520179501
EVALUATION OF HEALTH
AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE (EHV)
TRANSMISSION
First Interim Report
I IT Research Institute
1O West 35th Street
Chicago, Illinois 6O616
May 1978
L
l.J. 03317
- '> 11 /1
I'- -',
Prepared For
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs
Washington, D.C. 2O46O
Under Contract No. 68-O1-46O4
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FOREWORD
This document constitutes the Draft First Interim Report,
prepared by IIT Research Institute, under Contract No. 68-01-
4604 for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This re-
port provides an in-depth analysis of the data and material
received by the EPA in response to Federal Register Notice
FRL 312-3 on the health and environmental effects of EHV power
transmission lines.
The principal investigator on this program is Mr. M. J.
Frazier, with Dr. A. R. Valentino providing overall manage-
ment responsibility, at IITRI. Mr. David E. Janes of the
Environmental Protection Agency is the program manager.
This First Interim Report has been reviewed by the EPA and
is being distributed to FRL 312-2 respondents for their comments.
Analysis of these comments will be reflected in a Second Interim
Report, which will be submitted for EPA review. A Final Report
will be then prepared and distributed, which will reflect the
EPA review of the Second Interim Report.
Respectfully submitted,
M. [J. Tra¥iery
Program Mana'ger
APPROVED
A. R. Valentino
Manager, EM Effects
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ii
INTRODUCTION ....
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Background
Scope and Organization of Report
Technical Depth
EHV Transmission
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
2.1
2.2
Quantitative Description of Transmission Line
Fields
2.1.1 Analytical Description
2.1.1.1 Electric Field
2.1.1.2 Magnetic Field
2.1.2 Measured Values
2.1.2.1 Electric Field
2.1.2.2 Magnetic Field
2.1.3 Instrumentation and Calibration
2.1.3.1 Electric Field Instrumentation,
Theory of Operation
2.1.3.2 Electric Field Meter
Calibration
2.1.3.3 Magnetic Field Instrumentation.
Quantitative Description of Voltages and
Currents Induced in Objects by the Fields . . .
2.2.1 Electrostatic Induction
2.2.1.1 Induced Current and Voltage . .
2.2.1.2 Measurements
2.2.1.3 Field Enhancement
2.2.1.4 Secondary Effects
2.2.1.5 Mitigation Procedures
2.2.2 Electromagnetic Induction
2.2.2.1 Long Objects Above Ground . . .
2.2.2.2 Long Objects Below the Ground .
2.2.2.3 Electromagnetic Induction to
Persons
1
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
8
14
17
17
20
24
24
27
35
36
37
37
44
50
52
55
58
59
65
68
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
Page
2.3 Effect of Current and Voltage on Humans .... 71
2.3.1 Direct Psychological and Physiological
Effects 71
2.3.1.1 Direct Perception of Fields . . 72
2.3.1.2 Transient Currents 74
2.3.1.3 Steady-State Currents 78
2.3.2 Implanted Medical Devices 82
2.4 The Direct Effects of Fields
on Living Organisms 92
2.4.1 Background 92
2.4.2 Range of Research 93
2.4.2.1 Range of Subjects Studied ... 94
2.4.2.2 Range of Effects Studied. ... 94
2.4.2.3 Range of Field Parameters ... 95
2.4.3 Experimental Control in ELF
Biological Experiments 99
2.4.3.1 Test and Control Subjects ... 99
2.4.3.2 Field Simulation Considerations 100
2.4.3.3 Biological Design 104
2.4.4 Major Reviews of Published Research. . . 107
2.4.5 Research Publications Submitted in
Response to Federal Register Notice. . . 113
2.4.6 State of New York Public Service
Commission--Common Record Hearings . . . 124
3. ELECTRIC DISCHARGE PHENOMENA 130
3.1 Discharge Mechanisms 130
3.2 Ozone Production by Transmission Lines 133
3.2.1 Introduction 133
3.2.1.1 Sources of Ozone and
Related Oxidants 133
3.2.1.2 Natural Distribution
and Concentration 134
3.2.1.3 Historical Aspects 135
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
3.2.2 Laboratory Measurements 137
3.2.3 Analytical Prediction 139
3.2.4 Field Measurements 146
3.2.5 Measurement Methods 148
3.2.6 Conclusions 149
3.3 Audible Noise 151
3.3.1 Introduction 151
3.3.1.1 Noise Generation Mechanisms. . . 152
3.3.1.2 Quantifying Noise 152
3.3.1.2.1 Weighting Networks. . 154
3.3.1.2.2 Frequency Analysis. . 156
3.3.1.2.3 Accounting for Time . 156
3.3.1.3 Ambient Non-Power-Line
Environments 158
3.3.2 Standards and Guidelines 162
3.3.2.1 U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency 162
3.3.2.2 U.S. Department of Housing
and Urban Development 164
3.3.2.3 States and Municipalities. . . . 167
3.3.3 Quantifying Transmission Line
Acoustic Noise 169
3.3.3.1 Laboratory Studies 169
3.3.3.2 Field Studies 171
3.3.4 Impact of Transmission Line Audible
Noise 174
3.3.4.1 Subjective Surveys 174
3.3.4.2 Use of Available Data 176
3.3.4.3 Psychoacoustics 178
3.4 Radio and Television Interference 181
3.4.1 Introduction 181
3.4.2 The Nature of Electromagnetic Noise
from Transmission Lines 184
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
Pag€
3.4.2.1 Radio Interference--RI 185
3.4.2.2 Television Interference--TVI. . . 190
3.4.3 The Effect of Electromagnetic Noise
on Communications 191
3.4.3.1 RI 192
3.4.3.2 TVI 194
3.4.4 Mitigation 195
REFERENCES 198
APPENDIX A--Respondents to FRL 312-2 214
APPENDIX B--Technical Material Received in Response
to FRL 312-2 221
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table Page
2.1 Maximum Ground Level Electric Field
for Typical EHV Transmission Lines 13
2.2 Approximate Magnetic Field Under Center Phase
of 765 kV Line 25
2.3 Standard EPRI Reporting Format
for Electrostatic Field Measurements 32
2.4 Induced Currents and Voltages for Vehicles ... 46
2.5 Biological Effects Thresholds for Body Currents
and Shocks 79
2.6 Calculated Electric Fields
for R-Wave Pacemaker Reversion 88
2.7 Calculated Magnetic Field
for R-Wave Pacemaker Reversion 88
2.8 Calculated Current Necessary
for R-Wave Pacemaker Reversion (in yA) 89
2.9 Calculated Field for R-Wave Pacemaker Reversion
Due to Vehicle Leakage Current 89
2.10 U.S.S.R. Field Exposure Rules
for Substation Workers 98
2.11 Summary of Biological Effects Submittals .... 114
3.1 Calculated Maximum Ground-Level
Ozone Concentrations 141
3.2 Summary of Published Ozone Measurements Made
Near EHV Lines 147
3.3 Levels of Some Common Sounds 159
3.4 Comparison of Internal and Outdoor Sound Levels
in Living Areas at 12 Homes 161
3.5 Estimated Percentage of Urban Population
(134 Million) Residing in Areas with Various
Day-Night Noise Levels Together with Customary
Qualitative Description of the Area 163
3.6 Summary of Human Effects in Terms of Speech
Communication, Community Reaction, Complaints,
Annoyance and Attitude Towards Area Associated
With an Outdoor Day/Night Sound Level of 55 dB
re 20 Micropascals "165
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES (Cont.)
Table Page
3.7 External Noise Exposure Standards
for New Construction 166
3.8 Audible Noise Measurements 172
3.9 Comparison of the Mean and 95% "A" Weighted
Levels for One Year and Two Year Data 173
Figure
2.1 Comparison of Calculated Electric Field 12
2.2 Maximum Magnetic Flux Density from Transmission
Line--Theoretical Curve 16
2.3 Electric Field Measured Under 765 kV
Transmission Line 18
2.4 Electric Field Strength at 1 m Height 19
2.5 Vertical E Field Under Center Phase
of 765 kV Line 21
2.6 Profile of Three Magnetic Field Components
Under a 765 kV Line 22
2.7 Profile of Three Magnetic Field Components
Under Double Circuit Branch Line 23
2.8 Normalized Field for Finite Plates 29
2.9 IITRI Electric Field Probe and
Receiver/Calibrator 34
2.10 Idealized Non-Realistic Thevenin or Norton
Equivalent Circuits for Electrically Small
Collector Near Ground 38
2.11 Realistic Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 42
2.12 500 kV Single Horizontal Transmission Tower,
Balanced Currents 62
2.13 500 kV Single Horizontal Transmission Tower,
Single Line-to-Ground Fault 63
2.14 Equivalent Circuit for Electromagnetic
Induced Current 64
2.15 Comparison of the Electric and Magnetic Terms of
the Induced 60 Hz Electric Field at Positions
Along the Z Axis of A Sphere 69
2.16 Laboratory Test Problems 102
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES (Cont.)
Figure Pagt
2.17 Thermographic Study of the Effect of Coaxial
Electrode on Microwave Energy Absorption
Patterns 105
3.1 Lateral Ozone Concentration Levels of Two
DECO Lines 143
3.2 Ozone Concentration at Distances 62 Feet
Away from the Single Wire Transmission Line. . . 145
3.3 Water Drops Attached to Conductor 153
3.4 Frequency Response Characteristics in the
American National Standard Specification for
Sound-Level Meter 155
3.5 Outdoor Day-Night Sound Level in dB (re 20
micropascals) at Various Locations 160
3.6 Proposed Alternative Format for HUD's
Criterion for Non-Aircraft Noise 168
3.7 Typical Frequency Spectra Reference 0.5 MHz
for a Horizontal Line (9 kHz BW) Using a
Quasi-Peak Field Intensity Meter 187
3.8 Comparison of Radio Noise Lateral Profile
Measurements of 765 and 380 kV Horizontal
Lines 188
3.9 Typical Results of Listening Tests EHV
Transmission Line Noise 193
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Private citizens, public interest groups, and state
agencies have expressed concern about potential adverse ef-
fects of Extra-High-Voltage (EHV) transmission lines. In
response to this interest, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency published a notice* in the Federal Register (FRL 312-2),
asking for data and information on the health and environ-
mental effects of 60 Hz transmission lines energized at 700 kV
or higher. The intent of the notice was to develop information
that would (1) help to categorize potential adverse effects,
and (2) assist the Agency to determine whether there was a
need to provide guidance to Federal agencies or to formulate
plans for future regulatory action to protect the public health
and welfare.
Over fifty (50) replies, totaling over 6,000 pages, were
received in response to the Agency's request distributed ap-
proximately as follows: electric utility or organization,
fourteen (14); Federal agencies, eight (8); citizen or citi-
zen's group, six (6); state agencies, five (5); consulting
firms, four (4); equipment manufacturer, four (4); city or
county planning agency, three (3); university, three (3);
railroad, pipeline, and professional society, one (1) each.
Appendix A, entitled "Respondents to FRL 312-2," provides a
list of the respondents together with a brief description of
the response, and Appendix B presents a list of the technical
information submitted by these respondents with a key to the
respondent submitting each technical item.
-'Federal Register, 40(53) : 12312, 18 March 1975,
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1.2 Scope and Organization of Report
After receipt of the submitted information, the Environ-
mental Protection Agency performed a preliminary analysis of
the material, as well as other information available, and
tentatively concluded that no acute detrimental health or
environmental effects had been identified. However, an in-
depth analysis of the material was needed to determine if
there were potential subtle problems and to determine if
areas of concern had been adequately investigated. This re-
port is the result of the in-depth analysis of the submitted
material.
Two principal areas have been treated: first, the ef-
fects of electric and magnetic fields, and second, the ef-
fects of electric discharges. The first area is treated in
Section 2 and the second is treated in Section 3.
Section 2 of this report presents an analysis of informa-
tion concerning the electric and magnetic fields produced by
Extra-High-Voltage (EHV) power transmission lines. Included
is a review of the methods used to calculate and measure the
fields; a quantitative description of the voltages and cur-
rents induced on objects by the fields; a discussion of the
effects of such current and voltage on humans who may come
into contact with these objects; and a discussion of the ef-
fects of transmission line fields on living organisms.
Section 3 of-this report presents an analysis of informa-
tion concerning the effects of electric discharges which ac-
company the transmission of power by EHV lines. Included is
a discussion of the discharge phenomenon, principally corona,
and the various side effects of concern resulting from the
corona process. The side effects of concern include the pro-
duction of ozone and other gaseous effluents; the generation
of audible noise; and the production of electromagnetic noise
in the radio frequency spectrum.
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Since the purpose of the analysis was to assess the
material submitted in response to the Federal Register Notice
FRL 312-2, the discussions that are presented strongly reflect
this material. However, in the period of time that has passed
since the submittal of data in response to the Federal Register
Notice, additional research information has become available.
In addition, other major analyses of information in specific
topical areas have been published. Although the scope of the
effort did not include the searching-out of additional informa-
tion, such information, where known to exist, has been used to
supplement the submitted technical material, where appropriate.
Some responses that were received noted individual or
group concern over factors associated with the disruption of
the environment by the installation, rather than the operation,
of transmission lines. Environmental aspects associated with
factors such as visual impact, geology and hydrology, land
use, vegetation and wildlife management, and others that re-
late to the physical presence of the line, or the procedures
necessary to install the line, are considered beyond the scope
of this analysis. An excellent discussion of many of these
factors is presented by Cahn Engineers, Inc., 1974.
1.3 Technical Depth
The material reviewed in the preparation of this report
ranged from highly technical theoretical treatises to personal
views of the layman. It is anticipated that these same people
may read this report. Therefore, an attempt has been made to
present the material of this document in a manner which ade-
quately represents the scientific results, while being read-
able by the layman.
However, the layman may find the reading somewhat diffi-
cult in places. Some equations have been presented for com-
pleteness, but this has been kept to a minimum. Since the
document deals extensively with the quantification of physical
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and electrical parameters associated with the line, certain
terms unfamiliar to the layman are necessary. An effort has
been made to present these terms in an understandable manner.
For those who desire more technical depth or detail than is
presented here, they are referred to the referenced technical
material used in developing this report,
1.4 EHV Transmission
Extra-High-Voltage power transmission is the term gen-
erally used to denote power transmission lines in the range
of voltages between 230 and 765 kV (kV denotes thousands of
volts), McLoughlin, 1975. 345 kV transmission lines have
been in service since the 1950's, with in excess of 30,000
circuit miles in service as of 1976. The first 765 kV lines
were placed in service in the United States and Canada in the
late 1960's. The power industry is actively working on solving
problems associated with even higher voltage transmission lines,
above 800 kV, which are termed Ultra-High-Voltage (UHV) lines.
Concern over the possible adverse effects of EHV trans-
mission, particularly at the upper end of the voltage range,
has been reflected by both the public and the power industry.
This concern is evidenced by the considerable amount of re-
search that has been conducted into possible health and en-
vironmental effects of such lines. Due to increased interest
and the desire to extend the voltages yet higher, it is likely
that the research will continue.
For those not directly involved with the power industry,
it is natural to question the reason why the power industry
desires to increase the operating voltage, when there are
problems involved in such a move. Harvey, et al., 1977, sum-
marizes the basic move to higher transmission voltages by
noting that perhaps the most obvious reason is the reduced
amount of land required for right-of-way purposes. They
state that a single 765 kV line can transmit an amount of
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power equivalent to four or five 345 kV lines, each which
can transmit an amount of power equivalent to that carried
by five or six 138 kV lines.
Young, F. S., 1976, develops the concept of an efficiency
index for transmission lines which takes into account the
right-of-way width and tower height as a three dimensional
power corridor. He notes that as population density in-
creases, the availability of corridors for transmission lines
decreases, thus necessitating the most efficient use of ac-
quired corridors. Using this efficiency index, Young provides
examples that show an increased power corridor efficiency
(decreased corridor volume for the same load) as the line
voltage is increased, at least up to the 1200 kV range. He
further notes that at this time there are no economically
competitive alternatives to overhead ac transmission.
Some, such as Young, L. B., 1973, challenge that adequate
research has not been conducted for the purpose of developing
economically attractive alternates to overhead transmission,
thus making the power industry dependent on the use of such
lines. These topics, dealing with alternatives to overhead
transmission of power at 60 Hz voltages in the -range of 700 kV,
while important, are considered beyond the scope of this docu-
ment. These topics will therefore not be further treated.
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2.0 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Power transmission lines produce both electric and mag-
netic fields in their near vicinity. These fields can be
calculated and measured. The fields couple to objects which
may be located near the transmission lines, causing current
to flow and voltages to appear on the objects. The coupled
objects can be either animate, such as people, animals or
plants, or inanimate such as fences, vehicles or other metal-
lic items.
This section quantitatively discusses the procedures used
to calculate the fields from transmission lines and the instru-
mentation used to measure these fields. The current and volt-
age that can be induced on various objects is also discussed.
The current and voltage induced on inanimate objects can cause
current to flow to a person that touches the object. In addi-
tion, the coupling of the fields to living organisms has caused
considerable concern and has resulted in significant research
efforts. The coupling of fields to living organisms is dis-
cussed in terms of the research that has been conducted and
the problems associated with the conduct of such research.
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2.1 Quantitative Description of
Transmission Line Fields
The voltage which appears on transmission lines, and the
current that flows in the lines, causes electric and magnetic
fields to be produced in their vicinity. The charge which
appears on the transmission lines causes the electric field.
The current flowing in the transmission line, causes a mag-
netic field to be established in the region about the line.
In all analyses that are performed, the electric and mag-
netic fields from transmission lines are considered as separate
entities. It is common engineering practice to consider sep-
arately the electric and magnetic fields, when the distances
or object sizes are small compared to a wavelength. At the
power line frequency of 60 Hz, a wavelength is 5 x 10 meters.
Thus, the distances and object sizes of concern are a minute
fraction of a wavelength.
The electric fields are discussed in terms of the elec-
tric field intensity, or spatial voltage gradient. The units
used to express the electric field are volts per meter (V/m)
or where high fields are involved, kilovolts per meter (kV/m).
The magnetic fields are discussed in terms of the magnetic
flux density, usually stated in the familiar and still widely
used CGS unit, Gauss; however, the MKS units are also often
employed. In the MKS units, the magnetic flux density is ex-
pressed in terms of Webers/square meter or Teslas. To con-
vert Gauss to Teslas, multiply Gauss by 10"V
The theory which permits either the electric or magnetic
field to be determined in the vicinity of a transmission line
is well established. The material submitted in response to
the EPA Federal Register Notice, as well as more recent test-
ing and analysis reported by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1977, adequately demonstrate that: highly accurate
prediction of the fields can be made; instrumentation is
available to measure these fields; and a good correlation
exists between the measured and calculated values.
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2.1.1 Analytical Description
2.1.1.1 Electric Field
The starting point for determining the electric field
in space resulting from a transmission line, is generally the
relationship between charge, capacitance and voltage. The
relationship among these quantities, is expressed in matrix
notation as [Q] = [C][V], where [C] is a capacitance coefficient
matrix, and [V] is the voltage impressed upon the conductors in
volts. The analysis normally assumes that the conductors are
infinitely long line charges and the earth is assumed to be a
highly conductive, or ideal plane. The analysis makes use of
symmetry, and account for the ground plane is made by the
method of images.
For a three phase transmission line, the voltage impressed
on the three conductors are separated in time phase, that is,
the voltage on the three conductors differ in phase by 120
from each other. Given the conductor voltages and the capaci-
tive coupling coefficients which are determined by the geometry
of the configuration, the conductor charge can be determined
by the matrix relationship. Once the conductor charges are
known, the electric field at any point in space can be deter-
mined by the relationship E = Q/27rer. This relationship gives
the field from any of the charged conductors or their images.
The total field is obtained by the superposition of the fields
due to each conductor and image.
This basic procedure, or variations in which the field is
determined from the gradient of the electric space potential,
is described in varying degrees of detail in the material re-
ceived in response to the Federal Register Notice. Variations
in analytical procedure also occur in the manner in which bun-
dled conductors for the transmission line are analyzed. One
approach outlined by Balderston and Zaffanella, and also in
the Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above, 1975,
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is to analyze the bundled conductor as an equivalent single
conductor having an equivalent diameter, d given by
d n nd 1/n
eq U "D"
where
D is the bundle overall diameter
n is the number of subconductors, and
d is the diameter of the subconductors.
This expression holds for the case of regular bundles. When
the bundle is not regular, expressions such as provided in
Mathews, H. G., 1975, can be used to determine the equivalent
single conductor diameter. Alternately, the charge and field
due to each subconductor can be determined. The use of this
procedure for analyzing bundled conductors is indicated in
the submittal of "Analytical and Computer Analyses" by Shih,
1974. While the procedures and analyses used to calculate
the electric fields due to transmission lines are based on
sound and well-accepted electrical engineering principles,
the steps involved in such calculations are long and in gen-
eral require the use of computers.
The electric field at a point in space is a vector quan-
tity. In quantifying the fields from transmission lines, it
is common practice to express the field in terms of its rec-
tangular coordinates at the point of interest. Due to the
assumptions of an ideal ground which is used in the analyses,
only two components of the electric field result from the
analysis. Both these components lie in a plane that is normal
to the transmission line. The field is generally represented
by a horizontal component which is parallel to the ground, and
a vertical component. These two components of the electric
field are not in time phase, for a three phase system. Thus,
the total electric field vector rotates in the plane at a
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60 Hz rate, and the tip of the vector traces out an ellipse.
