. The
immediate effect has been a reduction in furnace throughput
capacity. For instance, the very large water-wall furnaces at the
Ivry Incineration Plant in Paris have had their capacity ratings
reduced from 50 to 40 metric tons per hour (1320 to 1056 short tons
per day per unit) as a result of the relining required to deal with
corrosion problems. In addition, fuel to energy efficiency has,
of course, been reduced as well.

New so-called water-wall furnaces are, today, as a matter of course
being designed with a refractory lining up to the end of the com-
bustion zone. However, in a recent paper presented at the meeting
of the Corner Tube Boiler Manufacturers' Association, a representativ
of one of the leading manufacturers of water-wall furnaces pointed
to the still existing risk of corrosion in water-wall furnaces as a
result of cracks in the refractory lining. It was pointed out that
this corrosion would occur mainly in the areas where the refractory
supports are welded to the water wall.

The same manufacturer according to a study completed for the U.S.
Energy Research and Development Administration, (now Dept. of Energy'
acknowledges the advantage of the refractory furnaces with respect
to reliability. A previous incineration plant with refractory lined
furnaces built by this company in Lausanne, Switzerland is now
nearly 20 years old and is still available nearly 90 per cent of
the time. The best that the same company has ever achieved with
their early water-wall furnace designs has been about 75 per cent
availability, and even today with their modernized water-wall
designs the company will not guarantee more than 80 per cent
availability.

Today, even where water-wall furnaces are installed in Europe most
are refractory lined in the combustion zone. While the theoretical!
higher efficiency has been diminished by the design changes requirec
by the problems discussed above, modified water-wall furnaces are
still being specified by some consultants. It is understandable,
given the time delay between European and American experience in
incineration technology, that it will still be sometime before the
North American market focuses on the greater reliability and actual
fuel-to-energy efficiency of the refractory lined incinerator furnac
Gunnar Kjaer
-------
uop
Environmental Systems Group
40 UOP Plaza-Algonquin & Mt. Prospect Roads
Des Raines, Illinois 60016
Telephone 312-391-2341
August 30, 1979
Mr. David B. Sussman
Resource Recovery Division (AW-462)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460

SUBJECT: Evaluation of European Refuse-Fired
Energy Systems Design Practices.
Review of Draft Report Volumes I to IV

Dear Mr. Sussman:

In accordance with your request, both UOP Inc. Solid Waste Systems and our
technical collaborators, Josef Martin Company of Munich, West Germany, have
reviewed the subject report prepared by Battelle Columbus Laboratories.

Josef Martin Company's review and comments were airmailed to you directly
from Germany on August 22, 1979, with a copy to us. We have reviewed these
comments and fully concur with Martin. In addition, we have also noted a
few typographic errors, which we are sure will be corrected in editing. We
have also observed that some tables have lost legibility in size reduction
and printing, particularly Table A-15 on page A-40 and Table A-17 on.page
A-47.

On page A-54, paragraph two, the sentence after, "since all of " is not
clear. The statement appears to imply 'fane of the units at most plants is
down at all times." We suggest this sentence should be re-written to read,
"For the purposes of scheduled maintenance, when one of the units is shut-
down and remaining unit(s) cannot process all the refuse delivered at the
plant, a pit capacity of 5-6 days storage is normally provided."

On page A-55, the first paragraph, second sentence states, "The most used
shear is manufactured by Von Roll." This statement appears questionable.
We assume the authors mean that all of the Von Roll plants visited had shears
manufactured by Von Roll.

On Table A-21, page A-58, "Universal Oil Products" should read "UOP Inc."

On page A-59, second paragraph, "range in rates" should read "ratio of rates."
-------
Mr. David B. Sussman,
U.S. EPA
August 30, 1979
Page Two
Page A-64, Table A-23, first line "room" should read "Ram."

Page A-71, Table A-24 - Overfire air per tonne for-Paris Issy plant appears to
be too high. Appears total combustion air (4235 M ) is shown as overfire.
Only 20-25% of combustion air is used as overfire.

We appreciate the opportunity of being allowed to review the subject draft re-
port and hope you will find our comments useful.

We commend you and the authors of this most comprehensive report on European
technology.

Very truly yours,
R. W. Seelinger
Engineering Manager
Solid Waste Systems

c: Josef Martin Co.
uop
-------
JOSEF MARTIN FEUERUNGSBAU GMBH
M 0 LIVE RBRENNUNGS AN LAG EN- ROCKS C H U B ROSTE - E NTSCH LACKER
Josef Martin Feuerungsbau GmbH, Postf. 4012 29, 8 Munohen 4O
Mit Luftpost - By airmail
Mr. David B. Sussman
Resource Recovery Division
(AW 462)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
U.S.A.
1925
50
1975
Ihr Zelchen
Ihre Nachrlcht vom
Unser Zeiohen
Wd/AH
MOnohen
Leopoldstr.248
22 August, 1979
SUBJECT: Battelle Laboratories
Report: Evaluation of European Refuse-Fired
Energy Systems Design Practices
Dear Mr. Sussman:

We refer to your recent agreement with Mr. Phil Beltz of
Battelle covering possible corrections of the above-men-
tioned report. This report reached us only on 31 July 1979
so that the short period (deadline: 31 August 1979) indi-
cated by you for submission of suggested corrections, al-
lowed only a perusal for basic errors and misunderstand-
ings and no thorough discussion.
We would praise the Battelle authors for their thorough
and detailed summary and discussion of all technical in-
formation gathered on the occasion of their visits to the
various European refuse incineration plants with generation
of energy. It is understandable that in view of the great
number of data confusions or mistakes crept into now and then,
especially since there was the problem of the different lan-
guages, too.
-------
JOSEF MARTIN FEUERUNGSBAU GMBH Mr. DEVld SUSSmai^J 'JP - 2 -
Battelle Report
Wd/AH
22 August, 1979
Our perusal of the 4 volumes has mainly been concentrated
on the passages referring to plants of the Martin system.
Sometimes, we have also commented on general theories and
philosophies of Battelle, however, would clearly state that
we do not always share the authors1 opinions.

We were somewhat disappointed at the fact to find again a
great part of the errors and mistakes already contained in
the preceding trip reports of Hamburg-Stellinger Moor,
Paris-Issy-les-Moulineaux and Zurich-Hagenholz and mean-
while corrected with our letters dated 22, 23 and 26 Fe-
bruary 1979.

Also the corrections submitted by TIRU in their letter to
Battelle dt. 23 February 1979 have not been considered.

Due to the short period allowed to us we have no possibi-
lity of discussing this report with the plant managers of
the 3 Martin plants mentioned. Therefore, we are not in a
position to Judge whether our clients agree to publications
of data covering, for example, capital and operating costs
or of way of financing. We hope that Battelle has obtained
our clients1 permission.

Furthermore, we have not corrected any misprints nor trans-
lation errors.

We are enclosing photostats of the pages where we have made
corrections (marked in pink).

We kindly ask you or Battelle to modify the corresponding
pages of the draft report to the effect of real information,
-------
DSEF MARTIN FEUERUNGSBAU GMBH Mr. David Sussman
Battelle Report
Wd/AH
22 August, 1979
We would still briefly comment on a few pages, as follows:

Pages A-l, A-66, A-67, A-103, 1-2, S-4, U-8

A great misunderstanding seems to have crept into here in
so far as Mr. Tanner is called the originator of the modern-
day water-tube wall refuse incinerator/boiler. Mr. Tanner
may be called the originator of the waste heat boiler for
refuse incineration plants, however, never the originator
of the modern-day water-tube wall refuse incinerator/boiler.
You may look this up in the two publications mentioned by
Battelle on page A-67. Many years before Von Roll, Martin
have equipped the furnace walls with boiler" fSbes and this
was severely criticized by Von Roll in competitions.

Page A-4

The quantity burned by the Hamburg-Stellinger Moor plant in
1976 was 200,556 mt refuse. The quantity of 420,680 rat in-
dicated by Battelle refers to both Hamburg refuse incinera-
tion plants (Stellinger Moor and Borsigstrasse).

Pages A-6l and Q-8

1. On Hamburg-Stellinger Moor

Battelle has obviously misinterpreted an information ob-
tained from Hamburg-Stellinger Moor. From the beginning
of commissioning up to the year 1976, always individual
grate bars only had been replaced, if required, during
the annual maintenance periods of the stoker firing equip-
ment in Hamburg-Stellinger Moor. Prom the year 1976 on-
• wards, however, this maintenance schedule has been changed,
-------
JOSEF MARTIN FEUERUNGSBAU GMBH Mr. David SUSSmatl %J •J' - 4 -
Battelle Report
Wd/AH
22 August, 1979
Since 1976, during the annual shut-downs for maintenance,
it is no longer usual to replace individual grate bars,
but to replace complete grate bar steps. Each step con-
sists of 25 grate bars. The removed grate steps are re-
furnished in the plant's own workshop, individual grate
bars are replaced, if required, and then the refurnished
steps are held ready for the next maintenance shut-down.
In the first year (1976) this procedure was applied, a
great many bars, viz 24 % mentioned by Battelle, were re-
placed. In the second year, only 15 %» in the third year
1978 only 10.5 % were replaced, and it is expected that
the replacement rate will go down to a. figure from 5 to
10 % in the course of further operating years.

The above information was confirmed to us by the Hamburg-
Stellinger Moor plant management on 22 August 1979 over
the phone.

You will certainly agree with us that we demand that the
figure of 24 % indicated by Battelle in the report, is
changed to "less than 10 %n, as it is completely wrong
and may even do harm to our reputation, as compared to
our competitors.

2. Zurich-Hagenholz

Also the figure of 7 % mentioned here is wrong. Upon in-
quiry, the plant management confirmed us on 22 August 197
over the phone that within 40,000 operating hours only
32 grate bars were replaced, thus only approx. 0.8 $/year
The figure of 7 % indicated by Battelle is a composite
value of all spare grate bars of the two older Von Roll
units No. 1 and No. 2 and of the Martin unit No. 3. Here,
too, we demand correction.
-------
JOSEF MARTIN FEUERUNQSBAu GMBH Mr. David Sussman \* *Jp - 5 -
Battelle Report
Wd/AH
22 August, 1979
Page G-3

Contrary to Kaiser and Perry we have found out that in case
of municipal refuse the difference between higher heating
value HHV and lower heating value LHV is approx. 10 to 15 %\

For example:

for refuse at about HHV = 5000 Btu/lb the difference is
approx. 11 %
for refuse at about HHV = 4000 Btu/lb the difference is
approx. 15 %

Therefore, the formulas indicated by Battelle are very doubt-
ful.

Pages R-10 and R-13

The photo R-7 shows a Martin ash discharger of the Bazen-
heid/Switzerland refuse incineration plant.

Here, too, we demand correction.

Page S-58

We think it necessary to clarify the term "Combustion Volume",
otherwise the volume heat release ratesmentioned in table S-3
are not comparable.

Page U-27

The furnace roof tubes are part of the first stage super-
heater, are thus flown through by saturated steam or some-
-------
JOSEF MARTIN FEUERUNQSBAU GMBH Mr. David Sussman V! *Jf - 6 -
Battelle Report
Wd/AH
22 August, 1979
what superheated steam. During start-up or shut-down of
the boiler, radiation and too low a steam flow may cause
local overheating of the tube wall, resulting in wall
thickness reduction in the course of time. These tubes
were never covered with SiC material.

Pages U-81 and U-8?

The Yokohama-Totsuka plant has a completely different
superheater design and should not be mentioned in this
connection.

Page X-3

The regulation "TA-Luft" refers the indicated emissions to
11 % C>2, and not to 7 % COg.
We hope that you or Battelle will still make the corrections
mentioned above and indicated on the enclosed photostats, if
not, the value of the otherwise quite good Battelle report
would be reduced considerably.

Very truly yours,
JOSEF MARTIN
Peuerungsbau G.m.b.H.

ppa.:
ENCLOSURES
-------
:~~ Wheelabrator-Fryelnc.
ENERGY SYSTEMS DIVISION

JOSEPH FERRANTE, JR. H^onZ Hampshire 03842
Regional Vice President Tel (603, 926. 5gn
September 12, 1979
Mr. Philip R. Beltz
Projects Manager
Energy and Environmental
Systems Assessment Section
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Dear Phil :
You are in receipt of Von Roll's August 20th comments
to your draft report, entitled "European Refuse-Fired Energy
Systems - An Evaluation of Design Practices". The purpose
of this letter is to relate some of our reactions to Volume I
of this four-volume effort. I have also attached a copy of
Von Roll's remarks which we received. I believe they are
similar, if not identical, to the ones you already have.

In general, the report is excellent and makes a substan-
tial contribution to the literature dealing with the subject.
The following are some points to clarify to avoid misleading
the uninformed reader.
The inference is made that the approach to be used
in Harrisburg is new. In reality, the use of steam
to buildings' adsorption chillers is not new and has
been widely practiced in major cities in the U.S.
including New York and Boston. The second paragraph
is therefore misleading. (Page A-33).

Although "spending money for features to reduce
corrosion and erosion generally increases invest-
ment" is true, it is a worthwhile investment to do
so. The impact of the additional investment is
minimal in comparison with the costs to maintain
and replace boiler tubes without corrosion reduction
features. (Page A-45, First Paragraph).
-------
Mr. Philip R. Beltz
Page Two
September 12, 1979
It is not only the tax free bonding which favors
private ownership in America; rather investment
tax credits and accelerated depreciation are very
important in making the private ownership decision.
(Page A-46, Paragraph 2).

It should be noted that in a third Munich unit,
refuse is fired separately with coal. Munich has
since concluded that coal and municipal solid waste
should not be co-fired. (Page A-68).

The second to the last paragraph should read "when
Wheelabrator-Frye Inc. built the Boston North Shore
plant in Saugus, Massachusetts, using the Von Roll
design..." (Page A-72).

The expression, "American thrust towards co-firing"
is an overstatement. This should read, "... some
of the American experimental efforts towards co-
firing..." The inference that there is an American
thurst in moving towards co-firing is not wholly
justifiable. (Page A-92, Fourth Bullet).

The dump fee costs indicated are misleading in that
they suggest that they are real costs. In actuality,
the disposal costs are much higher. (Page A-99,
Second Bullet).

It is misleading to suggest that the tipping floor
method is an "American" system when in reality, the
pit and crane method is more prevalent. The tipping
floor method should not be given the characterization
"American." (Page A-99, Next to Last Paragraph).

The listing of U.S. installations is very misleading
in that it includes:

Proposed projects which may never be built.

Projects which have been abandoned.

Non-municipal waste projects.

Non-energy recovery projects.

Experiments.
-------
Mr. Philip R. Beltz
Page Three
September 12, 1979
To include as comprehensive a list is not justi-
fiable in a report on refuse-fired energy systems,
since it leaves the impression that the U.S. has
89 implemented systems, when in reality there are
less than 20 bona-fide refuse-to-energy projects
in the U.S. Furthermore, the U.S. listing is not
compatible with listings of other nations since it
includes proposed projects, non-energy recovery
projects, etc.

To leave the listing of U.S. systems in its present
form would be a detriment to the report. (Pages
B-57 - B-67).

Why are Martin plants referenced as such in the
report, while other manufacturers' plants are only
referred to by the city in which they are located?
The editors should be consistent. (Page 1-29).
We trust that these comments can somehow be incorporated
in your final report to EPA and appreciate the opportunity to
have been involved in this project.
f Joseph Ferrante, Jr.
(X
/pel

cc: David Sussman
-------
VON ROLL COMMENTS ON THE BATTELLE REPORT ON

EUROPEAN REFUSE-FIRED ENERGY SYSTEMS
(Transcribed from Telex received 08/21/79)
As your just finished and very detailed report is mainly
a tool for decision making for now and for the future, we think
it is very essential, that as far as Von Roll's grate design
is concerned, the report should concentrate on the design Von
Roll is now applying and should report on the design given up
by Von Roll in 1978 and inspected in the four rather old plants,
only as far as it is necessary for a better understanding of
our design applied now. We have discussed this problem with
you and you have promised to consider a rewriting of the pages
Q-9 to Q-14 due to the very short time, Von Roll had available
for reviewing the entire report we are concentrating on the
key items of our design, the grates and boiler. We ask you to
use the following text for replacing the existing version in
your report:
Von Roll Grate

1. FJ gures: Please change figures as follows:

Figure Q-2: Two steps of Von Roll Grate using
reciprocating forward-feed design.
(Courtesy of Von Roll Ltd.)

(Picture as shown in draft under
Figure Q-3.)

Figure Q-3: Improved Von Roll reciprocating step
grate in refractory walled furnace.
(Courtesy of Von Roll Ltd.)

(Picture as shown in draft under
Figure Q-2.)

2. Text for Pages Q-9 to Q-14:

Figure Q-2 shows in more detail the old standard Von Roll
sloping reciprocating grate as it is used in most of Von Roll
plants built before 1978. This original Von Roll grate, which
is still in use in many of the larger Von Roll plants involves
the alternating forward motion of adjacent grate "plates".

For smaller furnaces (that is 5 tons per hour or less) and
particularly also for high calorific value trade waste Von Roll
began 15 years ago install an improved grate composed of alter-
nate fixed and moving rows in which each entire moving row of
-------
- 2 -
grate plates moves forward and backward together, thus elimin-
ating the relative motion and grinding action between adjacent
grate blocks. Von Roll is now applying this design to all new
furnaces regardless of size. For existing plants, a grate
system was developed by Von Roll, which can be mounted on top
of the existing grate understructure and several plants have
been modified in the meanwhile. Figure Q-3 shows a section
of the modified grate at the Von Roll Gothenburg plant.

For new plants Von Roll developed the R-grate. A proto-
type of this grate is in operation since 1976 at the Von Roll
Fribourg plant in Switzerland. The new system consists of a
hydraulically driven feeding ram for volumetric charging and
of a grate 6 to 12 meters long, 1.8 to 10.5 meters wide and
with a declination of 18 degrees. The grate is built-up by
3 to 24 identical grate units linked together. For average
and high heating values no grate steps are provided anymore,
as this was done by Von Roll in its older design (see figure
Q-2). For low heating values, however, grate drops still are
provided also at the new R-grate to rearrange the heavy fuel
bed as it tumbles down from an upper to a lower grate. Because
of the "opening up" of unburned combustible surfaces as this
tumbling action occurs, this point is in the furnace, one of
the intense burning. To provide enough air at this point, in
some plants, air is being admitted through the wall of the step
to assure amply oxygen supply for the increased combustion rate.

The grate unit is the basic unit of the new R-grate system.
Each unit consists of support structure, lateral sealing elements,
four fixed transversal grate support, hoppers, zone separation
walls and hydraulic drive units. The so-called drive carriage
with the four mobile transversal grate support beams connected
to the hydraulic drive is mounted on the support structure. The
grate blocks are mounted on the fixed as well as on the mobile
transversal grate support beams.

The drive carriage moving the four mobile rows of blocks
is equipped with rollers running on inclined guiding tracks and
supported by the two parallel longitudinal frame elements of
the carriage. The guiding tracks are mounted on the longitu-
dinal supports of the support frame.

The hollow grate block is equipped with cooling fins,
enables forced cooling resulting in reduced wear and increased
life span. The blowing of primary air through rectangular
openings cast into the grate blocks results in high pressure
loss enabling uniform distribution of the combustion air
throughout the fuel bed independent from its thickness or
distribution on the grate surface. Even substantial varia-
tions of the fuel bed do not change the uniformity of air
-------
- 3 -
distribution apart from negligible deviations. The chrome
steel cast grate blocks are laterally machined. Each row
of blocks is individually clamped together. Approx. 1,5 0/0
of the total grate surface of one section consists of air
outlets.

The clamping device of the mobile block rows consists
of two identical clamping brackets holding the clamping pins
and the tie rods. The locking brackets are inserted in the
first and last block of each row and frictionally connected
by the tie rods located underneath the grate blocks. The
fixed rows of grate blocks are locked in a similar way. This
locking system reduces on one hand grate riddlings to a mini-
mum, on the other the blocks remain firmly pressed together
even in operating condition, preventing undesirable escape
of air between them and securing continuous forced cooling.

The grate drive is hydraulic. Each grate unit is driven
by two parallel cylinders mounted on the two lateral longi-
tudinal supports of the support construction. The cylinder
rods are connected to the drive carriage by shackle joints
and move it for and back on the inclined guiding tracks. The
grate blocks supported by the transversal beams move in the
same rythm. The angular grate block form and the rapid stroke
movement result in an excellent shifting and stoking effect.
The fire spread evenly across the entire width of the grate
at minimum dust development.

This grate drive system enables utilization of small and
lightweight drive cylinders (approx. 16 kg/cylinder) for easy
and quick exchange. Mounting or removal of a cylinder can be
effected during operation owing to the newly developed drive
and control system enabling control of each single drive unit
separately. Therefore grates consisting of several grate
units may operate at reduced load even during exchange of a
cylinder.

The drive of the individual grate unit is not continuous
as usual for today's systems but by electronic impulse control.
Each grate sections is assigned the most suitable number of
strokes depending on average waste heating value and progress
of combustion. This number of impulses determines the respec-
tive waste travelling speed in the range of the respective
grate unit. Based on combustion progress the optimum number
of impulses is determined and adjusted for each grate section.

By this system the impulse number (number of strokes) of
the whole grate can be uniformly increased or reduced for re-
spective throughput alterations. The relation of the operatir
speed of the individual grate units, however, remains unchanged
-------
- 4 -
Owing to the application of electronic components it is possible
at any time during operation to change the respective number of
impulses of individual grate sections. Grates in boilers for
heat recovery may for instance be controlled relative to the
steam production by controlling the intervals between strokes.

Automatic firing control facilitates operation considerably
since the operating staff has to control manually only in the
case of a change of throughput.
Feeding Ram

Most important prerequisite of any automatic operation is
uniform feeding. Von Roll applies a hydraulically driven feeding
ram. It can be best compared with a drawer turned upside down.
This drawer moves on a horizontal surface. The stroke speed
is continuously variable by a remote oil flow control. The
back stroke is effected at constant speed. Similar to the grate
the ram is controlled with respect to steam production. Con-
trary to the grate, however, the stoke speed is continuously
adjusted without any significant alteration of the waste quantity
per stroke.
General Boiler Design

(Page U-8 to U-10)

Von Roll would like to comment, that the so-called tail-end
boiler, consisting of a vertical waterwall combustion room and
a horizontal convection section with hanging vertical tube bundles
is a Von Roll development, applied first in the Lnadshut and in
the Fuerth plant in Germany in 1971. A special feature of this
boiler type is its inexpensive mechanical boiler cleaning by
rapping of the bundles. This design is a very successful im-
provement towards high boiler availability. Since Landshut, Von
Roll provided this boiler type for the plants in Mulhouse, France
(1972), Quebec, Canada (1974), Angers, France (1974), Dijon,
France (1974), Nyborg, Denmark (1975), Bezons, France (1975),
Kempton, Germany (1975), Saugus, USA (1975), Emmenspitz,
Switzerland (1976), Moncada, Spain (1975).

The only plant with some reservations about the quality
of this boiler design is Saugus whereas the boiler unit number 1
at Landshut in the meanwhile is in operation fro approx. 51'000
hrs. without the need of a mechanical cleaning. We would like
to draw your attention to that subject on a paper given at the
CRE Conference in Montreux in 1975.
-------
- 5 -
The adaption of this boiler type by W"E for Hamburg-
Stapelfeld can simply be considered as a copy done by former
Von Roll employees.
Finally, we would like to mention, that in the list of
worldwide inventory of waste-to-energy systems we are missing
some Von Roll plants. We are airmailing you today one newest
reference list. Please note also, that the Volund Company did
not participate at the delivery of the Nyborg Plant in Denmark
uo 1828a
SW-176C.1
•U.S. GOVERNMENT PRIN1TNG OFFICE I 1979 0-311-132/144
-------


P*rT             United States       Office of Water and      SW 176C 1
     I          Environmental Protection    Waste Management      October 1979
     I          Agency         Washington, D C. 20460   Q\A/17fiP1
               Solid Waste	^^^^^^_^___^_^_

   f/EPA      European Refuse-Fifli£r
               _        f*  .          DALLAS, TEXAS
               Energy Systems      ^^
               Evaluation of Design Practices
               Volume 1

-------
           Prepublication issue for EPA libraries
          and State Solid Waste Management Agencies
            EUROPEAN REFUSE FIRED ENERGY SYSTEMS

               Evaluation of Design Practices

                         Volume 1
       This report (SW-176C.I) describes work performed
for the Office of Solid Waste under contract no. 68-01-4376
    and is reproduced as received from the contractor.
    The findings should be attributed to the contractor
           and not to the Office of Solid Waste.
             Copies will be available from the
          National Technical Information Service
                U.S. Department of Commerce
                  Springfield, VA  22161
            U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                           1979

-------
This report was prepared by Battelle Columbus Laboratories, under contract
no. 68-01-4376.

Publication does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of commercial products constitute endorsement by the U.S. Government.

An environment protection publication (SW-176C.1) in the solid waste
management series.

-------
                                 DIGEST AND
                              MAJOR CONCLUSIONS
          The major  conclusion Is that  the mass burning  of unprepared municipal
 solid waste in heat recovery boilers is well established,  and  can  be a
 technically reliable,  environmentally acceptable and economic solution to the
 problem of disposal of solid wastes.   It is not as cheap as  use of currently
 available landfills.  However, when  the cost is considered of upgrading current
 landfills and established  new landfills in accordance with  the
 Resource Conservation  and  Recovery Act (RCRA) provisions, these mass burning
 waste-to-energy systems  are  expected to compare more economically with true
 sanitary landfills.
          Another significant conclusion is that many European areas are moving
 steadily in the direction of Energy and  Environmental  Parks  that  often include
 refuse burning, animal rendering,  electricity production,  sewage disposal,
 industrial steam generation,  hot water district heating,  etc.
          A surprising  conclusion is that over a wide range of plant sizes from
 200 to 1,600 tons per day there  appears to be little significant economy of
 scale.   The data suggests  that the net operating and  owning costs for plants
 within these size ranges and with the same plant configurations normalized for
 inflation,  exchange rates,  site costs and so forth  fall in the range of $6 to
 $36 per ton with the average about $16.  While this  range appears significant,
 the factors that cause  the variation are not size related as much as previously
 thought.
          A major impetus for the development  in European of waste-to-energy
 systems was the finding  that  it was possible to control air  pollution from the
 burning of wastes  by cooling the dirty exhaust  gases.  Concurrent with this
 influence was the 'disenchantment with old  leaching landfills  as a long-range
 solution to the solid waste problem in very crowded  countries.
          The cost of alternative  energy  forms (coal,  oil,  gas) will become
 even  more important to  the development  of refuse-fired energy systems. Yet the
 total  potential energy in the wastes  of  a modern community will be less than a
 tenth of its total energy  demand.   Hence, waste-to-energy alone  cannot be
 expected to become a major energy source.
          Many conditions  in  the   U.S.  have been  different, hence
 waste-to-energy has not advanced as  rapidly as  in Europe.   Some  of  these
 differences will continue,  but we  are moving rapidly to similar conditions in
most of our metropolitan areas.  Hence the lessons that have  been lamed in 80
 years of  refuse  fired energy  plant (RFEP) experience  in  Europe can be
 effectively utilized by many U.S.  communities.  We  hope that  this series of
 reports  will be of help to  community officials and technologists in applying
 those  lessons to U.S. environmental and  energy problems.

-------
                                 PREFACE
     These documents are a two volume evaluation of European refuse -
fired energy systems design practices, which is a condensation and
analysis of trip reports describing visits in 1977 to fifteen (15)
European refuse fired steam and hot water generators.  Interspersed
are Garments about another fifteen (15) plants for which official trip
reports were not prepared, i.e., a total of thirty (30) resource recovery
plants were visited.  In addition, visits to five (5) federal environmental
protection agencies have provided additional insight to solid waste
management trends, legislation and perspectives on resource recovery
technologies.

     The material in the reports describing the visits to the fifteen
(15) plants has been reviewed by the European system vendors and their
respective American licensees.  The two volume evaluation report has
also been reviewed, but the cotments of the various reviewers has not
been incorporated in the text.  Rather, their comments are presented
in toto in the appendix to Volume II.

     Battelle Columbus Laboratories maintains ultimate responsibility
for report content.  The opinions set forth in this report are those
of the Battelle staff members and are not to be considered EPA policy.
There may be seme minor errors and certainly differences of opinion
in the report, but these do not take away from the usefulIness of the
document.

     The intent of the report is to provide decision making information.
The reader is thus cautioned against believing that there is enough
information to design a system.  Some proprietary information has
been deleted at the request of vendors.  While the contents are detailed,
they represent only the tip of the iceberg of knowledge necessary to
develop a reliable, economical and environmentally beneficial system.

     The selection of particular plants to visit was made by Battelle,
the American licensees,  the European grate manufacturers, and EPA.
Purposely, the sampling is skewed to the "better" plants that are models
of what the parties would like to develop in America.  Some plants were
selected because many features evolved at the plant.   Others were
chosen because of strong American interest in co-disposal of refuse
and sewage sludge.

     The two volumes plus the trip reports for the 15 European plants
are available through the National Technical Information Source,
Springfield,  Virginia, 22161.  Of the 17 volumes, only the Executive
Summary has been prepared for wide distribution.
                                    111

-------
                              ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
          The  project owes much  of its success  to the many European  vendors,
plant  personnel,  city officials, and European  environmental  protection agency
staff  who opened  up so fully  to  the  visiting  Battelle  team.   It is  an
established  fact  that Europe is far advanced over America in  commercialization
of the refuse-fired, steam- and  hot-water generation technology.  This  fact  and
the accompanying  pride of accomplishment are  likely causes  for  the excellent
cooperation we received and outpouring  of  valuable  information  from  visited
European  professionals.  Frankly, the amount of  information freely provided has
amazed and challenged these researchers.  The authors hope that  we have  been
able to summarize accurately the data provided.
          Our  appreciation is  also extended  to  the  EPA  staff  of David
Sussman--Project  Officer, Steve Levy—Program Manager, and  to Steve
Lingle—Chief  of Technology and Markets Branch.
          The  detailed listing of  the  many names, organizations  and addresses
is to  be found in Part II.   Each person  and  organization should-realize  that
they have  contributed to the advancement  of  solid waste management  in America.
                                      IV

-------
                         ORGANIZATION OF REPORT
     The report consists of twenty three chapters in two volumes.
Chapter A, The Executive Summary and Chapter B, The Inventory of Waste
to Energy Systems are being published by the Office of Solid Waste
for wide distribution.  The Executive Summary and Inventory are also
included in the two volume set, which is available through NTIS.

     Volume I contains information relating to the implementation of
the systems, whereas Volume II contains technical information about
the units themselves.  The paragraphs in the Executive Summary follow
the same format.
                                      v

-------
                                INTRODUCTION
                                Background


          Since  1896 (in  Hamburg,  West  Gernany),  communities have been
converting municipal refuse  into electricity and  other energy uses.  Many of
the early systems were batch  operated with manual refuse feeding and manual ash
removal.
          Between the two world wars,  many developments were made in refuse
handling  in  general and grate systems in  particular.   There were also major
improvements  in the refractory wall  furnaces  and  the separate waste heat
boilers.
          Many of  the systems were  destroyed during World War II.  The
evolution of the water-tube  wall integrated furnace/boiler began in the 1950's.
It  paralleled developments  30  years  earlier  in  the  water tube walled
pulverized,  coal-fired boiler/furnace.
          More precisely,  the world's  first  integrated water-tube wall
furnace/boiler  began operation at Berne, Switzerland  in 1951*.  Two 100 tonne
per day  units  produced steam to make  electricity.   Some steam was sent to
industry.  Other steam was sent to a steam-to-hot-water heat exchanger.  This
hot water was  then sent to the local district heating network.  This original
Von Roll  plant  continues to  operate 25 years later in 1979-
          The business of designing and  building those and  other wate-to-energy
systems has  grown exponentially since 195*1.  Now we  can point to at least 522
places in the  world where  energy conservation objectives are  met by recovering
values.
                                     VI

-------
                                  Objective


          The general objective of the project was  to  gather  information about
European  waste-to-energy practice and to interpret this experience as it may be
conmercially practicable in the U.S.  The subobjectives are listed as follows:
          1.   Report on actual  technical,  economic, environmental, and social
              experience in application  of the European technologies of  (1)
              integrated water tube wall furnace/boiler and  (2) refractory wall
              furnace/waste heat boiler.
          2.   Aid American decision makers and engineers in utilization of the
              successful experience of their European  counterparts.
          3.   Describe in a  technical  manner how successful operations  are
              achieved and how unsuccessful operations are avoided.
          4.   Prepare Report  —  "Evaluation of European Refuse-Fired Energy
              Systems Design Practices".
          5.   Prepare 15 Trip Reports describing systems visited.
                                        Vll

-------
          The geographic  scope as clearly indicated in  the title is Europe.
However,  there will  be  frequent references to systems in America and comments
about  other countries.   For examplle,  Japan  has the  greatest number of
re fuse-fired energy  generating units (43) of any country in the world;  with an
installed capacity of  27,000  tons per day.
          Several  solid  waste management topics are  discussed.  Some are beyond
the original contract scope but are presented to give the  reader a better
perspective of the total  picture.  The refuse to energy systems are as follows:
              Water-tube  wall furnace/integrated boiler
              Refractory  wall furnace/waste heat boiler
              Vertical shaft  pyrolysis
Other type
include:
              Refuse  transfer stations
              Hazardous  waste transfer stations
              Landfilling
              Composting
              Rendering
              Pathological incineration
              Waste water treatment
              Environmental, Energy and Industrial  Parks.
          The  chronological  scope begins  in 1876 when  the first refuse  to
electricity system was built in Hamburg,  West Germany.
          The scope  of  processing capacity described  ranges  from the 120 tonne
(132 ton) per day single line facility at Werdenberg-Liechtenstein to the  large
1,630 tonne (1,793 ton)  per day four line system at Paris:  Issy-les-Moulineaux.
The energy uses scope includes use of hot  air, hot water,  superheated water,
steam,  superheated steam and electricity.
                                        Vlll

-------
                                        CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER 	    i
DIGEST AND MAJOR CONCLUSIONS 	   ii
PREFACE	iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 	   iv
ORGANIZATION 	    v
INTRODUCTION 	   vi
OBJECTIVE	vii
SCOPE	viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS	,	   ix
LIST OF TABLES	xvii
LIST OF FIGURES	xviv
A.  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS	A-1
    Executive Summary	A-1
      Development of the Refuse Fired Energy Generator Technology. ...  A-1
      Description of Communities Visited 	  A-3
        Locations Visited	A-3
        Collection Areas and Jurisdictions 	  A-5
        Terrain, Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods 	  A-5
        Population	A-5
      Separable Waste Streams	A-5
        Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse	A-10
        Bulky and Large Industrial Wastes	A-10
        Wastewater and Sewage Sludge 	  A-10
        Source Separation	A-10
        Front-End Separation	A-12
        Waste Oils and Solvents	A-12
        Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes	A-13
        Animal Waste	A-13
        'Street Sweepings	A-13
        Construction, Demolition Debris, and Ash	A-13
        Junk Automobiles	A-14
        Refuse Collection and Transfer Stations	A-14
        Household Containers	A-14
        Collecting Organization	A-14
        Collection Costs 	  A-14
        Assessment Methods	A-15
        Vehicles	A-15
        Collecting Times	A-15
        Homeowner Deliveries to Refuse Burning  Plant	A-15
        Industrial and Bulky Waste Collection Activity Affecting
          Resource Recovery	'	A-15
        Transfer Stations	  A-16
      Composition of Refuse	A-16
        Physical Composition of Refuse	A-16
                                   ix

-------
                            CONTENTS Continued)
  Moisture Content  	  A-16
Heating Value of Refuse	A-16
  Definitions and Calculations  	  A-16
  General Comments  on Refuse Heating Values	A-18
Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person 	  A-18
Total Operating System 	  A-23
Energy Utilization  	  A-23
  District Heating  (D.H.)	A-25
  District Cooling  	  A-28
  Underground Distribution 	  A-28
  Relation of Refuse as a Fuel  in the Lcng Term Community Plan for
    Community Electrical Power, District Heating and Cooling  . .  .  A-28
  Energy Marketing  and Standby  Capacity	A-32
Economics and Finance	A-36
  Capital Investment Costs 	  A-36
  Initial Capital Investment Cost per Daily Ton	A-39
  Expenses	A-*I2
  Revenues	A-46
  Net Disposal Costs or Tipping Fees	A-50
Personnel Categories 	  A-53
Education, Training and Experience 	  A-53
  Finance	A-53
System Ovnership and Governing  Patterns	A-53
Refuse Handling	A-5*J
  Weighing of Refuse Received	A-54
  Tipping Floor, Pit and Crane	A-54
  Pit Doors	A-56
  Crane	A-56
  Bulky Waste: Size Reduction	A-57
  Hoppers and Feeders	A-57
Grates and Primary Air	A-57
  Grate Life	A-58
  Grate Materials	A-58
  Grate Action	*	A-58
  Grate Functions	A-63
Ash Handling and Recovery	A-66
  Ash Exit from Grate,  Quenching and Removal from the Furnace. .  .  A-66
  Ram for Residue Removal (Martin) 	  A-68
  Submerged Conveyor 	  A-68
  Spray Quench with Conveyor	A-68
Furnace Wall	A-68
  Furnace Requirements 	  A-68
Secondary (Overfire Air) . . .	A-70
  Principles of Overfire Jets	A-70
Boilers	A-71
  Overall Boiler Design	A-71
Boiler Tube and Wall-Clening Methods 	  A-75
  Steam Condensers	A-75

-------
                                  CONTENTS (Continued)
      Supplementary Firing of Fuel Oil, Waste Oil and Solvents  	  A-78
      Co-Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Refuse	A-83
        Air Pollution Control Equipment	A-83
        Particulates 	  A-83
        Precipitator Maintenance  	  A-87
        Gases	A-87
        Measured Gaseous Emissions	A-88
        Gaseous Emissions Limits  	  A-88
        Trends in Emissions Control	A-88
      Start-Up and Shut-Down Procedures	A-88
    Conclusions  	A-88
      World Wide Inventory of Waste-to-Energy Systems	A-90
      Communities and Sites Visited	A-91
      Separable Waste Streams	A-91
      Collections and Transfer Stations	A-92
      Composition of Refuse	A-92
      Heating Value of Refuse	A-92
      Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person 	  A-93
      Development of Visited Systems  	  A-93
      Total Operating System 	  A-95
      Organization and Personnel  	  A-96
      Economics	A-96
        Capital Investment 	  A-96
      Expenses, Revenues and Net Disposal Costs	A-97
      Refuse Handling	A-98
      Hoppers and Feeders	A-99
        Grates and Primary Air	A-99
      Furnace Wall	A-100
      Secondary (Overfire) Air 	  A-100
      Boilers	A-101
      Start-Up and Shut-Down	A-103
      Supplementary Firing and Co-Firing of Fuel Oil, Waste Oil,
        Solvents and Coal	A-101
      Air Pollution Control	A-101
B.  WORLDWIDE INVENTORY OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY SYSTEMS  	   B-1
      Exclusions	   B-1
      Number and Tonnage Capacity	   B-1
      Energy Use Patterns	   B-3
      Furnace Size Distribution	   B-9

-------
                                  CONTENTS (Continued)
C.  DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNITIES VISITED 	  C-1
      General Comments about About the Communities  	  C-1
        Collection Areas and Jusisdictions 	  C-1
        Terrain, Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods  ....  C-1
        Population	C-1
      Specific Comments About the Communities	C-5
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	  C-5-25

D.  SEPARABLE WASTE STREAMS	D-1
      General Comments 	  D-1
        Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse	D-1
        Bulky and Large Industrial Wastes	D-1
        Wastewater and Sewage Sludge 	  D-4
        Source Separation	D-4
        Front-End Separation	D-4
        Waste Oils and Solvents	D-9
        Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes	•	D-9
        Animal Waste 	  D-9
        Street Sweepings	D-12
        Construction, Demolition Debris, and Ash	D-12
        Junk Automobiles	D-16
        Interrelation of Waste Streams 	  D-16

E.  REFUSE COLLECTION AND TRANSFER STATIONS	E-1
      General Comments on Collection 	  E-1
        Household Containers 	  E-1
        Collecting Organization	E-1
        Collection Costs 	  E-1
        Assessment Methods 	  E-5
        Vehicles	E-5
        Collecting Times 	  E-5
        Homeowner Deliveries 	  E-5
        Collection Activity Affecting Resource Recovery	E-5
        Transfer Stations	E-8
      Specific System Comments on Collection 	  E-8
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	  E-8-16

F.  COMPOSITION OF REFUSE	F-1
      Physical Composition of Refuse 	  F-1
      Moisture Content 	  F-1
      Chemical, Elemental and Molecular Composition of Refuse	F-1

G.  HEATING VALUE OF REFUSE	G-1
      Definitions and Calculations 	  G-1
      General Comments on Refuse Heating Values	G-3
                                     xtt

-------
                                  CONTENTS  (Continued)
      Specific Comments on Systems' Heating Values  	  G-3
      Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West  	  G-3-10

H.  REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING RATES PER PERSON  	  H-1

I.  DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFUSE FIRED ENERGY GENERATION TECHNOLOGY
      AND DEVELOPMENT OF VISITED SYSTEMS  	  1-1
      DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFUSE FIRED ENERGY GENERATOR  TECHNOLOGY
         (1896 to 1982)	1-2
      General Comments About Development  of Visited Systems	1-3
        Motivations and Decision Making	1-3
        Main Purpose - Waste Disposal? or Energy Production	  1-4
        Stated Reasons for Development of Refuse Fired  Energy Systems.1-4
        Unstated Reasons 	  1-13
      Specific Comments About Development of Visited Systems ....  1-14
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through  Copenhagen West  	  1-14-29
J.  TOTAL OPERATING SYSTEM 	  J-1
      General Comments 	  J-1
      Total Operations at Visited Systems	J-1
        Baden-Brugg through Copenhagen West	J-1-36

K.  ENERGY UTILIZATION 	  K-1
      General Comments 	  K-1
      District Heating (D.H.)	K-5
      District Cooling (Not Observed in Europe)	K-7
      Underground Distribution 	  K-15
      Community Electrical Power District Heating and Cooling
        Development	K-15
    Energy Utilization - Specific System Comments	K-32
      Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	  K-32-76

L.  ECONOMICS	L-1
      General Comments About the Capital Investment Costs	L-1
        Initial Capital Investment Cost Per Daily Ton	  L-1
      Specific Comments About the Visited Systems' Capital Invest-
        ment Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West. . . .  L-8-18
      General Comments About Expenses	L-18
        Economies of Scale	L-24
      General Comments About Revenues	L-27
        Sale of Energy	L-27
        Sludge Drying Credit 	  L-31
        Sale of Scrap Iron and Road Ash	L-31
        Interest on Reserves 	  L-31
        Net  Disposal Cost or Tipping Fee	L-31
      Specific Comments About Expenses and Revenues	L-34
                                 xiii

-------
                                 CONTENTS (Continued)

                                                                     Page

        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	  L-3^-72

M.  ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL 	  M-1
      System Ownership and Governing Patterns	M-1
      Personnel Categories 	  M-1
      Education, Training and Experience 	  M-5
      Organization and Personnel at Visited Systems	M-5
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	  M-5-27
N. and 0.  Chapters are reserved	

                                   VOLUME  II

P.  REFUSE HANDLING	P-1
      Weighing of Refuse Received-General Comment	P-1
      Details on Specific Weighing Systems 	  P-1
        Werdenberg, Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West	P-1-8
      Tipping Floor, Pit and Crane General Comments	P-10
        Pit Doors	P-10
        Pit or Bunker	P-12
        Crane	P-12
      Plant Details on Receiving Storing and Feeding Refuse	  P-12
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	  P-12-51

Q.  GRATES AND PRIMARY AIR	Q-1
      General Comments 	  Q-1
        Grate'Functions	Q-1
        Grate Life	Q-5
        Grate Materials	•	Q-5
        Grate Action	Q-5
      Specific Vendor Grates 	  Q-8
        Von Roll Grate	Q-8
        Kunstler Grate 	  Q-12
        Martin Grate 	  Q-15
        Widmer & Ernst Grate 	  Q-17
        VKW (Duesseldorf Grate or Walzenrost)	Q-17
        Bruun & Sorensen Grate	Q-22
        Volund Grate 	  Q-2U

R.  ASH	R-1
      Ash Exit from Grate, Quenching and Removal from the Furnace.  .  R-1
        Clinker Discharge Roll (Martin)	R-3
        Ram for Residue Removal (Martin) 	  R-3
                                    xiv

-------
                                  CONTENTS (Continued)
         Flyash  Ash  Handling  (Martin  and  Others)  	   R-6
       Submerged Conveyor  (Old  Widmer and Ernst  and  Old  Volund).  .  .  .   R-6
         Additional  Ram-Type  Dischargers  	   R-6
         Spray Quench  with Conveyor	R-6
       Ash Handling  in the Plant,  General Comments 	   R-12
       Ash Recovery, General  Comments	R-12
       Ash Handling  and Recovery at Specific  Plants	R-15
         Werdenberg-Liechtenstein  to  Copenhagen  West 	   R-15-^2
         Road Test Procedures	R-51
         Parking Lot and Road Test Results	R-51

S.  FURNACE WALL	S-1
       General Comments	S-1
         Furnace Requirements	S-1
         Werdenberg-Liechtenstein  through Copenhagen West	S-3-^8

T.  SECONDARY (OVERFIRE)  AIR	T-1
       General Comments	T-1
         Principles of Over fire Jets	T-1
         Werdenberg-Leichtenstein  through Copenhagen West	T-2-20


U.  BOILERS	U-1
       What is a Boiler?	U-1
         Definition of Boiler Terms	U-3
       Summary of Boiler-Furnaces	U-5
         Overall Boiler Design  	   U-5
       General Boiler  Designs  	   U-6
       Comments  About  Specific Boilers  	   U-8
         Werdenberg-Liechtenstein  through Copenhagen West	U-8-83
       Metal Wastage (Corrosion and Erosion)  of Boiler Tubes  	   U-85
         Experience with Fossil Fuels	U-85
         Experience with Refuse as Fuel	U-85
         Oxidation-Reduction  Reactions  	   U-85
         Effect  of Soot  Blowing	U-86
         A Proposed Corrosion Mechanism	U-86
         Reasons  for Minimal  Tube  Corrosion	U-88
       Steam Condensers	U-90
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein  through  Gothenburg:Savenas  	   U-90-91*
      Steam-to-Refuse Ratio  	   U-94

V.  SUPPLEMENTARY FIRING OF FUEL OIL, WASTE OIL AND SOLVENTS	V-1
      Oil and Waste Oil Co-Firing - General  Comments	V-1
      Oil and Waste Oil Co-Firing - Specific Comments 	   V-3
        Werdenberg-Lechtenstein through  Copenhagen West 	   V-3-10
                                       xv

-------
                                  CONTENTS (Continued)
W.  CO-DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND REFUSE	W-1
      Co-Disposal, General Comments	W-1
      Co-Disposal, Comments About Specific Systems 	  W-1
        Krefeld through Copenhagen West	W-1-25

X.  AIR POLLUTION CONTROL	X-1
      Development of Emission Controls 	  X-1
        Particulates 	  X-1
        Precipitator Maintenance 	  X-1
        Gases	X-1
        Measured Gaseous Emissions 	  X-3
        Gaseous Emission Limits	X-3
        Trends in Emissions Control	X-6
      Specific Comments about Air Pollution Control at Plants Visited.  X-6
        Werdenberg-Liechtenstein through Copenhagen West 	 .  .  X-6-34
      Stack Sampling Methods 	  X-34

Y.  START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN PROCEDURES	Y-1
      General Comments 	  Y-1
      Specific System Comments 	  Y-2

Z.  APPENDIX	Z-1
                                      XVI

-------
                                 LIST OF  TABLES
                                    VOLUME  I
 Table A-1.    Summary Data  on  the  15  Surveyed Plants  Visited  by  Battelle
                for  the  U.S. EPA Project  on  Waste-to-Energy	A-H
 Table A-1a.   Summary Data  on  the  15  Surveyed Plants  Visited  by  Battelle
                for  the  U.S. EPA Project  on  Waste-to-Energy	A-6
 Table A-2.    Minor  Visits  (15) -  Date, Location,  Manufacture, Reasons
                and,  Comments  Related to  Battelle's Brief Visit  to  15
                Other Waste-to-Energy Facilities  	   A-7
 Table A-3.    Description of 19 Offices Visited by Battelle While on Tour
                of European Waste-to-Energy  Facilities  	   A-8
 Table A-4.    Collection Areas, Radius, Jurisdictions and Population .  . .   A-9
 Table A-5.    Separable Waste  Streams Identifiable Within the Grates of
                Refuse-Fired Energy Plants  	   A-11
 Table A-6.    Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Switzerland,  USA,
                and  Britain	A-17
 Table A-7.    Refuse  Lower  Heating Values: Assumption for Plant  Design and
                Actual	A-20
 Table A-8.    Energy  Values of Selected Refuse Components (Dry)	A-21
 Table A-9.    European Average Refuse Generation and  Burning  Rates  Per
                Person (1976-1977  Period)	A-22
 Table A-10.   Three Steps of Energy Form  and Use at Visited European
                Plants	A-24
 Table A-11.   Key Energy Functions of 15  Visited Systems	A-25
 Table A-12.   Internal Uses and Losses of Refuse Derived  Energy	A-26
 Table A-13.   Attractiveness of District  Heating as a Function of Density
                of Energy Use(a)	A-29
 Table A-14.   Favorable Demand Aspects of District Heating and Cooling
                Systems in  the U.S.A	A-30
 Table A-15a.  Summary of Capital Investment	A-37
 Table A-15b.  Summary of Capital Investment  (Continued)	A-38
 Table A-16.   Exchange Rates for Six  European Countries,  (National  Monetary
                Unit  Per U.S.  Dollar)  19^8 to February, 1978(a)	A-41
 Table A-17.   Summary of Expenses  for 15  European  Refuse  to
                Energy Systems 	   A-M3
 Table A-18.   Summary of Revenues  from 15 European Refuse to Energy
                Plants (U.S. 1976  $ Per Ton)	A-^7
 Table  A-19.   Gross Summary of Revenue From  European  Refuse-Fired Energy
                Plants	A-118
 Table  A-20.   Refuse  Pit Storage Volume,  Dimensions and Capacities  ....   A-55
                Plants	A-U7
 Table  A-21.   Design  Pressure  of Primary  Air System at Plants
                Visited	A-59
Table  A-22.   Grate Bar Replacement	A-60
Table A-23.  Grate Dimensions 	   A-61
Table A-24.   Grate Burning Rates	A-62
Table A-25.  Refuse Burning Manufacturing and Representatives 	   A-65

-------
                          LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table A-26.  Summary of Ash Handling and Recovery Methods	A-67
Table A-27.  Secondary Air Systems  	  A-72
Table A-28.  Data Regarding Cleaning of Heat-Transfer Surfaces in
               Visited Refuse-Fired Steam and Hot-Water Generators  . .  .  A-76
Table A-29.  Methods Used to Clean Tubes and Walls of European Refuse-
               Fired Energy Plants  	  A-77
Table A-30.  Boiler Furnace Design Conditions	'	A-79
Table A-31.  Boiler Release Rates	A-80
Table A-32.  Comparison of Energy Recovery 	  A-81
Table A-33.  Use of Supplementary Fuels at 16 European Refuse Fired
               Energy Plants 	  A-82
Table A-31*.  Systems for Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge
               Location, Manufacturer, Volume, and Process	A-8*J
Table A-35.  Characteristics of Electrostatic Precipitators	A-85
Table A-36.' Measured Gaseous Emission Rates at European RFSG	A-86
Table A-37.  Emission Limits, mg/Nm^ 	  A-89
Table B-1.   Summary of World-Wide Inventory Waste-to-Energy Systems
               (1986 - 1983)	B-2
Table B-2.   Pounds of Municipal Waste Converted to Energy Per Person
               Per Day by Country Capacity when Plants were Surveyed in
               1977	B-H
Table B-3.   U.S.A. Waste-to-Energy Systems Operatinng (Tonnes/Day). .  .  B-6
Table B-4.   The World's Uses of Energy Produced by Municipal* Waste-
               to-Energy Commercially Operating or Large Demonstration
               Systems	B-7
Table B-5.   Number of Furnaces by Capacity and Country (Currently
               Operating and Planned Expansion to 1982)	B-10
Table B-6.   Battelle Inventory of Worldwide Waste-to-Energy Systems .  .  B-11
Table C-1.   Collection Area and Radius	C-2
Table C-2.   Terrain, Natural Boundaries, Highways, Neighborhoods.  . .  .  C-3
Table C-3.   Population of Visited Areas	C-U
Table D-1.   Waste Streams Treated Independently from the Main Refuse
               Burning Waste Stream	D-2
Table E-1.   Household Refuse Containers 	  E-2
Table E-2.   Refuse Collection	E-3
Table E-3.   Collection Costs and Assessment Method	E-4
Table E-U.   Collecting Times	E-7
Table F-1.   Moisture Percentages in Refuse Combusted in Visited European
               Refuse-to-Energy Plants 	  F-2
Table F-2.   Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Switzerland, USA,
               and Britian	F-3
Table F-3.   Composition of Municipal Waste at Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor.  F-l*
Table F-H.   Refuse Composition at Thun, 1975	F-5
Table F-5.   Approximate Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Zurich
               Switzerland	F-6
Table F-6.   Average Chemical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste  in
               Zurich Switzerland	F-7
Table F-7.   West Incinerator of Copenhagen Refuse Analysis	F-8
                                      xviii

-------
                           LIST  OF  TABLES  (Continued)
 Table  G-1.   Hydrogen  Content  and  Calorific Values  of Four Fuels.  .  .  .  G-2
 Table  G-2.   Refuse  Lower Heating  Values: Assumption for Plant Design
                and Actual	G-5
 Table  G-3.   Energy  Values  of.Selected Refuse  components (Dry)	  G-6
 Table  G-4.   Heating Values for Mixed Municipal Refuse  in Refuse Power
                Plants	G-9
 Table  H-1.   Quoted  Refuse  Burning Rate on a 7-Day  Basis (Does Not Include
                Alternate Disposal  Means  	  H-2
 Table  H-2.   European  Average  Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per
                Person  (1976-1977 Period)	H-3
 Table  1-1.   Stated  Reasons Associated With Each Unit	1-5
 Table  1-2.   Rank Order Listing of Reasons Mentioned for Deciding to
                Construct a  Refuse  to Steam or  Hot Water Plant  	  1-9
 Table  1-3.   Matrix  of Stated  Reasons for Development of Refuse Fired
                Energy  Systems  	  1-10
 Table  J-1.   Energy  Generation Rates at Baden-Brugg for 1975 and 1976
                (From Plant  Statistical Statement) 	  J-2
 Table  J-2.   Baden-Brugg Weekly Operating Summary May 2 to July 4, 1976  J-3
 Table  J-3.   Dusseldorf Waste-Burning Facility-Operating Results - 1976  J-5
 Table  J-4.   Availability of Issy's Total System	J-8
 Table  J-5.   Gross Operating Figures for December 1976  and The Complete
                Years 1976 and  1975 for Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor ....  J-9
 Table  J-6.   Detailed  Operating Statistics for November 4, 1976 Boiler
                Number  1 at  Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor 	  J-11
 Table  J-7.   Detailed  Operatinng Statistics for April 2, 1977 Boiler
                Number  1 at  Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor	J-12
 Table.  J-8.   Comparison of  Zurich-Hagenholz Incinerator Performance, 1974
 Table  J-9.   Report  of Operations  1974 and 1976	J-14
 Table  J-10.  Refuse Burning  Summary, The Hague, 1976 (Compared to 1975)  J-20
 Table  J-11.  The Hague Plant Annual Operating  Results Over Seven Year
                Period  (Furnace 4 Began Operation Early  1974)	J-21
Table  J-12.  Summary for 1976 of Refuse-Sludge Burning  Plant Operation
                at Dieppe.  Tabulation Prepared by Plant Operators,
                Thermical-Inor, in Fulfillment  of Their  Operating Contract
               with the City	   J-23
Table  J-13-  Dieppe Wastewater Plant Summary for 1976.  Tabulation
               Prepared by Thermical-Inor, in Fulfillment of Their
               Operating Contract With the City	   J-24
Table  J-14.  Annual Refuse Incinerator Operating Results for Dieppe
                1972 -1976	   J-25
Table J-15.  1976 Operating Results for Gothenburg:  Savenas Plant . . .   J-26
Table J-16.  Gothenburg Savanas Annual Results 1974-1976	   J-27
Table J-17.  Operating Data for the Uppsala Energy System for 1975 and
                1975	   J-28
                                      XXX

-------
                          LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table K-1.   Three Steps of Energy Form and Use at Visited European
               Plants	   K-2
Table K-2.   Key Energy Functions of 15 Visited Systems	   K-3
Table K-3.   Heat Utilization From German Refuse Power Plants Start-up
               During  the 1960-1975 Period	   K-H
Table K-4.   Internal  Uses and Losses of Refuse Derived Energy	   K-5
Table K-5.   Attractiveness of District Heating as a Function of Density
               of Energy Use	   K-9
Table K-6.   Specific  Heat and Energy Numbers of Different Types of
               Swedish Buildings	   K-11
Table K-7.   Favorable Demand Aspects of District Heating and Cooling
               Systems in the U.S.A	   K-13
Table K-8.   Report on Operations Nashville Thermal Transfer Corporation
               for the Twelve-Month Period Ending May 31, 1978	   K-14
Table K-9.   Steam Production, Losses, Sale and Availability	   K-^5
Table K-10.  History of Electrical Production, Sales, Purchases and
               Internal Consumption 	   K-47
Table K-11.  C.P.C.U.  District Heating Uses, Production Capacity,
               Climatological Conditions and Annual Actual Steam
               Production	   K-49
Table K-12.  C.P.C.U. District Heating Network Facts	   K-50
Table K-13.  C.P.C.U.  Percent Distribution of Customers 	   K-51
Table K-14.  Hamburg:  Stellinger-Moor Total Operating Figures 	   K-51*
Table K-15.  Energy Produced by Savenas Plant in 1976 	   K-68
Table K-16.  Typical Autumn Month Operation Data for Uppsala Heat Power
               Company, October 1977	   K-72
Table L-1.   Summary of Capital Investment	   L-2
Table L-2.   Exchange  Rates for Six European Countries	   L-5
Table L-3.   Status of construction Expenditures - Wuppertal - as of
               December 31, 1975	   L-11
Table L-H.   Capital Investment Cost (1969) for Units #1 and #2 and Other
               Buildings at Zurich: Hagenholz	   L-I^J
Table L-5.   Capital Investment Costs (1972) for Unit #3 and the Water
               Deaeration Tanks and Room at Zurich: Hagenholz 	   L-15
Table L-6.   Assets and Liabilities of Copenhagen: Amager as of March
               31, 1976	   L-19
Table L-7.   Capital Cost (Assets and Liabilities) at Copenhagen: West
               (Fiscal Year 1975-1976)	   L-20
Table L-8.   Detailed Expenses for 15 European Refuse to Energy Systems
               (U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton)	   L-21
Table L-9.   Summary of Expenses for 15 European Refuse to Energy Systems
               (U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton)	   L-23
Table L-10.  Detailed Revenues of 15 European Refuse to Energy Plants
               (U.S. 1976 $ Per Ton).	   L-28

-------
                           LIST  OF TABLES (Continued)
 Table  L-11.   Summary  of  Revenues  From  15  European  Refuse  to  Energy  Plants
                (U.S.  1976  $  Per Ton)	L-29
 Table  L-12.   Gross  Summary of Revenue  from European  REfuse Fired  Energy
                Plants	L-27
 Table  L-13.   Operations  Results at Werdenberg-Liechtenstein  for 1976.  .  .   L-35
 Table  L-H».   Revenue  Estimate for 1977 at Werdenberg	L-36
 Table  L-15.   Operating Results for 1976 at Baden-Brugg	L-15
 Table  L-16.   Costs  of the  Waste Burning Facility at  Duesseldorf,  1975  .  .   L-39
 Table  L-17.   Duesseldorf Revenues from Sale of Steam, Baled  Scrap Steel
                and  Processed Ash  in  1975	L-40
 Table  L-18.   Operating Results for Paris:  Issy During  1976	L-1J2
 Table  L-19.   Operating Results for 1976 at Hamburg:  Stellinger-Moor and
                Hamburg:  Borsigstrasse  Plants  (MVA  1+11} 	   L-46
 Table  L-20.   Annual 1976 Operating, Maintenance, Interest, and Other
                Costs  for Zurich:  Hagenholz Units #1, #2,  and #3 	   L-48
 Table  L-21.   Annual 1976 Revenues for  Zurich: Hagenholz Units #1, #2,
                and #3	L-50
 Table  L-22.   Operations  Results for  1976  at The Hague	L-52
 Table  L-23.   Annual Invoice Billings From the Contract Operator Thermal-
                INOR to the Dieppe Community for Operations and Maintenance
                (1976 Results)	L-5*J
 Table  L-24.   Operating Results for 1976 at Gothenberg  	   L-55
 Table  L-25.   Operations  Results at Uppsala for 1976  Expenses and  1975
                Revenues	L-57
 Table  L-26.   Operating Budget for Horsens  Plant, 1977-1978	L-60
 Table  L-27.   Annual Costs  and Revenues at  Copenhagen: Amager	L-61
 Table  L-28.   Operations  Results at Copenhagen: Amager (Refuse to  Energy
                and Landfill) Plant, Transfer Station	L-62
 Table  L-29.   Operations Results at Copenhagen: West  (Vest) for 1975-1976.   L-63
 Table  L-30.   Modes of Finance for European Refuse-Energy  Plants 	   L-65
 Table  L-31.   Financial Structure  of 15 European Refuse-Fired Energy
                Plants	L-66
Table  L-32.  Financial Structure  of 15 European Refuse-Fired Energy
                Plants	L-67
Table L-33.  Financial Structure  of 15 European Refuse-Fired Energy
               Plants	L-68
                                      XXI

-------
                          LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table M-1.   Ownership/Governing Patterns 	 ,
Table M-2.   Personnel Category Listing for Refuse Fired Energy Plants,
Table M-3.   Outside Contracted Services Frequently Used	
Table M-4.   Staff Organizatioon at Stadtwerke Duesseldorf Waste-to-
               Energy Plant 	
Table N. and 0.  Chapters are reserved
M-2
M-3
M-6

M-10
                                  VOLUME II

Table P-1.   Refuse Pit Storage Volume, Dimensions and Capacties. . . .   P-13
Table Q-1.   Refuse Burning Manufacturers ar.d Representatives	   Q-3
Table Q-2.   Grate Dimensions and Burning F.ates	   Q-i|
Table Q-3.   Design Pressure of Primary Air System at Plants Visted . .   Q-3
Table Q-H.   Grate Bar Replacement	   Q-7
Table R-1.   Summary of Ash Handling and Recovery Methods	   R-2
Table R-2.   Disposition of Bottom Ash, Scrap Metal and Fly Ash at
               Paris:  Issy	   R-23
Table R-3.   Population, Refuse and Ash in and Around Zurich	   R-24
Table R-M.   Analytical Values of Trace Elements in the Percolate . . .   R-55
Table R-5.   Element Composition of Soil ar.d Cinders (All Analyses made
                on Dry Material)	   R-57
Table R-6.   Comparison of Analyses of Percolate from Depot 1 in
               Vestskoven and Percolate, Drair. Water, and Surface Run-
               Off from Parking Lot in Ballerup	   R-58
Table S-1.   Wall Tube Thickness Measurements of Screen Tubes at the
               Rear of the Radiation First Pass at Hamburg:Stellinger-
               Moor	   S-31
Table S-2.   Wall Tube Thickness Measurements of Screen Tubes at the
               Rear of the Radiation First Pass at Hamburg:Stellinger-
               Moor	    S-33
Table S-3.   Boiler Furnace Design Conditions	    S-4?
Table T-1.   Secondary Air Systems	    T-3
Table T-2.   Primary, Secondary, Flue Gas ar.d Recirculation Fan
               Parameters at CopenhagenrAmager 	    T-23
Table U-1.   Composition of Sicromal Steel Used for Shielding Tubes
               from Hot Corrosive Gases	    U-23
Table U-1a.  Flue Gas Temperatures, CO Levels, and Steam Flow Rates
               Recorded on June 9, 1977 at Zurich: Hangeholz Unit #3  .    U-28
                                     xxii

-------
                          LIST OF TABLES  (Continued)
Table U-2.   Superheater Tube Materials Used	   U-51
Table U-3.   Comparison of Energy Recovery	   U-77
Table U-4.   Methods used to Clean Tubes and Walls of European Refuse-
               Fired Energy Plants 	   U-78
Table U-5.   Comparison of Energy Recovery	   U-97
Table V-1.   Use of Supplementary Fuels at  16 European Refuse Fired
               Energy Plants	   V-2
Table W-1.   Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge Location, System
              Vendor and American Licensee  	   W-2
Table W-2.   Co-Disposal Unit Operation Moisture Conditions.  .....   W-3
Table W-3.   Sludge Drying Mill Design Conditions for Waste of Three (3)
              Lower Heating Values	   W-10
Table W-1J.   Results of Calculation by Krings of Heat Balance for Dieppe
              Plant	   W-16
Table W-5.   Approximate composition and Lower Heat Value of Some
              Typical Raw Sewage Sludges According to Eberhardt. ...   W-17
Table W-6.   Summary for 1976 of Refuse-Sludge Burning Plant Operation
              at Dieppe	   W-20
Table W-7.   Dieppe Wastewater Plant Summary for 1976	   W-21
Table W-8.   Annual Refuse Incinerator Operating Results for Dieppe -
              1972-1976	   W-22
Table X-1.   Characteristics of Electrostatic Precipitators	   X-2
Table X-2.   Measured Gaseous Emission Rates at European RFSG	   X-4
Table X-3.   Emission Limits, mg/Nm^ 	   X-5
Table X~4.   Results of Two Performance Tests by TUV on a Precipitator
              at the Duesseldorf Refuse Plant	   X-9
Table X-5.   Precipitator Design Characteristics at Wuppertal	   X-12
Table X-6.   Characteristics of the Two Krefeld Precipitators	   X-15
Table X-7.   Paris-Issy Air Pollution Test Results	   X-18
Table X-8.   Performance Test Data on Precipitator l^u.  2 Serving Furnace
              No. 4	   X-27
Table X-9.   Results of Gaseous Emission Measurements from Original
              Three Furnaces at Uppsala (April 23, 1974) 	   X-28

-------
                                LIST OF FIGURES
                                   VOLUME I
Figure A-l.    Annual Average Lower Heating Vaules for Berne, Stockholm,
                 Frankfurt, The Hague and Duesseldorf and Range of Value
                 for Other Cities	A-19
Figure A-2.    Connected and Specific Capacities in Europe.  	  A-27
Figure A-3.    Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes at
                 Werdenberg	A-31
Figure A-1!.    Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes at Paris. .  A-31
Figure A-5.    Hot Water Pipes at Werdenberg	A-31
Figure A-6.    Hot Water Pipes at Uppsala	A-31
Figure A-7.    Total Energy Plan Built up ir. Five Stages	A-33
Figure A-8.    Heat Load Duration Curve and Lead-Split.  Heat Only Package
                 Boilers Used (1) for Peaking,  (2) When There is not Enough
                 Refuse Supply or (3) When Energy Demand is too Low .  . .  A-31*
Figure A-9.    Heat Produced by Each Unit for the Optimum Case in the
                 Long Range Plan for District Heating Supply in the
                 Stockholm Area Using Oil, Refuse and Nuclear Power .  . .  A-35
Figure A-10.   Capital Cost Per Daily Ton Capacity 	   A-40
Figure A-ll.   Total Annual Expenses Versus Annual Tonnage	   A-1!1!
Figure A-12.   Net Disposal Cost or Tipping Fee at 13 European Refuse
                 Fired Energy Plants	   A-49
Figure A-13.   Basic Types of Grates for Maj..< Burning of Refuse	   A-64
Figure A-14.   Dacha Type Superheater and Boiler Convection Arrangement
                 for Proposed Stapelfeld Plant  at Hamburg	   A-7M
Figure B-l.    Pounds of Waste Processed in Refuse-Fired Energy Generators
                 Per Capita Per Day in Selected Countries	B-5
Figure C-1.    Refuse Generation Showing the Service Areas in the Canton of
                 of St. Gallen and in Liechtenstein	C-6
Figure C-2.    Profile of Plant Surrounded by Mountains 	  C-7
Figure C-3.    View of Baden-Brugg 200 Tonne Per Day Plant From the
                 Adjacent Sewage Treatment Plant Property 	  C-8
Figure 0-4.    Area in Aargau Canton Served by Duesseldorf Plant	C-10
Figure C-5.    Waste Collection Area Served by Duesseldorf Plant	C-11
Figure C-6.    Region Served by Wuppertal MVA	C-12
Figure C-7.    Krefeld Waste Processing Facility; Wastewater Treatment
                 Plant on Left, Refuse and Sewage-Sludge-Burning Plant
                 on Right	C-13
Figure C-8.    Waste Generation Area and Treatment Plants for the Paris,
                 France Plants that Treat Urban Waste	C-15
Figure C-9.    Location of Stellinger Moor Plant	C-16
                                   3OO.V

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure C-10.    The Hague Plant Situated Near the Center of The Hague
                   The Four  Chimneys  in  the Background Serve the 200 MW
                   Oil-Fired Municipal Power Plant 	  C-18
Figure C-11.    Collection  Area for  Gothenburg Waste Handling System
                   Total Area Served  is  About 1000 km2	    C-20
Figure C-12.    Map of Aera Served by Horsens Refuse-Burning, Sludge-Drying
                   and District-Heating  Plant	C-22
Figure C-13.    Aerial View of Horsens  Refuse-Burning Plant, Sludge-
                   Drying and District-Heating Plant 	  C-23
Figure 0-1*1.    Copenhagen: Amager Plant Located on Canal	C-2*J
Figure C-15.    Detailed Map Showing Location of West Plant at the
                   Intersection of Two Major Highways	C-26.
Figure C-16.    Map of Copenhagen, South and East Metropolitan Area
                   Served by the Amager  Plant	C-27
Figure C-17.    Map of Greater Copenhagen Area Showing the Location of
                   the West  (Vest) Refuse Fired Steam Generator, The
                   Hillerod  Transfer  Station, Volund Headquarters, Etc .  C-28
Figure D-1.     Transfer Station Under  Construction at Amager 	  D-3
Figure D-2.     Source Separation Recycling Station at Copenhagen:
                   West	D-5
Figure D-3.     White Goods, Bicycles,  Etc., Reclamation at the
                   Hague (Battelle Photo)	D-6
Figure D-lJ.     Front End Separation of Cooper-Rich Motors and Tires in
                   Scrap Dealer's Area at the Hague (Battelle Photo) . .  D-7
Figure D-5.     Crushing White Goods After Motor Removal in Scrap
                   Area at the Hague  (Battelle Photo)	D-8
Figure D-6.     Ferrous Material Bin in Corner of Tipping Floor at
                   Uppsala (Battelle  Photo)	D-10
Figure D-7.     Industrial  Chemical  and Hazardous Waste Collection Center
                   at Horsens	D-11
Figure D-8.     Horizontal  Ventilation Air Pipe From Rendering Plant to
                   Zurich:Hagenholz Plant	D-13
Figure D-9.     Street Sweeping Truck Off-Loading at The Hague	  D-14
Figure D-10.    Front and Back End Materials Separation at The Hague. .  D-15
Figure D-11.    Automobile  Junk Yard Next to Refuse Burning Plant at
                  Horsens	D-17
Figure D-12.    Waste Streams and Their Treatment Options in Copenhagen
                  and Its Western Suburbs	D-18
                                     xxv

-------
                          LIST  OF  FIGURES  (Continued)
Figure E-1.     Transfer Vehicle.  The cylinderical Chamber Holds About
                  50m3 (1,675 ft3) Compressed at the Transfer Station
                  by a Factor of About 3.3 to 1	E-6
Figure E-2.     Public Relations Cartoon of Oscar (of Sesame Street)
                  Encouraging People to Put All Trash in the Containers . E-11
Figure E-3.     Cross Section and Plan View of Transfer Station	E-14
Figure G-1.     Annual Average Lower Heating Values for Berne, Stockholm,
                  Frankfurt, The Hague and Duesseldorf and Range of
                  Values for Other Cities 	 G-4
Figure G-2.     Shredder and Shear Layout at Duesseldorf	 G-7
Figure 1-1.     Artist Sketch of the 1904 Refuse Fired Steam and Electricity
                  Electricity Generator as Manufactured by
                  Horsfall-Destructor Co. at Its Location
                  Location on Josefstrasse in Zurich	1-20
Figure 1-2.     First Volund System Built at Gentofte in 1932 and
                  Decommissioned 40 Years Later in 1973	1-28
Figure J-1.   Steam Production, Flue Gas Temperatures, and C02 Levels
                (Weekly Average) During the 4000 Hour Operating Cycle
                Between Cleaning at Zurich: Hagenholz Unit #3	J-17
Figure J-2.   Steam Production, Flue Gas Temperatures, and COg Levels
                (Weekly Average) During the 4000 Hour Operating Cycle
                Between Cleaning at Zurich: Hagenholz Unit #3 	 J-18
Figure J-3.   Arrangement of Components of Bolanderna Incinerator Plant . J-31
Figure J-4.   Total (Three Lines) Operation Hours Per Month 	 J-32
Figure J-5.   Taken From an Article Written By Gabriel S. Pinto in April
                1976, that Discusses Basic Design of the Total Operating
                System at Copenhagen: West	J-34
Figure K-1.   Connected ans Specific Capacities in Europe 	 K-6
Figure K-2.   Schematic Showing How a Central District Heating System
                Compares in Efficiency With Individual Home Heating
                Systems	K-8
Figure K-3.   Building HVAC System Survey 	 K-10
Figure K-4.   Maximum Hourly Heat Demand Average Monthly Heat Demand. . . K-12
                                   xxvi