As the observation point moves further from the transmission
line, the horizontal component of the electric field normal
to the transmission line becomes quite small with respect to
the vertical component. Thus, the vertical component domi-
nates and is generally the field component which is normally
discussed.
The electric field analysis discussed above does not
consider the finite conductivity of the ground. However,
neglecting this finite conductivity is adequate for prediction
of the dominant components of the electric field in air above
the ground. Due to the finite conductivity of the ground,
electric fields exist in the earth beneath power transmission
lines. The direction of the electric field vector in the
ground, is parallel to the current flow in the transmission
line. The horizontal electric fields in the ground are devel-
oped from currents flowing in that ground. These currents
arise from three sources: 1) unbalanced, harmonic and fault
currents through the power system earth counterpoise; 2) dis-
placement currents collected by the ground from the time vary-
ing electric field; and 3) eddy currents induced in the soil
by the time varying magnetic field.
The methods for predicting these ground potentials for
idealized distributions of ground conductivity and permit-
tivity were developed in the late 1920's and over the 1930's.
These developments are summarized by Sunde, 1968. The prac-
tical thrust of this effort was to investigate grounding re-
lated to inductive interference as might be experienced by a
telephone line, from fields generated by power lines. Also
of interest is the computation of induced currents and volt-
ages on pipelines. Simplified methods for realistic situations
to calculate field intensities and currents in earth, as re-
lated to overhead transmission lines, remains to be developed
for handbook application.
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Numerous submittals in response to the Federal Register
Notice provided theoretical curves of the electric field from
EHV transmission lines. Included is Shah, 1975; Matthews,
1975; Shih, 1974; Barnes, 1974; Reiner, 1971; Lyskov, 1975;
and the response to the EPA request prepared by the Detroit
Edison Company, 1975. Figure 2.1 shows a re-plot of data
supplied by the Detroit Edison Company and compares this with
the theoretical curve provided in the Russian paper by Lyskov,
1975. Detroit Edison compared the results of their computer
program to a curve presented by Dino and Zaffanella in the
Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above. These
two curves were calculated for a 1050 kV single circuit trans-
mission line, having a phase-to-phase separation of 15.1 meters
and a height above ground of 15.1 meters. It is seen that the
results of these two calculations are very close. Shown for
comparison in Figure 2.1 is also a curve re-plotted from
Lyskov for a 1150 kV line. The Russian curve indicates
slightly higher maximum electric field strength than the
American example; however, this is probably due to the greater
phase separation used in the example by Lyskov.
The use of the above described procedures for determining
the electric field, in general requires the use of digital
computers to perform the calculations. However, Balderston
and Zaffanella, 1975, present a procedure using generalized
adimensional curves to determine the maximum voltage gradient
at ground level due to practical flat-line configurations.
The use of the procedures outlined in this paper allows rapid
determination of the maximum electric field, which occurs
slightly outside of the outer phase, for this line configura-
tion. Balderston and Zaffanella also present a table, re-
peated here as Table 2.1, which shows the maximum gradients
at ground level for typical EHV transmission lines in the
United States.
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Table 2.1
MAXIMUM GROUND LEVEL ELECTRIC FIELD
FOR TYPICAL EHV TRANSMISSION LINES
(from Balderston and Zaffanella)
Voltage Bundle
Phase Minimum Line Maximum
Spacing Height Configuration Ground
(s) (h) Gradient
(kV) mxd (cm) (m) (m)
345 2x3.3 7.3 9.7
46 cm spacing
525 3 x 3.3 10.1 10.7
46 cm spacing
525 3 x 3.3 10.1
46 cm spacing
765 4 x 3.5 13.7 13.7
46 cm spacing
765 4 x 4.1 13.7 16.5
61 cm spacing
Flat
Flat
10.7 Triangular
Flat
Flat
(kV/m)
5.2
8.8
6.8
10.3
8.3
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2.1.1.2 Magnetic Field
The currents flowing in the conductors of the transmission
line generate a magnetic field. As in the case of the electric
field, a three phase transmission line produces a magnetic field
at some distance from the line that rotates in space at a 60 Hz
rate. Again, as in the case of the electric field, the magnetic
field vector lies in a plane normal to the transmission line
and the tip of the magnetic field vector traces out an ellipse
in this plane. The magnetic field flux density, due to the
current flowing in an infinitely long current carrying conduc-
tor is given by
V - 2
B = : 8 webers/m
where
y is the permeability of the medium
I is the current in the conductor
R is the radial distance from the center of the conductor
6 is a unit vector which indicates the direction of the
magnetic field
Again, as in the case for electric field, it is common
practice to express the magnetic field as two vectors, one
which is parallel to the ground plane. The magnetic field
component from each current carrying conductor is found and
the total magnetic field is obtained by the principle of super
position.
For bundled configurations, an equivalent conductor is
assumed to be located at the center of the bundle. This is
valid since the conductor spacing in a bundle is much smaller
than the conductor to observation point spacing, for observa-
tion points of concern. Generalized expressions for the two
components of magnetic flux density as given by Diplacido,
1975, are
1IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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COS ai
X(RMS>
B "o ? i cos "i _
By(RMS) ' Z? ,1, [(vxi)^+(yp.y.)^%
where
B is the horizontal component of flux density
J\.
B is the vertical component of flux density
x and y are respectively the horizontal and vertical
p P coordinates of the observation point
x. and y. are respectively the horizontal and vertical
coordinates of the itn current carrying con-
ductor
I. is the phasor current, i.e., taking account for
phase, which flows in the i^h conductor, and
a± = TT/2 + arctan(yp-yi)/(xp-xi)
The normal application of the analytical techniques for
determining the magnetic field is to determine the magnetic
field as a function of distance transverse to the transmission
line at nominally ground level. As in the case of the electric
field calculations , the analysis is usually performed by use
of a computer. Shown in Figure 2.2 is the maximum magnetic
flux density in Gauss as presented in DiPlacido, 1975, as a
function of the lateral distance from the center line of the
transmission line. For this plot the phase-to-phase separation
was 45 feet and the phase current was 1000 A. The different
curves presented are for different vertical distances between
the phase conductor height and the height at which the magnetic
flux density is being sampled. If the sampling of the magnetic
field is considered to be at ground level, the heights shown
for the different curves then correspond to the height of the
phase conductors of the transmission lines.
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2.1.2 Measured Values
2.1.2.1 Electric Field
Figure 2.3 shows the vertical electric field measured
under a 765 kV transmission line as reported by Zalewski, 1975.
This figure shows the results of measurements made at two heights
above the ground. The figure also shows the symmetrical nature
of the electric fields as a function of lateral distance from
the center line of the transmission line.
Figure 2.4 shows a comparison of measured and calculated
values presented by Bracken, 1975. Measurements shown in this
figure were made in conjunction with the IEEE Working Group on
E/S and E/M effects of transmission lines, during an electro-
static and electromagnetic measurement program which was held
at the Bonneville Power Administration in July 1974. This
figure compares the calculated vertical electric field strength,
at a height of 1 meter beneath a 525 kV transmission line, with
measurements made with three separate field measuring instru-
ments .
This figure shows a general trend for the measured values
to be somewhat less than the theoretical electric field. Bracken
concludes that the measurements of electric field strength, near
ground level under realistic conditions, can be made with avail-
able instrumentation with reproducibility of + 1070. He also
concludes, that measured field strength values over rough
ground have common variations of + 1070 from analytical values
that are based on the assumption of infinite parallel conduc-
tors over a flat ideal ground. Also noted by Bracken is the
effect on the electric field strength measurement due to vege-
tation, structures, and ground surface,
A comparison between calculated and measured electric field
strengths under a 525 kV line by Shah, 1975, also illustrates
the perturbing effects that high grass can have on the measured
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values of electric field. Data presented by Shah show that
in regions where high grass occurred, the measured values
could be up to 207o less than those calculated. Pokorny, 1973,
also notes a considerable reduction in field intensity in the
presence of trees; he notes that selective planting of medium
sized trees might be useful for reducing the electric field
in some circumstances.
The electric field calculations and measurements that
have been shown are in general near the mid-span of transmis-
sion lines, that is, midway between supporting towers. This
region is, in general, where the transmission line conductors
are the closest to the ground. As the point of observation
is moved away from mid-span toward one of the towers, the
electric field is substantially reduced, due to the increasing
height of the conductors above ground and the presence of the
tower. Figure 2.5 shows measurements reported by Zalewski,
1975, which were made under the center phase of a 765 kV line,
as a function of the distance from a tower. It is seen that
a significant decrease in field level occurs as the tower is
approached.
2.1.2.2 Magnetic Field
The 60 Hz magnetic fields measured under a 765 kV and a
345 kV line at a height of approximately 1.5 meters above the
ground are shown in Figures 2.6 and 2.7, taken from Zalewski,
1975. In these figures, the "vert" refers to the vertical
magnetic field component; "B horz. per." refers to the magnetic
field component perpendicular to the transmission line; and
"B horz. par." is the horizontal magnetic field component
which is parallel to the direction of the transmission line.
The line current shown in Figure 2.6 does not represent a
full load current. This current would normally be in the 1000
to 2000 ampere range and could be higher. For these currents,
and with the line height decreased to 13.7 meters, the approximate
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magnetic field strength under the center phase of the 765 kV
line is shown in Table 2.2.
The line height of 13.7 meters is the height at the point
where the line sags closest to the ground. Sixty Hertz mag-
netic fields of approximately one-third Gauss can be produced
at ground level.
2.1.3 Instrumentation and Calibration
There are several instruments that are used for the pur-
pose of measuring electric fields beneath transmission lines
that were cited in the material received in response to the
Federal Register Notice. Two of these, the Polytek and Monroe
meters are commercially available in the United States. Others
including the IITRI, BPA, and Miller meters have been described
in the open literature or reports. One of the earliest reports
on the subject of measuring the unperturbed electric field due
to 60 Hz transmission lines, was a paper by Miller, 1967, who
described both a grounded gradient meter and a free body meter.
2.1.3.1 Electric Field Instrumentation,
Theory of Operation
There are two basic approaches to measuring 60 Hz or ELF
electric fields. The first is with a free body meter, which
measures the 60 Hz fields at points remote from the ground.
The second type is the ground-reference type meter which mea-
sures the current to ground that is collected by a metallic
surface. The theory of operation of both these classes of
field measuring techniques is closely related. The free body
type of field sensor is, in general, made by using a hollow
metallic shell. The metallic shell is split in half and the
two halves are insulated from each other. The plane of in-
sulation is oriented to be normal to the electric field vec-
tor for maximum sensitivity.
The analysis of the field sensor proceeds by considering
the displacement current density intercepted by one-half of
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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Table 2.2
APPROXIMATE MAGNETIC FIELD UNDER CENTER PHASE
OF 765 kV LINE
Line Height - 45 Feet (13.7 Meters)
Height of Measurement Above Ground - 1.5 Meters (5 Feet)
Current in One Phase Magnetic Field
of 765 kV Line Strength
1000 Amperes 0.155 Gauss
2000 Amperes 0.310 Gauss
III RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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the sensor. The displacement current density is related to
the charge induced on the surface of the sensor by the re-
lationship
f f -
D • dA = e E • dA
a/2 s/2
Since the displacement density D is related to the electric
field intensity by the free space permittivity e, as shown
in the above equation, the charge induced on the surface of
the sensor is directly related to the electric field. The
total charge induced is a function of the geometry and sur-
face area as accounted for by the integral. For simple
shapes such as a sphere, as is employed in the IITRI probe,
the charge in terms of the electric field can be readily de-
termined analytically by the above expression.
If an electrical connection is made between the two
halves of the probe, the charge indicated above will transfer
between the two halves at the frequency of the applied elec-
tric field. The current which flows between the two halves
of the probe is the time derivative of the charge. Thus,
by connecting the two halves of the probe through a current
sensing element, a current which is proportional to the elec-
tric field will be sensed. Alternately, the voltage induced
across the two halves of the probe, which is also proportional
to the electric field, can be measured.
The theory of operation for the ground-reference type
meter is quite similar; however, the geometry of the sensor
is usually different. For the ground-reference type electric
field sensor, a reference plate, which can either be circular
or rectangular, is generally placed on, and grounded to, the
earth. A second flat plate is placed a small distance above
the grounded plate and insulated from it, thus in effect form-
ing a parallel plate capacitor. Again, the charge induced on
the upper plate is given by the expression above. Connecting
1IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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the two plates by a current sensing element causes the charge
induced on the upper plate to flow through the current sensing
element to ground at the frequency of the applied field.
For minimal edge-effect field disturbance, a guard ring
is generally placed around the upper plate. When this is done,
the area to be used in the above expression for charge is, to
a high degree of accuracy, equal to the physical area of the
upper plate. For a well designed ground-reference voltage
gradient sensor, as described by Dino and Zaffanella in Chap-
ter 8 of the Transmission Line Reference Book> 345 kV and
Above, quite accurate measurement of the displacement current,
or equivalently the electric field, at ground level can be
made.
2.1.3.2 Electric Field Meter Calibration
There are two general procedures that are widely used to
calibrate electric field meters or probes, as described by the
IEEE Working Group on E/S and E/M, 1977. The first method used
to calibrate electric field probes, is to establish a known
level of electric field between two parallel plates. The meter
to be calibrated is inserted between the plates, and its reading
compared to the theoretical field at that location. For parallel
plates that are infinite in size, the electric field between the
plates is uniform and is identically equal to the voltage applied
across the plates divided by the separation between the plates.
Thus, for the infinite plate situation, if 1000 volts are ap-
plied from plate to plate, and the plate separation is one meter,
the electric field intensity between the plates is 1000 volts/
meter.
In the practical case, plates which are infinite in extent
are not available, thus it is important to determine the devia-
tion from the ideal field value which is due to the use of plates
of finite extent. The IEEE publication cited above presents
curves by Thatcher, 1974, which show the deviation from the
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ideal field caused by the finite extent of the parallel plate
structure. The curves are reproduced here as Figure 2.8.
The curves show the field relative to the field for infinite
plates, EQ, as a function of the distance x from the edge of
the plate, normalized by the plate separation t. There are
two curves, one for the field at the surface of either plate,
the other curve for the field at the mid-plane between the
two plates. These curves can be used to assess the required
plate size for calibrating electric field probes.
The above field characterization for finite sized plates
does not take into account the coupling to nearby objects, for
example, to the walls of a room in which the calibrating struc-
ture is to be placed. To minimize field distortion due to
nearby object coupling, field grading rings are generally em-
ployed; and the plates are fed in a bipolar manner, that is,
by use of a center tap to ground transformer. Normally, four
or more guard rings, which are wires in the shape of the plate
periphery, are uniformly separated over the plate spacing. The
guard rings are connected by resistors, such that the voltage
at the guard ring position is forced to the desired equipo-
tential.
Electric field meters are also calibrated by use of a
carefully designed ground-reference voltage gradient sensor,
employing a suitable guard ring. As discussed above, the
ground-reference field sensor can be made to determine the
displacement currents to ground very accurately by controlling
the dimensions of the sensor. Thus, such a sensor can be used
to determine the ground level electric field beneath a trans-
mission line. A free body electric field meter that is to be
calibrated, can then be positioned in the known field, above
the ground-reference sensor. Normally, the free body field
meter or sensor is calibrated at a height of one meter above
the ground-reference sensor.
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2.6
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Fig. 2.8 NORMALIZED FIELD FOR FINITE PLATES (FROM IEEE...1977)
29
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The IEEE suggests that if electric field intensity meters
produce readings which are in excess of + 5% of the field in
the calibrator, the meter should be considered as inaccurate.
They also suggest that the practical accuracy of outdoor mea-
surements, using commercially available free body meters is
near 10%.
Sources of error for practical measurements, identified
by the IEEE, include the difficulty in positioning the meter,
reading errors, handle leakage in some cases, temperature ef-
fects, observer proximity effects, and difficulty in defining
the geometry of the boundary conditions. In order to minimize
the various errors associated with the practical use of elec-
tric field meters, the IEEE suggests that the electric field
under transmission lines should be measured at a height of
1 meter above the ground level. The meter should be equipped
with an insulating handle longer than 2 meters, and the dis-
tance between the field meter and a standing operator should
be at least 2.5 meters to reduce observer proximity-effect
errors. Under these conditions, the observer proximity-effect
error should be between 1.5 and 370, A 5% proximity effect-
error occurs when the observer distance is between 1.5 meters
and 2.1 meters away from the meter.
Data supplied by the Consumer's Power Company, in response
to the Federal Register Notice, provided information on the
temperature sensitivity of one commercially available electric
field meter, the Polytek FBM100. The Consumer's Power Company
tests showed that the meter that they used was within + 5%,
accuracy as specified by the manufacturer. However, their
temperature sensitivity test showed an error which ranged
from 4% at 74°F to 16% at 0°F. Based on these results, Con-
sumer's Power Company makes most measurements at temperatures
above 60°F.
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In order to compare the results of tests performed by
different investigators, a uniform procedure for reporting
electric field measurements is highly desirable. Concern over
the difficulty in comparing the results of various measure-
ment programs, prompted the Electric Power Research Institute
to develop a draft standard reporting format for EPRI spon-
sored electrostatic field measurements. The reporting format
was developed in an EPRI sponsored workshop, which resulted
in the outline of the principal items which were considered
to be essential in reporting electrostatic field measurements.
Although EPRI does not consider the resultant reporting format
as a "standard" in that sense of the word, the resulting format
does provide for the documentation of the essential elements
associated with electric field measurements. Table 2.3 pre-
sents the format developed by EPRI. The use of this or re-
lated formats for reporting electric field measurements, made
either beneath transmission lines, or as a part of laboratory
experiments investigating the biological effects of electric
fields, is of significant importance.
Commercially available electric field meters appear to
be sufficiently accurate and quite suitable for use in mea-
suring the fields beneath power transmission lines. However,
these same meters may not be equally as applicable for measur-
ing the fields in laboratory chambers that are used to simulate
electric fields for biological experiments. Commercially
available electric field meters are often not small relative
to the dimensions of laboratory exposure chambers; thus, the
fields indicated by these devices are not a true measure of
the fields within the chambers.
IIT Research Institute has developed an electric field
probe that has been used to characterize the fields within
laboratory field simulators used in Navy sponsored biological
test programs (Formanek, 1974). Figure 2.9 shows a photograph
of this probe in its voltage reference calibrator. Since this
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Table 2.3
STANDARD EPRI REPORTING FORMAT FOR ELECTROSTATIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS
This reporting format outlines the data which must accompany Electrostatic
Field Strength Measurements in EPRI Project Reports. The measurements of field
strength shall be presented in the format __kV/m HH .
1. Definitions and Assumptions
1.1 Electrostatic field assumptions
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.6
1
Boundary Assumptions (uniform or nonuniform field)
Vector component treatment (vertical component only or other)
Corona conditions of time of measurements
Field assumed to be disturbed or undisturbed
Field source (single-phase, three-phase, or dc)
Field source frequency and harmonic content
1.2 Magnetic field conditions
1.2.1 Magnetic field conditions assumed to exist and their effect
on the electrostatic field measurements, if any.
2. Electrostatic Field Measuring Equipment Data
2.1 Basic Data
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2 Description
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.3 Calibration
2.3.1
2.3.2
Probe
Equivalent circuit
and reference
(grounding method)
Frequency response
Detector
Equivalent circuit
(input impedance, etc.)
Frequency response
Reading characteristic
(rms or other)
type, model, description
physical size
immunity to electro-
magnetic interference
temperature or humidity
effects
length and characteris-
tics of holding device
or handle
Connecting cable (type
and description)
type, model description
rated accuracy
immunity to electromagnetic
and electrostatic interference
temperature or humidity
effects
correction factor if used
(for meter orientation
or other)
Method, procedure and
description
Level of corona onset
(undisturbed field)
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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Method, procedure and
description (if different
than probe calibration)
-------
Measuring Techniques
3.1 Distance from the ground (assumed, virtual, other)
3.2 Orientation of the probe (horizontal, vertical, other)
3.3 Proximity and geometry of intruding objects
3.4 Grounding technique and description
Field or Experimental Condition
4.1 Ambient/Natural Condition
4.1.1 Indoor or outdoor
4.1.2 Weather or room conditions (temperature, humidity, wind,
precipitation, etc.)
4.1.3 Characteristics of test area (soil type, ground cover,
pavement, etc.)
4.2 Physical Conditions
The required data in this category is different for transmission
lines, substations, or laboratory measurements.
4.2.1 Transmission Lines
4.2.1.1 Span and sag
4.2.1.2 Conductor type and configuration
4.2.1.3 Line-to-line and line-to-ground voltage
4.2.1.4 Metallic ground system and/or shield wire description
4.2.1.5 Tower type
4.2.1.6 Measurement locations (relation to towers and lines)
4.2.1.7 Other electrostatic field sources or physical objects
in the area
4.2.2 Substations
4.2.2.1 Line-to-line and line-to-ground voltage
4.2.2.2 Plan and elevation drawings (including buildings,
fences, transformer, temporary structures, etc.)
4.2.2.3 Grounding conditions (stone cover depth, ground
mat depth, etc.)