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure K-5a.   Steam Distribution and  Return  Condensate Pipes at
                 Werdenberg	K-16
Figure K-5b.   Steam Distribution and  Return  Condensate Pipes at Paris  .  K-16
Figure K-5c.   Hot Water Pipes at Werdenberg  	  K-16
Figure K-5d.   Hot Water Pipes at Uppsala	K-16
Figure K-6.    Conventional Hot Water  Distribution  Pipes  	  K-17
Figure K-7a.   Concrete Culvert	K-18
Figure K-7b.   Plastic Pipe Culvert	K-18
Figure K-7c.   Asbestos Cememt Pipe Culvert	K-18
Figure K-7d.   Copper Pipe Culvert  	  K-18
Figure K-8.    Design of the Trench When the  Pipe is Insulated With
                 Mineral Wool	K-19
Figure K-9.    Design of the Trench When the  Pipe is Insulated With Wirsbo-
                 Pur (Polyethylene Pipe) 	  K-19
Figure K-10.   Wirsbo-Pex Polyethylene Pipe and Wirsbo-Per Insulation Pre-
                 fabricated Parts at a Junction Box	K-19
Figure K-11.   Several Figures of the  Aquawarm System of  Polyethylene
                 Encased Copper Pipe	K-20
Figure K-12.   Asphalt Concrete Coated District Heating Pipe by
                 TK-ISOBIT	K-21
Figure K-13.   Total Energy Plan Built Up in  Three  Stages. .......  K-23
Figure K-1^.   Staged Development of District Heating in  Sodertalje. .  .  K-2*J
Figure K-15.   Annual Capital Investment of the City of Sodertalje
                 Energy Authority	K-25
Figure K-16.   Two Schemes Showing How Customer Systems Can Be Converted
                 to Hot Water District Heating 	  K-26
Figure K-17.   Portable Oil-Fired District Heating  Sub Station 	  K-27
Figure K-18.   Portable Oil-Fired Fire-Tube Boiler  	  K-27
Figure K-19.   Original and permanent  Standby Oil-Fired District Heating
                 Boiler Building 	  K-28
Figure K-20.   Heat Load Duration Curve and Load-Splie.   Heat Only Package
                 boileer Used (1) for  Peaking, (2)  When There is not Enough
                 Refuse Supply or (3)  When Energy Demand  is Too Low. .  .  K-29
Figure K-21.   Schematics of Simple Power Station and a Cogeneration
                 Electricity and District Heating System  	  K-30
Figure K-22.   Useful Energy and Losses of Simple Power Generation
                 Compared with Cogeneration	K-30
Figure K-23.   Fuel Economy in Condensing Plant and Combined Plant . .  .  K-31
                                     xxvii

-------
                          LIST  OF  FIGURES (Continued)
Figure K-24.  Heat Produced by Each Unit for the Optimum Case in the
                Long Range Plan for District Heating Supply in the
                Stockholm Area Using Oil, Refuse and Nuclear Power. . . . K-33
Figure K-25.  Werdenberg Steam and Hot-Water Distribution System
                (Courtesy Widmer & Ernst, Alberti-Fonsar)	K-31*
Figure K-26.  Standby Oil-Fired Package Boiler at Werdenberg	K-35
Figure K-27.  Back Pressure Turbine at Werdenberg 	 K-35
Figure K-28.  Steam Distribution Trench at Werdenberg 	 K-36
Figure K-29.  Two Views of Air-Cooled Condenser at Werdenberg 	 K-37
Figure K-30.  Cascade Type Water Heater on Left, Feedwater Tank and Steam
                Lines on Right at Werdenberg	K-39
Figure K-31.  Insulation, Installation and map of Hot Water Electrical
                Systems	K-^0
Figure K-32.  Schematic Diagram of Baden-Brugg Thermal and Electrical
                Systems	K-41
Figure K-33.  Steam and Return Condensate Lines Connecting Duesseldor's
                Refuse-Fired Steam Generator and the Coal-Fired Electrical
                Power Plant	K-43
Figure K-31*.  Steam Distribution and Return Condensate Pipes of C.P.C.U.
                in Paris	K-52
Figure K-35.  Steam Produced TIRU (Solid Waste Fueled) and by C.P.C.U.
                (Fossiled Fueled) in Paris	K-53
Figure K-36.  Diagrams Thermal and of Electrical Systems at Stellinger-
                Moor	K-56
Figure K-37.  Electrical Power Generation Room	K-58
Figure K-38.  Steam and Boiler Feedwater Flow Pattern External to the
                Zurich: Hagenholz Boiler	K-58     I
Figure K-39.  Tonne Steam Produced Per Tonne of Refuse  Consumed (1976
                Average was 2.*»1)	K-59
Figure K-^0.  KWH Electrical Sales Per Tonne of Refuse Consumed 	 K-59
Figure K-41.  1976 Heat Deliver to Kanton and Rendering Plant and Steam
                to EWZ From Zurich: Hagenholz	K-61
Figure K-H2.  Kanton District Heating System (5.3 km Long) Using 260 C
                (500 F) Steam at Zurich, Switzerland	K-62
Figure K-43.  Entrance to Walk-Through District Heating Tunnel at Zurich:
                Hagenholz	K-63
Figure K-44.  Cross-Section Schematic of Pipes in the District Heating
                Supply and Return Tunnel at Zurich: Hagenholz	K-64
                                  XXVlll

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure K-45.   1976  Energy Delivery  (Warmeabgabe)  to the Railroad
                 Station, the  KZW  and  EWZ	K-65
Figure K-46.   Monthly  Trend for 1976  of Heat Production and  Utilization
                 in  Gothenburg (Courtesy GRAA3)	K-69
Figure K-H7.   Schematic of Uppsala  Heating  System (Courtesy  Uppsala
                 Kraftvarme AB)	K-71
Figure K-48.   Installation of Hot Water Distribution Piping  (Courtesy
                 Uppsala Kraftvarmewerke AB)  	  	  K-73
Figure K-49.   Copenhagen:  Amager's Refuse  Fired  Energy Plant  in  the
                 Foreground and the  Oil Firec Plant in  the Background.  .  K-75
Figure K-50.   Insulated Hot Water Pipes Leaving Boiler at Amager.  .  .  .  K-77
Figure K-51.   Pumps to Send Hot Water to  the Power Plant Which Sends the
                 Hot Water to  the District Heating Network at Amager  .  .  K-77
Figure K-52.   Map of District Heating Network  of  Amager Island	  K-77
Figure K-53.   Energy Delivery to the  District  Heating Network  	  K-78
Figure K-51!.   Map Showing District  Heating  Customers	K-80
Figure K-56.   District Heating Pipe Tunnel  at  Copenhagen:  West ....  K-82
Figure L-1.    Reasons for 10-Fold Increase  in  Capital Investment  Costs
                 Over 10 Years for European  Refuse Fired Energy Systems.  L-4
Figure L-2.    Comparison of European, American and Co-Disposal Systems.  L-7
Figure L-3.    Total Annual Expenses Versus  Annual Tonnage 	  L-25
Figure L-4.    Expenses Per Tonnage  (U.S.  $  Per Ton) Versus Annual  Tonnes
                 (1976 Exchange Rate)	L-26
Figure L-5.  Net Disposal Cost for  Tipping  Fee at 13 European  Refuse-Fired
                 Energy Plants 	  L-30
Figures L-6.
  and   L-7.   Unit Prices for Electricity and  Steam in Paris TIRU  .  .  .  L-44
Figure L-8.    Revenue and Expense Components for  the Four TIRU Plants  .  L-45
Figure L-9.    Costs of Zurich Cleansing Department Since 1928  	  L-49
Figure L-10.   Past and Predicted Trend of Net  Operating Cost of Refuse
                Burning Plant After Credit  is  Taken for the  Value  of
                Heating Recovered 	  L-58
Figure M-1.    Organization Chart for  Operation of Werdenberg Plant.  .  .  M-8
Figure M-2.   Wuppertal Organization  Chart	M-12
Figure M-3.    Organization Chart of TIRU  in Paris	M-14
Figure M-lJ.   Organization Chart for  Hamburg: Stellinger-Moor	M-15
Figure M-5.   Organization Chart for  Municipal Functions in  the City of
                Zurich: Switzerland 	  M-16
                                    XXIX

-------
                          LIST OF  FIGURES  (Continued)
Figure M-6.   Organization Chart for Waste Collection and Disposal in
                Zurich, Switzerland 	  M-1?
Figure M-7.   Total Personnel (Collecting and Disposal) Working for
                ABFUHRWESEN: The City of Zurich	M-19
Figure M-8.   Control Room at Savenas Plant	•	M-22
Figure M-9.   Management Structure of Copenhagen:Amager 	  M-24
Figure M-10.  Annual General Meeting Participants 	  M-25


                                   VOLUME II

Figure P-1.   Layout of Flingern Refuse Power Plant at Duesseldorf. . .   P-3
Figure P-2.   Map of Wuppertal Plant	   P-M
Figure P-3.   Two Partial Views of the Receiving Area at the Issy Plant
                Showing the Scale House at the Unloading Platform . . .   P-5
Figure P-4.   Top View of Savenas Waste-to-Energy Plant Showing Traffic
                Pattern, Weigh Stations and Distinctive Square 4-FLue
                Chimney. Only three Flues in Use. Chimney Equipped with
                Two-passenger Elevator at Gothenburg	   P-7
Figure P-5a.  Scale House and Two Scales	   P-9
Figure P-5b.  Plastic Card	   P-9
Figure P-5c.  Monitor in Control Room of Truck Scale	   P-9
Figure P-5d.  Digital Readout in Scale House	   P-9
Figure P-5e.  Ramp to Tipping FLoor 	   P-9
Figure P-5f.  Tipping Floor 	   P-9
Figure P-5g.  Arrangement Permitting Good Crane View	   P-9    \
Figure P-6.   Residences Viewed Through Truck Entrance at Deauville
                Plant (Battelle Photograph) 	  P-11
Figure P-7.   Overall Section Inside the Werdenberg Plant (Courtesy
                Widmer & Ernst-Alberti-Fonsar)	P-1M
Figure P-8.   Truck Delivering Waste to the Pit at Baden-Brugg  The
                Pit Doors are Hydraucially Opened (Courtesy Region
                of Baden-Brugg)	P-16
Figure P-9.   Crane Operator,  Cranes and Graabs above Pit (Courtesy
                Region of Baden-Brugg)	P-17
Figure P-10.  Main Storage Pit.  There are two Crane Operators Operating
                Pulpit for one is at Upper Left at Duesseldorf (Courtesy
                Vereinigte Kesselwerke AG)	  P-18
                                     xxx

-------
                         LIST OF FIGURES  (Continued)
Figure  P-11.  New  Polyp Bucket Being Prepared  for  Installation	  P-19
Figure  P-12.  Cross-Section  of Boiler Systems,  1-3 The Hague	P-24
Figure  P-13-  Crane Operator's Cabin at the Hague  Plant with Empty
                Furnace Hopper and a Portion of the Floor  Plate  of  the
                Vibrating Feeder in the Foreground	P-25
Figure  P-14.  Mirror above a Furnace Hopper to  Enable Crane Operator  to
                Determine when the Hopper Needs to be Replenished -
                The Hague Plant	P-26
Figure  P-15.  Polyp Bucket Dropping a Charge of Municipal  Refuse into a
                Furnace Hopper at the Hague Plant  	  P-27
Figure  P-16.  Transfer Truck in Unloading Position at the  Gothenburg
                Savenas Plant 	  P-29
Figure  P-17.  Refuse Pit with 2 of the 14 Doors Open to Receive  Refuse
                at the Gothenburg Savenas Plant 	  P-30
Figure  P-18.  Truck Entrance Ramp to Uppsala. This was Added in  1971  to
                Enable Operation with a Much Deeper Bunker Which More Than
                Doubled Refuse Storage Capacity 	  P-32
Figure  P-19.  Photo Shows Polyp Grab with Heavy Concentration of
                Plastic Waste from the Separate Commercial and Light
                Industrial Waste Pit at Horsens 	  P-33
Figure  P-20a. Von Roll Shear Opening at Zurich	P-34
Figure  P-20b. Scissors-Type  Hydraulicly Driven Shear Adjacent to
                Hopper 4	 . . .  P-34
Figure  P-21.  Elevation and  Plan Views of Von Roll Shear	P-36
Figure  P-22.  Furnace/Boiler Cross-Sectional View  of the Zurich:
                Hagenholz Unit #3 13 Martin's Double Feeder 	  P-40
Figure  P-23.  Water Cooled Arch Connecting Feed Chute to Combustion
                Chamber at Baden-Brugg	P-42
Figure  P-24.  Cross Section  of One of Boilers No.  1-4	P-43
Figure  P-25.  Arrangement of Uppsala Plant	P-49
Figure  P-26.  Empty Feed Hopper Showing Line of Flame Beneath Double
                Flap Doors at Uppsala	P-50
Figure  P-27.  Warped Feed Chute at Copenhagen:   West 	  P-52

Figure Q-1.   Basic Types of Grates for Mass Burning of Refuse.  There
                are Available Many Variations of These Basic Types. . .  Q-2
Figure Q-2.   Von Roll Reciprocating Step Grate  in Refractory Walled
                Furnace	Q-9
                                    xxxi

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure Q-3.   Two Steps of Von Roll Grate Using Reciprocatig
                Forward-Feed Design	   Q-10
Figure CM.   Arrangement and Drive of Grate Blades in Original Von
                Roll Grate	   Q-11
Figure Q-5.   Kunstler  Grate and Air-Cooled Wall Plates  Applied to an
                Incinerator	   Q-13
Figure Q-5a.  Diagrammatic View of Application of a 3-Step Kunstler &
                Koch Grate to 3-Pass Boiler	   Q-14
Figure Q-6.   Martin Three Run Grate System	   Q-16
Figure Q-7.   Side View of the Martin Grate	   Q-18
Figure Q-8.   Refuse Tumbling Action of Martin Grate 	   Q-19
Figure Q-9.   An Example of the Alberti Fonsar Step Grate System
                Assembled at the Factory	   Q-20
Figure Q-10.  Six Drum Walzenrost (Roller Grate); also Commonly Known
                as the Duesseldorf Grate. Note the Cast Iron Wiper Seals
                Between Adjacent Rolls Which Prevent Large Pieces of
                Refuse From Falling Out of the Furnace	   Q-21
Figure Q-11.  Sketches of Grate Action 	   Q-23
Figure Q-12.  Bruun and Sorensen Cast Alloy Grate Bars. The Older Bar
                is Shown Below the Newer, Wider Bar is Above	   Q-25
Figure Q-13.  Volund's Lengthwise Placed Section of Grate	   Q-26
Figure Q-14.  Volund's Movable Sections Hydraulically Driven by a
                Transverse Driving Shaft Connected to the Individual
                Sections by Pendulum Driving Bars	   Q-27
Figure Q-15.  One of the Earliest Volund Patents 	   Q-28
Figure R-1.   Martin Ash Discharger	   R-4
Figure R-2.   Martin Ash Discharger Dumping Into Vibrating Conveyor at
                Paris: Issy	   R-5
Figure R-3.   Cross Section of Baden-Brugg Plant . . •	   R-7
Figure R-4.   Discharge End of Residue Conveyor at AARAU, Switzerland
                Showing Electric Truck for Removing Loaded Hopper. .  .   R-8
Figure R-5.   Residue Removal Sump and Oscillating Ram at Bottom of Plant
                at Trimmis, Switzerland	   R-9
Figure R-6.   Portion of Proposed Stapelfeld Plant at Hamburg Showing
                Refuse Removal Sump and Oscillating Ram at S Which Dis-
                charges to Either of 2 Trough Conveyors,  C	   R-10
                                     XXXLl

-------
                           LIST OF  FIGURES (Continued)
 Figure  R-7.   Widmer  &  Ernst Quench  Tank  and Residue  Removal Drive
                 Mechanism at Oberthurgan,  Switzerland 	   R-11
 Figure  R-8.   Furnace Bottom Ash  Chute Discharging  Into Ash Vibrating Steel
                 Conveyor  at Uppsala	   R-13
 Figure  R-9«   Alternative Designs for Flow of Refuse  and Ash	   R-1H
 Figure  R-10.  Plan  of Duesseldorf Waste-to-Energy Plant 	   R-16
 Figure  R-11.  Inclined  Conveyors  Removing  Baled Scrap at Duesseldorf. .   R-17
 Figure  R-12.  Close-up  of Baled Steel Scrap at Duesseldorf	   R-18
 Figure  R-13.  Visitors  Discussing Fine Ash Residue  Uses Near Storage Area
                 at  Duesseldorf	   R-19
 Figure  R-1M.  Wuppertal Plant Showing, in  Top Portion, the Air-Cooled
                 Steam Condenser Housing at Rear of  Plant and Below the
                 Privately-Operated Residue Processing Plant 	   R-21
 Figure  R-15.  Rear  View Showing Ash  Conveyor From the RFSG Plant to the
                 Ash Recovery Facility at Paris: Issy	   R-22

 Figure  R-16.  Truck Dumping Unprocessed AHS (For Two-Week Stabilization
                 Prior to  Processing) at Zurich: Hagenholz 	   R-26
 Figure  R-17.  Signed  Stumps, Tirs, Paper Rolls, Etc.,  Remaining After
                 Ash Processing at  Zurich:  Hagenholz	R-27
 Figure  R-18.  Front End Loader Dumping Ash into Begining of Ash
                 Processing System  (Hopper,  Vibrating  Conveyor and
                 Rubber  Belt Conveyor) at Zurich: Hagenholz 	  R-28
 Figure  R-19.  Workman Removing Jammed material from Vibrating Conveyor
                 Near End  of Coarse Ferrous Line at  Zurich: Hagenholz . .  R-29
 Figure  R-20.  Medium Ferrous Scrap from the Ash Recovery Process at
                 Zurich:   Hagenholz 	  R-30
 Figure  R-21.  Coarse Ferrous Scrap from the Ash Recovery Process at
                 Zurich:   Hagenholz 	  R-31
 Figure  R-22.  Mountain  Pile of Processed ASH (1/4" and less) for Road
                 Building  at Zurich Hagenholz 	  R-32
 Figure  R-23.  Experiment  Road Patch to Test Heavy Metal Leaching of
                 Processed Ash Use	R-33
 Figure  R-2H.  Sketch of the Hague Plant Highlighting  the Bottom Ash Pit
                 and the Flyash Slurry Tank (Before ash recovery was
                 installed)	R-35
Figure R-25.  Bottom Ash  Pit and Fly Ash Slurry Tank  at the Hague. . . .  R-36
                                   xxxiii

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure R-26. Conveyors and Magnetically Separated Scrap and Pile of
                Sized Residue Accumulated by New Resource Recovery
                System Adjacent to the Hague Plant (Battelle
                Photograph)	   R-37
Figure R-27.  Ash Being Discharged from Furnace onto Vibrating Steel
                Conveyor at Uppsala	   R-39
Figure R-28.  Vibrating Steel Conveyor Dumping Bottom and Fly Ash into
                Container at Uppsala (Battelle Photograph)	   R-40
Figure R-29-  Elevator for Ash Containers in Pit one Level Lower than Ash
                Conveyor at Uppsala	   R-U1
Figure R-30a. Rubber Ash Conveyor at Copenhagen: Amager 	   R-43
Figure R-30b. Ferrous Separation from Ash at Copenhagen: Amager ....   R-43
Figure R-31.  Skip Hoist Dumping Incinerator Ash (Slag) at Copenhagen:
                West	   R-iJH
Figure R-32.  Ash Handling and Processing at Copenhagen: West 	   R-46
Figure R-33.  Ash Recovery at Copenhagen: West	   R-4?
Figure R-34.  Vibrating Machinery for Ash Processing at Copenhagen:
                West	   R-48
Figure R-35.  Ferrous Magnetic Belt for Ash Recovery Processing at
                Copenhagen: West	   R-^9
Figure R-36.  Mountain of Processed Ash Residue Awaiting use for
                Roadbuilding or Cinder Block Manufacture at
                Copenhagen: West	   R-50
Figure R-37.  The variation Interval for the 16mm Fraction of Graded
                Cinders Before (solid line) and after (dotted line)
                Compacting by Field Tests 	   R-52
Figure S-1.  Annual Average Lower Heating Values for Berne, Stockholm,
                Frankfurt, The Hague and Duesseldorf and Range of Values
                for Other Cities	   S-2
Figure S-2.   Partially Water-Cooled and Air-Cooled Furnace at
                Werdenberg-Liechtenstein	   S-4
Figure S-2a.  Diagram of Application of Kunstler Sidewall Blocks. . .  .   S-6
Figure S-3.   Cross Section of Baden-Brugg Plant	   S-8
Figure S-4.   HR. B. Lochliger, Assistant Plant Manager, Holding Steel
                Reinforcing Coil for Tube-Covering Molded Refractory.  .   S-9
Figure S-5.   Cross Section of One of Boilers No. 1-4	   S-11
                                    xxxiv

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES  (Continued)
Figure S-6.   Diagram of Location of Guiding Wall at Top of Furnace
                Outlet Showing Effect on Oxygen Distribution in Gases  .   S-13
Figure S-7.   Cross Section of Boiler No. 5 with Roller Grate "System
                Duesseldorf"	   S-15
Figure S-8*   Schematic Cross Section of the Paris-Issy-Les Moulineaux
                Plant	,....   S-19
Figure S-9.   Issy Alumina Blocks Surrounding Boiler Surrounding Boiler
                Tubes	   S-21
Figure S-10.  Plastic Silicon Carbide Surrounding Boiler Tubes	   S-21
Figure S-11.  Issy Metal Wastage Zones and Areas of Corrective
                Shielding	   S-22
Figure S-12.  Issy New Second Pass Deflector Baffle to Protect Third
                Pass Superheater	   S-2H
Figure S-13.  Metal Wastage of Water Headers Above the Hot Section of
                the Grate at Hamburg :Stellinger-Moor	   S-26
Figure S-1*J.  October 1976 Additions of Refractory to Hamburg
                Stellinger-Moor Furnace #1	   S-27
Figure S-15.  May 1977 Additions of Caps onto Studs and Refractory to
                Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor	„ . .  .   S-29
Figure S-16.' Furnace/Boiler Cross-Sectional View of the Zurich:
                Hagenholz Unit #3 . .	   3-3*1
Figure S-17.   First Pass Walls Covered with Silicon Carbide Over
                Welded Studs:  Shows Rejection of Slag from Walls of
                Zurich:  Hagenholz 	   S-36
Figure S-18.  Perforated Air-Cooled Refractory Wall Blocks by Didier
                as Installed by Von Roll at the Solingen Plant,
                West Germany	    S-39
Figure S-19.  Construction Photograph Showing Air Supply Chambers for
                the Refractory Wall Blocks Shown in Figure S-18 . . .  .    S-39
Figure S-20.  Lower Portion of First Pass Showing 18 Original Sidewall
                Jets,  Now Abandoned, Rear Nose Formed of Refractory
                Covered  Bent Tubes, and Manifolds for New Front and
                Rearwall Secondary Air Jets Aimed Downward about
                30 Degrees.

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure T-1.   Schematic View of Werden-Liechtenstein Waste-to-Energy
                Plant	    T-4
Figure T-2.   Sketch of Air Flows to Furnace	    T-5
Figure T-3.   Widmer & Ernst Photo of Man Applying Kunstler Air-Cooled
                Wall Blocks at Plant in Trimmis Switzerland .....    T-7
Figure T-4.   Fifteen Secondary Air Jets of Revised System in the
                Baden-Brugg Rear Wall	    T-8
Figure T-5.   Proposed Revision of Sidewalls Incorporating Air-Cooled
                Cast Iron, Kunstler Blocks	    T-10
Figure T-6.   Anonymous Furnace Where Secondary Overfire Air is Very
                Little or Totally Lacking	    T-13
Figure T-7.   Highly Turbulent Air at Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor Resulting
                from Very High Secondary Air Pressure	   T-14
Figure T-8.   Nearly Clear View Across First Pass at Hagenholz Unit #3
                After Secondary Overfire is Injected at High Pressure.   T-16
Figure T-9 .  Exterior View of Tubes for Secondary Air Jets on Side of
                Unit #4 at The Hague. Ten Jets are Spaced Horizontally
                and Two are Located Along a Slanting Vertical Line at
                Left. Note Springloaded Cap on Each Tube to Facilitate
                Inspection and Cleaning	'. . .  .    T-18
Figure T-10.  Lower Portion of First Pass Showing 18 Original Sidewall
                Jets, Now Abandoned, Rear Nose Formed of Refractory
                Covered Bent Tubes, and Manifolds for New Front and
                Rearwall Secondary Air Jets Aimed Downward About 30
                Degrees	   T-19
Figure T-11.  Six Dilution Sidewall Secondary Overfire Air Jets at
                Copenhagen:Amager 	   T-20
Figure 0-1.  Graphical Definition of Overall Steam Generation Plant
                and the Specific Combination of Components Called the
                Boiler	   0-2
Figure 0-2.  Dacha Type Superheater and Boiler Convection Arrangement
                for Proposed Staplefeld Plant at Hamburg	   0-7
Figure U-3.  Section through Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Waste-to-Energy
                Plant	   0-9
Figure 0-4.  Cross Section of Baden-Brugg Plant 	   0-11
Figure U-5.  Cross Section of One of Boilers No. 1-4	   0-13
                                   xxxvx

-------
                           LIST  OF  FIGURES  (Continued)
Figure  U-6.   Cross  Section of Boiler No.  5 with  Roller Grate  "System
                 Duesseldorf"	   U-14
Figure  U-7.   Cross-Section of Wuppertal Plant  	   U-16
Figure  U-8.   Issy-Les-Moulineaux  Incinerator Plant Near Paris,
                 France	   U-17
Figure  U-9.   Large  Boilers at Ivry Built  for TIRU H Years after
                 Issy	   U-19
Figure  U-10.  Cross  Section of Stellinger-Moor  Plant Started up at
                 Hamburg in 1970	   U-20
Figure  U-11.  Furnace/Boiler Cross Section of Unit No. 3 at
                 Zurich :Hagenholz	   U-25
Figure  U-11a.  Boiler Tube Sections Layout at  Zurich:Hagenholz	   U-27
Figure  U-12.  Comparative Cross-Sections of the Two Boiler-Furnace
                 Systems at the Hague Plant	   U-29
Figure  U-13.  Cross-Section of Boiler Systems,  1-3 The Hague 	   U-31
Figure  U-11!.  Comparative Cross Sectins of Dieppe and Deauville
                 Refuse-Burning Plants 	   U-32
Figure  U-15.  Cross  Section of Nominal 900 Tonne Per Day. Refuse
                 Fired Steam-to-Hot Water Heating Plant at Savenas,
                 Gothenburg	   U-31*
Figure  U-16.   Cross Section of Furnace No. 4  and Boiler No. 3 at
                 Uppsala	   U-37
Figure  U-17.   Arrangement of Uppsala Plant 	   U-39
Figure  U-18.   Schematic of Original Horsens Plant with Water Spray
                 Cooling Tower	    U-40
Figure  U-19.   Engineering Drawing of Copenhagen: Amager 	    U-42
Figure  U-20.   Moscow Plant Showing Four-Pass Water Wall Waste Heat
                 Boiler Separate from the Furnace 	    U-^3
Figure  U-21.   Half Shields for Clamping on Superheater Leading Face
                 at Baden Brugg	    U-52
Figure  U-22.   Hard Coating on Bends of Superheater Tubes to be
                 Installed in the Second Pass of Boiler No. 5 	    U-53
Figure  U-23.   Baden-Brugg Ruptured First Row Superheater Tube ....    U-55
Figure U-24.   Wuppertal Plant Showing Superheater Located in
                Second Pass Away from Furnace Flame	    U-60
Figure U-25.   Issy Shields for Bottoms of Superheater Tubes 	    U-62
                                      xxxvii

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure U-26.
Figure U-27.
Figure U-28.

Figure U-29.
Figure U-30.

Figure U-31.

Figure U-32.

Figure U-33.
Figure U-34.

Figure U-35.
Figure U-36.
Figure U-37.

Figure U-38.

Figure U-39.

Figure V-1.

Figure V-2.

Figure V-3.
Issy Old and New Superheater Spacing	
Superheater Tube Arrangements at Issy and Hagenholz .  .
Superheater Flue Gas and Steam Temperature and Flow
 Patterns at Zurich: Hagenholz 	
Superheater Flue Gas and Steam Temperature and Flow
 Patterns at the New Zurich: Josefstrasse Plant and at
 the Yokohama, Japan Martin Plant	
Three Superheater Bundles at Hamburg: Stellinger-
 Moor	
Flow Defection Caused by Angle Iron Shields on First
 Row of Superheater Tubes	
Method of Welding Curved 50 mm Shields on First Row
 of Superheater Tubes	
Water-Tube Wall Portion of Boilers in Units 1-3, The
 Hague, Showing Suspended Platten-Type Superheater at
 Top of Radiation Pass, Screen Tubes at Outlet from
 Radiation Pass, Screen Tubes at Outlet from Radiation
 Pass, Sinuous Tube Convection-Type Superheater at Top
 of Second Water-Tube Walled Pass, Boiler Convection
 Sections, Economizer, and Tubular Air Heaters ....
Cross-Section of the No. ^ Boiler Furnace System
 at the Hague Plant	
Shot Pellet Cleaning Feed System at Uppsala	
Two Views of Air-Cooled Condenser at Werdenburg. . .  .
Underside View of Wuppertal Plant Highlighting the
 Air-Cooled Steam Condensers and the Stack 	
Sloping Air-Cooled Steam Condenser Tubes at Zurich:
 Hagenholz 	
Louvers Below Inverted V-Shaped Air-Cooled Steam
 Condensers at Gothenburg: Savenas 	
Oil Burner on Side of and Toward Rear of Furnace for
   Firing of Waste Oil at Baden-Brugg	
Cologne, West Germany Hospital Waste Incinerator with
   Sidewall Oil Burner 	
Schematic of the Process of Waste Oil Firing 	
U-63
U-63

U-65
U-66

U-69

U-70

U-71
U-7H

U-75
U-84
U-91

U-93

U-95

U-96
V-5
V-6
                                   XXXVXli

-------
                          LIST OF  FIGURES  (Continued)
Figure V~4.     Krefeld Waste-to-Energy Facility:  Plan View	   V-8
Figure V-5.     Waste Oil and Solvent Receiving, Processing  and Mixing
                 Layout at ZurichrHagenholz  	    V-11
Figure W-1.     Krefeld Waste Processing Facility; Wastewater  Treat-
                  ment Plant on Left, Refuse-and Sewage-Sludge-Burning
                  Plant on Right	  .  .  .   W-H
Figure W-2.     Map of the Krefeld Refuse Burning  and Wastewater
                  Plants	   W-5
Figure W-3.     Krefeld Sludge-Processing and Burning Systems	   W-6
Figure W-4.     Cross-Sectional View of Krefeld Plant	   W-7
Figure W-5.     Calculated Drying Mill Conditions  as a Function of
                  Sludge Drying Rate	   W-9
Figure W-6.     Calculated Dust Load of the Flue Gas as a Function  of
                  the Amount of Ash on the Grate	   W-11
Figure W-7.     Top of Two Luwa Sludge Dryers at Dieppe	   W-13
Figure W-8.     Cutaway Drawings Showing Principle of Luwa Dryer  ...   W-14
Figure W-9.     Plot by Eberhardt of Relation of Combustible and
                Ash Content of Dry Sewage Sludge to Its Lower  Heat
                Value	    W-18
Figure W-10.    Krings Results of Test in 1973 at Dieppe on  the
                Effect of Type of Sludge and Sludge Feed Rate  on  the
                Efficiency of the Luwa Thin-Film Dryer	    W-19
Figure W-11.    Diagram of Horsens Refuse-Burning and Sludge-Drying
                Plant	    W-11
Figure W-12.    Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge at Ingolstadt,
                West Germany	    W-26
Figure W-13.    Overhead Plan for the Environmental Park at Biel,
                Switzerland	    W-28
Figure W-14.    Aerial Photo of Environmental Park at Biel,
                Switzerland	    W-28
Figure W-15.    Original Dano Kilns for Compost Initiation at  Biel,
                Switzerland	    W-29
Figure W-16.    Aeration Turning by Pivot Bridge Final Composter  at
                Biel,  Switzerland	    W-29
Figure W-17.    Pig Feed made from Digested Sewage Sludge and  Refuse.    W-30
Figure W-18.    Bricolari Compost Storage Yard (4-5 weeks) with Pig
                Feed Buildings in Background at Biel, Switzerland . .    W-18
                                  xxxxx

-------
                          LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure X-1.     Sample Data Cards as Used in Plant Data System at
                Duesseldorf	    X-11
Figure X-2.     Downward View from the Wuppertal Plant Showing the
                Nearby Country Club and Swinging Pool	    X-13
Figure X-3«     Supply and Wastewater Systems at Krefeld 	    X-16
Figure X-4.     Replaceable Cast Alloy Steel Vane which Imparts Spin to
                the Gases Entering Each Collection Tube of the Prat
                Multiple Cyclone Dust Collector	    X-23
Figure X-5.     Deauville Refuse-Sludge Cofiring Plant 	    X-24
Figure X-6.     Arrangement of components of Bolander Incinerator
                Plant at Uppsala	    X-26
Figure X-7.     Electrostatic Precipitators Retrofitted for Units
                #1 and #2 Outside at Uppsala	    X-29
Figure X-8.     Ducts leading to Base of Ten Flue Chimeny at Uppsala.   X-30
Figure X-9.     Looking out the Windows Taken from Under the
                Electrostatic Precipitators at Copenhagen: West. . .    X-32
Figure X-10.    Diagram of Equipment for Measurement of Dust
                Loading and Moisture Content of a Gas	    X-35
Figure X-11.    Appartus for Isokinetic Determination of the Dust
                 Content of Flowing Gases (VDI Konmission Reinhaltung
                 Der Luft)	    X-36
Figure Y-1.     Sample Data Cards Used in Plant Data System at
                Duesseldorf	    Y-3

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                                   A-l

                            EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                     Development of the Refuse Fired

                       Energy Generator Technology

          Producing and utilizing energy from refuse combustion goes
back many years.  One early account is the 1896 refuse to electricity
and industrial steam plant in Hamburg, Germany located on Rohrstrasse.
There were other turn of the century refuse to energy plants located at
Paris and Zurich.
          But the Europeans were not the only people active in this field.
There were in New York City several refuse fired steam generators as record-
ed in a Saturday Evening Post article.*

          "In 1902 the simple destruction of this material was begun at an
incinerator located at Forty-seventh Street and the North River.  This
simple destruction is satisfactory from both a financial and a sanitary
point of view.  Very soon an attempt was made to utilize the heat derived
from this combustion for purposes of steaming, and, in 1903, a small elec-
trical plant was installed for the lighting of one of the stables of the
deportment and of the docks and piers in that vicinity.
          In 1905, the idea of economically using rubbish wastes to light
municipal structures and buildings, being beyond the experimental stage,
a plant was'constructed beneath the Williamsburg Bridge, (on Delancey Street)
where daily 1050 cubic yards of light refuse are destroyed.  During the night,
the heat is used to generate electricity to light The Williamsburg Bridge ...
The material handled at the Delancey Street plant is about one-fifth of the
total output of the boroughs, of Manhattan and the Bronx."
* The Waste of a Great City:  The New Alchemy That Transmutes Refuse Into
  Heat, Light, Power and Property; The Saturday Evening Post; December 15,
  1906.

-------
                                    A-2
         The above  points  out one fact.  The  first  systems  were
sophisticated enough to produce electricity.  They were not  just  simple hot
air generators.  The early units were refractory walled and thus  the  steam
quality (temperature and pressure) was limited.
         During  the period from  1910 through  19^5,  there were many
improvements to the overall systems and to  the art of boiler  making.  Also,
during this time there was increasing concern about the wastefulness of
using valuable land for unsightly landfills.  There was also  an  occasional
increase in concern  about  landfill leachate effects  on ground  water
contamination.
         Then  in the late  1940's and 1950's, vendors (primarily  Von Roll in
Zurich) began to  develop ways  to  take  more  energy out  of the  combustion
gases. This effort was spearheaded by Mr.  R.  Tanner formerly of  Von  Roll.
Some consider him one of the  originator's of  the modern-day water-tube wall
refuse incinerator/boiler. Basically he  applied to refuse combustion what
he and others had learned about coal combustion in water-tube wall  units.
As  explained   later  in the Boiler Section,  the "water-tube  wall
furnace/boiler" has the refuse  combustion section surrounded by vertical or
sloping  steel  tubes in parallel which absorb  the heat and thus generate a
major fraction of the total steam produced.  This increases efficiency and
allows a much higher quality  steam to be produced»
         By  1965, European  and  Japanese citizens and government officials
were  becoming  concerned about the  long-term effects of landfills.  These
concerns  led many cities to  choose  refuse burning. They  were, and  still
are,  willing to  pay a premium  price for refuse  burning over landfilling. In
many  cases  the  refuse burning option is  two, three or  four  times  as
expensive as landfilling.
         The Japanese,  since  1965,  have  become increasingly conscious of
what is put  into  close-in fishing waters off  the Japanese coast.  Their diet
depends  so  heavily on saltwater fish. High concentrations of heavy  metals
and organics were found in coastal waters.  Industry, municipal  sewage
plants and landfills were blamed for these  concentrations.
         In  addition to landfills  on  normal  land, the Japanese have long
reclaimed the sea with trash.  In  1974 one  of the authors spent an  afternoon
observing the 180 acre "Dream Island"  in the Tokyo Bay.  Pilings  had been
driven and  household refuse  and construction debris were then dumped in.
Now after many years, the waste has settled and  several buildings have  been

-------
                                 A-3
constructed,  including the attractive 1800 ton per  day Koto incinerator
built by Takuma. However,  sea filling with household  refuse is no longer
permitted  in  the  sea. Instead  Japan has become the  world's most active
builder of  refuse fired steam generators—primarily due to their fear  of
landfill or seafill leachate effects.
         Prompted by concern  for leachate and  the scarcity of land,  many
European countries and cities had refuse burning construction programs  from
1960 to  1973-  Actually by  the  time that the Arab Oil Embargo occurred  in
1973»-  some of  the  countries  were  nearly saturated with  refuse burning
plants.  The effect of doubling or quadrupling of energy'prices was not  very
noticeable  on new orders.
         These authors have concluded that energy considerations have never
been, and are not now, the driving force leading  to construction of  most
refuse  energy  systems. Cities  build refuse fired energy systems because
they fear  the  long-term effects of landfill leachate,  they perceive  a
shortage of land  and officials are frustrated  by the unpleasantries  of-
locating landfill sites every several years. Imported oil prices would  have
to rise  dramatically before  the basic motivation for resource recovery
changes from concerns about landfilling to concerns about energy.
         The next force on the development was pressure  to clean the
atmosphere. It  is hard to  know exactly when this  pressure began building,
but  it  was well noticed  during  the  1960's. Air pollution control equipment
was needed  to capture most of the flyash released by incineration. Such air
cleaning equipment would  deteriorate  rapidly  if the very hot flue gases
from incineration were passed through them. Thus  the flue gases had to  be
cooled.
         Three methods could  be used for cooling: (1) water spray, (2)
massive air dilution and (3) heat recovery boiler. There were communities
with refuse  but not a sufficiently concentrated energy demand to  make
energy production realistic.  Hence many systems were built with only  a
spray  cooling  chamber ahead  of the:   (1) baghouse,  (2) scrubber,  or (3)
electrostatic precipitator.  Unfortunately the moisture inherent in  such
water  spray  systems would remain  in the ductwork and the air cleaning
device when the  unit was shut down. This often caused excessive "dew point"
corrosion. Air  dilution devices  are  not usually favored because of the  need
for vary large  and expensive air  cleaning equipment. For these reasons the
heat recovery  boiler has  become  the  predominant method  used for cooling the
gases in European refuse-burning  plants.

                   Description of Communities Visited

         As previously explained in the Scope  section,  this report  is
devoted  to both (1) the refractory wall furnace with waste heat boiler
often producing  hot water  for district heating and (2)  the water tube  wall
integrated furnace/boiler  normally producing steam for electrical
production, industrial uses and steam or hot water for district heating.

Locations Visited

         In total,  30 refuse fired energy plants were visited. Of these,  15
were examined  in  detail (See Table A-la).  These 15  are described in
separately bound  trip reports  available from the U.S. National Technical

-------
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                                     A-5
Information Service  (N.T.I.S.).  Key energy  information is shown in Table A-
l.b.  The other  15 plants are listed with identifying features in Table A-  2.
Comments about these systems are interspersed  throughout the report.  A third
source of information was the visits to  5 Federal environmental protection
agencies.  These agencies are listed in  Table  A-4 along with other local gov-
ernment, manufacturer and consultant offices.

         We wish to express our deepest appreciation to our hosts,  men of
expertise in converting refuse to energy, for their generous and skilled
assistance.
         Background information about  the  communities visited is necessary
for  better understanding  of historical solid waste practices,  system
development, energy  utilization, system  performance, etc.
         Each community  is described  in terms of its  waste generation
areas,  terrain,  natural and  manmade boundaries,  relationship  among
neighboring communities,  population, and key employment  activities  that
influence waste  composition.

Collection Areas and Jurisdictions

         The collection  areas and  radii are shown in Table A-4. Note that
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein has the greatest area and longest radius. Yet  this
plant  has  the smallest  capacity at  120  tonnes  (132  tons) per  day.
Conversely the largest  capacity plant, Paris:Issy,  has  the  smallest
collection area  and  radius.
         Numbers of separate jurisdictions  associated with each plant are
also shown in the table. A point to be observed is that, in  most of  these
systems,  it is necessary to obtain waste from many jurisdictions  to
maintain or improve economics of scale, once the plant  has been built.
Later,  in the Economics section, we will argue that (with the exception of
very small plants) there are very few economics of scale taken advantage  of
in the designs of refuse fired steam generators.

Terrain, Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods

         The sampling  of plants covers the many geographical conditions to
be found in Europe.

Population

         The most relevant  population figure for plant designers is that for
the waste shed area  served.  As shown in  this  same Table A-4,  the waste shed
population numbers  range  from 48,000 in Dieppe to  837,286 in Duesseldorf and
even greater at  Paris.  Population, waste generation rates, collection area
are all  related  to  system economics.  At  the low end, the plant must be big
enough  to achieve some  degree of efficiency to pay for  fixed costs.  However
at  the  high end, costs  of transporting refuse limit the maximum population
served  in a waste shed.
                            Separable Waste .Streams

         This report  is  concerned not only with  the burning  of refuse, but
also with the handling  of all waste materials within  the same  facility.
Many of the observed  facilities  include  three or  more  separate waste-stream

-------
A-6













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                                    A-10
systems. Table  A-5  summarizes waste streams associated with each facility
that are  treated independently  from the main refuse burning waste stream.
         There are usually  multiple and separate  waste streams flowing  into
the same  property. Perhaps due  to socialism or age of the  community, there
is a greater  sense of environmental planning and  physical integration among
system modules. There are many  examples of synergistic benefits experienced
by combining  not  only environmental  modules (refuse burning, waste-water
treatment, animal rendering,  etc.)  but  also the  energy modules (district
heating, electricity generation, etc.) within the same facility. Each waste
stream category is summarized below.

Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse
(i.e. the Main Waste Stream)

         The  focus of the project is to examine  in detail the treatment  of
the  household,  commercial, and light  industrial waste stream.. All  15
facilities process  this type  of  mixed waste stream. Refuse collection,
transfer  stations, and physical and chemical composition  are discussed  in
detail.

Bulky and Large Industrial Wastes

         Eight of the 15 facilities  have shears to reduce bulky and large
industrial waste  to 1 meter  (3 feet)  or less.   Only Duesseldorf has  a
shredder; it  is seldom used.
         The  large hoppers  and furnaces in  plants built  by Martin  will
accept bulky  waste of reasonable size.  None of the Martin  plants visited
had  shears  or shredders. However,  at  each  Martin  plant, there-was
encouragement for acceptance  of  only household, commercial, and light
industrial waste. The few  large  pieces are broken in the pit by a falling
grab bucket.
         At  Copenhagen:  Amager the  bulky waste is taken  to the crusher
transfer station  adjoining the refuse-burning plant.  Reasonably sized
construction debris and other noncombusfcible material is packed directly
into transfer trailers.  These noncombustible loads  are then taken  to a
landfill. However,  bulky combustible materials first  pass through a
shredder before being compacted into a trailer. The combustible loads are
then taken a  short distance  to  the  refuse-burning  plant.

Wastewater and Sewage Sludge

         Five of the facilities have wastewater treatment plants coterminous
with the refuse burning plant. Sanitary services  in Europe are often
centralized  and well coordinated.  In four of the  15 plants, the energy  value
in refuse is  utilized to drive  off  moisture in the sludge.  Three of  these
plants then  burn the dried sludge.  In total, the Battelle staff visited 7
such co-disposal systems.

Source Separation

         Source separation  is practiced sporadically in Europe as it  is in
the  U.S. Its  success varies  depending on markets, transportation  distance,

-------
                                               A-11
TABLE A-5.
                        SEPARABLE WASTE  STREAMS IDENTIFIABLE  WITHIN THE  GATES OF REFUSE -FIRED

                        ENERGY PLANTS
                                           yji'-'ylil^/^.a^ia/^'i;/      1  v 1 v.
                                           5 1 •a i  * /  •"'•'/ 3 / vT /  * I -s  M /   /  -'/•'/"/  •» / •'

                                           s///i/  ill  j  it  lit Hi  1  1 I
                                            IS! SI illj i/'/ =•/ "/ S/ .-/  3/^/i/ f/i/
Kou'iiariuid, Commercial S Light Industrial
                                         15    X  X  X  X   X
                                                                 X  X  X  X   X   X   X   X  .X
Sulky r> Larjs Industrial
                                          3    X  X  X  X
'..'ascs '.i*'.*
                                              X  X
                                          6    X  X
;.,..r_u and Front-End Separation
.Jipisc i c-iraaoara » .\
.'re?, Sceel, i 'Vhics Goods
3 X * X
X
*oe:l« , s X
Cooo«r in Motors
Tires
Cjsi-i Crank Case Oil
'..'aiCs Oil "imuisioas
1 X
1 X
3 X X
3 X X


X
X
Ir.auscrU; Chemicals
                                                                                    XX
         tfasces
                                                                                    X   X
 j = :::ro»e Sludge
 Ar.ia^i .'ascs
                                                                              XX
 Conacr-cciur. Debris
  ^ri'li:ion Oeoris
 Aah
 Jur.k Cars
                                                                                    X   X

-------
                                   A-12
price, and  conservation attitudes.  Two source separation  programs were
observed  in  Denmark.
         Near  Copenhagen:West,  several recycling centers  are located at
shopping  centers. In addition,  one  of  the recycling centers  is located at
the entrance  to the West plant.  Homeowners  and businessmen who appreciate
the need  for recycling can drive  their own vehicles to the  refuse burning
plant  and  can then  place  their discarded  items into  any of several
containers.
         We  were told that these and other source separation programs  remove
no more  than  10 to 15 percent of  the potential heat value from the
waste-to-energy  system.
         Zurich  has just started three voluntary recycling centers for
glass,  cans, and waste paper.  The city has had  seven centers  for collection
of used  crankcase oil. Garages and private individuals bring their waste oil
to the  centers. However,  no money changes hands.
         At  Baden-Brugg, about  35 percent of the waste glass generated is
recycled  through a residential pickup system using special containers.
         Around Werdenberg-Liechtenstein,  there  are  some shopping
center-type  recycling centers  where people can bring newspapers, bottles,
and cans. Color-sorted glass can be sold for 60 S.Fr per tonne ($26.40 per
ton) while noncolor sorted glass  can be sold at 40 S.Fr.  per  tonne ($17.60
per ton)  (at the  1977 rate of  2.27  S.Fr./$).

Front-End Separation

         The most elaborate front-end separation system observed during the
30 visits was  at The Hague.  Private haulers often bring  in  a combination
load on  flat  bed or dump trucks.  The white goods are unloaded and then the
other bulky  combustibles are put  into the pit provided to  private haulers.
A workman then attempts' to remove the copper-rich motors. Rubber tires are
stacked. Then the  shovel  loader crumples  and smashes  the  stove or
refrigerator for better storage and handling.
         The only shredder observed  among all of the  15  plants  was at
Duesseldorf.  The Hazemag shredder was down on both of Battelle's visits in
1976 and  1977. However, because ferrous metal is not even separated,   this
can  not  really be  classified as  a front-end separation system.   This
shredder  suffered a major explosion in 1975.
         At  Uppsala, there  is  a  single bin for ferrous  materials  in a
corner of the  tipping floor.
         The only real "American  type front-end pre-incineration system"
operating daily  on a full scale is  at Birmingham, England.  It was inspired
by U.S.  EPA's demonstration  project in St. Louis, Missouri. Battelle  staff
did not visit  this Imperial Metal Industries (IMI) facility.

Waste Oils and Solvents

         Waste crankcase  oil, oil emulsions,  oil sludges, and solvents are
processed at two of the facilities. At Baden-Brugg, the oils  are carefully
processed in  a decanting facility. Nearby at Zurich:Hagenholz, waste oils
are decanted and  then mixed with  more volatile  solvents.

-------
                                A-13
Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes

        There is a distinct difference in attitude  in  Europe compared to
that in the  U.S.  with regard to the public  sector's responsibility in
handling hazardous waste. One-third of the 15 facilities  have on the same
or neighboring  properties  a capability to handle  industrial chemical or
hazardous wastes. At Baden-Brugg, a neighboring  closed compost plant has
been    leased  by  a private company (Daester-Fairtec A.G.) and has been
converted into an inorganic heavy metals hazardous waste processing center.
This plant has  several  independent processing  lines using ion exchange,
evaporation,  activated  carbon,  filtering,  decontamination,  and
neutralization.
        The  ZurichrHagenholz plant receives hazardous wastes from local
industry and  transfers it  to the appropriate hazardous  waste treatment
centers. Some goes to Baden-Brugg and some will  go  to  the elaborate Geneva
County  facility being built at les Chenneviers.
        In Uppsala, Sweden, the local pharmaceutical company produces a
dextrose sludge.  This material is fed  to a special hazardous waste
incinerator  adjoining the  refuse-burning plant. Off-gases are sent to the
hot-air-mixing  chamber  just after the  refuse  burner for  hydrocarbon
destruction.
        Denmark  now carefully controls all  hazardous  wastes.  All
industrial generators are  required to  take their  waste  to an approved
hazardous waste receiving station. When enough waste  has been collected, it
is transported, usually by rail to Nyborg, Denmark for ultimate processing.
Hazardous  waste  collection  centers  were observed  at  Horsens  and
Copenhagen:Amager.

Animal  Waste

        Animal  waste is received at four facilities.  A trip highlight was
to see the new  rendering  plant at Zurich:Hagenholz. Animal  carcasses,
butcher shop trimmings, etc. are rendered into flesh  meal, animal feed, and
soap. This new  plant was  purposely located next to  the  refuse burning
plant. The rendering plant's ventilation system was carefully designed to
collect odoriferous room  air from the  plant. The  air is sent from the
rendering plant  to the  refuse  burning plant where  it  is injected directly
into the refuse  furnace as  high pressure secondary  air.   This is  one
example where the refuse fired steam generator serves  as an afterburner.

Street  Sweepings

        The  only  facility  observed  to  handle street  sweepings as a
separately controlled waste is at The Hague. That  was  only  for weighing at
a common scale, before landfilling.

Construction, Demolition Debris,  and Ash

        Construction and  demolition debris  is  not put  into the refuse
burners to any  extent.  Ash,  however,  was a key component  of municipal
refuse entering  the incinerator plants until about  20-30 years ago when
homeowners switched to oil and gas fuels.  The  lack of  this inert ash has

-------
                                A-14


allowed the average  heating values of refuse to rise.  High temperature
corrosion in established furnaces was the result in many furnaces.
        Construction debris is brought to The  Hague facility and placed
directly into a detachable container for transport  to  a landfill.
        The  Horsens plant  is located on top  of  the  old landfill and
adjoining the still active landfill jutting out  into  the sea. Thus, the
total  facility  consumes  locally generated construction and demolition
debris  and ash.
        Construction debris  in  southeast  Copenhagen is taken to the
transfer station  located 100 meters from the Copenhagen:Amager refuse
burning plant.  It is then  trucked away to Uggelose landfill northwest  of
Copenhagen or to an Amager Island seafill reclamation  site.

Junk Automobiles

        Some  of the  Horsens community-owned land  adjacent to the plant has
been leased to a car and truck junk  dealer which  is  located adjoning the
refuse  burning plant.

                  Refuse  Collection and Transfer Stations

        The  European pattern of  collection  and transfer  has many
similarities  to that of  North America. Generally speaking, there is more
collection by  the public sector, occasional  labor representation  in
management functions, and  occasional computerized systems for physical
control and fiscal billing. The homeowner cost assessment methods are  quite
varied.

Household Containers

        There  is a  clear  trend  away  from  the open  top metal refuse
container in favor of  rubber, plastic or paper  containers.  An integrated
program of collection truck purchase along with purchase of standardized
rubber  or plastic  containers was observed several times  in Central Europe.
Several other  systems  used standard sized  paper sacks that could  be
collected by a flat bed truck rather than by  a more expensive compactor
truck. Other  systems use polyethelene sacks.  Most  high quality  steam
production facilities  discourage PVC container  sacks  due  to the corrosive
effects of the chlorides formed in combustion.

Collecting Organization

        Generally speaking,  there  is  more public  and less  private
collection in Europe.  However, as in the U.S., this varies  widely from city
to city.
        Many  European  public  collecting  organizations  permit
representatives  from labor to participate in management  functions. This,  in
part,  has contributed to  the success of  two industrial  engineered collector
control and payment incentive systems at Hamburg and Copenhagen:Amager.

-------
                                 A-15


  Collection Costs

         Worldwide, collection costs are 70 to 90 percent  of the total cost
of both collection and disposal. At most facilities,  only the total  is
accurately known because that  is  the amount billed to  citizens and thus the
better known figure. Costs range from $25 to $90 per year per household  as
a solid waste management charge to the citizens.

Assessment Methods

         The  methods for  assessing collection  (and  disposal) costs vary
widely. Some systems serve so many cities that  a  clear assessment pattern
was not  available. The Hamburg  and Wuppertal  plants  obtain revenue from
household rental of standardized rubber containers. At  Horsens, paper  sacks
are purchased by homeowners. Paris assesses solid waste  costs in proportion
to real estate taxes. Dieppe, however,  assesses  in proportion to metered
water  service.  Probably the  most accurate assessment comes  from
Renholdnings Selskabet (Society for  Waste Collection)  in Copenhagen.
Charges are set based on container volume, steps walked,  and stairs climbed.

Vehicles

         European vehicles, generally,  have similar  features, options and
size ranges as in the U.S.  However,  due to smaller and  winding streets,  the
average vehicle  size is  smaller.  Paris uses a few electric trucks.
Gothenburg uses cylindrical-bodied transfer trailers not  seen in America.

Collecting Times

         Trucks  make one  to four trips per day depending on geography,
average haul distance-, and labor agreements. Official, hours are often  8 per
day.  However, many actually  work only  5,6 or  7 hours per day. In Paris,
workers collect refuse for about 4 hours  and then sweep city streets for
another 4 hours.
         Most  workers collect  5 days per week.  Some private haulers collect
5 1/2 days. Paris provides 7 day per week pickup of restaurant garbage.
         Homeowners have their  refuse picked up once or twice per week.

Homeowner Deliveries to Refuse  Burning Plant

         Many  plants place  detachable containers near  the entrance to the
facility so that cars, trailers, pick up  trucks,  etc, can unload without
interrupting larger vehicle deliveries.  In several countries, citizens are
prohibited from direct dumping  into pits.

Industrial and Bulky Waste Collection
Activity Affecting Resource Recovery

         Some  refuse burning  facilities will take only  household refuse.
Refuse  burning  and energy  production  is  greatly  simplified  if  high
calorie-containing industrial and  bulky waste is excluded.
         Some  plants accept  such waste  because incineration  is the
desired  disposal alternative and/or because the energy  network needs  the
energy from this waste. Then, the  plant manager and staff  may have to put

-------
                                   A-16
forth the  extra effort.   Care must be exerted to not  overheat
the unit  if not originally designed for the "hotter"  industrial waste.

Transfer  Stations

         Transfer  stations are  increasingly  popular in Europe  as  (1)
economies of scale require more waste  to be consumed  at one location  and
(2) there is a desire to reduce highway travel time and collection costs.
         In Paris, the Romainville incinerator was converted to a transfer
station.  Refuse  is transferred to Issy for combustion.
         At Gothenburg,  five transfer stations  compact and 30 trailers
bring refuse to  the Savenas refuse fired steam generator.
         Copenhagen:Amager's concept is quite  different. The  transfer
station  is located next  to  the refuse burner.  Both are  located near the
populated downtown. Bulky  combustibles are shredded  and transferred  330
meters (100 yards) to the refuse  burner. Noncombustible waste is simply
transferred to a distant landfill or seafilled.
         There are plans  at  Uppsala  to put a transfer station in a distant
city so that more energy-containing waste can be gathered and converted to
needed district  heating hot water at Uppsala.
         A  transfer station in Horsens is one at 20 that collect industrial
and  hazardous waste for transport to Nyborg, Denmark.  The Danes are leaders
in regional government hazardous waste collt. ,tion and controlled disposal.
         Because European furnace  grates are  not  designed for shredded
material,  there is only  a moderate  amount of  shredding  at a  transfer
station  prior  to landfill.  In  1977,  there were no  continental European
transfer  stations preparing  shredded RDF for  100  percent RDF  firing or
co-firing,  i.e.  only mass burning is practiced.

                       Composition of Refuse

Physical  Composition of Refuse

         Refuse composition  varies from  place  to  place and from time to
time. Some  typical refuse compositions are presented in Table A-6.

Moisture  Content

         In one analysis, the moisture  percent ranged  from  a low  average of
22.5 percent to  a high average of 32.5 percent.  The  average among  six  (6)
facilities  was 27.1 percent.

                      Heating Value of  Refuse

Definitions and  Calculations

         Heating values  are  expressed  in  either of two manners:  (1) Lower
Heating  Value (LHV),  and (2)  Higher  Heating Value  (HHV).  This  has
occasionally  lead to confusion even though the difference is only about 7  to 1
percent.  The Europeans have the  practice of using Lower Heating Value (LHV)
versus  the  U.S.  practice  of using Higher Heating Value  (HHV).  The
difference  arises from the heat  of  condensation of the hydrogen-produced

-------
                               A-17
TABLE A-6.  COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN SWITZERLAND,
            USA, AND BRITAIN

Composition by
(Location
Switzerland
Constituants Source:
Food waste
Textiles
Paper
Plastics
Leather and rubber
Wood
Glass
Ferrous and nonferrous
metals
Street sweepings and
garden waste
Stones, dust, and other
debris
1 2
20 12
4 2.5
36 30
4 7
2
4 6
8 5
6 7

6
10 33.5
3
14.5
3.0
33.5
2
-
2.5
8.5
5

-
31
Weight Percent (%)
and
U.S.
1
6
3
40
4
2
2
17
9

5
12
Source)
.A. Britain
4
14
-
55
1
-
4
9
9

5
3
5 6
26 13
2 2.5
37 51.5
1.5 1.0
_
_
8 6.5
8.5 6.5

2 3
15 16

Sources: 1. National averages as
Hagenholz)
2. Municipal solid waste
3. Municipal solid waste
4 . Unknown
5. London (1972)
published
of Geneva
of Zurich

by EAWAG (1971)
(1972)
(1963/1964)


(used

for planning

   6.  Birmingham (1972)

-------
                                 A-18


water in the  flue gas.

General Comments on Refuse Heati-ng Values

         Figure A-1 shows  how  the  lower heating values  have risen over the
years in various European Cities.  Generally speaking,  most of the visited
plants  have  current values between  those of Duesseldorf  on the low side and
Stockholm on  the high side.
         Table A-7 presents  LHV's  as reported  for most  of the 15 visited
plants. In several instances the actual LHV has been higher than that  used
in the  plant design. Energy values  for refuse components are shown in Table
A-8.
         In some cases  the difference between the design  and actual values
can be traced to the amount and  type of industrial waste  now being sent to
the system as opposed to that originally anticipated.
         Recently the lower heating  value averages have ranged from 1600 to
2800  Kcal/Kg (2,850 to  5,000  Btu/pound).  Simply adding 11 percent  will
result  in rough estimates  of  higher heating values of  1,776   to  3,108
Kcal/Kg (3,197 to  5,594  Btu/pound).  Thus today, European refuse contains
almost as much energy as does American waste.
                                       During the past  25 years, there has
been a dramatic increase  in the refuse heating values in virtually all
European communities. This  was caused by three factors.  First, Households
formerly disposing large  volumes of inert  furnace ash no lonnger  do so
because so many furnaces  were  converted to oil or gas.  Also, newly built
homes normally have oil or gas furnaces.  Second, the dry and combustible
wastes that  formerly were burned  at home  in  furnaces and stoves are now
discarded for the trashman.  Third,  many housewives that  formerly walked to
the  store around the corner with a  knit sack to  carry unpackaged groceries,
now drive  to the store where packaged (paper  and plastic) groceries are
loaded into paper sacks.  Similarly  other consumer goods  are now packaged.

              Refuse Generation and  Burning Rates Per Person

         Refuse generation rates are not  always equivalent  to  refuse
burning rates. There occasionally is the tendency to confuse these  rates
for  several reasons. Sometimes people will report a generation rate  that
includes construction waste, demolition debris, power plant ash,  sewage
sludge, waste oils and  solvents,  pathological  waste, etc. The above items
are normally not permitted  into the  refuse pit and are hence excluded from
any  calculation of the  per capita refuse  burning rate. Household bulky
waste  is sometimes  accepted into the pit depending on the particular system.
         Readers of  this report are presumably interested primarily in
"solid  combustible  waste  loads"  that are "combusted to  produce  energy".
Thus Table  A-9 was constructed to show reported tonnages of only
combustible loads of  refuse, (household, commercial and light industrial)
that are combusted  at  the visited refuse  fired energy  facilities. The
figures have been divided  by the generation population as  accurately  as is
possible.

-------
8 8 ' A-19 §
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                          A-21
       TABLE A-8.   ENERGY VALUES OF SELECTED
                    REFUSE COMPONENTS  (DRY)
                                             kcal/kg
Average waste

Constituents (in relation to the
  dried products)

  paper

  plastic, leather, rubber

  food waste

  textiles

  wood

Forest and wood industry residues

Agriculture and food industry waste

Tires

Bituminous coal

Gasoline

Methanol
1600 - 3400
4160 - 4460

5600 - 6450

   4775

   4500

   4820

   4090

   2780

   8230

5600 - 8100

   11400

   5420
Source:  Various sources.

-------
                                A-22
    TABLE A-9.  EUROPEAN AVERAGE REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING
               RATES PER PERSON (1976-1977 PERIOD)

Low
Average
High

Low
Average
High

Low
Average
High
Low
Average
High
Household and
Light Commercial
275
318
350

605
700
770

0.75
0.81
0.96
1.66
1.92
2.11
Other Commercial
and Light
Industrial
kg7person/year
25
45
100
pounds /per son/year
55
100
220
kg/person/day
0.07
0.12
0.27
(a)
pounds /per son/ day
0.15
0.27
0.60
Total
Combustible
Loads (b)
300
363
450

660
800
990

0.82
1.00
1.23
1.80
2.20
2.71
 (a) Calculated at 365 days/year even though some systems
    operate only 5, 5-1/2, or 6 days per week.

(b) Full weight of  contents in a vehicle where contents are
    destined for combustion.
Source:   Battelle estimates.

-------
                                   A-23
         We believe that the best  estimate for combustible household refuse
plus light  commercial waste is 318  kg per person per year  (700 Ib/pers/yr).
The range  from this estimate varies by country, by population density, and
by availability of alternative disposal means.
         However, the range of volume for  burning other commercial and
light  industrial waste is  more dramatic. The  amount of  light industrial
waste varies  extensively depending on:  (1) local industrial composition,
(2) whether the facility has  a shear,  (3) opening  of the feed chute,  and
(4) policy of the operator. In this waste category, the  rate can vary from
25 to  100 kg per person per year. It is really more  meaningful to emphasize
the range  than to concentrate on an average. But if one assumes a 45 kg per
person per year  average, the total household,  commercial and light
industrial  waste generation rate becomes:
         •   363 kg per person per  year (or)
         •   800 pounds per person  per year (or)
         •   1.00 kg per person per day (or)
         •   2.2 pounds per person  per day.

                         Total Operating System

         Many  plants provided a great amount of data in large comprehensive
tables.  Such data provide the opportunity to  analyze the  plant as  a  total
operating  system. Interrelationships  and ratios  can have more meaning if
the data can  be  viewed  together.  Data  are  included on thermal  and
combustion efficiency, volume reduction, shut-downs, operating time, amount
of waste  received, cooling  water, .steaming rate,  steam production,  air
pressure, availability, etc.  Data are presented without extensive analysis.

                             Energy Utilization

         Because the typical European resource recovery 'plant has such a
complicated energy use pattern, it  was necessary to  categorize information
into  first, second and third step energy forms and uses as shown in Table
A-10.
         In the first step,  the energy in flue gas can be used directly to
dry sewage  sludge or produce hot  water or steam in a boiler. There  is  a.
geographic split with steam being produced in central and southern Europe,
while  hot water is often produced in Scandinavia. Central Europeans  claim
that  steam is  more useful while the Scandinavians make calculations to show
that hot  water  is more efficient.
         We have wondered whether the geographic difference is an accident
of corporation  location. The four  steam related water-tube wall  vendors
(Von  Roll,  Widmer & Ernst,  Martin and VKW) happen  to be  located in Central
Europe.  Both  Volund and Bruun and  Sorensen,  the continent's  leading
refractory wall  furnace, hot water  generator vendors are in Denmark. The
water-tube  wall furnace/boilers can economically  produce  high temperature
steam. Producing hot water in such a water  tube wall  furnace might be
considered a  waste of capital investment money. The  refractory wall
furnaces are  generally less  expensive and would have technical difficulties
raising  steam  temperature to  much above 333C (632F).
         So the question  arises,  "Do the Danes purchase refuse fired hot
water systems (1) because  Volund  and  Bruun  and Sorensen are there

-------
                                                   A-24
              TABLE A-10. THREE STEPS OF ENERGY FORM AND USE AT VISITED EUROPEAN PLANTS
















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Hot Water for Internal Uses
Hot Water to the Wastewater Treateent "lant
Hot Water for District Heating (rirect)
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2.   Exhaust gases from the separate pathological waste incinerator and the dextrose wasta industrial
    waste incinerator are both blown into the refuse firad steam generator.

-------
                                   A-25
locally  and  that  is what  they sell or because hot water systems  are more
efficient and relevant to northern climates? These researchers  do not have
a clear answer at  this time.
         As  a  summary  Table  A-11  was prepared showing  how  often key
functions are included in the design.
         Many  of  the foregoing comments  refer to salable energy uses.
Internal uses and  losses also need to  be  considered by the  designer. There
are some necessary internal uses while  there are some internal losses that
need to be minimized as shown in Table A- 12.
                    TABLE A-11.  KEY Eif t'dfOiUNS Of
                                 15 VISITED SYSTEMS

                                            Number of
                                          Systems Having
                                            the Energy
                                           Use Category     Percent

      Sludge  Destruction                          3            20
      District  Heating                            9            60
      Electricity Export to the Network            8            53
      Industrial Process Steam                    5            33
      Destruction of Exhaust Gases
      From Other Processes                        5            33
      Systems Wasting Large Quantities
      of Steam  on Roof                            4            27
      Internal  Use of Energy Produced            14            93
                      (out of a sample  of  15 plants)
District Heating

         District heating  (D.H.) commercialization varies extensively by
country as  was shown in Figure A-2.  The  world's largest D.H.  country is the
U.S.S.R. Commericalization  is  faster with more  centralized planning and
control where there is  less  pressure  on  immediate economic returns. In
Western  Europe,  West German systems  deliver the most energy. Scandinavia,
however,  has  the highest per capita  rate.
         The  American D.H.  systems are mostly steam. In recent  years many
European D.H. systems use only hot water. Several Europeans met on the tour
suggested  that  the lackluster  D.H. situation  in America of the last 20
years was partially the  fault of using steam  and  not hot  water.  "Energy
losses  are greater with steam,  maintenance is higher and steam can only be
transported 1/3  the distance as hot water" would be a  typical European
assessment.
         These  researchers are not  sure if the above is the complete story.
For sure,  as the  U.S.  EPA and  State agencies  improve  the  atmospheric
environment, there has been pressure on D.H. systems to spend  large sums
for pollution control equipment  or  to  close.  Many have  chosen  to close.
Often  systems spend money on emissions  cleanup but let the steam  lines fall
into disrepair.'

-------
                           A-26
TABLE A-12.  INTERNAL USES AND LOSSES OF REFUSE DERIVED ENERGY
 Uses
      Preheat incoming combustion  air
      Reheat outgoing combustion air after scrubbing
      Preheat boiler feedwater
      Heat the plant interior space
      Electrify many parts of the plant
      Dry sewage sludge internally before combustion
      Blow steam through sootblower

 Losses
      Cool steam in condensers
      Escapes in stack
      Escapes in pressure relief valve
      Escape in ash and quench water
      Escape in sampling for air quality

-------
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             art Lindenberg AB Energi Konsult at the Swedish District Heating
             ing Workshop obtained from Scholten, Timm.  Survey of Existing
             District Heating Systems.  Nuclear Technology.  Vol. 38)

-------
                                    A-28
         It is the opinion  of these researchers that the  issues raised in
the above  two paragraphs have  unnecessarily  soured  decision  makers
attitudes  in  America to the  detriment of full consideration of Refuse-Fired
District Heating Systems.
         District Heating,  however, is not necessarily desirable for all
applications as is shown in Table A-13- It is normally "very favorable"  for
downtown,  high rise buildings. Even  though the table states that it is "not
possible"  to  provide D.H.  for  one-family houses,  it  occasionally  is
provided in Sweden and Denmark.
         Table A-1H presents  several favorable demand aspects of district
heating  steam and chilled  water systems as prepared for the  American
situation.

District Cooling (Not Observed in Europe)

         Six  years ago  Battelle performed a study of the potential  for
refuse  fired  district  heating  and  cooling systems across the U.S.A. The
study concluded that there were definite economic benefits to the system if
district cooling could be  provided in the summer. The Nashville Thermal
Transfer Corporation in Nashville, Tennessee, was the model.
         Technically, the economic objectives can be accomplished in either
of two ways. In Nashville steam is sent to an adjoining Carrier centrifugal
chiller  station  equipped with  large turbines,  compressors and condensers.
Cold  water at 5  C (41  F) is  then  pumped to  over  30  downtown office
buildings. The other method that will be used by the Harrisburg Incinerator
Authority in Pennsylvania is to keep  sending hot steam through the  lines in
the summer.  Building owners  who desire air cooling can  direct steam to
their own adsorption chilling stations—one in each basement.
         Without question,  in the  total subject area of refuse to energy,
the technology flow needs to be from Europe  to  the U.S.A.  However,  those
Europeans  who desire to increase summer loads and overall financial results
might do well to look  at district  heating and  cooling  as practiced in
Nashville,  Tennessee, and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Underground Distribution

         Every district heating system viewed had unique  underground pipe
distribution  schemes. In  all hot water systems,  there is a return warm
water pipe.   However, in  steam systems,  the designers have a choice of
returning condensate or.  not. Many designers wish to conserve water  and will
try to minimize corrosion in their  condensate return pipes. Others with a
healthy fear  of the corrosive effects will  specify a once  through  recycle
system.
         All  hot water  and  some steam systems  viewed had packed tunnels,
i.e.  packed with dirt, gravel, insulation,  etc. See Figures A-3, 4,  5,  and
6. Several steam systems, however,  used human walk-through tunnels such as
detailed later at  Zurich. Duesseldorf, because  of the railroad and  other
underground utilities, uses an exposed overhead pipe also as shown  later.

Relation of Refuse as a  Fuel in the Long Term Community Plan for
Community Electrical Power, District  Heating and Cooling

-------
A-29










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-------
                                  A-30
        TABLE A-14.  FAVORABLE DEMAND ASPECTS OF DISTRICT HEATING
                     AND COOLING SYSTEMS IN THE U.S.A.
 1.   Large,  dense load area

 2.   Land available for system

 3.   Sufficient initial customers to assure adequate load

 4.   Urban renewal slated or under way

 5.   Location in state capital

 6.   Local coal-burning steam utility desiring to leave business because
     of pollution regulations

 7.   Local district heating utility desiring to increase business with
     addition of chilled water

 8.   Increasing conventional fuel prices

 9.   Uncertain conventional fuel availability

10.   Lack of interest in solid waste for electrical generation or
     industrial steam

11.   Flexible rate setting for district heating and cooling products

-------
                                          A-31
      • Grade level
   Coarse
   sand fill
     Optional
     drainage ?one
                                             COUP* O'UN i

FIGURE A-3.
STEAM DISTRIBUTION
AND RETURN CONDENSATE
PIPES AT WERDENBERG
                                                 FIGURE  A-4.    STEAM DISTRIBUTION AND
                                                                RETURN  CONDENSATE PIPES
                                                                AT PARIS
           •«MjrW «k^' ~j!'fc^7 ~a T^ JB
-------
                               A-32
         The following  several pages  demonstrate how refuse fuel  could fit
into a community's total long term energy program.
         One  of the basic  features  of community  district heating
development  is that it progresses in  stages. Five key stages  are  shown in
Figure A-7 and are as follows:
         Stage 1:     Consumer  system
         Stage 2:     Portable  oil or gas fired central substations
         Stage 3:     Permanent district heating stations
         Stage 4:     Cogeneration of electricity and district heat
                       from refuse
         Stage 5:     Base load with  distant nuclear waste heat.
         Almost  any existing consumer heating  system energy plan can be
retrofitted  for  hot water district heating.
         Often portable oil fired district  (or central) heating substations
are erected for subdivisions. When two to five of these are in an  area it
becomes economical to erect a permanent district heating station.
         Permanent operations as district heating stations can be  used in
two ways to  enhance refuse operations  as portrayed in Figure A-8.  First,
when  the RFEP is providing the base  heating load, the permanent boilers can
be used for  peaking. Second,  when there is  either not enough  refuse input
or energy demand output,then the boilers  can be used instead of firing the
expensive to operate base load  refuse fired energy plant.
         Repeatedly on the European  tour mention was made of the advantages
of cogeneration. A simple power station  with  a condensing  turbine must
waste much energy  in a condenser.  However with an  energy efficient
cogeneration plant that has a back pressure turbine to provide electricity
and then steam for district  heating, energy  efficiency can be more than
doubled.
         The Swedes are  considering  three situations where they would use
waste heat from  nuclear power stations. (See Figure A-9.)
         In  summarizing the five stages, it is important that each stage be
developed before future stages  are implemented.  Any particular stage may
require 6 to 12 years before the savings in  fuel cost equals  the extra
expense of  installing  that stage.  Another, perhaps humbling point for
resource recovery, is that in the long  term, refuse-to-energy systems will
be a limited factor in the total energy picture simply because there is not
enough energy in waste and enough volume  of waste. Once again the point is
made that energy recovery enables refuse  disposal in an economical manner.
But it is not the panacea for the world's energy  problems.