4.2.2.4 Bus and/or line configuration and description
4.2.2.5 Phasing and harmonic content of sources in the
area of the test
4.2.2.6 Energization condition and phasing of adjacent bays
4.2.3 Laboratory
4.3.2.1 Test setup description and drawing
4.3.2.2 Description of any conducting and/or nonconducting
intrusions which might be present
4.3.2.3 Grounding and shielding techniques used
4.3.2.4 Power supply description (voltage, frequency,
phasing, harmonic distortion)
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probe measures the voltage developed by the field across the
two halves of a sphere, referencing of the probe is accomplished
by means of applying a known voltage across the two halves of
the sphere. Other field meters, that measure the current flow
between the two halves of the field sensing device, can be ref-
erenced by injecting a known current for the purpose of checking
the calibration.
2.1.3.3 Magnetic Field Instrumentation
Magnetic field measurement instrumentation, for use in
characterizing the fields from 60 Hz transmission lines, is
practically and theoretically quite simple. In essence, the
voltage developed in a multi-turn loop by the magnetic field
is measured. Alternately, if a current sensing element is
placed on the output of a loop, the current flow caused by
the magnetic field can be linearly related to the magnitude
of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field probes are generally calibrated by placing
them in a known magnetic field, such as can be produced by a
Helmholtz coil. Commercially-available instrumentation, such
as is manufactured by Polytek, includes a coil as an accessory
for measuring magnetic fields. In general, the practical use
of magnetic field measurement instrumentation is not subject
to many of the measurement errors encountered in the use of
electric field measurement instrumentation. Due to the non-
permeable electrical characteristics of people, the magnetic
field is not perturbed by the presence of humans or many other
non-magnetic material objects. Thus, problems associated with
the nearness of the measurement operator are not encountered
in magnetic field measurements.
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2.2 Quantitative Description of Voltages
and Currents Induced in Objects by the Fields
The electric and magnetic fields produced by transmission
lines can transfer energy or power from an energized transmission
line to other conducting objects. The object to which these
fields couple can be animate, such as a person, animal or plant,
or inanimate such as vehicles, fences, metallic portions of
buildings, etc. The principal effect of the electric and mag-
netic fields is to cause voltages and/or currents to be induced
on the objects in the field. The voltages and currents induced
directly onto animate objects are of concern if they are high
enough to cause direct biological, physiological or psychological
effect. Voltages and currents induced in inanimate objects are
also of concern, due to the secondary effect which may occur when
an animate object comes into contact with the electrified inani-
mate object. The voltages and currents induced in inanimate ob-
jects are also of concern if they are high enough to cause
modifications to the normal function or performance of the ob-
ject. Examples of this latter case include the possibility of
explosions in areas of concentrated fuel vapors, enhanced corro-
sion of pipelines, or performance degradation of telephone cir-
cuits.
In order to quantitatively assess the effects of induced
currents and voltages on either animate or inanimate objects in
the field of transmission lines, it is necessary to be able to
relate these currents and voltages to the field which produces
them. Analytical techniques have been developed for the purpose
of predicting the currents and voltages which will be developed
on objects by the fields of transmission lines. Measurement
procedures have also been developed, and the results of these
measurements compare quite well with the values predicted on an
analytical basis. This section will discuss the analytical pro-
cedures and measurements, as they relate to the various types of
coupling and objects. The following two sections discuss the
effects of these fields, currents, or voltages on people, plants
and animals.
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
36
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The induction of voltages and currents into objects by
transmission lines can be divided for discussion into the ef-
fects due to the electric fields and the effects due to mag-
netic fields. By and large, the effects due to the electric
fields, termed electrostatic induction, are those effects
most likely to be encountered by the public. Magnetic field
induction effects, termed electromagnetic induction,* are most
prevalent in connection with very long objects that parallel
the transmission line, such as telephone circuits, pipelines,
rail facilities, and unenergized transmission lines being
erected in the near vicinity of an already energized line.
Thus, it is seen that most of the magnetic field induction
effects are not of direct concern to the public; however,
these effects must be taken into account to insure the har-
monious operation of other utilities. Magnetic fields can,
however, cause circulating currents in persons or other large
animate objects; thus the magnetic fields are important to
the general populous from this aspect.
The quantitative description of the voltages and currents
induced in objects by transmission lines, requires different
analytical procedures, depending on whether the induction is
electrostatic or electromagnetic. Therefore, the discussion
of the induced voltages and currents will be separated into
electrostatic induction and electromagnetic induction.
2.2.1 Electrostatic Induction
2.2.1.1 Induced Currentand Voltage
The procedures to assess voltages and currents caused by
the electric field are independent of whether the object is a
person or an inanimate object. The time varying electric field
*The use of the terms electrostatic and electromagnetic as
identified here is a convention widely employed in the power
industry. More generally, however, (outside the power in-
dustry) the term "electromagnetic" encompasses all electric
and magnetic field phenomena. An attempt has been made in
this document to employ the terminology consistent with the
power industry usage.
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
37
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that is produced by the transmission line causes a time vary-
ing charge, or current flow to be induced on a nearby con-
ducting object.
The calculation of voltages and currents induced on
representative objects by the electric field has been studied
extensively, and analytical procedures have been widely re-
ported. The basic phenomenon is well understood; however,
different analytical approaches have been developed for ob-
taining quantitative results. For example, Tranen and Wilson,
1971, describe a computer program that utilizes matrix pro-
cedures similar to those described for use in determining the
electric field, to calculate the charge induced on the surface
of the object. The IEEE Working Group on E/S in Part 2 of
their 1971 paper on Electrostatic Effects, describe the pro-
cedure for determining the coupling to an object in terms of
the admittance between the object and the transmission line
conductors. Probably the most widely used procedures are those
presented by Deno, 1974, 1975, who develops the concept of the
object equivalent area and its collection of displacement cur-
rent.
Although the details of the analytical procedures vary,
in general the problem is reduced to the development of a
Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit for the object. Fig-
ure 2.10 shows the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
for a typical object located near the ground. In this figure,
Vrt^> ^a^> anc* GO are functions of the geometry of the con-
O(-» O C- CL
ducting object and its location with respect to the transmis-
sion line.
The value of V , the Thevenin equivalent voltage developed
on the object, is roughly proportional to the average height of
the object for objects that are small compared to the height of
the transmission line and located near the ground, and is di-
rectly proportional to the electric field at the object loca-
tion. A relationship that is widely used in antenna theory, as
III RESEARCH INSTITUTE
39
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well as for object electrification beneath transmission lines,
is that the open circuit voltage is related to the electric
field by a factor that is denoted the "effective height,"
that is, V = EV x he, where h& is the effective height of
the object, and E is the vertical electric field intensity.
For example, for vertical cylinders near the ground, that are
electrically short compared to a wavelength, h£ = h/2 where
h is the physical height of the cylinder.
The Norton equivalent short circuit current, I , is most
readily visualized and analytically assessed in terms of the
displacement current that is collected by the object. Dis-
placement current is the current which flows through a non-
conducting medium (such as air) when an electric field exists
in the medium. For example, the current that flows through a
capacitor, due to time varying voltage across the capacitor,
is displacement current, as opposed to conduction current
which flows through a conductive medium.
The collection of displacement current can be visualized
by considering the object as a current collecting area. Con-
sider an area in space that is planar and normal to the verti-
cal electric field vector. By virtue of the electric field,
displacement currents in air will flow through this area. The
amount of displacement current which flows through this area
is proportional to the size of the area, the time derivative
of the electric field intensity, and the permittivity of the
air medium. Thus, given the size of the area and the electric
field, one can determine the total displacement current which
will flow through that area. The total displacement current
flowing into this area is equal to the total current flow to
ground, if the area is an adequate representation of the physi-
cal object of concern.
Deno, 1974, 1975, and in the Transmission Line Reference
Book, 345 kV and Above, develops the procedures for relating
the dimensions of a physical object to an equivalent area that
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
40
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will collect the same displacement current, as the physical
object. Thus, the use of these procedures enables the deter-
mination of I for practical objects. For simple objects,
s c
such as rectangularly shaped objects or flat plates, Deno
presents normalized curves or charts for determining the short
circuit current to ground in terms of the unperturbed electric
field at ground level.
The impedance elements shown in Figure 2.10, that is,
Co and R_, are a complex function of the object geometry. In
3. 3.
the cases of interest, R arises from the finite air conduc-
a
tivity but is so large that it can be neglected. The object
capacity, C , can be calculated for simple objects such as
3.
cylinders or spheres.
A more realistic circuit, for practical objects very close
to the ground, such as a vehicle, is shown in Figure 2.11.
This figure includes impedance elements not included in the
previous figure, such as a capacitance and a resistance to
ground, which for a vehicle are largely determined by the
tires. The capacitance to ground, here designated as C. .
JLTIS
is analogous to the stray base capacity considered in antenna
work due to the close coupling of portions of the object to
ground. The resistive term, R-ins, is a leakage resistance
term, and for vehicles is contributed by the tire leakage.
Many comparisons between calculated and measured values
for object short circuit current have shown that very good
agreement exists between the calculated and measured values.
However, in the case of the object open circuit voltage, V ,
the calculated and measured values often differ significantly,
with the measured value being less than that calculated. This
can be explained by the fact that when measurements are made,
the open circuit voltage is measured at the point indicated
by V-^ in Figure 2.11, while, in general, the voltage calcu-
lated is the true open circuit voltage, V , of that same
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
41
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diagram. The difficulty in adequately establishing a value
for C. and R. analytically, gives rise to the noted dis-
crepancies .
From the practical standpoint, the values of open circuit
voltage and short circuit current that are induced on the ob-
ject by the electrostatic field are of concern. However, the
current actually delivered to a person touching the object is
of more importance in determining the effect of such charged
objects on humans. Thus, in Figure 2.11, a reasonable equi-
valent circuit, which takes into account the human, is also
included. The human equivalent circuit is shown on the right
of the noted diagram.
It is seen that several impedance elements contribute to
the overall equivalent circuit of the human receptor. Included
are the resistance of the arc which may be established on con-
tact, R ; the skin resistance, R u; the body resistance,
R, , ; a spreading resistance, which is an increase in resis-
tance due to a limited contact area, R _„__ M~n', and the im-
spirc3,Girig
pedance of the individual to ground, here represented by a
resistive and capacitive component of the shoe impedance to
ground.
Most of the equivalent circuit components in the repre-
sentation of the human are strongly influenced by a wide variety
of factors that are difficult to control or to analyze. Fac-
tors which influence those components of the human equivalent
circuit include the weather (such as precipitation and humidity) ,
soil conditions (such as dampness, sponginess, and conductiv-
ity) , and the details of the footwear worn (such as the thick-
ness of the soles, and their conductivity).
Although many of the above factors are difficult to in-
clude on an analytical basis, they can be determined by mea-
surement. In the process of determining, on a realistic basis,
the effect of such electrified objects on humans, a statis-
tically significant assessment of these parameters should be
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
43
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included. However, to date a comprehensive evaluation of
these parameters as a function of terrain, weather, clothing,
and vehicular parameters, has not been made. Thus, in gen-
eral, the power companies have assessed the current flow to
humans on either the basis of the short circuit current, or
the current as measured through a low value of resistance,
typically 1500 ohms, to ground. This procedure results in a
worst case assessment of the current which will be delivered
to a human when contacting such an electrified object.
2.2.1.2 Measurements
The power companies have been active in the determination
of the electrostatic induction to a large variety of practical
objects by measurement programs; see for example Zalewski, 1976;
Perkins and Nowak, 1977. In addition, Bracken, 1975, reports
the results of an electrostatic measurements program held in
conjunction with the IEEE Working Group on E/S and E/M effects
of transmission lines. The results presented by Bracken com-
pared both measured and calculated results for a variety of
vehicles and other objects such as metallic roofing, gutters,
and irrigation pipe. In addition, measurements were also made
on the electrostatically induced voltages and currents on a
reasonable sampling of people. Several important factors con-
cerning the electrostatic induction to vehicles were identified
by Bracken, namely:
1. Short circuit current is an easily measured and
adequately predictable quantity for vehicles
under transmission lines.
2. Open circuit voltage is very dependent on surface
and weather conditions. Maximum open circuit volt-
age can be realized only with dry insulation and with
a smooth surface to provide a low virtual ground.
3. The variation in electrical phase angle over the
extent of the vehicles used in this case is not
significant. Induced currents were almost equal
for vehicles parked parallel and perpendicular to
the line.
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
44
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4. The simple parallel RC circuit is a useful model
for the linearized vehicle impedance to ground.
The capacitance of a vehicle to ground is very
dependent on the surface conditions and insulation.
The theory of electrostatic induction predicts that both
V/E, and Igc/E are constants. That is, once the character-
istics of a particular kind of vehicle are determined, either
analytically or by measurement, the current or voltage should
be predictable by this characteristic and the electric field
for any other condition of electric field. The comparison
between measured and calculated values as provided in Bracken
show that a good comparison between measured and calculated
values for I /E exists. This can be seen by the data shown
in Table 2.4, which is reproduced from Bracken, 1975. This
table is informative, because it shows the good correlation
between calculated and measured values for short circuit cur-
rent. It also shows the significant differences that can be
obtained between different methods of calculating the open
circuit voltage, and the differences between these calculated
values and measured values. For the above data, electrical
isolation of the vehicles was provided by a 0.63 cm thick
rubber "hot line" blanket under each tire.
Zalewski, 1976, illustrates the care that must be exer-
cised in measuring or predicting the open circuit voltage of
a vehicle. He shows that for an insulated vehicle, the ca-
pacitance from the tires to ground can be greater than the
capacitance from the chassis to ground, thus significantly
influencing the value of open circuit voltage measured. He
also shows that if insulated measurements are to be made, sig-
nificant care in the choice of the insulator is necessary.
Using such materials as plywood results in a leakage path
to ground which will further reduce the open circuit voltage
values.
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
45
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The measurements presented by Perkins and Nowak, 1977,
are highly significant, in that they not only present short
circuit current measurements for a large variety of vehicles,
but they also address the more practical problem of the cur-
rent flow to an individual touching the vehicle. The data of
Perkins and Nowak show, as have others, that the vehicle short
circuit current to ground, is virtually independent of whether
or not the vehicle is insulated from ground. However, more
importantly, they show that there is a significant difference
in the current flow through a person touching the vehicle,
depending on whether or not the vehicle is insulated from
ground.
They show that a person, who touches a vehicle which is
in normal ground contact, will receive a very small percentage
of the vehicle's short circuit current. This is because the
majority of the current will flow through the tires of the
vehicle rather than through the higher resistance path of a
human, the human impedance being typically comprised of ele-
ments such as were shown in Figure 2.11. Their tests show
that for large objects, whose short circuit currents are above
perception levels, a man will generally receive less than 570
of the uninsulated object's current. In contrast, a well
grounded person was found to receive up to 9370 of the short
circuit current from a well insulated object.
The results of these tests are significant in the con-
sideration of the potential hazards associated with electri-
fied objects beneath transmission lines. It appears from
these measurements that: 1) the use of open circuit voltage
data or calculations based on insulated vehicles, and 2) the
use of short circuit current data for vehicles, are both very
worst-case considerations. Additional data collection, which
takes into account all elements of the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure 2.11, by carefully controlled measurements
under a large variety of realistic conditions, is warranted
III RESEARCH INSTITUTE
47
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if the true influence of such charged objects on humans is
to be assessed.
The electrostatic field not only couples to metallic ob-
jects such as vehicles, fences, gutters, etc., but also couples
directly to humans in the field, and causes current to flow
through the human. The current that flows through the human
due to the electric field is a highly important aspect with
regard to potential biological interactions. If there are
biological effects that are caused by the electric fields of
power lines, it is likely due to the current induced in the
body by these fields. Therefore, a close examination of these
currents is important for the purpose of relating a wide variety
of biological experiments.
The measurements reported by Bracken, 1975, included mea-
surements made on men, women, and children, to determine the
relationship between the short circuit current to ground from
the individual, as it relates to the electric field and the
height of the individual. The analysis of the test data shows
that the data can be approximated by the equation
Isc = 5.4 h2 x E
where
I is in microamperes
E is the field in kV/m, and
h is the height of the individual in meters.
These results are in good agreement with other investigators
such as Schneider, et al., 1974. In addition, an extensive
series of measurements has been made by Deno, 1977, utilizing
a metallized mannikin. His results substantiate those re-
ported in Bracken and provide considerable additional data,
such as the current distribution along the height of the in-
dividual standing in the field.
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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Using the above expression, the current induced in a
person due to a 10 kV/m electric field, is found to be 175 yA
when the person is 1.8 meters tall. This level of body cur-
rent may be placed in perspective with the current which can
arise from more familiar items such as household appliances.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has developed
standards for the allowable values of leakage current (to hu-
mans) from appliances. In essence, the standards limit the
leakage from cord-connected portable appliances to 500 uA,
and the leakage from cord-connected stationary appliances to
750 yA. For an appliance to pass Underwriter tests, it must
have less leakage current than the above limits. Thus, it is
possible for a person to be exposed to more body current, from
contact with normal household appliances, than when standing
erect directly below a 765 kV transmission line.
The current flow paths through the body, however, are
not likely to be the same for these two cases. The work by
Deno, 1977, shows that, for example, the current flow through
the neck region of a person standing in an electric field will
be approximately 1/5 of the current flow to ground. For the
above example, this represents a 35 yA current through the
neck, which would not normally flow due to appliance contact.
The Deno work, as well as that of Bridges and Frazier, 1976,
shows that if the person under the line is not grounded, the
current flow in the mid portions of the body will be approxi-
mately 1/2 of that which flows under well-grounded conditions.
As Deno points out, the actual current flow under ungrounded
conditions is highly dependent on the conductivity of the
shoes and other factors. It is thus difficult to estimate
this current for the typical case; however, the grounded case
is an upper limit.
The Deno work also considers the case where a person is
elevated above the ground, for example, standing on a conduct-
ing object. He shows that the current flow as a function of
III RESEARCH INSTITUTE
49
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position in the body will be modified by a factor of
{-. , clearance } (^ n -, clearance
[1 + - K72 - J (L ~ U'i E72
where
h is the height of the man, and
(clearance) is the distance between the bottom of his
feet and ground.
Thus, for a man standing on, and grounded to, a conducting
object that is equal to his height, the current flowing in
him will be
= 2'4 times
that which flows when he is on the ground.
2.2.1.3 Field Enhancement
When an object is introduced into a uniform electric
field, that field is distorted. For most three-dimensional
objects of concern, the introduction of such an object into
a uniform field causes the field to be enhanced, or made
larger than the original field, near surfaces which are nor-
mal to the original direction of the electric field. Near
surfaces that are parallel to the original field direction,
the field is generally decreased. The field enhancement
which occurs near the upper surfaces of objects is a function
of the height of the object and other geometrical character-
istics of the object. For tall, thin objects in the field,
the field enhancement at the top of the object is related to
the length to diameter ratio of the equivalent object. Greater
field enhancements at the upper surface of the objects occurs
for larger length to diameter ratios. Enhanced electric fields
may give rise to an awareness of the field due to stimulation
of hair follicles. In addition, for very long, thin objects
such as leaves or blades of plants, the field enhancement at
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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points may be sufficient to cause corona to occur at these
points, if the unperturbed field is sufficiently high.
Schneider, ejt al. , 1974, shows the results of calculation
of the field enhancement at the top of the head of a person,
modeled as a cylinder with a half-sphere top. In their cal-
culations, the overall cylinder height was 175 cm, the cylinder
diameter was 25 cm, and the cylinder was grounded to the earth
plane. They found that the field at the top, of the half-
sphere capped cylinder, was a factor of 15 greater than the
original uniform electric field.
Barnes, et al., 1967, provides an analysis of a prolate
spheroid model of man in an electric field. When the original
electric field is parallel to the major axis of the prolate
spheroid model, the electric field enhancement is found to be
a function of the ratio of the major semi-axis to the minor
semi-axis, increasing with larger ratios. An example given,
chooses to represent the major semi-axis dimension A = 36 in,
and the ratio A/B =4.5, where B is the minor semi-axis. For
this geometry, the ratio of the electric field at the top of
the prolate spheroid to the original electric is found to be
a factor of 15.5, which agrees quite well with the enhance-
ment factor cited by Schneider, e_t al. , for their model of man.
Barnes, ejt al. , 1967, in their analysis of the prolate
spheroid also developed another interesting observation con-
cerning the current density within the material of the prolate
spheroid. If the interior of the prolate spheroid is considered
to be a uniform resistive material, it is found that the interior
current density is uniform, and its vector is parallel to the
original, or unperturbed electric field. Barnes presents
tabulated results which enables the determination of the cur-
rent density and total current to the prolate spheroid as a
function of the ratio A/B and the unperturbed electric field.
Using their tabulated data and the model dimensions given
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above, it is found that for an incident unperturbed electric
field of 10 kV/m, the current density within the spheroid is
J = 0.33 x 10"6 A/inch2 = 5 x 10"4 A/m2.
2.2.1.4 Secondary Effects
A non-biologically related effect of the electrostatic
induction from EHV transmission lines which has been studied
in a preliminary manner by several investigators, is the
possibility of the undesired ignition of fuel vapor by arcs.