Energy Marketing and Standby Capacity

         Customarily, established energy customers having their own  boilers
will accept  interruptible steam	but  at a reduced price.  Commonly there
are situations where  (because of the investments that potential customers
have in existing boilers) such customers  will use marginal costing instead
of total costing. Two examples are shown:

Example  (1).   A new  refuse-fired energy  plant is being considered that
               would require  $3«25  per  1000 pounds steam as a revenue from
               large,  steady  industrial customers.  A  new factory might
               locate in an adjoining new industrial park.  A new oil-fired
-------
                           A-33
water r |
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Consumer System


r'
Stage 2.

L-r-J Portable Oil or Gas

J


Stage 3.
Permanent
District Heating
Stations

Distribution
system
230 ps.ig.
y&
Stage A,

Cogeneratiot of
Electricity and District
"eat From Refuse
J
1
i\
< ' Stage 5.
T— •-• 3ase Load
with Distant
Nuclear Wasfs
Heat
FIGURE A-7.   TOTAL EMERGY PLAN BUILT UP IN FIVE  STAGES
(Courtesy of Erik Wahlman,  Theorall & Martin Enargi
 Konsulcar AB at  the Swedish District Keacing  Workshop)
-------
                              A-34
LOAD
% 100
                       NON  REFUSE
                  HEAT-ONLY BOILERS
                   (Uuring WiA
                     Peak Load
                                                	  NON  REFUSE
                                                HEAT-ONLY BOILERS
                                                AT TIME OF
                                                .ELECTRICITY PEAK
                                                        unmet Time  of Mini-
                                                            Refuse Burner
                                                           I (own for Annual
                                                           aspection and
                                                             Reconditioning)
                                                         12 MONTH
FIGURE A-3.   HEAT LOAD DURATION CURVE AND LOAD-SPLIT.  HEAT ONLY PACKAGE
             BOILERS USED (1) FOR PEAKING, (2) WHEN THERE IS NOT ENOUGH
             REFUSE SUPPLY OR (3) WHEN ENERGY DEMAND IS TOO LOW or (4) DURING SHUTDOWN
            FOR INSPECTION AND RECONDITIONING (Modification  of Studsvik Energiteknik AB
            figure given at the Swedish District  Heating Workshop)
-------
                             I    A-35

"D" Includes  Che Refuse Fired Steam
    Generator at Uppsala
                                                                         FORSM4RK*
                                                      .*                  Mlrtlt •!«(!««,«
                                                      Peitiait lonj distinct transport DiO*?-^,'
2000
1000
                       Heat prodeced by
                       B
                       C
                      *D
                       E
                       P
                           Peaking plant, Stockholm TrI
                   Degeneration plant.
                      - » -        , Uppsala
                      - »-        , Vlrtan   rS,
                   Nuclear plant, Forsmark
                                                &V) Forsmark
                                                17 Dppjala
                                                                      0
      0         2


       Fissure  A-9.
                  .468
                      Thousand  hours
10-103  n
               HEAT PRODUCED BY EACH UNIT  FOR THE OPTIMUM CASE IN TH;
               LONG RANGE  PLAN FOR DISTRICT KEATING SUPPLY IN THE
               STOCKHOLM AREA USING OIL, REFUSE AND NUCLEAR POWER
-------
                                   A-36
              industrial boiler  could be constructed  to produce steam at  a
              cost of $4.50 per  1000 pounds steam.  The  new plant  could
              need  the  guarantee of  continuously supplied steam in case of
              a garbage strike or malfunction of equipment.  At this  price
              it is likely a contract could be signed.
Example  (2).   The same refuse-fired energy plant is  being  considered  that
              would  again require $3.25  per 1000  pounds as  revenue. An
              existing  factory has  been  approached that  has  existing
              coal-fired boilers reliably  producing steam for $2.50 per
              1000 pounds. ($2.00 for fuel and  $0.50 for operations  and
              maintenance).  The factory would keep its coal-fired unit as
              an emergency backup. In addition,  they already have a  small
              50,000  pound per hour package oil-fired  boiler. The plant
              manager's accountants tell him to ignor  the  "sunk costs" in
              his  boiler such  as   the  boiler's  original cost  or  the
              remaining principal or  interest  payments.  Often in  such  a
              situation the plant owner refuses to  sign the steam purchase
              contract.
         Hence,  we conclude, if  the potential energy customer is to provide
his own  supplemental firing from the  existing  boilers  (and not  from  the
refuse  energy plant) ,  then the  customer will use  marginal costing rather
than total costing. He  will ignore  sunk costs  and will  require a  lower
price for externally supplied  steam. Occasionally, the factory's marginal
cost to  raise  its own  steam will  be less than the total cost to be covered
of a new refuse-fired  energy plant. (RFEP)

                           Economics  and Finance

Captial  Investment Costs

         Capital  investment costs  are  displayed in  Table A-15a and A-15b  for
the 15  plants visited.   The data presented  are  those  provided  by local
officials.  The  definition of the numbers are not necessarily consistent.  The
reader will have to review the specific comments as  shown  in  the trip  reports
to sort  out the data depending on  the  type of numbers desired.
         Land, for example, is.sometimes included if overtly  paid for.
However,  if  the  refuse  fired  energy plant was built on  the grounds of an
existing municipally owned Energy and  Environmental Park, the land  might be
considered free.
         Some operators have  "within-the-gate" accounting  schemes  that have
combined and  inseparable investment data. For  example: consider  the newly
constructed  RFEP,  administration  building,  truck  repair building and
bicycle  hall  that were funded out of one financing instrument.
         American vendors of  European licenses were quick to discourage
placing  too much  emphasis  on the  following investment figures.  What they
hope to market  in America in  the  1980's bears little  resemblance to what
was built in  the  late  1960's or  early  1970's as described in this report.
         To quote from  from the  1976  "Solid Waste Management Guidelines" as
published by  the  U.S.  EPA:
         "It  is EPA's firm belief that attempts to  predict  (and compare)
         costs of various types of  plants  in  a general way,  apart from
         local circumstances,  is more likely  to mislead than  inform. The
-------
A-37
























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-------
                             A-38
Table A-15b.   SUMMARY OF.CA?I~AL INVESTMENT  (Continued)

Weighted Average Year Exchange
of Investment used to Race U.S.S
Select Exchange Rate
Wecdenberg
Baden-Brugg
Duesseldorf
Wuppertal
Krefeld
Paris
Hamburg :SceUinger-Moor
Zurich :Hagenholz
The Hague
Dieppe
Gothenburg
Upsala
Korsens
Copenhagen : Aoager
(;opeana?en:Wesc
TOTAL AVERAG
1)73
1970
1967
1975
1976
1962
1971
1970
1970
1969
1971
1967
1975
1971
1971
L-1971
3.244
4.316
3.999
:,622
2.363
4.900
2.622
4.316
3.598
5.558
4.858
5.165
6.178
6.290
6.843

U.S. Dollars
in Weighted
Ave. Year
14,007,000
3,800,000
11,578,000
48,055,000
25,391,000
22,449,000
18,307,000
13,831,000
17,237,000
1,562,000
20.173.000
2,139,000
2,946,000
25,056,000
29,954,000
246,485,000
16,432
Actual 1976
Tonnes
Per Year
26,018
41,693
297,359
178,000
114,000
588,904
420,680
223,595
229,000
14,892
242.536
52,040
18,909
255,000
234,230
2,936,356
195,790
Tons Tons per
Per Year Day at
365 Days/Yr.
28,620
45,862
327,095
195,800
125,400
647,794
462,748
245,955
251,900
16,381
266,790
*
57,244
20,800
280,300
257,653
3,230,542
215,369
78
126
896
536
344
1,775
1,268
674
690
45
731
157
57
768
706
8,331
590
Capital Cost
Per Daily
Ton Capacity
51,103
30,243
12,920
89,582
73,905
12,649
14 , 440
20,525
24,976
34,304
27,599
13,639
51,697
32,604
42,434
35,541
-------
                                     A-39
         range of  assumptions  regarding specific  design,  reliability,
         markets and other  factors  is  too great to make  such an analysis
         meaningful."

Initial Capital Investment  Cost per Daily Ton

         Initial capital investment cost per daily ton  capacity has risen
dramatically from 1960 the present. Earlier values of $13,000 per daily  ton
compare with 1975-76 values of $50,000 to $90,000 per  ton.  More recently
there  have been some American  proposals near $100,000  per daily  ton
capacity. These  numbers are displayed in Figure A-10.  There are seven
general reasons for this dramatic price growth:
         •   Inflation
            -  Land
               Capital equipment purchases
            -  Construction service fees
            -  Construction labor and materials  cost
            Interest rates during construction
            Exchange rate  devaluation
            Corrosion protective equipment designs
            Architecture and landscaping for neighborhood acceptance
            More complex energy use systems
            More air pollution control equipment

         Inflation. Generally speaking, with the  exception of West Germany,
costs  of construction have inflated more in Europe  than  in the United
States.

         Interest Charges  During  Construction. Prime interest rates have
risen dramatically over the last 20 years.

         Exchange  Rate  Devaluation.  Table A-16 has been used  for
conversions from local currencies into U.S. dollars for a  particular year
throughout this report.  As an  example with everthing else constant,
devaluation alone  would cause a $10,000,000  Swiss plant  in 1963 to be
$21,000,000 in 1977.

         Corrosion Protective  Equipment Designs.  The  problem of metal
wastage is elaborately discussed in the report. Spending money for features
to reduce corrosion and erosion generally increases investment.  A later
table identifies 33 features that could be included to reduce metal wastage
rates.

         Architecture and  Landscaping for Neighborhood Acceptance. As
close-in European land has  become more precious,  the  few  remaining spaces
near the city's  core are  often in household  neighborhoods or near major
highways. The  compromise  with local citizens  has occasionally been to
promise  a beautiful plant surrounded by exceptional landscaping.  This  can
significantly increase costs.
         The two  almost identical Copenhagen plants,  each originally with  a.
864 ton per day capacity, had very different capital costs. Granted not all
of the  variance  can be explained by the aesthetic budget for architecture
-------
             A.-AO
                                                                     o
                                                                     33

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-------
                                            A-41
TABLE  A-16.  EXCHANGE RATES  FOR SIX-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES,  (NATIONAL MONETARY UNIT PER U.S,
              DOLLAR)  1948 TO FEBRUARY,  1979^a)

1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1953
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
Denmark
Kroner
(D.Kr.)
4.310
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.906
6.908
6.906
6.336
5.902
6.911
6.921
6.891
6.916
7.462
7.501
7.492
7.439
7.062
6.343
6.290
5.650
6.178
5.788
5.778

France
Francs
(F.Fr.)
2.662
3.490
3.499
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
4.199
4.906
4.909
4.903
4.900
4.900
4.902
4.900
4.902
4.952
4.908
4.948
5.558
5.520
5.224
5.125
4.708
4.444
4.436
4.970
4.705

W . Gernany
Deucsch Hark
(D.M.)
3.333
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4,200
4.215
4.199
4.202
4.173
4.170
4.171
3.996
3.998
3.975
3.977
4.006
3.977
3.999
4.000
3.590
3.648
3.268
3.202
2.703
2.410
1. 622
2.363
2.105

Netherlands
Guilders
(G1J
2.653
3.300
3.800
3.800
3.300
3.786
3.794
3.329
3.830
3.791
3.775
3.770
3.770
3.600
3.600
3.600
3.592
3.511
3.614
3.596
3.506
3.624
3.597
3.254
3.226
2.824
2.507
2.689
2.457
2.280

Sweden
Kronor
(S.KrJ
3.600
5.130
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.130
5.180
5.130
5.130
5.173
5.173
5.181
5.180
5.185
5.136
5.200
5.148
5.180
4.180
5.165
5.180
5.170
5.170
4.353
4.743
4.538
4.081
4.336
4.127
4.670

Switzerland
Francs
(S.rr.)
4.315
4.300
4.289
4.369
4.285
4.283
4.285
4.285
4.285
4.285
4.303
4.323
4.305
4.316
4.319
4.315
4.315
4.318
4.327
4.325
4.302
4.318
4.316
3.915
3.774
3.244
2.540
2.620
2.451
2.010

        (a) Exchange  Race ac end of period.
           Line "ae" Markec Ra=e/?ar  or General Race.
           Source:   Incarnacional Financial Si.iciscics:   1972 Susplenenc;              Volume
           XXXI,  Mo. 4, Published by  cne lacarr.aciotial Monecarv Fund.
-------
                                A-42
and landscaping,  but aesthetics were  the major  cause. Amager, located  on
land recovered from the sea in  an industrial area,  has  a  $32,604 per daily
ton figure while  the more aesthetically pleasing West plant located  at a
major highway intersection in a residential neighborhood  costs $42,434 per
daily ton.

         More Complex Energy Use  Systems. Some newer systems maximize
energy effficiency by having a  back-pressure electricity  turbo-generator
consuming high  pressure steam and exhausting low pressure steam.  This  is
then used in district heating schemes requiring miles of  pipelines. As the
price of energy continues  to  rise  there  will be  more pressure for
cogeneration and other complex  capital-intensive energy schemes.

         The  single line  132  ton per day plant at Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
producing 0.5 Mw electricity^industrial process steam and district heating
hot  water is  the  prime  example  of  an  overly complex energy scheme
considering the volume of waste consumed.

         More  Air Pollution Control'Equipment.  Environmental regulations
have continued  to tighten. The two highest capital  investment cost per
daily  ton plants  in the survey are Wuppertal ($89,582/Ton) and Krefeld
($73,905/Ton). Both plants came under the new source performance standard
of the  new West German regulation "T. A. Luft".  In contrast to the United
States, each  new West German  refuse burner must have  a wet scrubber  or
equivalent to collect HC1 and  HF gases. The Krefeld plant  also has a second
stage scrubber to collect S02  to help meet ambient  levels.
         There  has been minimal  interest  expressed  so far by the other
European, the Canadian and the  U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agencies for
control of HC1, HF and S02 from refuse burners.

Expenses

         In  1976, the average plant surveyed processed  195,790 tonnes  (215,369
tons) per year of 536 tonnes (590 tons)  per day.  The average total expenses
were $27 per  ton as summarized  in Table  A-17.
         There should be no doubt about  the capital intensive nature of  refuse
fired steam  and hot water generators.   Operations  and  maintenance accounts only
fpr slightly over a third of total costs.
         The  numbers have  been recalculated  a second  time without  the very
small Werdenberg-Liechtenstein  plant (a.  single  120 tonne/day line)  data.   Not
using this  data  point reduces  the total  expenses to $24.33  per  ton in 1976.

         Economies  of Scale.  While  conducting thhe  interviews,  these
researchers began to feel that there were no  economies of scale in these
wastes-to-energy plants.  With  the Werdenberg-Liechtenstein exception,  there
seemed to  be no effect of plant  capacity on total expenses  per ton of refuse
processed.
         With this suspicion, Figure A-10 was generated showing total expenses
per year versus  annual tonnage. The data appeared to be  linear.  Deviations
from the straight line were easily  explainable in each facility as shown in  the
figure.
         To plot the same information but  in a different manner, Figure A-11 was
-------















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                                  A-46
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-------
                                 A-48
     Table A-19.  GROSS SUMMARY OF REVENUE FROM EUROPEAN
                          REFUSE FIRED ENERGY PLANTS
                                                  Without Werdenberg-
                                    All Plants*         Liechtenstein
                                $/Ton      _%.      $/Ton       %.
   Net disposal cost or
     tipping fee                  18.83     59.4     16.38     55.4
   Sale of energy (hot water,
     steam, electricity)             7.38     23.3      7.51      25.4
   Sludge destruction credit        3.12      9.8      3.12     10.6
   Interest on reserves             1.07      3.4      1.07      3.6
   Other revenues                 0.91       2.9      1.02      3.5
   Sale of scrap iron and
     road ash                     0.39      1.2      0.44      1.5

         Average of Revenues     28.43    100.0     25.81     100.0

   *Where adequate data is available.

         The  net disposal cost or  tipping lee (regardless of  how collected) has
been plotted on  Figure A-12for  13  plants.   This  figure presents an  unclear
picture  about economics of scale affecting net disposal costs.  However, we can
state that  we  believe there are much more  important  considerations affecting
economic  results than economics of  scale.

         Sale  of Energy.  As a general rule of  thumb,  American refuse
(household, commercial and  light  industrial waste)  will produce a net salable
5,000 pounds steam per ton of  reufse while  European refuse  produces  a  lower
amount,  perhaps  4,000 pounds steam per ton of  refuse.  The  typical European
(1976) revenue for the sale of energy of $7.51 per ton refuse  is equivalent to
about $1.88 per million BTU.  Many persons have commented that the key reason
that the  Europeans have developed their refuse-fired energy systems  is  that the
price of energy in Europe was much  higher than in the U.S.  While this may have
been true when some European plants  were initially planned,  by 1976  incremental
U.S. energy prices were much closer  to  European prices.


         Sludge  Drying Credit.   Of 30 refuse  burning systems that  Battelle
researchers visited, seven systems use  the energy in  the refuse to dry and/or
destroy  sewage.   However, only at Horsens do we have a clear and separable
reported  sludge drying credit  — a  figure of $3-12 per refuse  input  ton.
-------
A-49


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-------
                                    A-50
         Sale of Scrap Iron  and Road Ash.  Ash  residue is sold not only for
revenue  but also  to  eliminate or reduce  the ash disposal  landfill expense.
Landfill  costs  will be reduced  to about 20 percent  of  the case where there is
no sale  of road ash.  Therefore,  the economist should  add the  marginal savings
when less ash is  landfilled to the metal scrap and road aggregate revenue.
         Unfortunately we do not  have enough economic  data to. conclude that  ash
recycling is even marginally beneficial for the average  plant.  Where the
refuse burning plant is located in a steel producing region  that needs scrap
for a melt or there is a  shortage of conventional road aggregate products the
economics should  be more attractive.

         Interest on Revenues.   In a few systems more  money is collected  than
spent.  This  results in Contribution to Reserves which is akin  to profit  in a
private  enterprise system and is  shown as an expense.
         On  the revenue side, interest on these previously  collected  and
invested reserves is added  in  revenues.  In a  few systems,  this figure is
surprisingly  high.  When averaged over  four reporting plants,  the average is
$3.01  per ton.  But when averaged over ten plants,  the average is $0.91 per  ton.
         "Contribution to  Reserves (expense)"  and "Interest  on  Revenues
(revenue)"  view is  to consider that  this public organization, owned by
taxpayers, overcharded themselves.   This extra recovery can:
         • be invested to produce interest revenue which reduces net
           disposal costs
         • be applied to debt reduction
         • provide a cushion for addition of a new line  or
           replacement of the entire  facility.

Net Disposal  Cost or Tipping Fee

         To  use  a business expression,  the  "bottom line"  is  the Net Disposal
Cost or  sometimes the Tipping Fee.   This is the resulting cost or burden borne
by  the  citizens,  taxpayers and generators of waste.   This is  the figure used to
compare  techniccal alternatives for  solid waste disposal  (compost, landfilling,
materials recovery, waste-to-energy, etc.).
         This ranges  upward from  a  low of  $6.27  per ton at Parisrlssy.
However, this is not  truly a comparable figure because  there  is no depreciation
expense  included  in the number.  Since  the plant is owned by  the City of Paris
depreciation is  not included in  the operator's financial statement.  Had normal
depreciation  and  interest been included the net  disposal  cost would be  well
over $10 per  ton.

         Low Net  Disposal Cost  Systems.  Uppsala, a refractory walled furnace,
(and not a water-tube  wall  furnace)  shows the best net  cost at $6.83 per ton
for two  reasons.  First,  three of   the furnaces  are old so t he original
capital  investment cost to amortize  is small.  Perhaps  some equipment may be
fully depreciated already.  Then too, many claim that original  capital cost and
the continuing operations  and  maintenance costs on  the  simpler  refractory
walled  low  temperature  energy  systems are  inherently lower  than  the complex
water tube wall-high temperature  steam systems requiring expensive  corrosion
protection.
         Second,  in addition to having  the lowest  amortization  costs, Uppsala
-------
                                    A-51
has the highest energy revenue  per input ton ($11.70)  of  any visited system.
This is  due  to  the  revenue formula  that parallels  the  cost of foreign  oil,
storage costs,  50  mile transport costs and Swedish taxes.  The Swedes, not
having national  energy sources,  ha^e  traditionally paid more  for their energy.
        It  is  interesting to compare at this point this "best"  financial
result system  in our survey with the U.S. system  having an excellent  net
disposal  cost.   The Babcock and Wilcox - Detroit  Stoker refuse fired steam
generator  and Carrier chiller station energy system  in  Nashville,  Tennessee
achieved.   A net disposal cost  of only $6.41 per ton is a supurb  situation for
the waste  generating public.


        Of  note is that very   slightly  more revenue comes from sale  of chilled
water for  district  cooling than  steam for district  heating.  While  several
energy customers have challenged  the steam price, the energy is in fact, priced
in the mid range of all U.S.  district heating systems at $5.90 per 1000  pounds
steam.  Even  with these excellent results, the system only  sells 60  percent of
the steam it produces.  One can only speculate about  financial results if
cogeneration of electricity in  a  backpressure turbine were ahead  of the chiller
station  and  the  district heating and  cooling loops.
         In  addition to  the current financial success, the  stack emissions are
extremely  low at 0.005 to 0.01 grains per SCF adjusted to 12  percent C02'   This
compares to  the  U.S. Federal standard of  0.08 gr/SCF.
        Many in this industry remember the previous  hopeless situation  at the
Nashville unit.  The combination of original  insight by Mayor Briley, the
designer I.C. Thomasson, the equipment suppliers and  community leaders  and the
steadfast continuing support  from these same community leaders and financial
institutions and the strong pressure  for clean air  from  the U.S. EPA  has all
united in  this  exemplary American  refuse  fired steam generator.
        .A key  economic/financial lesson to be  learned  is that if  inflation
consumes  a  previously passed  bond issue, go  for  more money rather than make
unjustified  compromises in design  that will need to be rectified later.

        High Net Disposal  Cost  Systems.  Comment  should be made on the  three
highest  net  cost systems.  Werdenberg-Liechtenstein 's $48.25 per ton  is the
highest by  far. The vendor knew  that the  figure would be high and so stated to
the community.   The community, however, considered its scenic beauty  too great
to  mar with another landfill.   In addition, there  was a most attractive  Swiss
federal  grant or low interest loan program that encouraged the community to
participate.   The initial outside funding  per capital investment  apparently was
emphasized more  than the long term net disposal fees  needed to support  annual
costs.
        We  suggest that  the use of  Federal  and  state funding  to further the
objectives of  resource recovery  take  into account the discount  ed  long  term
effects of  participation.  An analogy might be the wealthy father who helps his
17 year  old  son  buy an expensive Corvette automobile  only to later learn  that
the son  cannot  pay the $500 per  year insurance premium.
-------
                                  A-52
         A specific reason  for the high cost  at  Werdenberg is that  costs  must
be divided by  only 120 ton per day.   This is the only plant surveyed that we
can clearly say suffers from diseconomies of  scale.   A single 120 tonne,  (132
ton) per day line with  standby energy backup is too small.  This is especially
small considering  the  diverse energy uses  (hot water for district  heating,
steam for the chemical plant and electricity  for the network).
         Wuppertal with a $35.66 per  ton net disposal  cost is  adversely
affected today because  of  concern for the  future capacity.  Of  its  four
furnaces, one  is  always down because of lack of  refuse.  A second unit is
usually  down for  preventive maintenance or repairs.  Thus the  total  costs for
this sophisticated electrical generating  plant  with  four lines  must be
supported with the activity in only  two lines.  Planners in other situations
would have built 3 units and left an open bay for a later Mth.  Perhaps  refuse
input from a neighboring community will increase operations and spread fixed
expenses  over more tonnage.
         The  Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor  system at $22.55  per  ton has  unusually
high labor costs.  The cost of $14.95 per  ton for  operations and maintenance
labor and materials was the highest  in the survey.  A second  observation was
that the  revenue of $5.92 per  ton from sale of electricity  is a bit  low.

         One  Medium Net Disposal Cost System of Special Note.   Zurich:Hagenholz
achieved very  reasonable results  at  $12.66 per  ton for several reasons.
Frankly  the  professional administrative spirit of the Director is to  be highly
credited.  A spirit of pride and  efficiency  pervades all  activities.   Job
positions must continually be justified.   Total operations  and  maintenance
labor and materials was only  $4.06 per ton, the lowest in the  survey.
Comparatively, the interest and depreciation  is high at  $15.31  per ton.   This
is consistent  with management's emphasis  favoring purchase of  what  they
consider to  be the best equipment to  reduce labor and  material  needed for
operations and  maintenance. Thirty-three (33)  separate design and operation
decisions were identified specifically to reduce corrosion.  As a  result, the
superheater tubes  have suffered  only 0.3 mm (0.012  in) metal wastage  in five or
six  years.   Other tubes have  lost only 0.1 mm (0.004 in) in the  same  30,000
hours.  This  is remarkable and has proven that high temperature steam,  788 F,
can  be produced at a reasonable price with virtually no corrosion  if proper
design and operation decisions are made and carried through.
         Battelle staff  have attempted  to  analyze the wide variation in
results,  $6.27  up'to $48.25 per  ton,  by  manufacturer or  prime  vendor.  While
averages can be derived  and arrayed,  we feel that  the Icoal situations far
outweigh vendor importance. Besides that, our   sample   of only two  or three
plants per vendor is not  enough to develop significant  conclusions.
         However,  it should be  pointed  out  that each of  the four  refractory
wall systems performed better than the survey average.  Yet the  two surveyed
manufacturers have yet to  mount   an effective North  American marketing effort
in recent  times.   At  this writing,  Summer 1979,  Bruun and  Sorenson  has no  North
American representative.  Volund has appointed a new representative  in  Chicago,
Waste Management',  Inc.
         It is  our opinion that  American resource  recovery  competitions  would
benefit by marketing efforts also from European and North  American manufactures
of refractory wall incinerator-waste heat  recovery  boiler  vendors.
-------
                                     A-53
Finance

         Table A-21 presents modes of financing.  There was no real financial
pattern between countries.  In all cases, the plants were built and financed
by the municipality or solid waste authority.  This includes Issy, operated
by T.I.R.U. but owned by the City of Paris and also Dieppe operated by I.N.O.R.-
Thermical but owned by the City.
         The availability in America of tax free bonding for private enterprise
to develop public service environmental services 'will continue to affect not
only detailed financing decisions but also basic decisions about ownership and
operations.  The long term financing options in America will likely encourage
more privately owned systems than are possible in Europe.
         Of note was that the vendor VKW at Wuppertal and I.N.O.R.(Von Roll) at
Dieppe made modest company loans to the customer for purchase of scrubbers, a
crane, a weigh station, furniture, an ash truck, etc.  None of that which was
financed was a "manufactured product" of these two companies.
         The only relatively common mode (7 plants out of 15) of finance was to
use the bank loan.

                   System Ownership and Governing Patterns

         Private enterprise owned none of the 30 systems visited.  In all cases
solid waste disposal and resource recovery are public matters.  Of the 15 plants
studied in detail, operation was turned over by the City to another organization
in 2 cases.

                            Personnel Categories

         Over 120 job titles are discussed in the body of the report.  In no
way is it recommended that any plant have all of these jobs.
         It was observed that larger plants tend to have larger staffs, in-
cluding many jobs not found at smaller plant.  Potential economies of scale
from the larger plant are often nullified by a large staff.  This observation
holds true not only for managerial functions but also operations personnel.
         .Rather than hire permanent employees, many plants use outside services
extensively.

                     Education, Training and Experience

         Training varies widely among countries.  Germany seems to have the
most rigorous program.  This usually involves schooling, navy or merchant
marine boiler room experience, more schooling, more sea experience,  etc., for
up to 16 years.  Often between ages 30 and 40, a man will leave the sea to
become a stationary power boiler operator.  Eventually he may move to a refuse
fired energy plant.
         Switerland, a landlocked nation, often uses former employees of Brown
Boveri, Sulzer, etc., who make or install power systems around the world.
-------
                                A-54


                            Refuse Handling

Weighing of Refuse Received

        Considerable attention is usually given to measuring the amount of
waste received.  Many of the plants  visited  use.  automatic recording of
loaded truck weight as it  arrives at the plant,  and many truck drivers
carry  a  coded identification card  to be inserted into the card  slot at
the scale  at the time of weighing.
        Many  of the plants      experienced early difficulty with failure
of the electronic  system at the scales. In most cases  these  initial
problems  have  been cleared up by  the scale manufacturer. However,  the
electrical system usually requires frequent maintenance. A few large  plants
use 2 scales  for  redundancy and to handle peak loads without causing long
lines of  waiting  trucks. One plant uses a  separate scale to weigh  the
residue from  the  furnaces.  Most scales are recalibrated once every year or
two.
        At  very  small  plants  the  scale  operation is observed  and
controlled by the crane operator who sits  at the  plant  control board.  In such
instances the  main control room is located in  such a way that the busy
operator can view the trucks  discharging to  the  pit. In some cases  he  can
also  observe  the  distant tipping floor  by means of closed-circuit
television.
        In  the larger plants the weighing operation is controlled by  1 or
2 scale operators who also direct the truck  traffic through  amplified  voice
instructions and sometimes by means of red and green signal  lights.
        At  most plants  it  is the  duty  of  the scale operator  to  detect
bulky items  and to instruct the  driver  to deposit them in a  separate
collection place.

Tipping Floor, Pit and Crane

        The universal  European  practice  for receiving, storing,  and
feeding the  solid waste to the furnaces  is the  ancient  pit  and  crane
system. To  some new to the field  this  method appears incredibly archaic.
However,  it  has  so far satisfied European'  needs, and efforts to supplant it
with  modern  conveying equipment have not  succeeded. The major barriers to
change is  the  heterogeneity  of MSW,  its  strong tendency  to densify when
stored, and  its  occasional hazardous nature.
         At  most of the plants visited the  tipping floor is indoors. In
most  cases,  indoors or outdoors,  the discharge openings  into the pit are
covered  by power-operated doors.  Thus pit  odor is kept  inside  by fresh
combustion  air flowing  through  the open  doors under  the action of the
combustion  air blowers. In most  cases  the  blowers  take the  air  from
filtered  air intakes  near  the  top of the  pit.  Thus air flow  is always
inward and in  no case was the odor  of refuse  detected outside  the plants
nor in the neighborhood.
         In most  plants the entrance  and  egress of  the trucks to the
tipping area is  controlled by  the scale  operator, with a workman on the
tipping  floor controlling  the opening  and  closing of the pit doors.  In a
few cases  the  hydraulically  lifted doors  are operated by the truck  driver.
          Refuse pit storage, volume,  dimensions and  capacities are presented
 in Table  A-20.
-------
















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                                   A-56


         Usually the drivers  are  expected to clean up any spilled refuse
before they leave and, in general, the tipping floors were  free of debris,
but not  always.  The attitude of management toward housekeeping standards
was variable  and resulted in  very  few messy tipping  floors. One plant,
Wuppertal, made  daily use of  a large mobile washer and sweeper to keep the
tipping floor and adjacent ramps exceptionally clean.

Pit Doors

         The  most commonly used powered pit door is the multi-hinged door.
A distinct disadvantage of this type is that if several  such doors happen
to be  open at  once at a busy time the  lifted doors hide much of the pit
from the view of the crane operator who is many  times  situated directly
above  the doors.  Also such doors  projecting into the crane area are very
vulnerable to accidental collision with the crane  bucket. For these reasons
the new  Zurich Josefstrasse  plant.
Pit or Bunker

         The floor of most  pits  is below grade.  Because of water-table or
excavation problems, a few are at  grade, in which case  the tipping floor is
elevated  and  is reached by  a  sloping sometimes helical,  ramp. Most pi
walls are reinforced concrete.
         The predominant design  philosophy provides  a  maximum pit storage
capacity of 4  to 5 days'  operations. Since all of the larger plants usuall;
schedule one  unit to be down  for  maintenance,  the  actual storage capacit;
provides for 5  or 6 days of  normal plant operation.
         Pit fires are usually controlled by  sprinkler systems and watei
guns controlled by the crane operator. For extremely  dry, industrial  wasti
at The  Hague,  there is a separate pit in which water sprays operate most o
the time to reduce the heat  value of the refuse  as fired.  This prevent;
fires and  also avoids  overheating of the  boilers  which were designe<
originally for  wet municipal solid waste.

Crane

         The larger plants  have  2  cranes which  provide redundancy.  Th
almost universal conment was that  the crane operator  is the most  importan
worker  in the  plant. A skilled operator will divert  troublesome bulky item
to avoid problems in  the  furnace and  will  mix  segregated,  highl
combustible wastes in the pit so as to avoid excessive  heat release in th
furnace. Also his skill  is  very  important in  extending the life  of th
crane cables which  can  become  kinked and  twisted  in the process o
retreiving batches of waste from the pit.
         In most  small plants the  crane operator performs  from
glass-walled podium at one  side of  the control  room  positioned so  as t
provide a view of the tipping area, pit and furnace hoppers. In  the large
plants the separate podium is situated high in the wall above the  pit  ofte
the  podium has dual controls and is lavishly equipped above the  pit. In n
case did the crane operator ride the crane, although  this is  common i
American plants.
-------
                                  A-57
Bulky Waste Size  Reduction

          Few plants have  size reduction equipment. The most  used shear is
manufactured by Von Roll.  The bulky waste  shears operate like  multiple
sissors,  cutting and crushing the bulky refuse  between its shear beams.
Seven fixed and six moveable shear beams are  connected at  their lower end
through  shaft and bearings.  Each beam is equipped with double edge blades
of highly wear-resistant alloy steel which can  easily be  turned  once and
reused.  The moving beams  are  arranged in  two groups of three, each group
being opened and  closed by a hydraulic working cylinder.
          The sheared material falls through the spaces between  the fixed
and shear beams  and down  into the pit.  The crane  operator must  then
carefully distribute this  usually higher  calorific waste over the entire
pit.

Hoppers and Feeders

          An integral feature of the pit-and-crane system  is that  each
furnace  receives its  waste  from a  hopper  and  chute which  are  fed
intermittently by the crane  bucket.  This  intermittent batch feeding is
converted to nearly uniform flow to the furnace-grate by 2 factors:

          1.  Short-term storage capacity of the hopper and chute
          2.  Action of a reciprocating or  vibrating feeder which moves
              the refuse from the chute to the grate.

         The feeder serves  a multiple purpose.  In addition  to supplying
fuel  to  the furnace its action in moving packed refuse away from the bottom
of the chute permits the crane operator to keep the chute packed full.  This
packed mass served to prevent burn-back from the furnace into  the chute and
hopper.
         At times the crane operator may be so busy with multiple problems
of receipts, mixing and charging that some chutes may inadverdently  become
emptied.  If so,  burn-back  into the feed chute can occur.  Accordingly many
chutes are equipped with  gates or dampers that  can be closed to prevent
flames from flowing upward through  the chute and hopper.  Some newer chutes
are equipped with  radioactive level indicators which provide indication in
the control room  and crane pulpit when the refuse level is low.
         Because of the potential for burn-back causing overheating  of the
feed chute, some  chutes are water cooled or refractory lined.

                         Grates and Primary Air

         The grates used in the early stages of mass burning of refuse were
adapted from coal  burning practice,  the principal  change being to provide
much  more  fuel-bed  agitation.  This was needed because  refuse is so
heterogeneous that discontinuities and gaps are always present  and  new  ones
can form  as the  refuse  burns.  Agitation of the  bed is the  means used to
shuffle,  tumble,  or resettle the burning fuel so  as to fill  the  gaps  and
make it more uniform for better distribution of primary air and of burning.
-------
                                     A-58

         Design primary air pressures at visited plants are shown in Table A

 -21.

Grate Life

         In most  of the  plants  visited,  the  annual  cost of  grate
maintenance was a minor cost  but  the range of replacement required was
considerable. Table A-22 shows  the grate-bar replacement experience.
         In addition to grate bar replacement,  some  grates require periodic
cleaning to keep the air-flow openings  free. Melted aluminum and  other
metals and  mixtures require  periodic shut-down for  cleaning. For example,
at the Horsens  plant, the original grate bars  required 2 man-hours  per week
for cleaning which was done during regular week-end  shutdowns. Use  of a
newer  design  of grate bar  has reduced the cleaning required to every  other
week.

Grate Materials

         Because of the frequent  exposure of the  grate  bars to burning
material, the bars are usually  made of high-chromium  content cast steel.
However, the  Duesseldorf roller  grate is primarily of cast iron with only
the wear  sections at the sides  made of cast chrome-nickel  alloy. Also, the
Volund grate  is made of heat resistant Meehanite,  a  specific form of grey
iron casting.

Grate Action

         As can be seen in descriptions of potential  grates, there is a
wide range  of  concepts for achieving motion of the  heterogeneous mass of
burning refuse.
         Almost all  furnaces have a ram-type refuse  feeder to achieve
positive entry of refuse onto the  grate. However,  some of the systems
depend,  instead, on  the slope of the grate. The  grate  bar motion  then
ensures  movement of  the refuse along the grate  surface.  Virtually all
grates are steeply sloped, up to 30 degrees. But one is not—K&K—which,
under one of its configurations, deliberately holds  the refuse horizontally
while agitating it along by  reciprocating grate motion.
         All grates observed provide  agitation of the burning mass. This is
in recognition  of the  need  to  do two  things:
         •     Continually expose fresh surfaces to ignition and air flow
         •     Keep filling in  voids  that form  rapidly when zones of
              lightweight highly combustible material burn out. This leaves
              voids through which  primary air can bypass  the bed unless
              such holes are  promptly  filled by  rearrangement  of the
              heterogeneous  mass.
         Even  the older  traveling grate which provides no fuel bed
agitation was installed as  a multiple series of stepped traveling grates so
that  as  the burning  refuse tumbled from one grate down to  the next,  there
was momentary agitation and  rearrangement of the bed.
         Grate dimensions are shown in Table A-23 Table A-24 follows with the
burning  rates.
-------
                       A-59
Table A-21.  DESIGN PRESSURE OF PRIMARY
             AIR SYSTEM AT PLANTS  VISITED

Primary Air
Plant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
Baden-Brugg
Duesseldorf
Wuppertal
Krefeld
Paris :Issy
Hamburg : Stellinger-Moor
Zurich: Hag enholz
the Hague
Dieppe (and Deauville)
Goteborg
Uppsala
Horsens
CopenhagenrAmager
Copenhagen : West
mmH,,05
170
280
180
240
140
300
410
530
580
370
150
400
-
200
230
230
in. HO5
6.7
11
7
4.5
5.5
11.8
16.1
21
23
14.4
5.9
15.7
-
7.9
9.0
9.0
Pressure
kPa3
1.67
2.74
1.74
2.37
1.37
2.94
4.00
5.23
5.72
3.585
1.471
3.91
-
1.97
2.24
2.24
-------
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-------
                                                       A-61
                                     Table  A-23.    CRATE  DIMENSIONS
                                                                                              Ho. of    No. of
                                                                                              Separate  Parallel
                                Year     No.  of   Mfg.  of                                      Grace     Grace
Trip                            Started  Boilers  Graces   	Grace  Dimensions	  Sec dons  Rugs
Wideh
m ft
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Werdeaberg-Hecheenscein
Baden-Brugg
Duesseldocf Boiler 1-4
Boiler 5
Wuppercal
Krefeld
Paris :Issy
Hamburg :Scellinger-Moor
Zurich: Hag enholz
The Hague Boiler 1-3
Boiler 4
Dieppe(and Deauville)
Goceborg
Uppsala
Worsens
Copenhagen :Amager
Copenhagen: West
1974
1970
1965
1972
1976
1976
1965
1972
1973
1963
1971
1974
1976
1970
1970
1974
1970
1970
1
2
4
1
4
2
4
2
(1)
3
1
2
3
(1)
1
3
3
A-F
A-F
VKW
VKW
VKW
7KH
M
M
M
VR
TO
VR
VR
B&S
BiS
7
V
2.77
2.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
6.3
4.7
5.5
3.0
3.4
2.0
3.4
2.0
2.0
2.7
2.7
9.1
8.2
11.5
11.5
11.48
11.48
20.66
15.6
13.0
9.3
U.I
6.6
11.1
6.5
6.5
3.9
3.9
Length
m fc
6.65
7.5
11.0
10.7
10.2
10.2
3.4
8.9
3.4
10.5
12.0
8.0
10.9
8.1
8.1
7.0
7.0
21.3
24.6
36.0
35.1
33.5
33.5
27.6
29.3
27.6
34.0
39.4
26.2
35.8
26.6
26.6
23.0
23.0
Area
m2 ft2
18.42
18.75
38.7
37.6
35.7
35.7
52.9
43.9
44.9
31.5
40.3
16.0
36.9
16.2
16.2
18.9
18.9
198.3
201.8
416
400
384
384
569
472
483
339
439
172
397
175
174
203
203
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2
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*Manufaceurer abbreviations: A-F(Alberte-Fonsar); VKV(7ereini*ce Kesselworke);  M(Marcia);  TO(Voa Roll);
 (1)  Describes oaly che last furnace - boiler line purchased.
                                                                             B4S(Bruun & Sorensen); V(Volund).
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         Three basic grate  systems are used as  shown  in Figure A-13.  There
are many  other variations of  these three types.
         This  particular  contract between Battelle  and EPA  is to
concentrate  on  European refuse burning to energy systems.  As  such all
systems  viewed have been mass-burning grate systems. To our knowledge  there
was only one system in Europe  (Birmingham, England) burning refuse in
suspension  — in contrast to U.S. developments.
         Table A-25  presents  a listing of independently developed
refuse  burning  systems,  their  home country and  their American
representative "Refuse burning"  refers to "combustion" or "incineration"
where combustion products after  a few seconds are  H2o  C02  S02  etc.  There
is no attempt to present manufacturers of pyrolysis or'other developmental
resource recovery processes,  i.e.  this is not  z  full  list of resource
recovery  manufacturers.  Also  excluded are the many manufacturers of  small
modular  package incinerator-heat exchangers. The table includes present and
past manufacturers with  heat  recovery.
         Manufacturers  of  only  incinerators (without  boilers to  cool
combustion  gases prior to gas cleaning) are not included in the listing.

Grate Functions

         The  three primary functions of grates are:
         •     Support the burning refuse
         •     Move and agitate the burning refuse
         •     Distribute the  primary air.
         There is a wide range  of  differing design  philosophies aimed at
achieving  these three  functions.  While all the grates  observed do
accomplish these primary functions, they do so at  varying levels of  grate
maintenance  required and with  varying  success  in achieving  uniform
combustion.
         The  grate burning  capacities for  the plants visited range from
24.6 down to  3-33 tonnes (27  to  3-7  tons) per hour, a unit size range of
7.4 to 1.  And the burning rates range from 560  down to 175 kg/m2/hr  (114.6
to 35.8 Ib/ft2/hr), a range in rates of 3-2 to 1.
         If all  other factors are equal, the higher  the grate burning  rate,
the more  effective and efficient  the grate will be.  However,  the effect of
the grate  on the combustion  in  the boiler furnace  is of critical importance
to boiler-furnace life and efficiency. It appears  that one popular design
philosophy is to use moderate  burning rates and large boiler furnaces to
provide reasonable heat  recovery  efficiency while  minimizing  maintenance.
Another  more bold approach  is  to  design for much higher intensities of
burning but to use precise control of primary and  secondary air to assure
relatively uniform, but intense  combustion and  rapid furnace-gas mixing.
This involves the careful control  of high-pressure  primary and secondary
air.  In  effect,  this philosophy  aims for accurate  control of air-fuel  ratio
throughout  the active burning areas of both grate  and  furnace. A critical
factor in  successful application  of this intense burning mode is primary
air pressure. To some  extent,  the  successful pressure  ranges used are
considered proprietary  by  some manufacturers.  The nominal design pressure
of the primary air for each plant ranges from 140 to  580 run water.
         The  highest primary air  pressure  shown  is  for Unit No.  3  at the
Hagenholz plant  at Zurich, started  up in 1973-  The  detailed  plant report
indicates  outstanding  performance  by  this particular unit which probably
can be ascribed, in part,  to  the excellent combustion  control provided by
the grate  which utilizes a  high primary air pressure. However, many  other
factors are also contributory.
-------
                                A-64
                    Reciprocacing Grate
                                         T
                    Reverse Acting  Grate
                       Roller  Grate
FIGURE A-13.  BASIC TYPES  OF GRATES FOR MASS BURNING OF REFUSE.
             THERE ARE AVAILABLE MANY VARIATIONS OF THESE
             BASIC TYPES  (FROM EBERHARDT-PROCEEDINGS 1966 NATIONAL
             INCINERATOR  CONFERENCE,  ASME,  NEW YORK, p 124-143)
-------
                TABLE    . REFUSE BURNING MANUFACTURERS AND REPRESENTATIVES
                           (          Grate and Suspension Firing)
  International Technology
                                           Country
                                                                Representative in the U.S.A.
Alberti-Fonsar
Babcock Wilcox (BW)
Bruun & Sorensen
£arbonisation Enterorise
  et Ceramique (CEC)
Claudius Peters
Combustion Engineering  (CE)
De Bartolomeus
Destructor
Detroit Stoker
Dominion Bridge
Esslingen
Flynn & Emrich
Foster Wheeler
Heenan
International Incinerators
K K K
Kunstler  Koch
 Keller-Peukert
 Kochum-Landsverk
Italy (Milan)
U.S.A. (North Canton, Ohio)
Denmark (Aarhus)

France
West Germany (Hamburg)
U.S.A. (Windsor, Conn.)
Italy (Milan)
Sweden
U.S.A. (Monroe, Mich.)
Canada
West Germany
U.S.A. (Baltimore, Md.)
U.S.A. (Livingston,  N.J.)
United Kingdom
U.S.A. (Columbus. GA.)

Switzerland (Zurich)
West Germany (Leverkeusen)
West Germany
Widmer & Ernst (Swiss Co.)
Babcock Wilcox
looking for repre.
Combustion Engineering


Detroit Stoker


Flynn & Emrich
Foster Wheeler

International Incinerators*

Widmer  &  Ernst
 Grumman Ecosystems
 Kjhlen£cheidungs-Gesellschaft(KSG) West Germany
 Kraus-Maffei
 Lambian-SHG
 Lokomo
 Lurgi
 Martin
 Nichols
 Plibrico
 Riley Stoker
 Stein
_Steinmueller
 Takuma
 Venien
 Vereinigte Kesselwerke (VKW)

 Volund

 Von Roll
 Widmer & Ernst

 Burn Industries
 West Germany
 West Germany (Kassel Bettenhausen)
 Finland
 West Germany (Frankfort)
 West Germany (Munich)
 U.S.A.
 U.S.A.  (Worcester, Mass.)
 U.S.A.  (Chicago,  II.)
 France
 West Germany (Hamburg)
 Japan (Osaka;
 France
 West Germany (Duesseldorf)
 Universal Oil Products
 Nichols Research & Engineering
 Plibrico
 Riley  Stoker

 Widmer & Ernst  (Swiss  Co.)
 Inactive representative in  CA.
Denmark  (Copenhagen)

Switzerland  (Zurich)
Switzerland  (Wettingen)

U.S.A.  (Erie,  Pa.)
 Grumman Ecosystems (total
   system)
 Waste Management Inc.

 Wheelabrator -  Frye
 Widmer & Ernst

 2urn  Industries
 NOTE:   1.   The  above systems are combuston oriented.
        2.   Small  modular package incinerator - heat exchanger manufacturers are not included.
        3.   Pyrolysis and other developmental resource recovery systems are not included.
        4.   The  above systems have been installed with energy recovery.
-------
                                A-66


                         Ash Handling and Recovery

        For  purposes of this discussion and design of  refuse energy
plants,  there  are five kinds of  ash,  residue or slag  that  need  to be
defined:
        •   Ash,  Residue,  Slag are general  terms loosely used  to  name the
            solid waste  product after combustion. This is also referred to
            as  residue  in America  and slag in Europe.  It may  contain
            bottom ash,  grate siftings and or flyash
        •   Bottom Ash  is  the  solid residue falling off the grate end and
            into the chute
        •   Grate  Siftings are the relatively small particles  and dust
            falling under the grate normally  through the spaces where the
            primary underfire air rises
        •   Fly  Ash is  the fine solid  waste material that falls  from
            boiler tubes  and electrostatic precipitator plates either
            naturally  or  when  blown  off   by  soot  blowers  or. when
            mechanically rapped
        •   Processed Ash  is  the sorted  nonferrous aggregate of stone,
            dirt, glass,  etc. usually  less that 1.5  cm (0.6 inch)  ready
            for use as road aggregate or cinder  block, etc.
        Table A-26 summarizes ash handling and recovery options exercised
at the 15 visited plants.  Generally speaking ash handling is somewhat more
advanced in Europe over the  U.S.A. Ash recovery is practiced much  more in
Europe than in this country. Of the 15 plants, 9  have ash recovery.

Ash Exit from Grate, Quenching
and Removal from the Furnace

        All  systems arrange for  the  moving grate to discharge  the hot,
unburned residue into a water sump,  quench tank or a spray chamber from
which it  is  removed  by a variety  of methods.  The residue,  usually
containing less than 3 percent combustible, is a highly variable material
both  in size and composition. Quenching is necessary because if  the glowing
residue were removed from the plant in its high temperature condition the
dust and odors emitted from  the hot surface would frequently be a nuisance.
        Usually the residue is continuously removed from the tank. During
that  movement  it is partially dewatered or drained by a drag  conveyor or
some form of hydraulically-driven  ram  or pusher. The  wet  residue  then is
discharged to  a holding pit or movable bins. Trucks then transport the ash
to a processing plant or to  a landfill.
        The  quench container is the sink for the boiler blowdown water and
other  dirty water at most plants. Often this result in  no wastewater
(except for sanitary waste  water) leaving the plant (except in ash  trucks).
If scrubbers are not used, zero wastewater discharge  can  be a  reasonable
challenge for  designers. This is the reason  that this report does  not have
a chapter devoted to water pollution control	in most systems there is
no real water pollution.
-------
                                      A-67
TABLE A-26.
SUMMARY OF ASH HANDLING AND

RECOVERY METHODS
                                         •s i

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In Plane Ash Handling
• Reciprocating Push Room
• Vibrating Conveyor

• Steel Slat Conveyor
• Rubber Conveyor
• Skip Hoist
• Detachable Container
• Ash Pit

• Ash Floor with Whealad Front end Loader
*
Quench Mechod
• Sot torn of Chute Has Water

• Water Pit
• trough
• Ash Sunker is -Wee
Ash Recovery
• Enclosed 3uildi.ig Recovery

• Outdoor Recovery
• Distant Recovery
• Mo Recovery at Plane

Recovery Operation Ownership
• Plane Itself

• Private Contractor, Receiver ind
Processor

Separable Ash Components
• Ferrous Fines (caps, lids, nails)
• Ferrous Coarse (cans)
• Ferrous All Sizes
• Ferrous Sulky (bicycles, barrels;
• Ferrous Baled
• Road Aggregate
• Sulky Hon Ferrous (stumps, tires.
paper rolls)
• Medium and Cjarse Mon Ferrous (2"
i tones, bones)

• Land Reclamation Mucarial






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-------
                                A-68
Ram for Residue Removal

         The simplest  and most  compact  reside  removal system  uses  a
curved-bottom tank which is cleared by a slowly  reciprocating pusher.  As
the submerged  residue is  pushed  upward toward  the left  by the ram it has
time to drain off excess water  before it drops into  the pit, buggy,  truck
or  other container.  The discharge channel is tapered outward  in  the
direction of motion to prevent  packing and jamming.

Submerged Conveyor

         Another common  type  of  submerged drag conveyor which slowly lifts
the residue  upward along a sloping  channel so that it has time to drain.
         The conveyor  housing is  often reinforced concrete to resist the
corrosive attack of the acids which accumulate in the quench  water.

Spray Quench with Conveyor

         An  alternate  system  which avoids  some corrosion  problems of the
quench tank  is  the use of a water  spray  to quench the residue as  it falls
off  the  end of the grate. The moisture pickup of the residue is much less
with  this system although it is  more difficult to cool large, red  hot
clinkers than  by submersion. From the spray quench the cooled residue falls
into a belt  or  trough conveyor.

                               Furnace Wall

          Most  of the plants that  were visited utilized water-tube  cooling
of  the  furnace wall.   This type  of wall has  been  translated from
coal-burning to refuse-burning  practice  over  the  period since about I960.
In  some  cases  the  furnace is only partially water-cooled with the  rest of
the wall formed of conventional refractory. In all  cases where wall tubes
are used these tubes  are a part of the  boiler  flow system.  They are
pressurized  to  boiler pressure  and they supply  a mixture of heated water
and saturated  steam to  the boiler steam drum. Thus from  a flow standpoint
they are considered an  integral part of  the boiler system.
          However,  from  the standpoint  of combustion, the  wall tubes are an
essential part  of the heat  recovery from the  flame  that helps to  cool the
gases to a temperature level that is safe for  them to  pass  on  to the
superheater  and boiler  convection  banks. Thus  the water-tube walls  of the
overall boiler system are treated here as  a  separate  component  of the
combustion system while  recognizing that they also constitute an  important
element of the  overall  boiler.

Furnace Requirements

          The complex  variety of  furnaces now in use has evolved  because of
the interaction of  several  different requirements:
-------
                                   A-69
           •    Temperature:  High pressure for steam power  generation versus
                low-pressure steam  or hot  water  for  heating  only.
                Low-pressure  boilers are much cheaper to build, operate,  and
                maintain.
           •    Size: Small  furnaces  need  not be water-cooled if waste
                burning  rates  are  moderate  because  the  high
                surface-to-volume ratio of the small  chamber  facilitates
                cooling.  Large furnaces are more likely to need water
                cooling because  the  wall surface is relatively small  in
                proportion to  the  volume;  hence, normal heat loss  through
                refractory walls becomes insufficient to keep  the refractory
                cool enough to survive.
          •    Fly Ash:  The highly variable but  active chemical nature of
               the fine ash produced, which can foul and corrode water-tube
               walls and boiler surfaces.
          •    Refuse Heat Valve: The remarkable  increase in heat value  of
               European  municipal  refuse since  World War II, which  has
               markedly changed furnace wall design requirements.
          Residential heating was converted from coal to oil  which produced
  no ash residue. Paper and  plastic  packaging  of consumer  products  became
  widespread.
          In a  1965 article, Mr. R. Tanner, father of the  modern water-tube
  wall refuse furnace, stated the following:
               "For,  as  the calorific  value rises, the uncooled combustion
               chamber leads to chamber temperatures that can no longer  be
               controlled by air  injection  and  fume feedback (flue-gas
               recirculation)  alone. Thus,  the adoption of radiation  heating
               surfaces  is becoming essential  for refuse  firing systems as
               it has long  been usual  in  firing systems involving  higher
               grade fuels."*
  In  this  latter phrase, Tanner was  referring  to the fact that coal-  and
  oil-fired furnaces, once refractory  walled,  had by the late 19^0' s, been
  largely changed to water-tube wall construction.
          A significant goal of  heat  recovery  in these waste-to-energy
  plants  is to cool the exhaust gases to a temperature level of 117 to 260 C
  (350  to  500 .F) where reasonably  sized,  high  efficiency electrostatic
  precipitators will be practical. However, up until the early 1960's, there
  was considerable reluctance to locate  the waste heat boiler surfaces  too
  closely  with the furnace.  In 1969, Hotti and Tanner stated that a common
  earlier attitude was: "The combustion chamber must not be cooled. Designers
  thought  that  cooling would  not permit reaching an  adequately high
  combustion temperature". However, as the heat  value rose,  for example,  in
  Berne,  the average heat  content rose from  1,160 Kcal/Kg  (1,090 Btu/lb)  in
  1955 to 1,950 Kcal/Kg (3,510  Btu/lb) in 1964,  rising furnace temperatures
  probably caused  increasing  troubles with refractory  maintenance.
  Accordingly, Hotti and Tanner observed in  1969:  "The trend  of  boiler
  development steered mainly toward adjustable radiation heating surfaces in
  the combustion  chamber..."  These  same authors,  Hotti and Tanner*, then
  pointed out  that at their  next  plant at Ludwigshafen in  1967,  "...the
  radiation surfaces surrounding the  combustion  chamber can be studded  and
  covered  with  rammed  material or,  alternatively, stripped bare,  as
  required" .  An  earlier  plant  at Helsinki  in  1961  had  also  used
  Tanner, R.,  "The Development  of  the Von Roll Refuse Incineration System,"
  Sonderdruck aus Schweizerischen  Bauzeitung,  83, Jahrgang,  Heft  16,
  (1965).
* Hotti, G. and Tanner, R.,  "How European Engineers Design Incinerators,"
  American City,  June  1969.
-------
water-tube-walls.  Thus,  with this company,  the  transfer of water-tube-wall
technology  from well-developed coal-burning practices  to  waste-to-energy
plants occurred in the mid-1960's.
         Meanwhile, the first large  water-tube-wall boiler,  264  tons/day,
had been installed at Essen-Karnap in  1960 as  part  of  an existing
coal-fired  power  plant.* Pulverized  coal  was  fired above the refuse fuel
bed.
         During the same period,  the  Martin grate, originally applied to
the burning of brown coal, was adapted  at Munich to water-tube-walled
furnaces  for  the  large-scale burning of municipal  refuse for power
generation.  Bachl  and Mykranz* described  the first Munich unit  in an
extensive  article  published in Energie,  in August, 1965. Pulverized coal
was fired  in a separate furnace. In  a  second unit, the  coal was fired
directly above  the refuse.

                          Secondary (Overfire Air)

         All grate-burning of fossil fuels requires  overfire air jets above
the fuel bed for smokeless,  complete combustion.
         Mass burning of refuse  has very similar requirements. In addition,
at very high refuse  burning rates in large furnaces,  the  turbulent mixing
provided by jets  is of critical importance in assuring complete combustion
of the furnace  gases before they  reach the superheater.  If this combustion
is  not  completed  well ahead of the  superheater,  the ash deposits on the
tubes can become overheated by the  hot, burning gases  and tube corrosion
can occur as discussed under Metal Wastage.
         As with fossil-fuel practice the application of  overfire air jets
for mass burning of refuse is  still  an art and from  plant to plant the
details of application vary considerably. Some vendors are much more
committed  to the application of  highly intense overfire turbulence than are
others.

Principles  of Overfire Jets

         To abate  smoke  formation the unburned volatile  gases rising  from
the fuel bed must be mixed rapidly with ample oxygen. If this mixing does
not occur  promptly the rich gases  are  very likely to decompose thermally
because of  the  high temperature,  thereby releasing  fine  carbon particles
that  form smoke and  soot.
         Because of the principle of prompt and early mixing  just described
the jets should be  relatively  near  to the  fuel  bed.  But because of the
construction of seme furnaces  this is  very difficult to arrange from either
the front  or rear  walls.  Accordingly some furnaces  are equipped with
sidewalls  jets so  that the jets  can be located low in the  furnace on a  line
parallel to the sloping fuel bed. If such sidewall jets  are suitably spaced
and staggered  so  that the  opposing  jets intermingle  , mixing can be  very
effective.  However,  if the jets  are directly opposite  each other and are
too closely spaced, they  have  a  tendency to  drive the flame toward the
center of the furnace where oxygen may  be deficient. Such an arrangement,
then, can  cause a  longer  flame to  rise out of  the furnace center.  A few
-------
                                  A-71
plants  then use tertiary .jets  located higher up in  the furnace wall to  make
sure that  rising tongues of flaming unburned gases  are quickly mixed  with
ample oxygen.
        Because  of the  inherent  limitations  of sidewall jets  just
described,  many designers prefer  front-wall and  rear-wall or similarly
situated  jets,  because the main  gas  flow can often be mixed by such  jets
without  displacing the flame  toward the center of the furnace.
        In all cases, whether sidewall, front-wall or rear-wall care  must
be taken to avoid too intense burning in the immediate area around the jet
opening.  As the jet of air emerges into the chamber at high velocity, 50  to
100 m/s  (164 to 328 f/s),  it induces  rapid inward flow  of furnace gases
along the  wall toward the  jet. If this rapid influx occurs in a region  of
active burning the turbulent  flow induced by  the jet  can cause intense
local burning and very  high  temperatures that  can deteriorate either
refractory or water-tube walls and  can  aggravate slagging.  If  this
phenomenon is observed,  the solution is  to reduce the secondary air jet
pressure on the few jets involved to a level where the induction effect  is
minimal.
        If such  reduced jet  velocity then impairs the desired mixing
effect in  the main part of the  furnace, tertiary jets should be considered.
        Usually the quantity  of overfire air suppli-ed ranges from 10 to  25
percent  of the  total combustion air,  primary plus secondary. Since most
furnaces  already  have ample excess air, the main objective of overfire air
jets is  to provide good mixing  and  not to add air.  Thus  additional air  is
usually less  important than turbulence for intense mixing. Thus small  jets
introducing very high  velocity air  are usually preferable because  this
minimizes  the  amount of air added.
        Table  A-27 shows  the range of jet conditions employed in the
plants visited. Volume III points out the features of each installation and
the  drastic  changes that have been  made  at a few plants to improve jet
performance. The art is still evolving.

                                 Boilers

        In this research on Refuse-fired Steam-and Hot  Water-Generators
the  most  important single component of the  plant and often  the most costly,
is the boiler.  However, the word "boiler" may not convey  the same meaning
to all engineers.
        In this  report, boiler is defined  to  mean  a closed pressure
vessel,  a  set  of interconnected  tubes  and drums acting  as a fluid system
containing water or steam or a mixture of the two at essentially a constant
pressure throughout that has a  function of producing superheated water,
saturated  steam, or superheated  steam.

Overall Boiler Design

        It has taken  a long  time for some waste-to-energy plant designers
to become  fully aware that refuse is not coal. Refuse is:
        •  More variable
        •  Less  dense,  but  subject to  amazing variation in density,
            especially if very  wet
        •  High in chlorine
-------
A-72











































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                                 A-73
         •   Always changing
         •   Usually has much higher alkali  content in the ash
         •   Feeds poorly
         •   Can lose ignition if  wet or  can almost explode with
            threatening intensity.
         Boilers and stokers, following well established design, have not
always  been designed to cope with  these  properties. Accordingly,
refractories, tube walls,  and superheaters have suffered.
         Some  designers  still don't seem  to  be enough aware  of these
effects.
         On the other hand,  in about  1965 or 1967,  someone  in Martin and
Von Roll evidently began to perceive that the superheater must not  be
located  where,  even momentarily, its ash deposits could  become overheated.
Thus, the  Paris (Issy)  (1965) and Ludwigshafen (1967) designs had  the
superheater after a second, open radiant, water-tubed pass.
         But Martin didn't use this  again  until 1971 at Kezo-Hinwil  and
1972 at  Hagenholz.  And  VKW  even hung  the  superheater in the  first pass as
recently as 1972 in Unit 5  at Dusseldorf. Then in  1976 at Krefeld  and
Wuppertal,  VKW placed the superheater beyond the first  pass. Now in 1976,
Widmer & Ernst  at Werdenberg has included the open second  pass  ahead of  the
superheater.
         Oddly,  when Von Roll built Saugus near Boston in 1975,  they
included no open second pass; but at Stapelfeld,  to be completed  in  1980,
Widmer  & Ernst will.  So  the choice between the lower cost,  close-coupled
boiler-superheater arrangement, and  the more  costly double-open pass  is
still not yet clear among  the various designers.
         There  are good reasons for the differences in plant design  that
were encountered and there  is much evidence  of a continuing process of
evolution.  At  this time, 1977-78, it appears  that  the current "best"
boiler-furnace design  in use  for large,  high-pressure  units is  the
completely water-tube-walled furnace and radiant section,  studded  and
coated  with thin refractory in the intense  burning zone,  followed by one or
more long,  open, vertical radiation passes preceding a convection-type
superheater and  boiler-convection passes and an economizer.
         However, an emerging newer philosophy is  to  follow  the tall
water-tube-walled  chambers by a long horizontal superheater and convection
section. This  is called  the "dacha"  boiler  because  of its  extended
horizontal configuration. Figure A-14  shows such a design for the proposed
Staplefeld  plant at Hamburg.  The  purpose of this design is  primarily to
enable  all of the  boiler convection  tubes  and, in many cases,  the
superheater tubes as well,  to be suspended vertically in the horizontal  gas
passage. This  arrangement makes it relatively easy to  remove and replace
failed tubes from, the top.  It also facilitates the removal of  ash  deposits
from those vertical tubes by means of  mechanical rapping. Thus, the common
threat of the erosive action of steam-jet soot blowers  is  eliminated.  It  is
too  early  to  tell  how effective this cleaning method will be in the long
run.
         It is  notable that the Stapelfeld (to begin operation about 1979)
platen-type superheater is preceded by  an open,  water-tube-walled second
pass to  assure  that the superheater is  not  touched by  excessively hot flame
or  furnace gases.  Furthermore, it  is in a  location  such that it  is
completely shielded from furnace radiation. A similar design  philosophy is
apparent at the Werdenberg and Zurich plants. Both of  these factors will
combine  to  keep the ash deposits on the  superheater from becoming  heated to
the point that  chlorine may attack the metal.
-------
                          A-74
                          j^c;;i;i! c!;::,;. e.   :c;  c^i'  o;   c; <  c;.; • j/g
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FIGURE A-14.   DACHA TYPE SUPE5HEATE3. AICD 30ILER
              CONVECTION AXSANGEMEXT FOR PROPOSED
              STAPELFELD PLANT AT HAHSU3.G (COURTESY
              WIDMER & ER.NST) .  S - Superheater
                                B - Boilar Convacrior.  Seccior.
-------
                                   A-75
                        Tube and Wall-Cleaning Methods

         In conventional boiler practice, the accepted  method for  removing
•ash and carbon deposits periodically from the heating surfaces  is by means
of  steam-driven jets or "soot-blowers." However in refuse-burning  practice
most plant operators  have quickly  learned that the  high-velocity jets of
water  slugs and steam from steam soot blowers can accelerate corrosion by
removing too much  of the ash deposit. As discussed under metal wastage,  the
ash deposit serves  as a protective layer and corrosion inhibitor. When the
bare tube metal is  exposed once or twice a day  by  excessive soot  blowing,
high temperature chloride corrosion can be very rapid.
         Accordingly some plants have abandoned  soot-blowing completely.
Many have learned  to  use the soot blowers sparingly and  then only in those
locations where occasional surface cleaning is particularly important to
satisfactory operation.  Some have turned to compressed air blowers to avoid
any possibility of having slugs of steam-condensate being blasted against
the tubes during  soot  blowing. Others have arranged the convection surfaces
so  that they can be shot-cleaned by  a periodic  or continuous  cascade of
steel  or aluminum falling shot. Others use mechanical  rapping of vertically
suspended tube banks.
         Tables A-28 and  A-29 list  the various  furnace-boiler  cleaning
techniques employed at  the plants visited.
 Steam Condensers

         At  times when  the  connected energy  demand is low, some quantities
 of steam must be condensed in either water-cooled or air-cooled condensers.
 This  is done at 6 of 15 plants as listed below:
-------
A-76




















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-------
                                A-77
            TABLE A-29.     METHODS USED'TO CLEAN TUBES AND
                            WALLS OF EUROPEAN REFUSE-FIRED
                            ENERGY PLANTS.


A.  Automatic Remote Controlled Soot Blowing

          1.  Fixed Position - rotary motion
          2.  Retractable Positions - spiraling motion
          3.  Steam
          4.  Compressed air

B.  Mechanical Rapping

          1.  Automatic continuously operating hammers
          2.  Sledge hammering of boiler tube bundles by operator
          3.  Unbalanced compressed air vibrator

C.  Automatic Shot Cleaning

          1.  Falling aluminum shot
          2.  Falling steel shot

D.  Chemical Additive

          1.  Blowing inorganic "Gamlenite 8" dust to soften deposits

E.  Non-Chemical and Manual Cleaning of Cooled Furnace

          1.  Compressed air manually operated nozzles
          2.  Small miscellaneous brushes
          3.  Manual scraping
          4.  Pneumatic hammering
          5.  Powered rotating wire brush for fire-tube boiler

F.  Chemical and Manual Cleaning of Cooled Furnace

          1.  Soak with alkali, sodium carbonate or other chemicals
          2.  Rinse with high pressure water jets
          3.  Soak again
          4.  Rinse again
          5.  Scrub with brushes, pneumatic hammers and other tools
          6.  Sand blast difficult deposits.
-------
                                   A-78
          Boiler/furnace design conditions are shown in Table  A-30.
Boiler heat release rates are shown in Table A-32.    Comparative
energy recovery figures for Harrisburg, PA.; Gothenburg,  Sweden;
Zurich, Switzerland and Duesseldorf, Germany are shown in Table  A-31.
 Steam Condensers

         At  times when the  connected  energy demand is low, seme quantities
 of  steam must be condensed in either  water-cooled or air-cooled condensers.
 This  is done at 6 of 15 plants as listed  below:

                Plant                       Mode of Cooling Steam
             Werdenberg                              Air
             Baden-Brugg                             Water
             Wuppertal                               Air
             Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor                  Air
             Zurich:Hagenholz                        Air
             Gothenburg:Savenas                      Air

                    Supplementary Firing  of Fuel Oil,
                         Waste Oil and  Solvents

         Number 2 Fuel Oil  can be  fired  at  five of  the surveyed plants.
 Waste oil  and/or solvents are fired at  three plants, as shown in Table A-33.
                  The reasons for supplementary firing are:
         •  Emergency standby backup
         •  Routine firing when refuse burning ceases on  weekends
         •  Preheat the RFES upon startup
         •  Keep boiler and  electrostatic precipitator "hot" to prevent
             dew point corrosion when unit  is down
         •  Supplemental fuel oil keeps furnace temperature at legal limit
             for destruction of pathogens,  etc.
         •  Additional energy for routine  uses.
         In  designing a total system, it  is important to  also consider  the
 various reasons  for not spending funds  to install such supplemental firing
 features.
         In each case  listed below,  the  facility  provides base  load
 interruptable energy. Often, if the  refuse to  energy  plant does  not  have
 continuous  responsibility  (as in the interruptable situation) the revenue
 per 1000 pounds of steam is less.

                The reasons for no supplementary firing are:
         •  Hot  water to a district heating  system where the system  has
             other oil fired district heating stations
         •  Industrial process steam  to  a user  that maintains his  own
             older conventional boiler ready for startup  should there be an
             interruption in the.supply of  refuse derived  steam
         •  Electricity to  an electric  network  where  the loss  of refuse
             derived electricity would have Ittle effect  on total network
             operations
         •  Drying and burning of sewage that  can be  postponed several
             hours or days if the sludge storage tanks  are large enough
-------
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                                                 A-80
                                  TABLE A-31.    BOILER RELEASE RATES
Ho. of
Boilers
Trip
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Uerdenberg-Liechtenstela
Baden-Brugg
Duesseldorft Boilers 1-4
Boiler 5
Vuppertal
Krefeld
Parlstlssy
Hamburg :St ell Inger-Moor
Zurich :Hagenholz
The Hague Boilers 1-3
Boiler 4
Dieppe (and Deauvllle)
Cothenberg
Uppsala
Horsens
Copenhagen : Amager
Copenhagen: West
1
2
4
1
4
2
4
2
(1)
4
2
3
(1)
1
3
4
Tocal Dealga
Release pec
Ccal/h
14.00
8.65
18.50
26.37
33.75
27.00
30.60
33.84
36.90
48.30
27.00
34.50
5.60
31.25
12.25
14.00
24.0
24.0
GJ/h
58.5
36.2
77.5
110.5
141.3
113.1
128.1
141.7
154.5
202.2
113.1
144.5
23.4
130.8
51.3
58.5
100.5
100.5
Heat
Unit
MBtu/h
55.4
34.3
73.3
104.7
133.7
106.9
121.2
134.0
146.1
191.2
106.9
136.6
22.2
123.8
48.5
55.4
95.0
95.0
Combustion
Volume
•?
142
66
178
268
164
171
163
165
284
232
258
80
263
50
62


ft3
5012
2330
6285
9458
5826
6038
5753
5823
10023
8188
9110
2823
9281
1765
2188


Design Volume Heat Release Rate
Kcal/m3-h KJ/n,3-h
98,591
131,060
104,000
98,470
204.500
157.895
187.526
205,090
223.636
170.070
116.379
133,721
70,000
118,821
245,000
225,806


412.800
548,722
435.000
412,300
856,000
661,000
785,170
858,710
936,320
712,050
487.250
560,000
293,090
497,480
1,025.000
945,400


Btu/f t - h
11.060
14,700
11.650
11.066
22.990
17,747
21,034
22.857
25,058
19,000
13.052
14.997
7,905
13.325
27.494(2>
25.338(2)


(1)
(2)
There are older boilers la this plant.  Only the newest one Is considered In this report.

Part of the burning occurs In a cyclonic after-combustion chamber.
-------
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(2
16 EUROPEAN REFUSE FIRED ENERGY PLANTS
Package Boiler Operates Unmanned on Weekends
ng Station Prior to Burning in Refuse Incinerator, Fired
Highest Electricity Revenue Rate
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                                 A-83


         •   Energy to a physically adjacent conventionally fired energy
             plant where the total standby responsibility rests with  the
             neighboring plant
         •   A  regional plan that mandates waste oil treatment and burning
             at a distant facility.
         Only 5 of the 16 plants  described were designed  with key functions
being served  by fuel oil,  waste  oil or solvents.

                 Co-Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Refuse

         In 1977, the Europeans  were  well advanced over North Americans in
the  combined  destruction  of  refuse and sewage  sludge within the same
system. Seven (7) such plants were visited in Europe.  Several other plants
are  identified as well. Of  note is that each  of  the six major European
manufacturers visited during this  project have a co-disposal  system in operation.
         Most processes involve several stages of drying  as  listed in Table
A-34.a.  Typically, a  unit operation will convert incoming raw sewage sludge
at 94-96  percent moisture  to  a  70-80  percent moisture. At this moisture
level, the sludge has a thick consistency that can lead to dramatic further
moisture  reductions  down  to  5-20  percent.  The  third stage of several
processes is  to combust where, by  definition,  the moisture content of  the
sludge goes to  zero.Thirty four (34)  such systems are listed in Table A-34b.
         From a reliability standpoint, each of  the described processes
does work a respectable part of  the time. Unfortunately, economic data  was
not available for enough systems to perform any kind of economic analysis.

                     Air Pollution Control Equipment

Particulates

          The emergence of  the refuse-fired  steam  generator in Europe in
the  1960's was a direct result  of  the  growing  desire  for pollution
control—especially  control of  flyash that  made  nuisances of many  old
incinerators. That is, the  very  dusty, hot  gases  from the incineration
process  had  to be cooled before practical high efficiency flyash control
could be applied. The most logical means for cooling  that gas is by means
of a  boiler  to produce useful hot  water or steam.  In seme cases,  usually
snail plants, where energy recovery was not attractive, the gas cooling  has
been  achieved  not through  heat  recovery but by means  of  water sprays or
air-cooled heat exchangers.  However this wasteful practice has not become
widespread.
          Regardless of the  method  used for cooling of the  dusty flue gas,
the almost universal method for  particulate removal  from the partly cooled
gases has  been electrostatic precipitation,  (ESP).  Here again  the
considerable experience already  developed in coal-burning practice  was
available to guide the application of ESP's to  RFES. One attempt was made
to apply cloth  filtration (baghouse)  at Neuchatel  but, although the system
is still in operation, the results obtained were not outstanding.
          Table A-35 shows the characteristics  of the ESP's at the plants
visited.
-------
A-84.a.











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                                 A-87 '
Precipltator Maintenance

         Reliability of ESP ' s has  been excellent except where the inlet
gases have  been too hot: above about  250 C (482 F) . This  has  caused very
rapid corrosion  and deterioration of the precipitator. In most cases this
overheating has been caused  by an unanticipated  increase  in the heat value
of  the  municipal refuse or wearing grate systems. Then if the boiler
heating surfaces were not amply  designed to  cope  with  the resulting
excessive  heat  release in the boiler-furnace,  the gases  pass on to the
precipitator at high enough  temperature to cause serious corrosion. In some
cases this overheating may not occur until toward  the end of a long period
of operation  when the heating surfaces are heavily coated by ash.  Many
plants then  shut down for through  boiler cleaning, usually after 3000 to
4000 hours.

Gases

         Some attention  is now being  given  to  controlling gaseous
emissions - HC1,  HF and 302- However  these gases  are not  emitted in high
concentrations, and their  ambient levels in the vicinity  of even the
largest plants  is probably  so low  that no attempts have  been made  to
measure nor  to  estimate them continuously in  the  surrounding air.  Instead
their control  is  now being considered just because they are perieved to be
a problem. At present only  in West Germany are new or modified plants now
required  to control gaseous  emissions to the following levels  (at 0 C,  32
F , corrected  to 7 percent
          HC1:   100 mg/Nm3 (62  ppm)  0.083 lb/1000 Ib gas
          HF:     5 mg/Nm3 (11  ppm)  0.008 lb/1000 Ib gas
          S02  500 mg/Nm3 (175  ppm)  0.46 lb/1000 Ib gas

          Accordingly only in Germany are scrubbers being tried.  None was
working satisfactorily at the plants visited.  However, except  for the very
major  maintenance problem always  caused by the corrosiveness of  acidic
scrubber water,  air emissions of HC1 can probably eventually  be controlled
because  it  is  highly soluble in water.  HF  should also be  absorbed in a
scrubber but the scant data available  on HF emissions  indicates that the
German  limit  of 11 ppm at 7 percent CC>2 is readily met without scrubbers .
Similarly, the sulfur content of refuse is so  low and the  probable capture
of 25  to  59 percent of the sulfur  by the alkalis in the ash means  that SC>2
control will often be unnecessary  to  meet the 175 ppm emission limit in
Germany.
          One  vexing aspect of scrubbers is  that the saturated gas leaving
the scrubber  often creates a highly visible white steam plume. It may
actually be  a very clean plume  but its appearance  calls  attention to
possible emissions. Also if conditions are such as to produce large water
droplets in  the plume  the resulting "rain" will be acidic because no
scrubber removes 100 percent of the  acid gas.  The solution to a white plume
and its  acid  rain is to reheat the plume to  about 80 C (176 F) by  means of
steam-heated heat exchangers.  However,  reheaters consume  energy and are
subject  to  plugging and  corrosion. One practical solution to this problem
will be used at  Wuppertal. The  plan  is to scrub a major  part but not all of
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                                A-88


the gas to a level  surpassing the allowable  limit, meanwhile bypassing the
uncleaned portion of  the hot gas to a  mixing and reheat  section.  The
resulting reheated  mixture can then be  discharged without visible  plume or
acid rain while still being within the allowable emission limit.

Measured Gaseous Emissions

         Table A-36.  shows  the results of  emissions measurements at
selected plants.

Gaseous Emission Limits

         Table A-37. shows the emission  limits  applicable to refuse burning
in the countries visited.
         So  far  only in Germany and Sweden is  there any limit on gaseous
emissions, and  even in Sweden  the  value  of 40 mg/Nm3  (approx.  20  ppm) of
total  acid  gases is not a limit but a signal: if a plant exceeds that
emission level it must undertake a study of  feasible means  to  control
emission. Presumably then actual control requirements will depend on the
cost of feasible  control and whether the need  for improvement in local
atmospheric quality levels warrant that expenditure.

Trends in Emissions Control

         As  can be seen from Table  A-37   and  the prior discussion,
particulate control in these  plants  is  excellent and high standards are
regularly achieved. There is no strong trend  in Europe to further control
particles nor to  control gaseous emissions. Many agencies appear to be
awaiting the demonstrated effectiveness and reliability of the  acid gas
scrubbers now  going through normal  problems  of startup  in Germany at
Wuppertal,  Krefield and Kiel.  If  these eventually prove out to be as
effective, maintainable and cost  effective as  ESP's  there  will probably be
a  trend to  apply them more widely,  especially in densely populated areas
where ambient pollution levels are high.  On the  other hand, since there are
no  data to  demonstrate  the  specific needs  for elimination of HC1 and HF
from the ambient air, if their removal turns out to  be  as formidable a task
as  SOg control has  been for coal-fired plants, the  control of HC1 and HF
emission may  beccme  limited to those situations  where a specific measurable
need can be  shown.

                     Start-Up and Shut-Down Procedures

         Detailed comnents about such  procedures were  obtained  at four
facilities. Starting  up a unit  can  take anywhere  from 2 to 24 hours
depending on  how much the furnace had cooled from the last firing.
         Often  a  light oil burner is used to  preheat  the boiler and
electrostatic precipitator. A  slight  variation is  that  the oil burner is
almost always  kept on upon  shut-down to prevent dew point corrosion of  the
boiler and  electrostatic precipitator.
          At some of  the plants the importance of  a uniform and controlled
rate of increase  in  burning rate  is  recognized as  an  important factor in
minimizing  equipment overheating and elaborate procedures are specified to
assure that  objective.
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                                     A-89
                       TABLE A-37.    EMISSION LIMITS, mg/Ntn'
                                     (Parentheses  indicate C

                                      which Che concentration is adjusted)
                                     (Parentheses indicate CO- Level to
COUNTRY PARTICULATES HC1
mg/Nm ng/Nm
W. Germany
Switzerland
France 1 tonne/hr
1-4 tonne/hr
4-7 tonne/hr
7-(15) tonne/hr
100(7) 100(7)
100(7) 500(7)
1,000(7)
600
250
150
HF S02
mg /Mm tug / Mm
5(7) 500(7)
300(7)

          (a)
             over(15)tonne/hr
    Holland
    Sweden
                                100(7)



                                180(10)
+0(10)
                                                     (b)
              (b)
                                                                       (b)
    Denmark      small plants   180(10)

                 large planes   150  (11)   1,500

    USA                         180
                                                                  1,500
                                                                        (c)
    (a)

    (b)
    (c)
         Estimated from incomplete data.  May be 150 mj?/Nm3

         Total acid equivalent - Exceeding this total, 40 mg/Nm3 for all acid  gases,
         feasible control system.

         S02 plus S03-
The conversions to volume units are:
                           HF
                                     multiply  msz/Nm3  bv Q.62  to get ppm
                                       "        "     "  1.12  to get ppm
                                       "        "     "  o.35  co get ppm
To convert particulates :
                                to grains/set" .  multiolv  bv  .00043
-------
                                  A-90
                               CONCLUSIONS
                            (And Comparisons of
                        U.S. Versus European Practice)

        The following  conclusions are arranged in  order  of their
discussion in the evaluation volumes and not in order  of  importance.
        Major  conclusions  have  been presented  in  a  previous section.
                           World Wide Inventory
                         Of Waste-to-Snergy Systems

         •   The  "Battelle Worldwide Inventory of Waste-to-Energy Systems"
            shows (as of March  1979) 522 locations  where daily operating
            plants have,  are  or  will process waste  into energy.   Also
            included are several large pilot and demonstration plants.
         •   Were all waste-to-energy systems consuming bark bagasse,  waste
            oil, waste solvents,  etc., known,  our  estimate is that  well
            over 1000 systems  exist and operate on a daily  basis.
         •   Very few of the plants opened since World War II have  closed.
            Plants typically operate for 25 to 40  years.
         •   Plants have been producing electricity  from household refuse
            since before  the term  of the  century although not always
            continuously: Hamburg  (1896), Paris (1903), Zurich (1904)  New
            York (1905), etc.  The European systems  have been replaced by a
            succession of refuse  to energy systems.
         •   On the  average,  there  are two  furnaces per system.   Some
            systems have up to  six furnaces.
         •   The  average furnace capacity is 232 tonnes  (255 tons) per day.
         •   During the 1977 survey  period, the U.S.A.  had about  9430
            tonnes of installed  capacity and was consuming less than 5000
            tonnes per day in waste-to-energy systems.   This con pares  to a
            1977 worldwide capacity of 101,937 tonnes.
         •   This converts to 0.0436 Kg (0.0959  pounds) total generation
            per  U.S. person per  day. If plans hold true and there are not
            further closings,  this per capita figure should rise to 0.1818
            Kg  (0.4  pounds)  of waste per person  per day
            converted to energy in the U.S.A. by 1983.
         •   Japan has more systems and processes more  waste than any other
            country. However,  due to the high moisture  content,   very
            little useful energy is produced for sale.
         •   The  Central  European countries  of West Germany, France and
            Switzerland  have concentrated on high temperature  steam
            systems  for electrical production and district  heating.
         •   Scandanavian  countries  use more refractory wall furnaces with
            waste  heat boilers to  produce hot water  for district heating.
         •   Sewage sludge  is  dried  and usually disposed  of by the energy
            in refuse in 25 co-disposal systems worldwide.
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                      A-91
The U.S.'A.  inventory shows  31  systems that are  major pilot
plant  or demonstrations.
In the  U.S.  we have tried  to  develop  new approaches to enjoy
recovering while the remainder of the world  has continued  to
build  mass burning energy recovery systems.

          Communities and Sites Visited

Generally speaking, the sampling of  15  European communities  is
a fair representation  of those U.S. communities  that might
undertake resource recovery with respect to collection areas,
terrain, boundaries and population.
Waste shed  populations  served  by single plants range from a
winter  population of  20,000  in Dieppe  to  a year-round
population in Paris.
Many  of the  plants are most attractively designed, landscaped
and located  in  residential or downtown business areas.

             Separable Waste Streams

This  report, while mainly  concerned with  the  treatment  of
household,  commercial  and light  industrial waste, also
discusss  treatment of other waste  streams within  the same
plant  gate.   The total list follows:
- Household,  comnercial and light industrial  (typical
  garbage truck loads)
- Bulky household and large industrial waste
- Waste water and sewage sludge
- Source separated material (paper, bottles,  etc)
- Materials  from front end separation -  but without
  shredding  (white goods, tires,  copper  in motors)
- Waste oils  and solvents
- Industrial  chemicals and hazardous wastes
- Animal waste
- Street sweepings
- Construction, demolition debris and ash
- Junk automobiles
Many  facilities  have been  planned with the various component
activities for  synergistic benefits.
One example is the odors that are collected  in a new rendering
plant  and are piped 100 feet to  the refuse fired energy plant
for destruction.
Another example are the seven plants out of  thirty viewed that
use the energy  content in refuse to dry  sewage sludge prior  to
burning the  sludge or land disposal.
Finally, there  are industrial and hazardous waste processes
needing a  high  temperature and  long  residence time.
Afterburning may be offered by a high temperature  refuse
furnace.
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                     A-92
          Collections and Transfer Stations

Compared to America, there is more collection in Europe by the
public sector.
In several cities  there is labor representation in traditional
management functions.
There  are  occasional computerized  systems for  route
management, fiscal  control and  billing. •
There  is  a clear trend  away  from  the open top metal  refuse
container in favor  of rubber,  plastic or paper containers.
As in  America,  collection costs represent 70 to 90 percent of
the total solid waste management  costs.
Assessment methods for  collection and disposal  vary  widely
frcm city to city.
European  collection vehicles have similar features, options
and size ranges as  in  the U.S.  However,  due  to smaller and
winding streets,  the size distribution is different.  This
results in a smaller average size vehicle.
Collections are  made 5 or 5-1/2  days per week.  Collectors work
5 to 8 hours per  day.
Due  to the increasing energy value  of  refuse, and limited heat
capacity per furnace  many plants will no  longer accept
"hotter"  industrial solid waste,  (pallets, cardboard,  rubber
and plastic trimmings)  some systems wet  this  "hotter"  waste
before burning.
Transfer station  systems  are being developed in Europe as in
the U.S.

                Composition of Refuse

While  there will  be excursions below and above this range, the
moisture content  normally varies  from a low average of 22.5
percent to a high average of 32.5 percent.   The average among
six facilities was  27.1 percent.
European refuse has been  rapidly approaching the composition
of  American waste  as  Europe  has  continued  to "modernize"  its
way of life.

              Heating Value of Refuse

Because of the hydrogen content in  refuse the  higher heating
value (HHV) conventionally  used  in  the  U.S.  is roughly  7.0
percent higher than the lower heating  value (LHV) as used in
Europe.
Recently  the lower heating value  averages varied from 1600 to
2800 Kcal/kg (2,850  to  5,000 Btu/pound)  (6690  to 11,700
Kj/Kg). Simply  adding 7 percent  increases this to (3050 to
5350 Btu/pound).  Thus  today, European  refuse contains  almost
as  much energy  as does  American waste.  This  is  a major shift
frcm  25 years ago.
The heating values,  which have risen  dramatically since 19^5,
are expected to begin stabilizing as citizens become more
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                     A-93
 conservation conscious, as petroleum  becomes more precious and
 as material needs become satisfied.
 The dramatic rise  in  heating values has adversely  affected
 facility  performance.  Boiler tube corrosion  has increased.
 Downtime is up  as  well  as maintenance  costs. Many units have
 eventually been derated. As inferred above  some 10 or 15 year
 old plants have  discontinued receiving  "hotter"  industrial
 waste in an attempt to  reduce the overall average  heating
 value  to  design values.
 "Hotter" waste  is  inherently neither good nor bad.  However,
 the designer must have  a correct prediction  of what his unit
 should expect over its  reasonable life.

     Refuse Generation and Burning Rates Per Person

 Most  facilities  viewed accept household,  commercial and light
 industrial waste for burning at about  these rates:
 - 318  kg  per person per year (household and light
   conmercial)
 - 45 kg per person per  year  (other commercial and light
   industrial)
 - 363  kg  per person per year (total normal)
 - 800  pounds per person per year
 - 1.00 kg per person per day
 - 2.2  pounds per person per day

          Development of Visited Systems

 The primary motivation  for constructing refuse  to  energy
- plants in Europe has  been to replace  an existing landfill,
 compost plant or incinerator or to add additional incineration
 with  heat recovery capacity. However, dramatic changes in the
 world energy  supply will  affect   future  attitudes  as
 waste-to-energy.
 At  none  of the  15 major  and 15 minor  visited plants did anyone
 indicate to these  authors that the  primary  motivation was
 connected with energy  i.e.  cost savings  from free fuel, energy
 conservation or unavailability or other energy  forms.
 Citizen  and elected  local official's  perception of harmful
 effects from landfills  is  greater in Europe than America. This
 U.S.  perception may  be  changing due to relevations about  the
 "Love Canal"  at Niagra  Falls. Relevations  that  60 to 80
 percent of the American municipal  waste landfills have
 accepted hazardous waste are also  bound  to increase the
 American citizen's perception  of the  hazards of untrolled
 landfilling.
 Many  Europeans in moderately  populated areas have  greater
 concern  for the destiny of land  than  Americansninisimilar
 areas.
 For  many  years,  European  federal  governments have
 energetically supported refuse-fired energy plants at  the same
 time  that the U.S.  Public  Health Service and  USEPA were
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                        A-94
innovatively developing and encouraging the  sanitary landfill
concept.
A corollary is  that because many Europeans did  not learn about
or develop enthusiasm for the sanitary landfill, they  turned
to  one of the  other  two key disposal alternatives:  either
composting or refuse to energy plants.
Many European equipment  vendors have not joined the American
thrust  towards  refuse  derived fuel and co-firing  and hence
such technical options  have not  been readily commercially
available in Europe. Many of these vendors have expressed the
following  attitudes  toward co-firing of refuse  and coal,
resulting in little continental enthusiasm. These authors are
journalistically  reporting actual  attitudes and  do not
necessarily attest  to  the scientific validity  of  the
statements:

   "You should not burn refuse in the same combustion
   chamber with fossil fuel (coal, oil  or gas).  The high
   temperature of  the fossil fuel will  melt the  fly ash.
   This fused and  sticky  fly ash will hit the  wall or super-
   heater tubes and instantly freeze a  hard deposit that
   quickly reduces thermal efficiency.  The more  brutal tube
   cleaning methods needed will likely break large and hard
   deposits off thus leaving bare tubes now exposed to new
   corrosion.  Many refuse furnaces equipped with auxiliary
   waste oil jets  no longer use them -  even though the waste
   oil  may be free."
   "Front-end preparation systems have  a history of jams and
   other mechanical problems that reduce reliability  and
   increase costs."
-  "Some Americans are under the false impression that a
   homogeneous fuel  is needed for steady steam output. Our
   European systems do not need a uniform fuel.  Attem-
   perators (desuperheaters) and temperature sensing  analog
   computers can carefully control steam temperatures to
   plus or minus 5 C.  degrees.
-  "Explosive material in a shredder can cause explosions
   and fires inflicting destruction and occasionally  loss  of
   of life. The same explosive material in a furnace  ex-
   plodes usually without harm to the furance/boiler.
    (During the tour Battelle heard stories of explosions but
   no incidents of damage were reported to the authors.)
-  "Why do the Americans  waste all that effort and  cost  in
   preparing the refuse.  We just throw it into the  pit,  mix
   to a relatively uniform charge and drop it into  the
   furnace hopper."
In  general,  net  operating costs  per ton,  after  sale  of
resources recovered, have always been  two to four time  greater
in  a refuse  to energy  plant than in a landfill of  prevailing
practice at the time  (of  design or of  construction).
Regarding leachate,  the U.S. approach has been  to "correct"
the problem by operating  a better landfill. Europe's approach
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                        A-95
has  been  to "avoid" the problem  by burning the  refuse and
recycling  the ash into useful  products.
Composting, very fashionable  in Europe 10 to 20  years ago, has
fallen as  a  chosen  alternative  because large  volume,
consistent product markets  could not  be maintained.
In five of the visits, the  plant was  a replacement  for  refuse
to energy  plants that had  served the community for  many years.
Satisfaction  with refuse to energy operations  of over  8
decades  naturally enforces the  momentum  to  continue  with
resource  recovery.  Hamburg, W. Germany has been producing
electricity form refuse since  1896; Zurich since  1903-
In sumnary the European attitude might be stated  as  follows:
- "We don't like landfills
- We don't think that a compost product can reliably be sold
- American type front-end resource  recovery seems to be
  needless because of the high processing cost, low
  materials revenues and that  the energy plant doens't need
  the uniform fuel
- So what's left?
- Refuse fired, mass burning,  energy  production
- If we have to pay more for  proper disposal, so  be  it."
We predict that  in time, Europeans wil learn  more about the
advantages of a sanitary landfill.  Perhaps  also in time, the
American  front end processing systems utilizing  refuse derived
fuel (RDF) will mature and  be  attractive to  European  decision
makers as  a reliable and economical alternative.
There  is  one  sour note regarding future refuse  to energy
systems.    The  Swedish Government  has adopted a policy of
disfavoring further construction of refuse to energy  systems.
The S02 acid  fallout is extensive  in  Sweden.   About 10,000
lakes are  "dead" because of an acid condition and  more lakes
are affected  each year—primarily from sulfates due to fossil
fuel (coal and oil) burning throughout not only Sweden  but all
Europe. There  is  concern about mercury already in some  lakes
from industrial wastes and in  batteries and  florescent tubes
evaporated in  refuse burners. Some claim  that this mercury
will more  quickly convert to more  readily assimilated  methyl
mercury when in these acidified lakes.

              Total Operating System

The report presents single  tables  which show for a unit of
time,  tons refuse processed, ash output, energy output,
efficiency, operating hours,  steaming rate,  air  pressure, etc.
A detailed review of these tables with concentration on  ratios
between  operating  variables  should improve the  reader's
understanding of  the total  operating  system and how one
activity affects another.
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                                  A-96
                        Organization and Personnel

        •   Each of the 30 systems  visited in Europe  was  owned by either
            the local municipality or a not for profit authority.   Of the
            15 plants studied in detail, cities own 8,  authorities own 6,
            and  a  nationalized  electric  company  owns one.   To  our
            knowledge, private enterprise does not own  any daily operating
            resource recovery systems in Europe consuming municipal  waste.
        •   The 120 observed job titles can be condensed into 55 personnel
            categories.
        •   Potential economics of scale  for  large plants were often
            negated by establishing too many  job categories and placing
            too many people into them.
        •   Rather  than hire permanent employees,  many plants extensively
            use outside services.
        •   The program of education, training and experience varies among
            countries.  The  Germans  have a  very rigorous program of
            schooling, navy  or merchant marine  boiler  room experience,
            more schooling  etc.  Other countries  however emphasize
            on-the-job training.
        •   The majority  of  furnace/boiler operators and plant managers
            have had sea experience.

                                Economics

Capital Investment

        •   Capital investment costs per daily ton capacity have increased
            5 fold  during  the past 10 years.  The 1960-1968 "capital  cost
            per  daily ton"  ranged  from  $13,000  to $15,000 at three
            surveyed plants.   The average for  all  15 plants  was about
            $35,000.   The  three later  plan.ts built in 1975 and  1976
            averaged about  $70,000.   Plants in the  early  1980's could
            initially cost over $100,000  per daily ton capacity.
        •   Of special  note is  that  the  three co-disposal  systems
            (Krefeld, Horsens,  and  Dieppe)  have  higher than average
            capital costs. Considering the accompanying equipment, this is
            understandable.
        •   Seven reasons are discussed as contributors  to  this dramatic
            rise:
            - Inflation
            - Exchange rate devaluation
            - Corrosion protective equipment designs
            - Architecture and landscaping for neighborhood acceptance
            - More  complex energy use systems
            - More  air pollution control  equipment
        •   American  systems, for the same  point in time,  were usually
            less expensive than European  systems.
        t   The American systems do not  have as many "bell and whistle"
            design  features as the European systems.
        •   The American purchaser has  not  previously feared corrosion
            enough  to  demand'protective  features.
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                                A-97
        •   The American  buyer often concentrates more  on the lowest bid
            while the European buyer prefers a reliable system that he  and
            the conmunity  can be proud of.
        •   Most European  systems  have very aesthetic features of
            architectuure,  landscaping,  conference rooms, offices, shower
            and locker rooms, etc.
        •   There are  enough  systems in Europe that personnel can choose
            among the  many  plants. Decision makers  believe  that  the
            aesthetics,  safety and worker comfort features are needed to
            attract  and hold qualified employees.
        •   The  essential difference,  however,  is momentum.  With  275
            systems  to visit and be familiar with  features,  the European
            buyer knows and appreciates  his options. To some extent,  there
            may be  peer  pressures  to  have an  excellent system. We
            Americans  have  not been exposed to enough facilities to have
            developed the  same Continental appetite.

Expenses, Revenues and Net  Disposal  Costs

        •   Communities  that  have insisted on extra "chute-to-stack"
            design and operating  features to  increase  reliability have
            benefited by having lower net disposal  costs.
        •   The four refractory wall furnace/waste heat boilers surveyed
            each had  net disposal costs lower than  the average for all 15
            plants surveyed.  Hence American buyers  should think also of
            the refractory  wall  furnace and  waste  heat boiler  when
            discussing the "European Technology".
        •   The plants averaged $27 per ton for total gross expenses.
        •   Removing the small and  most  expensive plant at Werdenberg
            yields an average of $2^,33 per ton total expense.
        •   With the exception of Werdenburg, there seems  to be little
            effect of plant capacity on total  expenses per ton of refuse
            processed,  i.e.,  there seems to be  little  if any economy of
            scale.
        •   Revenues from sale of  energy averaged about $7*50  per  ton
            throughput.
        •   All  5  of the 15 systems  receiving the highest revenue  per
            refuse input  ton  are  providing energy to district heating
            systems.  Their average  revenue is $9-76 per ton.
        •   All 5 of the  15 systems receiving the lowest revenue  per
            refuse input  ton  are  adversely affected by very competitive
            fossil fuel  or  nuclear electrical power stations.   Their
            revenue  averaged $5.30  per ton.
        •   As the price of conventional  fossil fuel rises higher than  the
            average  inflation rate, there is a potential for the revenue
            from energy sale to rise, resulting in  declining net disposal
            costs and tipping fees.
        •   The  1974 Nashville Thermal Transfer  Corporation  with a net
            disposal  cost  of $2.00  per ton  and  the new 1980 Akron system
            having estimated  costs of $3-50 per  ton have  excellent net
            costs to  tax payers because  of the  high steam price  paid by
            district heating  customers  of $6.00 and $5-50 per 1000 pounds
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                               A-98
            steam  respectively.  Assuming 5,000  pounds of "reasonable
            quality" steam can  be produced from one  ton of  refuse,
            revenues at Nashville and  Akron would be around  $30.00 and
            $27.50  per ton of  refuse. In no way could such energy revenue
            be raised by sale of  electricity alone.  No European  systen
            observed had such  low net disposal costs.
            Those plants that processed  their ash into ferrous scrap and
            road  building aggregate received about 40  cents per ton in
            revenue but avoided about $1.00 per ton in landfilling  of ash
            per refuse input ton.
Refuse Handling
        •   For furnace  feeding all plants observed  have the system of
            "pit crane mixing and  loading into the  feed hopper".  No plant
            observed has the American system  of dumping  refuse onto the
            floor, moving it by front end loader onto conveyors, etc.
        •   Crane operators are situated in the  stationary control rooms
            along the front  side  or back of the pit.  This is in contrast
            to many American systems  where the cab  is  located  on the
            crane.   European designers  have concern for operator safety
            should there be a pit fire.
        •   Most modern  plants, especially  in Scandinavia, use
            plastic-magnetic cards  inserted by truck  drivers on entry as
            part of the automatic weighing and billing  systan.
        •   Large plants usually have a separate weighing station while
            very small  plants have the  weighmaster  actually inside  the
            plant control room.
        •   Many plants  shear  bulky  combustible objects  (desks,
            mattresses,  couches, etc.) in a  powerful  scissors shear  for
            size reduction to pieces less than 1m (1 yd)  in length.
        •   Many plants have large separate containers for receipt of
            ferrous metals, cardboard,  bottles which can be recycled.
        •   Source separation progrms for newspapers,  cardboard, bottles,
            cans,  etc. will not  substantially detract  from  energy
            production.
        •   Many Northern and a few Southern European  plants  have enclosed
            tipping halls.
        •   Most systems  have doors between  the tipping  floor and the  pit
            (1) to keep odors inside when  the system is closed,  (2) to
            permit a  higher  negative pressure and thus better odor control
            when operating and (3)  to increase the effective volume  of  the
            pit for refuse storage against a few of the closed doors.
        •   Most pits  are  designed to hold 3-5 days volume of  refuse.
        •   Most pits  are  equipped with fire control devices.
        •   Most plants  have  at least two cranes to provide redundancy.
        •   A  key crane operator function is to mix incoming refuse prior
            to loading into the hopper.
-------
                                    A-99
Grates  and Primary Air
            BurnbaGk is common in hoppers and feed chutes.  Some are
            water-cooled.
            Thirty-five (35) independent grate systems are available from
            vendors.
            European grates  are designed for "mass burning", i.e. the
            refuse is burned essentially  as  received from  the typical
            household garbage  truck.
            The only  commerically  operating  municipal refuse systems  in
            Europe  known to these researchers which are not mass burners
            are in England. One  is  a suspension  fired boiler at the I MI
            plant in  Birmingham,  England. The other is a Portland Cement _
            plant in  England.
            Most European grate  vendors are skeptical regarding the
            long-term commercial viability of suspension fired systems
            instead  of grate systems.  As  explained before one concern  is
            the additional costs of preparing the refuse  derived fuel
            (RDF).  Another concern  expressed by many vendors is the high
            temperatures usually experienced when  co-firing  with a
            conventional  fuel  such as coal, oil or gas.  The flue gas
            temperature and sticky  deposits  form on  boiler tubes that
            reduce heat transfer efficiency  and  occasionally can block
            sections  of  boilers. When  these deposits are finally  blown
            off,   the  unprotected   surfaces  suffer  increased
            "high-temperature  corrosion".
            Grates have the four primary  functions of (1) supporting the
            burning  refuse,  (2) agitating  the refuse  for better
            combustion,  (3)  moving the refuse downward and out of the
            furnace,  and (4) distributing the primary (underfire) air.
            Observed  grate capacities  ranged from 3.33 tonnes (3-7 tons)
            to 24.6  tonnes (27  tons) per  hour.   Other furnaces, not
            viewed,  have design capacities ranging from less than 1 tonn
            per hour  to as much as U4 tonnes per hour.
            Careful  design  and control of primary and secondary air
            systems is essential  for good combustion control, especially
            if high temperature steam is to be  produced.
            Concentrated amounts  of  high energy-containing material may
            (1) melt  the cast iron  grates or (2) cause fires underneath
            the grates.  Examples are magnesium chips, aluminum, plastic
            film,   butter,  etc.   Progressive plant managers have suggested
            industrial waste source  separation  programs.
            Grates need to be designed so that  mechanical wear does not
            create  large air spaces  that reduce primary air pressure. This
            can cause serious  loss of control of combustion. Carbon
            monoxide  (CO)  forms and can (according to some theorists)
            accelerate tube corrosion.  Also  unburnt carbon may leave the
            furnace in exit gas or bottom ash.
            Some vendors  believe  that combustion air should be held
            constant,  while the  feed is  controlled in an effort to keep
            the steam temperature constant.
-------
                       A-100


                   Furnace Wall

Prior to 1957,  all  European refuse furnaces were lined with
refractory and  hot  with water tube walls.
Beginning in 1957 with the Berne, Switzerland plant, the  use
of water tube walls as  the furnace enclosure  has  increased
substantially.
Earlier furnaces  had carbon steel exposed  bare tubes.   Later
furnaces have low alloy steel tubes, usually  protected on  the
flame side by plastic refractory held in place by welded  studs.
Many integrated furnace/boiler designs  result in half of  the
energy  removed going into  the wall tubes  while the other goes
into the convection banks.
Refractory wall furnaces  with waste heat boilers, being less
expensive,  are often  appropriate for hot  water  or  low
temperature steam applications.
Water tube  wall furnace/boilers  producing  high temperature
steam  are usually chosen  for high  temperature steam systems
producing electricity efficiently.
The remarkable .increase  in  refuse heating  value since 19^5 has
exerted substantial influence on  furnace  wall design.   Even
controlled air injection  or flue gas recirculation alone was
not enough to lower  flue  gas temperature so  that  older
equipment would survive.
Many furnaces have extended life if  the lower furnace walls
near the grate can  be cooled.
Some plants use silicon  carbide bricks just  above  the grate to
prevent  slAg adhesion.
Increasingly water-tube walls are  of the  membrane or welded
• fin design  to  reduce  air infiltration and  to keep tubes in
 line  rather  to  permit  some  tubes to  bend  in or  out.
Sootblowers with a  fixed  blowing pattern can  erode  a  displaced
 tube that is over-exposed to the steam jet.
One manufacturer,  Volund, often  uses  a rotary kiln  after the
 grate 'furance to  ensure  a  complete burnout.  Another, Bruun and
 Sorensen, uses a vertical,  refractory, cyclonic  afterburner
 chamber.

              Secondary  (Overfire)  Air

 To obtain conplete  combustion, and  to abate smoke and  possibly
 corrosive  carbon monoxide  formation, the unburned  volatile (or
 pyrolysis)  gases  rising from  the fuel  bed must  be  mixed
 rapidly with ample oxygen.  This mixing must  be  done  relatively
 near the fuel  bed with  the assistance of high  velocity
 secondary air jets.
 There  is  a trend  away  from side wall jets and  towards the
 front  and rear wall jets.
 Care must  be  taken  to  avoid intense burning of volatile gases
 along  the wall near the  air jets.
 Usually the  quantity of overfire  air  supply ranges  from  10 to
 25 percent  of the  total  combustion  air: primary plus  secondary.
-------
                      A-101


                     Boilers

Most superheaters suspended at the top of  the  first pass are
subject  to  increased chloride corrosion because of overheating
of chlorides  in the ash deposits,  especially  when long flames
reach up  to  them during occasional  "excursions" characteristic
of mass  burning.
Long,  water-cooled  first and second passes followed by a
superheater  in the third pass appear to be very important in
keeping  the  ash deposits on the  superheaters cool enough that
chloride attack is minimized.
Refractory  wall furnace/waste heat  boilers producing hot  water
or low temperature steam exhibited almost no corrosion.
There are a  few examples of systems producing high temperature
steam where  corrosion is  minimal.   Some such  systems  have
operated  over five (5) years without a tube failure.  They are
characterized by having  numerous  metal wastage (erosion and
corrosion )preventive design features and operating practices.
At this  time, 1977-1978,  it appears that  the  current "best"
boiler-furnace design in use for  large, high pressure units is
the completely water-tube-walled furnace and  radiant section,
studded  and  coated with thin plastic refractory in the intense
burning  zone, followed  by one or more long,  open, vertical
radiation passes  preceding  a  convention-type superheater and
boiler-convection passes and economizer.
Roughly  180  units  world  wide  have an Eckrohr (translated to
"corner-tube")  boiler as  licensed by Professor  Vorkauf  of
Berlin.   The Eckrohr design can stand alone as a waste heat
boiler following the furnace or can be placed in an integrated
furnace/boiler.
Recent  work for EPA  by  the Battelle Columbus Laboratories
postulate that corrosion can be lessened due to an interesting
chemical  phenomena.  Sulfur  (in  coal,  oil,  sewage sludge or
contaminated  methane gases from landfills) has the effect of
forming  relatively harmless deposits that prevent chlorine
from being so corrosive.
An  emerging newer  boiler  design  is to  follow the  tall
water-tube-walled combustion chamber by a long superheater,
boiler convection  section  and economizer. This is called the
"dacha"  boiler (after the female dashund dog)  because of its
extended  horizontal  configuration. This permits tube cleaning
by mechanical rapping and eases the  labor of  tube replacement
when needed.
-------
                         A-10 2
Nine of  the fifteen plants visited employ superheaters to heat
saturated steam to temperature  levels that enable  relatively
efficient electrical production.  The other six plants do not
generate  power and therefore have no superheaters.
A protective  ash coating ranging between a minimum of about
three mm  (.12 in) and a maximum of  15 mm (0.6  in)  appears to
be in the desirable range.
Above some ash deposit  temperature,  perhaps 744 C (1300 F) ,
the protective deposit becomes chemically active and corrosion
begins.
Burning  either  too much normal refuse  or a normal volume of
"hot" industrial waste  can overheat the  furnace/boiler and
cause corrosion.
There are several theories of corrosion causes. Three causes
stand out:  high  temperature,  HC1  and CO.   Investigators do
not  agree among  themselves as  to  the "real"  phenomena.'
Interestingly, the successful  systems (those  producing high
temperature steam with little  or no corrosion of boiler tubes)
have design features and operating  practices consistent with
even conflicting  theories.
The report identifies  over 33  design features and operating
practices that  reduce corrosion. A prudent design/operation
will selectively  use more than  10  features and practices but
not waste money by utilizing all of them.
Superheater  life can  be enhanced by  use of alloy  steel
containing chromium, molybenum  and occasionally nickel.
Alloy shields and bead-welded  coatings can  also extend tube
life.
Attemperators  (desuperheaters) located between  superheater
bundles can control steam temperature, metal  temperature and
thus ash deposit temperature to prevent  high temperature
chloride  corrosion.
Plants not  able to  utilize all  of the produced  steam must
condense  the steam in air-cooled or water-cooled condensers.
Excessive use of high-pressure steam soot blowers  is a common
source of tube erosion-corrosion.
Other  boiler  cleaning methods  less threatening to boiler  tubes
are available  such as mechanical rapping, shot cleaning, and
compressed air soot blowing.
-------
One plant,  Krefeld, located  in  a SOg non-compliance  area was
required to  install  (1) an field ESP for particulates,  (2) a
one stage wet  scrubber for HC1  and HF and (3) a second stage
wet scrubber for 803.

Technically, the U.S. standard for particulates of 0.08 grains
per standard cubic foot adjusted  to  12  percent C02  (180
mg/Nm3) is  bettered by  many  plants achieving  0.03  to 0.05
g/SCF.  Some Japanese plants  achieve  even 0,01  g/SCF  upon
startup.
The U.S. standard of 0.08 g/SCF is technically very reasonable
and achieveable.
The requirement  of scrubbers  for HC1 removal for new plants
greatly increases original capital investment  and has slowed
implementation of New RFES's in Germany.
The Europeans seem to be more concerned with heavy metals and
organics in landfill leachate and  groundwater than  they are
with traces  of heavy metal oxides  from the refuse fired energy
plant stack.
Of  the German  plants visited having  scrubbers, none was yet
working adequately and without  corrosion.
Saturated  gas leaving  the scrubber often creates a highly
visible white steam  plume that  often may upset  the neighbors.
As  a  result most systems having  scrubbers are trying  to use a
flue  gas  reheat  system but reheater  corrosion is  often a
problem.
Water pollution  control  is often not an issue at plants with
scrubbers.   Dirty process water can normally be disposed of in
the ash chute quenching system.

              Start-Up and Shut-Down

Start-up  and shut-down procedures are carefully patterned to
reduce corrosion of boiler and electrostatic precipitators
(ESP). Often standby oil burners and steam boilers are  used.
-------
                      A-104
  Supplementary Firing and Co-Firing of Fuel Oil,
           Waste Oil,  Solvents and Coal

Supplementary  firing of fuel oil, waste oil  or  solvents  is
preferred when there is a need for  emergency  backup, routine
weekend uses, preheating upon startup,  prevention of dew point
corrosion,  legally  destroying pathogens  and  other
hydrocarbons,  and for  routine energy uses  when the  refuse
fired energy plant is down.
However, supplementary firing may not be necessary when the
energy user has  his own alternative energy  supply, when
electricity is  fed  to a large  electrical  network,  when
treatment of refuse or sewage sludge can be postponed several
days or when a regional plan mandates waste  oil treatment and
burning at another facility.
When supplementary standby capability is required, the plant
can usually sell its steam at a premium price.
Many vendors (but not all) believe that no fuel other than
refuse should be burned in the same chamber with refuse.
In 1977, no continental European plant  co-fired refuse and
coal in the same combustion chamber.   The only  facility
anything like  St. Louis,  Ames, Chicago  S.W., Milwaukee, etc
was located in Birmingham, England at the IMI  factory.
Many European  vendors suggest that if refuse  and a fossil fuel
are to be fired in the same  system  they be fired in separate
combustion chambers.  Flue gases can later be united before
entering the boiler convection section.

               Air Pollution Control

The development of the modern  water-tube wall furnace/boiler
was in part due to the need  for proper air  pollution control.
Flue gases can be cooled with massive air  dilution,  water
spray or boiler.
Energy  recovery  in boilers is the preferred  cooling method  if
a reasonable market can be assured or anticipated.
The  almost universally accepted method for particulate removal
i3 the electrostatic precipitator.
Scrubbers alone have failed  to meet the particulate standards.
We observed what is believed to be the only baghouse control
on a commercial  refuse fired energy  plant, at  Neuchatel,
Switzerland. The efficiency was  only moderate and the plant
had suffered extreme problems  with corrosion.
Reliability of electrostatic  precipitators (ESP) has  been
excellent except where the  inlet gases have been too hot.
Entering flue  gas temperatures must be kept above 177 C (350
F)  to prevent dew  point corrosion of  electrostatic
precipitators (ESP).
Entering flue  gas temperatures must be kept below 260 C (500
F) to prevent high temperature chloride corrosion.
The most stringent air pollution control standards have been
set for West Germany.  The  standards  are much more stringent
than  in the U.S.  Many persons questioned  the health effect
Justification  for the  standard.  Other  European  Federal
environmental  agencies have  carefully viewed the  standard anc
have either accepted the particulate but  rejected the  tight
gaseous (HC1, HF) control  or  have adopted a wait and see
attitude.
-------
                                  B-l
              WORLDWIDE INVENTORY  OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY SYSTEMS

         The growing "Battelle Worldwide Inventory of Waste-to-Energy
Systems"  in March  1979 shows 522 separate systems where  solid waste was,  is
or will be converted to energy from 1896 to 1983.  The vast majority  of
these  consume municipal solid waste composed of household, comiflercial and
light industrial waste. With this publishing, we  are aiming for complete
coverage  of municipal waste-to-energy systems. Complete  coverage of systems
using  municipal solid waste  as energy  to evaporate  the moisture  in
municipal  sewage sludge is also a goal.
         This chapter concludes with Table B-6; the inventory itself.
         While this contract  focuses on Europe,  the inventory includes
plants from the entire world (U.S.A., Japan, Brazil,  etc).  Interestingly,
Japan  has more  plants and  more tonnage capacity than any other country in
the world.
                      Battelle has for six  years  been a collector  of
                      inventory lists and encourages  others to send  lists
                      and updations  to the principal  author of this report.
Exclusions

         Systems converting  industrial waste  (sludges,  slurries, paste,
liquid chemicals, etc.) to energy  are included where  possible. Only a  few
of the  numerous bark and bagasse  waste-to-energy  systems are included.
Systems recovering materials  and not energy are usually not included. Daily
operating systems of every  size are  included. However,  experimental or
demonstration  units are only  included if system capacity  is above 50 tonnes
(55  tons) per  day. Only  a few of  the many  small modular  package
incinerator/heat exchanger-boilers are included.  Sludge  incinerators fired
with oil or gas are excluded.
         Battelle has also been  compiling an even greater  listing showing
about  750 places where money has,  is  or will be spent  to advance  the
various  technologies. Many  companies have developed  new technologies which
have been tested in bench models  or small pilot plants.  Other notations
reflect  communities or companies  initiating feasibility  studies.  These
systems are not included in Table  B-6.

Number and Tonnage Capacity

         Results of the 522  system inventory are  statistically summarized
by analyzing only 368 currently operating systems that have complete enough
information.  Hence Table B-1  understates the true situation  by 15*1 systems.
As time progresses we desire  to complete the information and increase  the
numbers  in the table. About  2^ of these 522 systems identified have closed.
Closures fall  generally into  several categories. Some  commercial systems
that have operated 25 to 40 years  close as part  of normal retirement. We
know of only one commercially  operating European  system  (Gluckstadt, West
-------














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                                  B-3
Germany)  built after World War  II that has been closed. It was a refractory
wall unit  used  for drying sewage  sludge. There were several premature
closings  in the U.S.A. brought  on by new air pollution control regulations.
Several listed American pilot  or demonstration plants  have closed once they
accomplished their objective of  proving or disproving  the project idea.
         These systems have from one to perhaps six lines or furnace units.
Our inventory show 771 such furnaces.
         The 522 systems  span  a time frame of 1896  to 1982. The U.S.A. is
expected to build three times  as many waste-to-energy  systems from 1977 to
1982 as  it has built throughout its history. The 368  systems (771 furnaces)
for which  complete data was wastable  were designed to consume 178,584
tonnes  (196,412  tons) per day. The average furnace  cpaacity is 232  tonnes
(255 tons)  per day.
         Special effort was  made to develop Table B-2 which is an analysis
of operating plants in 1977 which can be used as a base point and coincides
with the  study  tour. The U.S.A. capacity was 9430 tonnes out of a total
101,937 or 9.25 percent of the world capacity in 22 countries.  Dividing by
the total  population (1,074,3*48,000)  for those 22  countries, gives a 0.2
pounds  of waste per person per day being converted to energy in countries
that have at least one municipal waste-to-energy system.
         The third column  of Table B-2 was used to prepare Figure B-1.
Municipal  waste  per person  per day  is portrayed for 22 countires ranging
from 0.003  in the U.S.S.R.  to  2.444 in Luxenborg. While Luxemborg might be
a unique  situation,  Denmark at 2.304  and Switzerland at 1.982 certainly
must be respected for their efforts in energy conservation through resource
recovery.  Thus the installed capacity is  more  than half the amount
generated.  The U.S.A. in 1977, however,  was in  a  dismal position at only
0.0436  Kg  (0.094 pounds)  refuse per person per day being converted to
energy.  Even with the plants anticipated by 1983, this figure rises only to
0.1818  Kg (0.400 pounds) per day.
         Table  B-3 presents  a  closer look at  the U.S. situation in 1977.
The daily installed per tonne  capacity was only 7912 tonnes at 18 system
locations.
                      (We expects  this  number to be less because some of
                      these systems are not consistently  reported, i.e.
                      Amarillo,  Beverly, Braintree, Houston, Portsmouth)

Energy  Use  Patterns

         Table  B-4 by country  presents the energy  use pattern of those
plants  where information is available. Patterns vary widely from country to
country as  influenced by  waste composition  (H20 and  HC1), climatic
conditions,  attutudes, building  codes, federal funding, utility regulations
and prohibitions against ocean dumping of sewage sludge.

         Japan has municipal waste twice as wet (55 percent  H20) and three
times more  plastics (10-15 percent) than waste in America.  As a result,
energy  left  after water evaporation  is severely limited. In addition the
high presence  of chlorine in the plastics potentially causes "high
temperature chloride corrosion".  This .limits  the steam temperature
possible.  While  Japan has more systems (85) and more installeld tonnage
capacity 44,581 tonnes than any other country, the  useable and sellable
-------
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                      Pounds  of  Waste
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                   Germany(FGR)
FIGURE  B-l.  POUNDS OF WASTE PROCESSED IN REFUSE-FIRED ENERGY
              GENERATORS PER CAPITA PER DAY IN SELECTED COUNTRIES
              (RATED INSTALLED CAPACITY)
-------
              B-6
TABLE B-3.  U.S.A. WASTE-TO-ENERGY
            SYSTEMS OPERATING (TONNES/DAY)
Amarillo, Texas
Ames , Iowa
Baltimore, Maryland
Beverly, Massachusetts
Blytheville, Arkansas
Braintree, Massachusetts
Chicago, N.W., Illinois
Franklin, Ohio
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Hempstead (Merrick) , New York
Hempstead (Oceanside) , New York
Houston, Texas
Nashville, Tennessee
Norfolk, Virginia
North Little Rock, Arkansas
Portsmouth, Virginia
Saugus, Massachusetts
Siloam Springs, Arkansas
Capacity
in 1977
218
182
727
455
41
218
1,455
45
655
545
682
364
655
327
91
145
1091
16
7912
Actual
in 1977






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                                 B-9
energy  output is rather small. Our  records show that only ^ of these 85
systems produce enough high  temperature steam for  electrical production and
sale. Twelve  (12) systems produce only enough electricity for internal use.
Heating swimming  pools (7) green houses (3) and public  facilities (18) are
other energy  uses. About 61  systems produce hot water  for internal or  other
unidentified uses.

         The  United States  (with 55  systems) has the  broadest range of
energy uses for systems between  1.896  and 1983. Interestingly,  31 of the
United States systems have  have  been major pilot plants or large
demonstrations. This highlights a major difference between  the U.S.A. and
most  other  countries.  The Americans have spent money  looking for new
systems  while  the remainder  of the  world has built systems  based on the
proven  "European technology". Of note is the absence of hot water systems
in the U.S. This  is consistent with U.S. district  heating practice of using
only steam  (in contrast to Denmark  and Sweden). The  single most common
American energy use is production of electricity.  The inventory includes 9
systems producing a methane based  gas  or pyrolytic oil.  The  inventory
purposely excludes another 75 or so pyrolysis liquifaction,  gasification,
etc.  developments that are not commercially relevant to include.

         West  Germany (FGR) has the  most systems (39) of  any European
country.  The  Germans have  concentrated on steam  for electrical production,
district heating and for industrial processes.

         Denmark has (35) systems.  Unlike the Germans, most Danish systems
supply hot water for district heating.

         Our  records show France with 26 systems but  none  produce   hot
water.  Comparatively France has led developments in  sludge drying and
destruction with 6  systems. Steam for electricity production and district
heating  is a common energy,requirement.

         Switzerland with 26 systems is ranked third behind Germany and the
U.S.A.  in production of  electricity. Both steam and hot water district
heating  are prevalent.

         Italian systems produce steam  for electrical production or for
only  internal  use.

         Swedish  systems  supply  hot water for district heating and
government owned hospitals.

Furnace  Size Distribution

         Table B-5  shows  the  capacity distribution  of  furnaces in 25
countries  that are now operating or will be by  1982. Most furances consume
5 to 10 metric  tonnes  per  hour. However over 8  consume over MO  tonnes pgr
hour  per furnace. Japan  again stands  out with its  180 units  in this 5 to 10
tonne per hour  category. The largest furnaces  are to be  found  in France,
Germany  and the United States.
-------
                      B-10
TABLE  B- 5.
NUMBER OF FURNACES BY CAPACITY AND COUNTRY
(CURRENTLY OPERATING AND PLANNED EXPANSION
TO 1982)
(METRIC TONNES PER HOUR PER LINE)

Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany, FGR
Hong Kong
Hungary
Italy
Japan
Luxemborg
Monaco
Netherlands
Norway
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States
U.S.S.R.
TOTAL
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                    DESCRIPTION OF  COMMUNITIES VISITED

                   General Comments About the Communities

    Background  information about  the communities visited is necessary for
better  understanding  of historical  solid waste practices,  system
development, energy utilization,  system performance,  etc. Chapters on these
subjects follow  this section.
    In this section,  each community  is  described in terms  of its waste
generation areas, terrain,  natural  and manmade  boundaries, relationship
among neighboring communities,  population, and key employment activities
that influence waste composition.

Collection Areas and Jurisdictions

         The collection areas  and  radii are shown in Table C-1. Note that
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein has the greatest area and longest radius. Yet  this
plant has the  smallest capacity at  120 tonnes per day.  Conversely the
largest  capacity plant, Paris:Issy,  has the  smallest collection area and
radius.
         Numbers of separate  jurisdictions associated with each plant are
also shown in the table. A point to  be observed is that,  in most of  these
systems,  it is  necessary to obtain  waste from many jurisdictions to improve
economics of scale.

Terrain,  Natural and Manmade Boundaries, Neighborhoods

         The sampling of plants  covers the many geographical conditions to
be found  in Europe. Table C-2  is  a  collection of phrases regarding terrain,
natural  boundaries, highways, railroads, neighborhoods, etc.

Population

         Population numbers  must  be treated carefully  with  respect to
definition.  Table C-3 provides  four  kinds of numbers where applicable:
         •  Metropolitan area
         •  Key  city
         •  Host city if different than the key city
         •  Waste shed area served
         The most relevant  figure  for plant designers  is the waste shed
area served. Population numbers  range from ^8,000 in  Dieppe to  837,286 in
Duesseldorf. These figures do not experience  the  extremes of the other
earlier  columns. This, naturally,  is due to economics,  of  scale required.
At the  low  end,  the plant must  be big enough  to achieve some degree of
efficiency  to  pay for fixed costs.  However at  the high  end,  costs  of
transporting refuse limit the maximum population served in a waste shed.
         It  is significant  to  note  that the waste may  be  collected  from
only a portion  of the metropolitan  area (as in Dusseldorf) or from far
beyond the metropolitan area (as in  Baden-Brugg and Dieppe).At three  of the
plants,  the community is not  even considered  to be a metropolitan area.
Other metropolitan area populations  range from 40,000  people in  and  around
Dieppe,  France to the 9,150,000  population of greater  Paris.
-------
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                                   C-5


         Key city populations  range from 8,570 in Buchs,  Switzerland to
2,299,830 in Paris. The several  plants located in suburbs  of the key city
have their  populations shown as well. Effective populations are seasonably
higher  in Werdenberg,  The Hague, and  Dieppe  due to  the influx of
vacationers.  In fact,  at Dieppe and nearby Deauville,  the population
increases by a  factor of 5.  Thus the plant had to be designed for the very
high (200,000 people) summer load in Deauville.

                 Specific Comments About the Communities

Werdenberg-Liechtenstein (Buchs, Switzerland)

         This   relatively  new  and  colorful  plant  named
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein is located on the Werdenberger Binnenkanal (Inland
Canal)  paralleling the Rhine River  on the  border between  eastern
Switzerland and Liechtenstein. (See Figure C-1.) Actually the plant is
located in the  city of Buchs,  Switzerland. The name  "Werdenberg" comes from
a very  small neighborhood that  is at the inside  edge of Buchs. The region's
area is roughly 900 square kilometers (3*15.3 square  miles).
         The setting and terrain are most picturesque. The plant is  set on
the flat  bottoms of the Rhine Valley and nestled between snow  capped
mountains.  (See Figure C-2). Being so close  to the  canal did present
foundation problems and  additional  costs were  incurred  as is discussed
later in the plant architecture  section.
         Buchs,  itself had a 1970 census population of 8,570 while the total
waste generating region had  76,685 inhabitants.  After the Swiss referendum
in 1975 loosely labeled, "Swiss  for the Swiss", the  population declined as
Mediterranean  workers returned to  their native  lands. The population in
1977 is likely  equal to or less  than the 1970 figures.
         The community population is somewhat  seasonal  with more  people
during  the winter skiing and summer vacation seasons.
         The government  and  industry employment  sectors  are stable with
respect to growth.
         In  this  region of two  countries and 28 cities, there are 18
Switzerland  and 15 Liechtenstein counties. All of  the Swiss counties are
within  the Canton (state) of St. Gallen.
         The industrial base is  varied with the following composition:
         •  International headquarters for Hilti  fastening systems (metal
            and explosives)  (in  the past, Hilti sent sintered magnesium
            pellets to the plant.)
         •  Hovel household  boilers
         •  Textile manufacturers (trimmings)
         •  Carpet manufacturers (trimmings).

Baden-Brugg  (Switzerland)

         As  shown in Figure  C-3,  the plant is  located in a narrow valley.
The Limmatt River  is on one side and a 2-track  electric railroad is
immediately against the other side of the plant.  There are a few residences
to the  west  but no concentrated landuse in the immediate  vicinity. The
population served is about 1MO,000.
-------
                                    C-6
                                                            Service area  in
                                                            Liechtenstein
                                                             Service  area  in the
                                                             Canton of  St.  Gallen
FIGURE G-l.   REFUSE GENERATION AREA SHOWING THE SERVICE AREAS IN THE

              CANTON OF ST.  GALLEN AND IN LIECHTENSTEIN.
              Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Plant Courtesy of Widmer  4- Ernst

              (Alberti-Fonsar)
-------
                            C-7
                                       '••
FIGURE C-2.  PROFILE OF PLANT SURROUNDED BY MOUNTAINS
             Werdenberg-Liechtenstein Plant
             (Courtesy of Widmer + Ernst (Alberti-Fonsar))
-------
                                C-8
FIGURE C-3.   VIEW OF BADEN-BRUGG 200 TONNE PER DAY PLANT FROM
             THE ADJACENT SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT PROPERTY
             (Courtesy Baden-Brugg Waste Management Association)
-------
                                    C-9


         A sewage treatment plant is  located just North of  the plant. Then
just South of the plant,  a  privately operated  hazardous waste treatment
plant,  named Fairtec, processes chemical wastes (arsenic,  etc.) from all of
Northern Switzerland. This is yet another example of the "Sanitary Park" so
prevalent in Europe.
         The area served (see Figure C-4) is approximately 100 sq km (259
sq. mi.), about  18 km (29 mi)  long and 5.5 km  (9 mi) wide. There  are 56
villages in the area. About  12 of these comprise original members of the
Association,  M4  other communities participate by sening waste.
         Many industrial plants are located  in  the area  served by this
plant. The world headquarters  of the Brown-Boveri Co., is  in Baden very
near  to the plant.  The  engineering-construction firm of Motor-Columbus is
also in Baden.

Duesseldorf (West Germany)

         Duesseldorf is  a  densely populated,  highly industrialized city of
about 600,000 people located on the very busy Rhine River. The terrain is
very  flat and many smaller industrial cities are located nearby along the
river. Land costs are very high.
         Duesseldorf is  a  major industrial center and river port with a
broad variety of manufacturing  activities. See Figure C-5.

Wuppertal (West  Germany)

         The area of Wuppertal-Remscheid, Figure C-6,  is extremely hilly.
It has an area of approximately 100 km2 (259 mi2),  the center of which is
about  28 km (17.5  mi) north  east of Duesseldorf.  Population density is
approximately 5^0 people/km2 (2100 people/mi2).  Manufacturing  is  the
predominant employment activity in the area.
         In 1929, the city of Wuppertal had been formed by the combination
of  two cities in the narrow  valley (tal) of  the Wupper River—Barmen,
population 187,000 and Elberfeld, population 112,000. The area of  Barmen
stretches along  U mi (6.5 km) of the Wupper. High wooded hills surround it.
         At Barmen in 1907,  the first municipal incinerator in Germany was
built. It operated for about MO years.
         Barmen, which became part of Wuppertal  in 1929,  was one of the
most  important  manufacturing centers of Germany early in the century.
Ribbon  weaving  was the chief industry; chemicals,  buttons, rugs, and pianos
were also made.

Krefeld (West Germany)

         The flat surroundings of the plant shown in Figure   are typical
of the  terrain  in  the Krefeld area which is a highly industralized
community located  about 30 km (20 mi) northwest of Duesseldorf. As is also
evident in Figure C-7, there is no densely populated area in  the immediate
vicinity of the  plant—only  an  occasional factory.
         The  plant receives  considerable amounts of industrial waste.  Most
of the  potential  energy in the household and industrial waste is used to
drive off moisture in the community's sewage sludge prior to combustion of
the sludge.
-------
                                 C-10
                                                          Slandort  der Anlage

                                                           (Refuse Plant)
                                                                           -S
                                                                Spreilenbach  V
FIGURE  C-A.  AREA IN AARGAU CANTON  SERVED BY BADEN BRUGG PLANT
-------
                               C-ll
FIGURE C-5.   WASTE COLLECTION AREA SERVED BY DUESSELDORF PLANT
                                                              (1)
-------
             C-12
    WUPPERTAL
               REMSCHEID
FIGURE C-6. REGION SERVED BY WUPPERTAL MVA
        (MULLVERBRENUNGSANLAGE) [WASTE-
        BURNING PLANT]
        (Courtesy MVA Wuppertal Gmbh)
-------
                      C-13
FIGURE C-7.   KREFELD WASTE PROCESSING FACILITY;
             WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT ON LEFT,
             REFUSE-AND SEWAGE-SLUDGE-BURNING
             PLANT ON RIGHT.
-------
                                  C-14


         All  of  the energy available for export from the plant  goes to one
industry  2.5 km away,  in the form of hot water at 130 C (266 F).
         An extensive public recreation area and large, attractive shopping
center are in operation and undergoing development and expansion  in the
immediate vicinity of the plant.
         Krefeld  is  an industrial city  near the much  more intensely
industrialized areas of Duesseldorf and Duisburg.

Paris;Issy (France)

         The  Issy plant is located  in the southwest of Paris along the
Siene River as can be seen in Figure C-80 The area along the river  is  flat
but sufficiently above  the river water level so that no excavation ground
water problems were experienced.
         Actually  the name "Issy-les-Moulineaux" comes  from the Paris
suburb of that same name.  The map also shows  the location of the three
other major  facilities: Ivry,  St. Ouen and Romanville. Ivry is similar to
Issy. St. Ouen  is  an older  360,000 tons per year rotary  kiln.  The
Romanville facility  is  now only a  transfer station having ceased burning
operations in 1969. Much of the Romanville waste is transferred  to  Issy at
night. There is  substantial interaction among all four facilities that are
all controlled by one  organization.
         The  greater Paris metropolitan area population is 7,750,000; while
that of the City  of Paris is 2,790,00. Issy,  a suburb, has a population of
only 52,000. The remainder of  the  population is in the 53 other Parisian
suburbs.
         The  employment pattern  in government and industry is a  diverse and
balanced  as one would  expect of  France's capital city and largest city.
Heavy industry does not contribute much waste to the Issy plant.
         With one exception, the  city of Paris  has a  parallel
organizational position with the other 54 suburbs. The plant, therefore, is
not run  by the  cities of  Paris or  Issy,  but by a Federally  chartered
organization:  Electricite' de France.   Actually the  operations are
controlled by EDF's  somewhat independent  unit: Service  du Traitement
Industrial des  Residus  Urbains (TIRU).  Much of the information in this
report was supplied by the officials  in this "Service for  the  Industrial
Treatment of Urban Waste".
         The  one  exception  mentioned is  that the Department of Seine
financed and built  the  Issy  plant. Several  years  ago, General
DeGaullerearranged  governmental activities  so that the City of Paris
continues to own  the units but has no operational responsibilities.

Hamburg;Stellinger-Moor (West Germany)

         Figure   C-9  shows the  Stellinger  Moor (S-M) plant location in
Stellingen, a northwestern suburb  of  Hamburg. The total  metropolitan
Hamburg  population  is 1,800,000. S-M  consumes waste from about 500,000
people.  Hamburg's  population has recently been declining at  a rate  of
10,000 people per year—as more people move to the suburbs.
-------
                                            C-15
      LEGENDE

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                  FIGURE C-8.    WASTE  GENERATION AREA AND TREATMENT PLANTS
                                  FOR THE PARIS, FRANCE PLANTS  THAT  TREAT
                                  URBAN  WASTE
-------
                    C-16
FIGURE C-9.     LOCATION OF STELLINGER MOOR PLANT
-------
                                   C-17


         Being  a  large  industrial city, there  are  many generators  of
industrial waste. On two observed occasions, large loads of Agfa film were
discharged into the pit. Most of the harbor waste is diverted either to the
refuse fired steam generator (RFSG)  at Borsigstrasse or  landfilled.
         The plant itself  is located in a sanitary park in an industrial
area.

Zurich;Hagenholz (Switzerland)

         The Zurich metropolitan area is located in the Northern foot-hills
of the Swiss Alps. The land is thus  gently rolling  except near the suburb
of Hagenholz where the terrain is relatively flat.
         The City of Zurich  has a population  of 388,000 people. The
Hagenholz plant serves 560,000 people,  not only in Zurich but also other
neighboring suburbs. The  population has recently  decreased  because
Mediterranean workers went home after the "Swiss for the  Swiss" referendum.
The concurrent world recession has also contributed to  a return to family
farms and the countryside.
         Industry and other  employment activities are well diversified.
There were no mentionable  unique generators of waste that would affect
Hagenholz plant operations.  Hagenholz is very overloaded. Hence, the city
is completely  rebuilding  the Josefstrasse facility  closer to downtown
Zurich.

The Hague (The Netherlands)

         The Hague is situated on the North Sea on very  flat coastal land.
         The plant,  located  in the southwest part of  the Hague,  is
completely surrounded by old residential communities. The plant is adjacent
to a large oil-burning municipal power plant and  is less than one km  (0.6
mi)  from the International Peace Palace. Figure C-10 shows the concentrated
urban location of the plant.
         A population of  550,000 is served: 500,000 of  these in The Hague
and 50,000 in four small neighboring communities.  The population served  in
1968 was 150,000 when the plant was built. At present the population of The
Hague is not growing, but is decreasing slightly,  and the  annual tonnage  of
refuse  received has  about stabilized around 210,000 tonnes per year
(231,000 t/y). The collection area for this plant extends over a radius  of
about 15 km (9.3 mi) from the plant.
         There  is no heavy industry.  The city is  a government center and,
because  of its location on the sea,  is also visited  by many tourists during
the summer.

Dieppe (and Deauville) (France)

         Both Dieppe and Deauville are small resort towns with beaches on
the  English Channel. They are about  70  miles  (110 km) apart.  Dieppe,
permanent population of 26,000, has been an important industrial port since
Roman times because of its  excellent harbor, "one of the safest and deepest
harbors  on the English Channel". It has become an important port,  rail,  and
industrial manufacturing center. Deauville is a very clean seaside resort
town on  rolling land near Trouville  and Le Havre at  the  mouth of the Seine.
-------
                                C-18
FIGURE C-10.
THE HAGUE PLANT SITUATED NEAR THE CENTER OF THE HAGUE.
THE FOUR CHIMNEYS IN THE BACKGROUND SERVE THE 200 MW OIL-
FIRED MUNICIPAL POWER PLANT (Courtesy GE Vuilverbranding)
-------
                                   C-19


         It was natural  that  in order to preserve  and enhance the resort
feature of their existence,  the two  towns would be especially interested  in
handling their  wastewater and solid  wastes in a clean  manner.
         Solid  waste at the Dieppe plant is received from a 12 km  (7 mi)
radius area  which includes  Neuville and five  other villages and many
industries in  very hilly terrain.  The total  population  served is about
48,000.  Approximately 10  percent  of the refuse received is industrial.
Unique waste at the rate of 1.5 tonne/day comes  as fiberglass, resin, and
paint  wastes  from the Renault  Alpine Sportscar Body Factory. The paint
comes in 25 kg  (55 Ib) plastic  bags. Vinyl upholstery  scraps did come from
a local  plant  but if too  much  is  charged at once,  it melts and clogs  the
grate. Hence, the auount of this  material accepted had to be limited.
         Deauville,  permanent  population  of  6,000,  is surrounded  by
adjacent communities with a permanent  population of 20,000. However  in the
summer the wastes from 200,000  vacationers on a typical summer day must  be
processed. There is no industrial waste in Deauville.

Gothenburg (Sweden) (Also Known As Goteborg)

         Gothenburg '3 s. relatively  "new" port city founded in 1619  on the
hilly  southwest  coast of  Sweden about 120 km (75 mi) across the Kattegat
from  the  northern tip of  Denmark.  It is the most  important industrial
center in Sweden.
         The Savenas plant  is  in the  suburb of Partille adjacent to a large
railway yard between the river  Saveon and the main highway to the east
called Europaweg 3.  Figure oil shows the area  served which originally
included about  36 other towns,  Owing to rapid consolidation of communities
throughout Sweden, the number of  towns now served is nine.
         The Gothenburg population is  MHO,000.  The total population  served
by the Savenas plant is 670,000.  About 220,000 tonnes  (242,000 tons)  of
refuse are received annually. Most of  the refuse  is collected at transfer
stations within a radius of about 17 km (10 mi) from the plant.
         There  are many  manufacturing  facilities  in  the area and  a
considersable fraction of the refuse received is industrial.

Upgsala (Sweden)

         The city  is over 1,000  years old  with a population of about
150,000.  It stands 75 km (45 mi)  northwest of Stockholm on  a plain which  is
estimated to have  been under shallow water as recently  as 3,000 to 4,000
years ago as an aftermath of the  Ice Age. The community has a long history
of being  in the forefront of knowledge. The University was 500 years old  in
1977. Scheele discovered oxygen  and chlorine  there  about 200 years ago.
Linneaus did most of his pioneering botanical research there.
         Until  1863, Uppsala was a  small town  dominated  by craft  guilds
which  prevented  growth. There  was much provety and unemployment. But  in
1863, new Swedish laws ended  the dominance of the  craft guilds and the
principal of free trade was established by law. The city then began to grow
rapidly.  The Uppsala City Council  met  for the first time in January, 1863.
At about  the same time,  municipal government began for 48  small neighboring
communities. The last consolidation was in 1971 when seven  rural districts
joined. These together now form the municipality of Uppsala.
-------
                                 C-20
                          «
                 ^  Savenas incinerator.

                 £ New landfill at Tagene.

                 • Existing transfer stations.
                    OFuture transfer station
                    Dist.  Savenas  to  Tagene ^6 mi.

FIGURE C-ll.   COLLECTION AREA FOR GOTHENBURG WASTE HANDLING SYSTEM.
              TOTAL AREA SERVED IS ABOUT 1000 km2 (386 square miles)
              (Courtesy of GRAAB).
-------
                                   C-21


         There are 8l councillors,  elected every 3 years. Nearly  2,000
citizens are  on municipal boards  and  committees. The city employs  10,000
people.  The  official city brochure declares:  "This story of the development
of the city government over the  last  100 years is also the story  of  the
rise  of  democracy in Swedish society  and  its development  into a welfare
state".
         The  service sector dominates  Uppsala's industry  and comprises 67
percent  of  the  total  employment.   The  largest  industry,
Volvo-Bags logsverken,  produces  auto  parts and  outboard  motors.
Portia-Pharmacia has 1,250 employees  and sends blood plasma substitutes
worldwide.  One quarter of  the industrial employment is in workshop
industries, in graphics,  food processing, wood, and cement products. Much
active research is evolving new products.

Horsens (Denmark)

         Horsens "town of horse  power" is an industrial  and seaport city of
5*4,000 population located at the  head of the  Horsens fjord on  the island of
Jutland.  In  1970, its population was  about 38,000, but as part of  the
consolidation of communities throughout Denmark, Horsens was at that time
combined with five other communities.
         Figure C-12 is a map of the expanded Horsens community, which  has
a land area  of  about 200 km2 (38.6 mi2).  To provide  more fuel for  its
refuse-to-energy  plant, Horsens is seeking agreements with surrounding
communities. One  town,  Gedved, population 10,000  located 10 km (6  mi)
northof Horsens,  has arranged to send all of its refuse to Horsens.  On  the
map in Figure C-12 Gedved is near the top center.
         The  countryside is fairly hilly with many small towns closely
spaced and connected by many roads. A  north-south expressway, E3, passes
through  the  western part of the city.  Two of the  neighboring towns  use
hearth-type incinerators,  but in  1980,  the law requires that these be shut
down.
         Figure C-13 is an aerial view of  the Horsens plant and,  at  the
top,  the new wastewater treatment plant.  About one fourth of the weight of
solid  waste  received at the plant is  industrial waste.  There are three
plastics plants in town which produce waste of high heat  value. Also,  there
are electronics plants and a telephone factory.
         There are 15 communities around  Horsens which comprise a region or
"small state"  called an AMT (similar  to a city-county government).  The
trend  of  Danish communities to combine to form "AMT" regions is an old  one
which  has been  found good for making  road decisions,  regional planning,
conducting refuse management studies,  environmental  review,  and  for
exercising sanction power,  which is the authority  to  stop  practices that
harm  the  environment. An  AMT council is  elected every H years. The  plans
for the Horsens refuse plant were approved by the AMT  council.