It has been postulated that when a truck is refueled beneath
a power line, an arc can be developed between the gasoline
can spout and the filler pipe on the vehicle. This arc could
conceivably supply sufficient energy to ignite fuel vapors
which could lead to an explosion. Similar situations can be
conjectured for other flammable mixtures or for explosives,
and a variety of different conducting object configurations.
Some of the uncertainties previously discussed in con-
junction with Figure 2.11 are very important in determining
the likelihood of such an event for practical situations.
When considering a vehicle as the charged object, the leakage
resistance of the tires and/or the tire capacitance to ground
will play an important role in establishing the open circuit
voltage of the vehicle. Both the open circuit voltage and the
capacitance of the object play an important role in determining
whether or not a problem can exist with explosive fuel vapors.
The majority of investigations, which have been reported
for determining the parameters associated with the ignition of
fuel air vapors, have been conducted on a very idealistic basis,
These investigations have been conducted under laboratory con-
ditions, or with well-insulated charge collecting objects.
These investigations have been conducted for the purpose of
establishing the energy necessary for causing fuel air vapor
ignition.
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For practical situations, the possibility of ignition
also depends on a variety of meteorological conditions. The
geometry of the electrode which causes the arc is also a
factor. The larger the electrodes the more easily they can
dissipate the heat of the arc; thus, more energy will be re-
quired to ignite the mixture. As a basis for considering the
likelihood of a charged vehicle igniting fuel air vapor mix-
tures , most investigators cite the works of McKinney, 1962;
Eichel, 1967; or Lewis and von Elbe, 1951. The ignition
threshold estimates range from 0.25 mJ to 0.5 mJ.
Reiner, 1971, has conducted tests using a well-insulated
car near a 500 kV transmission line and has determined the
stored electrostatic energy as a function of distance from
the line. His results show that a stored energy of 0.5 mJ
is exceeded if the vehicle is closer than 45 ft from the cen-
ter of the transmission line.
Shankel, 1965, reports a qualitative test to determine
the possibility of gasoline ignition. In this experiment, a
rough container was formed of aluminum foil and mounted on a
100 ft length of well-insulated fence wires. In each ignition
test the insulated fence was allowed to charge and then dis-
charge to a ground probe thrust into the aluminum foil cup.
The cup contained approximately 2 tablespoonsful of gasoline.
The energy of the charged fence was controlled by adjusting
the height of the fence above ground. Based on the calculated
stored energy of the fence, it was found that ignition of the
gasoline was very difficult in the energy range of 0.5 mJ.
Project UHV also conducted tests to determine the igni-
tion of gasoline vapor. The results are reported by Deno and
Zaffanella in the Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and
Above. In these tests, emphasis was given to a spark discharge,
from an electrode that was shaped like a spout, to an open
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container filled with gasoline which simulated a vehicle tank.
It was found that the ignition did not follow a constant energy
curve; therefore, it is not possible to refer to the energy as
the only parameter characterizing the ignition potential. Based
on the data obtained, these investigators present an empirically
derived relationship for the minimum ignition voltage. This
-0 3
expression is V = 4.6 C ' where V is in volts, and C is
in farads. They also found that the use of sharp points such
as a pin, lowered the minimum ignition voltage to approximately
0.65 times the value obtained when a spout was used.
In order to duplicate the conditions in practice that re-
late to the conditions used in testing, a vehicle must be well-
insulated from ground, such as when it is on dry pavement.
Simultaneously, a well-grounded person, such as one standing
on moist ground with low insulation resistance shoes, must
pour the gasoline and cause a spark to be produced in the re-
gion where the fuel vapor and air mixture have an appropriate
concentration. The general concensus is that the probability
of such occurrences, all happening simultaneously, is quite
remote. Lyskov, et al., 1975, concede that the possibility
of such ignition in practice is insignificant.
Thus, under contrived conditions, it is possible to demon-
strate the ignition of fuels and other flammable mixtures be-
neath power transmission lines. However, a complete hazard
analysis which indicates the probabilities of explosion for
different kinds of fuel conditions, meteorological conditions,
source voltages and energies and hazard scenarios, under real-
istic conditions is not available. Additional data obtained
under realistic conditions appear to be highly desirable in
order to place this potential hazard into perspective, so as
to prevent reliance upon data obtained for non-realistic very
worst-case conditions.
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2.2.1.5 Mitigation Procedures
The objects, which can present potential problems due to
the voltage or currents induced on them by electrostatic in-
duction effects of EHV lines, can be segregated for mitigation
purposes into two classes — those which are stationary, and
those which are movable. In general, these two different
types of objects are handled by different procedures.
Stationary objects such as fences, metallic portions of
buildings, and other permanent metallic structures are, in
general, grounded to earth. An example of procedures used
is the Bonneville Power Administration Transmission Line
Standard Specification, Part 12, Chapter 1, which was sub-
mitted in response to the Federal Register Notice. These
specifications provide guidelines for the grounding of fences,
both electric and non-electric, the grounding of buildings,
and miscellaneous objects, such as gutters and crop supports.
These specifications stipulate the manner in which the object
is to be grounded and define the objects to be grounded in
terms of their size and relationship to the transmission line.
For example, a non-electric fence must be grounded if it
is parallel, or nearly parallel to the subject line, and within
25 ft, measured horizontally from the outside conductor, and is
at least 500 ft in length. Additional specifications are given
for longer lengths of fence that are further from the transmis-
sion line. For buildings with metal surfaces or members, the
specification states that these will be grounded if they are
located within 100 ft of the outside conductor regardless of
size. Additional specifications are given for structures lo-
cated farther from the line than 100 ft. These procedures are
a function of the area of the object.
Information supplied by Consumer's Power Company, 1975, in
response to the Federal Register Notice, indicates that they
ground all stationary objects which have a discharge current
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greater than 0.5 mA. Also, the Consumer's Power Company has
tentatively established that all stationary objects which
could develop energy levels greater than 0.1 mJ will be
grounded.
Movable objects by their nature cannot be readily grounded,
as can fences or buildings. For movable objects, restrictions
are generally placed on the size and types of objects which can
be used within the transmission line right-of-way. As an exam-
ple of these restrictions, Commonwealth Edison (see McCluskey,
1974) supplied information, as a part of the Federal Register
Response, on the restrictions on land use that are supplied to
farmers. It is recommended by Commonwealth Edison that any
vehicles operated within the right-of-way be ground with a
grounding strap or chain. In addition, they set forth the fol-
lowing restrictions:
1. No building or structure should be placed or
erected on the right-of-way. (Certain buildings
or structures can be erected under lines of
345,000 volts and less, provided our written
consent is obtained beforehand.)
2. No irrigation or sprinkling systems should be
installed, used or operated on the right-of-way.
3. No tree or crop should be allowed to extend a
maximum height of 15 feet above ground under
the transmission line.
4. No vehicle or equipment having a height in excess
of 15 feet from ground level should be parked,
used, driven, transported or stored on the right-
of-way. (In addition, no parking of vehicles is
permitted under transmission lines in excess of
345,000 volts.)
5. There should be no form of kites or model air-
planes on the right-of-way.
6. No ungrounded pipes or other facilities other
than non-metallic farm drainage pipes, should
be placed on the right-of-way without obtaining
prior written consent.
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Based on the criteria of a maximum of 5 mA allowable short
circuit current for the largest vehicle expected beneath a
transmission line, the Consumer's Power Company places the fol-
lowing restrictions on the use of the right-of-way.
Farm tractors, combines under 12 feet in height,
metal farm wagons under 15 feet in height, or any
combination of these farm vehicles pulled by a farm
tractor not exceeding 50 feet in length (including
the tractor) may be used on fee strips and easements
with no restrictions. Any other combination of ve-
hicles pulled by any motor vehicle other than a farm
tractor must not exceed 30 feet in length when used
on a fee strip or easement. Vehicles used on fee
strips or easements which exceed these limitations
may require that some method of grounding be applied,
such as a chain drag. In addition, any vehicle ex-
ceeding 20 feet in height will be allowed to operate
on fee strips or easements under or near 765 kV lines
only with Consumer's Power Company approval. There
will be no limitations or special grounding require-
ments on public roadways for any vehicle.
The Bonneville Power Administration has published a book-
let entitled, "Tips on How to Behave Near High Voltage Power
Lines." This booklet describes in layman's terms the pre-
cautions which should be effected and the practices that are
safe near 500 kV transmission lines. It describes the ground-
ing of metal buildings, wire fences, electric fences, and the
restrictions on the use of irrigation systems. In addition,
it places a restriction of 14 feet in height for vehicles to
be used under the line. They request that if the vehicle ex-
ceeds this height that the BPA should be contacted prior to
moving it under the line. The booklet also suggests that the
fueling of vehicles should not be done under the power line or
closer than 70 horizontal feet from the outside conductor.
The booklet also presents common sense tips and restrictions
on kite and model airplane flying, as well as other recreational
activities in the vicinity of the lines.
Even though the above restrictions and procedures are
promulgated by the power companies, some such as Hackenberry,
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1974, believe that the measures are not adequate, and that
additional education is required, since the average person
does not know the dangerous propensities of the high voltage
line. Hackenberry is concerned that while power company em-
ployees and other construction workers adequately recognize
the safety precautions to be taken in the vicinity of the
transmission lines, the public may not recognize the potential
for obtaining shocks from handling such common items as long
metallic measuring tapes. He is also concerned with the pos-
sibility of direct contact with the lines during recreational
activities, such as the fisherman casting a wet line and be-
coming entangled in the transmission line. The potential haz-
ard associated with such events is not unique to EHV lines.
The voltage associated with virtually all commercial carrying
conductors is sufficient to require extreme care when handling
metallic objects or other conductors in their vicinity which
may come into contact with the line. Thus, EHV lines do not
appear to pose any unique problem in this regard.
2.2.2 Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction effects, i.e., magnetic field in-
duction effects, arise due to the current which flows in the
phase conductors, overhead ground wires, and the earth itself.
Electromagnetic induction effects are, in general, only of con-
cern or significance for very long conducting objects that paral-
lel the transmission line. Electromagnetic induction effects
have been principally studied in the context of the multiple use
of rights-of-way by power companies and other services. Many of
the other services, that may share the right-of-way with the
power line, require metallic components that are very long in
extent and, in effect, parallel the power line. Examples are
communications circuits, pipelines, railroads, and other power
lines in the process of being constructed.
Two conditions of the transmission line are of concern
in the context of electromagnetic coupling effects. The first
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is for the line under normal load conditions; the second is
when a fault occurs on the line, thus causing abnormally high
ground currents to flow.
Electromagnetic inductive coupling to long parallel con-
ductors , in general gives rise to a voltage that is produced
on the parallel conductor. This voltage is a function of the
length of the parallel conductor. Analytical procedures have
been developed to predict the voltages developed on these par-
allel circuits under two primary conditions. These are: the
case when the parallel circuit or conductor is above ground,
and the case when the parallel conductor is below ground.
Different procedures are required for each case.
In addition to the magnetic field from the transmission
line coupling to adjacent long conductors, the magnetic field
also causes a current to be induced into persons or animals
that are within the field. The level of such currents has
been predicted by the use of simple geometrical models.
2.2.2.1 Long Objects Above Ground
Initial concern with regard to electromagnetic induction
problems associated with power lines was with respect to the
interference between overhead HVAC transmission lines and ad-
jacent above ground communication circuits. Equations pre-
sented originally by Westinghouse, 1964, in the Electrical
Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, have been used
to predict the induced voltage per mile on an above ground
conductor due to single phase and 3 phase transmission lines.
An equivalent approach, as summarized by the IEEE Working
Group on E/M and E/S effects of transmission lines, 1973,
uses Carson's series to compute the mutual impedance between
the power line conductors and the affected parallel conductor.
The International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Com-
mittee (CCITT), 1965, has summarized available prediction and
mitigation methods for induced voltages on above ground con-
ductors .
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The general procedure used in analyzing the electro-
magnetic induction effects is to determine the longitudinal
voltage per unit length induced into the parallel circuit
as a superposition of the voltages induced by each current
carrying conductor. That is, if V is used to denote the
X
total longitudinal voltage per unit length, it is given by
Vx = XAZAM + IBZBM + ICZCM + IDZDM + . . .
where I. , IB, etc. , denote the current flowing in each con-
ductor or ground wire of the transmission line, and ZAM,
etc. , denote the mutual impedance per unit length between the
current carrying conductor and the conductor under study. The
induced voltage V can be determined once the current flowing
X
in each conductor is known, and the mutual impedances are cal-
culated. The IEEE Working Group on E/M and E/S effects of
transmission lines, 1973, give the mutual impedance accounting
for Carson's correction factors, as
J XM *M = 10"u) (0-2528)
XM = 10~3w (0.74113 Iog10 | /£ + 2.4715) +
where
s = spacing between conductors in feet
p = earth resistivity in n • m
to = 2irf with f = frequency in Hz
RM' ARM' XM' AXM in
In the above, ARj, and AX,, are correction factors. The
IEEE provides expressions for these correction factors, which
will not be repeated here due to their complexity.
For distances less than approximately 300 meters separating
the current carrying conductor from the conductor in which the
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voltage is being induced, the above expressions may be simpli-
fied by neglecting the terms ARM and AX These expressions
are sufficiently complex that digital computers are normally
used for their calculation.
Shankel, 1975, has used the Westinghouse equation for
mutual impedance to calculate, by use of computer, the voltage
induced in a parallel conductor at a height of 20 feet, for
various lateral separation distances, for a large variety of
transmission line configurations. For the various transmis-
sion line configurations, a number of different current con-
ditions are used including balanced currents, single line-to
ground-fault, line-to-line fault, and double line-to-ground
fault. As an illustration of the voltages induced in an ad-
jacent conductor by a typical transmission line configuration,
Shankel's curves for a 500 kV single horizontal transmission
tower for the conditions of balanced current, and single line-
to-ground fault, are reproduced here as Figures 2.12 and 2.13,
In Figure 2.13, two limiting conditions are shown for the
fault current. The upper curve shows the condition when the
total fault current flows in the ground; the bottom curve
shows the limiting condition for all of the fault current
flowing in the ground wires, that are located above the trans-
mission line phase conductors.
In using the above type of results to determine precau-
tions which must be applied for personnel safety, the IEEE
Working Group on E/S and E/M, 1973, suggest the use of a
Thevenin equivalent circuit to determine the current that
may flow to a person touching a parallel conductor, such as
a fence. Figure 2.14 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit
they suggested. Vfc, is the longitudinal voltage calculated
by the procedures described above for the length of conductor
involved; ZT, is the self-impedance of the conductor above
ground; R is the sum of the contact resistance, body resis-
tance, and ground resistance of the person; and R is the
O
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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resistance at the fence grounding point. Judkins and Nordell
in the discussion accompanying the above noted IEEE paper,
present expressions for the self-impedance or Thevenin impedance
of the conductor of concern, which are based on Carson's origi-
nal work. Shown in Figure 2.14 are also the resistances asso-
ciated with a person touching the conductor, and the resistance
to ground at the far end of the conductor.
The expression given by the IEEE for determining the
current which will flow through the resultant circuit, i.e.,
through the person, is
As a simplified example of the use of these procedures, the
IEEE paper calculates the length of line required to cause
a 5 mA current to flow through a person touching the line,
when the electromagnetic induced voltage is 0.1 V/mi/A; the
total resistance through the person to ground is 1500 ohms;
the Thevenin impedance of the line is negligible; and the
load current in the parallel circuit is 1000 A. Under these
conditions they determined that the length of line to cause
this current is 396 feet.
Thus, it can be seen that significant current could flow
to a person coming into contact with a very long conductor
parallel to an energized transmission line. This is princi-
pally a problem for construction crews installing parallel
transmission lines or other services on a common right-of-way.
The procedure followed by the power companies, on grounding
fences or other similar objects, effectively mitigates the
problem for the general public. The IEEE publication cited
above outlines procedures to be used to protect construction
crews from this hazard.
2.2.2.2 Long Objects Below the Ground
The previous section has described procedures which are
used to determine the voltage induced on long objects above the
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ground that parallel high voltage transmission lines. The
objects of concern there were such things as parallel com-
munications services, rail lines, long fences, and above
ground pipelines. When the long parallel conducting object
of concern is buried beneath the ground, for example, in the
case of a pipeline, it has been found that the analysis pro-
cedures described above are inadequate for predicting the
voltage that will be induced onto the pipeline. The general
form of the equation used to predict the longitudinally in-
duced voltage for above ground objects is V = f(I,d)L. Thus,
as seen above, the voltage induced is a function of the cur-
rent flowing in the transmission line circuit, the distance
separating the transmission line conductors and the influenced
object, and is directly proportional to the length of the in-
fluenced object, e.g., the pipe or fence.
A recent report by Dabkowski, 1976, has consolidated
known data and made a systematic investigation into the mutual
effects of ac electric power transmission lines and natural
gas transmission pipelines jointly sharing rights-of-way.
Review of the literature on this subject revealed that many
investigators had erroneously attempted to apply the above
ground results, as exemplified by the above equation, directly
to the situation when the pipeline was buried. Uniformly,
the values of pipeline voltage calculated using these methods
are too high, and several authors estimate that the actual
voltage induced was only approximately 10% of that predicted.
The above ground methods failed for the buried pipeline case
simply because a buried pipeline differs electrically from
an overhead conductor. A buried pipeline, either bare or
wrapped in an electrically conductive coating, has a finite
resistance to earth, distributed over its entire length;
whereas an overhead line has, at most, point grounds at large
intervals. To describe the distributed interaction between
a buried pipeline and its surrounding earth, factors such as
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pipeline diameter, coating conductivity, earth resistivity,
depth of burial, and pipe longitudinal resistance and in-
ductance must be taken into account.
Dabkowski, therefore, found it necessary to derive a
unified analytical approach to allow the prediction of in-
ductive coupling for both above ground and buried pipeline.
The essence of the approach taken is to model the pipeline
as a lossy transmission line, assuming a distributed source
voltage which is proportional to the parallel electric field
existing at the pipeline. The parallel electric field at the
pipeline is, in essence, the voltage per unit length obtained
by application of the Carson's mutual impedance relationships.
When the analysis is performed in this manner, it is found
that the induced voltage is not proportional to the pipeline
length, for long pipelines.
The question of whether ac voltages induced on pipelines
by nearby transmission lines cause corrosion, has been a de-
batable point in the literature. Depending on the investi-
gator, and the conditions of the experiment, various corrosion
levels have been reported without apparent correlation. Dabkowski
found that the available data sets from many experimenters in-
dicated that at 60 Hz, the corrosion caused in ferrous materials
by an ac current is approximately equal to 0.1 percent of an
equivalent dc current if no cathodic protection is applied.
He performs an analysis based on consideration of the voltage-
current polarization relationships for a corrosion cell. With
an induced ac voltage at the corrosion cell, the operating
point is shifted sinusoidally with respect to voltage, but
due to the nonlinear characteristics of the polarization curve,
the resulting anode or corrosion current variation is non-
sinusoidal. The asymmetrical variation in the anode current
results in the generation of a net dc current which appears
to induce corrosion equivalent to the 0.1 percent level re-
ported in the literature with no cathodic protection applied.
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Dabkowski also suggests techniques for the mitigation
of 60 Hz inductive interference to pipeline systems. These
mitigation procedures are for the purpose of both reducing
the corrosion effects and to reduce the hazards to personnel
working with the pipeline, whether it is buried or above-
ground. The overall work on this problem is still in progress,
and will result in the preparation of a handbook that will
detail the state-of-the-art regarding ac effects and corre-
sponding mitigation technologies for use by field personnel.
2.2.2.3 Electromagnetic Induction to Persons
At power line frequencies, the magnetic field completely
penetrates the body of a person. That is, the magnetic field
is the same inside or outside a person. Due to the sinusoid-
ally varying nature of the magnetic field, eddy currents will
be caused to flow inside the body. The electric current which
flows within a conducting medium such as a human body circu-
lates in planes that are perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field. Spiegel, 1975, has analyzed the electric fields
developed interior to spherical conducting objects as a result
of power line frequency electric and magnetic fields.
Figure 2.15 shows the results of analysis performed by
Spiegel for a sphere having the electrical properties of muscle
tissue. This figure presents both the induced electric field
due to an exterior electric field, and the induced electric field
due to an exterior magnetic field, as a function of the exterior
field levels. It is seen from this figure that the interior
electric field caused by the external electric field, is in-
dependent of the size of the sphere, or the position within
the sphere; while the contribution due to the magnetic field
is a function of the position within the sphere. Thus, the
component of interior electric field due to the magnetic field
is maximum at the periphery of the spherical object. In re-
lating this geometry to man, Spiegel suggests the use of a
26 cm radius sphere, as a representation of a 70 kg man. By
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0)
LU
O
3
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c
c
0)
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O
Q.
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icr
10'
10
-3
10
-4
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-7
10
-8
Electric Term
Magnetic Term
I V/m
10
-2
10
-i
10
10'
z (Cm)
Fig 2.15 COMPARISON OF THE ELECTRIC AND
MAGNETIC TERMS OF THE INDUCED
60 Hz ELECTRIC FIELD AT POSITIONS
ALONG THE Z AXIS OF A SPHERE.
(FROM SPIEGEL, 1975)
69
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use of this figure, it is seen that for the geometry and elec-
trical properties assumed by Spiegel, that an exterior electric
field of 10 kV/m, and a magnetic field of approximately 0.2 G,
will each produce the same level of internal electric field
near the surface of the spherical object. The spherical ob-
ject geometry used in this analysis is probably not as well
suited for determining internal electric fields or current
density due to electric field excitation as is the use of a
prolate spheroid model, or measurements made of current flow
on mannequins, such as has been done by Deno.
A simple expression for determining the electric field
interior to a conducting spherical object as a result of the
magnetic field is given by the National Academy of Sciences,
1977, as
Ex = frBTr
where
E-j. is the interior field in volts/meter
r is the distance from the center of the sphere in meters
f is the frequency in Hertz, and
o
B is the magnetic flux density in Wb/m .
The above results suggest that for mansize objects, the
magnetically induced current flow within portions of the body
may be within the same range as the current flow induced by
the electric fields. However, the current flow or current
density induced by the electric field is much more uniform
throughout the body than is that created by the magnetic field.
Near the center of the body, the magnetically induced current
should tend to zero (due to the dependence on r in the above
equation); thus the predominant concern for persons within
the fields created by EHV transmission lines appears to be
with regard to the body currents induced by the electric field.
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2.3 Effect of Current and Voltage on Humans
The effect of the fields from EHV transmission lines on
persons has generally been approached from two aspects. The
first is the psychological and physiological effects caused
when a person beneath a transmission line comes into contact
with another object that is charged to a different potential.
In this case, transient or steady state currents can be caused
to flow through the person's body. The time-frame involved
in noting these effects is, in general, quite short. That is,
if a person contacts an electrified object, and adequate cur-
rent flows through his body, the indication of this event is
immediate. Either he feels a tingling sensation, pain, or a
more severe effect such as complete loss of muscle control,
permanent respiratory arrest, asphyxia, or ventricular fibril-
lation.
The only known short-term possible potentially hazardous
effect which may be caused by the fields, without requiring
the person to come in contact with other objects, is the inter-
action of the fields with implanted medical devices. These so-
called short-term effects will be discussed in this section of
the report. The next section of the report will discuss what
might be termed long-term effects due to the direct interaction
of the transmission line fields with the body. The use of the
terminology of "long-term" and "short-term" to permit an orderly
discussion of the various effects involved, is somewhat artifi-
cial, since some investigators have reported measurable direct
biological interaction due to the fields which were apparently
below the perception thresholds, yet occurred in short time-
frames in coincidence with the application of the fields; for
example, see Waibel, 1975.
2.3.1 Direct Psychological and Physiological Effects
For either of the two manners of classifying the effects
that have been suggested above, the effect may be due to either
transient or steady state current flowing through the body.
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For many occurrences of contact with electrified objects, both
the transient or steady state current effects may occur. How-
ever, it is convenient to separate, for discussion purposes,
the effects due to transient or steady state currents flowing
through the body.
In addition to the short-term effects which may be noted
due to contact with electrified objects, the possibility also
exists for the direct perception of the fields by a human or
animal. This direct perception of the fields appears to fall
in the psychological category, but may be important with re-
spect to a person's subjective concern over the presence of
the transmission line, or more importantly, as a cue to the
presence of the field which may influence the outcome of cer-
tain types of biological experiments; for example, if the
sensing of the field produces apprehension in the test subject,
In discussing the relative degrees of severity of cur-
rents flowing through the body due to contact with electrified
objects, the IEEE, 1971 Part 1, has classified the shock cur-
rents as primary shock currents, which cause direct physio-
logical harm; or secondary shock currents, which cannot cause
direct physiological harm, but may produce involuntary mus-
cular reactions. Bridges, 1976, suggests that a simpler
categorization might be:
1. psychological--simple perception, annoyance,
and pain;
2. reversible physiological—involuntary reflexes
such as inability to release a clasped current
carrying conductor; and
3. potentially irreversible physiological--burns
or ventricular fibrillation.
2.3.1.1 Direct Perception of Fields
Work has been done that provides strong indication that
a person can perceive the presence of relatively strong elec-
tric fields without the necessity for coming into contact with
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other charged objects. Early work by Kouwenhoven, et al.,
1966, states that a person is barely able to feel a current
2
density of about .078 yA/cm entering the skin area due to
the presence of an electric field. This current density
entering the skin surface, corresponds to an electric field
at the surface of the skin of approximately 240 kV/m. Due
to the manner in which the electric field can be enhanced at
the body surface, such a field can correspond to a signifi-
cantly lower undisturbed electric field intensity. Kouwenhoven
states that the sensation is like that of a gentle breeze
blowing on the skin.
Deno and Zaffanella, in Chapter 8 of the Transmission
Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above, report on tests per-
formed on a limited number of subjects to assess the direct
perception of electric fields. They noted that the most com-
mon sensations were hair-nerve stimulation due to hair erection,
and tingling between body (particularly the arms) and clothes.
More recently, additional statistical data on the human sensi-
tivity to the perception of electric fields has been obtained,
IEEE, 1978. These tests were conducted on 130 persons and
determined both the perception and annoyance sensations for
hand-hair, head-hair, and tingling. The most sensitivity
found was with respect to head-hair, where the electric field
for perception by 50% of the population was 7 kV/m. At this
level of field, approximately one percent of this group were
annoyed by the hand-hair stimulation feeling. Approximately
107o of the test group indicated a perception of hand-hair
stimulation at a field less than 2 kV/m. The fields here
are expressed in undisturbed electric field. For the percep-
tion of head-hair and body clothes tingling, the test results
were similar to each other, with approximately 10% of the
test population, noting perception at about 5 kV/m.
In performing experiments with swine, Hjeresen, et al.,
1976, observed that the threshold field strength for pilo-
erection and hair oscillation was about 50 kV/m for the swine,
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and experimental evidence was obtained that indicated that
they perceived the electric field at 30-40 kV/m.
While the above perception and annoyance aspects of the
electric field do not appear significant from the biological
standpoint, these factors may have significant implications
in the design of certain types of human or animal experiments.
If the perception of the fields gives rise to apprehension,
such apprehension may be evidenced in the experimental results.
Tucker and Schmitt, 1977, have investigated the ability
of persons to sense the presence of a moderate (7.5-15 Gauss)
alternating 60 Hz magnetic field. They found that elaborate
procedures were necessary to prevent perceptive individuals
from non-intentionally using subtle auxiliary clues to develop
impressive records of apparent magnetic field detection. How-
ever when adequate precautions were taken, the analysis of the
data showed that these fields are not normally sensed directly.
Again, the ability to sense an applied field, either by direct
sensation or by subtle cues that the field is present, may be
a significant factor in biological experiments with either
humans or animals.
2.3.1.2 Transient Currents
Transient currents are encountered when an individual
comes into contact with a charged object that is at a different
potential than the individual. If the potential difference
between the object and the individual are sufficient, a small
arc may be established just prior to initial contact. In most
cases, this is just a disagreeable event, accompanied by an-
noyance and possibly some pain. In many respects, these dis-
charge currents are similar to the minor shocks that are
experienced on a dry day by a person walking on a rug and
then touching a grounded metal obj ect such as a door knob,
electric light switch, or elevator call button.
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Some of the physical factors which control the nature
of a capacitive spark discharge may be better understood by
referring to Figure 2.11. This figure represents the approxi-
mate equivalent circuit of a person coming into contact with
an object such as a vehicle that is charged by electrostatic
induction beneath a transmission line. The important factors
are the capacitance of the object, the open circuit voltage
of the object prior to contact, the time and voltage dependent
arc resistance, the other resistances associated with the con-
duction of current through the body, and the impedance of the
soles of the shoes to ground.
The body current during discharge, I,, as well as the
Joule energy transfer, is partially limited by the impedance
of the soles of the shoes to ground. This impedance is much
higher where thick crepe rubber soles are worn and when dry
ground conditions prevail. Under dry conditions, it is likely
that the voltage across the vehicle will be greater; this may
be mitigated by the higher impedance to ground through the
person. Under wet conditions, the person may be better
grounded; however, the voltage across the vehicle may also
be lowered due to the leakage resistance of the tires to
ground.
A simplified equivalent circuit is often used to repre-
sent the capacitive spark discharge situation. The charged
object is represented as a capacitor which is charged to a volt-
age, V. Due to the time-varying nature of the electric field,
the voltage to which the object is charged is a time-varying
function. The person through which the current will flow is
represented by a resistance which, under well-grounded condi-
tions, is generally taken as approximately 1500 ohms. At the
instant of conduction, the current that flows through the body
is given by the ratio of the voltage across the capacitor di-
vided by the resistance through which the current must flow.
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This value of current is not sustained, and it rapidly de-
creases. The current can decrease to about a third of its
initial value in times which are less than one microsecond.
Another factor which is often used for assessing the
discharge situation is the Joule energy that can be delivered
to the body during the discharge. The Joule energy is given
2
by %CV , where C is the capacitance of the charged object,
and V is the voltage at the instant when the arc is established
or contact is made. For contact with objects charged with
60 Hz voltage, a series of small arcs may be formed at the
crest of each 60 Hz half-cycle. Thus, the perception of the
arcs is likely to be more noticeable when a slow approach to
the object is used.
Stanley, 1976, compares the spark discharge energy from
an insulated conducting body in the field of an EHV transmis-
sion line to that of static discharges that an individual may
receive after walking across a carpet and touching a door knob.
He notes that an adult human may build up a potential on his
body in excess of 20 kV by walking across a carpet during
periods of relatively low humidity. He indicates, however,
that it is more likely that the potential will be more in the
range of 4-8 kV. Assuming the capacitance of the human body
to be approximately 200 pF, and the static charge voltage to
be 6.6 kV, he determines the discharge energy to be 4.3 milli-
joules. Since this is the static case, the discharge will
occur only once.
For ideally insulated objects beneath a transmission
line, considerably more Joule energy than this can be avail-
able. Bridges, 1976, shows that for a 150-meter long ideally
insulated fence in an 11 kV/m field, approximately 60 milli-
joules of stored energy will be available.
For a very large vehicle beneath a transmission line,
whose capacitance may be as high as 5000 pF, it is necessary
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for the voltage on the vehicle to be less than approximately
1000 volts in order that the stored energy be approximately
that determined by Stanley for the static door knob case.
Perkins and Nowak, 1977, have shown that for a variety of
objects underneath the line, that if special precautions to
well-insulate the vehicle from ground were not taken, the
voltage of the vehicle induced by the power line was consis-
tently less than 1000 volts. The objects they studied in-
cluded some that were quite large, such as a school bus, a
tractor trailer, and farm vehicles. They also conclude that
spark discharges from uninsulated vehicles sitting on the
ground will be quite small because of the leakage across the
tires.
The AEG, 1967, indicates a level of 250 millijoules for
causing involuntary reflexes. The IEEE, 1971, asserts that
the transient currents from charged objects beneath the line
are not in themselves considered dangerous, because the period
of shock is normally too short to produce ventricular fibril-
lation. They further state that it is believed that a value
of 50 Joules should be used as the danger threshold in humans.
The Consumer's Power Company, 1975, in responding to the
Federal Register Notice, states that they have tentatively
established a 0.1 millijoule as a maximum level for energy
discharge from ungrounded stationary objects under or near
EHV transmission lines. All stationary objects which could
develop an energy level greater than 0.1 millijoule would be
grounded. This 0.1 millijoule energy level corresponds to
what might be considered the threshold of perception as noted
in the Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above,
1975. The Consumer's Power Company further suggests, however,
that even though spark discharges near the perception level
present no hazard, more research and more data on spark dis-
charges is required to determine a statistically acceptable
energy discharge level.
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2.3.1.3 Steady-State Currents
Although spark discharge effects which may occur under
transmission lines may provide some annoyance, it is seen
from the above discussion that, in general, these occurrences
are not considered hazardous. However, once contact is es-
tablished, a continuous current flows through the body of
the person who may be in contact with the charged object.
It is well recognized, that for large metallic structures
located in regions of strong electric fields, potentially haz-
ardous current levels can be obtained from such structures.
As previously noted, the power companies, as a matter of policy,
provide grounds for those stationary objects which can provide
short circuit to ground currents greater than approximately
0.5 milliamperes. This level of short circuit current is con-
sistent with ANSI standards for the maximum allowable leakage
current from portable 60 Hz powered devices, such as house-
hold appliances. Table 2.5 presents data summarized from
available literature by the IEEE, 1971, on the biological ef-
fects of thresholds for body current. Since the power com-
panies provide grounding of stationary objects in the near
vicinity of EHV transmission lines, the primary concern with
respect to potentially hazardous currents from electrified
objects centers around movable objects, such as vehicles.
Considerable care must be exercised in construction opera-
tions in the vicinity of transmission lines. Particular con-
cern is with regard to stringing adjacent transmission lines
or installing pipelines. The IEEE, 1973, has provided an
excellent review on the hazards associated with these situa-
tions, and the procedures to be used by the construction crews
in minimizing hazards. Since these hazards are not normally
encountered by the general public, they will not be discussed
further here.
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Table 2.5
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS THRESHOLDS FOR
BODY CURRENTS AND SHOCKS
(From IEEE, 1971)
Current Criteria
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Effect
No sensation on hand
Slight tingling. Per-
ception threshold
Shock- -not painful
and muscular control
not lost
Painful shock- -
painful but muscular
control not lost
Painful shock- -
let-go threshold
Painful and severe
shock muscular con-
tractions , breathing
difficult
Possible ventricular
fibrillation from
short shocks :
a) Shock duration
0.03 second
b) Shock duration
3.0 seconds
c) Certain Ventricular
fibrillation (if
shock duration is
over one heart
beat interval)
Current in
Direct
Current
Men Women
1 0.6
5.2 3.5
9 6
62 41
76 51
90 60
1300 1300
500 500
1375 1375
Milliamperes
60 Hertz
RMS
Men
0.4
1.1
1.8
9
16.0
23
1000
100
275
Women
0.3
0.7
1.2
6
10.5
15
1000
100
275
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The IEEE, 1971, reviews the available data on the primary
shock currents. They note that it is virtually impossible to
produce primary shock currents with less than 25 volts, be-
cause of normal body resistance. They also note that the most
dangerous possible consequence of primary shock current is
ventricular fibrillation. They cite the work of Dalziel, and
present his electrocution equation, I = k//t; where I is the
current level in milliamperes, corresponding to a particular
probability of ventricular fibrillation; and where t is ex-
pressed in seconds. Examples are provided of the use of this
equation to calculate fibrillation current from curves given
by Dalziel, 1969, for fibrillating current versus body weight
for various animals.
The short circuit current to ground for a large variety
of vehicles under worst case conditions, that is when on insu-
lation, is presented in Zalewski, 1976; Bracken, 1975, and
Perkins, 1977. These data show that 10 milliamperes can be
considered as an upperbound current. Comparing this level
of current to the summary data shown in Table 2.5, it reveals
that the likelihood of ventricular fibrillation for this class
of object is very remote.
For currents to the body, caused by electrostatically
charged mobile objects, the primary concern appears to be
with respect to let-go currents. The let-go current is de-
fined by Dalziel, 1969, as the maximum current at which a
person is still capable of releasing a conductor by using
muscles directly stimulated by that current. Dalziel further
points out the importance of the let-go threshold by noting
that an individual can withstand, without serious after ef-
fects, repeated exposure to his let-go current for at least
the time required for him to release the conductor. The
Dalziel data show that 99.570 of women have a let-go threshold
greater than 6 mA, while 99.570 of the men have let-go thresh-
olds larger than 9 mA.
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Adequate data are lacking on the let-go thresholds for
children, although this threshold has been estimated to be
in the range of 4.5-5.0 mA (Stanley, 1976; Simpson, 1977).
The National Electrical Safety Code specifies 5 mA as the
maximum allowable short circuit current for the largest ve-
hicle expected beneath a transmission line.
However, there are some (e.g., Hackenberry, 1974), who be-
lieve that since there is no direct evidence available for the
response of children, that the safe let-go current for small
children may be in the 3 mA range. It therefore appears that
although many accept, at face value, the let-go levels deter-
mined by Dalziel for men and women, the lack of data applicable
to children prevents good agreement for this situation.
In his review of the literature on let-go current thresh-
olds, Bridges, 1976, notes that the Dalziel data may not be
directly applicable to the situation which exists beneath the
power transmission lines. He concludes that the experimental
procedures used by Dalziel will have a tendency to produce
let-go thresholds that are unrealistically low. Dalziel, 1969,
notes that higher let-go thresholds were observed in connection
with friendly wagers between the students being tested. This
suggests that higher let-go thresholds might be applicable if
a person felt his life might be in danger if he did not let go.
Bridges also points up two other factors relating to the
Dalziel experiments which are different than for contact to an
electrified vehicle, for example--beneath a transmission line.
First, the experiments were conducted with the subjects grasping
a small conductor while the current was increased through the
conductor to a point where the subject could not release the
conductor. Bridges conjectured that as the voltage and cur-
rent were progressively increased, the resistance of the skin
during any given test had an opportunity to decrease so long
as the contact was maintained. Dalziel notes the human tissue
has a negative resistance characteristic, such that the body
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resistance decreases with both increasing current and with
increasing time of contact. If an object is grasped while
at voltage, the normal response to let go may occur before the
skin resistance decreases to the point where sufficient current
to prevent let-go occurs.
Bridges also points up that the direct application of
let-go Values found in the literature, does not take into ac-
count the precursor spark discharge which is likely for the
transmission line situation when the current available to the
body is in the let-go range. Thus, the subject is likely to
release the object before firm grasp is obtained, due to the
transient discharge which occurs before contact to the object
is made.
It thus appears that adequate data does not exist with
regard to small children and their let-go thresholds. It also
appears that while statistical data exist on the let-go thresh-
olds for men and women subjects, these data may not be applic-
able to the practical situation. The existing data may not
realistically consider the precursor spark discharge, the
time dependence of body impedance, and the psychological mo-
tivation of the person to let go, thus resulting in published
current levels which are too low.
2.3.2 Implanted Medical Devices
Concern has been expressed over the possibility of elec-
tric or magnetic fields that are produced by power transmission
lines interfering with the operation of implanted medical de-
vices. Driscoll, 1975, considered the current which might be
collected by a large metallic plate (10x10 cm) proximal to the
cortex of the brain (replacing a portion of the skull). He
concluded that the current collected by such a plate would be
considerably less than that required for neural stimulation.
However, no specific research has been conducted to determine
the effects on such medical devices which might result from
the influence of fields from transmission lines.
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With regard to implanted medical devices, the primary
concern has centered around the possible interference effects
to implanted cardiac pacemakers. Although the subject of inter-
ference to implanted pacemakers was included in the testimony
of Driscoll, 1975; Toler, 1976; and Michaelson, 1976, before
the New York State Public Service Commission, their testimony
did not have the benefit of the most recent work on this sub-
ject, which was still in progress at that time.
Bridges and Frazier, 1976, have recently completed a study
of the effects of 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields on im-
planted cardiac pacemakers in humans. The results of that
study form the basis for the discussion which follows.
Prior to the work of Bridges and Frazier, there were two
previous important studies on the interference to cardiac pace-
makers by 60 Hz fields. The first, by Miller, 1971, was an
evaluation of the effects of magnetic field interference. In
this study, pacemakers implanted in calves were used to study
the effective coupling between the magnetic field and the pace-
maker. Procedures were developed to predict magnetic field
interference thresholds for pacemakers based on interference
voltage thresholds.
A study by Zalewski, 1975, provided a preliminary assess-
ment of electric field interference effects. In this study,
bench tests on pacemakers and surface measurements on humans
resulted in a preliminary understanding of the level of elec-
tric fields which could cause effects on pacemakers.
The development and widespread use of implantable cardiac
pacemakers has been a significant advance in the treatment of
heart disorders. About 50,000 of these small electronic units
are implanted into patients annually, and over 170,000 pace-
makers are now in use in the United States. Since many pace-
maker patients can resume nearly normal lifestyles after the
implantation, they encounter the same wide range of electro-
magnetic environments as the general population.
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A cardiac pacemaker is an electronic device which can
stimulate the heart with periodic electrical current pulses
to maintain rhythmic heart contractions. Some pacemakers pro-
duce pulses that are synchronized to a particular portion of
the natural cardiac signal. These are called synchronous
pacemakers. Others produce regularly spaced pulses that are
independent of, or asynchronous with the cardiac cycle. These
pacemakers are called asynchronous. However, by far the most
widely used type of pacemaker senses a particular segment of
the cardiac signal, the R-wave, and produces stimulus pulses
only when the normal heart beat slows or stops. This type of
pacemaker is called variously the R-Wave inhibited, or standby,
or demand pacemaker. If a demand pacemaker senses electric
signals or interference from other sources which may mask the
heart's signal, the pacemaker begins to operate in the "asyn-
chronous mode." This means that regularly spaced pulses, which
are not synchronized to the cardiac cycle, are produced, even
though the patient's heart may be functioning normally. Some
cardiologists feel that this situation should be avoided,
though cardiologists do not agree on the existence or extent
of risk. Michaelson, 1976, is of the opinion that reversion
to the fixed rate will generally not cause cardiac problems;
and, that in those few patients where problems might occur,
the results would generally not be serious.
This asynchronous mode of the demand pacemaker may be
triggered if an induced interference voltage develops across
the tissue between the pacemaker electrodes. Since body tissue
is resistive, any current flowing through the body will cause
a voltage to develop across tissues. If this tissue voltage
is large enough, the pacemaker will "revert" to the asynchronous
mode.