Copenhagen;Amager (Denmark)

         Figure  C-1*» is a map of the Copenhagen:Amager's  waste collection
service area. Copenhagen  itself is located on the east  coast of Denmark,
not far from Sweden.
-------
                        C-22
FIGURE C-12.     MAP OF AREA SERVED BY HORSENS REFUSE
                PLANT.  THE COMBINED HORSENS COMMUNITY
                SERVED IS ENCLOSED IN THE HEAVY BROKEN
                LINE.
-------
                                C-23

              >-^-^£*^~W*i;^^-»X^^^^
                S^
FIGURE C-13.  AERIAL VIEW OF HORSENS REFUSE-BURNING,  SLUDGE-
              DRYING AND DISTRICT-HEATING PLANT.  AT  TOP  IS
              THE NEW SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT.  AT FAR LOWER
              RIGHT IS A COLLECTION STATION FOR HAZARDOUS
              LIQUID WASTE WHICH IS SENT TO THE NATIONAL
              HAZARDOUS WASTE CENTER AT NYBORG (COURTESY OF
              BRUUN AND SORENSEN)
-------
                            C-24

                              •5V^-t	  •vi*-    -•   ^7-   ~»     -V'.L1
FIGURE C-14.  COPENHAGEN:AMAGER PLANT LOCATED ON CANAL
-------
                                   C-25
         The Amager refuse-fired steam generator is shown at the north end
of Amager Island southeast  of  downtown Copenhagen.
         The terrain is rather  flat,  which is typical of eastern Denmark.
The Amager plant (see Figure C-15) is located right on the canal  separating
Amager Island  from the main  Danish island to Amager*s north. Amager Island
was originally unimproved swamp land that has been "poldered"  with pilings,
dykes and debris  fill over many centruies.  Being at sea level did interfer
with construction  in two ways. First,  numerous pilings had to be  sunk.
Secondly, the  refuse bunker pit had  to  be shallow and .encased in special
water protective coatings.
         The population in the city of Copenhagen proper has  fallen from
550,000,  10  years ago, to ^30,000 presently.  Reasons are typical of  those
in many  large  cities. Basically young families are moving to  the suburbs
leaving the  city for students, government  workers,  retired people,  and
those wishing a  short commute to work. The Amager plant serves  about
620,000  people in central,  east, and southern Copenhagen  and those
residents of the Amager Island.

Copenhagen;West (Denmark)

         Figure C-16 is a larger map of the Copenhagen metropolitan area.
         The West (Vest) refuse fired steam generator (Vestforbranding) is
shown along with  its twin unit on the Amager Island just southeast of
downtown  Copenhagen.
         The plant is surrounded by open space.  Adjoining this land are
summer  garden plots  and light  industry. There  are  no particular
geographical features that  impacted  plant construction.  The primary site
location  consideration was  to  be at the intersection of two  main highways
as shown  in  Figure C-17.
         The West  plant serves about  620,000 people in western Copenhagen
and eleven of its western and  northern suburbs.
-------
                           C-26
FIGURE C-15.
DETAILED MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF WEST PLANT
AT THE INTERSECTION OF TWO MAJOR HIGHWAYS
-------
                              C-27
FIGURE  C-16.  MAP OF COPENHAGEN, SOUTH AND EAST METROPOLITAN AREA
              SERVED BY THE AMAGER PLANT
-------
                                C-28
          -Landfill
                                                        Skodsbafg , - i
                                                        iJJSHHPtfEWlSVA
                                                        *iM
-------
                                   D-l


                          SEPARABLE WASTE STREAMS

                             General Comments

         As  mentioned in the introduction,  this report is  concerned not
only with the burning of refuse,  but also with the handling  of all waste
materials within the same  facility. Many of the observed facilities  include
three or more separate waste-stream systems. Table D-l summarizes waste
streams  associated with each facility that  are  treated independently from
the main refuse burning waste stream.
         One of the unexpected  observations to  report regarding visits to
the 30 refuse burning facilities  is that there are usually  multiple and
separate waste streams flowing  into  the same property.  Perhaps  due to
socialism  or  age  of  the community,  there is  a  greater  sense  of
environmental planning and physical integration among system modules. There
are many examples of synergistic benefits experienced by combining not only
environmental  modules (refuse  burning, waste-water treatment,  animal
rendering, etc.) but also the energy modules (district heating, electricity
generation,  etc.)  within  the same  facility.  This theme is  expanded in a
previous chapter,  "Environmental  and  Energy  Parks". Each  waste  stream
category is  summarized below.

Household, Commercial and Light Industrial Refuse
(i.e. the Main Waste Stream)

         The focus  of the project is to examine  in detail the treatment of
the  household,  commercial,  and  light  industrial  waste stream.  All  15
facilities  process this waste stream. Later sections will discuss in detail
refuse collection, transfer stations, and physical and chemical composition.

Bulky and Large Industrial  Wastes

         Eight  of the 15 facilities have shears to  size  bulky and large
industrial waste to 1 meter (3  feet)  or less. Treatment  of these bulky
wastes  is described in a  later  section, "Size Reduction of Bulky Refuse".
Only Duesseldorf has a shredder; it is seldon  used.
         The large  Martin hoppers  and  furnaces  will accept bulky waste of
reasonable size.  None of the Martin plants visited had shears.  However,
at each  plant,  there was  encouragement for acceptance of only household,
commercial,  and light industrial waste.  The few large pieces are broken by
a falling grab bucket.
         At  Copenhagen: Amager  the bulky waste is taken  to the  crusher
transfer station adjoining the  rvefuse-burning  plant (see  Figure D-l).
Reasonably  sized construction debris and other  noncombustible material is
packed directly into transfer trailers. These  noncombustible loads are then
taken to a  landfill. However,  bulky  combustible materials first pass
through a shredder before being compacted into a trailer. The combustible
loads are then taken a short distance to the refuse-burning plant.
-------
                                  D-2
      TABLE D-l.   WASTE  STREAMS TREATED INDEPENDENTLY  FROM
                     THE MAIN  REFUSE BURNING WASTE  STREAM
Household, Commercial & Light Industrial
Bulky & Large Industrial
                                                  XXX
Waste Water
Sewage Sludge
Source and Front-End Separation
Paper & Cardboard ^ X
Iron, Steel, & White Goods
Bottles
Copper in Motors
Tires
Used Crank Case Oil
Waste Oil Emulsions
Oil Sludges
Waste Solvents
Industrial Chemicals
Hazardous Wastes
Dextrose Sludge
Animal Waste
Street Sweepings
Construction Debris
Demolition Debris
Ash
3 X X X
2 X X
1 X
1 X
3 X X X
3 X X X
2 X X
2 XX
3 X XX
4 X X XX
1 X
4 X XXX
1 X
3 XXX
2
1 X
-^"'-- 	 — • " '— " "•" •" ' ••*** ' a ' "" '""• '•" ' • " ' 	 ' — — — ' 	 — — — •
 Junk Cars
-------
                             D-3
FIGURE  D-l.  TRANSFER STATION UNDER CONSTRUCTION AT AMAGER.
              PHOTO TAKEN FROM WINDOW AT THE AMAGER REFUSE
              BURNING PLANT.  THE STORAGE YARD OF THE
              RENHOLDNINGS SELSKABET COLLECTION ORGANIZATION
              IS SHOWN IN BETWEEN.
-------
                                D-4
Wastewater and Sewage Sludge

        Five  of the facilities have wastewater treatment plants coterminous
with the refuse burning plant. Sanitary  services in  Europe  are often
centralized and well coordinated. In four of  the plants,  the energy value in
refuse is utilized to drive off moisture in the sludge. Three of these
plants then burn  the dried sludge. Much more information is  contained in a
later section on "Co-disposal of Refuse and  Sewage Sludge".

Source Separation

        Source  separation is practiced spotily in Europe as it is in the
U.S. Its success  varies depending  on markets,  transportation distance,
price,  and conservation attitudes. The  two source separation programs
observed were in Denmark.
        Near  Copenhagen:West, several  recycling centers are  located at
shopping centers. In addition,  one of the recycling centers  is  located at
the entrance  to the West  plant (see Figure D-2). The picture  shows a source
separation truck discharging sorted items  into several of the recycling  bins
placed near,  but  before the scale  house. Homeowners and businessmen who
appreciate the need for recycling can drive  their own vehicles  to  the  refuse
urning plant  and  can then place their  discarded items into any of these
several containers.
        We  were  told that  these  and  other source separation programs
detract no more than 10 to  15 percent of the potential heat value from the
waste-to-energy system.
        Zurich has just started  three voluntary recycling centers for
glass,  cans, and waste paper. The city has had seven centers for  collection
of used crankcase oil. Garages and private  individuals bring their waste oil
to the centers. However, no money changes  hands.
        At  Baden-Brugg, about 35  percent of the waste glass generated is
recycled through a residential  pickup system using special containers.
        Around Werdenberg-Liechtenstein,  there  are some shopping
center-type  recycling centers where  people  can bring newspapers, bottles,
and cans. Color-sorted glass can be sold  for 60 S.Fr per tonne  ($26.40 per
ton) while noncolor sorted  glass ca,n  be sold at MO S.Fr.  per  tonne  ($17.60
per ton).

Front-End Separation

        The most elaborate front-end separation system observed  during the
30 visits was at The Hague  (See Figures D-3, D-M and D-5).  Private  haulers
often  bring a combination load in  on flat  bed  or dump trucks. The white
goods are off-loaded and then the other bulky  combustibles are put into the
private haulers pit. A workman then attempts  to remove  the copper-rich
motor. Rubber tires are stacked.  Then  the  shovel loader  crumples  and
smashes the  stove or refrigerator for better storage and handling.
        The only shredder observed among all of the  30  plants was at
Duesseldorf.  The  Hazemag  shredder was down on both of Battelle's visits in
1976 and  1977. However, because ferrous  metal is not separated,  this can
not really be classified *as a front-end separation system.
-------
                           D-5

 Recycling Station
                  Paving Cinder Blocks Made  From Recovered Ash
FIGURE    D-2.   SOURCE SEPARATION RECYCLING STATION AT
                COPENHAGEN:  WEST
-------
D-6
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-------
                                 D-9


        At Uppsala,  (See Figure D-6) there is a single bin for ferrous
materials in a corner  of the tipping floor. The only real "American  type
front-end system" operating daily on a full scale is at Birmingham,
England. It was inspired by IKS. EPA's  demonstration project in St.  Louis,
Missouri. Because Battelle staff did not visit this Imperial Metal
Industries (IMT) facility  and because of its relevance to U.S.  cofiring
development, a summary by IMI's John Marshall is included in the appendix.

Waste Oils and Solvents

        Waste  crankcase  oil, oil emulsions,  oil sludges,  and solvents are
processed at two of the facilities. At  Baden-Brugg, the oils are carefully
processed in a decanting  facility. Nearby at Zurich:Hagenholz, waste oils
are decanted and  then mixed with  more volatile solvents. Details of
decanting, mixing and  burning are presented later in the Cofiring Section.

Industrial Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes

        There  is  a distinct attitude difference in Europe compared to the
U.S. with regard  to  the  public sector's  responsibility in  handling
hazardous waste. One-third of the 15 facilities have on the same or
neighboring properties a  capability to handle industrial chemical or
hazardous wastes.  At Baden-Brugg,  the neighboring old compost  plant has
been purchased by a private company (Daester-Fairtec A.G.) and  has  been
converted into an inorganic heavy metals hazardous waste processing center.
This plant has several independent  processing lines using ion exchange,
evaporation,  activated  carbon,  filtering, decontamination, and
neutralization
        The Zurich:Hagenholz plant receives hazardous wastes from local
industry and transfers  it to the appropriate hazardous waste treatment
centers. Some  goes to Braden-Brugg and some will go to the elaborate Swiss
government facility being built at Geneva.
        In Uppsala,  Sweden, the local pharmaceutical company produces  a
dextrose sludge.  This material is fed  to a special hazardous waste
incinerator adjoining the refuse-burning plant. Off-gases are sent to the
hot-air-mixing chamber just after  the refuse burner for hydrocarbon
destruction.
        Denmark,  in  an exceptionally fine piece of Federal legislation,
now carefully controls all  hazardous wastes. All industrial generators are
required to take  their waste to an approved hazardous waste receiving
station. When enough waste  has been collected, it is transported, usually
by rail to Nyborg, Denmark for ultimate processing. Observed collection
centers are  at Horsens   and  Copenhagen:Amager  (See Figure  D-7).   A
description of this  Von  Roll designed and constructed Nyborg  plant is
included in the appendix.

Animal Waste

        Animal waste enters the gates of four facilities.  A trip  highlight
was to see the new rendering plant at Zurich: Hagenholz. Animal carcasses,
butcher shop trimmings, etc. are rendered into flesh meal,  animal  feed, and
soap. This new plant was  purposely located next to the refuse burning
-------
D-10
-------
D-ll
                                                                o

                                                                O.
                                                                
-------
                               D-12
plant. The rendering  plant's ventilation system was carefully designed to
collect odoriferous ambient temperature room air. The air  is sent from the
rendering plant  to  the  refuse burning plant  in the pipe shown in Figure
D-8.  The contaminated air is injected  directly into the refuse furnace as
high  pressure secondary air.

Comment: There  are many  synergistic benefits  from connecting these two
        environmental  modules next to each other are:

                 (1)    A  rendering plant can  be designed for maximum
                        ventilation  to improve the interval workplace
                        atmosphere.
                 (2)    Noxious and  offensive rendering odors outside the
                        plant can be  eliminated.
                 (3)    The  rendering plant  would neither have to use
                        large quantities of expensive natural  gas  in a
                        fume  incinerator or have to use  expensive  ozone
                        (03)  in an air bleacher.
                 CO    A  constant ambient temperature (60 to 80 F) source
                        of air  for  the refuse furnace  is  assured
                        regardless of  outside weather conditions,  i.e. an
                        air preheater is  not necessary.
                 (5)    Odoriferous gases such as  ammonia, mercaptas,
                        hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons,  and other reduced
                        gases can be  converted to H20, C02, and S02-
                 (6)    While not proven, there is speculation that use of
                        rendering gases at Zurich may  have assisted in
                        minimizing corrosion  to 0.1 to 0.3 mm of metal
                        wastage on superheater tubes after 30,000 hours,
                        i.e., sulfur  causes  harmless  sulfate deposits on
                        the  tubes while chlorine is chemically eliminated
                        as a  deposit  element. The chlorine remains in the
                        HCL gaseous form  and exits from the chimmey.

Street Sweepings

        The only  facility  observed  to handle street sweepings as a
separately controlled waste is at The  Hague.  Street-sweeping vehicles use
the  scale before dumping  their load  off  a ramp (See Figure D-9) and into a
detachable container. The load is  taken to a landfill.  Actually the only
connection  with the refuse burning activity is the common  scale and common
management.

Construction. Demolition  Debris, and Ash

        Construction debris  is  also brought  to The  Hague  and  placed  ir
detachable  containers for eventual placement in a  landfill (See Figure
D-10).
        The Horsens plant  is  located on top of  the old  landfill anc
adjoining  the still active landfill  jutting out into the sea.  Thus, th«
total facility consumes  locally generated construction and demolitior
debris and ash.
-------
D-13
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                                   D-16
Junk Automobiles

         Some of the same Horsens community owned land  has been leased to a
car and truck junk dealer which  is located adjoning  the refuse burning
plant (See Figure D-11).

Interrelation of Waste Streams

         Figure D-12  appears in  the April 1976 issue  of The Volunc
Incinerator Group (VIG) News.  It presents the community's waste streams  anc
treatment alternatives: many of which have been implemented.
-------
D-17
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                                 E-l
                  REFUSE  COLLECTION AND TRANSFER STATIONS

                       General Comments on Collection

         The European pattern of  collection and  transfer  has many
similarities to that of North America.  Generally speaking, there is more
collection by  the public sector, occasional labor representation in
management  functions, occasional computerized systems for physical control
and fiscal  billing.  The homeowner cost  assessment methods are quite varied.
Household Containers
         There is  a  clear  trend away from  the open top metal refuse
container in favor of  rubber, plastic  or paper containers (see Table E-l).
An integrated  program of collecting truck purchase along with purchase of
standardized rubber or plastic containers was  observed several times in
Central  Europe.  Several  other systems used standard sized paper sacks that
could be collected by a  flat bed truck rather  than a compactor truck.
Other systems  use  polyethelene or polyvinyl  chloride (PVC) sacks.   Most
high quality  steam production facilities discourage PVC due  to the
corrosive effects.
Collecting Organization
         Table  E-2 presents data showing the extent of public and private
collection.  Generally speaking, there is more public collection.  However,
as in the U.S. this varies widely from city to city.
         Consistent  with  European  governments being more  socially
conscious, many public collecting organizations permit representatives from
labor to participate in management functions.   This, in  part, has
contributed to  the success of two industrial engineered collector control
and payment incentive  systems at Hamburg and Copenhagen:Amager.
Collection Costs
        Worldwide,  collection cost are  70 to 90 percent  of the total cost
of collection and disposal.  Most of  the respondents gave figure  (Table
E-3) on the total because that is the  amount billed to  citizens and thus
the better known figure.
        Costs  range from $25 to $90 per year  per household as a  solid
waste management charge  to  the citizens.
-------
                                       E-2
                       TABLE E-l.   HOUSEHOLD REFUSE CONTAINERS
Trip

  1

  2

  3

  4

  5

  6

  7

  8

  9

 10


 11

 12

 13

 14

 15
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

Baden-Brugg

Duesseldorf

Wuppertal

Krefeld

Paris:Issy

Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor

Zurich:Hagenholz

The Hague

Dieppe


Gothenburg

Uppsala

Horsens

Copenhagen:Amager

Copenhagen:West
Rubber
Rubber

Plastic and Paper Sacks
Open steel cans were replaced with PUC
  Sacks in October 1977
Plastic sacks

Paper Sacks (purchased by homeowners)
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                                E-5


Assessment Methods
         The  methods for assessing  collection (and disposal)  costs vary
widely.   Some systems serve  so many cities that  a clear assessment pattern
was not  available.   The Hamburg and Wuppertal plants obtain revenue from
household rental of standardized rubber containers.  At Horsens,  paper
sacks are purchased by homeowners.  Paris  assesses solid  waste costs in
proportion to real estate taxes.  Dieppe, however, assesses  in proportion
to metered water service.
         Probably the most accurate assessment comes from Renholdrungs
Selskabet (Society for Waste Collection) in Copenhagen.  Charges are set
based on  container volume, steps walked and stairs.
Vehicles
         European vehicles, generally,have similar features,  options and
size ranges as in the U.S.   However,  due to smaller and winding streets,
the size distribution is  different and results  in a smaller averaage size.
Paris uses a  few electric trucks as  later explained.  Gothenburg  uses
cylindrical transfer trailers not seen in America (see Figure E-l).
Collecting  Times
         Trucks make one to four  trips per day depending  on  geography,
average haul  distance, and labor  agreements (see Table  E-U).   Official
hours  are often 8  per day.  However,  many actually work  only  5, 6 or 7
hours per day.   In Paris,  workers collect refuse  for about 4 hours  and then
sweep city streets for another 4 hours.
         Most workers collect 5 days per week.  Some private haulers
collect  5 1/2  days.   Paris provides 7 day per week pickup of restaurant
garbage.
         Homeowners have their refuse picked up once or twice per week.
Homeowner Deliveries
         Many plants place detachable containers near the entrance  to the
facility so  that cars, trailers, pick up trucks,  etc, can  off-load without
interrupting larger vehicle deliveries.
Collection  Activity Effecting Resource Recovery

         Some refuse burning  facilities will only take household refuse.
Refuse burning  and energy production  is  greatly  simplified  if high
calorie-containing industrial and bulky waste is excluded.
-------
                               E-6
FIGURE  E-l.
TRANSFER VEHICLE.  THE CYLINDRICAL CHAMBER HOLDS
ABOUT 50 m3(1,765 ft3) COMPRESSED AT THE TRANSFER
STATION BY A FACTOR OF ABOUT 3.3 to 1.
(Courtesy GRAAB)
-------
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                                 E-8


         However,  the plant manager  and  staff may have to  put forth the
extra effort because incineration is the proper  disposal alternative and/or
because  the energy from this waste.


Transfer Stations


         Transfer  stations  are increasingly popular in Europe as (1)
economies of scale require more waste  to be consumed at one  location and
(2) there is a desire to reduce highway travel time and collection costs.
         In Paris, Ramainville, on' of the original four refuse burners was
converted to  a transfer station.   Refuse is transferred to  Issy for
combustion.
         At Gothenburg, five transfer stations  comact and 30 trailers  bring
refuse to the Savenas refuse fired steam generator.
         Copenhagen: Amager's concept  is  quite different.  This  transfer
station is located next to the refuse burner.  Both are located near  the
populated downtown.  Bulky combustibles are shredded and transferred 330 meters
(100 yards) to the refuse burner.  Noncorabustible waste is simply  transferred
to a distant landfill.
         There  are plans at Uppsala to put a transfer station in a  distant city
so that  more energy containing waste can be gathered and converted to needed
district heating hot water at Uppsala.
         The  authors were  intrigued  to see  an industrial  hazardous  waste
transfer station in Horsens that collects material for transport to Nyborg,
Denmark.  A brochure is reprinted in the Appendix.  The Danes are leaders in
regional government hazardous waste collection and controlled disposal.
         Because  Europeans  furnace  grates  are not designed for  shredded
material, there .is only a moderate amount of shredding prior  to landfill.  In
1977, there were no continental European transfer stations preparing shredded
RDF  for 100 percent RDF firing or co-firing,  i.e. only mass  burning is
practiced.
                   Specific System Comments on  Collection

Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

         Throughout  the  region,  trucks of various sizes and descriptions
collect waste material. The Society for Refuse  Management licenses  four
private companies to collect waste  materials from households. The eight
trucks owned by  these four firms  make  two to  four  trips  per  day. Truck
sizes range from 12 to  15m3 (15.7 to  19.6 cubic yds). In addition, there
are a few commercial  private haulers and several industrial companies  with
their own trucks. Most are active 8 hours per day - 5 days per week.
         Three of the collection firms are paid  by the  Society  and  one is
paid  by his local community. All are paid on a price per  ton  basis as
weighed on the plant  scales.
         Costs  are distributed back to the communities based on a careful
accounting of  where the wastes  comes from. Fees have been relatively
constant over the last three to  four years.
-------
                                  E-9
         Each household pays taxes  to his respective community.  As an
example,  the  plant manager  pays 90 Swiss francs per year for  his  waste to
be collected  and disposed.
         The  rise in total collections from 4,000 tonnes (4,409 tons) in
1962 to 21,000 tonnes (26,455 tons) in 1973 must be interpreted  carefully.
First,  these are collection rates  and not generation  rates.  In  other
words, there are fewer people throwing  refuse  over the hill and more
providing waste to collectors.  Secondly, the local refuse  collection
company has been expanding  its geographic territory as more communities
decide to join. Neither an influx of people nor increased  waste generation
rates could  have contributed to the  dramatic increase in  household
collections.  There has been a fall in industrial pickups which coincides
with the  European and especially the Swiss recession.

Baden-Brugc

         About 60 public and 40  private  collection vehicles bring refuse
to the plant  8 hours per day, 5 days per week.  Each community  is  charged
for the  weight  delivered  by its trucks.  Each family served pays 50-85
S.Fr.  ($20-34) per year for collection.

Wuppertal

         Public  collection vehicles collect household refuse  once per week
and deliver  it to the plant 7 hours per day,  5  days per week.  Private
vehicles handling primarily commercial and industrial waste deliver to the
plant  8 hours per day,  5-1/2 days per week.
         Citizens with automobiles  coming to  the plant must dump  into
special containers for that purpose which are later picked  up and  emptied
into the  pit. Citizen dumping directly into pits is prohibited.
         Each household served in 1976 paid  an  annual  fee of  230  D.M.
($97.33) for each 110 liter (29 gallon) standard rubber container (usually
one per family).  They are  emptied once per week.

Paris;Issy

         Refuse  is collected in standard refuse collection  trucks.
However, some material is received at Issy in  30m3 (40 yd3) transfer
trailers  from Romanville, the transfer station in northeast Paris.
         Paris  has 750 trucks bringing refuse to all four plants.  Of
these,  180  are electric. Forty are only 6  or 8m3 (8  or 10  yd3)  for
collecting on  narrow  streets. Most,  however,  are  16  m3 (20 yd3)
traditional European garbage trucks.
         The  electric trucks mentioned above can travel 50 km (30 miles) on
a charge. A typical route is 5 km (3 miles)  while  the typical  distance to
unload and return to the  garage is 15 km (9 miles). Thus  the truck must be
recharged about every two runs.
         The  schedule of collection is rather unique. The City of Paris
public vehicles deliver to  Issy between 6  and  8 a.m.; seven (7)  days per
week. These  same public workers spend the remainder of the working day
weeping the streets in their assigned neighborhoods. Suburban  and private
vehicles  deliver between 9  a.m. and noon.
-------
                                  E-10


         Of the 5,000 collection workers, 70 percent  are foreign; many
being from  Senegal, Algeria  and other parts of Africa.  There have been
increasing  numbers of French workers in recent years.
         Each of the 55 communities  is responsible  for  its respective
collection.  The cities either  publicly collect  or  license private haulers.
The City of Paris publicly collects its residential and commercial waste
but subcontracts its truck fleet maintenance to a private firm.
         The collection  fees in  most communities  are  assessed
proportionally to  real estate  taxes once the year's  financial results  are
declared and  accepted. The typical household  collection and disposal  fee
would be about 350 F.fr./tonne ($24/ton). The collection costs had  been
rising 15 percent per year but rose only 5 percent last year.

Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor

         Both  public and  private  organizations collect waste in  the
metropolitan  area as follows:

     City of  Hamburg, house waste publicly collected     4,435,603 tonnes
     Suburbs  publicly and privately collected             4*48,278
     Industrial  waste privately  collected                  575,231
                                                       5,459,112 tonnes

         Local  officials are using Oscar of "Sesame Street" to urge people
to put all  of the trash into the garbage cans  and  to not spill trash  onto
the ground  (See  Figure E-2).
         The city  of Hamburg  has  developed  an industrial engineered
computer based  system to specify routes to pay workers  and collect disposal
fees. Points are awarded  and  fees  are charged based  on  location of the
container (backyard, upstairs, curb, etc.),  distance walked and  container
volume.  The system begun in 1964, was developed along with the local union.
         For  those interested  in details, a German language 44 page report
exists  that  outlines the program,  prices and results.* A similar program is
described in greater detail in the Copenhagen trip report.
         An example of the point system for collection  workers follows:
Points for  the transportation  by a waste  collector  for a 110  liter  (29
gallon)  waste container.
         (a)    30 points for level ground transport up  to
               22 points for walking 15 meters (49 feet)
                8 points for tipping into truck
         (b)    50 points for transport  up or down steps
               22 points for walking 15 meters (49 feet)
               20 points for steps
                8 points for tipping into truck
         (c)   110 points for transport  up or down steps over  50 meters
              (163 feet).
         Points are accumulated over a month duration  and  the workers are
paid a varying  amount per 100 points as shown below:
-------
                                E-ll
                                 OQ    O
                                jT' lf\S~\ I 4 /•—V f»—V »~"
                                CJOO U0GDO
Figure E-2.   Public Relations Cartoon of Oscar (of Sesame Street)
            Encouraging people to put all trash in the containers
-------
                                 E-12
                                      Price  Paid to Worker per 100 Points
    Point Range                        Deutsch Mark         Dollars
From 3,601 to 6,400                         .33             0.1M
From 5,101 to 9,500                         .58             0.21
From 9,501 and above                        .29             0.12

         The point system clearly penalizes  both the under and the over
producer.  There likely was  concern  about the long-term health and safety
of collectors who worked too hard and  long.
         The  homeowner's cost of garbage removal is essentially determined
by the size bins used, distance and the presence of stairs. The price is
lower per liter if  larger receptacles  are used. However,  because of
architectural and other reasons, this  is not always possible. In 1976, the
city used:
         • 770/1100 liter (203/290 gallons) bulk containers—37,106
         • 110/220 liter (29/58 gallons) house bins«304,862
         • 35/55 liter (9.2/14.5 gallons)  dwelling bins—47,933.

An average of 7.3 liters of domestic refuse was produced daily during 1976
by each inhabitant.
         A typical family  will pay 3.46 DM ($1.40) per week for rent of  a
110-liter container.
         The  City of  Hamburg spent  95,486,000 DM ($45,361,000)  on waste
collection and  transport  in 1976. This converts to  17.49 DM per cubic
meter.
         During 1976, 1,417 laborers  were  employed in garbage removal. For
this  they needed 195 trucks for house refuse and 30 trucks for large
refuse.  As part of the collection workers'  contract, foreign workers are
limited to no more than 10 percent of the work force.

ZurichzHagenholz

         Solid  waste collection is performed by the  City of Zurich,
Department of Streets  and Sanitation (Abfuhrwesen), by  private collectors
and by  other communities. The 130 Abfuhrwesen vehicles typically make  four
trips per day carrying about five tons per  truck.
         Beginning in 1070, Abfuhrwesen  began using  plastic and paper
sacks in place of metal containers. This has had a very positive effect on
reducing collection  personnel and hence costs. Considering only the  solid
waste, the collection  activities were performed in 1976 by the three types
of collectors in the following manner:

         Abfuhrwesen (city of Zurich)        56
         Other Municipalities                18
         Private haulers and businesses     26_
                                           100$ by weight
-------
                               E-13
The Hague

         There are 55 municipal  packer trucks which collect twice per week
on weekdays  except Wednesday when the crews are assigned  to bulky refuse
pickup. They do this in  two  alternate sections of  town on alternate
Wednesdays,  using open trucks.
         Private haulers also  deliver refuse to a separate bunker and pay
cash for the privilege on a  weight  basis. If a load is  mostly metallic,
such as  appliances,  it is  placed  in  a  collection yard at  the plant for
later procesing by a private operator.  See the  previous section on
"Front-End Processing".
         For the Dieppe area,  there  are eight  city collection trucks plus
three small  open trucks which,  until  October 1, 1977,  collected daily, 6
days per week.  After October  1, 1977, collections were to be every 2 days.
Other suburbs also send in truck  loads irregularly.  On  Sunday mornings
special  collections are made from restaurants. The past practice of picking
up and dumping open bins at the collection point  was to  have  been replaced
October 1,1977 by use of polyvinylchloride bags  provided by the city.
         Each household and business  receives a separate  charge on their
tax bill for refuse and sewage service which is based  at  their metered
water consumption.
         No  bulky refuse is accepted at Dieppe larger than 1 meter (3.3 ft).

Gothenburg

         In  1971,  the GRAAB organization established the  first of five
transfer stations and began acquiring  specially-built  transfer trucks as
shown in Figure E-1.  The cyclindrical chamber is 13.60 m (MM.6 ft) long
and .5 m(8.2 ft) in diameter, volume is 50 m3 (538 ft3), and overall height*
is 3.83 m (12.5 ft). Total weight is  33.40 tonnes (36.7 tons). Carrying
capacity is  17.40 tonnes (19.1  tons). Overall length, including tractor, is
15.86 m (52  ft).
         There  are 30 of  these transfer vehicles in  the system bringing
refuse to the plant from the five transfer stations. In  1972,  each vehicle
cost 250,000 S.Kr.  ($62,500).  Also, over 100 other trucks deliver directly
to the Savenas  plant. Total collections and deliveries  to  the transfer
stations are made by trucks  in the  individual districts. There are about
300 truck loads per day delivered between 7:00 a.m. and  3:00  p.m., 5
days/week.
         Figure  E-3 shows one  transfer station. The lower view shows  two
compactor trucks and one industrial truck delivering simultaneously to two
hoppers.  One of the two transfer trailers has a  truck cab attached.
         Mr.  Bengt Rundqwist, Works  Director, described  the  operation of
the system in a leaflet prepared for visitors in  1972:
             "The transfer  stations are as centrally positioned as possible
         within  each generation area in relation to local transport, since
         this method generally  requires short distances for  good economy.
         The central position  requires high operational reliability to
         prevent health hazards. For  the stations further  away from the
-------
                              E-14
FIGURE  E-3.
CROSS SECTION AND PLAN VIEW OF TRANSFER STATION.
(Courtesy GRAAB)

      1.  Tipping Hall
      2.  Bunker
      3.  Compactor
      4.  Vehicle Hall
      5.  Stairway
      6.  Washroom
      7.  Control Room
-------
                                E-15
         incineration plant,  this means that irrespective of  capacity
         requirements  these are designed with double compressors,  whilst
         the other stations .are constructed as single stations.
            "The waste is received basically in  the same way and  with the
         same  type of weighing instruments and equipment as the main plant.
         However,  only one scale is provided. This is why,  in  tare
         weighing,  the vehicles must drive over  the same scale another time
         when leaving."
            " Referring again to Figure E-3f after weighing  incoming
         refuse,  the vehicles  are backed into  the emptying bay  (1). The
         refuse  is dumped into a funnel-shaped bunker with two hoppers (2).
         Two compactors operate under the bunker  in the compactor room  (3).
         In  the  unloading bay (4), transfer trailers are coupled to the
         compactors, which force the refuse into the  trailer containers
         against counter pressure. In the control room (7), a good view is
         obtained  of  the unloading and loading operations. From here,
         everything  happening inside  and outside  the plant can  be
         monitored. A  station equipped with two compressors has a  capacity
         of  about  50,000 tons/year and  costs about 2 million S.Kr.
         ($428,266)."
            " The transfer trailer is equipped with a  hydraulic  plate
         which, when loading, serves as back-stop to obtain correct  load
         distribution and  compression ratios  (about  1:3).  On
         emptying—which takes 4 to 5 minutes—the plate serves as  an
         explusion plate."
Uppsala
        The  city street administration operates approximately  25
collection vehicles of 2 to 3 tonne  capacity each which collect  5  days per
week, once per week from  each  residence. Plastic bags are used which are
generally deposited by the householder beneath some  shelter to  minimize
moisture pickup and snow accumulation. The trucks operate from 6:30 a.m. to
3:00 p.m. although their routes are  generally completed  by  1:00  p.m. The
plant receives about 200 tonnes (220 tons) per day.

Copenhagen;Amager

        Delivery is by  local garbage trucks. There is  little,  if any,
bulky waste turned directly.
        The  overall cost for collection and disposal averages about 465
D.Kr. per year per person ($80.48).
        Waste  has been  collected  since 1898 by a not-for-profit society,
Renholdnings Selskabet.  Much  could be  written  regarding  this  very
successful  organization.  One item of interest is that each  walking
collector has a computer printout that tells him exactly  how many Danish
Kroner he will earn by  "traveling 17 horizontal steps,  three  vertical
steps,  picking up a 10 liter (can gallon)...".

        Comment:  We are unaware  of  any collection system as detailed and
        filled with motivational factors as the system at Rehnoldnings.
        Further information is available.
-------
                                E-16
         A  large transfer station at Amager is shown under  construction in
1977 in Figure D-1. The area's industrial  waste and household bulky  waste
is taken to  this  transfer station located on  the grounds of the Amager
plant.  Some  of  the waste is then transferred  to the Uggelose landfill
located  37 km  (23 mi) northwest of Amager and  inland.  During 1975-1976,
32,37*1  garbage  trucks entered the  transfer  station. Some  shredded
combustible  waste was taken to the adjoining  refuse burning plant to be
mixed with  other raw refuse prior to "mass burning". About 13f723 transfer
trailer loads were taken to the Uggelose landfill.

Copenhagen;West

         In addition to the normal input from local garbage trucks, large
transfer trailers from the  city of Hillerod travel about  UO km (25  miles)
one-way  to bring  northern waste to the  Copenhagen:West unit.  Copenhagen:
West does not have a transfer station.
         The  overall cost for collection and disposal averages about 420
D.Kr. per year per person ($72.69).
-------
                                   F-l
                          COMPOSITION OF REFUSE

         The composition  of refuse is described in these following ways in
the below sections:

         •  Physical (paper, glass, etc.)
         •  Moisture ($ H20)
         •  Chemical,  Elemental and Molecular (C, Volatiles, Ash. etc.)

                      Physical Composition of Refuse

         Several  refuse  compositions collected from the visited plants  are
presented in Table F-1.  Because  the  percentages  vary so extremely from
place  to place  and  from time to  time, no European composite has been
developed. Only with the  addition of several more table samples should this
be attempted.  The reader is  thus referred to  Table F-2  (Zurich,  Geneva,
U.S.A.,  London, and Birmingham), Table  F-3  (Hamburg) and  Table F-1 (Thun
outside  of Zurich).

                             Moisture Content

         Table F-5 presents  moisture percentages  in  refuse that is
combusted where the information  was available.  In this sampling,  the
moisture percent ranged from a low average  of  22.5% to a  high average of
32.5$. The average among  six (6) facilities was 27.1$.
         At two times  during 1975 at  Dieppe,  France; Thermical-INOR  the
local plant owner contracted for detailed composition studies to be made.
Results  are shown in Table  H-5. Moisture per  separable item  is shown
ranging  from  3.2$ associated with the glass fraction in December compared
with 83.6$ in  putrescibles  in February. With  one minor exception all
categories show higher moisture  readings  in February. Obviously  the
weighted average moisture content of 38.9$ in February was caused by rain
during  the previous days. Even the 32.3$ average in December is higher  than
the European average.

           Chemical,  Elemental and Molecular Composition of Refuse

         Data  of  this nature is  rare. However,  Table F-6 is  shown to
represent one  reading of Zurich. In this analysis water is 33$.  organic
material is 11$ and minerals account for 26$
         A  much  earlier study used to design  the Copenhagen:West
incinerator was the 1961-65 analysis of composition by sources as shown in
Table F-7. Separate  analyses were made for  samples from (1) a shopping
area, (2) a villa housing area,  (3)  a new  housing area and  (4) an
industrial area.  The  low readings of the "higher heating value" should  warn
the reader that today's waste is substantially different in  composition.
-------
                                F-2
    TABLE F-l.  MOISTURE PERCENTAGES IN REFUSE COMBUSTED
               VISITED EUROPEAN REFUSE-TO-ENERGY PLANTS
Percent Moisture
Trip
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15


Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
Baden-Brugg
Duesseldorf
Wuppertal
Krefeld
Paris :Issy
Hamburg : Stellinger-Moor
Zurich :Hagenholz
Switzerland Average
The Hague
Dieepe (and Deauville)
Goteborg
Uppsala
Horsens
Copenhagen : Amager
Copenhagen: West
Average
Low Average
25.0 35.0
—
—
—
20.0
—
30.0
20.0 22.5
32.9
32.3
23.0
—
—
—
32.0
31.1
22.5 27.9
High
40.0
—
—
—
—
—
—
25.0
—
38.9
—
—
—
—
—
37.5
32.5
Source:  Battelle interviews
-------
                                 F-3
       TABLE F-2 .  COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN
                  SWITZERLAND, USA, AND BRITAIN
Composition by Weight Percent (%)
(Location and
Switzerland U.S
Constituants
Food waste
Textiles
Paper
Plastics
Leather and rubber
Wood
Glass
Ferrous and nonferrous
1
20
4
36
4
2
4
8
6
2
12
2.5
30
7
-
6
5
7
3
14.5
3.0
33.5
2
-
2.5
8.5
5
1
6
3
40
4
2
2
17
9
Source)
.A. Britain
4
14
-
55
1
-
4
9
9
5 6
26 13
2 2.5
37 51.5
1.5 1.0
-
_
8 6.5
8.5 6.5
  metals

Street sweepings and
  garden waste

Stones, dust, and other
  debris
10  33.5
31
12
15
16
Sources:  1.  National averages as published by EAWAG  (1971)  (used for
                planning Hagenholz)
          2.  Municipal solid waste of Geneva  (1972)
          3.  Municipal solid waste of Zurich  (1963/1964)
          4.  Reference
          5.  London (1972)
          6.  Birmingham (1972)
-------
F-4















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                F-5
TABLE F-4.  REFUSE COMPOSITION AT THUN,
           1975

Paper
Glass
Ceramic
Metal
Wood
Textiles, Leather,
Rubber
Plastics
Kitchen waste
Garden waste
Misc.
39.66%
8.31%
1.23%
4.80%
5.51%

6.04%
6.57%
8.96%
13.42%
5.50%

 (From Wohin mit den Abfalien?" Zurich,
  November 1976)
-------
F-6

















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                             F-7
   TABLE F-6.  AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL
              SOLID WASTE IN-ZURICH,  SWITZERLAND
Composition in Weight (a)
Constituent
Water
Material Containing Organics
Decomposable Material
Carbon
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Organic Material Total
Material Containing Minerals
Carbonate
Potassium
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
Ferrous
Mineral Material Total
GRAND TOTAL
Component


36.20
20.20
2.60
0.34
0.57
0.12


0.86
0.11
2.40
0.54
0.24
2.35

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(a)  The table is not composed for totals to be summed.
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                                   G-l
                          HEATING VALUE OF REFUSE

                        Definitions and Calculations

         Heating values  are  expressed in either  of two manners (1) Lower
Heating  Value  (LHV) and (2)  Higher Heating  Value  (HHV).  This has
occassionally lead to confusion even through the difference is only about
7$. The Europeans have the practice of using Lower Heat Value (LHV)  versus
the U.S.  practice of using  Higher Heat Value (HHV).  The difference arises
from the heat  of condensation  of the  hydrogen-produced water in the  flue
gas.
         Heating values  cannot be calculated precisely. Usually they are
measured by burning a fuel sample in oxygen in a bomb  calorimeter. The  heat
released  and  measured in the  calorimeter includes that heat given up when
the water vapor formed by the  burning of hydrogen  in  the fuel,  condenses,
giving  up its heat of vaporization  (1052.8 Btu/lb)  (584.9 Kcal/Kg) (139.7
kJ/Kg).  Thus the calorimeter  usually  measures the Higher  Heat Value.  In
Europe  the well  established practice is to calculate the Lower Heat Value
by substracting the heat  of condensation of the  hydrogen-produced water
from the calorimeter-measured  heat value.
         With  hydrogen-free fuel such as pure carbon,  the  HHV and LHV are
identical. As  the hydrogen content of fuel increases  the discrepancy
widens.  Lowry'1), in his  Chemistry of  Coal Utilization,  provides data  as
shown in Table G-1.
         This  difference has  no effect in efficiency calculations.  In
Europe the heat of condensation is not included  in  the heat input so  it
doesn't  appear  in the efficiency calculations.  In the U.S. it is a part  of
the heat.  However,in calculation of efficiency it  is always subtracted  from
output  as a heat loss of about  7 percent due to energy lost up the stack  in
uncondensed water vapor that was formed in combustion.
         The hydrogen content  of refuse is highly  variable.  Kaiser (2)
assumed  an average of 3.5 percent by weight. Perry (3) provides a  simple
conversion formula:

         LVH = HHV - 92.7 H.

         Thus  for a refuse having an LHV of 2500 Kcal/Kg (4500 Btu/lb)
(597.1 kJ/Kg), the HHV in Btu/lb is

         HHV = 4500 + 92.7 (3.5)
            = 4500 + 324
            = 4824 Btu/lb.

Thus in  this typical example the HHV is 7.2 percent  higher than the LHV.

        For the  three units of measurement, the formulas are slightly
different  as follows:

        HHV (Btu/lb)  = LHV +  324
        HHV (Kcal/Kg) =  LHV + 180
        HHV (KJ/Kg) = HHV + 43
-------
                                G-2
        TABLE  G-l.   HYDROGEN  CONTENT  AND  CALORIFIC VALUES
                    OF FOUR FUELS








Calorific Values,



Coke
Anthracite
Bituminous Coal
Petroleum
Hydrogen
(H2)
percent
0.30
2.50
5.18
12.75

Gross
(HHV)
12,500
12,780
13,560
18,540
Btu/lb
Net
(LHV)
12,470
12,545
13,075
17,345
Heat
Lost in
Water
Vapor
at 20 C,
percent
0.2
1.8
3.6
6.4
Source:  Lowry, H. H., "Chemistry of Coal Utilization", First
         Edition, Vol. 1, page 134, Table 1.
Refers also to:
        and to;
Kaiser, E.R., Proceedings, 1964 ASME
Incinerator Conference, p. 36.
Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook,
Fifth Edition, p. 914.
-------
                                   G-3


                 General Comments on Refuse Heating Values

         Figure  G-1  shows how the lower  heating values have  risen  over the
years  in ten  (10)  European cities.   Generally speaking,  most of the visited
plants have  current values between those  of Duesseldorf on the  low  side and
Stockkholm on  the high side.
         Table  G-2  presents LHV's as reported for most of  the 15 visited
plants. In several instances  the  actual LHV has been higher than  that used in
the plant design.
         In  each case the difference  can be traced to the amount and type of
industrial waste now being imputed to the system  as opposes to that originally
anticipated. This has resulted  in very high maintenance costs.

                Specific Comments on Systems'  Heating Values

Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

         At  Werdenberg-Liechtenstein,  there have been magnesium chips from the
Hilti  fastsner-explosives plant, and  industrial trimmings  from  a screen
printing firm,  a  plastic tape  manufacturer and a leather shoe  manufacturer.
Such materials  have occassionally caused hot  spots on the grates  adversly
affecting bar  life.

Duesseldorf

         At  Duesseldorf, the  original "Duesseldorf Walzenrost  Roller Grate" was
installed in a refractory wall  furnace.  As  the refuse rose in LHV (the  refuse
became  hotter),  the refractory could no  longer stand the higher  temperatures.
As a result,  the  currently standing plant was built with a  combination of
refractory and water tube walls.
         Currently at Duesseldorf,  there is a  bulk waste shear ajoining the
main refuse  pit. There is also  a  Hazeman shredder in a separate building (See
Figure G-2).
         The single conveyor  from  the  shredder drops its  "hotter"  dryer
shredded waste into the pit between furnace lines No. U and No.  5.  Lines  No.  1
through  No. 4 were the originally constructed furnaces. Unit No. 5 was designed
later  expecting this hotter waste and has had few problems.  Unit No.  4,
however,which  was  properly  designed for a "cooler" waste now  has  problems with
the hotter material.
         Temperatures are higher, boiler corrosion rates are higher, ash  fusion
on boiler tubes is more prevelent and there is more high temperature corrosion
in the  electrostatic precipitator. Compared to what is needed,  the original
units do not have enough heat  transfer surface area before the hot gases  reach
the superheater tubes.
         After the problem was  discovered it was hoped that the crane operator
could evenly distribute the hotter shredded waste over all  five furnaces.
Unfortunately  the  two active  cranes are so busy feeding the furnaces, that the
material does not really get  down to units  No.  1  and No. 2. During Battelle's
three  visits  in 1976 and 1977 the shredder was  not in service.  In future plant
designs,  consideration will have to  be  given  to either  (1) distributing
shredded refuse  evenly with the unshredded material or (2) designing the
furnaces  near the shredded material to  accept a hotter load.  One  point is
-------
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                          G-6
       TABLE G-3.   ENERGY VALUES OF SELECTED
                    REFUSE COMPONENTS (DRY)
                                             kcal/kg
Average waste

Constituents (in relation to the
  dried products)

  paper

  plastic, leather, rubber

  food waste

  textiles

  wood

Forest and wood industry residues

Agriculture and food industry waste

Tires

Bituminous coal

Gasoline

Methanol
1600 - 3400
4160 - 4460

5600 - 6450

   4775

   4500

   4820

   4090

   2780

   8230

5600 - 8100

   11400

   5420
Source:  Various sources.
-------
                                   G-7
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            Hotter
            Refuse
                         Sheared
                          Refuse
                           Normal Refuse
Shredded
 Refuse
                        1   I
                     I
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                          Outside Tipping
                               Floor
                Shredder
        FIGURE G-2.  SHREDDER AND SHEAR LAYOUT AT DUESSELDORF
-------
                                   G-8


clear, excessive  amounts of hotter shredded waste should  not be casually
mixed with  normal  waste unless a proper  system is designed.  Table  G-M
shows that  from  1961  to 1975 at the Duesseldorf plant,  the  average lower
heat value  of  refuse  increased 70 percent,  4,292 kJ/kg to 7,31^ kJ/kg
(1,025 kcal/kg to 1,7^7 kcal/kg)(1,8^5  Btu/lb to 3,1^5 Btu/lb).

Hamburg;Stellinger-Koor

         The Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor plant was designed  with an upper LHV
bound of 2200  Kcal/kg which apparently  seemed reasonable at the time.
However, today's  actual upper limit approaches 2,500 Kcal/kg. It appears
that primarily  for  purposes of waste  disposal (in contrast  to energy
purposes at  Zurich)  more industrial  loads  than anticipated have  been
received  and combusted.
         For example,  on two separate  occasions in three days, Battelle
researchers  observed full truck loads  of Agfa  film being dumped  into  the
pit. This  hotter  waste has had a predictable  effect on the  Stellinger-Moor
maintenance  record. The record of precipitator  maintenance due to  hot  flue
gas is poor  as described later in the Air Pollution Control section.
         Here the recommendation is  that the  plants be very  selective of
the  industrial  waste  that is allowed  to be  burned. For the purposes of
protecting  the refuse to energy plant, some of the local industries  will
have to  find other disposal means for its hot waste.

Zurich:Hagenholz

         A  different  motivation  has  resulted in similar maintenance
problems  at  Zurich:Hagenholz. Actually  the total  situation is  very  complex
and  thus only  one portion will be treated  here. Back in the mid 1960's
Units No.  1  and 2 were  designed assuming  1,000 to  1,800 Kcal/kg.  This  was
based on information  available in the  late  1950's and early  1960's. Again
unfortunately with the  increase of packaging,  paper and industrial  waste;
the heating value has increased.
         The motivation  in Zurich  is slightly  different in that Hagenholz
is primarily an "energy plant" and secondarily a  "waste  disposal  plant" .
Hagenholz is one module of the city's district  heating system.
         Zurich officials (more than have been  observed  elsewhere)  provide
special  incentives  for industry to bring free  and "hot"  waste. Apparently
the economics of having more  than normal boiler down time  on Units No.  1
and  No.  2  are  more  than compensated by the  savings  in purchased  fuel  oil,
etc.  at  the other conventional fossil fuel  district heating plants ir
Zurich.
         In the belief  that a "refuse  energy"  plant (as contrasted with  c
"refuse disposal" plant) could be  built,  the  local  director  Ma)
Baltsenberger, worked  every Friday with a Joseph Martin project  engineer tc
design Unit No. 3, a suburb  plant. The trip report  on  Zurich lists over 35
design  features that have  produced amazing  results.  At the time of
Battelle's  visit, this  plant  had  been  consuming high calorific  waste for
30,000 hours.  The superheater tubes had only  0.3 mm  (0.012 in)  corrosior
and the  furnace water wall tubes had  lost only 0.1  to 0.2 mm.  (0.00^ tc
0.008 in).
-------
                                  G-9
TABLE G-4.
Year
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
HEATING VALUES FOR MIXED MUNICIPAL REFUSE
PLANTS (Courtesy of Klaus S. Feindler)^

Minimum
Btu/lb.
(kcal/kg).
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2,911
(1,617)
2,803
(1,557)
2,666
(1,481)
2,954
(1,641)
Duesseldorf (2)
Average
Btu/lb.
(kcal/kg)
1,845
(1,025)
1,530
( 850)
2,196
(1,220)
—
—
2,468
(1,371)
2,621
(1,456)
2,792
(1,551)
2,882
(1,601)
2,948
(1,638)
3,087
(1,715)
3,164
(1,758)
3,037
(1,687)
2,855
(1,586)
3,145
(1,747)

Maximum
Btu/lb.
(kcal/kg)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
3,299
(1,832)
3,242
(1,801)
3,203
(1,779)
3,374
(1,874)
M REFUSE POWER
Stockholm (3)
Average
Btu/lb.
(kcal/kg)
—
—
—
3,546
(1,970)
3,942
(2,190)
4,050
(2,250)
—
—
—
—
4,545
(2,525)
4,950
(2,750)
4,680
(2,600)
4,500
(2,500)
4,410
(2,450)
(1)  Annual Averages of the Lower or Net Heating Value LEV in Btu/
    Ib.
(2)  Source:  Operator of MVA Duesseldorf.
(3)  Source:  Vereinigte Kesselwerke A.G.,  Duesseldorf.
(4)  Stockholm refuse reportedly contains a fairly high percentage
    of plastics.
(5)  To convert from kcal/kg to KJ/kg multiply by 4.1868.
-------
                                  G-10
Copenhagen:Amager and West

         As  calorific values  have increased, manufacturers of refractory
wall units have been faced with design challenges  so  that the refractory
walls do not  crack, spall or  explode. At the two Copenhagen plants, Araager
and West, Volund installed flue gas recirculation systems.  A percentage  of
oxygen  poor  flue  gas  exiting from the electrostatic  precipitator  is
recycled back  to the secondary  air system. While  it  has a temperature  of
about 300 C  i.e.  hotter  than ambient air, it cools  the furnace because it
dilutes  the hoter furnace gas with oxygen poor gas.  A  furnace thermocouple
can automatically control the amount of flue gas recirculated.
-------
                                    H-l


               REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING RATES PER PERSON

         Refuse generation rates are not always  equivalent to  refuse burning
rates.   There occassionally is the tendency to confuse  the  these rates  for
several reasons. Sometimes people will report a generation rate that includes
construction waste, demolition debris,  power  plant ash, sewage sludge, waste
oils and solvents, pathological waste, etc. The  above items are normally  not
permitted  into  the refuse  pit and are hence excluded from any calculation of
the per capita refuse burning rate.  Household bulky waste is sometimes accepted
into the pit  depending on the particular  system.
         Readers of  this report are  presumably  interested primarily in "solid
combustible  waste loads" that are "combusted to  produce energy". Thus Table  H-1
was constructed to show reported tonnages of only combustible loads of refuse
(household,  commercial and light industrial)  that are combusted at the visited
refuse fired  energy  facility. The figures have  been  divided by  the generation
population  as accurately as is possible.
         The  following  (Table H-2) shows a range of Battelle estimates of  the
burning rates per person. The figures are shown per year and per  operating day.
Tracing through  the background assumptions, we  believe that an  average or best
estimate for  household refuse plus some light  commercial waste is 318 kg  per
person  per year.  The range from this estimate varies by country, by population
density and by availability of alternative  disposal means.
         However,  the range on burning other commercial and light industrial is
waste is more dramatic. The amount of light industrial waste varies extensively
depending  on (1)  local industrial composition, (2) whether the facility has  a
shear, (3)  opening of the feed chute and C4) policy of the operator. In this
waste  category,  the rate can vary  from  25 to  100 kg per person  per year. It is
really  more  meaningful to  emphasize the range than to  concentrate on an
average. But if  one assumes a 45  kg per person per year  average, the total
household,  commercial and light industrial  waste  generation rate  becomes:
         •    363 kg  per person per year (or)
         •    800 pounds per person per year (or)
         •    .99 kg  per person per day (or)
         •    2.19 pounds per person  per day
-------
                                                                         H-2
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-------
                                 H-3
    TABLE H-2. EUROPEAN AVERAGE REFUSE GENERATION AND BURNING
               RATES PER PERSON (1976-1977 PERIOD)


Low
Average
High

Low
Average
High

Low
Average
High
Low
Average
High
Household and
Light Commercial

275
318
350

605
700
770

0.75
0.81
0.96
1.66
1.92
2.11
Other Commercial
and Light
Industrial
kg/person/year
25
45
100
pounds/person/year
55
100
220
kg/person/day
0.07
0.12
0.27
pounds/person/day
0.15
0.27
0.60
Total
Combustible
Loads (b)

300
363
450

660
800
990

0.82
0.99
1.23
1.80
2.19
2.71
 (a) Calculated at 365 days/year even though some systems
    operate only 5, 5-1/2, or 6 days per week.

(b) Full weight of  contents in a vehicle where contents are
    destined for combustion.

Source:   Battelle estimates.
-------
                            1-1
   DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFUSE  FIRED ENERGY GENERATION
       TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF VISITED SYSTEMS

This section is divided  into  three major parts as follows:

•   Development of  the  Refuse Fired  Energy Technology  (1896  to
    1982)
•   General Comments about Development of Visited Systems
•   Specific Comments about Development of Visited Systems
-------
                                   1-2
                     DEVELOPMENT OF THE REFUSE FIRED
                 ENERGY GENERATOR TECHNOLOGY (1896 to  1982)

         Producing and  utilizing energy from  refuse combustion goes  back
many years.   One  early account  described  in  1896  a  small
r«fuse-to-electricity and industrial steam  plant  in Hamburg, Germany
located  on Rohrstrasse.   There were  other  turn of the century refuse to
energy plants located at Paris and Zurich.
         But the Europeans were not  the only ones active in this field.
There was the  Delancey street plant in New York  City, that produced
electricity to light the Williamsburg Bridge in  1906. There was yet another
plant on Staten  Island  about the same time.  Based  on knowledge of  five
systems  prior to 1910, we might predict existence of two or three times
that many small plants in  those early days.
         The  above points  out one fact.   The  first  systems were
sophisticated enough to  produce electricity. They were not just simple hot
air generators. The early  units were refractory  walled  and  thus the quality
(temperature and pressure)  of the steam was limited and efficiency was  very
low. There were many advances in design evolved  by the  various vendors.
         During  the period  from  1910  through  19^5,  there were  many
improvements to the overall  systems and to the art of boiler making.  Also,
during  this time there  was increasing concern aobut the  wastefullness of
using valuable land for  unsightly landfills. There was also rising concern
about effects on ground  water contamination.
         Then in the late 19^0's and 1950's,  vendors primarily Von  Roll
began to develop ways to  take more energy out of the combustion gases.  This
effort was spearheaded by  Mr. Richard Tanner who has since  retired from Von
Roll.  Many  consider  him the principal originator of the modern-day
water-tube wall  refuse  combuster.  Basically  he  applied  to refuse
combustion what  others had  been  learning  about coal combustion in
water-tube wall units.
         As  explained in  the Boiler Section,  the "water-tube  wall
furnace/boiler" has the  refuse combustion section surrounded by steel tubes
in  parallel,  usually sloping or vertical.  In this way about half of the
energy in the flame is absorbed before the gases enter the regular boiler
convection  section. This  increases heat  absorption efficiency and the
tubular  construction allows  a much higher pressure steam to be produced.
         By  1965 the people in Europe and  Japan, in contrast to  the United
States,  were fearing more  and more the long  term landfill effects.  These
fears were  strong enough to cause  many cities to choose refuse burning.
They were, and still are,  willing to  pay a premium price for refuse burning
over landfilling.  In many cases  the refuse  burning option would be two,
three or four times as expensive as landfilling.
         The  Japanese, since  19&5,  have  become increasingly  conscious of
what is  put into  close-in fishing  waters  off the  Japanese coast.  Their
diet is so  heavily tied to saltwater fish.   Analytical tests for  heavy
metals ahd harmful  organics showed  dangerous concentrations.   Industry,
municipal sewage  plants and  landfills were  blamed  for these concentrations.
         In addition to landfills  on normal land,  the  Japanese  have  long
reclaimed  the  sea with trash.  In  fact,  this  author spent an  afternoon in
1975  on the  180 acre "Dream Island" in  the Tokyo Bay. Pilings had  been
driven. Household refuse  and  construction debris  were then  dumped in. Now
-------
                                   1-3
after many  years,  the waste has  settled and several buildings have  been
constructed:  including the attractive 1800 ton per  day  Koto Incinerator
built by  Takuraa.  However, sea  filling of household refuse is no longer
permitted  in the sea. Instead  Japan has become the world's most active
builder of  refuse  fired steam  generators—primarily due to their fear of
landfill or  seafill leachate effects.
        Prompted by the dangers  of leachate and concern for scarcity of
land, many European countries  and cities had refuse  burning construction
programs  from 1960 to 1973.  Acutally by the time that the Arab Oil Embargo
occurred in  1973, some countries  were saturated with plants.  The effect of
doubling  or quadrupling of energy  prices was not all  that noticeable on new
orders. These authors have concluded that energy considerations have never
been and  are not  now the driving force leading to  construction of energy
systems.
        Cities build refuse fired energy systems  because they fear the
long term  effects of landfill leachate, and they preceive  a shortage of
land.  OPEC oil prices would have  to  rise dramatically before the basic
motivation for resource recovery changes from matters of  landfilling to
energy matters.
        The next force on the development was the pressure to clean up the
atmosphere.   It  is hard to know exactly when this pressure began building,
but  it was  well noticed during the  1960"s.  Air pollution control had a
substantial  effect on energy production and utilization.   Air pollution
control equipment  was needed after  the combustion and before the stack.
Then and  now, all  such air cleaning equipment  would deteriorate until
ineffective with  excessively hot flue gas passing through them.  Thus the
combustion flue  gases had to be cooled.
        Three  methods exist:   (1)  the water spray cooling tower,  (2)
massive air  dilution and, (3) the boiler.  There were  communities  with
refuse but  not a  sufficiently  concentrated energy demand to make energy
production realistic. Hence many systems were built with  only a cooling
tower  before the  (1)  baghouse,  (2)  scrubber  or, (3)  electrostatic
precipitator. Unfortunately, the  moisture inherent in  such water spray
systems would remain in the ductwork and the air cleaning device when the
unit was shut down.  This caused excessive "dew point"  corrosion.
        To  prolong the life of the  air cleaning equipment, boilers  were
installed  whenever there was a desirable market for energy.

             General Comments  About Development of Visited Systems

Motivations  and  Decision Making

        One  of the motivations  for  commissioning this study was to
determine  answers to several basic questions as follows:
        1.   Why, in 1977,  were there about 275 refuse fired energy
             systems in Europe and less than 20 in the United States.
        2.   Are the conditions prior to 1977 in Europe and the U.S.
             still in existence?
        3.   Is  the situation  in  the U.S. such that the ratio should
             continue or should U.S. communities begin developing
             their systems?
-------
                                   1-4
         By  examining why Europeans decided on  their own local  systems, we
have endeavored to determine motivation and decision making patterns.  Going
into  the project,  these authors  had  about a dozen hypotheses for the
difference between the two continents. Some have  been verified while others
have been discarded.  New motivations have been added.

Main Purpose - Waste Disposal? or Energy Production?

         In  general we can conclude that the "primary motivation" for
constructing  European refuse to energy  plants has been  to replace an
existing landfill,  compost plant or incinerator or to add additional  solid
waste disposal capacity.  At none of the 15 major or 15 minor  visits was
the primary motivation connected with energy production.
         However (and this is the confusing concept to many), some of the
best  systems  are  operated with  the "primary objective"  of energy
production.  Stated another way, the strategic overall goal is  to destroy
refuse:  while  the  tactical detailed goal is to provide energy of reliable
quantity and quality to offset disposal  costs.  Perhaps  the lesson to be
learned is:
         •   Let  the elected officials and community  leaders decide to
            build and finance the refuse burning plant.
         •   Let  the engineers, planners  and economists design and let the
            staff operate the energy plant for minimum cost to taxpayers.
         Occasionally  at  a resource recovery conference, a debate is held
leading to an "either-or"  conclusion.  Often after a series of speakers
have  discussed  the  technical aspects  of their plant, an agitated  local
official will rise from the floor to explain, "I don't  really care about
the energy.   I've got 500 tons per day  of garbage to get rid of.   Can I
burn it?"
         The  fact is that concentration on energy matters is necessary.
Otherwise the expenses  of  refuse burning, gas  cooling  and air pollution
control  could  not be paid for. Energy sales are necessary to lower the net
disposal or tipping fee. To sell energy,  it must  be produced reliably.
         In  the following are  reasons  that should explain developments of
visited systems.

Stated Reasons for Development of Refuse
Fired Energy Systems

         Table 1-1 shows  the stated reasons "phases" associated with each
unit. Frankly  as the interviews matured from the  early ones  in Switzerland
to  the later  ones in  Scandanavia, the level  of detail  increased.  The
reader will therefore notice an  increase in  the number  of reasons per
plant	that only relfects interviewing technique.
         The results have been retabulated in Table 1-2 show the rank  order
of  mentions out  of a  15  possible  total.  The results are  rearranged  again
in Table 1-3 by reason and by plant.

         Component of  Energy and Environmental  Park.  The  biggest surprise
of  the trip was  the overwhelming  presence, 14 mentions,  of energy and
environmental parks.  These parks are a recurrent theme of this report.
Only  at  Wuppertal,  does  the facility  stand by  itself.   At  the  other
-------
                                   1-5
               TABLE 1-1.   PHRASES ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPMENT
                           OF VISITED SYSTEMS
Werdenberg-Liechtenstein
          disappointment with composting
          growth in waste collected (historical fact)
          federal government grant program

Baden-Brugg
          growth in waste collected (future estimate based on population )
          unexpected increase in population
          federal government matching fund grant program
Duesseldorf
          landfill volume reduction
          growing problems of solid waste disposal
          enthusiasm from local city engineers to develop new systems
Wuppertal
          landfill life estimated to be only 10 years
          composting considered but too much inorganic waste
          incineration would triple life of existing landfill to 30 years
Krefeld
          city landfill was past half of its useful life
          compost was tried on small pilot scale to extend landfill life
          landfill became such a steep pile that operations became dangerous
          frequent refuse fires caused annoyance from smoke and odors
          composting was not promising
          study showed "that incineration would be the best of the alternatives"
            but "it is also the most expensive alternative"
          optimim  solution to place refuse incineration plant next to waste
            water treatment plant
          searched for another alternative-rail haul
          geology of distant landfill unfavorable for proper land disposal
          re-estimate landfill life to expire in 5 or 10 years
          returned again to co-disposal
Paris:Issy
          historical pattern since 1903 incinerator
          first incinerator with heat recovery in 1928
          period of composting and landfilling 1955 to 1965
          citizens voted to build third plant in 1960
-------
                                   1-6
                          TABLE 1-1. (Continued)
'Hamburg;Stellinger-Moor (S-M)
          the first refuse to electricity in Europe 1896.
          continuous waste energy pattern since
          second unit in 1930
          third unit in 1952
          fourth unit in 1962
          S-M conceptuatized in 1930 for construction when NW suburb
            population grows
          purchased land decades ahead for sanitary park
          fifth unit S-M in 1970-72
          sixth unit in 1971 for industrial waste
          seventh unit in 1977 during visit in NE suburb
          Hamburg is the world's first city to commercialize refuse to
            energy	in 1896.  It has continued unwavering in its commit-
            ment to mass burning of municipal refuse to produce useful
            energy	81 years of devotion to this single concept

Zurich;Hagenholz

          historical pattern of waste-to-energy since 1904—74 years
          overloading and corrosion
          short period of landfilling on farm land
          old district heating system
          long range plan called for two facilities
          emphasis on energy production
          surprise at rising calorific values
          emphasis on technical reliability rather than cost
The Hague
          first incinerator (without energy recovery)  in  1919
          many citizens favored land recovery from sea
          lower incinerator operating rate and began landfilling in sea
          railed refuse to distant inland compost plant for 30 years
          compost used as soil conditioner for "polder" recovery in the
            Zider Zee
          cost of rail haul increased
          study, principal objection of solution "to meet high hygienic
            standards inherent in other solutions'
          fuel prices were high - 1964
          possibility to recover heat energy from refuse  promised attractive
            revenues
Dieppe  (Brive and Deauville)
          used uncontrolled landfills prior to 1971
          smokey fires at the landfill
          growing scarcity of available landfill area
-------
                                   1-7
                           TABLE 1-1. (Continued)
Dieppe (Continued)
          composting rejected because of lack of assured market for
            product
          district heating rejected because of only two factories and
            poor summer load in addition to the poor winter load
          electricity production rejected because electric utility would
            not guarantee revenue
          local officials became aware of unique sludge drying process
          need for sludge disposal method
Gothenburg
Uppsala
Horsens
          seven small refuse fired hot water generators prior to 1971
          used in connected district heating system
          remainder of waste to uncontrolled landfills
          air pollution from old incinerators was a problem
          had considered large landscaped hills—"Mt.  Trashmore" as at Stockholm and
            several U.S. cities
          discuss better ways of doing it
          concensus of central facility would be more desirable
          siting was originally difficult
          compost plant in 1950's
          market for compost material could not be maintained
          pressure in 1960 to find another disposal method
          large and integrated environmental improvement and energy
            conservation program started by City Council in 1960
          program: district heating, electrical production, refuse-energy
            oil fired boilers to begin
          in summer refuse is base load, oil Is standby
          some suburb areas have portable oil-fired boilers
          1970 decision for pulverizer for industrial waste
          uncontrolled landfill
          landfill fires and rats
          City Council determined it had to be replaced
          environmentally more acceptable method
          unsatisfactory experience with modern composting:  1951 to 1965
          from the start, assured markets for compost would not be maintained
          in last five years of operation none (compost)  was sold
          visited 10 cities who had chosen refuse to energy systems
-------
                                  1-8
                          TABLE 1-1 .  (Continued)
Horsens (Continued)
          well managed landfills cost 1/2 to 1/3 as much to operate as
            incinerators
          but acceptable sites for new landfills are rare
          desire to utilize heat
          plan included new sewage treatment plant
          important incentive toward clean alternatives to landfilling
            is the threat to groundwater quality from old uncontrolled
            landfills
          since Denmark imports all of its energy, the recovery of energy
            from wastes has long been an important goal
          oil crisis of 1973 intensified the need for more waste to energy
            systems
          additional refuse fired steam generators are envisioned
          national legislation will likely require greater use of district
            heating
Copenhagen (Amager and West)
          waste to electricity since 1930's - 2 facilities
          40 year experience at each plant
          "Knowledge" of landfill leachate damages became better known
          neighbors became upset over blowing trash
          local citizens got attention of elected officials
          originally, each community wanted to solve problem alone
            finally one community decided on resource recovery, others
            followed
          eventually got attention of metropolitan government
          study by regional utility
          recommended two units: Amager and West
          quantity discount for both units
-------
                              1-9
         TABLE 1-2.   RANK ORDER LISTING OF REASONS MENTIONED
                      FOR DECIDING TO CONSTRUCT A REFUSE TO
                      STEAM OR HOT WATER PLANT
Component of Energy & Environmental Park                    14
Long Term Policy Against Leachate from Landfills             8
Compost Plant Closed                                         6
Long History of Incineration (Replace Old Incinerator)       6
Need for Electricity                                         6
Landfill About to Expire                                     5
Need for District Heating                                    5
Country Imports Most of Energy                               5
National Policy Favoring District Heating Systems            5
Fires, Odors, Rats, Blowing Refuse at the Landfill           4
Included in Very Long Range Plans                            4
-------
                1-10

TABLE 1-3.  MATRIX OF STATED REASONS FOR
            DEVELOPMENT OF REFUSE FIRED
            ENERGY SYSTEMS

IS 1 I 1 1 i II II
I. LANDFILL
A. About to Expire
B. No New Sites
C. Fear of Leachate
D. Fires, Odors, Rats,
Blowing Refuse
E. Dangerous Operation
F. Recovery of Sea
Expensive
G. Rail Haul
(1) Closed
(2) Never Opened
II . COMPOST
A. Closed-Not Able to
Market Compost
B. Never Started
(1) Fear of Failure
to market
(2) Too Many
Inorganics
III . INCINERATION
A. Old Incinerators
Had Air Pollution
B. Long History of
Incineration
C. Would Extend Life of
Existing Landfill -
Ash Only
D. Incineration Is
Hygienic
E. Excitement to Develop
New System
F. Need More Capacity
IV. NEED FOR ENERGY
A. Higher Fuel Prices
B. For District Heating
C. For Electricity
D. For Sludge Drying
E. Country Imports Most
of Energy
F. Component of Energy
and Environmental
Park
V. FEDERAL INCENTIVE
A. Federal Matching
Grant Program
B. Long Term Policy
Against Leachate
C. Policy Favoring
District Heating
VI. MISCELLANEOUS
A. Very Long Range
Plan (20+ years)
B. Even Though Expensive

X X












X



























X X


X X

X X





X

XXX



X
X




X


X


X

X







X

X

X




X X
X




X X










X














X









XXX







XXX


X X
X





XXX









XXX

£ 3 S


X
X

X


X

X



X


X




X

X




X




X
X
X X
X

X


XXX




X X

X




»J M
I I


X
X

X








X X



















X
X
X
X

X X


X X




X X

X X


X
X
5« 5
5 u £
So £ f.
si |f



X

X


















X X










X



X X


X X




X X

X X




to
£

5
2
3

4
1

1

1
1


6


2

1


1

6


1

2

1
3

2
5
6
3

5


14


2

8

5


4
2
-------
                                      1-11
  facilities, one will find various  energy and environmental modules.  The
  energy from refuse is needed to driie some of these other modules.
           At  other  systems  odiferous  gases  from rendering plants,
  pathological incinerators etc. are  sent to the refuse  burner as  overfire
  air.  The offending particles and gases are destroyed by combustion.

           Long-Term Policy Against Landfill Leachate.  A  true difference in
  continental attitudes is  associated  with landfill leachate.  In frequent
  conversations,  the attitude was  expressed,  "We  just  can't  have  the
  percolate (leachate) entering our  rivers, streams, groundwater, drinking
  water, etc.".
           When  pinned down  for damage  results, the effects are not clearly
  known.  Studies have been conducted in Europe that confirm travel  patternns
  of  leachate.  Many disease and cancer results are assumed.  Similar studies
  and assumptions apply to America.  Yet,  we have observed more intense fear
  and opposition to landfill leachate in Europe than in North America.
           One of the reasons for the average American not being as  concerned
  with  leachate  is the sanitary landfill program inspired by the U.S. Public
  Health Service, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and one leading  earth
  moving  equipment manufacturer. This  developmental program evolved during
  the late 1960's and early  1970's.   EPA has  poured technical talent and
  promotional  effort into  the concept. The  U.S. Environmental  Agency's
  position was  summarized in  the excellent 1972  publication of Sanitary
  Landfill Design and Operation.*
                        An acceptable alternative to the present poor
                     practices of land disposal is the sanitary landfill.
                     This alternative involves the planning and applying
                     of sound engineering principles and  construction
                     techniques. Sanitary landfilling is an engineered
                     method of  disposing of  solid wastes on land by
                     spreading them in thin  layers, compacting them
                     to the smallest practical volume, and covering them
                     with soil each working day in a manner that protects
                     the environment. By definition, no burning of solid
                     waste occurs at a sanitary landfill. A sanitary land-
                     fill is not only an acceptable and economic  method
                     of solid waste disposal, it is also an excellent way
                     to  make otherwise  unsuitable or marginal  land
                     valuable.

           Facing the agreed upon  problem, leachate; the U.S. approach has
  been to "correct" the problem by  operating  a better  landfill.  Europe's
  approach has  been to "avoid" the  problem by burning the refuse  and by
  recycling ash into useful products.

           Failure of Composting.  Solid waste treatment and disposal methods
  fall in and out of fashion over ten to twenty  year periods.  Shortly  after
  W.W.  II,  many  communities gegan compost operations using municipal solid
  waste as input.  Some also used sewage sludge.
           Six of the surveyed communities had compost operations that are
  now closed.  None of the  15  major  surveyed  communities  have composting
  operations anymore.  All failed for  the identical reason:  A market for the
  cornpsot product could not be maintained.