Weak body current can flow when a person touches an elec-
tric device, such as a household appliance, tool, or machine.
Weak body current can also be caused by the electric and
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magnetic fields from energized conductors, such as power lines.
These fields cause body current to flow even if a person is
not touching a conductor or electrical device. An understand-
ing of the relationship between these fields, body current,
and pacemaker response is required to evaluate the possibility
of electric fields affecting implanted pacemakers.
Bridges and Frazier, 1976, developed procedures to deter-
mine the voltage produced between the electrodes of implanted
pacemakers by body currents and electric fields, then demon-
strated that effects on the pacemaker operation resulted from
these voltages. Thresholds of body current and electric fields
capable of affecting normal pacemaker operation were determined
for realistic conditions.
Thirteen current model pacemakers from three manufacturers
were bench tested to characterize their performance, as a func-
tion of 60 Hz voltage level applied to their terminals. These
tests included the determination of the threshold for reversion
to the asynchronous mode. Six implants were made in baboons,
using pacemakers selected from the group that were bench tested.
The effects of both electric fields and body currents on pace-
maker reversion were determined by in vivo experiments with
these animals.
Data from animal tests were used to relate internal and
surface voltage to body currents. Based on this relationship,
the voltage across implanted pacemaker electrodes can be deter-
mined from skin measurements. Field strengths at which im-
planted pacemakers revert were measured by exposing baboons
with implants in a high voltage facility. The model was vali-
dated by comparing these values with those calculated using
reversion threshold data from bench tests.
To adapt this model to the human case, skin measurements
were made on four (4) volunteer human subjects. The data re-
ported here are based on calculations using this model and
assuming a man of average dimensions.
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The field or body current necessary to cause pacemaker
reversion is highly dependent on the type of pacemaker and
location of the implanted electrodes. These variables can
be grouped by sensitivity to internally developed voltage.
A summary of the reversion characteristics for a representa-
tive sample of pacemaker and electrode configurations, grouped
by sensitivity, follows.
The bench tests showed that reversion thresholds ranged
from a "least sensitive" value of 12 millivolts to a "most
sensitive" value of 1/2 millivolt with a "typical sensitivity"
being approximately 1 millivolt. Similarly, lead arrangement
can result in different sensitivity to the field, depending
on the characteristics of the lead arrangement.
Table 2.6 presents calculated values of 60 Hz electric
fields which would cause pacemaker reversion for each pace-
maker sensitivity classification and lead arrangement. These
calculations assume a well-grounded person standing erect in
the field. For references, Table 2.1 presented common ranges
of near-ground electric fields for transmission lines of various
voltage ratings. These data show that electric fields from
60 Hz extremely high voltage (EHV) transmission lines, as they
exist in the United States today, are unlikely to interfere
with the majority of pacemaker patients. The tabulated data
suggest, however, that a limited category of pacemaker patients
may experience pacemaker reversion to the asynchronous mode
under some field conditions.* These patients are those with
*There is, however, no agreement among cardiovascular
specialists about the seriousness (or even the existence)
of the problems associated with prolonged operation in the
asynchronous mode. Periods of operation in this mode are
considered to be acceptable, and in fact are commonly in-
duced by cardiologists to check performance of pacemakers
in their patients.
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an abdominal implant and monopolar lead configuration, who do
not have the least sensitivity model of pacemaker. Based on
the results of a recent survey reported by Parsonnet, 1976, and
consideration of the almost equal sale of bipolar and monopolar
leads, Bridges and Frazier estimated that only about 3 percent
of pacemaker patients fall into this category. Electric fields
large enough to cause pacemaker reversion for this limited cate-
gory of implant only occur directly beneath EHV transmission
lines. Thus, cardiac pacemaker patients living in suburban and
urban areas would rarely be exposed to such fields, especially
for long periods of time.
Table 2.7 presents calculated values of 60 Hz magnetic
flux density required to produce reversion in pacemakers of
various sensitivities under worst case electrode configura-
tion. Since the near-ground magnetic flux density of power
transmission lines operating at the highest voltages found in
the United States is usually less than 1/2 gauss, Table 2.7
shows that pacemaker interaction problems by magnetic fields
are unlikely.
Table 2.8 shows the levels of 60 Hz body current flowing
axially through the thorax which we calculate will cause re-
version to the asynchronous mode for different combinations
of pacemakers and electrode lead arrangements. Such current
flow can be caused by leakage from appliances, machines, and
tools. Published leakage current data for some appliances
and present day standards for portable appliances, which limit
leakage currents to 0.5 mA, surpass some of the values given
in Table 2.8.
Though the measured appliance leakage currents are within
the limits allowed by standards, many of these currents are
large enough to cause reversion for a "typical sensitivity"
pacemaker and the "most used" lead arrangement. However,
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Table 2.6
CALCULATED ELECTRIC FIELDS
FOR R-WAVE PACEMAKER REVERSION
Lead Arrangement
Pacemaker Sensitivity
12 mV
1 mV
0.45 mV
Bipolar
600 kV/m
50 kV/m
23 kV/m
Monopolar
Pectoral
171.0 kV/m
14.3 kV/m
6.4 kV/m
Monopolar
Abdominal
91.0 kV/m
7.6 kV/m
3.4 kV/m
Table 2.7
CALCULATED MAGNETIC FIELD
FOR R-WAVE PACEMAKER REVERSION
Magnetic Field With
Pacemaker Sensitivity 210 cm2 Worse-Case Loop
12 mV 15.0 gauss
1 mV 1.25 gauss
0.45 mV 0.56 gauss
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Table 2.8
CALCULATED CURRENT NECESSARY
FOR R-WAVE PACEMAKER REVERSION (in
Lead Arrangement
Pacemaker Sensitivity
12 mV
1 mV
0.45 mV
Bipolar
6000
500
230
Monopolar
Pectoral
1800
150
70
Monopolar
Abdominal
1000
88
40
Table 2.9
CALCULATED FIELD FOR R-WAVE PACEMAKER REVERSION*
DUE TO VEHICLE LEAKAGE CURRENT
Pacemaker/Implant Sensitivity
Vehicle Type
Compact
Sedan
Camper
Semi-Tractor Trailer
Least
Sensitive
68.0 kV/m
60.0 kV/m
21.0 kV/m
8.6 kV/m
Typical
1.7 kV/m
1.5 kV/m
500.0 V/m
200.0 V/m
Most
Sensitive
450 V/m
400 V/m
140 V/m
60 V/m
*For the three pacemaker/implant conditions cited in
Table 2.9, the following definitions apply: "Least Sensitive"
denotes a 12 mV reversion threshold pacemaker with bipolar
leads. "Typical" denotes a 1 mV reversion threshold monopolar
pacemaker with a pectoral implant. "Most Sensitive" denotes
a 0.45 mV reversion threshold monopolar pacemaker with an
abdominal implant.
89
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these currents will flow through the body only if the appliance
case is ungrounded and the person completes the path to ground
by touching the appliance.
Patients with monopolar lead implants may be more likely
to experience reversion from appliances in the home than from
exposure to above ground transmission lines, but circumstances
leading to prolonged reversion by either cause are probably
rare.
When one touches an ungrounded conducting object, such as
an automobile, tractor, or truck, that is near a transmission
line, currents of about the same magnitude as appliance leakage
currents can flow through the body. Such currents vary widely
due to weather conditions, type of footwear, and other factors.
Table 2.9 shows the electric field intensities which would in-
duce large enough currents from typical vehicles to cause re-
version for various pacemakers and implant combinations. Tables
2.1 and 2.9 show that under worst-case conditions, the fields
from nearly all transmission and distribution lines may cause
enough current to flow from a large insulated vehicle to cause
pacemaker reversion if the vehicle is touched. Again, condi-
tions which would cause prolonged reversion are probably rare.
Bridges and Frazier conclude that there are several ways
to minimize risks for pacemaker patients who might be susceptible
to fields from overhead transmission lines or current from house-
hold appliances. The most promising option is the use of pace-
makers which are intrinsically insensitive to 60 Hz voltage or
to use implantation lead arrangements that are least sensitive
to body current.
Improved pacemaker designs are available and insensitive
lead arrangements are now often used. Thus the cardiologist,
who has the choice in selecting pacemaker and implants, can now
ensure negligible patient risk due to a broad range of common
60 Hz field environments.
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While a solution to the problem appears to be achievable,
involved parties including the patient, manufacturer and medi-
cal practitioner must recognize the importance of factors within
their control. The cooperation and awareness of these parties
is essential. The research results presented by Bridges and
Frazier provide basic information needed for this awareness.
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2.4 The Direct Effects of Fields
on Living Organisms
2.4.1 Background
Man has always been exposed to the electric and magnetic
fields arising from nature, and has been exposed to the 60 Hz
fields produced by electrically operated man-made devices for
many years. However, with the widespread growth in EHV power
transmission systems and the study of ELF communications, there
has been an increasing interest in the effects that such fields
might have on living organisms.
Concern over the possible deleterious effects of electro-
magnetic energy on biological systems is not new. With the
development of extensive radio frequency communication systems
and radar, during the second World War, the Department of De-
fense became interested and concerned about possible hazards
associated with radio frequency emitting electronic equipment.
The concern over the hazards associated with human exposure
to such radiation, generally termed non-ionizing radiation to
distinguish it from the radiation from nuclear material, has
resulted in a considerable body of research to investigate
these effects and hazards. However, the effects of non-ionizing
radiation from electronic equipment (see Michaelson, 1972, for
a review of this work) is generally recognized as having little
relationship to biological effects which may occur as a result
of exposure to fields at the frequency of power lines.
The questions that have been raised concerning possible
biological effects of power line and ELF communication fields,
thus have not been directly answered by application of the body
of knowledge existing for fields at radio frequencies and above.
In recognition of the concern with regard to the biological ef-
fects of extremely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields, con-
siderable research has been conducted over the past several
years in an attempt to understand the interaction of ELF fields
with life forms, and to identify any hazards which may exist.
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Since extremely-low-frequency electric and magnetic fields from
both natural and man-made sources have provided an exposure to
man for a considerable period of time, it is likely that if any
effects are present, they are subtle.
Representatives of the power industry, for example, Cohen,
1976, and Barnes, 1976, cite the long experience of power com-
panies in using HV and EHV power transmission systems as an
indication that there are no deleterious effects on living or-
ganisms. The lack of indication of biological problems, either
to the public or to power utility personnel, as a result of
existing lines has a definite bearing on research conducted to
investigate possible hazards associated with such exposures.
Thus, if effects do occur, they may be long term, and not
readily observable or evident. The apparent lack of problems
associated with existing transmission systems was not adequate
to answer the specific questions of many with regard to the
development of higher voltage transmission systems or ELF com-
munication systems. Also, reports from the U.S.S.R. on neuro-
logical effects on switchyard workers provided a direct stimulus
for research into possible hazards of ELF electromagnetic fields.
2.4.2 Range of Research
The research into biological effects of extremely-low-
frequency fields has been quite wide-ranging and diverse.
Hundreds of articles have been published, dealing with one
aspect or another of the topic. Research has been conducted
using a wide range of test subjects exposed to a variety of
electromagnetic field conditions, and the biological para-
meters monitored have been many. With so much research being
conducted, it is not surprising that conflicting results have
been noted. The implication of the research results with
regard to a likely hazard is not always evident. The manner
in which specific research results should be applied to the
practical situation is also not well understood or evident.
In view of these factors, as well as the concern of many over
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the quality of the research, it is not surprising that con-
siderable controversy and difference in opinion exists. The
following paragraphs will present a brief overview of some of
the facets of the research that has been conducted.
2.4.2.1 Range of Subjects Studied
Various test subjects have been used in conducting ex-
periments into the effects of ELF fields. Some of the test
subjects have been chosen because of direct concern for the
influence of such fields on the particular biological subject.
Most concern resides in the possible influence of these fields
on man. In the United States, only limited investigations into
the effect of ELF fields on man have been conducted. Investi-
gations using man as the subject appear to be principally
limited to those of Beischer, 1973; Busby, 1974; Kouwenhoven,
1967; and later Singewald, 1973. However, foreign investiga-
tors have reported additional field and laboratory studies
where man was the test subject.
Concern over the effects of ELF fields on other specific
biological organisms in nature has prompted the study of birds,
fish, tadpoles, turtles, soil microorganisms, earthworms, slugs,
and a variety of plant forms. In addition, much research has
been conducted using test subjects that are convenient or more
well suited for laboratory biological investigations. These
subjects include rats, mice, dogs, monkeys, fruit flies, chickens
and eggs, and a variety of plant forms. Thus, investigations
have been conducted into a large variety of different types of
life forms, in an attempt to determine if any effects are noted
due to exposure with ELF fields.
2.4.2.2 Range of Effects Studied
The effects studied in experimental investigations usually
fall into one of several areas. A given experiment on a given
type of test subject, may investigate more than one of these
effects categories. However, the various effect categories
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are often individually discussed in an attempt to identify
common effect trends across different biological subjects.
The effects most often investigated are: genetics, fertility,
growth and development, physiology, biochemistry, behavior,
circadian rhythms, ecology, and epidemiology. As noted, a
study to investigate a particular effect, for example, fertil-
ity or growth and development, may utilize any one of a number
of test subjects. In addition, different experimental pro-
cedures may be used by different investigators to study the
same effect on the same test subjects. Thus, it is often dif-
ficult to relate the results of two different experimenters
investigating the same effects due to differences in the basic
experimental design and in the parameters monitored.
2.4.2.3 Range of Field Parameters
The basic thread of the research investigations of con-
cern are the effects of extremely-low-frequency electromagnetic
fields, or the concomitant currents that arise from such fields
on biological organisms. It is often desired to assess the im-
pact of a specific system, e.g., a 765 kV transmission line.
Since much of the work that has been conducted has not been
for the purpose of evaluating the potential hazards associated
with the fields of such a line, it is not always evident how
such research results apply. That is, the purpose of the re-
search influences the manner in which the experiments were
conducted. This is particularly true with regard to the elec-
tromagnetic field parameters.
Research stimulated by interest in power line fields will
typically use an electric field exposure of the test subject.
The frequency of the field used is normally 60 Hz. Some ex-
periments have considered the magnetic field, and thus simul-
taneously apply such a field component to the test subject.
These differences in experimental procedures with regard to
the electric field parameters may be significant, since the
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magnetic field from a fully loaded power line can induce cur-
rent flow within humans that is spatially different than the
induced current distributions from the electric field.
Experiments that have been conducted to investigate the
biological effects of Seafarer, the Navy Communications System,
use fields that are related to the specific nature of that
system. For that system, low horizontal electric fields are
anticipated; however, the magnetic field is in the same range
as observed from power lines. Thus, many experiments that
have been conducted to answer biological questions with re-
gard to the communication system, have used only a magnetic
field exposure. Since this system does not operate at 60 Hz,
some of the experiments have used a frequency closer to the
eventual operating frequency, which is about 76 Hz. In addi-
tion, since this system will be modulated, questions have been
raised on the effects of such modulations; therefore, some
tests have been conducted using representative modulations.
In Europe, the power frequency is 50 Hz rather than 60 Hz.
Thus, research conducted in Europe to assess the effects of
power line fields have utilized the frequency of 50 Hz. It
is unknown whether or not organisms are sensitive to changes
in frequency over the range of 50-76 Hz; however, for the same
electric or magnetic field, 5070 more current will be induced
into a test subject at 76 Hz than at 50 Hz.
In addition to research being conducted for specific man-
made systems, a considerable body of literature has been gen-
erated in an attempt to understand the influence of the static
or the natural geomagnetic fields on man. The frequencies
used in this research can be as low as 1 Hz or less, but typi-
cally is in the range of 10 Hz. Signals that are recorded
from the brain are in this frequency range, and thus this fre-
quency range appears to be of special interest for certain
research groups.
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Yet another area of study which has produced research re-
sults is investigation into the use of electricity for thera-
peutic or diagnostic purposes. Generally, these investigations
induce current flow into the body by means of galvanic contacts
(direct wire connections). The frequencies used in this work
can vary considerably, and often includes dc.
In addition to the field-type and frequency variables,
the level of excitation is also an important parameter. Here,
the level of excitation is likely to be related to the basic
purpose of the research. Thus, for example, electric fields
used in the published research can range from a fraction of a
volt/meter to hundreds of thousands volts/meter. Similarly,
experiments have used magnetic fields ranging from a fraction
of a Gauss up to several thousand Gauss.
Another factor which may make it difficult to relate one
experiment to another is the exposure time. The U.S.S.R. has
promulgated rules and regulations for workers in substations
and beneath overhead transmission lines; see "Rules and Regu-
lations on Labor Protection at 400, 500 and 750 kV AC Sub-
stations and Overhead Lines of Industrial Frequency (in the
U.S.S.R.)," 1971. These rules and regulations, reproduced
here as Table 2.10, not only stipulate field level, but also
the permitted duration of exposure, which is a function of
the field intensity. The implication here is a dose-related
effect. Thus, the exposure duration in experiments to assess
biological hazards may be an important parameter. Exposure
times noted in reported research are found to vary from a few
minutes to months. Disagreements in comparing the results of
two investigators' work have been noted due to the different
time spans over which the experiments were performed.
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2.4.3 Experimental Control
in ELF Biological Experiments
2.4.3.1 Test and Control Subjects
The purpose of the biological experiments of concern is
to determine whether or not an ELF electromagnetic field stim-
ulus has an effect on the biological organism under study.
The manner in which most investigators determine whether
or not the electromagnetic field produces an effect is to use
two groups of test subjects--only one of which is exposed.
Thus, if the biological parameter being monitored differs be-
tween the two groups in a statistically significant manner,
then the difference is attributed to the field exposure. A
prime requirement of such an experiment is that the stimulus
being used, i.e., the electric or magnetic field, is the only
thing that differs between exposed subjects and control sub-
jects. In order to make a valid comparison between test sub-
jects and control subjects, the conditions for each must be
identical. The manner in which the subjects are handled and
their complete environment other than the stimulus to be
tested are included.
Several experiments which have been reviewed by a peer
group, have been criticized for lack of adequate control sub-
jects. For example, experiments have been criticized when
the test subjects did not receive the same amount of light,
heat, water, or other normal environmental factors as the con-
trol subjects. Some epidemiological studies have been similarly
criticized, when the control subjects performed different types
of work functions than the subjects exposed to electric fields;
for example, the physical exertions were different in the two
groups.
The concern over the maintenance of a common environment
for both the test and control subjects has raised questions of
maintaining the same geomagnetic environment for the control
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and test subjects. For example, when test animals for an
electric field experiment are placed in a cage with metal
ceiling and floor, but the control animals are placed in a
non-metallic cage, the exposure to the two groups by the
earth's electric field will be different. Since some inves-
tigators have noted subtle influences that may be due to the
earth's electric field, questions may be raised on the re-
sults of such an experiment. In experiments using low level
ELF fields, questions also have been raised with respect to
the possibility of co-existing electric fields from, for ex-
ample, electrical equipment within the laboratory, which may
provide a different stimulus for test and control subjects.
2.4.3.2 Field Simulation Considerations
The experimental control factors noted above primarily
deal with insuring that the natural factors involved in the
environment are the same for exposed and control subjects.
The following discusses several aspects of experimental con-
trol from the standpoint of producing the electromagnetic
field environment to which the test subjects are to be ex-
posed.
For laboratory investigations into the effects of elec-
tric or magnetic fields on biological organisms, various field
generating structures are used to simulate the power line
fields. Normally, laboratory production of the electric
fields is accomplished by the use of a parallel plate struc-
ture. The test subject--animal, plant, or human—is situated
between two metal plates of appropriate dimensions. The metal
plates are arranged to be parallel to each other, and separated
by a distance d, in essence forming a parallel plate capacitor.
When a voltage is applied across the two plates by a suitable
source of electrical energy, a field is established between
the two plates. The nominal field produced is the voltage
impressed on the plates divided by the distance separating
the plates.
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In many experiments, the reported field exposure level
was obtained by just dividing the voltage impressed across
the plates by the plate separation, without measuring the
electric field in the space between the plates. In Section
2.1, it was shown that several precautions must be employed
to assure that the field between the plates is a reasonable
approximation to this simple relationship, which ideally only
holds for plates of infinite extent. Objects placed in the
area between the plates can severely distort the field. De-
pending on the particulars of the arrangement, highly non-
uniform fields may exist, with regions having considerably
less or considerably more field than anticipated from the
above simple relationships.
If care is not applied in designing the test setup for
experiments utilizing relatively high field levels, there is
the possibility that corona may be produced due to high field
gradients existing at, for example, sharp corners or protru-
sions. If corona is produced, there is the potential for a
buildup of ozone in the test chamber. High concentrations of
ozone may affect the biological response being monitored. If
a biological response to high ozone concentrations is inter-
preted as a direct response due to the fields, an erroneous
conclusion has been drawn. Similarly, the electric field may
modify the air ion distribution within the test chamber. While
the biological implication of air ions is controversial (Ander-
son, 1972; Krueger, 1972), they should not be ignored if noted
effects are being attributed to the electric field exposure.
There are several other factors associated with perform-
ing electric field exposure experiments, which can influence
the outcome of the experiment and provide an erroneous indi-
cation of a field-dependent effect. Several of these factors
are illustrated in Figure 2.16. The results of several re-
search works have been questioned by reviewers as a result of
the investigator not adequately addressing some of the prob-
lems identified in Figure 2.16.