Brunner, Dirk R., Keller,  Daniel J. Sanitary Landfill Design and
Operation.  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency 1972
-------
                                  1-12
        A most  interesting brief visit was to Biel,  Switzerland where  the
compost is used  as  a  soil  conditioner in vineyards.   Only with such a
uniquely favorable market could composting survive.
        In Europe,  many  compost operations  collapsed  in the  1960's.
Another  disposal method  was  needed.   Landfilling was feared.   The
communities with composting operations  (10 percent in the  survey) turned to
refuse fired steam and hot water generators primarily for  disposal. Perhaps
20 of 25 compost  operations in the U.S. failed in a similar period  for
idential reasons.
        Composting was never as prevalent in North America as it has been
in Europe.  When it failed in the U.S.,  the loss did not have a significant
impact.   Samitary landfilling was  acceptable  and the chosen option.
Incineration was a "dirty" word in the  U.S.  due to  its public association
with air pollution.

        Long  History  of  Incineration. Forty percent  (40 percent)  of  the
communities surveyed  have  had long histories of refuse to  energy as
portrayed below:
            City
        6 Duesseldorf
        2 Paris
        1 Hamburg
        3 Zurich
        5 Gothenburg
        M Copenhagen
         The local organizations, staff,  energy distribution method, etc.,
were well established before the plant visited was conceived.  Momentum for
refuse  to energy was strong. To dismantle the preceding in favor of another
alternative  would  likely cause a  political  and economic distruption
perceived to be undesirable and unnecessary by locally elected officials.
         Yet  in the U.S. there have  been  several pre-W.W. II refuse to
energy  plants. However,  none of the older units have been replaced in the
U.S.

         Landfill  About  to  Expire (Hard  to Locate new Acceptable
Landfill).Five communities cited that  they  were  about to run out  of
landfill  capacity. Two different communities cited that there were no new
sites to be  found.  Adding the two similar  reasons provides a  total of
seven  relating to "expiration of old"  and  "location of new" landfills.
Apparently the only communities where this was not a key issue were where
the new energy  system would replace as older refuse to energy system.
-------
                                   1-13


         Need for Energy.  A need for energy "as supplied  by refuse" was
mentioned not because there is a critical  shortage of energy  but because
energy sales  help pay for accompanying expenses of refuse destruction.
         In all  systems, energy could be more  economically produced using
conventional fossil fuels.  There are trend  charts at Uppsala  that portray
hopes of refuse  derived  energy sales  eventually being able to cover all
plant  and distribution expenses. Should  this happen, the net  disposal fee
for the taxpayers would be reduced to zero. Only when the  net disposal fee
equals zero is the refuse derived energy as cheap as fossil fuel.
         Respondents mentioned the  need  to  energize their systems for
electricity  generation, district heating and sludge drying. Several  noted
concern for rising energy prices due to the Arab oil embargo, the eventual
shortage of  fossil fuels and the general  need for energyconservation. Some
countries have  stronger national programs  because nearly all of their
energy is imported and there is a "need to  be  somewhat independent".

         Economics. At no time did anyone give the impression  that waste to
energy was chosen because it was the lowest cost option. Frankly this  was a
surprise—that  no community chose  their refuse fired  energy plant for
economic reasons.  Many, however, did choose  the vendor based partly on his
estimates of  operating costs.
         Actually the  range of financial numbers in Europe is similar to
the range of  the few units in America. One  of  the smaller European plants
visited briefly experiences  a $H8 net  disposal fee (after sale of
electricity).  Yet another plant in a city with a long history of refuse to
energy has a  plant with a $6.27 net disposal fee.

         Governmental Philosophy.  In  Europe,  there is greater government
involvement  in  both environmental and energy daily operations. Usually the
community is  responsible for waste collection, especially household refuse.
The  local government  (municipal or authority)  is always responsible for
disposal. Jh  all cases known to these authors, refuse fired energy systems
are owned by  he  local government.
         Many of these governments also assume responsibility for hazardous
waste treatment  and disposal. With  the responsibility  clearly defined,
decisive action  has been frequent by elected officials.

         General Attitude. The general attitude can be characterized by the
following statements:
         •   We  don't like landfills
         •   We  don't think that a compost  product can reliably  be sold
         •   American type front-end resource  recovery seems to  be needless
             because of the  high processing cost,  low materials revenues
             and that the energy plant doesn't need the uniform  fuel
         •   So  what's left?
         •   Refuse fired, mass burning, energy production.
         Such logic leads to a sole consideration of the latter  concept.

Unstated Reasons

Many  attitudes  and reasons were gleaned from  the many formal  interviews and
social contacts  during the trip that cannot be tied to any on  system. These
-------
                                  1-14
are  attitudes  or differences in political  philosphy between the two
contiuents. No quantification or ranking is possible.

        Social  Democratic Philosophy. Many countries visited -are managed
by elected officials  voted into office by citizens that  believe  that
government can do more  for the  citizens than private  enterprise or
individuals  acting  independently.  Hence there  has  been a  rise of
coordinated municipal  functions.
        Not only is  household refuse  collected, processed and disposed but
often hazardous  waste is  as well. We  are not  aware  of  any American
municipality  assuming  such responsibility for  hazardous wastes. In
addition, local governments  produce the electricity,  distribute steam and
hot water, operate animal  rendering plants and dedicated industrial sludge
incinerators.
        The only way that  this "responsible local government attitude" can
progress is to accumulate enough tax revenue to purchase  and  operate these
systems.  In Europe  as in America,  resource  recovery is  normally  more
expensive than  landfilling with prevailing practice  at  the time. An
essential difference between the two  contin ents is  that European citizens
are willing to  subsidize resource recovery through increased taxes and
disposal fees.

        Capable and  Eager Vendors.  Europe has, perhaps by accident,  been
blessed with imaginative, progressive and aggressive  grate/furance/boiler
manufacturers  that have skillfully developed the art of  refuse fired steam
generation. This has  been the situation in America for many years  with
respect to grate/furnace  designs for fossil  fuels. It would appear that
American boiler  manufacturers have,  because of the prevailing national
attitudes, considered the refuse fired energy business as a step-child with
their other main line  markets for coal, oil and gas utility and industrial
boilers. The U.S.'has never supported enough of a market to encourage
profit minded American manufacturers to invest enough  resources to build up
large competitive capabilities in refuse processing.'  The "chain-letter"
building phenomena has not worked to effect a "build  one-sell three or
more, build three-sell nine more,..." progression. Indications are that
several American grate and boiler  companies may be beginning  such
experience chains.

            Specific  Comments About Development of Visited Systems

Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

        As  the waste disposal problem evolved in eastern Switzerland and
Liechtenstein, three of the  larger communities(Buchs, Switzerland; Vadus
and Shann in Liechtenstein) began discussions  of possible solutions. Some
years ago composting plants  were in vogue in Switzerland  and one was built
in Buchs. It cost about 1,000,000 S.Fr. and  began  operation in January,
1962. But gradually the plant became  too  small for  the amount of waste
being generated.  Subsequently Incinerator I  (without  heat recovery) was
built and started operation  in Janauary,  1968.  It cost about 2.5 million
S.Fr. However,  waste generation continued to increase at the rate of 20
percent  per year and in mid-1969,  it was decided that Incinerator  I  was
-------
                                  1-15


too small. Accordingly,  in 1970, the local Vereins fur  Abfallbeseitigung
(Society  for Waste Management) invited proposals for a new incinerator,  a
waste-to-energy plant.
         In December,  1971, the  proposal  of  Widmer & Ernst was accepted
and in January, 1972,  construction began adjacent to the old incinerator
and compost plants.   The plant was built in about 28 months and operation
began in April,  1974.   It  was dedicated on November 22,  1974, and
provisional acceptance was made in July, 1975.  Operation continued after
the dedication while adjustments were made to firing rate  and to component
operation.

Baden-Brugg

         In 1956,  the  separate communities  of Baden and Brugg (16 km or 10
miles  apart) began a study of alternate methods for solving their growing
solid  waste  problems.  This study  envisioned by 1985 a population  of
77,000 and a solid waste production  of  20,000 tonnes (22,000 tons)  per
year.   A common waste  processing plant was recommended for the  two
communities.  A compost plant midway at Turgi was recommended as a  first
step to be followed by  an incinerator when needed.
         In 1959, the Zweckverband Kericht-Verwertung Region Baden-Brugg
(Baden-Brugg Waste Management Association) was formed and included eight
other  adjacent communities shown  in  previous  figure. The compost  plant
construction was  begun in April, 1960,  and began operation in June, 1961.
However,  this plant could not handle bulky and industrial waste. In  1964,
it  became apparent that  the amount  of  waste was increasing and  the
population served was then up to 120,000. Preliminary plans envisioned  an
incinerator using two  furnaces. Each would handle 100  tonnes (110 tons)
per day based  on refuse having a lower heating value  of 2,500 Kcal/kg
(4,680 Btu/lb)  (10,467  kJ/kg). The  local firm of Motor-Columbus AG was
engaged to study the feasibility of  the  plant  which was to include heat
recovery by steam and  power generation.  The  best available exhaust gas
cleaning  method was to  be used. In the spring  of 1967,  a furnace-boiler
plant contract  was agreed  to with Alberti-Fonsar of Milan. At the end of
1967,  a contract for the steam turbogenerator was given to the Baden firm
of Brown-Boveri  Company.  Excavations were begun in February,  1968 and
acceptance tests  followed  in February,   1970. The Association gave
provisional acceptance  in June,  1970 and  steady operation began  on
November  10, 1970.
         During  the course of  the development  of  the plant, some
opposition was voiced in the local press, partly because of expectations
of air quality  impacts  on  the hills across the river.  The stack height
was specified in the original RFP.
         There were five bids, all very similar in price.
Duesseldorf

        Organized waste management by  the  City of Duesseldorf began in
1862.   As early as 1897,  the growing problems with solid waste disposal
led to some consideration of incineration. However, not until 1957-1958
did an active search begin  for some "new way"  to process solid wastes.  In
-------
                                  1-16

1960, it  was decided to  develop  an experimental  refuse-burning,
heat-recovery type of furnace in the existing coal-fired Flingern municipal
power plant near the center of the city.
         It was  at this retrofitted  plant  that the City of Duesseldorf
engineering staff obtained the original patents for the "Duesseldorf",
"rotary drum", "walzenrost", or "roller"  grates, as they are alternately
referred  to.
         Having learned sufficient  information, this City Electricity
system negotiated with VKW in Duesseldorf for  VKW to make the Duesseldorf
grates for the  new totally refuse-fired plant built across the railroad
tracks 2,700 feet away.

Wuppertal

         The  two industrial communities of  Wuppertal and  Remscheid began
discussion in 1969 and 1970 on the  possibilities for a combined  facility
for disposal of  their solid wastes.  At first,  the deep valley adjacent to
the present plant site was considered for landfill because it contained a
water-filled quarry (later abandoned  in 1973). However,  the life.of that
landfill  was estimated to be only  10  years.  Composting had been  briefly
considered but  because of the proportion of inorganic industrial waste
expected, this alternative was not pursued.
         Then  the use of an incinerator  was considered which would increase
the life of the  landfill  to about 30  years  for the residue only.  This
method was then agreed on and bids were  invited. The VKW walzenrost (roller
grate) system was selected because  other  examples  in Germany showed
effective burnout,  low  maintenance  rates,  and high  availability.
Construction began in October, 1971.  Because of the well established
technology for  flue-dust  removal  from  combustion gases which have been
partially cooled by heat-recovery boilers, this technique was adopted.
         In April, 1972, construction was halted because of the new Federal
requirement that flue-gas scrubbers should be  incorporated to control the
emissions of chlorides and fluorides.*  Compliance agreements were made and
construction resumed 10 months later. The plant was completed in September,
1975.  Operation began in January, 1976.
         There was some minor local  objection to the siting of  the  plant
near  the top  of a deep valley adjacent to a community  swimming  pool.
However,  this did not affect plant plans.

Krefeld

         In  the  1950's,  it  became  evident that the city landfill at
Fluennertzdykt, operating since 1928, was past  half of its useful  life. An
effort was made to develop a compost system.  In the dedicatory brochure for
the present Krefeld plant, dated March 11, 1975,  Krefeld City Director Theo
Fabel  described  the small pilot  compost operation as built on  the theory
that a natural use of the waste would be  better than burning.  Meanwhile the
Fluennertzdykt  landfill became such a  steep pile that operations  on it
became hazardous. Also, frequent refuse fires  there caused annoyance from
smoke and odors.
         The  composting effort was not  deemed promising and in 1961, a Dr.
Straub was engaged to study the alternatives.  His report in  1961!  suggested
that incineration would be the best of the alternatives. Furthermore, the
* The plant was being retrofitted with scrubbers during  the Battelle
  visit in May, 1977.
-------
                                  1-17


optimum solution suggested was to place  an incineration plant adjacent to a
wastewater  treatment plant. However, although incineration was thought  to
be best, it  is  also the most expensive  alternative. Thus, in view of the
city's other  needs for a bathing center,  clinic,  school, and new  streets,
there was a suggestion that 'rail  haul  be used to carry the refuse  to
abandoned clay pits at Lobberich. However,  the geology of that facility was
decided to  be  unfavorable for  proper  land  disposal. Accordingly,  an
incineration  plant  had to be  considered,   especially  since the
Fluennertzdykt landfill was reestimated to  be exhausted by 1975.
        In 1970-1971, a feasibility study of  a proposed plant  was  made
considering  the combined firing of refuse and dried sludge. The  study was
by Projekta of Duesseldorf for the City of Krefeld. On the basis  of the
feasibility  report, Projekta then  prepared  the specifications for the
plant. Four bids were received.
        There  were two methods for  sludge  burning considered.  One,
proposed by Vereinigte Kesselwerke,  would partially dry the sludge  in a
centrifuge and  then complete the drying in suspension in a hammer mill
supplied with hot flue gases. The dried dust would then be conveyed  by the
hot gas flowing  into the refuse-burning furnace.
        The  other method, proposed by Techfina (a part of Von Roll),  would
dewater it in a filter press, thermally condition the sludge, then fire  it
with the refuse  on the grate.
        On evaluation of the bids,  the  suspension burning system for the
sludge was  found to have a lower capital  cost by DM 7.6 x 10" ($3.2 x  10^).
Also,  the  suspension burning method had already been developed for the
drying and  burning of high-moisture coals.  Hence, it was judged to  be  ready
for  translation to sludge burning.  In addition, mass burning  of  dried
sludge along  with refuse required about twice as  long to burn sludge  on a
grate  as does refuse. For these various reasons, the VKW bid was  accepted.
Construction of the plant  began on May  18,  1973.  Construction was
essentially  complete in late 1976 but acceptance tests were not expected  at
the time of our  visit, May 20-23, 1977, until July, 1977.

Parisilssy

        Paris  is a large,  old, urban,  metropolitan center. The structure
of the community with respect to solid waste collection and disposal  was
established decades ago.
        The  first Issy incineration facility was built in 1903. The plant
had three refractory lined batch ovens with no heat recovery capability.  A
second plant was  built on  adjoining land in  1928. This plant  consumed
about  130,000 tons/year in  six continuous feed furnaces. This plant
recovered energy with its three 6-Mw turbines producing a total of  18 Mw.
        In 19^6,  EDF-TIRU assumed  operational responsibility  for  the
plant.
        This second Issy plant was closed in 1955 and demolished  in 1962.
From  1955  through 1965, much of the southwest  Paris area's waste  was
composted and landfilled.
        In 1960,  Parisians voted to build their third Issy plant. TIRU
organized the bidding. They called for integrated bids on the "chute-to-ID
fan".  Other bids were solicited separately for civil engineering,
-------
                                 1-18
feedwater systems,  turbines,  components, chimneys, ash recovery,
landscaping, etc.
        When asked why Martin was  chosen,  officials made the following
reply:
        (1)   Local officials were most impressed by the Martin grate as
              seen  in Sao Paulo, Brazil.  (However, Sao Paulo heats only
              combustion air,  not steam.)
        (2)   Martin suggested  to  use  the  new Issy plant  for
              experimentation both by Martin engineers and by TIRU staff.
              (This arrangement has  facilitated the development of the
              TIRU  staff  into  one  of the best local operating
              organizations  in Europe.)
        (3)   In the  point  system evaluation procedure, Martin was
              granted  10 points  over  competition for its  thermal
              efficiency. Martin had previous experience  in coal plants.
        (U)   Integration of  a grate and boiler system was not new to
              Martin. At that time, the concept was fairly new to some of
              the other  competitors.  TIRU wanted an "integrated"
              refuse-fired steam generator  as  contrasted with  a
              refractory wall  furance and grate followed by a waste heat
              boiler.
        (5)   In 1962,  the  biggest unit in France was the 8-ton/houi
              facility at St.  Ouen  (Volund's grate followed by a rotar;
              kiln).  TIRU,  however, wanted a very large  unit. Martin, wit
              its modular three multiple runs could offer a 15-ton/hou
              system. With limited land available for more units and wit
              TIRU's desire  for efficienly produced electricity,  the
              opted for Martin.
        The  above was  cause for  Martin to be chosen despite Martin'
"chute-to-ID fan" price being 50 percent higher than some of th
competition.
        There were few notable events or interruptions associated with tfr
construction.

Hamburg;Stellinger-Moor

        Hamburg has  been  involved with refuse to hot water  and  stej
concepts since 1896. This first European experience in converting  refuse  '
electricity  was  with  12  batch-fired incinerators with waste heat recove
boilers at Rohrstrasse.  Later  in  1930, six parallel Lurgi furnaces wi
waste  heat recovery  boilers  began  consuming refuse in the Borgigstras:
area.
        The  third  major  procurement was in 1952 when four 8-ton/hour V
Roll furnaces were  added. In  1962,  three more 8.33-tonne/hour Von Ro
furnaces were added. These furnaces were designed for 1,500 Kcal/kg (2,7
Btu/pound) but now combust higher  quality refuse at  1,900 Kcal/kg  (3,1*
Btu/pound).
        The  Stellinger-Moor  plant was  conceptualized  around  1930 wh
long-range plans were  formulated. Basically, community leaders agreed th
such a system should  be  built when  the  population increased enough in t
northwest  suburbs.
-------
                                  1-19
         Fortunately in  1965,  when the question was  raised again,  the city
had long since purchased much land for a sanitary park. Serious discussions
began with many firms in 1968.  Many vendors were asked to express interest.
These five firms responded:
            Martin
            Von Roll
            Claudius Peters
            VKW*
            Durr*.
         The  city engineering  staff prepared  the "Call  for Tender". The
above five companies submitted proposals.
         Dr.  Reimers of  the  Hamburg consulting firm, Geopfert &  Reimers,
evaluated the five proposals.  Martin was chosen.
         Since  the subject  plant was built, two other  developments have
occurred. In 1971, a private  firm  built Abfall  Verbrennungs Geselschaft.
This plant consumes industrial refuse (pallets, cardboard, oil,  sludges,
etc.) in two Wiedemann rotary kilns. An explosion in 1977 shut the facility
down for 2 months.  As a result, again oil was  mixed with household refuse
in the Stellinger-Moor bunker.
         The  final development is  the Staplefeld plant  being built by a
consortium of local people and Widmer & Ernst with the Steinmueller  grate.
         City  engineers emphasized, "We have tried Lurgi, Von Roll,  Martin,
and Widmer 4 Ernst (Steinmueller). We are not married  to anyone. We'll  try
them all".
         The  construction at Stellinger-Moor, begun in 1970, was completed
in 1972  35 months  later. There were  no major problems.  A  few  minor
problems delayed construction for a half year.

Zurich;Hagenholz

         Background.  Zurich began  its long history of converting waste
into energy back  in  190H  at the  unit pictured in  Figure 1-1  on
Josefstrasse.  In  fact, efforts are  now proceeding to develop a  75-year
anniversary brochure that will be released in 1979.
         Operations continued  until  1927 when the  plant was temporarily
closed for rebuilding. The plant  reopened in 1928.  Refuse consumption
rose from 30,000  tonnes (33,000 tons) per year to  70,000 tonnes  (77,000
tons) per year in 1959.   Between 1959 and 1968,  the  overloading results
became  pronounced as corrosion  repairs increased. During the period, extra
waste had to be landfilled on farmland. By 1969,  tonnage  consumption had
dropped  to 50,000 tonnes (55,000 tons).
         By 1965, a long-range  plan  had been developed  where two  large
refuse-fired steam generators (RFSG)  units would  be built—one  on each
side of  the Limmat River (the river  flowing  through  the old  city's
centrum).  Because Josefstrasse was south of the river, officials  decided
to build a 520-tonne (572-ton) per day facility  at Hagenholz, a northern
suburb.   This  was  one of the  few remaining open industrial spaces in the
city.
         Partially because  of  Von  Roll's local presence and because of
their excellent reputation throughout Europe,  Von Roll was chosen to  build
two  260-tonne (286-ton) per  day units with room  set aside for a third unit
later on.  The construction  begun in 1966 was  completed  in 1969.  Waste


 * Both  VKW and Durr are now  part of  Deutsch Babcock operations.
-------
1-20
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-------
                                  1-21


consumption  immediately jumped to about 170,000 tonnes (187,000 tons) per
year at  both  plants.
         At Hagenholz,  most  parties  back  in  the early  1960's
underestimated the heating'value in  1965 and grossly underestimated the
value for  the  1970's.  As a result, the system  (1) was grossly  overheated,
C2) had  been  designed with low furnace wall tube surface area  for heat
removal  prior  to  the superheater,  (3)  had small boiler passes designed,
CO suffered with slagging on furnace  walls  and tubes, (5) developed
corrosion  on boiler tubes,  (6) developed high temperature corrosion  in the
lectrostatic  precipitator, (7) suffered reduced air pressure under the
grate,  (8) had  increased number of fires in the siftings hoppers, (9) the
reduced  production of steam, etc.
         This report mentions at several places that management's emphasis
is on energy  production.  Considering the local situation  in  Zurich, this
emphasis and the  resulting economics seem proper. Apparently the marginal
revenues exceed marginal repair costs  when the  system is moderately
overloaded.  This  emphasis has therefore been  contributory  to  some  of the
Units #1  and #2 problems. The original contract specified  operation at
the"continuous  maximum load". The  term was never clearly  defined as to
whether  this meant "peak" or "average" or "maximum average load  over the
long running  time".
         Plant  officials interpreted the rated  28 tonnes of  steam per hour
to be the maximum average load over the long-running  time. Von Roll had,
however, designed the  plant assuming that the  28 tonnes of  steam would be
permissible for short periods as a holdable peak—but not for  continuous
operation.
         Going  back to the energy emphasis, plant people began a campaign
to increase the volume of high calorific value industrial waste.  The
vendor  claimed  that (to paraphrase), "It was  not fair to ask  Von Roll to
build a  unit  for 1,200-1,500 Kcal/kg refuse and  then purposely try  to load
it with  high  calorific value refuse at 2,200-2,400 Kcal/kg."
         The  experience at Hagenholz and other similar experiences in
Europe  have  sensitized system designers to push for an accurate current
estimate of calorific values.  More  searching for accurate  forecasts of
calorific values 10, 20,  and 30 years, hence, is needed as well.
         The  concern about Hagenholz Units #1 and  #2 resulted in  the
design  of  a  later unit  at Hamburg:Borsigstrasse to be over-compensated. So
much heat was extracted by the boiler that plant operators would  worry
about keeping  the refuse properly burning. The writers now believe that
all parties involved have carefully studied the  parameters and that such
problems will  not recur at future installations—if designers and  system
purchasers  will respect  the calorific value of waste.
         The  Hagenholz full story  will not be described in this report.
Contracts,  guarantees, politics, personalities,  etc. could be the subject
of a  book  and  are not  that relevant to this  report.   The item that is
relevant is:

         "Learn the Present Composition of Waste  and  Estimate  Future
         Trends".

         Zurich's Philosophy for Unit #3.  The  technical problems
experienced in Units #1  and #2 and the inability of the  city  and  Von Roll
-------
                                  1-22
to agree and  then resolve the problems  led to a prejudiced view of  the
firm for Unit #3. By 1970,  other firms had improved their technologies and
reputations.
        The city opened prebid discussions to all vendors.
        One official explained the city's philosophy that  "this plant is
not at  a price  but rather the city  asked what can we build that will be
most reliable". Another comment was: "The biggest (most  important) thing
is the grate".
        Another philosophical comment, "Some people spend so much (money)
on architecture...and then skimp on the (furnace/boiler) equipment.
(Another plant) has a very  nice entrance but can't make money".
        They  wanted "maximum reliability with minimum  maintenance,  a
4,000 hour guarantee,  a minimum  of 1-1/2 m3 wastewater (per ton of
refuse?), particulate emissions under 75 mg/Nm^", etc.
        Three bids were  received:  Martin, Von Roll,  and VKW. The VKW
chute-to-stack bid of S.Fr.  9,000,000 was lower than the  S.Fr. 11,130,000
bid  of Martin.  Yet Martin was chosen due to  the city's confidence in
Martin's ability to produce an excellent system.

        Building  Unit #3. The  result of this close  collaboration or
details is a unit that is one of the  finest in  Europe.  Construction wa£
finished in the early fall of 1973- There were no appreciable constructior
delays. The bid was fixed-price and there were  no appreciable financing
problems.

        Next  System Under Construction (Josefstrasse).  Once the Martir
Unit #3 had successfully passed its 4,000 hour  compliance test in 1973!
the  city began discussions  about replacing  the second generatio
(1927-1976) Josefstrasse plant with a  third generation Martin plant. Thi
plant is now (1977) under construction at the original site.

The Hague

        In  1919,  the  city built an  incinerator but it was met by a stor
of protest by those favoring utilization of wastes for  recovery of Ian
from  the sea.  As  a result, on June  18,  1929, an agreement was reache
whereby the incinerator continued to operate at  a low rate but a distan
landfill site was selected.
        Later and for over 30 years, refuse  from The Hague was sent b
rail to a landfill and compost plant at Wijster  in the region of Drente
200 km  (120 mi) away in the northeast part of Holland. Other cities,  sue
as Amsterdam, also sent refuse to Wijster, which had the largest compos
plant  in Holland.  Much of the compost was sold  in 5 and  10 kg (11 to 2
Ib) sacks. The  dedicatory brochure  for The Hague plant,  published i
March,  1968,  stated that  from the opening of the Wijster  site on Februar
23, 1932, until  the end of  1967, 154,984 rail car loads of  refuse from  Tt
Hague were shipped to Wijster.
        However,  the  cost of the long rail haul  increased  over the year
and the demand for compost  for land reclamation decreased.  Accordingly,
study  was begun on alternate methods for refuse disposal.  In 1958,  t
conclusion  was reached that a modern waste-burning  facility should t
planned.  The planning extended from  1960 through  1964 in  cooperation wi
-------
                                  1-23


the  "Gemeentelijk Eneregiebefrif" (municipal  utilities).  One of  the
principal considerations was the need to meet high hygienic standards  and
to avoid nuisance factors  inherent in other solutions.  At the time when
the  decision  was made, fuel  prices  were high, and  the  possibility  to
recover  heat  energy from refuse-promised attractive revenues.  This led to
the  combination of combustion and  power generation.  The final plant
design included a total of four furnace-boiler units  with an incineration
capacity  of  360  tonnes (^00 tons) per day each.   In November, 1961,  the
order was issued for three of them.   The first three began operation in
January,  1968.

Dieppe (Brive  and Deauville)

         Prior to the construction of the Dieppe plant in 1970-1971,  the
city and  surrounding communities deposited their  solid wastes in various
uncontrolled  landfills.   Sewage treatment begun  in 193*1 was by primary
settling  only.   Because of smokey fires at the  landfills  and the growing
scarcity of available landfill area,  discussions began in City Council
late in  1967 on  feasible means  to upgrade their waste management methods.
Composting  was  considered  but not pursued because of the lack of assured
local markets  for the product.  District heating  was considered but only
two  factories in the vicinity  could have used the steam. They would have a
lower summer demand. Electricity generation was discussed  but Electricite
de France could  not guarantee revenue for the electricity produced.
         M.  Jean Fossey,  who is now Plant Manager, was,  at the time of  the
discussions,  a  member of City  Council.  M. Marchand, then Director General
of Technical Services for  the  City of Dieppe, became interested in  the
patented process developed by Von Roll, Ltd.  This process uses the heat
in steam from waste-fired  boilers  to partially dry sewage sludge  in
vertical thin film dryers and then to burn the sludge with the refuse.  A
decision  was made in November,  1968,  to build  a  steam generating refuse
burner to begin operation in about 18 months or about  May, 1970.  Also, in
April, 1969,  it was decided  to build,  adjacent,  a  modern wastewater
treatment plant to begin  operation  about April,  1971.  The plants were
sized for a  community of about  ^8,000 people producing refuse and 40,000
people producing sewage.   INOR S.A.  (Societe  de  Construction d'Usines
d'Incineration d'Ordures Menagers),  the Von Roll licensee in France  for
this type of  combined system,  was selected to build  them. Because it was
the first full-scale combined plant of this type,  Von  Roll offered  it at
an introductory  price.
         On  the  strength  of the decision at Dieppe in 1969 to build this
pioneering plant, the City of Brive in southern France,  population 55,000,
invited  bids  on a combined facility  in late 1969.   By  December,  1970,
eight qualified  bids had been received at Brive.  In July, 1971, INOR S.A.
was  awarded a contract for the refuse burner. Omnium d'Assainissement, a
French water treatment firm, was given the contract  for  the wastewater
plant. The  Brive refuse burner began operating in September, 1973, 2 years
after the Dieppe plant and the  wastewater plant in February, 1975.
         The plants are operated for the city  under a  20-year contract
with the  group Thermical-INOR.
         The prospect for  clean handling of both solid and liquid wastes
at Dieppe and Brive probably were an important  guide to Deauville,  which
-------
                                 1-24


decided to follow suit.  The new Deauville facility was built on  the site
of the old city sewage treatment plant.  The Deauville  wastewater plant
began operating in 1971* and the refuse burning plant early in 1976.

Gothenburg

        Background.   Prior  to 1971, about  10 percent  of the refuse
disposal in the region was handled in 10 small local incinerators, seven
of which  recovered heat  for  district heating and  the rest  went to
uncontrolled landfills.  Air pollution from the incinerators was sometimes
a problem.  In  1955, discussions began of better ways of doing  it.  The
concensus developed that a central facility would be desirable but siting
was difficult.   At  one point,  consideration was given to building some
large landscaped hills  of refuse as is now being done at the Hogdalen
plant just south of Stockholm.
        Mr. Bengt Rundquist wrote in 1972:
              "According to a  special  report  on refuse prepared by the
        Greater Gothenburg Cooperation Committee  in 1965,  the 23-member
        districts formed a community of interests, Goteborgsregionens
        «ivfallsaktiet>olag=GRAAB, with the task of  solving associated
        problems.
              "The responsibilities of the districts and the regulations
        governing cooperation were laid down in  a consortial agreement
        valid for a period of 30 years.  The  agreement  describes the
        method  whereby  expenses shall be calculated, stipulates that
        costs  for  refuse treatment shall be  the same throughout the
        region when  the refuse is deposited at the incineration plant or
        any of  the  transfer stations, and how  the  shares amount to 4.5
        illion kroner and the bonds amounting to 120 million kroner shall
        be distributed."
              "GRAAB also  played  a  leading part  in  constructing
        GRAAB-KEMI,  a  receiving station for  chemical  wastes.  This
        consists of  a chemical  storage,  toxic  storage,  and an
        oil-reception plant. Furthermore, a wet chemical line was planned
        with  the task  of treating diluted solutions and those chemicals
        which are unsuitable for storage. The wet chemical line will form
        the basis for decisions on the region's own treatment plants. The
        operation of this reception  station  is  taken  care  of by a
        subsidiary  company, Slamsugningsaktiebolaget. This company has
        equipment for  work in practically the  entire chemical refuse
        sector.  Detailed  discussions were  held with the Gothenburg
        Cleaning Department on the company's  cooperation within the
        monopoly as  a whole, which began  to operate the Gothenburg
        district in  January, 1973."
              "GRAAB was also commissioned to produce a cremation furnace
        for dead animals  and a reception station for car scrap and metal
        waste. There is no separation  of metal from the  residue."
        Although at  the beginning of the discussions,  36 communities were
involved, later consolidation of communities, which have been nationwide,
reduced the number  first  to 23 then to 13,  and now  to nine large
communities—these are all involved in GRAAB.  Some of these extend partly
into other counties.   They have ownership in the entire system as follows:
-------
                                  1-25
                                          Shares         Percent
         Ale
         Goteborg
         Harryda
         Kungsbacka
         Kungalv
         Lerum
         Molndal
         Partille
         Ockero
         TOTAL                             45,000          100.0

         The nine communities are  represented on a Board of  Directors,
which meets  10  times a year. A working committee of the Board  meets about
twice a  month.

         Beginning of the Savenas  Facility.  Eight bids were  received in
1969 for the Savenas plant.  Von Roll, Ltd.  was selected because,  although
it was  not the  lowest bidder,  it  appeared  to  have experience with many
similar  large plants and had built  or was building plants at  Linkoping,
Bollmora,  and Umea in Sweden.
         In  1965,  the estimated price was 65 million s. kr. The contract
was signed in October, 1969. By the  time the  plant and its ancillary
stations  were built in 1972, the  total  cost had risen to 120 million s.
kr. This  included five transfer stations and  the Tagene landfill  for
residue  and  sewage sludge. Three boiler-furnace units were installed with
building space provided for a  fourth unit.
         Inflation was the primary cause of the increase in  cost although
the national environmental authorities caused  some increase  by requiring
some enlargement  of pollution control equipment.  GRAAB management feels
that 88  percent of the increase was beyond their control.  For  example,
unexpected  clay under the site  required 3,000 m3  more piling than
expected.  For this same reason, the refuse pit is not as deep as planned.
         Normal  plant operation begain on March 1 , 1972.   It operates 7
days/week.

Uppsala

         In  the  1950's, a compost plant operated at Hovgarden.  However, a
market for composted material could not be maintained.  Thus,  in 1960,
there was sufficient pressure  to find another solid waste  disposal
alternative.
         The  Uppsala waste-to-energy  plant  developed  as part of a much
larger and integrated environmental  improvement and energy  conservation
program  that was  started  by the City Council in 1960.  In  that year, it
was decided to construct a plant for the production and distribution of
district heat.   The plans  also  included a thermal  power station, an
installation for the production of  electrical and thermal energy,  and a
waste-to-energy plant.
         The  first delivery  of heat was in August, 1961,  from a portable
oil-fired boiler,  and the  first permanent  hot  water generator  at  the
-------
                                  1-26


Kvarngarde Plant  began operating in September, 1962.  Since the expansion
has materialized into a  larger oil-fired  hot water station in the Bolander
Plant (built in three stages in 1965, 1968, and 1971) and into a peak load
plant in Husbyborg  (1975).  Certain areas are still  taken care of  by
portable oil-fired  boilers  until the  expansion  of the main network to
these areas can be economically justified.
        In  the waste  incineration  plant,  which began operating at
Bolander in 1961, the steam produced  is  used  to heat water for district
heating.  The  initial  installation of two furnaces rated at 3 tonnes/hour
and supplying hot flue gas to two waste heat boilers was built in  1960 by
Kochum-Landsverk  and began  operation in 1961. A third similar but larger
(3.5 tonne/hour) was  added in 1965.  A  fourth furnace system, burning 5
tonnes/hour  and  feeding a third boiler, began  operation in 1970. This
newer Unit #4 installation built by Bruun and Sorensen is the principal
subject of our plant  visit.
        Two  smaller incinerators burn biological wastes and contaminated
dextrose solution from the Fortia-Pharmacia  plant.  The  hot waste  gases
from  the latter are  mixed with those from the larger furnaces ahead of the
waste heat boilers.  The useful thermal energy recovered from the  wastes,
about 3^ Gwhr (thermal) in 1975, is only a small part,  2.5 percent, of the
total energy  produced by the entire system, 1,373 Gwhr.  However,  its
recovery results  in a  much  more acceptable solution to the solid waste
problem than  the old  landfills. Also,  in the  summer, a major fraction of
the hot-water  needs of the community are met with energy derived  from the
solid wastes.
        The  waste-to-energy plant  was designed by the engineering staff
of the Uppsala Thermal Power Company (Uppsala Kraftvarme AB).   This is
unusual  for  Sweden where normally  the   city  engages  a  consulting
engineering firm to design, purchase,  and supervise construction.
        In  1970,  the volume of  solid  waste was becoming more  than the
existing refuse burning  units could process, and the  high  calorific  value
industrial waste  would overheat the  furnace refractory.  Therefore, the
community decided to  construct a pulverizer  station  at the old Hovgarder
compost  facility.

Horsens

        In  the early  1970's, the City Council of Horsens determined  that
the  uncontrolled  landfill then  in  use   had  to be  replaced by  ar
environmentally more  acceptable method  for disposal  of  solid  wastes.
Landfill fires and  rats were objectionable.  Accordingly,  the  citj
engineer visited 10 cities which had used various incineration systems tc
solve a  similar problem.
        At  Horsens,  composting had already  been ruled  out  by ar
unsatisfactory experience with a modern composting system used  from 195'
to  1965.  From the start of its operation, assured markets for  the product
could not be  maintained.  Very  little product was  sold.  In  the last  5
years of operation, 1960-1965, none was sold.
        In Denmark,  well-managed  landfills cost one-half to one-third a:
much  to operate as  incinerators. But in eastern Jutland, acceptable sites
for new  landfills are rare. Therefore,  in 1972, the  Council  decided t(
build an incineration plant. A  letter defining the designed  system wa.'
-------
                                  1-27


prepared by the  Economic Development Committee of Council and was sent to
various vendors inviting  their interest. As  a  result,  definite bids were
received from  three  Danish companies: Bruun and  Sorensen,  Volund, and
Elsinor. Bruun and Sorensen, whose main office is in Aarhus only MO km (25
mi) away, was  the  low bidder. The plant details and final price were then
negotiated and the plant  was built as a turnkey project.
        In  order to make  use of  some  of  the heat released by
incineration,  the  plan  included  separate  construction of a sewage
treatment plant  adjacent to the incinerator so that hot flue gas could be
used to partially dry  the digested  sludge.   Heat recovery for  district
heating was not added  until  1977.
        The decision in 1973 to build the  plant  was made solely by the
Council and no referendum was required.  However,  on January 1,  1977, a
new Danish law became effective requiring  that city plans  must now be
available for citizen  scrutiny and comment.  The final decision,  however,
remains with  City Council,  subject then to  approval  by the  regional
council.
        Initially, it was hoped to locate  the plant near one of the three
existing privately-owned  district heating  plants,  but  space  was too
confining and  increased traffic there would have been  difficult.  The
present ample site on  a shallow, filled-in  part  of  the  Horsens  Fjord is
conveniently  adjacent to the  current landfill.  Also adjacent is a
chemical waste collection  depot where such wastes  are  collected for
shipment by barge  to Denmark's nationally operated liquid and hazardous
waste disposal plant at Nyborg, about 100 km (62 mi)  southeast of Horsens.
        As in  many Danish communities, an  important  incentive toward
clean alternatives to  landfilling  is  the threat to groundwater  quality
from old, uncontrolled  landfills.  Also, since Denmark imports all of its
energy,  the recovery  of  energy from wastes  has long been an important
goal.  The oil crisis of  October, 1973,  intensified the  need for more
waste-to-energy systems.  At Horsens, additional  refuse-fired  heating
plants are envisioned.  Also,  it  is expected that in the future, to
conserve energy, national legislation will require greater use of  district
heating. Some of this  expansion will undoubtedly use refuse as fuel.

Copenhagen (Amager and West)

        Waste-to-energy began in Copenhagen in the early 1930's with the
1932 commissioning of  the  two  iMM-tonne  (158-ton)  per day Volund
grate/rotary kiln  furnaces at Gentofte, each with a three-drum boiler as
shown in Figure 1-2. The  steam was used to make  electricity as specified
by the city's Electrical  Board. This construction  was  followed by two
similar Volund units at Frederiksberg in 1931*.
        These  two  plants  served Copenhagen well  for  MO years.  During
that time, these plants had reached their capacity and excess refuse had
to  be  landfilled both inland and  on the  sea  coast.  There is  a large
undeveloped area in  the western part of Amager Island.  This was basically
low swamp land that  has been filled in with both demolition debris and
household refuse.
        During the 1960's, when knowledge  of  landfill leachate damages
became better known  and when neighbors became upset over blowing trash,
-------
                            1-28
FIGURE 1-2.    FIRST VOLUND SYSTEM BUILT AT GENTOFTE IN 1932 AND
              DECOMISSIONED 40 YEARS LATER IN 1972
-------
                                  1-29
etc., local  citizen groups on Amager Island got the attention of elected
officials.
        For  a time, it seemed that each community wanted to independently
solve its solid  waste disposal problems.   Finally, one  of  the Island
communities  decided to build ~a  resource recovery  plant.  Others soon
followed.  Eventually the City of Copenhagen  joined in the development.
        Incidentally, the excitement about Amager encouraged the
residents west of Copenhagen  to develop a similar system now called "Vest"
or "West".   Eventually, the Copenhagen Gas  and Electric Company conducted
a study  that  resulted in the  recommendation that two new  refuse-fired hot
water generators be built to  replace Gentofte and Frederiksberg.
        Of  note  was that  the competitive approach provided  both
organizations  with a quantity discount  if both purchased similar units.
The competitors were:
           Heenan-Froud
           Martin
           VKW
           Volund
           Von Roll.
        Officials remember that VKW, Volund,  and Von Roll had the lowest
single unit prices (i.e., nonquantity discount).  Other  excellent Volund
plants  in Denmark,  the long history of successful operations at Gentofte
and Frederiksberg, the low  (maybe not the lowest) single  plant price, the
quantity discount,  and  the  Volund  headquarters being  nearby all
contributed to the decision favoring Volund.
        Construction at  Amager  began in 1965 with 2  year's of sea and
earth reclamation. Plant construction began in  1967 and  was completed in
1970. Construction at Amager  preceded work at West by  9 months.
        There was just enough operating time at Amager to  the benefit of
last minute  improvements  at West.   The  refuse input cranes and the ash
discharge equipment are just  two examples.
        Copenhagen: Amager  is owned by the  five communities it serves, as
are listed in the "Organization and Personnel" section at the end of this
report. Amager  started operations with three 12-tonne (13.2 ton) per hour
furnaces assuming 2,500 Kcal/kg.
        Copenhagen:West  is owned by the 12 communities it serves,  as are
also listed  in the "Organization"  section. West started  operations in
November, 1970,  with three  12-tonne (13.2 ton) per hour furnaces assuming
1,500 Kcal/kg. Later in 1977, a  fourth furnace rated at 14 tonnes  (15.^
tons) per hour, assuming 2,500 Kcal/kg, was installed.
-------
                                   J-l


                           TOTAL OPERATING SYSTEM

                             General Comments

        Many  plants provided  data  in a massive form.  Such data  provides the
opportunity  to analyze the plant  as a  total operating  system.
Interrelationships  and ratios can have more meaning if the data can be viewed
together.  Data  is  included on thermal and  combustion efficiency,  volume
reduction, shut-downs, operating hours, tons of waste received, cooling water,
steaminng  rate, steam  production, air  pressure,  availablity, etc.   Data is
presented without extensive analysis.  System decision makers and designers are
challenged to review the tables for enhancemet  of a mature understnading of
refuse fired energy plants.
        Some  of  the material  mentioned in this section is repeated  in other
relevant sections such  as on boilers,  energy utilization ash recovery,  etc.
Other material appears  only  here.
        In several cases,  the numbers given in interviews are different than
those in the total operating system tables.  These researchers have endeavored
to resolve differences.  However, many inconsistencies remain.

                    Total Operations  at Visited Systems

Baden-Brugg

        Table J-1  from  the  plant  statistical  statement shows the energy
production figures for  1975  and  1976.  The average  plant evaporation rate for
1976 was 2.26  tonne steam  per tonne refuse.   Assuming the average LHV of the
refuse was 2285  kcal/kg (9399 kJ/kg)  (1113 Btu/lb) this  corresponds  to an
average steam generating efficiency of 55 percent.
        The  electrical^ energy  produced averaged ^10  kwh/tonne.   This
corresponds to a generating  efficiency of 16 percent.
        The amount of  thermal  energy  supplied to the adjacent plants was  small
and was not recorded.
        The  volume reduction of the refuse  was estimated to  be  about 85
percent.   The weight reduction  achieved  is about  37-38 percent.
        The  plant,  which  began  operation in November 1970,  has  had  no major
shutdowns  since the initial problems  with tube  wastage in  1973 after 11,000
hours  operation.   Normally, maintenance can be  done during the regular weekend
shut-down.   Every 6 months the plant is down for one  (1) week for major
overhaul.
        Except for the routine downtime, operation was 99.1 percent ofthe time
in  975 and 96.7 in 1976.
        Table J-2 is  a summary of weekly plant operating data for the 9 weeks
May 2, 1976, to July 1, 1976, provided from routine plant records.   The annual
data  similar  to  this  table will be  discussed  in  later sections  of the report.
It is shown together here in facilitate  the readers analysis  of processing and
production rates.   It is  of  interest that the total waste burned never quite
reached the normal plant capacity for  a  5-day week:  1000 tonnes.   However, it
nearly attained  that  rate  in  almost half of the weeks.  But the  maximum power
generator  capacity of 5.2 mw.  The cause of this  reduction was not  determined.
        The  evaporation rate, tons steam per ton of waste was normal and
ranged from 2.16 to 2.66.  The  calculated heat  value of the refuse  2115  to 2598
-------
                                J-2
TABLE  J-l.  ENERGY GENERATION RATES AT BADEN-BRUGG FOR
             1975 AND 1976 (FROM PLANT STATISTICAL STATEMENT)

Operating time of both furnaces
Operating time of turbine
Average furnace capacity
Average boiler capacity
Average turbine capacity
Average coefficient of evaporation
Average heat value of waste
Electrical energy per tonne
of waste
Total electrical production
Electricity supplied to AEW,
ARA, Fairtec
Electricity internally generated
and used
Electricity purchased from AEW
Total internally used electricity
(without losses)
Electricity consumption per tonne
of refuse

h/ year
h/year
mt/h
mt/h
kw
t/t
kcal/kg
kwh/mt
kwh x 10
kwh x 106
kwh x 106
kwh x 10
6
kwh x 10
kwh/mt
1975
10,598
6,132
3.72
8.41
2,833.2
2.26
2,285
440
17.37
14.85
2.52
0.20
2.72
68.91
1976
9,750
5,467
3.97
8.60
2.943..0
2.16
2,165
415
16.09
13.79
2.30
0.20
2.50
64.44
-------
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                                   J-4


kcal/kg  (8855  kJ/kg to 10,877  kJ/kg) (3807 to 4676  Btu/lb) also appears to be
typical of European waste.

Duesseldorf

          The product of this plant  is high-pressure, high-temperature steam.
In 1975 it delivered 58.1 percent  of  its rated steaming  capacity.  Actually
since  the plant design philosophy is to have one boiler always in reserve this
output was nearer to 70 percent of  nominal operational capacity.   Considering
the inherent difficulty involved in handling wastes  as fuel with all these
problems the  neat and well-maintained appearance of this plant and its grounds,
70 percent of  nominal capacity is excellent.   The performance is even more
remarkable in terms of the pioneering nature of the plant,  this particular  type
of stoker was  invented only 16 years ago and this is  the first large plant ever
built using this principle.
          Table J-3 is a summary of  the year's operating data for  1976 as
printed from  the data storage and analysis steam.


Paris; Issy

          Percent availability  is a  definitional matter where one must pay
careful attention to the numerator  and denominator as  displayed in Table J-4.


Hamburg; Stelling-Moor

          Table J-5 presents gross operating  figures  for  December, 1976, and
the complete years 1976 and 1975.
          Tables J-5 and J-7 follow and  respectively  present detailed operating
readings taken  every 2 hours on November  4, 1976, and  April 2, 1977.
          The operation recording and the chart dated November 4, 1976, concern
Boiler No. 1, after cleaning and  at the beginning of a new  period of  continuous
operation.
          The  operation recording and the chart of April 2, 1977,  concern
Boiler No. 1 also, but after 3,567 hours  of continuous operation.


Zurich: Ha'genholz

          Any visitor to the Zurich-Hagenholz plant will soon be discussing the
Von Roll #1 and #2 units and the  Martin #3 unit.  This  report is intended to
fully disccuss the  Martin #3  unit.   Nevertheless, we  feel that  certain
operating data for all three  units  should  be presented,  but  in proper
perspective.
          To repeat from a  previous  section, most of the problems  of  units #1
and #2 derived  from a design for  "somewhat over  1000  kcal/kg (1800  Btu/pound)
waste" instead of waste actually over 2000 kcal/kg (3600 Btu/pound)  as  has  been
the case in the 1970's.
          Table J-8 presents  some operating  figures for  1974 which  reflect
poorly on units #1 and #2.   But,  as mentioned  before,  1974 was the year for
major  overhauling that could not  be accomplished before.
-------
                                       J-5
     TABLE j_3.   DUESSELDORF WASTE-BURNING FACILITY—OPERATING RESULTS - 1976
Waste Input
  Residential Waste                         180,462.80     Tonnes
  Industrial Waste                           65,795.35     Tonnes
  Bulky Waste (Residential and Industrial)    25,250.79     Tonnes
  Rubbish                                    10,844.80     Tonnes
  Waste Oil                                   1,831.54     Tonnes
  Total                                     284,185.37     Tonnes
  Heating Oil                                    20.81     Tonnes
Consumption
  Waste                                     284,185.37     Tonnes
  Heating Oil                                     3.40     Tonnes
Storage
  Waste                                       2,475.00     Tonnes
  Heating Oil                                    26.84     Tonnes
Heat Value
  Waste                                       1,815.98     kcal/kg
  Heating Oil                                10,155.03     kcal/kg
Sulfur
  Heating Oil                                     0.43     Percent
Wet Residue
  Fine                                       78,706.30     Tonnes
  Discarded                                  19,650.28     Tonnes
  Total Residue                              98,356.58     Tonnes
  Total Residue Shipped                      97,641.58     Tonnes
  Storage                                       935.00     Tonnes
Residue Analysis
  Water                                          18.89     Percent
  Combustible                                     5.03     Percent
Scrap Iron
  Total                                       8,492.42     Tonnes
  Bulky Scrap                                   531.51     Tonnes
-------
                                       J-6
                           TABLE J-3.   (Continued)
Electricity Consumption
  Total Received
Maximum Electrical Demand
Consumption
  City Water
  Well Water
  Total Water
Time of Operation of all Boilers
Waste Feed
  Number of Crane Loads Charged
Live Steam
  Pressure
  Temperature
  Amount
  Enthalpy of Steam
  Enthalpy of Feedwater
  Flue Gas Temperature
Oxygen (02) Content
  Left Side of Furnace
  Right Side of Furnace
Air Temperature
  Ambient
  Entering Prehea'ter
  Leaving Preheater
Heat Balance
  Live Steam
  Exhaust Gas
  Combustible in Residue
  Sensible Heat in Residue
  Piping and Radiation Loss
  Total
 14,521.00
  2,445.00

 99,253.00
507,671.00
606,924.00
 30,963.00

125,939.00
MWH
KW

Cubic Meter
Cubic Meter
Cubic Meter
Hours
81.26
471.90
592,265.00
795.06
130.71
270.00
8.88
8.88
11.00
25.00
87.00
470,885.32
94,749.74
18,673.44
12,702.76
13,322.98
610,334.24
Bar
°C
Tonnes
kcal/kg
kcal/kg
°C
Percent
Percent
°C
°C
°C
Gcal
Gcal
Gcal
Gcal
Gcal
Gcal
-------
            J-7
TABLE j-3.   (Continued)
Heat Input
Heat in Feedwater
Heat in Combustion Air
Heat From Heating Oil
Heat From Waste
Boiler Efficiency
Energy Losses
Exhaust Gas
Unburned Combustible
Sensible Heat in Residue
Piping and Radiation Loss
Consumption and Operating Rates
Heating Oil
Waste (aver, per unit operating)
Crane Lift Rate
Heat Release
Live Steam Rate
Total
Produced From Oil
Produced From Waste
Production Rates
Steam Per Unit Fuel
Steam Per Unit Waste
Steam Per Unit Oil
Residue Per Unit Waste
Total Water Consumption
Electricity Consumption
Per Tonne Total Waste
Per Tonne Steam
Steam Sold

77,414.96
16,810.26
34.53
516,074.50
73.83

17.78
3.50
2.38
2.50

0.11
9.18
2.26
16.67

19.13
1.34
19.13

2.08
2.08
12.19
0.37
2.14

51.10
24.52
564,091.00

gcal
gcal
gcal
gcal
Percent

Percent
Percent
Percent
Percent

kg /hour
tonnes/hour
tonnes/grab
Gcal/hour

tonnes/hour
kg /hour
tonnes/hour

kg /kg
kg /kg
kg/kg
kg /kg
Cubic Meter /tonne

kwh/ tonne
kwh/ tonne
Tonnes
-------
                            J-8
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               J-9
     TABLE J-5.  GROSS OPERATING FIGURES FOR DECEMBER 1976 AND
                THE COMPLETE YEARS  1976 AND 1975 FOR HAMBURG:
                STELLINGER-MOOR
December 1976
Truck Deliveries
Household trucks (number)
Industrial trucks (number)
Total trucks (number)
Waste Input
Household waste (tonnes)
Industry waste (tonnes)
Miscellaneous waste (tonnes)
Total waste (tonnes)
Boiler 1
Waste input (tonnes)
Steam generated (tonnes)
Steam / waste (tonnes / tonnes)
Operating time (hours)
Boiler 2
Waste Input (tonnes)
Steam generated (tonnes)
Operating time (hours)
Boilers 1 and 2
Waste input (tonnes)
Steam generated (tonnes)
Steam / waste (tonnes / tonnes)
Operating time (hours)
Fuel Oil #2
Delivery (liters)
Consumption (liters)
Turbine 1
Steam consumed (tonnes)
Operating time (hours)
Turbine 2
Steam consumed (tonnes)
Operating time (hours)
Turbines 1 and 2
Steam consumed (tonnes)
Operating time (hours)
Power Supply
Generator 1 (kwh)
Generator 2 (kwh) 6
Generator total (kwh) 6
Purchased power (kwh)
Total power available (kwh) 6
Power Use
Sewage treat plant (kwh)
Internal plant consumption 1
(kwh)
High Demand Peak Load (kwh) 1
Low Demand Base Load-weak-
peak (kwh) 3
Total power used (kwh) 6
Water Supply
Purchase from Harab, W.W. (m3)
Well fed cooling water (m3)
Water Uses
Consumption of H.W.W. (m )
Change in stock of H.W.W. (m )
Sanitary uses of H.W.W. (m^)
(m3)
station (m3)
Boiler feeduater addition (m3)
Residuals
Ash for roadbuilding (tonne)
Big scrap iron (tonne)
Small scrap iron
Stumps and tires landfllled
Total recycle residuals (tonne)

3,233
198
3,431

14,469
881
3,487
18,837

9,535
22,391
2.35
744

8,640
19,888
2.30
665

18,175
42,279
2.33
1409

10,016
16,940

	
—

41,448
744

41,448
744

..
,900,500
,900,500
—
,900,500

417,582
,295,168

,306,800

,875,850
,395,400

1.303
14,938

93
—
710
500
7 ,884
7 ,054
976

2,316
663
369

3,348
Year 1976

38,754
3,542
42,296

161,617
14,899
18,748
195,264

98,762
217,706
2.20
7119

101,794
210,286
2.07
7311

200,556
427,992
2.13
14430

98,934
104,398

110,170
2,187

310,505
6,669

420,675
8,856

19,478,100
49,761,000
69,239,100
196.350
69,435,450

4,308,709
12,228,467

13,224,750

39,616,500
69,378,426

15,276
179.855

1,810
254
7,582
5,884
78,777
101,332
12,179

73,251
11,737
3,837

83,825
Year 1975

49,686
4,488
54,174

216,848
19,125
2,801
238,774

118,412
231,028
1.95
7264

115,828
226,992
1.86
7505

234,240
458,020
1.96
14769

83,004
83,183

306,258
6,059

137,090
2,872

443,348
8,931

55,043,300
23,012,000
78,055,300
209,550
78,264,850

3,963,977
12,492,885

15,467.100

46,333,650
78,257.612

12,394
177.859

645
247
7,429
4,320
21,031
157,075
22,379

80,756
14,129
6,268

101,153
January 11.  1977.
-------
                                                   J-10
                        TABLE 7-6.  DETAILED OPERATING STATISTICS  FOR NOVEMBER 4,  1976
                                    BOILER DUMBER  1 AT HAMBURG:  STELLINGER-MOOR
                                                        Shift  II            Shift  12            Shift »3
                                                   07   09   11    13   15    17    19    21   23   01   03   05
Steam production                           T/h     30   32    34    32   30    30    30    30   31   33   33   30
Steam temp, upstream Injection spraying    "C     425  420  425  430 425   425   430   425  430  420 ' 426  420
Injection Spraying                         I       50   30    40    50   50    40    45    45   45   25   45   30
Total air                                  M3^)3   40   43    43    42   40    40    40    50   50   45   40   42
Percent of primary air                     Z       42   42    42    45   45    45    45    45   45   45   40   45
Comb, air temp.                            °C      40   85    80    95 110   110   110    50   50   40   40   40
Oxygen content                             X       25   25    25    25    8    16     8    10   10   10    9   10
Furnace roof temperature-left              "C     630  642  630  630 620   610   610   550  600  600  620  600
Furnace roof temperature-right             "C     650  670  650  650 630   620   630   610  610  620  650  620
Superheater temperature                    "C     510  510  480  400 475   470   480   480  480  475  475  470
Convection section temperature             °C     405  405  370  370 365   370   380   380  380  370  370  370
Economiser exit                            *C     280  270  260  265 260   245   240   250  250  260  250  260
EGR precip.  exit                          *C     265  260  250  250 245   240   240   240  240  250  240  250
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 1        nmWs    70   70    40    80   75    80    60    70   70   70  100   80
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 2        mmWs    50   50    50    60   50    50    70    60   55   60   50   50
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 3        mmWs    65   60    30    20   30    30    40    40   40   30   30   25
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 4        mmWs    11    0    0-50     0    15    10   10   20   20   15
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 5        nmVis   -10  -10  -10  -10 -10   -10   -10   -10   -10     0-5  -10
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 6        mmWs   -15  -20  -20  -20 -20   -20   -15   -15  -10  -15  -15  -15
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 6         mmUs   -15  -11  -20  -12 -15   -20   -15   -15  -15  -10  -15  -15
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 5         mmWs   -lo  -10  -10  -10 -10   -10   -10   -10  -10    0-5-5
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 4         mmWs    11-5-5     0   10     0    15    10   10   15   15   15
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 3         mmWs    30   30    30    45   30    30    40    30   30   30   40   35
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 2         nmWs    50   60    60    70   60    70    65    50   55   60   55   50
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 1         mmWs    90  100  100  100  100  100    90    90   90  100  100   90
Secondary air pressure-front wall          mmWs   400  400  400  400 400   350   420   420  420  420  420  420
Secondary air pressure-back wall           mmWs   500  500  500  500 500   470   520   520  520  520  520  520
Furnace atmospheric pressure               mmWs     666666666666
Superheater atmospheric pressure           mmWs     2    5    5    10    5     5    10     8    5   10   10    5
Convection  section atmospheric pressure   nmWs    10   10    10    20   15    15    15    15   15   15   10   10
Schlavo economizer                         mmWs    30   25    25    30   25    30    30    30   30   40   30   30
EGR electrostatic precipitator             mmWs    35   35    35    35   35    35    35    35   35   40   30   30
ID suction  fan  (rpm)                      u/min  400  390  350  410 340   350   350   360  350  440  380
Furnace control  set                        I       62   63    62    62   60    60    60    60   60   60   60   60
Indi. control desk                         Z       75   75    75    80   80    80    80    80   80   80   80   80
Top feeder ram                             0-10    77    77    77    77   77   77    77    77   77   77   77   77
Lower feeder ram                          0-10    77   77    77    77   77   77    77    77   77   77   77   77
Stroke of upper  stoker  (feeder)            mm     200  200  200   200 200   200   200   200  200  200  200  2CO
Stroke of lover  stoker  (feeder)            mm     600  600  600   600 600   600   600   600  600  600  60"  600
Stoker speed                               0-12     8    8    8    92   92    92    92    92   92   92   92   92
Indie, control desk                        I       50   50    50    60   60    60    60    60   60   60   60   60
Setting of final roller                    0-12     444444444444
Setting of vibrating slag conveyor         0-10     666666666666
-------
                                 J-ll
TABLE J-7.  DETAILED OPERATING STATISTICS FOR APRIL 2, 1977
            BOILER NUMBER 1 AT HAMBURG:  STELLINGER-MOOR
Shift tl

Steam production
D. Temp. V. Kuhlcr
Injection spraying
Total air
Percent to primer; «lr
Luft teap. n. Luvo
Oxygen concent
Furnace roof temperature-left
Furnace roof teaperature— right
Superheater temperature
Convention aectlon temperature
Schlovo
EGR
Underflre air pressure Sight Zone 1
Underflre air pressure Right Zone 2
Underflre air pressure Right Zone 3
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 4
Underflre air pressure Right Zone 5
Underfire air pressure Right Zone 6
Underflre air pressure Left Zone 6
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 5
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 4
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 3
Underflre air pressure Left Zone 2
Underfire air pressure Left Zone 1
Secondarv air pressure-back wall
Furnace atmospheric pressure
Superheater atmospheric pressure
Convention section atmospheric pressure
Schlavo economizer
EGR electrostatic preclpitator
ID suction fan (rpn)
Furnace control set
Indl. control desk
Top Feeder raa
Lover Feeder raa
Stroke of upper stoker (feeder)
Stroke of lower stoker (feeder)
Stoker speed
Indie, control desk
Setting of final roller
Setting of vibrating slag conveyor

T/h
•c
X3
Z
•c
2
•c
•c
•c
•c
•c
•c
mnWs
mnWs
mows
mnUs
mmUc
BDWs
nmWs
tmVs
nmUs
wraWs
mWs
nroWs
mnWs
mnWs
nnUs
mnWs
mnVs
mmWs
mVs
u/mln
I
1
0-1P
0-10
mm
on
0-12
J
0-10
0-12
07
27
440
55
38
25
85
10
770
710
600
520
345
335
50
60
35
- 5
-10
-20
-20
-10
40
60
60
400
500
6
10
20
40
61
600
72
80
7
66
220
600
8
60
5
7
09
25
435
50
35
25
85
105
740
760
580
520
345
335
50
60
30
- 5
-10
-20
-20
-15
30
60
65
400
500
6
10
15
40
60
570
72
80
7
68
220
600
8
60
5
7
11
27
430
35
35
25
85
105
740
740
580
510
325
320
55
60
30
0
-10
-15
-21
-10
40
60
60
400
500
6
10
15
45
60
540
73
SO
7
68
220
600
8
60
5
7
13
26
430
40
35
25
90
10
740
740
590
510
330
325
50
60
30
0
-10
-15
-15
-10
35
60
50
400
500
6
10
15
40
*0
S80
73
80
7
68
220
600
8
60
5
7
15
27
430
50
35
25
80
10
760
750
590
525
340
325
60
60
30
0
-10
-15
-20
-10
40
65
50
400
500
6
10
?0
45
70
580
73
sr
7
7
210
600
8
60
5
7
Shift *2
17
28
430
45
35
25
80
10
770
760
590
525
340
320
60
60
30
- 5
-15
-20
-20
-15
„ 5
35
60
50
400
500
6
10
20
45
60
5*0
n
,«o
7
7
210
600
8
60
5
7
19
2?
430
40
36
25
90
10
760
750
590
530
340
320
65
60
30
- 5
-15
-20
-20
-10
_ 5
35
60
45
400
500
6
10
20
45
fS

-20
-15
_ 5
40
65
40
400
500
6
10
20
45
65
600
72
80
7
7
210
600
85
65
5
7
05
25
435
45
36
25
90
10
73"
720
600
525
345
335
55
70
35
- 5
-10
-20
-20
-15
t
40
60
40
400
500
6
10
20
40
60
580
72
80
7
7
210
600
85
65
5
7
-------
                                  J-12
              TABLE j-8.    COMPARISON OF ZURICH-HAGENHOLZ
                           INCINERATOR PERFORMANCE,  1974
Incinerator boiler #
Make of incinerator
Maximum throughput of solid
waste Sh.T/D
Maximum Burning Rate Sh.T/D
Average Burning Rate Sh.T/D
Average Performance Rate %
Total Operating Hours Hr/Yr.
Availability %
Average Steam Output Sh.T/Hr
Rated Steaming Capacity Sh,T/Hr
Average Steam Output Rate %
#1
Von Roll
286.52
11.93
9.18
76.90
4,766.00
54.40
23.675
28.00
48.60
#2
Von Roll
286.52
11.93
9.18
60.70
4,561.00
52.10
18.672
28.00
66.70
#3
Martin
521.0
21.7
15.7
72.5
7,004.0
80.0
40.5
42.1
96.4
Source:  Information obtained from data given by Mr. Max Baltensperger,
         Director, Department of Streets and Sanitation, City of Zurich.
-------
                                   J-13


          By 1976, all  three units were operating on a more normal schedule as
shown in Table  J-9.  Figures are also presented  for  the entire  Sanitary Park
complex including  the following buildings and  energy customers.
         •  Car and truck repair shop (1,000,000  SF  ($400,000) spare parts in
            basement
            Office building
            Workers social hall and cleanup  area
            Truck  garage for storage
            Rendering plant
            FEW
            City's district heating network

         •  Electric utility's district  heating network.
         The units are  shut down for  about  eight hours  every  1000 hours for
routine inspection and minor maintenance.   Every 1000 hours  or  twice a year,
the  unit  is  down for about  one week  or  two  for  boiler cleaning and major
overhaul if needed.
         During 1976, the Martin #3 unit was  shut down seven (7)  times for less
than one day for planned 1000 hour routine inspections.  In total, the unit was
out of service  for six (6) weeks.
         Zurich used to have an instrument  service contract but that became too
expensive.  Their  own people now repair  the  instruments.

         The 4,000 Hour Cycle Between Boiler Cleanings.   Readings of key
variables on Hagenholz Unit #3 furnace/boiler  have been averaged for each
of the  26 weeks (4,300 hours) between July  1, 1973, and February  23, 1974  (when
the unit was stopped for planned cleaning) and are displayed in Figure J-1.
         The following Figure J-2 is similar.  It starts February 17, 1977, and
goes to June when  this visit was made.  The  unit  was not stopped  for cleaning.
The  two figure present  results of  the plants  first half year  (1973) and its
latest half year of operation (1977 after 30,000  hours).  For  most  of the 1973
period,  steam production  has hovered  around 37.5 tonnes (41.3 tons) per  hour.
Four years later the figure had decreased to  about  35 tonnes  (38.5 tons) per
hour.
         Notice the steady rise in flue gas  temperatures during  the first 1000
or 2000 hours.   The low initial readings reflect  excellent heat transfer rates
due  to  rather  clean tubes.  After the tubes have accumulated deposits, the heat
transfer levels out as is indicated by the flat temperature and steam profiles.
The  superheater and the  economizer tubes are  stacked (and not  staggered).
During the first 1000 hours, deposits are beginning  to accumulate vertically
between  close tubes as shown in this  diagram by  Martin's  Heinz Kauffman.
Eventually,  the space between the close  tubes  becomes filled with  deposits.
-------
                     J-14










TABLE J-9.   REPORT OF OPERATIONS 1974 AND 1976




                 Annual Totals

Incinerator boiler //I operating hours (h)
Incinerator boiler #2 operating hours (h)
Incinerator boiler #3 operating hours (h)
Number 2 fuel oil fired 3-pass boiler #1 operating hours (h)
Waste oil fired 3-pass boiler #2 operating hours (h)
Incinerator boiler #1 Steam Generation (tonnes)
Incinerator boiler #2 Steam Generation (tonnes)
Incinerator boiler #3 Steam Generation (tonnes)
Total steam produced from solid waste (tonnes)
Steam generation per ton of solid waste, unit //I
unit #2
unit it 3
average (t/t)
Fossil fuel fired 3-pass boiler #1 - steam generation (tonnes)
Fossil fuel fired 3-pass boiler #2 - steam generation (tonnes)
3-pass boiler total - steam generation
( tonnes )
Total steam generation (tonnes)
Quantity of solid waste burned (tonnes)
Quantity of waste oil burned (tonnes)
Quantity of waste solvents burned (tonnes)
Quantity of crude oil burned (3-pass boilers) (tonnes)
Total weight burned (tonnes)
Quantity of solid waste collected (tonnes)
Quantity of waste oil collected (tonnes)
Quantity of waste solvents collected (tonnes)
Total waste collected (tonnes)
1974
4,766
4,561
7,004
201
1,486
112,891
85., 118
284,255
482,264


2.579
1,413
11,244
12.658
494,922
186,968
794
71
109
187,942
186,146
1,654
71
187,871
1976
7,463
7,289
7,596
182
2,099
139,930
125,306
261,515
526,751


2.41
1,404
13,192
14,596
541,347
218,342
1,102
113
108
219,665
217,50:
1,80!
112
219, 4i:
-------
                                         J-15


                                TABLE J-9. (Continued)
                                                               1974             1976
Make-up for feedwater treatment (Gals.)                      6,961,926       6,798,528

Steam turbine #1 operating hours (h)                             6,090           6,565

Steam turbine #2 operating hours  (h)                            5,351           6,160

Steam turbine #1 electric power generated KWH               18,677,670      22,376,817

Steam turbine #2 electric power generated KWH               16,155,350      20,626,620

Total electric current generated          KWH               34,697,540      43,003,437

Electric current used for incineration plant  KWH           11,540,878      14,276,322

Car and truck repair shop   KWH                                 45,373          47,791

Office building             KWH                                148,550         131,702

Garage building             KWH                                 39,819          27,406

Flesh-meal plant            KWH                                 24,456         767,760

District heating system     KWH                                160,668         185,378

Community service           KWH                                 12,740

Residue processing plant    KWH                                                 30,225


Community uses              KWH                                  6,090

Total consumed for plant system (kWh)                       11,973,563      15,466,584

Electric current fed to utility grid  (kWh)                  23,151,000      28,374,000

Electric current used from utility grid (kWh)                  549,700         781,000

Water used for incineration plant kg                       197,668,901     125,334,528

Car and truck repair shop  kg                                  829,796         933,240

Office building  kg                                          1,853,945       1,721,016

Garage building  kg                                            114,386          37,488

Flesh meal plant  kg                                             	         8,145,720

Total water consumption kg                                 200,772,370     136,171,992

Water consumed per ton of solid waste  (kg/S.  T.)      1,162 *kg/Sh.T               686
                                                              63.3 gals/S. T.       37.3
*Normal Water Consumption Per  ton of  solid waste for Martin System =  20 Gals/Sh.T
-------
                                        J-JLb

                                TABLE J-9. (Continued)
Wet Residue"  Sh. T

Note * not weighed after June 30, 1974


Heat consumed by car and truck repair shop

Heat consumed by office building

Heat consumed by garage building

Flesh meal plant

Hot water to local factory

District heating system

City  EWZ (investor-owned public utility)

Total Heat supplied by hot water and steam


Operational hours for bulky waste shear
      1974

   47,594,551
 1,296 x 10° Btu

 2,772 x 106 Btu

 1,623 x 106 Btu
  304 x 10° Btu
                                                                             1976
 1.090 x 10" Bti

 2.895 x 106 Bti

 1.623 x 106 B*

26,425 x 106 Bti

  287 x 106 Btu

531,742 x 106 B
489,700 x 10° Btu    65,687 x 10  B

495,695 x 106 Btu   629,749 x 106 B
      2,931
      2,809
 (NOTE:   The causes of wide fluctuations  in system energy consumption were not
         determined.)
-------
J-17
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-------
                                      J-18
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-------
                                  J-19
After  the loss  of heat transfer from  the initial deposit,  the increasing
deposit has little effect on further lowering heat  transfer and  the efficiency
remains consistent for the remaining 2000 hours of  the cycle.
         The economizer is especially large to both recover energy and reduce
flue gas temperatures entering  the electrostatic precipitators.
         In 1973> the flue gas  temperature leaving the economizer was around
250 C  (482 F)  but  always below 275 C (527 F) on  a weekly average.  Four years
later,  the average  temperatures had risen to 290 C (554 F) with occasional
excursions to  300  C (572 F), the temperature considered  by  many to be the
temperature above which ESP high temperature corrosion occurs.
         Should stack gas  temperatures rise 90  C  (162  F)  above normal, then
overall plant efficiency would  fall by 5 percent, i.e., not enough energy was
absorbed by the boiler tubes from the flue gas stream.

The Hague

         In  1976 the plant produced 85,028,300 kw-hr, 71,930,500 kw-hr  of which
was delevered to the municipal  electric system.  This earned,  at-DG 0.03/kw-hr,
DG 2,157,915  ($884,391  § 2.W$).  To achieve this performance the two 11.5 MW
steam turbogenerators operated  5710 and 5698 hours respectively,  and averaged
overall  plant  availability for generating of 82.9 percent based on a 5.5 day
week of operation (6883 hr/yr).  As explained earlier,  good plant reliability
is achieved by having one of the four units available for repair and preventive
maintenance.
         Of  the total energy  delivered, 35.7 x 10° kw-hr was delivered during
the day,  36.2 x 10° kw-hr at night.  Maximum 5-minute average peak production
rate was 19,160 kw at 2:25 p.m. on December 10, 1976.
         Table J-10 shows an annual summary sheet prepared by  the staff each
year to  depict  overall plant performance.  In that table the final chart and
the final column both have to do with the electrical contract with the parent
organization,  Gementelijk  Energiebrijf (municipal utility).  That  contract
provides a monthly  bonus  if the waste plant  delivers  at  least  5.5  MW
continuously  during the 5.5 days of operation each week.  The table shows that
in 1976 that monthly bonus was won in  all months except March, August, and
October because on a total of 26 days the minumum rate was not maintained.
         In addition to the annual plant  performance tabulation, every month
the  staff produces  a  monthly summary of availability of all major plant
components showing for each boiler-furnace, turbine, crane, and pump the period
of operation,  time required for maintenance, repair, or modification-   ALso,  a
hand recorded daily table is included showing, by coded symbols,  which days of
the month which components did or did not operate and why.  Thus, a management
can tell at a glance over several months of these coded tables which particular
components are trending toward decreasing availability and hence should receive
appropriate maintenance.
         Table J-11 shows  the annual  plant  performance results for the  seven
years  1970-1976.   The most notable item in this extensive record is steam
produced,  tonnes  per tonne  of refuse.   Although  this  plant,  as all
waste-to-energy plants, must contend with a highly variable source of energy,
it shows a remarkably consistent production rate. That rate range for 1.92 to
2.02, a maximum variation over  seven years of +_ 2.5 percent.   The decided drop
-------
J-20
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                                  J-22


in rate in  1974  is  attributed to the  severe  energy crisis caused by the Arab
oil embargo beginning in October 1973.   Plant staff surmised  thaat many
householders found ways to reduce the amount of  combustible materials  discarded.