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In addition to the potential problems noted above with
regard to the plate size, which can produce fields different
than anticipated, an additional problem is illustrated with
regard to the spacing of the field plates. If there is in-
sufficient spacing, a rat or mouse can stand erect beneath
the plates and collect considerably more displacement current
than it would otherwise collect in a free-field exposure, for
the same posture. To prevent problems of this nature, the
plate spacing should be at least three times greater than the
height of the rat when standing erect.
The presence of litter can not only alter the field in-
tensity between the excitation plates and the top of the
litter area, but also can cause localized high field inten-
sities in tiny areas within the litter. The water bottle can
also be electrified and thus induce minor arc discharges into
the test animals, even though an insulated water bottle is
employed. These discharges will tend to inhibit the animal
from drinking water, and the reduced water intake may cause
adverse biological effects. Other effects which might alter
the outcome of the experiment include audible noise or vibra-
tion produced by either the fields acting on the chamber, or
by magnetostriction effects within the transformer used to
develop the voltage across the plates.
Other effects which may influence the outcome of par-
ticular types of experiments include the direct sensing of
the fields, or knowledge of the presence of the fields due
to some secondary cue. Such effects may cause anxiety in
the test subject; and while such anxiety is a result of the
field presence, it cannot be attributed to the currents flow-
ing in the body directly producing an effect.
Some experiments include the assessment of biological
functions which can be monitored electrically. Included are
experiments in which the influence of fields on a subject's
EEC or EGG are being investigated. Such experiments often
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include electrodes that are attached or implanted into the
test subject. Often the electrical leads connecting the test
subject to the monitoring equipment remain in place during
the field exposure. These leads can collect current and en-
hance or distort the fields within the biosystem or the test
chamber.
Guy, 1974, has experimentally demonstrated the profound
effect of electrodes attached to the head of a cat during field
exposure. During microwave illumination of the cats, he showed
that attached electrodes resulted in a complete shift in the
internal power absorption pattern and two orders of magnitude
increase in the absorbed power near the electrode. This pat-
tern shift is illustrated in the thermograms shown in Figure
2.17 of a cat's head with and without an implanted electrode.
Since the thermograms that are shown were obtained for micro-
wave exposures, identical results cannot be expected at ELF;
however, in both frequency ranges electrodes attached to test
subjects should be avoided during field exposure.
Exposed wires can have current induced on them by either
ELF electric or magnetic fields. If such wires are attached
to the test subject, the interpretation and implication of the
test results in terms of quantifiable parameters such as the
field, become very difficult. In reviewing the literature, ex-
periments have been noted where the investigator had consider-
able difficulty in eliminating the effects of signal pickup in
subject-attached wires. The difficulty was noted in connection
with monitoring and recording the biological signal of concern.
However, these same investigators were not concerned by the
added current that might have been induced into the test sub-
ject as a result of the attached wires.
2.4.3.3 Biological Design
In addition to the above noted potential problem areas
associated with the conduct of experiments to determine the
biological effects of electric or magnetic fields, there are
several factors associated with the biological design of
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(A) No Electrode
(B)With Electrode
Fig.2.17 THERMOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF
COAXIAL ELECTRODE ON MICROWAVE ENERGY
ABSORPTION PATTERNS (COURTESY DR. A.GUY)
105
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experiments, which can result in an experiment being ques-
tioned. The National Academy of Sciences, 1977, in reviewing
the results of many research programs, has consolidated sev-
eral specific points which blemish the results of many re-
ported investigations. The points they noted include:
• The sensitivity of the experiment should be ade-
quate to insure a reasonable probability that an
effect would be detected if it existed. This
point includes a variety of factors among which
is the use of an adequate size population for the
particular experiment.
• The experimental and observation techniques, meth-
ods, and conditions should be objective. Blind
scoring should be used whenever there is a possi-
bility of investigator bias; likewise, data analy-
sis should be objective.
• If an effect is claimed, the results should demon-
strate it to an acceptable statistical significance
by application of appropriate tests. (Author: The
same may be true if an effect is not claimed.)
• A given experiment should be internally consis-
tent with respect to the effects of interest.
• The results should be quantifiable and susceptible
to confirmation by other investigators. In the
absence of independent confirmation, a result has
been classified for the purpose of the Committee
on Biosphere Effects on ELF Radiation of the
National Academy of Sciences, as preliminary.
The above discussion has been provided to convey an
awareness that there are many interdisciplinary aspects to
the conduct of experiments involving biological organisms
and electromagnetic fields. Hylten-Cavallius, 1975, pro-
vides additional discussion on the care that must be observed
in the conduct of such experiments.
Since a variety of factors which have been noted above
can influence the outcome of a specific experiment, extreme
care must be exercised in implicating a specific stimulus to
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the noted response. It is of the highest importance to es-
tablish whether biological effects which might be termed
hazardous arise from exposure to ELF fields. However, at-
tributing the effect to one stimulus when it is due to another,
or due to poor experimental planning, provides no useful in-
formation. Similary, if biological interactions do occur but
are not noted due to these same errors, the research has done
no service.
2.4.4 Major Reviews of Published Research
The Federal Register Notice resulted in the submission
of several publications dealing specifically with the bio-
logical effects of electric fields. These submissions in-
cluded published papers or reports which addressed specific
experimental results or surveys. These submissions will be
discussed in the next section.
Since the time when submissions were made in response to
the Federal Register Notice, several important reviews have
been published that deal with the effects of ELF fields on
organisms. Of special significance are the works published
by Bridges, 1975; Shepard and Eisenbud, 1977; National Academy
of Sciences, 1977; and the Seafarer ELF Communication System
Environmental Impact Statement Appendix E, 1977.
These four review works are particularly significant in
that the authors, in reviewing specific research works, have
not accepted the conclusions of the reporting investigators
at face value. Thus, these four works are not just surveys
of published experimental results, but provide critiques for
the purpose of pointing up deficiencies in experimental pro-
tocol or reporting which may make questionable the original
investigators' stated conclusion. Combined, these four pub-
lications address virtually all the important research that
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has been conducted on the subject through at least the 1975
time frame, with many key publications being included in 1977
Due to the extensive nature of these four works, and
their comprehensive coverage of the significant biological
research that has been conducted, this present report will
not attempt to duplicate this coverage. Instead, a brief
overview of each of these works is given in the following
paragraphs, along with the essence of the conclusions stated
by these reviewers.
• Bridges, 1975, Biological Effects of High Voltage
Electric Fields.
This work was based on the review of approximately
800 U.S. and foreign papers pertaining to biological
effects of electrical fields at power line frequencies.
The report specifically references over 90 citations.
A separately bound bibliography includes some 800 cita-
tions which were reduced from a reference list of some
2300 citations.
The report describes the electromagnetic environ-
ment associated with EHV power lines, and compares
these to the natural electromagnetic environment. Also,
colateral and cofactor environments as well as dosimetry
and experimental protocol are discussed. A detailed
review of the literature is provided, with the material
being organized in the following topical areas:
• AC electric field tests on humans
• AC electric field animal tests and studies
• horizontal electric and general magnetic field
studies
• arc discharges via electrification
• medical devices
• fields from HVDC lines
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The author also provides a detailed description
of a suggested short-range research plan as well as a
long-term plan. The author concludes:
Although the great bulk of evidence suggests
that there are no significant biological ef-
fects of electric fields encountered under
extra-high-voltage lines, further research is
needed. Such research will be difficult and
must be carefully done because the need is to
uncover any subtle effects, to prove a negative
hypothesis, and to assure that transmission
technology does indeed protect the public wel-
fare. This report, on the considered recom-
mendations of a workshop comprised of qualified
consultants, identifies and sets priorities for
needed research in this area. The research plan
identifies 23 specific projects which are pre-
sented in detail.
• Shepard and Eisenbud, 1975, Biological Effects of
Electric and Magnetic Fields of Extremely-Low-
Frequency.
This reference text, which is probably the first
of its kind appearing in the English literature, pro-
vides an excellent summary and review of past work and
an excellent introduction to this particular subject
matter. Slightly less than half of the text space is
devoted toward the discussion of the environment and
electromagnetic coupling phenomena. The latter half of
the book is devoted toward a critical review of the
literature available up until early 1976. This work
is also noteworthy for its completeness and objectiv-
ity, and because research reports are included that the
authors often regard as overly speculative or of less
than satisfactory quality. However, these are included
for the sake of completeness and objectivity. A total
of nearly 400 references are separately cited, but with
some duplication. In addition, the authors provide a
tabulation of reviewed papers, noting the field condi-
tions, test subjects, noted effect, and author.
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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In the forward, the authors conclude the following:
It would have been satisfying to be able to
state that this review, which covers several
hundred publications from many countries and
from journals of many disciplines, enables
one to describe exactly and unequivocally, the
health implications of human exposure to low
frequency electric and magnetic fields. Re-
grettably, this is not possible: there is no
evidence that the public health or ecological
systems have been jeopardized in the slightest
by artificial electromagnetic fields. But,
there are still stones unturned, and additional
studies must be undertaken before it will be
possible to state with finality that the matter
is closed.
• Navy Electronics System Command, Seafarer ELF
Communication Systems Draft Environmental Impact
Statement for Site Selection and Test Operations
Appendix E,Biological and Ecological Information,
February 1977.
This document is part of the much larger group of
documents which concern the environmental impact of the
Seafarer ELF Communication System. Specifically addressed
are the electric and magnetic fields relevant to Seafarer
including frequencies of 0-300 Hz, and electric and mag-
netic field strengths up to 100 V/m and 20 G, respectively.
The reported research includes a survey of scientific re-
search which is well-based as well as research results
which apparently are preliminary or tenuous. In addi-
tion to purely field effects, some conduction and medi-
cal electronic aspects are also considered. Persons
interested in transmission line field effects will find
this document of interest because of its very thorough
treatment of magnetic field effects at power frequencies,
and because some purely electric field studies at inten-
sities much higher than that intended for Seafarer are
also considered. Three hundred references are noted.
Ill RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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While detailed conclusions are presented, the gen-
eral conclusions are as follows:
Although research to date does indicate the
existence of some rather diverse and subtle
effects associated with particular types of
ELF exposures, no significant adverse bio-
logical effect has been substantiated, or is
considered probable from Seafarer System Oper-
ation. On the basis of the review of evidence
available, it is concluded that:
No significant adverse effects on human health
or performance associated with Seafarer expo-
sures has been predicted or substantiated;
No significant adverse effect on human ability
to use the environment for livelihood has been
substantiated;
No significant adverse effect on human ability
to use the environment for recreation has been
substantiated;
Research to date indicates it is highly im-
probable that Seafarer Operation will produce
significant and long-lasting biological or
ecological effects detrimental to the pos-
terity of the earth's biological systems.
• National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Biosphere
Effects of Extremely-Low-Frequency Radiation, 1977,
Biological Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields
Associated with Proposed Project Seafarer.
This report summarizes the findings of the Committee
on Biosphere Effects of ELF. The objective was to:
1. assess the adequacy of existing data as a
basis for determining biological and eco-
logical effects due to Seafarer;
2. identify the effects, if any, that may be
of major concern; and
3. identify critical inadequacies in the avail-
able data and to suggest research projects
designed to produce needed data.
Some 17 specialists in biology, zoology, medicine, elec-
trical engineering, participated on the committee, and
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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they were supported by some 38 outside consultants.
Specifically addressed are the biological impact of
Seafarer fields, which are in the order of a few tenths
of a Gauss magnetic field, and electric field intensi-
ties in the order of 100 V/m or less. Owing to the
presence of the time-varying magnetic field, direct
earth conduction shock effects on biological systems
are also considered. The total number of references
cited exceeds 400, but considerable duplications exist
because each section's references are kept separate.
In terms of the Committee's findings, all of the
published data available were reviewed and considered,
including: reports of both negative and positive find-
ings; works which were considered to be conducted on
a firm scientific basis; and those which, at best, could
be considered only pilot or brief investigations.
Some 14 pages of carefully-worded conclusions and
findings are presented, and these should be referred
to directly by those who have a major interest in this
particular area. However, briefly, the conclusions are
as follows: the Committee found no basis for the pos-
sibility of any adverse effects associated in the areas
of genetics, fertility, growth and development, human
serum triglyceride concentrations, circadian rhythms,
behavior (with some exceptions), mammalian neurophysi-
ology and behavior, ecology, plants, and some organisms.
The Committee did recommend substantial design
changes in the Seafarer antenna system which would mini-
mize a highly-improbable, but yet possible, direct con-
duction shock via the horizontal electric fields in the
ground. They qualify their recommendations to include
the continued research in the areas of biophysics, and
physiology of magnetic and electric field detection and
III RESEARCH INSTITUTE
112
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studies related to the behavior of birds, insects,
bacteria, and electrosensitive fish. Further re-
search on the underlying mechanisms of cell division,
information processing and integration in complex
nervous systems, is also recommended.
Summarizing its position, the Committee made
the following statement:
Recognizing the limit of its charge, the
Committee makes no recommendation as to
whether the Seafarer antenna should be con-
structed. It will be up to the citizens
and the government of the United States to
consider the cost, risks, and benefits, as-
sociated with the Seafarer System. The
Committee's charge was to identify and
evaluate possible biological effects. On
the basis of the information available, the
Committee concludes that, except for possi-
ble electric shock hazards, the likelihood
of serious adverse biologic effects of Sea-
farer is very small. In any case, it is
appropriate to recall here that the Navy
presentation at the Committee's first meet-
ing (February 11, 1966), included a pledge
that, 'if a functioning Seafarer antenna
were found to have deleterious effects, its
operation would be discontinued.'
The depth and breadth of material covered in these four
documents, as well as their critical review of specific ex-
perimental evidence, makes them important reading for those
concerned with possible biological effects caused by ELF
fields.
2.4.5 Research Publications Submitted
in Response to Federal Register Notice
As previously noted, a variety of material has been sub-
mitted in response to the Federal Register Notice which deals
directly with reports on biological interactions due to elec-
tromagnetic fields. Table 2.11 presents a summary of the data
and material which was submitted. The table provides infor-
mation on the test subject, investigator, field parameters,
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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biological parameter examined, result, and an identification
of the previously cited major review which provides discussion
of the work.
Of the 16 submissions listed in Table 2.11, nine have
indicated some form of positive result. That is, the inves-
tigator has stated some observable influence due to the ap-
plied field. Although negative results must be viewed with
equal care as positive results, the following paragraphs will
provide a brief discussion on each of the papers or works that
have indicated positive results. The discussions that will be
presented, will summarize the views presented by the previous
reviewers as indicated.
• Asanova and Rakov, 1966
This is a Russian work indicating various effects
on substation workers. Shepard and Eisenbud review this
paper in detail, listing the changes in blood values re-
ported as a result of hematological tests on the subjects.
They note that the authors do not discuss the implica-
tions of the blood findings except to call for more ex-
tensive studies of liver function and blood protein
fractions. They note that since numerical data are
omitted, the statistical or clinical importance of the
noted effects are precluded, and because of the lack of
a control population, it is not possible to draw con-
clusions from this report. They conclude that despite
the flaws, this study is significant in that it has
raised questions of human health effects following pro-
longed exposure, and further epidemiological studies
are indicated. Shepard and Eisenbud also note that
although the reports by Kouwenhoven, 1967, and Singewald,
1972, are sometimes cited as a contradictory finding,
the daily exposure periods, field intensities, and work
duties of the two studies are different.
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Bridges does not review the Asanova and Rakov
article; however, he does review related later papers
by Korobkova, 1972, and Krivova, et al., 1975, and draws
the conclusion that factors other than the electric
field which may be found in the switchyard are probably
of great significance in determining the results re-
ported. He notes that the U.S.S.R. switchyard inves-
tigations did not consider the possibility of low
frequency or infrasonic acoustical noise or vapor
pollutants as being possibly important concomitant
factors.
• Bawin, et al., 1973
This paper has been discussed in both the National
Academy of Sciences work and the Navy's Environmental
Impact Statement. Both reviews note the particularly
strong effects that were observed by Bawin, e_t al. The
experiments were conducted at a frequency, 147 MHz,
which is in the VHP frequency range, which is well above
the ELF frequency range. However, the VHF signal used
in the Bawin study was modulated by an ELF signal in
the brain wave frequency range. The authors believe
that the high frequency radiation acted as a carrier
wave for the ELF signal, which was actually detected by
the cat's brain. The authors ruled out any thermal-
effects and demodulation processes which might occur
at the interface between implanted electrodes and tis-
sue. The National Academy of Sciences' review notes
that the reported effects only occurred when the ELF
modulation was at the same frequency as the intrinsic
brain rhythm "signature," and further notes that such
major modifications in brain rhythms have not been re-
ported for ELF field exposure.
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• Gann and LeFrance, 1974
In this work, Gann and LeFrance examine the ef-
fects of 60 Hz fields on the growth and survival of
cultures of subcutaneous cells of the rat. They
found that there was no noticeable effect due to the
exposure on the cultures at a field intensity of
200 kV/m. However, they found that at a field in-
tensity of 600 kV/m, the cells died. In reviewing
this work, the National Academy of Sciences made note
of the importance of no effects at a field of 200 kV/m.
This field is well above the field to be expected in
the vicinity of EHV transmission lines. The National
Academy of Sciences also notes that with regard to
the effects noted at the 600 kV/m field level, this
may have been due to factors other than the electric
field itself. They note the complications inherent
in performing tests at such field levels, and suggest
that discontinuities in the test setup could have re-
sulted in enhanced fields and possibly corona. The
investigators indicated that secondary effects were
excluded from the experiment; however, the NAS notes
that no indication was provided on how it was deter-
mined that no such secondary effects did indeed occur.
• Hauf, 1974
This research work utilized human test subjects,
who were exposed to various levels of electric field
intensity up to 20 kV/m for a 3 hr test period. The
investigators studied the effects of the field on the
reaction time, blood pressure, pulse, EGG, EEC, blood
status, thrombocyte, reticulocyte, clotting time, and
red cell sedimentation rate. The investigator noted
that the leukocytes, neutrophils, and reticulocytes
showed a slightly greater increase after the field
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exposure than in the controls. He further noted that
the values remained in the normal range and a direct
relation to the field strength could not be shown.
However, in reviewing this work, Shepard and Eisenbud
note that the manner of data presentation makes it
difficult to interpret the author's conclusions and
cautiously suggest that the changes noted in these
parameters may indicate a substantial field effect.
Shepard and Eisenbud further caution that without
more information on the data, it would be unwise to
take the presentation that they give as conclusive
evidence. In a later investigation, a student of
Hauf, Rupilius, 1976, performed similar experiments
utilizing both electric and magnetic field excitation
of the test subjects. Rupilius notes that the slight
increase in leukocytes, neutrophils, and reticulo-
cytes described by Hauf could not be observed as
significant in the experiments that he performed.
Rupilius notes that all values in his experiments
were in the physiological range throughout.
• Johansson, et al., 1972
This work was not reviewed by any of the pre-
viously noted major review works. In this work,
Johansson, et al., studied both the subjective feel-
ings of displeasure and objectively measurable dis-
turbances of the physiological and psychological
functions of volunteer human test subjects under
two different electric field test conditions. The
first test conditions was with a voltage impulse
field simulating that which commonly appears in con-
nection with violent lightning storms, with a crest
gradient on the human head of about 20 kV/m. The
second test condition was for a sinusoidal field
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of approximately 200 V/m, which was swept in frequency
from 3 Hz to 15 Hz, with a repetitive sweep time of
70 seconds. The investigators noted that the test
condition did not lead to any general reduction of
human ability. Yet, a few subjects showed a decrease
in ability and reported feelings of tensions and head-
aches during the impulse field exposure condition.
Since the effects which were noted occurred for con-
ditions which simulated natural phenomena such as
lightning, there is not a direct relationship of this
investigation with the fields that might be anticipated
from power lines. In the test that used sinusoidal
frequencies, which might be more related to the power
line situation, no effects were noted; however, the
field levels used were relatively low.
• Knickerbocker, ejt al. , 1966
In this study, mice were exposed to a very high
level (160 kV/m) electric field for a long duration
(approximately 1500 hours). The effect noted in the
experiment was that the male progeny were consistently
slightly lower in weight than the young of control males
The National Academy of Sciences, in reviewing this
work, notes that due to the high fields that were used,
corona was heard when the exposed animals stood up.
They further noted that the exposed animals did not
drink during the exposure period, because of electric
shocks from the water bottle. Therefore, the exposure
was terminated for short periods to allow the animals
to drink water. The NAS notes that the control animals
had water available ad lib. They also noted that the
exposed and control progeny were kept in different
parts of the room; the exposed group faced a window,
with the opportunities to lose more body heat by ra-
diation, while the controls faced a wall. The authors
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considered the noted weight gain variation as incon-
clusive and suggested additional research.