Dieppe

        The operating group, Thermical-INOR,  is required by its contract with
the city of  Dieppe to gather and submit performance data for  the refuse and
wastewater  plants.   Tables J-12 and J-13  show  the refuse plant results  for the
year 1976.   The total two-furnace operating time of 6,228 hours is 35  percent
based on a  total of two times 8,760 hours/year.  Based on a 5-1/2 day week, the
operation time is 45 percent.  As indicated early  in this report, the Dieppe
plant was sized in anticipation of considerable  growth in load.
        Table J-14 summarizes the refuse  plant operation  over the 5 years,
1972-1976.   Load and performance have been quite steady over that period.

Gothenburg;  Sayenas

        The system is achieving  its  goals of useful energy recovery while
disposing of the industrial and community solid  wastes from 670,000 inhabitants
in nine communities.  Various equipment  problems have been encountered as
already  described  and as solutions have  been  found, overall  performance is
improving.   Final  costs per unit of waste  handled have increased due tc
inflation and equipment modification.
        Table J-15 summarizes the plant input and  output in  1976.
        The total length  of time that  each  unit operated for  the  year
corresponds  to the following availabilities on 7-day  week plant operation:
                           Unit 1          76 percent
                           Unit 2          84 percent
                           Unit 3          72 percent
These are typical availabilities for this type of plant.
        The heat  utilized—235,869  Goal—amounts to 0.9725 Gcal/tonrie o
refuse (3.508 M Btu/ton).  Assuming the current  estimated average heat value o
2,350 Kcal/kg,  this represents a final  annual  use of 41.4  percent of th
potenially  available energy in  the  refuse.   Assuming  a  boiler-furnac
efficiency  of 70 percent, this corresponds to an effective use  of 59  percent o
the energy generated as steam.  A significant  block of the energy  liberate
must  be dissipated in the  air-cooled condensers  in the 4 months May throug
August because little district heating is needed then.
        Table  J-16 summarizes  the  plant performance for the 3 years
1974-1976.   The major changes to the water-tube walls and secondary air syste
in  1975 caused a loss of operation, particularly with Unit 2.   All of the  unit
increased operation in 1976, particularly Unit 2, whichh is a hopeful  sign ths
many of the  early problems have been solved.

Uppsala

        Table J-17  shows  the  1974  and 1975  operating results for  the enti
Uppsala district heating and power system.   In  1975, the waste burning plat
produced 80 Gwh (243 x 10^ MBtu) in the form of saturated  steam at 15 atm (2i
psi).  This  was 5.4 percent of the totla heat production in  the  entire system.
-------
                                                J-23
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-------
                                          T-77
                   TABLE J-16.  GOTHENBURG SAVENAS ANNUAL RESULTS 1974-1976
Furnace start-up: 1972
Capacity: t/24 h 3 x 300
Operating Personnel
Day Personnel
Shift Personnel
Total
Refuse Fired
Residue
Operating Hours
Furnace 1
Furnace 2
Furnace 3
Total
Availability
Steam Production
Steam Production/ t Refuse
Heat Supply
Power Consumption x 1000
Power Consumption/ t Refuse
Water Consumption
Total Water Consumption
Industrial Water
Water Consumption/ t Refuse
Boiler Feed Water


tonne
tonne

h
h
h
percent
tonne
tonne
Gcal
kWh
kWh/t

m3
m3
m3/t
m3
1974

22
20
42
214,885
66,133

6,242
5,700
5,852
17,794
67
663,906
3.09
178,922
10,248
47.69

217,660
185,091
1.01
32,569
1975

28
20
48
187,319(1)
56,165

5,484(2)
4,751
6,035
16,270
62
586,668
3.13
184,068
10,537
56.25

173,963
141,698
0.93
32,265
1976

242,536


6,686
7,360
6,351
20,397
77
771,995
3.18
235,869
13,296
54.82

186,110
158,791
0.77
27,319
(1)   Total stop about 15 days.
(2)   Boiler revision and repair.
-------
                         J-28
TABLE j-17.  OPERATING DATA FOR THE UPPSALA ENERGY SYSTEM
             FOR 1974 AND 1975 (COURTESY UPPSALA KRAFT-
             VARME AB)

Electricity Production, Gwh
Hot Water From Power Plant, Gwh
Hot Water From Three Heating Plants , Gwh
Hot Water From Central Heating Plant, Gwh
Steam Production From Waste, Gwh
Steam Production From Others , Gwh
Heat From Heat Exchanger, Gwh
Total Production (Hot Water + Steam) , Gwh
Delivery of Hot Water From Four Plants, Gwh
Delivery of Hot Water From Central Plant, Gwh
Delivery of Steam (Pharmacia, Farmek, KW) , Gwh
Oil Consumed:
Power Plant (for Power) , m
Power Plant (for Hot Water) , m
(a) 3
Three Heating Plants for Hot Water , m
3
Central Heating Plant, m
3
Bolandsverket Plant for Steam, m
Total Oil Burned, m
Specific Oil Consumption (Three Plants +
Power Plant) , Mwh/m3
Specific Oil Consumption, Central Plant, Mwh/m^
3
Oil From Coastal Terminal to Storage, m
Waste Burned, tonne
Waste Plant Evaporation Rate, kg/kg
1974
313
655
463
24
80
41
38
1,263
1,017
22
56

36,943
63,303
44,580
2,987
4,128
115,643
9.3

7.4
173,179
50,878
2.44
1975
520
1,020
206
34
81
32
30
1,373
1,166
31
59

62,834
99,930
21,453
4,034
3,296
129,051
9.6

7.7
188,182
51,355
2.44
-------
                                   J-29
                        TABLE J-17.  (Continued)

Length of District Heating System, m
3
Volume of Hot Water Circulated, m
Income
From Hot-Water Customers, 1,000 Skr
From Steam Customers, 1,000 Skr
From Delivery of Refuse, 1,000 Skr
(c)
Rate of Income From Heat Customers , ore/kwh
Tipping Fee, Skr/tonne
1974
164,201
13,486

63,355
2,588
1,888
6.10
37.11
1975
189,656
15,386

73,801
2,898
1,693
6.17
33.62
(a)  The three heating plants are:  Bolandsverket, Kvarngardesverket, and
    Husbyborgs Verket
(b)  Other small steam sources are Sunrod and Kymmene.
(c)  1 skr = 20 ore.
-------
                                  J-30
         The waste burning plant achieved its energy  recovery and waste
disposal  function with minimal cost.
         Figure J-3 shows the  component arrangement of the Uppsala plant. The
original  three  furnaces installed in  1960  are manifolded  to  feed hot gas to
either of  two  steam boilers.  -The fourth furnace,  installed in 1970,  serves a
third,  larger boiler.  The nominal capacities of the  components are as follows:
                    tonnes/hr          tons/hr         tons/day
Furnace 1
Furance 2
Furnace 3
Furance 4

TOTAL REFUSE  CAPACITY
  384

Boiler 1
Boiler 2
Boiler 3
TOTAL STEAM CAPACITY   40.0
  3.3
  3.3
  3.9
  5.5

14.5
   79
   79
   94
  132

 16.0
 44.0
88,000 Ib/hr
However,  these total capcities  are only ratings as the  plant was not intended
to and never  operates all components at full capacity.  Usually some components
are down  for service.  The  actual average plant burning rate for 1976, 51,000
t/d was the equivalnt of an average rate of about 200 tons/day based on  a 5-day
week.   This is  52 percent of rated capacity.


Horsens

         Early problems  resulting from higher than expected heat value of the
refuse have been solved by some refractory revisions  plus judicious  furnace
operation to  avoid firing  too  much  industrial refuse.  In the 4 years  of
operation, only two  truck loads of refuse have had to be  sent to the landfill
because  the  plant was down,  except  for the period in  1977 while  the  spray
cooling  chamber was being  replaced  by the  waste heat  boiler.   This  i£
especially notable when  one considers that there is only one line,  i.e.,  nc
redundancy.
Copenhagen:   Amager

         The monthly  operating hours for  the  three-line total  are shown ir
Figure J-4.   At  the  recent average of 1,700  hours per month, the  plant  operatec
about 80 percent of  the of the time.
         During the  1975-76  fical  year (April  1  to March 3D,  the  threi
furnaces together operated 19,663 hours or 75 percent of time  available.   Thi:
equates to  an average of  13 tonnnes (14.3 tons)  per hourper furnace.  Thi:
compares with a  design capacity of 12 tonnes (13.2 tons) per hour  per  furnace
This higher  refuse flow rate is consistent with the previous discussion on
-------
                                                                       J-31
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-------
J-32
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-------
                                   J-33
maximum rated  capacity.  Because the  average calorific value is  1,800 kcal/kg,
then more  refuse can be processed.
        Plant  officials have  identified three  old and partially  solved
problems as well as five continuing concerns.
                                Old Problems

          •   The crane was under  capacity
          •   The grate-furnace refractory grossly failed due to poor  anchoring
          •   The ash handling conveyor system had excessive wear  due to fines
             buildup.

                             Continuing Concerns

          •   The rotary kiln must occasionally be repaired
          •   The  convection  section has temperature corrosion  due  to low
             temperature boiler feedwater
          •   The  economizer must be manually  cleaned every 1,500 to 2,000
             hours, thus, setting the  maintenance schedule
          •   The  electrostatic  precipitator corrodes slightly due  to  running
             "hot" when the economizer is clogged and is not properly cooling
             the flue gases
          •   The  ash  handling system, while improved, is  still causing
             problems due to "fines".
Copenhagen:  West

          Battelle's host for the Volund  visit was Gabriel S. Pinto.   In  April,
1976,  he  wrote an excellent article in an internal  Volund  publication* that
discusses basic design of the total operating system.  The following  summarizes
;he article  and Figure J-5.
          For  purposes of the vendor's guarantee to the customer,  there must be
a clear understanding of the relation between Maximum Rated Capacity  (MRC) and
;he Net  Calorific Value  (NCV).   The numbers  used in the  example  figure are
;hose associated with the Volund rotary Kiln Furnaces.
          For  each furnace  designed  by  Volund, a theoretical diagram, similar
;o Figure J-5, is developed.  Its purpose  is to show how the MRC (tonnes/hr) is
a function of net calorific value (kcal/kg).
          As an example, assume that the NCV is 2,000 kcal/kg.  Typically, such
«1RC waste has the following composition:
          Inerts
          Moisture
          Combustibles
            Carbon
            Cellulose
            Plastics

              Total Cumbustibles
25
30
percent
percent
 8.6 percent
3^.8 percent
 1.6 percent

45   percent
100   percent
-------
J-34
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-------
                                  J-35


         The refuse feeder  is  to be adjusted  so that the  refuse layer on the
grate is 1  m (3 ft). This type of refuse, at the named layer  thickness,  has  an
average density of 200 kg/nP (450 pounds/yd^.
         More must be known about the  specific system before  the MRC answer (in
tonnes/hour) can  be given.  The effective grate  area must be known.   The
following formula relates key variables:

         MRC (tonnes) = Effective Grate Area (mZ)^  Grate Load  kcal
               hour     	(m2 hour)
                 Net Calorific  Vlaue  kcal  • 1000 kg
                                              (kg)       (tonne)

                      At this point,  some  rules of thumb need  to  be stated:

         •  For  hotter refuse  with  NCV of 1800  to 2500 kcal/kg, grate load
            ranges from 600,000  to 650,000 kcal/m2 • hour.
         •  For  cooler refuse  with  NCV under 1800 kcal/kg, the grate  load
            ranges from 150,000  to 550,000 kcal/m2 • hour.
Experience of Volund must  be  used  to actually  estimate the grate load.  But
once estimated, the capacity can be determined.  Mr.  Pinto's example does not
refer, to  any one system so we have arbitrarily added capacity  figures of 5.5 to
8.5 tonnes  per hour.
         An important design consideration can be seen from  the capacity versus
NCV curve.   It is uni-model peaking at 1200 - 1MOO kcal/kg.  As an example,  it
is assumed that  the plant is nominally  designed to burn 7.0 tonnes per hour of
refuse assuming it to have a 2000 NCV.
         Perhaps on a Spring day,  rain is excessive.   The  moisture  percent
rises from  it normal 30 percent  to 37  percent; the  combustibles fall  from 45
percent  to 38 percent; the  density  increases from 200 kg/m3 to 300 kg/ro^ and
inerts remain constant.  The air  preheater  remains unchanged  and the use  of any
other fuel  remains unchanged.
         With the conditions of the  wet waste given, the operator may increase
the feed rate, raise the feed layer  thickness of  120 cm (3.91 ft) and  thus
increase  the  throughput from  its nominal 7 tonnes per hour up to 8 tonnes per
hour.
         This  of course has a  logical  limit.   If the refuse becomes too wet,
full of inerts, and lacking in NCV, then  less tonnes per hour can  be processed.
The  furnace could  easily  choke on  even 5 tonnes per hour  of  soggy rags and
house furnace ashes if autothermic reactions are not possible.
         In the  other direction, above a NCV of 2000, this particular furnace
should process slightly less refuse per hour.
         Mr. E.  Blach,  Volund's  former chief  engineer, wrote in  19&9 an
excellent paper outlining Volund's product offerings  and its philosophy.   The
following  section  presents  some of  the philosophy of how  plants  should be
operated.   Several of his other  sections  appear later.

          Forms of Operation

          "The  best way of  running an incinerator plant is  running it 2U hours
          a day, i.e. continuous  operation.  The big variations of temperature
          at start  and shut-down cause more wear in a furnace  and the auxiliary
          machinery than a  steady  operation,  and  corrosion  and  cleaning
-------
                        J-36
problems, etc.  in the  boiler  part also  decrease by contiqual
operation.  With regard  to possibilities of maintenance and repair,
continual operation  is not possible  for a 1-furnace plant, and that
is one of  the reasons why an incinerator plant should usually consist
of at  least 2  furnace units.   Unfortunately, this is often  not
economically possible  at the small plants."
"An  ideal way  of operation  for plants with several furnaces is
obtained by always keeping  a  spare oven,  while the othher  or  the
othhers run continuously.  Through a  convenient rotation so that the
furnaces alternately are taken  out of  operation there is plenty of
time for  inspection, maintenance and repair of each furnace.  Small
damages  can thus be found and repaired  before they spread and  require
big and expensive  repairs.   At one-furnace plant,  the possibilities
of inspection are smallere and it can be tempting to  let a long time
pass between maintenance  and repair  stops so that the damages grow
big and  expensive to repair."
"With non-continuous operation, which in practice is 1 or 2 shifts
operation, the furnace  is  stopped,  when  the  operation  is
discontinued, e.g. the furnace is fed with suitable amount of refuse
proportionally  to  the  stand-still period, after  which  the grate
movement  and combustion air as well  as I.D.  fan  are stopped.  The
natural draught  will then  keep a slow combustion,  which  davelop
sufficient heat  to keep the plant warm, all  through so that it can
quickly  get up to full capacity, when it is started  again.   After a
couple of hours  the  temperature of  the flue  gases will be so low,
however, that there is the risk of condensation, and  thus, corrosion
in the convection  part of  the boiler, althoughh  the  boiler water
still can be kept  at full  temperature, and  the boiler  shunt  can
ensure min. 70  C return flow temperature.   Therefore, at stops of
more than  6-8 hours there must be taken special measures,  such as
by-pass with damper  around  the boiler and its  convection part.  This
is rather  difficult construction to carry  out in sufficiently strong
and practical form because of the high  temperatures."
"Furthermore, it results  in the operational  inconvenience  that
changing  over cannot  take  place till the flue  gas temperature is
below itOO  degree C, which normally means after 3-1 hours' stop."
"During week-end stoppages  the temperature of the boiler water cannot
be maintained, and it  will in this case be necessary also to  keep the
boiler warm by circulation of hot water."
-------
                                   K-l


                             ENERGY UTILIZATION


                             General Comments
         Each  European resource  recovery plant has a  complicated  and often
anique energy  use pattern.   It  was  therefore necessary  to  categorize
.nformation into first,  second  and third step energy forms and uses as shown in
'able K-l.
         In the  first step, the  energy in flue  gas can be used to dry sewage
sludge directly  or  to produce hot water  or steam in a boiler.   There is a
jeographic split with steam being produced in central and  southern Europe,
fhile hot water is often produced in Scandinavia.   Central Europeans claim that
steam is more useful while  the  Scandinavians make  calculations to show that hot
•/ater is more efficient.
         We have wondered whether the geographic difference is an accident of
.ndustrial location.   The four steam related water-tube wall vendors (Von  Roll,
tfidmer & Ernest,  Martin and VKVJ) happen to be located in Central Europe.  Both
/olund and Bruun and Sorensen, the continent's leading refractory wall furnace
lot  water  generator  vendors are  in Denmark.  The water-tube  wall
'urnace/boilers can economically produce high temperature steam.  Producing hot
tfater in such  a  water tube wall furnace might be  considered a waste of capital
.nvestment money.   The refractory wall  furnaces are generally  less expensive
and would have technical difficulties raising steam temperature to much above
315C  (600F).
         So the  question arises, "Do the Danes purchase refuse fired  hot water
systems  (1) because Volund and Bruun & Sorensen are there locally  and that is
tfhat  they sell or (2) because hot water systems are more efficient  and relevant
;o northern climates.  These researchers  do not have a clear  answer at this
iime.
         As a  summary to the  previous table, Table K-2 was prepared shoeing
low often key functions are  included in the design.
         Several years ago  Klaus Feindler prepared a  table showing heat
utilization from 28 German refuse energy plants started up during the 1960-1975
Deriod.   (See  Table K-3).   While not obvious from this,  there is  a trend away
^rom  plants producing only electricity to co-generation plants producing
electricity and district heating hot water.
         Many  of the foregoing  comments refer to salable  energy  uses.
Internal uses and losses also need to be considered by the designer.  There are
some  internal uses necessary while there are some internal losses that need to
36 minimized as shown in Table K-1*.
-------
                                     K-2
      TABLE K-l.  THREE STEPS OF ENERGY FORM AND USE AT VISITED EUROPEAN PLANTS















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energy use of the system is  as an afterburner.
-------
                          K-3
         TABLE K-2.   KEY ENERGY  FUNCTIONS OF
                     15  VISITED  SYSTEMS
                                   Number of
                                  Systems Having
                                   The  Energy
                                  Use Category  Percent
Sludge Destruction                      3          20
District Heating                        9          60
Electricity Export to the Network       8          53
Industrial Process Steam                5          33
Destruction of Exhaust Gases
  From Other Processes                  5          33
Systems Wasting Large Quantities
  Of Steam in Condensers                4          27
Internal Use of Energy Produced        14          93
       OUT OF A SAMPLE OF 15 PLANTS
-------
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                                   K-5


         TABLE K.  INTERNAL  USES AND LOSSES OF REFUSE DERIVED ENERGY
         Uses
             Preheat incoming  combustion air
             Reheat outgoing combustion air after scrubbing
             Preheat boiler feedwater
             Heat the plant interior space
             Electrify many parts of the plant
             Dry sewage sludge internally before combustion
             Blow steam through sootblower
         Losses
             Cooling steam in  condensers
             Escapes in stack
             Escapes in pressure relief valve
             Escapes in ash and quench water
             Escapes in sampling for air quality
District  Heating (D.H.)

         District heating commercialization varies extensively by  country as
shown in  Figure K-l.  The United States figure is  not shown because data is not
kept by  the  IDHA  in a similar manner.  The world's largest D.H.  country is the
U.S.S.R.  Frankly,  D.H. commercialization is faster with more centralized
planning and  control  where there  is  less pressure on immediate economic
returns.  In Western  Europe, West German systems deliver the  most energy.
Scandinavia,  however, has the  highest per capita rate.
         Interestingly, the world's first district heating system was  on
Chestnut St.  in Lockport, New York  in  1877. Its inventor,  Birdsill Holly is
considered by most to be the father of district heating.  Later,  in 1909  after
several  systems ha-d been built, several system  developers met at the Southern
Hotel in Columbus,  Ohio (5 miles from  the world headquarters of  Battelle
Memorial Institute).   Attendees  formed  the National District Heating
Association  which was later to become  the International District  Heating
Association now located in Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania.
         The American systems were  mostly  steam.   In  recent years  many
European D.H.  systems use only hot  water.  Several European met on the tour
suggested the lackluster D.H.  situation  in America of the last  20  years was
partially the  fault of using steam  and not hot water.   "Energy losses are
greater with  steam, maintenance is higher and steam can only be transported 1/3
the distance  as hot water" would be a typical European assessment.
         These researchers are not sure  if the above is the  complete story.
As the U.S.  EPA and State agencies improve the  atmospheric environment, there
has been  pressure on existing  D.H. systems to spend  larege sums  for  pollution
-------

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CONNECTED AND SPECIFIC CAPACITIES IN EUROPE (Courtesy of Lenn-
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ing workshop obtained from Scholten, Timm.  Survey of Existing
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-------
                                    K-7


control  equipment or to close.  Many have  chosen to close.   Often  systems spend
money on emissions cleanup but let the steam lines fall into disrepair.
          It is the opinion  of these researchers that the  issues  raised in the
above two paragraphs have unnecessarily soured decision  maker  attitudes in
America  to  the detriment of full consideration of Refuse-Fired District Heating
Systems.
          A  persuasive argument for district heating is highlighted in Figure
K-2.  If each  single family house has its own oil fired furnace, the community
heating  efficiency is about 50-60 percent.  However, under the distric heating
apartment building arrangement, the efficiency rises to 70-80 percent.   This
high district heating efficienty is achieved despite 3 to 10 line efficiency
losses.
          District  Heating,  however,  is not necessarily desirable  for all
applications as to shown in Table K-5.   It is normally "very favorable" for
downtown, high rise buildings.  Even though the table states that it is "not
possible" to provide D.H.  for one family houses, it occasionally is provided in
several  Denmark and other country locations including Gothenburg.
          Erik Wahlman of Sweden's consulting firm of Theorell & Marin suggests
uses of  the form of Figure  K-3 when planning a D.H. system.  He  has found out
that in  Sweden,  various types  of buildings have  different heat and  energy
requirements  per unit area and have different energy demand patterns (hours per
day and  year).  (See Table K-6.)
          Figure  K-1! of Mr.  Wahlmman's shows how the average and maximum head
demand  varies  by month over a year in Sweden.  Notice that excersions  to the
maximum  are more pronounced.  The average monthly heat demand is  slightly more
stable.
          Table K-7 presents several local market factors which should favor
the installation  of  district  heating steam and chilled water systems  in an
American  situation.


District  Cooling  (Not Observed in Europe)

          In 1973, Battelle performed a study of the potential for  refuse  fired
district heating and cooling systems across the  U.S.A.   The study concluded
that there were definite economic benefits to the system if district  cooling
could be provided in the Summer.  The Nashville Thermal Transfer Corporation in
Nashville, Tennessee was the model for that study.
          Technically, the  district cooling  can  be accomplished in either of
two ways. In  Nashville, steam is sent to an adjoining Carrier chiller  station
equipped with large turbines,  compressors and condensers.  Cold water at 5 C
(J)l F)  is then pumped to over 30 downtown office buildings.  The  other  method
that might  be used in about to be demonstrated by "the Harrisburg Incinerator
Authority in Pennsylvania.   In that case hot steam continues to be  sent  through
the lines in  the Summer.  Building owners who desire air cooling then direct
stean to  their own adsorption chilling stations—one in each basement.
          The  Nashville unit  had adversely affected the reputation  of the
entire mass  burning  industry  due to its under-capitalization and technical
start up problems.   Even in 1978,  many think of these problems when they think
of Nashville.  Table K-8 presents very positive recent finanacial data that
vindicate the original developers and support the forward thinking by officials
of Nashville that sought corrective bonding.
-------
K-8
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-------
                                K-12
100
 90-
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 70-
 60--
 50-
 40 --
  30--
  20- -
  10--
                                                    Max hourly
                                                    heat demand
1
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                                 7   8  9  10   11   12  Month
 FIGURE K-4.  MAXIMUM HOURLY HEAT DEMAND AVERAGE MONTHLY HEAT DEMAND

              (Courtesy of Erik Wahlman, Theorell & Martin Energikon-

             sulter AB at the Swedish District Heating Workshop)
-------
                                   K-13
         TABLE K-7.  FAVORABLE DEMAND ASPECTS OF DISTRICT HEATING
                     AND COOLING SYSTEMS IN THE U.S.A.
 1.   Large,  dense load area

 2.   Land available for system

 3.   Sufficient initial customers to assure adequate load

 4.   Urban renewal slated or under way

 5.   Location in state capital

 6.   Local coal-burning steam utility desiring to leave business because
     of pollution regulations

 7.   Local district heating utility desiring to increase business with
     addition of chilled water

 8.   Increasing conventional fuel prices

 9.   Uncertain conventional fuel availability

10.   Lack of interest in solid waste for electrical generation of
     industrial steam

11.   Flexible rate setting for district heating and cooling products
-------
                                  K-14
 TABLE  K-8.  REPORT ON OPERATIONS NASHVILLE THERMAL TRANSFER CORPORATION
              FOR THE TWELVE MONTH PERIOD ENDING MAY 31, 1978
                            Condensed Statement
                          Disposition of Revenues
                          ***********************

                                                      12 Months Ended
                                                 ***********************

                                                   5-31-78       5-31-77
                                                 *********     *********

Steam: Heating  	 $ 1,418,361   $ 1,448,093
Water: Cooling  	   1,473,017     1,433,864
Total Operating Revenues 	 $ 2,891,378   $ 2,881,957
Total Operating Expenses 	   1,926,750     1,936,643
Net Operating Revenues 	 $   964,628   $   945,314
Payment From Metropolitan Government of
  Nashville and Davidson County  	   1,300,000     1,275,000
Other Income 	      47,915        69,442
Balance for Debt Service 	 $ 2,312,543   $ 2,239,756
Total Debt Service 	   1,943,843     1,838,127
Balance Or (Deficiency) After Debt Service . . $   363,700   $   451,629

Coverage (Balance for Debt Service/Total Debt
  Service)	$     1,187   $     1,246
                             Comparative Data
                             ****************
Number of Customers Billings (Average Per
  Month) (**):
  Steam	$        15   $        15
  Cooling	          18            18
Sales Volume:
  Steam -
    Demand (Pounds Per Hour) (*) 	 $   178,490   $   176,805
    Commodity (Thousand Pounds)  	     230,218       236,204
  Cooling -
    Demand (Tons) (*)  . -	       8,665         8,625
    Commodity (Thousand Ton-Hours) 	      19,109        18,234
Refuse Incinerated (Tons)   	     140,973       134,586
__
v    Peak Demand During 12 Month Period.
(**)
     The buildings served are over 30 in total.  The State of Tennessee,
     for example, has over 6 buildings but is considered only 1 customer.
-------
                                   K-15


          Without question,  in  the total subject area of refuse to energy,  the
technology flow needs to be from  Europe to U.S.A.  However, those Europeans  who
desire  to increase Summer -loads and overall financial results might do well to
look at district heating and cooling as practiced in Nashville,  Tennessee,  and
Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.


Underground  Distribution

          Every  district  heating system viewed  had  unique underground  pipe
distribution schemes.  In all hot water systems, there  is a  return warm water
pipe.   However  in steam  systems,  the designers  have a  choice of returning
condensate or not.  Many designers fear the corrosive  effect ofthe returning
condensate. Others wish  to conserve water and will try to design to minimze
corrosion.
          All hot water and some steam systems viewed  had packed tunnels,  i.e.,
packed with  dirt,  gravel, insulation,  etc.  See Figured K-5a,  b, c, and  d.
Several steam systems, however,  use human walk through tunnels such as detailed
later at Zurich.  Duesseldorf, because  of the railroad and  other underground
utilities, uses an overhead pipe  as  shown later.
          Figures K-6a, b, c, and  d and  Figures K- 7a, b,  c,  and d describe
some  of the Swedish piping alternatives in greater detail.  The Wirsbo  Bruk
people now offer plastic high density polyethylene pipe (Figures K-8, K-9,  and
K-10).  If  the  underground pipes  are usually above the water table,  mineral
wool  insulation  may  be used.   Otherwise,  they recommend their  foamed
polyurethane sections.
          Another system  available is the Aquawarm polyethlene encased copper
hot water  and return pipes shown  in Figure K-lla, b,  and c.   The sinusoidal
laying is  for expansion and contraction as the ambient  temperature changes.
          The final pipe system described in this report offered by TK-ISOBIT
is a  steel  pipe  encased  in bituminous concrete and  swathed in an impregnated
cellulosic filler  as shown in Figure  K-12.  The 6 m  (19 feet)  sections  are
welded and bituminous concrete is also  poured on the joint.

Community  Electrical Power District  Heating and Cooling Development

          During the period October 10-20, 1978,  the Swedish Trade Office in
Chicago produced a series of Swedish District  Heating  Workshops in major
American  cities.   Speakers were vendors, consultants and officials from the
Swedish Government.  They distributed proceedings which can  be purchased  for
$30.00 by  writing to:

          Per-A, Sjolund, Trade Commissioner
          or Torbjorn Lindahl, Project Manager
          Swedish Trade Commission
          333 N. Michigan Avenue
          Chicago, Illinois  60601

A few  of  the diagrams and insights  contained will be presented in the following
pages.
-------
                                           K-16
      •Grode level
   Coarse
   sand fill
       Drainage
       channel
     Optional    |
     drainage zone-
                           • Gravel bed
                  -Retainer slab  '
                   4ft-
                                              COUPE O'UN CANIVEAU
                                               • »»•••:•'•'•••"  / /
                                                    • •
FIGURE K-5a.   STEAM DISTRIBUTION
                AND RETURN CONDENSATE
                PIPES AT  WERDENBERG
FIGURE  K-5b.   STEAM DISTRIBUTION AND
                RETURN CONDENSATE  PIPE
                AT PARIS
     FIGURE K-5c.  HOT  WATER PIPES
                    AT WERDENBERG
                                                    FIGURE K-5d.   HOT  WATER PIPES AT
                                                                   UPPSALA
-------
                              K-17
a) Large pipes
                Drain pipe
b)"Pipe in pipe" system
c) Multiple pipe system
                                           Water protection
                                           Steel beams, hangers etc.

                                           Concrete culvert
                                           Steel pipe (with periodic
                                           expansion bellows)
                                           Thermal insulation
                                           Well drained fill
                                           Plastic protection pipe fixed
                                           by ground pressure
                                           Cellplastic for insulation
                                           and transfer of sheer stress
                                           to protection pipe
                                           Steel pipe prestressed during
                                           laying
                                           Drain pipe
                                   Protection pipe
                                   Steel pipe
                                   Thermal insulation
                                   Hot tap water (inc. recirculation)
                                   Drain pipe
d)"Aqua warm" system
                                    Corrugated plastic protection pipe
                                   insulation
                                   Copper pipe
       FIGURE K-6.  CONVENTIONAL HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION PIPES
                  (Courtesy of AB Energikonsult given at the
                  Swedish District Heating Workshop)
-------
                                   K-18
FIGURE K-7a.  CONCRETE CULVERT
PLASTIC K-7b.  PLASTIC PIPE CONVERT
FIGURE K-7c.   ASBESTOS CEMENT
              PIPE CULVERT
  FIGURE K-7d.  COPPER PIPE CULVERT
                                 FIGURE K-7
-------
                                                                     FIGURE K-8.  DESIGN OF THE TRENCH
                                                                     WHEN THE PIPE IS INSULATED WITH
                                                                     MINERAL WOOL

                                                                     The total thickness of the backfill above the
                                                                     insulation should be about 8" (20 cm).
FIGURE K-9.  DESIGN OF THE TRENCH
WHEN THE PIPE IS INSULATED WITH
WIRSBO-PUR (POLYETHYLENE PIPE)

The total thickness of the backfill above the
insulation should be about 20" (50 cm).
                                                                  FIGURE K-10. WIRSBO-PEX POLYETHYLENE
                                                                  PIPE AND WIRSBO-PER INSULATION PRE-
                                                                  FABRICATED PARTS AT A JUNCTION BOX
              (These figures  are  the courtesy of Walter  Engelhardt,  Wirsbo Bruk
               given at the  Swedish District  Heating Workshop)
-------
                                                   K-20
(a)
          0.3 m in parks and similar
          areas with little traffic
          0.5 m in local streets
          0.8 m in feeder streets

          To be backfilled and com-
          pacted with the same care
          as the remainder of the
          roadway.
0.3 m of fill (without stones)
consisting of gravelly sand
with a maximum particle size
of 20 mm. Sharp-edged
gravel must not be used.

0.1 m bed. N.B. The space
below the tubes must be well
compacted.
                                        approx.  approx.    approx.
                                         40 an    25 an      40 cm
                 (b)
                                                                              (c)
         approx. approx. approx. approx.  approx.
         40 an  25 an   20 cm   20 an   35 an
      FIGURE K-ll.   SEVERAL FIGURES OF THE  AQUAWARM  SYSTEM OF  POLYETHYLENE
                          ENCASED COPPER  PIPE
-------
                                                         K-21
                                b.
      Housing tube made of
      tar-impregnated cellulose
      fiber. Tar has a bacteria-
      destroying effect.
The asphalt in the TK-ISOBIT
mass has a self-healing effect,
so that notches or fissures that
might be caused by jerks or
accidents, will fuse and close,
The insulation layer remain-
ing uninterrupted.
d. The TK-ISOBIT insulation
   mass has the following heat
   transmission coefficient X:
     0.11 kcal/nvh-°C.
                                                              Iron tube which, during
                                                              assembly, is insulated with
                                                              half-shelves, or is insulated
                                                              through casting at the
                                                              spot with TK-ISOBIT mass.
"Flowing" "glide zone"
around the steel tubes,
which lowers the friction
during expansion in the
tube system.
                                TK-ISOBIT mass
                                (bithuminous LECA
                                mixture), which is
                                100% impervious
                                to water.
                                                           This illustration does not
                                                           do justice to the size pro-
                                                           portions.  Normal length
                                                           per tube section:  6 meters
                                                           (see photograph of the
                                                           production hall).
                                                              Stand:  operational
                                                              temperature above
                                                              150°C.
                                                 FIGURE  K-12.
-------
                                  K-22


         One  of the basic premises  of community  district heating development
is that  it progress in stages.  Five key stages are shown  in  Figure K-13 and
are as follows:

         Stage 1:  Consumer system
         Stage 2:  Portable oil or gas  fired central stations
         Stage 3:  Permanent  district heating stations
         Stage M:  Cogeneration-of electricity and  district heat
                   (sometimes with refuse)
         Stage 5:  Base load  with distant nuclear waste heat

         Another example is  the staged development of the Sodertalje district
heating system as shown in Figure K-11.
         Piping is installed in  stages as well  as  depicted in the 20 years
annual investment pattern shown for Sodertalje in Figure K-15.

         Stage  1:  Consumer  Systems.   Erik Wahlman in his paper on "Conversion
of Heating Systems in U.S. Buildings", suggests that almost any existing  energy
plant can be  retrofitted for hot water district heating.  As examples, Figures
K-l6a and K-l6b are included for conversion of ventilating and radiator systems.

         Stage  2;  Portable  Oil or Gas Fired Central Sub Station.  Figure K-17
shows a  portable oil fired district  (or Central) heating  substation.   Often
they  have  fire-tube boilers as shown in Figure K-18.   A  station might  be
erected for  a subdivision. When two to  five of these are in an area it becomes
economical  to erect a permanent  district station.  These portable units car
then be  moved to another community.

         Stage  3 '•  Permanent District  Heating Station.   An example  of s
permanent district heating station is to be found in Figure  K-19 at Copenhage:
West.   Later in Stages 4 or 5, these stations can be used in two ways  as
portrayed in the tails of Figure K-20.   First, when  another source is providing
the baseload, the permanent  boilers can be used for  peaking.  Second, Wher
there is either not enough refuse input  or energy demand output,  the oil-firec
boilers can be used instead of firing the expensive to operate base load refuse
fired energy plant.

         Stage  U;  Cogeneration of Electricity and District Heating (sometime;
with refuse).  Inferred in the previous figure, a refuse-fired cogeneratio
facility could  provide  the  base  load.  Repeatedly  on  the European tour am
during  the  Swedish District  Heating Workshop mention was made  of othe
advantages  of Cogeneration.  Two  figures demonstrate the advantage.  Figur
K-21 presents schematics showing  a  simple power station with a condensin
turbine that  must waste much energy in a condenser.  It also shows the mor
energy efficient  Cogeneration  plant  that has a back  pressure turbine to provid
electricity and  steam or hot  water  for  district heating.  The  lower Figure K-2
shows the system  efficiency rising  from  36 percent in  the  simple power static
to 86 percent  in  the cogeneration plant.
         In a similar manner,  Carl-Erik Lind, head of the  energy section a
the Swedish National Board  of  Industry presented Figure K-23 showing  th
percentages.  With a slight  derating of the electrical  output (from HO percer
-------
                                  K-23
                                          Hent-
                                          exchonger
 •c

120

100

 BO

 60

 40  {
•p

2^8

212

176

UO
                                               0^
                                               r
                                                   r

                                                   LJ
                                                            JrUMER
                                                         SYSTEM
                                                               SJAGEJ.
                                                               Boiler central
                                                               STAGE  D
                                                               Mqin hot water
                                                               boiler plant
                                                               (used as reserv
                                                               and peckcentrol
                                                               in stoge flj ).
 Districution
"system
 230 ps ig.

 STAGE ID

 Combined
 powerstation
                                                               Stage EC
                                                               Base Load
                                                               with Distant
                                                               Nuclear  Waste
                                                               Heat
    FIGURE -K-13.   TOTAL ENERGY PLAN BUILT UP IN THREE STAGES

    (Courtesy of  Erik Wahlman, Theorell & Martin Energi
     Konsulter AB at  the Swedish District Heating Workshop)
-------
1970  K_24
                                                        1985
                                                          1978
FIGURE K-14.  STAGED DEVELOPMENT
           OF DISTRICT HEATING
           IN SODERTALJE
-------
                                      K-25
                 ANNUAL INVESTMENTS
                 FIXED PRICE LEVEL 1978
                 I MILLIONS
                                                      1 t • 4 60 Skf
                                     1980      1985       1990
FIGURE K-15.
ANNUAL  CAPITAL INVESTMENT AT THE  CITY OF SODERTALJE ENERGY
AUTHORITY

(Courtesy of Tomas Bruce, City of  Sodertalje  Energy Auth-
ority given at the Swedish District Heating Workshop)
-------
COOUNG
TOWER
r-OO-|

K-26
COOUNG
TOWER
r«h
U H o
1 — ^ $ 5. <
HANDLING^ 	 1« 	 1 1 ^
UNITS Q
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STEAM SYSTEM
SCHEME 5 Exist.
Steam to ventilatmc
Steam/hotwater to r
: INDUCTION UK S 9
UNITS HANDLING ^ 	 t*J 	 1
UNITS
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4 i i{
^"" 1 ' I
k. Y . ' I '
r—3*r
^w'NDUCTION
r— ~ UNITS
I S^
I i*3^
r\f
1 RADIATORS
NA\1
1 FT
1 '
1 M
(J)l |i
rrvjcT1' irrjut^
WFr?
i||i]j
hu
1 1 i '
ill i i i i
_ yAi I I |
DH SYSTEM
Conv.
systems Hotwater to ventilating systems
adiators Hotwater heat exchangers

COOLING
TOWER
r0^
l_...j

HANDLING •*- 	 W 	 1
UNITS
Ll^
K!^~|CONDENS |
~rZ@
IEWORAT r~V9~
-<] 9
0
	 1
> 1

i 1
CH

^

STEAM SYSTEM
SCHEME 6 Exist.
Steam to radial
coaKr
TOWER
\ )
\ — ^ ^ 9
HANDLING ^ 	 OQ 	 ,
UNITS
mri
-JMccNceNsH | I
RADIATORS , 	 . 1 1
E~ZI@ ^ | j
^«FCRAT| (j? ' T
i i
. 	 . 1 1
R \ A
XI 9 T 1
^ r- |!
-Kr~i r^
Jlr^ -£%-'
^H^nT
fit' [It
RADIATORS
ifl
K*vA|
4i
jfbr
ifi
It
^^ I 1 j
DH SYSTEM
Conv.
ors Hotwater to radiators
Hotwaters heat exchangers
                                                                              (a)
                                                                              (b)
FIGURE K-16.  TWO SCHEMES SHOWING HOW CUSTOMER SYSTEMS CAN BE CONVERTED
              TO HOT WATER DISTRICT HEATING
-------
                                  K-27
FIGURE K-17.  PORTABLE OIL-FIRED DISTRICT HEATING SUB STATION
FIGURE K-18.  PORTABLE OIL-FIRED FIRE-TUBE BOILER (Courtesy of Jan-Olof
              Djarv, A B Energi Konsult given at the Swedish District
              Heating Workshop)
-------
                             K-28
FIGURE K-19.
ORIGINAL AND PERMANENT STANDBY OIL-FIRED DISTRICT
HEATING BOILER BUILDING (DWARFED BY THE LARGE
REFUSE-FIRED HOT WATER GENERATOR)
-------
                                K-29
LOAD
% 100
    60
      ^HEAT-ONLY  BOILERS
       (During Winter Time of Peak Load)
    40
    20
FROM IIIHIIIIIIillllll
           CO-GENERATION
           Firing of Refuse l|ll|||||||||
                                      HEAT-ONLY BOILERS
                                      (During Summer Time of Minimal
                                       Load, Garbage Collectors Strike,
                                       or Refuse Burner Shut Down for
                                         Annual Inspection  and
                                            Reconditioning)
                                                         12  MONTH
 FIGURE K-20, HEAT LOAD DURATION CURVE AND LOAD-SPLIT.  HEAT ONLY PACKAGE
            BOILERS USED (1)  FOR PEAKING,  (2) WHEN THERE IS NOT ENOUGH
            REFUSE SUPPLY (3) WHEN ENERGY DEMAND IS TOO LOW OR (4) DURING
            SHUT DOWN FOR INSPECTION AND RECONDITIONING (Modification
            Studsvik Energiteknik AB Figure given at the Swedish District
            Heating Workshop)
-------
                                    K-30
         Boiler
   Fuel
    Simple Power Stations
    (Condensing Turbine)
 Cogeneration  Electricity and District  Heating
   (Back Pressure Turbine)
FIGURE K-21.   SCHEMATICS OF S SIMPLE  POWER STATION AND A  COGENERATION
               ELECTRICITY AND DISTRICT  HEATING SYSTEM
     100-
      50-
      1   Electric power extracted
      2  Losses in  condenser
      3  Other  losses
         (the mainpart to the stack)
      Condensing  power  station
100-
 50-
                                        86
                                    -50-
 1   Electric power extracted
 2   Heat  extracted
 3   Losses (the  mainpart to the stack)

 Steam district  heating power  station
FIGURE K-22.   USEFULL ENERGY AND  LOSSES OF SIMPLE  POWER GENERATION COMPARED
               WITH COGENERATION

 (Courtesy  of Jan-Olof Djaru AB Energi Konsult at  the Swedish District
  Heating Workshop)
-------
                                  K-31
   Condensing  Plant
      Used fuel	
        100
  40
Power
     Combined  Plant
       Used  fuel
•*	P-
         100  %
  35 %
  55
Power
District
  Heat
  1 ) =  Boiler losses = 8 %
 >-<(
  2)=  Auxiliaries losses = 2
  3 \ =  Condenser losses
FIGURE K-23.  FUEL ECONOMY IN CONDENSING PLANT AND COMBINED PLANT
 (Courtesy of Carl-Erik Lind,  Head of Energy Section National Board of
  Industry, Stockholm and the  Swedish District Heating Workshop)
-------
                                  K-32


to 35  percent  of the fuel's energy  content), condenser  losses could be
eliminated  and the combined efficiency would rise to 85 percent.

         Stage  5;  Base Load With  Distant Nuclear Waste Heat.  The Swedes  are
considering three Stage 4 situation  as  located in Figure  K-24.  One of  the
three would  use waste heat from th  Forsmark nuclear  power  station 80  miles
North of Stockholm.   The refuse  fired steam generator plant at  Uppsala is part
of a larger cogeneration facility  in  an energy and  environmental park as
described in  the specifc comment section.  Thus this refuse derived steam from
the  Uppsala  plant  visited would eventually be part "D*1 of this total energy
plan.
         On  summarizing  the five  stages, it  is important that each stage be
developed before  future stages are implemented.  Any  particular stage many
require  6  to 12 years before the savings in fuel cost equals the extra expense
of installing that stage.  Another,  perhaps humbling point  for  resource
recovery,  is that  in the long term refuse-to-energy systems will be a limited
factor in the total energy picture.  Once again the point is made that resource
recovery holds  the hope  that  refuse can be destroyed in  an economical  and
environmentally sound manner.   It is  not the panacea for the world's energy
problems.


               Energy Utilization - Specific System Commments

Werdenberg-Liechtenstein

         This  small 132 ton per day plant produces the  most complex assortment
of energy forms, considering the plant size, that the  researchers have  seen in
their travels.  Figure K-25 shows the components and their interrelationships.

             Hot water for district heating
             Steam for industrial process
             Electricity for the community
             Electricity for internal use
             Steam wasted on the roof
             Steam for internal use
             Hot water for internal use.
         When  more energy  is  needed than the  refuse  fired steam generator
(RFSG) can  produce, the auxilliary standby oil-fired steam  boiler can  be used
(See Figure K-26).
         A back-pressure steam turbine-generator shown  in Figure K-27, is used
to produce  two energy forms: electricity and medium quality  steam.   A  small
back-pressure  turbo-generator  has  a maximum electricity generating  capacity of
0.85 mw  at 10  kv.   Inlet pressure is 39 bar  (55a  psig)  (714 F).   Outlet
pressure is  6 bar  (72.5 psig)  (1.05 x 10° Pa) and temperature  is  250 C  (482 F).
The back pressure varies between 5.5 and  12 bar.
         The 250 C, 6 bar  exhaust stem from the turbine is cooled  to 150 C,  6
bar by direct water spray and is then  piped to a nearby chemical plant  which
returns  to condensate at 5 bar with little loss.   See Figure K-28 that shows
the  steam distribution and condensate  return tunnel.   Excess  steam is  condensed
in a forced draft air-cooled, roof-top conenser.  (See Figures  K-29a  and b.)
         Hot water for district heating is produced  in a  steam-to-hot  water
-------
       *
                                  K-33

"D" Includes the Refuse  Fired Steam
    Generator at Uppsala
                   FORSMARK f~
.'                  Nl>Cl.» II>I»K / •?-
Pouibl* long distanc* transport pip*?.
2000
1000
                       Heat prodeced by           -'^B                      V"   "^
                       A =  Peaking plant, Stockholm ^^GPH*hl     OSKARSHAMN^Z
                       B=     -»-    .Uppsala     ^l           N"'	"  gf
                       C =  Cogeneration plant, Hasselby—i              K.im.,i
                      *D=     -»-        .Uppsala  "^                 _,
                       E =     -»-        , Vartan   -^                 tl/
                       F =  Nuclear plant, Forsmark      __
                                                                         • Ragiontl ic
                                                                          now und«r ttudy
                                                                         • Nucllir powtr tlition
                                                <^) Forsmark
                                               J7 Uppsala
                                               0
                                     6          8
                               Thousand hours
                                                 10-103
       FIGURE  K-24.  HEAT PRODUCED BY  EACH UNIT FOR THE OPTIMUM  CASE IN THE
                       LONG RANGE PLAN FOR DISTRICT HEATING SUPPLY IN THE
                       STOCKHOLM AREA USING OIL, REFUSE AND NUCLEAR POWER
-------
                  Hochdruckdampf 39 bar/395 °C.
                                                  .;•:•  fi-L_ n.1
                                                  ,.*»,~U»«. -.AT
                     Sattdampf 5,5412 bar](geregelt)l
1.  Refuse-fired steam generator                  10.
2.  Oil-fired boiler                              11.
3.  High-pressure feedwater  turbo-pump            12.
k.  High-pressure feedwater  motorized pump       13.
5.  Mid-pressure feedwater motorized pump        14.
6.  Turbine steam by-pass                         15.
7.  Synchronons turbogenerator, 950 Kva           16.
8.  Steam temperature regulator                   17.
9.  Feedwater tank and deaerator                  18.
Air-cooled condenser
Condensate pump
Steam-to-water cascade
Hot water district heating  pump
Heat exchange for plant  heating
District heating system
Feedwater treatment facility
Makeup water tank and pumps
Industry steam supply line
                 FIGURE  K-25.  WERDENBERG STEAM  AND  HOT-WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
                               (COURTESY WIDMER & ERNST, ALBERTI-FONSAR)
-------
                          K-35
FIGURE  K-26.   STANDBY OIL-FIRED PACKAGE BOILER AT WERDENBERG
 FIGURE  K-27.  BACK PRESSURE TURBINE AT WERDENBERG
-------
                                K-3b
             Grade level
       Coarse
       sand fill
             Drainage
             channel

           Optional      J
           drainage zone
              Gravel bed
Retainer slab
                               4ft
FIGURE  K-28.  STEAM DISTRIBUTION TRENCH AT WERDENBERG
               (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)
-------
    (a)
                            K-37
                                              (b)
FIGURE  K-29.  TWO VIEWS OF AIR-COOLED CONDENSER AT WERDENBERG
              (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)
-------
                                  K-38


          Hot water for district heating is  produced in a  steam-to-hot water
heat exchanger as seen in Figure  K-30.   Hot water at  10 bar (130 psig)  and a
temperature  of  100-130 C  (212-266  F) is delivered to the same chemical plant
and also to an apartment complex  involving 300 units.  Figures K-31a, b,  c,  and
d show  the district heating system under construction, the distribution pattern
and the  hot  water distribution and return line.   The total length of  the
distribution system is 2.5 km (1.5 mi).  An additional 0.8 km (0.5 mi) pipeline
will be  added to provide heat for the railroad station.  Other buildings  may be
included.  Where  the hot  water is  utilized for comfort heating, each building
has a water-to-water heat exchanger  to provide 80  C (176 F) water  for  the
building heating system.
          The plant General  Manager handles  all  energy sales.  Steam and hot
water prices  are set so as to compete with the rising cost of fuel oil.   At  the
time of  our  visit (May 2-3,  1977),  No. 2 oil in Switzerland cost approximately
30 SwFr/liter (0.45/gal) or the equivalent of 37 5 SwFr/tonne ($137/ton)  ($3-22
per 10^  Btu) (31.72 SwFr/Gcal).  The plant  sells hot water at 20 SwFr/Gcal
which is 56 percent of the cost of No.  2 fuel oil burned at 90 percent  overall
efficiency.
Baden-Brugg

          The  energy export for this plant  is as follows:
          Electricity to:
          1.   Sewage treatment plant
          2.   Aargau Elektriztatswerk (AEW)
          Steam  to:
          1.   Fairtec, industrial waste  processing plant
          Hot  water to:
          1.   Sewage treatment plant.
The electricity is generated in a 6500 KVA Brown-Boveri turbogenerator which
consumes a maximum of 25 tonnes/h (55,0900  Ib/h) of steam at MO atm  (573 psig)
and 400  C (725  F).  Its effective ouput is 5.2 MW.  The condenser is  cooled by
river water.   This plant has the only water coooled  condenser observed at the
15 plants.  The condenser  is cleaned once every  3 months.   Process steam is
extracted at  1.5 bar (20 psig) and 205 C (400 F).  Heating water is supplied at
70 C  to  90 C  (160 to 198 F).  All of  the condensate is returned from the wate
processing plant.
          They plan to  dismantle and  reblade the turbine to achieve  increased
power output  from a higher rate in the 1977 summer.
          Figure K-32 shows the scheme for  heat and electricity distribution.
          A long range  plan described the  possibilities  for using  turbine
exhaust  steam for district heating in Baden, possibly tied in with waste heat
from a future  nuclear plant.
          The sewage plant receives electricity at the rate of 19,500  to 32,000
kwhr per week.
          The electricity  sold to  the local network, AEW, produces a variable
revenue  depending on time  of dy and  depending on how  much hydropower is
available to the network.   In the winter  hydropower is  reduced because the
highland snowfall does not melt.  In the summer  Switzerland,  as a whole, has
excess  hydropower and  exports electricity.   The range  of  rates paid to the
Baden-Brugg plant as follows:
-------
                             K-39
FIGURE  K-30.  CASCADE TYPE WATER HEATER  ON LEFT,  FEEDWATER
              TANK AND  STEAM LINES  ON RIGHT  AT WERDENBERG
              (COURTESY OF WIDMER & ERNST-ALBERTI-FONSAR)
-------
                                     K-40
                    (a)
(b)
FIGURE K-3L   INSULATION,  INSTALLATION AND MAP OF  HOT WATER  DISTRIBUTION
              SYSTEM AT WERDENBERG  (Courtesy of Buchswerdenberg  Society
              for Waste Management)
-------
                                            K-41
  THERMAL SYSTEM
  ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
1.  Boiler
2.  Turbine
3.  Generator
4.  Condenser
BkV
      n
i
t
                             5.  Regulator
                             6.  Overflow condenser
                             7.  Condensate  pump
                             3.  Air bleed
 9.  Feedwater  heater
10.  Feedwater  tank, deaerator
11.  Feedwater  tank, pump
12.  Heat exchanger
                                             I
                                            >   ;
                                                                         \     \
                                                             -- kV i 6500kVA
                                                              I6500KVA
      AEW-Powerline
                         InternalPower
                            Supply
                              Fairtec
                            Industrial
                               Waste
                               Plant
        Turbo-    Sewage
      Generator  Treatment
                   Plant
        FIGURE  K-32.   SCHEMATIC  DIAGRAM OF  BADEN-BRUGG
                        THERMAL  AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
                        (COURTESY  OF WIDMER & ERNST)
-------
                                  K-42
               S.Fr. per kwhr  (US cents/kwhr);

                          Winter                 Summer
         High            0.045  (1.8)            0.030 (1.2)
         Low             0.028  (1.1)            0.018 (0.7)
Duesseldorf

          This  refuse to energy plant was built adjacent, and connected,  to the
Flingern power plant.  The entire output from the burning of refuse goes 700 m
(2,30 ft) to  the turbines at the Flingern plant in  the form of high pressure,
104 bar  (1,500 psig or 104 atm) high temperature steam, 500 C (932 F).  Here it
is utilized  in  two double shaft  condensing steam turbines, one high pressure
generating about 32 Mw and a low pressure  one generating about 11 Mw.  Steam
extracted from  these turbines is used to produce hot water at a maximum of 130
C (266 F) for district heating.  Early in 1977,  the Federal government revised
regulations  permitting hotter district heating hot water  at 180 C (356 F).
Figure K-33 shows the well insulated pipe (with expansion loops) carrying high
temperature steam to the power plant.
          In  the summer, the refuse-burning plant supplies practically all of
the energy needed for district heating.  On days with  an outdoor temperature of
20 C  (68 F),  the district supply  water temperature is 80  C (176 F) and the
system return temperature is 65 C (149 F).  The system water  flow rate is then
800 m^/hr  (3,520 gpm).  In  the winter at an outdoor temperature of - 10 C  (14
F), flow rate is 1,400 m3/hr (6,160 gpm) at supply and return  temperatures of
130 C (266 F) and 70 C (158 F).
          The district heating loop  is 15,9 km  (10 mi) long and serves  133
buildings included in which are 8,000 apartments.  The peak heat demand is 1.97
Gcal/hr (8.25 GJ/hr or 7.82 MBtu/hr).  For comparison, the maximum rated output
of the five boilers at the refuse burning plant is 110 tonnes/hr (121 tons/hr).
However,  this  full capacity, 963,600 tonnes per year, has never been available
for a full year's time.
          In  1975,  this  plant burned 297,359  tonnes of refuse (327,095 tons]
and delivered  560,002 tonnes (617,570 tons)  of steam  (1.89 ton steam/tor
refuse)  to  the Flingern Power Plant,  which  is 58.1 percent of full  ratec
capacity. The income for this output was 8,125,629.02 DM  ($3,412,764.20) or  £
rate  of  14.5  D.M./tonne  ($5.53/ton) or  $2.76/1,000 Ib (approximately
$2,76/million Btu).   In  addition,  some  steam  is  used  internaly fo
turbine-drive feedwater and condenser cooling water pumps.
          Although the refuse plant  does no marketing because  it has  only om
customer, Stadtwerke Elektrizitat,  the latter does  advertise and  has a
appliance sales  outlet.  Aside from  selling electricity it also sells  distric
heating  hot water  and gas.  There  are 50 people in  its  salesforce.  Th<
Stadtwerke Elekrizitat was converted to a stock company in 1973.
          In  the district  heating system the  customer  is billed annually  bu
pays on a monthly budget plan. The  contract for heating  is  reviewed annually
The rate is  reduced if  the  customer helps reduce peak  demands by installing
heated rock heat storage tank.
          The distric heating loop to Garath, a new housing area, was installe
and paid for  by Stadtwerke Duesseldorf.  The  loop for the  new Duesseldor
University cost  DM  10 million ($4.2  million).
-------
K-43
-------
                                  K-44


Wuppertal

          The  only use of the  steam generated is to make  electricity in tv
turbo-generators capable of producing 20 mw each.  Maximum steam consumption o
each is 107 tonnes/hr (235,400  Ib/hr).   Specific design steam consumption i
5.35 kg/kw-hr  (11.8 Ib/kw-hr).   Exhaust  to  air-cooled condensers  is 0.12 ba
(0.12 kg/cm2) (1.7^ psig).  The  output is supplied at 10,000 volts to the cit
electrical system.
          The  condensate returns from the condenser at an average temperatur
of 52 C  (126 F).  In order to heat it to 110 C (230 F) before  returning it t
the boiler, it is mixed with  about 10 t/h (22,000 Ib/hr) of steam extract*
from the turbines.
          The  only energy sold from this plant is electricity which is sold
the local  public power network at  a price  ranging from 2.6  pf to  4.9 pf/kw"
(0.011 to  $0.022 per week).


Krefeld

          In addition to the utilization of thermal energy for drying of sewa
sludge,  some of the energy released  in  the burning of refuse and that dri
sludge  is sent as hot water at  130 C  (266 F), 10 bar (115 psia) to a railro
car plant  located 2.5 km (1.5 mi)  away.  The water return temperature is 70
(158 F)  at 7 bar (100 psia).
          Steam is used for preheating  the primary combustion air to 200 C (?
F).  Each of  two  preheaters,  made  by Duerr, uses 6500 kg/h (14,300  lb/
saturated steam at 25 bar (363  psia), 225 C (437 F).  The heating capacity
2.816 Gcal/h (11.79 MJ/h) (11,175  Btu/h) when heating air at the rate of 50,0
Nm3/h (29,425  scfm).
          More steam is  used internally for one Lugar  flue gas reheat
following  the  scrubbers.  Using  3,150 kg/h (6930 Ib/h) of steam at  22 bar (?
psia) and'375  C (707 F) to 90 C  (194 F).
          Relatively little energy remains to drive two turbo generators, bu:
by SEG,  having a generating capacity of  1.4 Mw each at 10 kv.  Each turbine c
utlize  17.5 tonnes/h (38,500 Ib/h).  The design steam outlet conditions are  ';
bar (53.7  psia) and 206 C (403 F).   Any  excess steam goes to an air-coo!
condenser.
          Most of the electricity generated  is used internally.  Any  exci
goes to  the local network without  payment.
          The  energy sold to the local railroad car plant is the only  ene
sold because most of the released energy  is used internally  for  primary
heating, sludge drying, electric motors, flue gas reheating.

Paris; Issy

          The   Paris: Issy  plant has  both a back presure and a condens
turbine.  Steam leaving the superheater  enters either one and both prod
electricity.   The steam leaving the backpressure turbine is  used for distr
heating.
          Referring to  steam numbers as presented in Table K-9 note t
964,718 tonnes (1,061,190 tons) of steam  were produced in 1976.   Sti
condition was specified at 50 bars (735 psi) and 410 C  (770 F).  After
-------
                                      K-45
                  TABLE  K-9.   STEAM PRODUCTION, LOSSES,
                                SALE AND AVAILABILITY
                                    Month of December
                           Year  of
       (Tonnes of Steam)
 1976
         1975
1976
1975
Basic production of steam exiting
  boilers (50 bars, 410°C)

Loss at pressure relief valve

Technical sampling and losses

Available from boiler

Condensing  turbines

Auxiliary condenser

Losses to atmosphere

Other losses

Sales to C.P.C.U/1)
  for district heating

Average hourly vaporization
  during operation

Hours available of equipment
  to produce steam
                       •
Boiler availability

Percent utilization if
  boiler is available

Tonnes of steam per tonne
  of refuse
 86,772     81,294

 (1,026)

 (3,256)    (4,077)
                   964,718     940,377

                   (14,598)     (3,503)

                   (38,580)    (43,172)
 82,490    77,217      911,540     893,702

(11,609)    (3,879)    (129,435)    (113,623)

    (72)      —        (1,238)        (538)

             (338)        (437)        (660)

                       (6,241)     (35,082)
(614)    (2,380)
 70,195    70,620     786,671     743,799
     33.2
            29.5
    33.2
    31.9
  2,880     2,875      30,567      '30,348

     96.7      96.6        87.0        86.6
     75.3
      1.62
            70.7
             1.69
    78.9
     1.67
    77.5
     1.67
Source:  TIRU Statistics.

(1)  C.P.C.U. is the City of Paris Urban Heating Company.
-------
                                   K-46






                          TABLE  K-9.  (Continued)
Month of December
(Mega watt-hours)
Production from counterpressure
turbines
Production from condensing
turbine
Total production
Purchase from C.I.M.E.
Total available
Internal uses of electricity
Electricity sale to C.I.M.E.
Internal consumption (Mw-h)
of electricity per tonne
of refuse burned
Counterpressure turbine actual
hours
Condensing turbine actual hours
Counterpressure turbine hours
available
Condensing turbine hours
available
197f.

3,960

2,041
6,001
61
6,062
(1,752)
4,310


0.032

679
534

744

744
Counterpressure turbine availability 100
Condensing turbine availability
Counterpressure turbine utilization
during availability
Condensing turbine utilization
during availability
Production of electricity (Kw-h)
per tonne of steam entering the:
Counterpressure turbine
Condensing turbine
100

59.1

17.3


48.0
175.8
1975

3,576

696
4,272
0
4,272
(1,608)
2,664


0.033

744
219

744

510
100
68.6

53.4

8.6


46.3
179.4
Year of
1976

43,597

23,826
67,423
300
67,723
(19,654)
48,069


0.033

8,382
5,033

8,602

8,602
97.9
97.9

56.3

17.4


47.8
184.0
1975

42,418

20,157
62,575
219
62,794
(18,753)
44,041


0.033

8,531
4,016

8,613

7,961
98.3
90.9

54.7

15. S


47.!
177. t
Source:  TIRU Statistics.
-------
                                   K-47
pressure relief  valve and other losses, 911,540  tonnes (1,002,694  tons)
remained for  constructive uses.

          Electricty Generation.  Table K-10  shows the five  year history of
electricity production sales, purchases  and  internal consumption.
             TABLE K-10.  HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL PRODDUCTION,  SALES,
                         PURCHASES AND  INTERNAL CONSUMPTION
                               (MW-HOURS)
                             1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Production
Purchases from C.I.M.E.
Internal Consumption
Sales to C.I.M.E.
89,633
153
18,935
70,851
83,655
121
19,866
63,910
72,903
491
19,780
63,910
62,575
219
18,753
54,614
67-,423
300
19, 654
49,069
Perhaps  for  street lighting,  the Issy plant purchased 300 Mw-hr from the other
E.D.F. Subsidiary for distribution:  C.I.M.E.  This gives a gross  67,723  Mw-hr.
Interestingly 29 percent  of  the electrical production (19,654  Mw-hr) was used
internally.   This left 48,069  Mw-hr for sale  back to  C.I.M.E.   Internal
consumption of electricity was  0.033 Mw-hr per tonne of refuse burned.
          Operating results from  the two  turbines are summarized  below.
          Backpressure Turbine-Generator. The counterpressure turbine-generator
set is rated  at 9 Mw.
          The unit produced 43,597 Mw-hr in  1976 or 2/3 of Issy's output, an
increase  of 2.8 percent over 1975.   Steam flowed  through the  unit for 8,382
hours  but was available  for  8,602 hours out of  a possible 8,874 hours.  The
availability  was thus 97.9 percent.
          Because electricity was not  always required, the generator was used
only 56.3 percent of the time.  The unit  produced 47.8 kw-hr of electricity per
tonne of  steam entering the turbine.
          Condensing Turbine  (Low Pressure).   The other turbine  is a low
pressure  condensing turbine-generator set is rated at 16 Mw.  This unit, while
rated  higher,  only produced 1/3  of Issy's output.  This was 18.? percent higher
than in 1975.   Steam flowed through the unit for 5,033 hours but  was available
for 8,602 hours  out of a possible 8,782 hours.  The availability was thus 97.6
percent.
          Because the condensing turbine can supply little or no energy  for the
more profitable district heating  uses,  this large and more efficient generator
was used  only 17.4 percent of  the time.  The  unit produced  184.0  kw-hr of
electricity per tonne of steam  entering the turbine.
-------
                                  K-48


         C.P.C.U.  District Heating Steam Inputs.  To properly understand Issy,
it is important to understand the total steam inputs to Issy's major steam  (not
electric) customer,  The City of Paris Urban Heating Company (C.P.U.H.).
C.P.U.H.  is the single distributor of district heating steam regardless  of the
fuel.
         •   C.P.C.U.,  also  uses fossil fuel to produce steam.  C.P.C.U.  is a
             subsidiary of electricitie  de France (E.D.F.).
         •   The Electricitie De France (E.D.F.) power plant, which closed ir
             1973,  once supplied a minor amount of steam to the network.
         •   Industrial Treatment of Urban Waste (T.I.R.U.), a subsidiary of
             E.D.F., currently produces  steam flow refuse.
         Table  K-lla,  shows  the maximum hourly  capacity of  the  ke:
organization contributors,  climatological data and actual annual production.
         All  three T.I.R.U.  refuse-fired  plants only  account for  29 to 3!
percent  of total C.P.C.U. demand.  Issy,  in 1975, produced only 12..3  percen
of the total C.P.C.U. requirements.
         The  5-year history describing the  growth of  the C.P.C.U. distric
heating  network is portrayed in Table K-12.  C.P.C.U.'s growth in demand wa
about 10 percent per year until the oil crisis.   Their own oil-fired plant
then became less competitive.   Customers in new buildings returned  t
consideration of small electric or gasfired heating systems.
         By 1975, 3,208 buildings were receiving steam.  Slightly over  a thir
of the energy goes to residences and a third  to offices as seen in Table K-13.
         In December 31,  1975, the trunk  line was 196 km (118 miles)  Ion
while the branch lines were only 29 km (17 miles) long for a grand total of 22
km  (135 miles).   The heat density  has  been gradually rising up  to  13.
kilotherms per  hour per kilometer  of  pipe.   The return  condensate percer
averages about 91 percent.
         The  steam is  distributed  in  insulated pipes.  The return condensat
pipe is  in the same tunnel as shown in Figure K-31*.
         The  monthly pattern  shown in Figure K-35 clearly shows that all  thre
of the T.I.R.U.  rfuse fired plants provide the  base load.  Only during U
August  vacation period does the T.I.R.U.  production  fall to 90,000 tonn<
(99,000  tons) per month compared to 210,000 tonnes  (231,000 tons) in  Januar;
The  fossil fuel C.P.C.U. steam production plants are  clearly peak loadi
plants.


Hamburg;Stel1inger-Moor

          Electricity for the network  and steam for  internal uses are t
energy products  from Hamburg's plant  located  in  Stelligen.  Martin's anal
computer  controls the observed  steam temperature of UOO C (752 F) to within t
degrees.  The  pressure is equally as steady at  UO Kg/cm2  (588 psi).

          Turbines.  Two topping-off  condensing turbines each have ste
consumption capacities of 88 tonnes  (97  tons)  steam/hour.  However,  one is
spare and the running turbine usually consumes only 60 tonnes  (65 ton
steam/hour.
          Table  K-1M shows (among many other  numbers  that the total ste
consumed per year was essesntially constant.   However, in  1975,  Turbine  1
-------
                                    K-49

          TABLE  K-ll.   C.P.C.U.   DISTRICT HEATING USES,  PRODUCTION
                        CAPACITY,  CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS AND
                        ANNUAL ACTUAL STEAM PRODUCTION

	(a)	

	   Hourly  Installed Capacity  (Tonnes/Hour)	
                            1971     1972    1973    1974    1975
C.P.C.U.  (Fossil Fuel)      1,690    1,840   1,870   2,470   2,510
E.D.F.  (Steam from Old
  Power Plant)                 300     300      300
T.I.R.U.  (Refuse)              245     245      280     295     295
  Production Capacity
    (Tonnes/Hour)           2,235    2,385   2,450   2,765   2,805

                                  (b)
	Climatological Conditions	
                            1971     1972    1973    1974    1975
Average 7-Month
  Heating Season
  Temperature °C               7.38     7.82     6.92    8.42     7.39
  Degree Days               2252     2168    2349    2031    2250


                                  (c)
              Annual Actual Production  Used by C.P.C.U.  for
                 District Heating (Thousand Tonnes/Year)

C.P.C.U. (Fossil Fuel)
E.D.F. (Closed)
Issy (Refuse)
Ivry (Refuse)
Saint-Ouen (Refuse)
Inconsistencies
Actual Steam Production
1971
2,963
306
t
1,670
4-
0
4,939
1972
3,957
97
603
639
411
3
5,710
1973
4,095
240
653
767
392
2
6,149
1974
3,697
224
644
784
403
(3)
5,747
1975
4,029
—
744
852
415
0
6,040
1976

—
787
767
404


-------
K-50













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-------
                        K-52
       COUM O'UN CANIVtAU


FIGURE K-34.    STEAM DISTRIBUTION AND  RETURN CONDENSATE
                PIPES OF C.P.C.U. IN PARIS
-------
                                   K-53
      tonnes
1 000 000
 900 000
 800000
 700 000
 600000
 500000
 400000
 300000
 200000
 100000
                                C.P.C.U.   4 310 167 t K
                                T.I.R.U.   1958 089 tj
        —PEAK LOAD,
        —OIL-FIRED
     JANV.   FEV.  MARS AVRIL   MAI   JUIN    JUIL   AOUT  SEPT.   OCT.  NOV.  DEC.
     FIGURE K-35.  STEAM  PRODUCED  BY TIRU  (SOLIDWASTE FUELED)
                   AND BY C.P.C.U.  (FOSSIL  FUELED)  IN PARIS
-------
TABLE K-14. HAMBURG:
     K-54
STELLINGER-MOOR TOTAL OPERATING FIGURES
December 1976
Truck Deliveries
louaehold trucks (nucbcr)
Total trucks (mmber)
Vaste Input
Bouaehold waste (tonnes)
Kiacellaneous waste (tonnes)
Total waste (tonnes)
Waste Input (tonnes)
Steasi generated (tonnes)
Sceaa / waste (tonnes / tonnes)
Operating tiae (houra)
toller 2
Haste Input (tonnes)
Steaa / waste (tonnea / tonnes)
Operating tint (houra)
tollers 1 and 2
Vaste Input (tonne*)
Steaai generated (tonnes)
Steasi / waste (tonnus / tonnes)
Operating tlr.c (hours)
fuel Oil 12
Delivery (lltera)
ConeuBption (lltera)
turbine 1
Steaai conauned (tonnes)
Operating tiae (hours)
•Turbine 2
Steaa eooauaed (tonnes)
Operating tiae (hours)
Turbines 1 and 2
Steaa consuaed (tonnes)
Operstlng tiae (houra)
Tower Supply
Generator 1 (kwh)
Generator 2 (kvh) 6
Ceaeracor total (kwh) 6
Purchased power (kvh)
Total power available (Vcvh) 6
Power Dae
Sewage treat plant (kvh)
Internal plant eonauaptlon 1
(kvh)
Stavkl**t-heavy-ba*e (kvh) 1
Schwuchlast-vcak-peak (kwh) 3
Total power used (kvh) 6
Hater SUBP!T
Purchase froa Haab. U.U. (»3)
Veil fed cooling water (r5)
Water Uses
Consumption of M.U.W. (a3) ,
Sanitary uses of H.W.V. (n3)
I.V.W. to treatment station
(B*)
Veil water to treatment
atatioo (a)) ,
toiler feedwater addition {*'•}
tesidusls
Aah for roadbulldlng (tonne)
tig scrap Iron (tonne)
Scuill scrap iron
Stuaps and tires Ijndfillrd
Total recycle rcsitlunls (tonne)
Source: Stc Ulnecr-Hpor pUnt
Januory 11, 1977.

1.233
198
3.431
'esi
3,487
18,837
9.335
22.391
2.35
744

8.640
19.888
2.30
665
18.175
42.279
2.33
1409
10,016
16,940

—

41,448
744
41,448
744

,900,500
,900,500
.900.500
417.582
,295.168
,306,300
.875,850
,895.400
1,303
14.933

93
710
500
7.S84
7.054
976

2.316
663
369
3.348
operations staff
Tear 1976

18,754
1.542
42,296
1(1.617
14,899
18,748
195,264
98,762
217,706
2.20
7119

101.794
210.286
2.07
7111
200.556
427,992
2.13
14410
98,934
104.398

110,170
2,187

310,505
6,669
420.675
8,856

19,478.100
49.761.000
69.239.100
196.350
69,435,450
4,308,709
12,228.467
13,224.750
39.616,500
<»,378.426
15.276
179,855

1.810
254
7.582
5,884
78,777
101,332
12,179

73,251
11,737
3,137
S8.J25
T3/RJ6 «ctrl<-t.«e
Tear 1975

49.686
4,488
54,174
216.848
19,125
2.801
238,774
118,412
211,028
1.95
7J»4

115.828
226,992
1.86
7505
214,240
458.020
1.96
14769
81.004
81,183

106,258
6,059

137 ,090
2,872
443,348
8.911

55,041,300
23.C12.00C
78.055.300
209.550
78.264,850
3,963,977
12.492.885
15.467.100
46,333.650
78,257. B12
12 .394
177,1159

445
147
7,429
4,320
21,031
157,075
22,379

CO. 756
14.129
6,268
101,153
rKcitnntjisc qe, JI^A J;
-------
                                   K-55


carried  the load and  in  1976,  Turbine  2  carried the load.   This was  due  to
planned equipment  overhaul and planned downtime  of a spare turbine.
          The maximum  generating capacity  (assuming that  enough steam  is
available) is "two times 5 Mw or 10 Mw for internal use", as was  stated in  an
interview.
         Electricity  is  sold to the local  power grid, Hamburg Electrical Works
(HEW).  Figure K-36 shows the general electrical network feeding  into the 110
KV line of Hew.

         Power Generated  and Used.   Electrical power is generated in the two
turbogenerator  sets and produced 69,239,100  kwhr in 1976.   This had to  be
augmented with  196,350 kwhr of purchased electricity from  the plants major
customer.
         S-M sells to  HEW  its electricity  for  .03 DM or 3 Pf ($0.0125)  per kwh
but S-M must pay this same Hamburg Electrical Works .10 DM or  40  Pf ($0.1667)
per kwh.   Multiplying quantity and price for 1976 gives the following results:

         Plant Sales          Plant Purchases
         52,841,250              196,350
         	0.03 DM      	0.40  DM
         1,585,237.50 DI1         78,540 DM

         $660.515                $32,725

         The electrical power is used in the following manner:

                                                    1976
         Stauklast - heavy - base    (?)           13,224,750 kwh
         Schwuchlast - weak - peak   (?)           39,616,500
           Total sold to HEW                       52,841,250
         Sewage treatment plant                     4,308,709
         Internal  uses                             12,228,467 kwh
           Total uses of electrical power          69,378,426 kwh

         Internal  Steam Uses.  Steam can be  drawn off the turbines at 2.5 bars
(36 psi).  Such steam has four key uses inside the S-M plant:
         •  Sootblowing
         •  Building heating
         •  Feedwater heating
         •  Air preheating
         Plant people  reported that steam  is used at the rate of  10 tonnes (11
tons) during the 1/2 minute sootblowing cycle.   The rate, while substantial,  is
only for  a short time and is hardly felt at  the  turbine.

Zurich;   Hagenholz

         Energy  utilization at Zurich:Hagenholz is among  the most advanced
plants in Europe.  Max Baltensperger the administrator repeatedly pointed out
that Hagenholz  is primarily an energy plant.   The plant is integrated with the
other conventional fossil fuel district heating  and electricity  plants.  A new
oil  fired  energy  plant is  located nearby.   The total story  involves the
following energy media:
   •Using a conversion rate of  2.40 DM/$1.00.
-------
                                K-56
                 f~
                 l~^
                0
                                       5^
                                          ^>
                   ^
                                    —12-
                         HEAT(ING)  DIAGRAM
              Wormeschema
110 kV   H°T WATER FEED
      '.HEW-Einspeisung
          Bahrenfeld
                        CLARIFICATION PLANT
                     10 kV     Klarwerk
                                         U
                                          
-------
                                   K-57
         Hagenholz Refuse Fired Steam Generator.
         High  temperature steam for electricity production
           (steam extraction - condensing turbo generators  ) 120 C (500 F)
         Medium  temperature steam for district heating
           (Kanton, the municipal district heating  system)   260 C (500 F)
         Hot water for district heating (EWZ,  the investor-
           owned public utility for electricity and district
           heating)                                         130 C (266 F)
         Hot water for a State hospital (sterilizing), small
           factory in Hagenholz, the railroad  station, and
           perhaps tthe Technical University (5 km/line)     130 C (266 F)
         Electricity for the two networks (Kanton and EWZ)   11,000 volts
         Electricity for internal use, truck garage, and
           workshop                                         220 v and 380 v
         High  temperature steam for the rendering plant

         New Oil Fired Energy Plant.

         Hot water for district heating (Kanton, the
           municipal owned district heating system)        180 C (356 F)

         Figure K-37 shows the electrical power generation room and some of its
equipment.  The  full energy  product schematic for the plant  is shown  on  the
same page in Figure K-38.
         Figure K-39 presents a relatively flat picture of total steam produced
per ton of refuse consumed during the 52 week  year. The average is 2.11  tonnes
of steam produced per one tonne of refuse input.
         Figure K-UO, showing kwh electrical sales  per tonne of refuse
consumer,  however,  does have a substantial seasonal pattern that compliments
the district heating pattern.  The philosophy  is that district heating  demand
is the first priority.

         Electricity Generation.   High temperature/pressure steam from all
three Hagenholz  units is fed into two Escher-Wyss (since acquired by Sulzer of
Zurich)  steam extraction-condensing  turbines.   Each  consumes 30 tonnes (33
tons) of steam per hour for a total of 60 tonnes (66 tons).
         Each  then produces 6 Mw for a 12 Mw  total at 11,000 volts which is the
local network  voltage.  Actually there  are  two  electricity  customers:   the
Kanton  (local government)  and EWZ  (a public unility).  The turbine speed is
6800 rpm.  A gear box connects  it to the  generator having  a  3000 rpm  speed.
There  has  been  very little trouble with the turbogenerator set.  Once produced,
the voltage can  be lowered to 220 v and 380 v  for internal  use.
         The  new Josefstrasse plant  will be equipped with two 10 tonne steam
per hour Brown-Boveri turbo generator sets. Each will produce 8 Mw for  a 16 Mw
total.   There will be no  gear box;  thus the efficiency will be less but the
noise will also  be less.

         District Heating.   The Hagenholz refuse  fired plant and the oil fired
energy plant provide steam and hot water for three  different  district  heating
networks.  Most  of the district heating piping has  been in  place for many years.
-------
                                K-58
           FIGURE K-37.   ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION ROOM
1.  Furnace/Boilers
2.  High pressure distribution valve
3.  Governing valve
4.  Medium pressure distribution valve
5.  Low pressure distribution valve
 6.   Turbogenerator
 7.   Air condenser
 8.   Feedwater storage and deaeratoi
 9.   Feedwater pump
10.   Steam for district heating
         FIGURE   K-38. STEAM AND BOILER FEEDWATER FLOW PATTERN
                       EXTERNAL TO THE ZURICH: HAGENHOLZ BOILER
-------
                                          K-59
r
-------
                                  K-60


         The investor-owned  public utility EWZ  plant receives hot water from
Hagenholz which is added to-the  larger  EWZ  supply.  This hot  water, at  130  C
(266 F),  is then distributed  to  many customers  in Zurich. The weekly load  is
shown in Figure K-M1.
         The second,  a Kanton-owned  district heating system,  (See the map
Figure K-^2) has  only  a few large  customers and has a limited  potential  as
listed below:

         Kanton municipal hospital          (current)
         Kamibuhl factory                  (current)
         Railroad station                  (current)
         Post office                       (current)
         University                        (current)
         Municipal museum                  (current)

This system uses about 15 tonnes (16.5 tons) of steam per hour in the Winter
and 10 tonnes (11 tons) per hour in the Summer.
         The third district  heating system has  many apartments and  other
buildings as customers and is  also  owned by the Kanton.  It  is basically the
system  that the  Josefstrasse plant supplied which is  now supplied by Hagenholz
while Josefstrasse is being rebuilt.
         These  three district  heating networks are supplied  by several energy
plants.   Two of  the energy  plants are in  the Hagenholz suburb;  (1) the
Hagenholz refuse fired steam  generator,  and  (2)  the oil fired energy plant.
The supply and  return pipelines  connecting the  two-plants with  the three
networks are in  a ground-level, walk-through tunnel covered with earth as shown
in Figure K-l»3.   Figure K-UU is  a cross-section schematic of the tunnel showing
the supply and return lines for  water,  steam, and condensate.
         The purge system for  outbound  steam pipes  is used when the steam  is
being  turned off or being turned on.   Pipe number 8 travels the distance of the
tunnel collecting condensate  from  the  cooled steam pipe  (not to be confused
withh  the return condensate pipes).  The condensate  is collected in the purge
tanks and then added to the return  condensate tanks. One pipe (number 6)  then
returns the combined liquid condensate  to the Hagenholz plant.
         The steam and purge line pressures are limited to  a  slight superheat
of 260  C (500  F) and 12  to  1J» atmospheres (176  to  205 psi) because of local
regulations relating to  pipeline expansion problems.   The pipe  from the
condensate return collection  tank  back to the RFSG plant is at five atmospheres
(75 psi) pressure.
         The hot water and steam  supply and  return  lines are inspected and
reconditioned once per year in the  summer.
         The electricity sells  for SF  0.06/kwh ($0.03/kwh)  in  the Winter and SF
O.OU/kwh ($0.02 /kw) in the Summer.
         The charge for district heating steam is SF 35 to SF  60/Gcal depending
on who the customer is and how much of  the pipeline  capital cost the customer
is paying for.
         Figure K-15 shows the weekly pattern of steam sales to the railroad
central station (SBB), KZW, and  to  EWZ.
         There  has been  almost no corrosion  of  pipes in these  walk-through
tunnels. The district heating system is stopped once per year  for valve  reairs
were necessary.
-------
                              K-61
FIGURE  K-41.  1976 HEAT DELIVERY TO KANTON AND RENDERING PLANT
               AND STEAM TO EWZ FROM ZURICH:HAGENHOLZ
    < ft ttoitatct i *  i x> < i 3 v  ft r t  t m 1 t a  ¥  e t r t 9 n  t  i
-------
                                           K-62
Technical University
                                                         Small Factory Using Hot Water
                                                                        Major Access to
                                                                            Tunnel
                                                                        State Hospital
                                                                        Ramibuhl Facto'
                 FIGURE  K-42.  KANTON DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM  (5.3 km long)
                               USING 260 C  (500 F) STEAM AT ZURICH, SWITZERLAND
-------
w
o
N
w
O


H
g
g
w
u
-------
                                 K-64
                                                                     Energy
                                                                     Media
                                                                     Supply
                                                                      Energy
                                                                      Media
                                                                      Return
 1.   Steam condensate return  from Kanton district heating network  to
     Hagenholz   70-80 C.
 2.   Warm water  return  from Kanton district heating network  to new oil
     energy  plant.
 3.   Hot water  supply from oil  energy  plant to  Kanton district heating
     network for apartments   180 C.
 4.   Hot water  supply from Hagenholz  to EWZ plant  to  EWZ district  heating
     network   130 C.
 5.   Warm  water return  from  EWZ district heating network to  EWZ  plant to
     Hagenholz    100 C.
 6.   Condensate return  from  steam purge conditioning  tank to Hagenholz
     (5 atmospheres).
 7.   Cooling water from City to pump  for EWZ  plant
 8.   Total purge condensate  return from Kanton district heating network
     to conditioning tank   200 C (12-14 atmospheres).
 9.   Steam from Hagenholz- to'Kanton district  heating network 5 km away
     260-280 C  (12-14 atmospheres).
FIGURE  K-44.  CROSS-SECTION SCHEMATIC OF PIPES IN THE DISTRICT
               HEATING SUPPLY AND RETURN TUNNEL AT ZURICH:
               HAGENHOLZ
-------
                                   K-65
         tysbe SBB uncf K2W 4976
                                                                          SCO


                                                                          KtW


                                                                          CKl
i 1 33 
-------
                                  K-66


         There  is five to seven percent  loss in "refuse-derived condensate"
return to the plant by the district heating networks.   However, more water by
weight is returned to the RFSG plant.

         Energy  Marketing.   Obtaining new publicly or privately owned
large-volume customers is an art or skill  practied by several of Abfuhrwesen's
management people.   There  is no formal  plan.   However, management  is  very
careful to seek potential customer contacts.  Sales  calls are made.  No fixed
rate schedule is used.
         The  energy plants are operated  as profit centers that happen to be
owned by the City.  Each contract is negotiated.   If  the City must put  in  a
large  pipeline  that will be deprecited over ^0 years,  a higher price will  have
to be charged for a unit of energy.  As an  example, Hagenholz sells its steam,
at  its own plant  boundaary,  at a low rate  to  the Kanton district  heating
network.  However, Josefstrasse (190*4, 1928,  and  1979) has always owned and
maintained its  pipeline network;  hence, its rates  are higher.  To lower the
customer's price, quantity discounts are possible.
         There  are attempts by the Kanton  district heating system (Heizamt,  a
sister organization to Abfuhrwesen) to sell to  large apartment complex  owners.
No attempt is made to encourage individual  homeowners to purchase steam.
         Officials gave Battelle  eight  (8)  page  contract  and financial
worksheet as an example of a negotiated offer.  This most interesting document
between Abfuhrwesen and Migros (the  leading food warehouse) is written in
German and can be made available to interested  parties.

The Hague

          The energy available from this plant is electrical only.  Internally,
a small  amount  of steam at '(.3 bar  (62  psi) (^3,586  kg/m2) (428  kPa) is
extracted from  the turbines for use in plant water heating and space heating.
The  electricity is  generated  in two  11.5 Kw  10,000  volt  condensing
turbogenerators operating at MO bar (580 psia) (MOOO kPa).  About  15 percent of
the power generated in 1975 was used internally.  The remainder  was supplied to
the  municipal  network which is supplied principally by  the large oil-fired
power plant just across the Afvoer Canal from the  waste plant.  Because there
is always ample cooling water available in the adjacent canal, the condensers
are water cooled.  There are, however,  some plans to eventually  use the  turbine
exhaust heat in  the adjacent community.
          During weekdays the  contract  with  the municipal  electrical
organization requires the waste plant to generate for distribution  at least 5.5
Kw between the  hours of 6:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m.  If production  falls below that
level, the refuse to energy plant loses a bonus of DG 30,000 per month  ($12,300
@  2.UH/$).  Accordingly, considerable  attention  is given to preventive
maintenance throughout the plant to  enable reliable operation.  The plant,  as  a
whole, achieves  74 to 76 percent availability.
          The refuse plant receives DG 0.03/Kwh ($0.012/kwh  § 2.HH/$)  from the
city utility department of which  it  is  a  part.  Thus, if both turbines ar€
operating to produce  a  total  of 23 Kw,  the  income  would be DG 690/hr
($282.79/hr g
-------
                                  K-67
Dieppe (and Deauville)
          The reader is referred  to the Co-Disposal of Refuse and Sewage Sludge
section for  details of energy utilization.  No energy  is  exported from either
the Dieppe and Deauville plants.


Gothenburg;  Savenas

          Gothenburg has the largest  hot water  district "heating system  in
Europe, most of it supplied by oil-fired boilers.   The  longest  pipeline is  20
km  (12.3  mi) one way.  The  steam produced from refuse at the Savenas plant  is
used to heat water to 120 C (248 F) at  16  kg/ra2 (228  psia)  (1,570 kPa).  The
temperature drop in the  district system is 50 C (90  F)  and the hot water  flow
rate is about 420 m3/hr (1,850 gpm).
          Table  K-15 shows  the  monthly  results  for  1976  on  production and
utilization  of the energy from refuse as published in the  GRAAB  Annual Report.
Figure  K-16 from the same report shows the monthly trends in heat recovery and
utilization.  As one would  expect, much heat produced in  Summer months  is
wasted.
          The sole energy  output is  hot water which is supplied to the large
district  heating system which serves  about 200,000  flats  and a nearby new
hospital.   The  bulk of the 660 Gcal/h  (2,620 Gcal/h)  (2,763 GJ/h) produced for
the system comes  form the exhaust  of back-pressure turbo-generators powered  by
oil-fired  boilers.
          In winter months,  as seen  earlier  in  Table K-15, the Savenas plant
sends about  23,000 Gcal/mo to the  system, an average of about  32 Gcal/h  (127 G
Btu/h) (131  GJ/h).
          The Savenas plant wholesales  the energy  to  the  district heating
system  at about  10 S.Kr./Gcal   ($2.02/106  Btu)  (9.55 S.Kr./GJ)  (0.0311
S.Kr./kw-hr thermal).  The retail price* of this  energy  delivered  to the
customers  is about 60 S.Kr./Gcal  ($3.03/10^ Btu).
          Ten years ago in  1967, the  system purchased 1 percent sulfur, No. 5
oil  for 57  S.Kr./m3, about  63.3 S.Kr./tonne  ($.014  gal).   In 1976,  it  had
increased  to 150  S.Kr./m3 or 500 S.Kr./tonne ($.31 gal).
          The total heating system serves 200,000 flats each  of  which averages
100  m2  (1,076  ft2) in living areas.   The monthly bill  is calculated from the
following:
          Cost of heat = 0.129 x W x B + 18,000 E x k
                                                 200
in which
          W  = energy, Goal
          B  = oil cost, S.Kr./m3
          E  = capacity of the individual heat exchanger, Gcal/hr
          K  = cost of living index which was 100 in late 1977.
For  a  100 m2 flat, the value of E is about 0.085, which is based on a heat  load
of 0.085 Mcal/h-m2  (31.3 Btu/h-ft2).  Thus, the maximum monthly  cost to  heat a
flat  if the heat operated at full capacity all month would be 3t1H S.Kr. ($682
@ S.Kr./$).   Even operated at half capacity this would  be  $3ll/mo.
          In arranging to serve  a new hospital between  1 and 2 km (0.6 to 1.2
mi)  away, the Savenas plant paid  one third of  the  cost of 3.5 x 10° S.Kr.
($700,000) for the  pipeline that had to  go through hilly terrain.
    •This  report uses 1975 to 1977  expense and revenue figures g 5 S.Kr./$.
-------
                                  K-68
     TABLE K-15.  ENERGY  PRODUCED  BY  SAVENAS  PLANT IN  1976
                  (Courtesy  GRAAB)
                                                           (2)

January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total
Electrical
Refuse
Quantity
Tonnes
20,500
18,900
21,900
21,600
21,400
21,000
17,000
19,800
22,500
21,600
22,200
21,100
249,500
Equivalent
Heat (1)
Recovered
Gcal
28,300
27,700
33,400
31,800
31,900
26,400
26,400
25,900
31,900
29,100
28,900
33,400
355,100
(413,000 MWh)
Heat Proportion
Utilized of Heat
Utilized
Gcal Percentage
23,300
23,900
27,600
22,100
14,700
9,900
7,900
13,700
19,000
19,600
22,600
28,500
232,800
(271,000 MWh)
97
99
97
82
54
44
35
62
70
79
92
98
77

(1)   Includes about 15 percent as internally used heat.  (1 Gcal = 1.163 MWh]
(2)   Utilities consumed:
                                           3
              •  Industrial Water -  0.64 m /tonne waste
              •  City Water       -  0.26 m /tonne waste
              •  Electricity  - 13,300 MWh; 53 KWh/tonne waste
              •  Residue Disposed  - 73,000 tonne
              •  Residue Disposed  - 29.3 percent of weight of waste
-------
                             K-69
            10
       i
       M
       (U
       o
       o

       co
       T)

       ea
       Cfl
       3
       O
            20
jan    mar    nuj
                      up     no>
              g|  Energy to district heating  system.

              O  Unused heat sent to air-cooled condensers.
FIGURE  K-46.
MONTHLY  TREND FOR 1976 OF HEAT PRODUCTION

AND UTILIZATION IN GOTHENBURG (COURTESY GRAAB)
-------
                                  K-70

Uppsala

         Figure  K-47 illustrates schematically how the energy  from refuse is
integrated into the much larger district heating system operated by the  Uppsala
Kraftvarme AB  (Uppsala Power Heat Corp.).   The bulk of the energy required for
the system is obtained from  the burning of oil  in  a  200 mw power plant and in
the  central heating  plants.   At the bottom  of figure is depicted the
refuse-fired steam plant which supplies some steam  for heating water  for the
central heating system plus process and heating steam to a number of industrial
plants including the Portia-Pharmacia, Abbatoir slaughterhouse, bakeries,  and a
laundry.
         Table K-16 shows  the operating data  for the power and heating complex
at Uppsala for  the  month of October,  1977.   The  steam-to-refuse production
ration of 2.26  is slightly lower than the average for this plant.
         Figure K-48 shows  the installation  additional hot water piping at
Uppsala.
         About half of the energy from refuse in Uppsala is used as hot water
in district heating.  The other half goes as  15 bar (217 psia) saturated  steam
to 10  industrial customers. The largest of  these is the Fortia-Pharmacia Plant
which has 1,250 employees and uses about 30 tonnes  (66,000 Ib) of steam/hour.
The  district hot water system receives water at 120 C (248 F) and returns it at
70 C (153 F).   Some of the return water serves  as  condenser  cooling water for
the turbo-electric generators in the adjacent oil-fired power plant.
         About 75 percent of the residences  in the  dense part of Uppsala are
connected to the district heating system.  It is hoped to increase this to 95
percent by 1980.  In 1975, the length of  distribution system was 160  km (100
mi).
         There is a long-range plan for district heating supply  in the Greater
Stockholm area as shown in Figure  K-24.   The  oil (primarily)  and refuse
cogeneration systems at Uppsala would be connected.  The majority of the energy
supply would be the waste heat  of the  Forsmark  nuclear plant about  40 miles
north  of Uppsala and 90 miles from  the southern Stockholm suburb of  Haninge.
The nuclear waste heat would be the baseload.  Refuse burning at  Uppsala would
also be part  of  the  base load because of  the  necessity to  destroy waste
regardless of the comparative costs.  This plan is yet another fine example of
coordinated forward thinking so common in Europe.

Horsens

         Horsens  is heated  in part by  a  privately-operated hot water
distribution system supplied from  three oil-fired plants.   In  1976,  the
operator of one of the systems requested supplemental hot water  from the refuse
plant  which required  the addition  of a  boiler and  a 1.8 km  (1.1  mi)
transmission  and  return pipe which  the city  installed at a  cost  of about
2,500,000 D.Kr. ($432,000).   With interest  rates  of 13 to  14 percent,  it is
estimated that the line will be paid for in  10 years.  It will save about 2,500
tonnes  (2,778  m3)  (17,475 barrels)  of oil per  year.   At a cost of  600
D.Kr./tonne of oil ($0.34 gal), this represents a saving of  1,497,260 D.Kr.
($259,131/yr).
         The nev; hot-water pipeline utilizes  a new pipe insulation development
by the organization of Danish communities which use district  heating,  Tjaerkara
-------
                                        K-71
                       Oil-Fired
                      Steam Boiler
Thermal Power
    Plant
    Oil  Supply  Tank
Central Heating
     Plants
 Refuse-Fired
  Steam Plant
                                                                Hot Water  District
                                                                  Heating  System
           Steam
           Turbine
Electric
 Power
Generator
                         Oil-Fired
                       Hot Water  Boiler
                    Refuse
                    Bunker
 Refuse-Fired
Steam Generator
                  Electricity
                  Distribution
                                                           Steam-to-Water
                                                           Heat  Exchanger
                Supply to Steam
                   Industries
                                   Condensate Return
                 FIGURE  K-47-
  SCHEMATIC OF UPPSALA HEATING SYSTEM
  (COURTESY UPPSALA KRAFTVARME AB)
-------
                                   K-7<2
          TABLE  K-16. TYPICAL AUTUMN MONTH OPERATION DATA FOR
                       UPPSALA HEAT POWER COMPANY, OCTOBER, 1977  ^
                       (INCLUDES DATA ON ALL 5  TYPES  OF  COMBUSTION )
Total Oil Consumed, m3                                             10,994.2
Refuse Burned, tonne                                                5,342
Steam Produced, tonne
  Refuse Plant                                                     12,056.0
  Other Steam Boilers (from oil)                                    3,333.7
Electricity Consumed by Refuse Plant, kwh                         368,960
Steam-to-Refuse Production Ratio                                        2.26
Electricity Produced, Mwh                                          29,494.8
                                         •5
Oil Consumed in Electricity Generation, m                           3,353
Electricity Consumed in Power Plant, kwh                          151,316
Total Steam Delivered, tonne                                       12,231
Steam Used Internally, tonne                                        3,158.7
Condensate Returned, tonne                                          3,463.2
Electricity Consumed in Pumping
  District Heating Water, kwh                                     875,900
Waste Oil Received, kg                                             37,620
Waste Oil Burned, kg                                                    0
Biological Wastes Received, kg                                      2,604
                                   3
  Oil Consumed for Boiler wastes, m                                 2,800
Dextrose Waste Received, kg                                             0

*
 1.  Oil-Fired Power Plant (high temperature steam,  electricity,  hot water)
 2.  Oil-Fired District Heating Plant (hot water)
 3.  Refuse-Fired Energy Plant (low temperature steam,  hot  water)
 4.  Pathological Incinerator
 5.  Dextrose Incinerator
-------
                             K-73
JURE   K-48.  INSTALLATION OF HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION PIPING
             (COURTESY UPPSALA KRAFTVARMEWERKE AB)
-------
                                  K-74

Pagniet of Nyborg.   The trade name  is  TK-ISOBIT and is portrayed in Figure
K-12.   The conventional asphalt covering around  the steel pipe is filled  with
porous insulating mineral  granules.  The protective covering can  be repaired by
enclosing any gapor break in the covering in a temporary shield, then  filling
the gap with  the  granules followed by hot asphalt. The assembly  is believed to
be very effective in insulating the pipe while preventing corrosion.
         Since the hot water boiler and 1.8  km connecting  pipe has been in
operation only  since May, 1977, there  has  not been enough time  to accumulate
much  data on  the  new energy now being  fed to one of the private  district
heating systems.  However,  some planning is being done regarding a possible 2.5
km (1.5 mi) connecting line to another plant six times as large as the first
one.   The cost  of the line  through part of the  city would be  6  million  D.Kr.
($1 million).   If that plan materializes, the plant would install its second
boiler-furnace and much  more  refuse  would  be needed  from neighboring
communities.
         The  district heating plant is charged for the energy recieved at a
rate calculated as 0.12 times  the cost of heavy  oil per tonne.  When the refuse
plant begun  supplying hot  water to the system in May, 1977, oil  cost 5^0
D.Kr./tonne (30.7 cents/gal §  5 D.Kr./$).  By September, 1977, the cost  was 555
K.Kr./tonne and a government tax of 80 D.Kr./tonne brought the total to 635
D.Kr./tonne (36.1 cents/gal).  Therefore, in May,  the charge for the heat
delivered as heated water was 6M  D.Kr./Goal and rose to  76.2 D.Kr./Goal
($3.02/M Btu @  D.Kr./$) in September,  1977 at the time of this visit.   For
comparison, a homeowner in Horsens  buying distillate oil for his residence in
September, 1977,  paid  1,000  D.Kr./tonne  (85.3 D.Kr./Goal)  (50.5 cents/gal)
($3.58/MBtu),  including taxes (based on #2 oil with a specific  gravity of 0.8
and a higher heat value of  1M1,000 Btu/gal).


Copenhagen: Amager

         Figure K-49 shows  the rufuse burning  plant in the foreground  with the
larger conventional power plant, owned by Copenhagen Gas and Electric, in the
background.   The refuse plant is a  base load  plant.  The conventinal plant,
being the peaking  plant, can adjust  its  operations to ensure  steady energy
delivery.
         The  refuse  plants  hot water is sent  to the electricity plant, but i
is not used to make electricity.  Rather,  the  hot water is  combined  with th<
electricity  plant's waste heat and  together they supply  the  Amager Islanc
district  heating network.
         The  Amager  refuse  plant sells its  hot water  for a lower  price pe
1000  pounds  then does the West plant for several reasons:   (1)  the wate
temperature  is lower at Amager;  (2) the single distribution  pipe to  the  powe
plant is only a couple of hundred  feet; (3)  Copenhagen Gas  and Electri<
Authority  (CGEA) handles the district heating distribution, so the refuse  plan
has no distribution expenses,  and (4)  the refuse plant's energy  competes wit
the CGEA  plant's waste heat.
         Roughly 1.2 Gigacalories  can be added to water per tonne  of refus
burned.  At Amager, the annual average sale price to  CGEA varies  from  55 to 6
D.Kr. per Goal.  The formula  is  somehwat unique.   If the CGEA electric  powe
plant is  working and producing its  own waste heat, then the  energy  value pai
to  the refuse plant  is 60 percent  of the comparable  oil  price for the sarr
-------
                                  K-75
FIGURE  K-49.
COPENHAGEN:  AMAGER'S REFUSE FIRED ENERGY PLANT IN THE
FOREGROUND AND THE OIL FIRED PLANT IN THE BACKGROUND
-------
                                  K-76

energy.  However,  if the electric  power plant is not in operation,  then the
refuse  plant  receives  100- percent  of the  comparable oil  price.   All
calculations are based on  heating value and not on volumes of water.
         Under this arrangement, the refuse plant sold  70  percent of its
production during  1975-1976.  The percentage has been increasing from year tc
year.  There are future plans  to run a pipe under the canals connecting Amager
Island to the Copenhagen downtown district heating network.
         Heavy insulated  water pipes are shown in Figure K-50.   The pumps usec
to send  steam to the combined  district heating system are shown in Figure K-51.
Amagker  produces hot water at  115 to 120 C (239 to 218 F) at 6 kg/cm2 (88 psi).
As stated before, this is lower quality hot water than the superheater  water at
West.   Amager  sends its  share of the  energy to the power plant which thet
distributes it to  the district heating system shown in Figure K-52. Of thi
total  energy sold, 50 percent  goes directly to household radiators.   The othe
50 percent transfers its energy through water-to-water heat exchangers.
         The total energy delivered to the district heating system is shown i
Figure K-53.   Note that the summer  base load is usually 8,000 Gigacalorie
while  the winter peak load is around  20,000 Gigacalories.  Presumably a fe
industries, hospitals, etc.  provide the base load in the summer.
         The 1975-1976 energy sold  amounted to 188,253  Gigacalories for
revenue of U,877,703 D.Kr.   Dividing revenue by quantity results in an averag
sale price of 25.91.

              Several years ago Mr.  E.  Blach was Volund's  Chief Engineer
         Excerpts from one of his technical papers in included below.
             "It will always be  economically profitable to exploit  the hea
         from  an incinerator  plant, whenever possible.
             "The heat  can  be used for district heating, various industria
         purposes, drying and  burning of  sewer sludge or  other sludg
         production of electricity.
             "If -the heat cannot be exploited other arrangements must be mac
         to cool the 900-1000 C, hot  flue gas to about maximum 350 C, befor
         it is led into the precipitator and the chimney.
             "Such a cooling  of the flue gas can be done by adding air, wate
         spray, a combination of  water spray and air,  and eventually t
         letting the flue gas through a waste heat boiler and then  cool th
         water or steam.
              "Initial expenditures of plant as well as operational costs fc
         the cooling plant with air,  water spray, or a combination are just i
         the  costs of an actual  plant for  heat exploitation with a possib:
         supplementary air cooler.  Tfle sale of heat, therefore, is an actu
         working income, which contributes essentially to  the operation of tl
         plant, even with regard to the extra costs  for repair caused by we;
         and corrosion in the convection part of the boiler.
             "Least profitable  is the production of electricity as the  cost
         of  high pressure boilers and turbines are  too high and the efficien<
         too low compared with  the low price at which the  big power  statior
         can  produce the  electricity.  There is a great need for drying a
         burning sludge,  and  the  use of waste heat  for heat for distric
         heating or industrial  purposes has,  therefore, up to now been t
         solution which technically and economically  has  shown the be:
         results."
-------
                                K-77
  FIGURE   K-50.
  INSULATED HOT
  WATER PIPES
  LEAVING BOILER
  AT AMAGER
FIGURE  K-51.
PUMPS TO SEND HOT WATER TO
THE POWER PLANT WHICH SENDS
THE HOT WATER TO THE DISTRICT
HEATING NETWORK AT AMAGER
                                                  FIGURE  K-52.
                                                  MAP OF
                                                  DISTRICT
                                                  HEATING
                                                  NETWORK
                                                  OF AMAGER
                                                  ISLAND
-------
                                                K-78
                                                  Gigacalories
                             2000  4000   6000   8000   10000   12000   14000   16000  18000  20000  22000  24000 26000
8
T
1
13
B
H
O
O
H
 H
 3
 z
 w
1972
1973
                        APRIL
                          MAJ
           JULI
        AUGUST
     SEPTEMBER
       OKTOBER
      NOVEMBER
      DECEMBER
        JANUAR
       FEBRUAR
         MARTS
1973
1974
                         APRIL
                          MAJ
               1974
               1975
           JULI
        AUGUST
     SEPTEMBER
       OKTOBER
      NOVEMBER
      DECEMBER
        JANUAR
       FEBRUAR
         MARTS
          APRIL
           MAJ
           JULI
        AUGUST
      SEPTEMBER
       OKTOBER
      NOVEMBER
      DECEMBER
        JANUAR
        FEBRUAR
          MARTS
                1976
                          JULI
                        AUGUST
                     SEPTEMBER
                       OKTOBER
                     NOVEMBER
                     DECEMBER
                        JANUAR
                       FEBRUAR
                         MARTS
-------
                                  K-79
Copenhagen: West

         West  produces superheater water  at  160-170 C (320 to 338 F) at 15
kg/cm^ (235 psi).  As stated before,  this  is  at a higher  quality than the hot
water at Amager  because the key customer, the Copenhagen County Hospital had
already  planned its utilities as follows:
         •   Hot water  into radiators for space heating,
         •   Hot water  into the heat transfer device to make  steam for use in
             the sterilizatin autoclave.
         •   Hot water  into the absorption chiller to make  cold water for air
             conditioning in the summer.
         As is true of  most waste-to-energy development,  the large original
charter energy  user  has  much influence  over plant design.  The hospital
location, along with the other  current (1977) customers is  shown in Figures
K-54  and K-55a.  The network is basically a  long main pipe, 6,000 m (3.5 miles)
with several small branches.  A school on  the system is shown in Figure K-55b.
         There  are no  single family homes  on the system at present.  However,
officials are open to supplying hot water to associations  of homeowners at a
later data.
         Assuming that a single family homeowners association were to desire
service,the association  would have to obtain  50 percent participatin before it
would be worthwhile putting in additional piping capacity.  A second condition
would be the  likelihood  of  eventually  raising to 70  percent of  the
single-family homes in a continguous  area.
         There is  more of a  tradition   favoring district heating  of
single-family  homes in the western Jutland peninsula than around Copenhagen.
Actually, the company has not tried to get homeowners associations because the
main pipe cannot carry any more heat.
         Now with four furnaces,  80 percent  of  the heat produced  is used.
This is  equivalent to ^0,000 tonnes (UH,000 tons) of  oil  per  year.  They hope
to  mor>e than double district  heating  demand by  1975.  If so, most of the
increase will have  to  come from oil-fired furnaces.   One  of the oil-fired
boiler plants  shown in Figure  K-55d.   It  is  next  to the chimney at the West
refuse-burning  plant.  Under  the plan  (where  demand  doubles),  the
refuse-derived  energy utilization could  rise to  90 percent--never really
approaching close to 100 percent.
         The superheater water at 160 to 170 C (320 to 338 F) is sent out in a
main concrete culvert as shown in Figure K-56.  The  exit  and  return pipes are
imbeded in gravel.   Each  pipe  is  surrounded  by  100 mm (4 inches) of mineral
wool.  The culvert  is  then covered with a strong  plastic  lid.   Varrying
configurations are  used in the branches.   The used and  cooler water 70 C  (158
F) is returned in an adjoining pipe in the same culvert.
         The main pipe is  constructed  with occasional manholes (shown as Bl
through B25 in Figure  K-5*O that  permit  inspectors  to  run cylindrical
television cameras up and down the water pipes to locate leaks.
-------
K-80
EXISTING DISTRICT HEATING NETWORK
	1976/77

Lille Birkholm Heat Co. a.m.b.a.

about 2000 apartments, nursing homes,
a  school, etc.
                  19   Gcal/hr

K011egaard-Dyrholm- School

                   1,2 Gcal/hr

 Copenhagen County Hospital

 35 Gcal/h up to about 45 Gcal/hr in
 1985.   Summer heat consumption for
cooling
 Herlev District Heat Co.

 Shopping Center, City Hall, Library,
 School, Apartments,  etc.
                    6,5 Gcal/hr
              Near the RR-station — RR Ground

             Apartments
                                 2,3  Gcal/hr
              Connected in mid-77     1977)

              Private Bank
                                0,24  Gcal/hr

              Copenhagen County Pharmacy
              at Herlev, under construction
                                 6,5 Gcal/hr

              TILSIOTNING I ALT  About  ca.  70
              Gcal/hr or about 50% of  the maximum
               capacity  of  the main lines	
               Hovedledninger fra VF til
               K0benhavns Amts sygehus

  FIGURE  K-54.   MAP SHOWING DISTRICT HEATING
                 CUSTOMERS
-------
                                         K-81
  K0LLEGARD - DYRHOLM  School
  One of  25  Manhole Inspection and  Repair District
- Heating Stations  	
                                                 Ass*..
  Oil-Fired  District Heating Peaking Boiler
  Adjoining  Waste-to-Energy Plant   	
    Lille Birkholm
                                                                       Kollegard-
                                                                       Dyrholm-
                                                                       skolen
                                                                       KAS
                                                                       Herlev
                                                                      Herlev
                                                                      Bymidte
                                                                                         (a)
                                                                            Herlev Hovedgade
                                                                    Privatbanken i
KAS
Centralapotek
                                                                            Ballerup Boulevard
     FIGURE   K-55.  DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM AT COPENHAGEN:WEST
-------
                                              K-82
                                                          -Plastic Cover
Steel Pipe-
                                        Gravel
                                                                           -100 mm
                                                                            Mineral
                                                                           •Concrete
FIGURE  K-56.
                                    DISTRICT HEATING PIPE TUNNEL AT
                                    COPENHAGEN: WEST
-------
                                   L-l
                                ECONOMICS

         The economics section is divided into several parts as follows:
            General Comments About the Capital Investment Costs
            Trends in Initial Capital Investment Costs per Daily Ton
            Specific Comments About Capital Investment Costs of Visited
            Systems
            General Comments About Expenses
            Specific Comments About Expenses
            Finance General Comments
            Finance of Visited Systems

           General Comments About the Captial Investment Costs

         Capital investment  costs  are displayed  in Table L-l for the  15
plants visited. The numbers presented  are those  provided by local
officials.  The definition of the numbers are not  necessarily consistent.
The reader will  have to review the specific comments to sort out the  data
depending on the type of numbers desired.
         Land,  for example,  is sometimes included if  overtly paid for.
However,  if the refuse fired energy  plant was  built on  the grounds of  an
existing municipally owned Energy and Environmental Park, the land might  be
considered  free.
         Some  operators have "within-the-grate"  accomiting schemes  that
have combined and inseparable investment data.  For example: consider the
newly  constructed RFSG, administration building,  truck repair building and
bicycle hall that were funded out of one financing instrument.
         American vendors  of European licenses  were quick to discourage
placing too much emphasis on the following investment figures. What they
hopt to market  in America  in the  1980's bears little resemblance to  what
was built in the late 1960's or early 1970's as discribed in this report.
To quote from  the 1976 "Solid Waste Management Guidelines" as published  by
the U.S.  EPA:

         "It  is EPA's firm  belief  that attempts  to predict (and compare)
         costs  of various  types of plants  in a  general  way, apart from
         local  circumstances, is  more likely to mislead than inform. The
         range  of assumptions regarding specific design,  reliability,
         markets and other  factors is too  great to make such an analysis
         meaningful."

Initial Capital Investment Cost per Daily Ton

         Initial capital investment cost per  daily ton  capacity has risen
dramatically from 1960 the present. Earlier values of $13,000 per daily ton
compare with 1975-76 values of $50,000 to $90,000 per  ton.  More recently
there  have been some American  proposals near $100,000 per daily ton
capacity. These numbers are displayed in Figure L-1. There  are six general
reasons for this dramatic price growth:
-------
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-------
                                   L-4
     FIGURE L-l.   REASONS FOR 10-FOLD INCREASE IN CAPITAL
                    INVESTMENT COSTS OVER 10 YEARS FOR
                  EUROPEAN REFUSE FIRED ENERGY SYSTEMS
•  INFLATION

   — LAND

   - CAPITAL EQUIPMENT PURCHASES

   — CONSTRUCTION SERVICE FEES

   - CONSTRUCTION LABOR AND MATERIALS COST

•  EXCHANGE RATE DEVALUATION

•  CORROSION PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT DESIGNS

•  ARCHITECTURE AND LANDSCAPING FOR NEIGHBORHOOD ACCEPTANCE
•  MORE COMPLEX ENERGY USE SYSTEMS

•  MORE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
             Inflation. Generally speaking,  with the exception of West  Germany,
     costs of construction have inflated more in  Europe  than  in the Unitec
     States.

             Exchange Rate Devaluation. Table L-2 has been the most used tabli
     in the report preparation. Most of  the  conversions have been from local
     currencies into U.S. dollars for  a particular year. The  reader shouli
     remember this general rule:
             Divide the Eurpean local currency number by the  exchange rate wit
     the U.S.

             Corrosion Protective Equipment Designs. In other report  section
     the threat of metal wastage  has been elaborately discussed.  In fact, fort
     ways to reduce corrosion and erosion  have been identified in this study
     and most ways necessitate higher investment.
             Architecture and Landscaping for Neighborhood Acceptance. As
     close-in European land has become more precious,  the few remaining space
     near the city's cove are often in  household neighborhoods or near majc
     above ground level highways. The compromise with  local citizens  ha
     occasionally been to promise a beautiful  plant surrounded by exceptions
     landscaping. It's a situation of, "I don't want a dirty garbage plant in
     neighborhood. But if you make it as  attractive  as in those drawings at
     that scale model, it might be all right."
             The  two almost  identical Copenhagen plants, each withh a 864 t<
     per day capacity, had very different capital  costs. Granted not all of t
     variance can be explained  by the aesthetic budget for architecture a
     landscaping, but aesthetics were the major cause. Amager, localed on la
     recovered from  the sea  in  an industrial area, has a $32,604 per daily t
     figure while the more aesthetically pleasing  West plant costs $42,434 p
-------
                                      L-5
                TABLEL-2.  EXCHANGE RATES FOR SIX EUROPEAN COUNTRIES,
                           (NATIONAL MONETARY UNIT PER U.S. DOLLAR)
                           1948 TO FEBRUARY, 1978(a)

1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978 (Feb.)
Denmark
Kroner
(D.Kr.)
4.810
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.920
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.914
6.906
6.908
6.906
6.886
6.902
6.911
6.921
6.891
6.916
7.462
7.501
7.492
7.489
7.062
6.843
6.290
5.650
6.178
5.788
5.778
5.580
France
Francs
(F.Fr.)
2.662
3.490
3.499
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
3.500
4.199
4.906
4.909
4.903
4.900
4.900
4.902
4.900
4.902
4.952
4.908
4.948
5.558
5.520
5.224
5.125
4.708
4.444
4.486
4.970
4.705
4.766
W. Germany
Deutsch Mark
(D.M.)
3.333
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.200
4.215
4.199
4.202
4.178
4.170
4.171
3.996
3.998
3.975
3.977
4.006
3.977
3.999
4.000
3.690
3.648
3.268
3.202
2.703
2.410
2.622
2.363
2.105
2.036
Netherlands
Guilders
(Gl.)
2.653
3.800
3.800
3.800
3.800
3.786
3.794
3.829
3.830
3.791
3.775
3.770
3.770
3.600
3.600
3.600
3.592
3.611
3.614
3.596
3.606
3.624
3.597
3.254
3.226
2.824
2.507
2.689
2.457
2.280
2.176
Sweden
Kronor
(S.Kr.)
3.600
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.180
5.173
5.173
5.181
5.180
5.185
5.186
5.200
5.148
5.180
4.180
5.165
5.180
5.170
5.170
4.858
4.743
4.588
4.081
4.386
4.127
4.670
4.615
Switzerland
Francs
(S.Fr.)
4.315
4.300
4.289
4.369
4.285
4.288
4.285
4.285
4.285
4.285
4.308
4.323
4.305
4.316
4.319
4.315
4.315
4.318
4.327
4.325
4.302
4.318
4.316
3.915
3.774
3.244
2.540
2.620
2.451
2.010
1.987
(a)  Exchange Rate at end of- period.
    Line "ae" Market Rate/Par or Central Rate.
    Source:   International  Financial  Statistics:   1972  Supplement;  April,  1978,  Volume
    XXXI,  No. 4,  Published  by the International Monetary Fund.
-------
                                L-6
daily ton.  Having made the comparison,  it should be noted that even the
Amager plant is as attractively designed.
         American designers faced with local site selection resistance, may
have to provide a larger aesthetics  budget to even locate  the plant. It
would not  surprise these authors to learn that the  capital budget supported
by 100 percent of the citizens had to be increased 20 percent so that the 3
percent  of the  population living near the plant site could be ameliorated
and placated.


         More Complex Energy Use Systems. Some  newer  systems maximize
energy effficiency by having a back-pressure electricity turbo-generator
consuming  high  quality steam and exhausting medium quality stream. This is
then used in district heating schemes requiring miles of pipelines. As the
price of  energy  continues to rise  there  will be more pressure for
cogeneration and other complex capital-intensive schemes.


         More  Air Pollution Control Equipment. Environmental regulations
have continued to tighten.  The  two  highest capital  investment cost per
daily ton  plants in the survey are Wuppertal ($89,582/Ton) and Krefeld
($73,905/Ton). Both plants came under the new source performance standard
of the  new West German regulation "T. A. Luft". In contrast to the United
States,  each new West German refuse burner must  have a wet scrubber to
collect  HC1 and HF gases.  The Krefeld plant has a  second stage scrubber to
collect CC>2.
         There has been minimal  interest expressed  so  far by the other
Eurpean, the Canadian and the U.S.  Environmental Protection Agencies for
control  of HC1,  HF and S02 from  refuse burners.  However, a late breaking
(1978) development  at the U.S. EPA may have economic consequences on this
industry.  The element lead (Pb)  has presently been declared a "criteria
pollutant". Thus in lead non-attainment areas, refuse  burners may need
additional expensive equipment  to obtain new local permits. Frankly, it is
too early to determine the final  effect of the regulatory  thrust.

         Comparison of European, American and Co-Disposal Systems.  Figure  L-2
was prepared to  show how the visited European mass burning systems compare with
American mass burning systems.  Surprisingly the American systems for the same
point in time  were cheaper.  Envelopes have been drawn just outside of  the
continental distributions. Thirteen (13) out of fifteen (15) or 87 percent of
the European systems rise above the  American envelope.  Why???  We will  not
pretend to precisely explain the reason for the difference.  However, we have
been  in the American systems  with  the exception  of  Hampton,  Virginia.
Generally speaking we find the following differences:

          1.  The  American systems  do  not have as many  "bells and whistles" as
              the  European systems.
         2.  The European systems  have many more corrosion  protection  desigr
              features on their  systems.
          3.  The American purchaser  has not previously feared corrosion  enougt
              to demand protective  features.
         U.  The American buyer  concentrates more on the lowest bid while  th<
              European buyer prefers  a reliable system  that he  and  the
              communitycan be proud of.
-------
                     L-7
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-------
                                 L-8
          5.  The European systems almost  always have more aesthetic features
             of architecture,  landscaping, conference rooms,  offices, shower
             and locker rooms,  etc.
          6.  There  are enough systems  in  Europe that  personnel can choose
             among  the many  plants.   Decision makers believe  that the
             aesthetics are needed to attract and hold qualified employees.
          7.  The essential difference, however, is momentum.  With 275 systems
             to visit and be  exposed to features, the European buyer knows  and
             appreciates his options.   To some extent,  there may be peer
             pressures to have an excellent system.   We Americans have  not
             been exposed to enough  facilities to have  developed the same
             Continental appetite.

          Of special note is that the three large co-disposal systems (Krefeld,
Horsens,  and Dieppe) have higher than average capital costs.   Considering  the
accompanying eqiupment, this is understandable.

      Specific Comments about the Visited System's Capital Investment

Werdenberg - Liechtenstein

          The 1973 capital  investment expenditures were available only in
gross form as shown below:
                                                  1973  S.Fr.   1973 U.S. $
          •  Refuse fired generator  and  building 13,000,000 SF  ($4,007,000)
             contents
          •  Office and workshop-separate         1,000,000 SF    ($308,000)
             building and contents
          •  Hot water distribution system        3,500,000 SF  ($1,079,000)
          •  Steam distribution system to
             chemical plant                        500.000 SF    ($154,000)
                      TOTAL                      18,000,000 SF   ($5,548,000)

          This  single  line  120 tonne (132  ton)  per day plant  thus  had an
investment cost per daily tonne figure  of  155,548  S.Fr/tonne ($42,030/ton).
          The above,  however, does not include every component in the
utility park. Excluded is the wastewater treatment plant, the pathological
incinerator, the now  closed composting plant and  the general landscaping of
the entire park.
          The compost  plant had cost about  1,000,000  S.Fr.  ($231,696) in
1961. Later in  1967, the municipal waste incinerator without heat recovery
(now  the pathological  incinerator) was  built at a cost of 2,500,000 S.Fr.
($578,035).

Baden-Brugg

          In 1970  this plant cost 16,400,000 S.Fr. ($3,800,000). This
facility has two  100 tonne (110 ton)  per  day lines for a  total  capacity of
200  tonnes (220 tons). Thus the  capital investment per daily  ton capacity
is 74,545 S.Fr. per  tonne  ($17,273 per ton).  The first  cost included one
million S.Fr. ($232,000) for 2 electrostatic precipitators.
-------
                               L-9
Duesseldorf

          The first four units and associated structures built in 1965 cost
34,500,000 D.M.  ($8,613,000) is shown  below:

                                           1965 P.M.      1965 U.S. $
          Mechanical equipment            15,500,000         3,869,000
          Electrical                       1,600,000          399,000
          Structures, road, landscaping    12,000,000         2,996,000
                                         29,100,000         7,264,000
          Construction financing           5,400,000         1,349,000
            over 2 years and site
            development
          TOTAL                           34,500,000         8,613,000

          When  the  larger unit  No. 5,  was  added within the existing
building  in 1972  it cost  11,800,000 D.M. ($3,864,000). Part  of  this
proportionately higher  cost was the result  of a new precipitator and
shredder installed at that time. The cost  breakdown in 1972  was:

                                               1965 D.M.   1965 U.S. $
          Mechanical equipment                  6,500,000   2,030,000
          Electrical (including precipitator)    1,770,000     553,000
          Structural changes                      410,000     128,000
          Shredder                              1,600,000     500,000
          Engineering fee (2.5 percent)            220,000      69,000
          Esclation cost                        1,300,000     406,000
                                               11,800,000   3,686,000


          Mr. Thoemen estimated if No.  5 were built today (1977) it would
cost 20,000,000  DM ($11,800,000)* because  of inflation.  If  all five units
*ere built  today the plant  would cost  80-90,000,000 DM ($38,000,000). If
'Jo. 6 were  built  today in the space already  available  for  it  in  the
existing  building with a maximum capacity of  360 tonnes/day it would cost
an estimated 27,000,000 DM ($12,800,000)  including a fourth precipitator
 .nd a flue-gas  scrubber system for the entire  plant composed of 4 scrubber
nodules  in parallel. Mr. Thoemen's experience  is that  no  one plant unit
should  be  designed for  more than  15 tonnes/hr, (360 tonnes/day) (396
;ons/day)  because of a breakdown reduces plant  capacity, the accumulation
in  storage of  more than 360 tonnes per day  will rather quickly force
lauling  the  excess to distant landfills, a fairly expensive  operation.
          The above costs expressed per tonne (ton) day of capacity  were as
"ollows:
-------
                              L-10
                                          Tonne
                                   Cost     per day  cost per    cost per
                                   D.M.    capacity daily tonne  daily ton
                                                      D.M./T       $/T
1965 No. 1-4 (includes building) 31,500,000 Ux240s960  35,938       15,521

"1972 No. 5 (without building)    11,800,000 1x300*300  39,333       16,987

1977 If No.  6 were built (est)   Not built  1x360  360
           TOTAL                 56,300,000   1,620

1977 No. 1-5 (includes building)  85,000,000  1,260    67,460       29,134
1977 No. 5 (without building)     20,000,000   300    66,667       28,792
1977 No. 6 (4th ESP+4 Scrubbers)  27,000,000   360    75,000*      32,390 *

          • Ratio is inflated by 3 extra scrubbers

          Because this  plant generates only high-pressure steam and not
electricity, (which is  then piped  to  a power plant  1/2 mile away)  these
costs  are low for most plants of this size which do have the equipment to
generate electricity. It appears that the German requirement for removal of
HC1  and HF by means of scrubbers will raise plant costs  substantially. Also
until some large scale scrubber systems demonstrate reliable operation the
need for new system flexibility  to  cope with problems such as corrosion,
plugging and acid mist emission will tend to increase  costs.
          The land area required for this operation is as follows:

          Structures                     7,000 m2
          Landscape                      8,000 m2
          Roads                        15,331 m2
                                       30,831 m2  (331,862 ft2)(7.5 acres)

          The value of  this  property  is estimated  in  1977  terms as
7,700,000 D.M.  ($3,658,000). It  is  of considerable significance that if
this same expensive industrial property were  utilized  as a  sanitary
landfill, it would have become filled in about 2 or  3 years at the average
rate this plant is now operating (290,000 tonnes/yr or 319,000 tons/yr).
Wuppertal

          The plant cost  126,000,000 D.M. ($48,055,000)  in  1975.
          Table L-3 shows the distribution of construction and  equipment
expenditures up to December 31, 1975, when the plant  was nearly completed
but not yet operational.  Construction work on the scrubber  system  was  still
underway during the plant visit in May 1977.
          The land was previously  owned by the  city  and was  valued at
10,000,000 D.M.  ($3,900,000).
-------
                       L-ll
TABLE L-3.  STATUS OF CONSTRUCTION EXPENDITURES-
            WUPPERTAL - AS OF DECEMBER 31, 1975

.Idings, structures
inning — Kesselwerke
.n contract with Vereinigte
ranee payments to Vereinigte
:avation - foundation
rbine I - 1.5 km
tnsformer - power line
idwater tank
lidue crane
.gh scale
'ices, office equipment
'porting walls (required on hillside site)
'ubbers
icellaneous
•-cooled condenser II
•bine II
idfill
Total Construction as of December 31, 1975
struction Interest Payments
erest to Vereinigte Kesselwerke
erest on other loans
cellaneous interest
Deutsch
Marks
530,678.82
1,196,223.05
54,400,000.00
1,007,121.20
2,154,521.80
2,686,816.17
3,305,595.40
149,109.73
236,991.87
937,780.18
240,379.49
2,521,616.57
4,619,810.24
123,613.24
2,110,150.84
2,008,323.89
84,120.65
71,312,853.14
5,240,600.00
2,289,121.68
233,336.72
Thousands of Dollars
at DM 2.27/$
233
526
23,980
443
948
1,182
1,454
66
104
413
106
109
2,033
54
928
884
37
34,458
2,306
1,007
103
-------
                                            L-12
                                    TABLE L-3.   (Continued)
                                                          Deutsch
                                                           Marks
                     Thousands of Dollars
                         at DM 2.27/$
Premiums

Sub-total

Total expenditures through December 31, 1975

Total estimated final cost of completed plant

Estimated final cost per daily tonne of capacity
    158.470.00

  7,921,528.40

 86.234.381.54

126,000,000.00

     87,500 (DM/tonne)
 	70

 3,485

37,943

55,440

42,350 ($/ton)
Source:  Translated from 1975 Financial Report of
         MVA Wuppertal GMBH, March 1977.
-------
                                    L-13
Krefeld

          The plant cost 60,000,000 D.M. C$25,391,451)  in  1976.


Paristlssy

          The Paris: Issy-les-Moulineaux plant  was built in  1962  for
110,000,000 Fr  ($22,450,000).  The  plant was  built on the previous  Issy
incinerator site so the land cost nothing. Roughly 600,000  Fr fr ($122,000)
was spent  to tear the old plant  down and level the area.

Hamburg;Stellinger-Moor

          The Hamburg:Stellinger-Moor  plant  cost about 49,000,000  D.M.
($15,000,000).  The construction begun in 1970 was completed in 1972.

Zurich:Hagenholz

          The first two units and the administration,  social, truck repair,
truck storage, bicycle storage,  and space parts areas were built in 1969 at
a total cost of S.Fr.  ($12,969,000). Of this total about  45,694,000 S.Fr.
($10,582,000) was for the  refuse  fired steam generator  (RFSG)  building
itself. Von Roll's chute-to-stack price was 23,000,000 S.Fr. ($5,327,000).
Later, in  1973, an additional 14,000,000 S.Fr.  ($4,316,000) was spent  for
Unit  No.  3 and  water deaeration.  Out of this,  the  Martin chute-to-stack
contract was 11,430,000 S.Fr. ($3,523). This bring the total for all  three
RFSG units to 59,700,000 S.Fr. ($13,826,000)
          Details of the first Von  Roll construction period are  shown in
Table L-4. Similar details  for the last Martin construction period follow
in Table L-5. Such detail  is shown so that  planners will  have a broader
scope of  what  may need to  be  included when  project planning. Perhaps the
100,000 S.Fr. ($23,159) European style bicycle  house line item will  remind
an American planner to allocate  funds for,  as  an example, an automobile
parking structure.


The Hague

          The capital cost  for the plant as it stands today, not  including
land cost, was 62,000,000 Gl. ($18,520,000).  This  includes  Units  1-3,  and
the  entire building for 45,000,000 Gl.  ($12,500,000) built  in 1967-68. This
also includes Unit 4 added  within  that building in 1972-74 at a cost of
17,000,000 Gl.  ($6,020,000).
          The general  contract in 1969  for building the  refuse plant
structure without  equipment or land was  for 1,532,771, F.Fr.  ($276,000).
The  installed equipment including the sludge dryers raised  the total refuse
plant cost to 6,400,000 F.Fr. ($1,151,000).
-------
                                        L-14
                  TABLE L-4.   CAPITAL INVESTMENT COST (1969) FOR
                              UNITS #1 AND #2 AND OTHER BUILDINGS
                              AT ZURICH:HAGENHOLZ

Building costs
(excavation, foundation, structure, stack,...)
Equipment (Von Roll contract chute to stack)
(2 boilers, 2 furnaces, ...)
Outfit
Administrative building
Workshop
Trucks-garage
Connection-way (alley)
Scale house
Bicycle house
Schuttung (?) Tahr (?)
Environment (garden, fences,...)
Streets and parking places
Oil storage tank
Others
Land*
Construction management fee
Engineering fees
Interest during construction
Others Total
Capital Investment
Total
Complex
(SF)
11,000,000
23,000,000

20,000
2,500,000
2,200,000
700,000
1,200,000
350,000
100,000
750,000
600,000
1,300,000
115,000





12,000,000
59,700,000
RFSG
Only
(SF)
11,000,000
23,000,000

20,000
1,250,000
440,000
—
—
350,000
50,000
375,000
300,000
650,000
115,000





8, 144,000
45,694,000
*(SF 6,000,000 value of land previously purchased)
-------
                                    L-15
           TABLE L-5.  CAPITAL INVESTMENT COSTS (1972*) FOR
                       UNIT #3 AND THE WATER DEAERATION TANKS
                       AND ROOM AT ZURICH:HAGENHOLZ
 Furnace  and boiler (Martin contract chute-to-stack)         11,430,437 S.F.
 Spare parts**                                                   11,374
 Deaeration tanks (2)                                           339,837
 Foundation work                                                548,281
 Piling                                                          43,894
 Temporary office building                                       17,776
 Scaffolding rental                                               9,415
 Demolition and boring                                           96,242
 Front wall, trusses, insulation                                 95,734
 Steel structure                                                110,574
 Heating/cooling/electrical/plumbing                            125,628
 Inside finishing                                                97,767
 Miscellaneous                                                   43,323
 Photography and brochures                                        6,294
 Engineering fee                                                107,453
 Architect fee                                                   58,373
 Other expert fees                                                1,605
 Interest during construction                                   800,015
 Water treatment room                                        	62,314
   Total Capital Investment for Unit #3                      14,006,335 S.F.
 Reserve                                                        650,000
 Minderkosten (working capital?)                                521,665
   Total Amount Financed                                     15,178,000 S.F.

 *75% of the capital costs were paid in 1972.
**However, the spare parts inventory stored in the basement under the
  truck repair garage now totals about SF 1,000,000.
-------
                               L-16
          From the time  the tender was  made in  1969  until the plant was
commissioned in 1970, the final price was up about 16  to 18  percent  because
of inflation.
          M. Marchand  reported that  the wastewater treatment plant cost
4,980,000 F.Fr. ($896,000).
          In 1971, additional purchases were made of a second  crane, weigh
station,  furniture, ash truck, refuse containers and workshop and tools for
about 750,000 F.Fr. ($247,000)
          In summary,  the  plant' cost 13,663,000 F.Fr ($2,564,000)  as shown
below:

                                         1971 F.Fr.       1971  U.S. $
Land                                     No Charge        No Charge
Excavation and Structure                  1,533,000          276,000
Chute to Stack (including sludge driers)  6,400,000        1,151,000
Wastewater treatement plant               4,980,000          890,000
Extras bought 2 years later                 750.000          247.000
                                         13,663,000        2,564,000
Gothenberg

          Construction of the  Savenas plant, which was completed in 1971,
cost about 98,000,000 S.Kr.  ($20,173,000) not including  the cost of  land
which  is leased  for 105,000 S.Kr.  ($22,000)/year . The rest of the waste
handling system, including the transfer stations, the new  Tagene landfill,
and the 30 transfer trucks, cost an additional 22 million S.Kr.  ($4.5
million).
Uppsala

          The  costs of the  various stages  of construction of the Uppsala
waste plant were approximately as follows:
                                           Varying Years     Varying Years
                                               S.Kr.             U.S. $
Years1960 Furnaces 1 4 2 by Kochum-Landsverk   3,400,000       $  656,000
             and Boiler 1
1965 Furnace 3 by Kochum-Landsverk            1,000,000          193,000
             and Boiler 2
1970 Furnace 4 by Brunn 4 Sorenson            4,000,000          774,000
             and Boiler 3
1970 New Crane                                  150,000           29,000
1970 Precipitators                            1,300,000251
1970 Bulky Waste Shear                          200,000           39,000
 1170 New Ramp  to Increase Bunker Depth        1,000.000          193.000
TOTAL                                        11,050,000        2,135,000

          The  plant operating management estimates  that  replacement  in 1977
of the whole system would cost about 60 million S.Kr.  ($12.8 million).
          In 1973, the original chimney was replaced  at a cost of  about  '
million S.Kr.  ($218,000).
-------
                               L-17
Horsens

          The hot water generating plant was built in 1973-1974 as a turn
key project within the contract  price which was composed of the following:

                                          1973 D.Kr.        1973 U.S. $
          Equipment,  installed           4,634,152          $736,749
          Sprinkler  flue gas                85,315            13,564
             cooling system
          Building including  stack      3,639,800           578,665
          Weighing scale                  113,900            18,108
          Rotary sludge dryer, installed 1,795,406           285,438
          Garage                          525,850            83,600
          Miscellaneous: fence,landscape,
          roads                           300.000            47.695
          TOTAL CONTRACT COST          11,094,423         1,763,820

          The building and stack are large enough to accomodate  a  second
unit.  This total cost results in a capacity  cost for the 5 tonne/hr unit of
92,454 D.Kr./daily tonne of  capacity ($13,362/ton). Compared to some steam
generators, this cost is very low.
          Subsequently, in  1976-1977,  the hot water boiler and transmission
pipe were built  so  that  the Horsens  plant  would also  supply energy for
district heating. The following  are additional costs:

                                              1976 D.Kr.     1976 U.S. $
          Boiler, installed                    1,750,000     $ 302,000
          Building modification                  85,000         15,000
          Sludge centrifuge,  dryer changes     998,600       173,000
          Building work                        120,000         21,000
          Circulation pump,  tank, for district  190,000         33,000
             installed

          New pump building  at  district plant  724,000       125,000
          Hot water transmission line,  1.8 km 1,700,000       294,000
          Project supervision                  221,000         38,000
          Building changes at Dagnas heating    200,000   	35.000
          SUBTOTAL                            5,988,800      1,054,000

          Pipeline from satellite station       740,000       104,000
            to plant
          Project management                    96,200         17,000
          Booster station                       75,000         13,000
          Extras, estimated                    208,544         36.000
          TOTAL COST                          7,108,544      1,224,000

          Adding this  cost, 7,108,544 D.Kr. ($1,224,000),  the original
plant  cost  brings the total waste-to-energy plant  cost  to 18,202,967 D.Kr.
($2,987,820).  Based on  a daily rated capacity of 120  tonnes/day,  this is  a
capital  cost rate of  151,691 D.Kr./tonne/day ($24,899/ton/day).  This cost
-------
                                 L-18
is also comparatively low considering that the pipeline and other.costs are
included. A major  factor  in keeping the costs  down  is  the use of a
low-pressure, firetube  water-heating boiler instead of a high-pressure,
water-tube, steam  boiler  that would be required if power were  to be
generated.

Copenhagen;Amager

         The refuse-fired  hot water generating plant itself cost
117,600,000 D.Kr. ($16,652,000) during the  1969-1970 construction period.
The original capital costs were as follows:

         Ground Work and Construction   63,000,000          $8,412,000
         Machinery                     45,000,000           6,009,000
         Other Cost                    9.600.000           1.282,000
           TOTAL                      117,600,000          15,703,000

Since then,  another 40  million D.Kr.  ($5.6 million)  has been spent on
capital improvements. Both assets and liabilities, by definition, equal
181,452,000 D.Kr. ($25,694,000). At $64 tonnes per day the cpaital cost per
tonne is 210,000 D.Kr./tonne  ($27,035/ton).
         The 1975-1976 annual report  presents  an accounting schedule of
assets and a schedule of  liabilities. These are shown in  Table L-6.
Copenhagen; West

          The original three-furnace complete plant cost 140,580,022 D.Kr.
($18,764,000) in 1970-1971. With the addition of  the fourth unit  in
1975-1976 and some other items as  outlined  in Table L-7  the grand total
capital investment cost is 204,972,634  D.Kr. ($33,178,000) against 864
tonnes per  day,  the cpaital  cost per tonne  is 237,237 D.Kr/tonne
($30,539/ton).  This table shows  the  capital investment cost distributed
both by assets and liabilities.
                      General  Comments About Expenses

          Detailed expenses where available,  have been displayed on Tables
L-8  and  L-9.  Table L-9 presents a  summary of the raw data  from Table
L-8.These numbers are provided with the recommendation that  they be used
cautiously. They are the outgrowth of various accounting procedures.  There
are  many empty cells in the table where data was not available in a usable
fashion. For  further  detail, the reader is referred  to the later
plant-by-plant discussion.
          Because there are blank  cells in the tables, the average of the
total expenses does not equal the sum of the average expense  components.
In  1976, the  average plant surveyed processed 195,790 tonnes (215,369 tons)
per year or 536 tonnes (590 tons) per day.  The average total expenses  were
$27 per ton.
-------
                                   L-19
TABLE L-6.  ASSETS AND LIABILITIES OF COPENHAGEN:AMAGER AS OF MARCH 31, 1976

                                   ASSETS

Current Assets  (Cash,  Stocks,  Supplies)                   12,882,000 Dkr
Money on  Loan to  Others                                     2,431,000
Transfer  Station                                            8,980,000
Landfill                                                    1,625,000
Refuse Burning Hot Water Generator*                      155,534,000
Under Surplus, 1972-1973                     4,339,000
Over Surplus, 1973-1974        1,757,000
Over Surplus, 1974-1975           489,000
Over Surplus, 1975-1976        2,093,000     4,339,000   	
  TOTAL ASSETS                                           181,452,000 Dkr

* Includes 7 years of  improvements.
                               LIABILITIES
Loan on Refuse Fired Hot Water Generator                 101,920,000 Dkr
Loan on Landfill                                             108,000
Short Term Creditors                                       2,538,000
Accrual Account for Waste Materials Experimentation (?)       60,000
Accrual Account for Plant Workers That Have Left              35,000
  (Retired ?)
Accrual Account for Renewal of Ash Transportation          1,566,000
  Plant (?)
Accrual Account for Interest and Capital Return           34,927,000
Equity in the Refuse Burning Plant                        39,718,000
Equity in the Transfer Station                               580,000
  TOTAL LIABILITIES                                      181,452,000 Dkr
-------
L-20







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                              L-24
          There should be no  doubt about the  capital intensive nature of
refuse fired steam and hot water generators.  Operations and maintenance
accounts for slightly over a third of total costs.
          The numbers have been recalculated a second time without the very
small Werdenberg-Liechtenstein plant (a single 120 tonne/day line) data.
Not using this  data point reduces the total expenses to $24,33 per  ton in
1976.

Economics of Scale

          While conducting  the interviews, these researchers  began  to  feel
that there were no economics of scale in these wastes-to-energy  plants.
With  the  Werdenberg-Liechtenstein excepton, there seemed to be no effect of
plant capacity  on total expenses per ton of refuse processed.
          With this suspicion, Figure L-3  was generated showing total
expenses per year versus annual tonnage. The  data appeared to be  linear.
Deviations from the straight line were easily explainable in each facility.
Deviations were explainable in reasons  shown in the figure.
          To  plot the same  information but  in a different manner,  Figure
L-1* was  constructed showing  U.S. $  expenses  per ton versus the  annual
tonnes  throughout. Excluding Werdenberg-Liechtenstein, only a straight
horizontal line could be drawn through  the points.
          Coventional economics of scale theory is represented by the below
graph (a). This compares with the actual of graph  (b).
         *
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                     Theoretical
\
Actual
(b)
                Tonnage Throughput
Tonnage Throughput
                            ECONOMIES OF SCALE
          Reasons for  this  observation have perplexed these researchers.
The reason seems  to be  in the thought and  action patterns  of customers,
vendors  engineers, designers, architects  - the patterns of those who
specify the system. We have observed that the  bigger the system, the more
"bells  and whistles" are added. A common attitude was, "We were building
bigger plant so we could afford to do things the right way". In contrast,
"Our  plant was so small  that we had to take advantage of every efficiency
generating option available." Some specific  examples are given below:

          1.   The small Baden-Brugg plant has no shear or shredder
          2.   The large Duesseldorf plant has both a shear and a shredder
          3.   The medium sized Copenhagen and Gothenburg plants have
               elaborate conference rooms
          1.   The  smaller plant operators  walk to the furnace to see hov
               the fire is as the primary mmeans of controlling operations
          5.   Martin,  in its larger furnaces, not only  uses a analog
               computer "black box" to variably control feed  rate but the;
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                                L-27


              also  install an attemperator between  the first and second
              stage superheater to control exit steam temperature to MOO C
              to 5 C.
          6.   At Werdenberg-Leichtenstein, the plant manager and his wife
              do all the office work,  correspondence and bookkeeping
          7.   Yet at  Hamburg, there  is a. staff of office workers at the
              plant and a cadre of people at the city's central office.

          The above are  not  made as particular criticisms but rather seem
to be as observations about human nature. It  seems that an  operating cost
between $18 and  $30 per ton is the acceptable target.

                       General Comments  About Revenues

          Detailed revenues  are presented  in  Table L-10.  The previously
mentioned cautions about expense data hold true  for revenue data as well.
Similarly Table L-ll  shows the Summary of Revenues.  To permit data
comparisons, total Expenses  are defined to equal total  Revenues.  Thus
theoretically Table L-10  and Table L-ll should have equal expense/ton and
revenue/ton figures. However,  the average is  different:  $27.MO/ton expenses
and  $28.il3/ton  revenues because the plants  used in calculating the average
are different.
          As  a gross summary,  Table L-12  has  been prepared.

    TABLE L-12.  GROSS SUMMARY OF REVENUE FROM EUROPEAN
                         REFUSE FIRED ENERGY PLANTS
                                                 Without Warden berg-
                                   All Plants*         Liechtenstein
                               I/Ion      _%      $/Ton       %.
  Net disposal cost or
    tipping fee                  18.83      59.4    16.38     55.4
  Sale of energy (hot water,
    steam, electricity)             7.38      23.3     7.51      25.4
  Sludge destruction credit        3.12       9.8      3.12      10.6
  Interest on reserves             1.07       3.4      1.07       3.6
  Other revenues                 0.91       2.9      1.02       3.5
  Sale of scrap iron and
    road ash                     0.39       1.2      0.44       1.5

        Average of Revenues      28.43     100.0    25.81     100.0

  'Where adequate data is available.

Sale of Energy

          AS a general  of thumb, American refuse  (household, commercial and
light industrial  waste)  will produce a net salable 5,000  pounds steam  per
ton  of refuse while  European refuse produces  a lower amount, perhaps  4,000
pounds steam per  ton  of  refuse. The sale of energy revenue of $7.51 per  ton
can  be converted to  $1.88  per million.   Many persons have commented that
the key reason that the  Europeans have developed their refuse-fired energy
systems  is  that  the  price  of energy in Europe was much higher than in the
U.S.  While  this  may  been  true when the European plants  were initially
planned,  by 1976 incremental U.S. energy prices were close to European
prices.
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