• Konig, 1962
In this work, Konig investigated the existence
of naturally occurring atmospheric signals in the fre-
quency range of 10 Hz, and investigated the effects of
such signals on living organisms. Konig identifies
natural signals at about 9 Hz that have a sine wave
characteristic, and signals in the 3-5 Hz range that
have an irregular wave shape. Konig correlates the
natural occurrence of these types of signals with human
reaction time and noted that the reaction time improved
during periods when the atmospheric signal had the sinu-
soidal characteristic; and reaction time decreased
during periods when the non-sinusoidal lower-frequency
atmospheric conditions prevailed. Konig reports addi-
tional laboratory tests, using simulated signals simi-
lar to those he noted in nature, to study the effects
on a variety of organisms, including peach leaves,
lice, lactic acid, bacteria, yeast, and wheat germ.
He notes that all of these experiments have made evi-
dent the fact that electrical fields similar to those
which have been recorded in nature can cause effects
of a medical, zoological, and biological nature.
The National Academy of Sciences has reviewed
several of the works reported by Konig, including this
particular work. With regard to this particular work,
the NAS notes that Konig in a later publication pointed
out that these studies were incomplete and lacked
statistical significance. The NAS also questioned the
statistical significance of other results reported by
Konig. The major emphasis in the Konig work is for
frequencies which are considerably below the power
line frequency of 60 Hz.
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• Marino, 1974
Marino reports a series of experiments in which
rats were exposed to a 60 Hz electric field of 15 kV/m.
The investigator reports alterations in serum proteins,
corticoids, and body weights, which he indicates are
consistent with a reaction to an environmental stressor.
Based on these results, the author proposes a tentative
safety level for chronic human exposure to 60 Hz elec-
tric fields of 150 V/m.
This research has been extensively reviewed by
the National Academy of Sciences and Shepard and Eisenbud.
The National Academy of Sciences questioned the author's
conclusion regarding the reported changes in corticosterone
and cortisol, noting that the observed changes were in
the opposite direction usually noted in chronically
stressed animals, while the author attributed this change
to an electric field stressor. The NAS notes differences
in the housing of test and control animals for some ex-
periments as well as other procedural problems, and con-
cludes that it is difficult to see any significant cause
and effect relationship in these experiments.
In reviewing this work, Shepard and Eisenbud note
possible artifacts due to animal housing, cage vibra-
tion, microcurrents and microshocks or field distortions
caused by the metallic feed trough, but notes that these
factors were considered in later experiments by this in-
vestigator. Shepard and Eisenbud also note a variety
of factors which can give rise to changes in corti-
costerone plasma levels and conclude that these levels
are subject to so many influences that caution is re-
quired when interpreting data of this kind. They fur-
ther note that it is not possible to rule out the
possibility of procedural influences contributing to
these results.
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The Marino studies have been the subject of con-
siderable discussion and testimony at hearings before
the State of New York Public Service Commission. These
discussions did not result in any agreement being reached
by the various parties with regard to the significance
of this work, as is evident in the Reply Brief-Common
Record Hearings, 1977. Since this work of Marino has
not been accepted at face value by reviewers (NAS,
Shepard and Eisenbud), and since the work has not been
repeated in other laboratories, under ostensibly iden-
tical conditions, considerable caution appears warranted
in considering the implications of this work.
• Sazanova, 1967
This work appears to be an extension of that re-
ported by Asanova and Rakov, 1966, in which the influence
of the environment in 400-500 kV switchyards on main-
tenance staff were investigated. This work and that of
Asanova and Rakov appear to form the basis for the paper
by Korobkova, 1972, in which rules were set forth that
limit the duration that U.S.S.R. maintenance personnel
can remain in various levels of electric field. The
Sazanova study utilized two groups of personnel. The
first, which were maintenance personnel, worked in the
electric field no less than 5 hr per shift. The second
group were operating personnel, who worked in the elec-
tric field not more than 2 hr per shift. The investi-
gator reports central nervous sytem changes and
physiological changes in the maintenance staff that
were not observed in the operating personnel. Based on
the investigation, the author concludes that the extent
of functional change in the organism is in direct de-
pendence upon the duration of work under conditions
of the action of electric fields, that is, changes in-
voked by the field proceed in a cumulative fashion.
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This conclusion was apparently the stimulus for the
dose-related work rules as noted in Korobkova.
As noted in the discussion of the Asanova and
Rakov paper, the Russian works have been criticized.
The National Academy of Sciences states that these
works do not provide adequate field measurement and
exposure data. The NAS further notes that the heart
rate differences at the end of the day for the two
groups appear to be due to increases in rate for the
operating personnel, rather than to the maintenance
personnel, whose rates were essentially unchanged.
They also note that the average blood pressure of the
maintenance personnel, while being lower than that of
the operating personnel, may have been due to differing
physical conditions of the two groups or other factors.
They also note that the Sazanova work did not indicate
that 1) the two groups were similar in age, sex, physi-
cal condition, and other pertinent characteristics;
and 2) that the work environment for the two groups
was similar in all respects except for the presence
or absence of the electric field.
Thus, the NAS does not accept this work on the
basis that it does not meet the criterion for a well-
controlled epidemiological study. That is, the con-
trol group should be comparable with the exposed group
in all relevant characteristics, except for the exposure
itself. They place the burden of demonstrating that a
study has met these requirements on the report of the
investigation. The NAS report concludes that on the
basis of the Eastern European and Soviet studies, there
is little reason to be concerned that these fields have
adverse effects. And, that because these symptoms that
have been noted are also caused by many other occupa-
tional and physiological factors, it is not possible to
establish a cause/effect relationship.
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Bridges, 1975, in reviewing colateral factors such
as the acoustical environment, points out that the ef-
fects observed by the Soviets were for workers within
switchyards near transformers. He further notes that
experiments with high level acoustical noise, in the
10-100 Hz frequency range, result in responses including
headaches, coughing, visual blurring, and fatigue, which
are similar to the symptoms attributed by the Soviets to
electric field effects on switchyard workers. He notes
that magnetostriction within substation transformers
creates acoustical infrasonic energy, and questions the
conclusions reached by the Soviet workers, since they
provided no indication of the acoustical level which
existed in the switchyard environment of the maintenance
workers.
It can be seen from the discussions of the above bio-
logical investigations, that various reviewers have not ac-
cepted the investigators' stated conclusions at face value.
It is possible that the reviewers' conclusions are not, in
all cases, correct either, since they are often working on
the basis of poorly written research papers or reports that
inadequately describe all relevant aspects of the experiment.
The common consensus of these reviewers appears to be that
the burden of proof is on the investigator in the reporting
of his findings. Since such a large variety of factors can
influence the outcome of an experiment, the major reviewers
appear to take the stand that the investigator must not only
present his results, but must provide adequate information
to insure that the noted effect is indeed the result of the
cited stimulus.
2.4.6 State of New York Public Service Commission--
Common Record Hearings
On 24 November 1974, the examiners for the State of
New York Public Service Commission ruled that two active
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cases, applying for a Certificate of Environmental Compati-
bility and Public Need to construct transmission lines, be
merged for the purpose of investigating health and safety
questions on a common record. The two cases were PSC No.
26529--Power Authority of the State of New York, and PSC
No. 26559--Rochester Gas and Electric Corporation and Niagara
Mohawk Power Corporation.
The Common Hearings on Health and Safety for these two
cases extended to July 1977. The specific issues addressed
in these hearings were audible noise, ozone, induced electric
current shocks, and electromagnetic and electrostatic field
effects. The transcript of these hearings continues for al-
most 14,000 pages. '
The Commission has issued an order allowing construction
of the PASNY line, but reserved the option of allowing appro-
priate and necessary modifications or to impose reasonable
restrictions on the operation of the line.
In, response to the EPA Federal Register Notice, the tran-
scripts of direct testimony of several expert witnesses were
submitted. In addition, since the Federal Register Notice
submittals, parties in the Hearings have prepared initial
Briefs and Reply Briefs at the close of the Hearings.
The portions of the Hearings and subsequent Briefs deal-
ing with the biological effects of extremely-low-frequency
fields are relevant to this section of this report. However,
due to the extent of the material presented at the New York
Hearings, it appears inappropriate for this document to at-
tempt any form of detailed discussion of the issues addressed,
points raised, evidence presented, or the arguments and
counter-arguments. Instead, in the next few paragraphs, a
very brief overview of the conflicting positions is presented.
The discussion that will be presented is principally based on
the Initial Briefs--Common Record Hearings: Nixon, Hargrave,
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Devans and Doyle, 1977; Simpson, 1977; Patrick and Feirstein,
1977; and the Reply Briefs--Common Record Hearings: Terry,
1977; Bennett, 1977; Simpson, 1977; Sassone, 1977; Marino,
1977. Specific citations of these Briefs will not be made
in the discussion.
The viewpoint presented in the Hearings by the Applicants
holds that only evidence which is relevant to the situation
under consideration needs to be considered. This relevancy
limits the frequencies of concern to the near region of 60 Hz,
thus excluding "non-relevant" interactions at, for example,
microwave or RF frequencies. A second aspect of relevancy is
with regard to the field conditions. The Applicants' view-
point is that only experimental evidence that is in the range
of field levels to be anticipated from the transmission lines
(B £ 0.5 gauss, E <_ 10 kV/m) is relevant.
The applicants also hold that there are only two known
mechanisms in which electromagnetic fields can induce effects
or cause harm. These two mechanisms are Joule heating and
cell excitation by neuron firing. They contend that these
two mechanisms are very well understood and can be analyti-
cally modeled, and that beyond this there can only be specu-
lation.
With regard to heating, it is contended that simple
calculations show that even in very large 60 Hz fields, gross
heating effects are negligible for humans, since the induced
thermal flux is negligible compared to the background bio-
logical thermal flux; thus, the body temperature rise will
be negligible.
With regard to cell excitation and neuron firing, esti-
mates of the required electric field thresholds may be ob-
tained from a variety of sources: nerve clamp experiments,
exposures of fish with special current channeling and de-
tecting organs, measurements on artificial simulations and
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indirect measurements on exposed organisms. The Applicants
note that the results of analyzing data from these sources
support the notion that a significant threshold for single
neuron firing exists at a current density level of about
2
0.1 mA/cm . Routine calculation shows that the induced cur-
rent density levels produced in humans by 765 kV transmission
line E field exposure will be significantly less than this
level. Since the Applicants' viewpoint holds that below the
threshold for a single neuron firing there can be no neuro-
logical effect, it follows that these fields are not a bio-
logical threat.
*
The point of view presented by witnesses for Staff, holds
that beyond the two effect categories of the Applicants' view-
point, there exist other effects that are usually character-
ized by lower thresholds of current density or E field, but
which appear only after long (chronic) exposure of subjects.
They argue that experimental models founded on single neuron
threshold firing levels do not apply to the lower thresholds
for at least two reasons: nerve levels (states) are more com-
plicated than merely fire/no-fire levels—and an organism is
a network of neurons wherein the behavior of the network to
E field stresses differs from that of a single neuron. They
also seem to argue that effects need not even be mediated via
neuron firing. In support of this position, witness Henshaw
submitted that
A subthreshold electrical stimulus unquestionably
can alter the sensitivity of a cell to subsequent
stimuli—it is generally recognized that an elec-
tric stimulus insufficient to cause an action po-
tential nonetheless can cause a change in the
resting potential of the nerve, causing an altered
sensitivity to subsequent stimuli.
The Staff witnesses argue that the Applicants cannot
dismiss the roughly 60 experiments cited in support of the
position that the electric and magnetic fields of the
proposed transmission line will probably cause biological
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effects in people chronically exposed to them. They note
that the evidence must be acceptable since it represents the
work of diverse research teams .and because many of the reports
have been published in prestigious referenced scientific jour-
nals. They contend that since the effects have been observed,
they cannot be presumed to be safe, when the mechanism trig-
gering the biological response is unknown. And further, ex-
posing people to the fields from the line without informing
them of the potential hazard is similar to human experimenta-
tion.
The Applicants dismissed the cited experimental evi-
dence by: citing similar null experiments; dismissing many
as not meeting the relevancy criteria; noting faulty experi-
mental protocol or interpretation; noting conflicts or in-
consistencies in the reported results; pointing out that
some of the observed effects were within the normal range of
biological variability; and noting that virtually none have
been independently substantiated in other laboratories.
In response to the charge that the experiments that they
cite are inconsistent, the Staff witnesses argued that the
apparent inconsistencies are merely the result of preconcep-
tions of how effects should depend on exposure. Higher field
levels need not always lead to larger effects. Experiments
cannot all be directly compared, because all the relevant
variables have not been replicated. That is, in the absence
of a theoretical model that would relate dose to effect, there
is no mechanism to reliably predict the effects of dose; and
even though the data may appear to violate intuition, this
is not a serious concern.
In reviewing the material from the New York Hearings
concerning biological interactions of ELF electromagnetic
fields, the polarization of the two viewpoints is evident.
Both sides have a firm conviction in their own viewpoint and
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a rigid unacceptance of the evidence presented by the "other
side." The unacceptance extends to severe criticisms of the
credibility of various witnesses with opposing views.
The Commission has concluded that "the facilities will
have the minimum adverse environmental impact, considering
the state of available technology and the nature and economics
of all the variable alternatives." However, judgments may
still be made that could have significant economical impact--
for example, with regard to the width of right-of-way; the
closeness of dwellings; or other restrictions of the use of
the property.
The manner in which reported research findings were criti-
cally appraised at the Hearings, strengthens the need for re-
searchers to heed the guidelines set-forth in the National
Academy of Sciences document with regard to the conduct and
reporting of such research. Very few would question the need
for additional research. However, if the research, when com-
pleted, is not accepted by major segments of the knowledgeable
scientific community, it does little service.
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3. ELECTRIC DISCHARGE PHENOMENA
The formation of corona on transmission line conductors
gives rise to several side effects which have caused various
degrees of concern and have been investigated analytically,
in the laboratory and in the field. The three side-effects
which accompany the production of corona are the generation
of gaseous effluents, principally ozone, the generation of
audible noise and the generation of radio frequency noise.
These three aspects of corona will be discussed in following
sections.
3.1 Discharge Mechanisms
The elemental aspects of corona related discharge are
described in the following paragraphs. Corona arises due to
the actions of electrons, air atoms and ions under the in-
fluence of strong electric fields. Electrons and air ions
are either attracted by or repelled from the line conductors
depending on the polarity of the conductor charge.
When the conductor is negative, free electrons move away
from it. If the electric field at the conductor surface is
sufficiently intense, the electrons gain enough energy to form
positive ions and release additional electrons due to colli-
sions with neutral air atoms. The collision of electrons with
atoms is a multiplicative process, with two electrons resulting
from each collision. Further away from the conductor, the free
electrons, after losing energy, may combine with neutral atoms,
thus producing negative ions.
When the conductor is positive, the electrons are drawn
toward the conductor and absorbed by it. Since the electrons
are highly mobile in relation to the ions, a cloud of positive
ions is left behind. The CIGRE Working Group 36.01, 1974,
notes that the positive ions thus formed result in a positively
charged protrusion from the conductor, which leads to the forma-
tion of a new avalanche ahead of the preceding one. They note
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that this process of ionization propagates away from the con-
ductor much further than the avalanches of negative polarity.
The positive avalanche is called a streamer.
The ion production process is not constant, since the
ions modify the local field about the conductor. Thus, when
sufficient ions are produced in the near vicinity of the con-
ductor, the field is reduced to the point where the electrons
no longer gain enough energy for the multiplication process.
After a short period of time, the field sweeps away the ions
and the process can begin again.
The self limiting nature of the process results in the
electron current flow from the conductor occurring in bursts
or pulses. The pulses of current flow can be quite short,
e.g., with duration in the tens of nanosecond range. The
pulse current and pulse repetition rate are a function of
the local field intensity.
Since the collision and ionization process changes as a
function of conductor polarity and the local field intensity,
different distinct modes of corona can be produced. Several
different modes may occur at different times during a single
cycle of the 60 Hz voltage on the conductor.
The current flow from the conductor during corona produc-
tion represents a loss of power to the transmission system.
The high frequency pulse-like nature of the avalanche current
flow gives rise to electromagnetic fields which can couple to
nearby communications receiving antennas, being evidenced as
noise in the receiver output. The moving corona-produced air
ions also cause varying air pressure in the vicinity of the
conductor, which can be audibly heard as noise, and causes
conductor vibration.
For practically designed EHV transmission lines, corona
is principally a foul weather phenomenon. Corona that is pro-
duced during fair weather, for aged conductors is largely
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caused by airborne particles such as dust or bird droppings.
When such particles are on the line they cause locally high
voltage gradients and thus local points of corona. The sur-
face state of the conductor influences the manner in which
water drops adhere or distribute on the line, thus influencing
foul weather corona performance.
In the design of an EHV transmission line, many compro-
mises must be made with regard to the corona side effects.
While the loss of power which occurs due to corona is of im-
portance to the power industry, the Transmission Line Reference
Book, 345 kV and Above notes that as line voltages are in-
creased corona loss considerations become secondary to the
audible and radio noise produced by the corona.
Considerable research has been conducted into the various
side effects of transmission line electrical discharge phe-
nomenon. Those side effects of most importance to the public
are the subjects of the following three sections.
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3.2 Ozone Production by Transmission Lines
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.1.1 Sources of Ozone and Related Oxidants
There are at least three categories of ozone formation
which are of interest: (1) photochemical formation in the
stratosphere; (2) photochemical production near the earth;
and (3) ozone generation associated with electrical discharges.
Ozone is formed in the upper atmosphere when solar ultra-
violet light causes the disassociation of the oxygen molecules.
Originally, it was believed that such a process does not con-
tribute substantially to the ozone concentrations found near
the ground; however, more recent data indicates that this may
not be true; see Coffey and Stansik, 1974, 1975.
Significant amounts of ozone are believed to be formed
near the ground by the action of ultraviolet radiation with
the gaseous emissions of combustion processes, such as auto-
mobile exhaust gases, Scherer, e_t al. , 1973. Stansik and
Coffey, 1974, suggest that contributions may also arise from
hydrocarbons emitted from natural sources. In this process,
the ozone concentrations tend to be much greater during periods
of intense sunlight that are coincident with meteorological
conditions which allow accumulation of industrial and auto-
motive industrial waste gases, such as during an inversion.
It has been known for many years that electrical arcs
and corona discharges from electrical apparatus can create
ozone and, to a minor extent, other gases such as oxides of
nitrogen. The process is quite complex and is generally
rather inefficient in terms of total energy required during
actual process versus theoretical limit.
Production of nitrogen oxides is more difficult elec-
trically in the corona discharge, since higher electron
energies are required. Thus, the yield of NO is substan-
X
tially less than the yield of ozone.
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Since ozone is one of the most reactive compounds known,
its concentration will continually decrease unless additional
ozone is generated or transported to the area. The presence
of oxides of nitrogen, some spray can propellants, carbon
tetrachloride and other sources of chlorine and bromine can
accelerate the recombination of ozone both near and well above
the earth's surface. Near the earth's surface, vegetation
and other material can act to reduce the concentration.
Thus, the ozone concentration in any given area is a
delicate balance between the ozone formed or transported and
the destruction of ozone in that area. The decay rate of
ozone, and the factors which affect the rate, are of interest
in predicting ozone buildups near the transmission lines.
3.2.1.2 Natural Distribution and Concentration
Ozone has been recognized as a significant air pollutant
in urban areas, but it has not been until recently that good
comparative measurements over wide areas have been developed
over a year's time. Recent papers by Stasiuk and Coffey,
1974, 1975, discuss measurements in both urban and rural
sites. These show a daily variation of the ozone concen-
trations in the urban areas which, surprisingly, do not occur
in the rural areas. The diurnal variations in the metropoli-
tan areas suggest the presence of some element which acceler-
ates the recombination process during nighttime. Typical
ozone concentrations measured on rural mountain top locations
during the late summer months range from 30 ppb (parts per bil-
lion) to 102 ppb. In the urban areas, the maximum hourly aver-
age ozone concentration ranged from 30 ppb to 124 ppb. Note that
the maximum values in both the rural (in this case, two mountain
tops) and urban areas exceeded the air quality standard of 80 ppb
as stated in the National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Photochemical Oxidants. It is suggested
that the higher rural ozone levels are not primarily due to
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the transport of ozone and ozone precursors from other urban
areas, but could be due to naturally occurring phenomena,
such as photochemical generation from non-man-made precursors
or the transport of ozone from the stratosphere to the tropo-
sphere.
3.2.1.3 Historical Aspects
It has been known for a long time that ozone is generated
from electrical corona and arc discharges. This property has
been utilized for commercial ozone generators and ozonizers.
The fact that transmission lines might generate ozone was
considered in 1956 for the first time in conjunction with
radio and TV interference tests on transmission lines in a
publication by Newell and Warburton, 1956. Liao, Keen and
Powell, 1957, investigated corona and radio influence phenomena
of thin wires in cylindrical cages and noted that ozone had to
be removed by the continuous introduction of fresh air.
In the design of the early EHV lines, the ozone genera-
tion was not considered to be a major problem. While ozone
is usually noticeable by smell in high-voltage laboratories
during repetitive testing, it was not noticed near some of
the early high voltage lines and stations. A typical person
can detect the smell of ozone in concentrations as low as
20 to 50 ppb until he becomes acclimated. This provided
fairly good evidence that the overhead transmission lines
would not create environmental ozone problem. This conclu-
sion was supported by simple analyses during the preliminary
design for some early EHV transmission lines.
Unfortunately, various episodes associated with air pol-
lution in general occurred in 1948 at Donora, Pennsylvania,
and in 1952 in London. Although the problems were air pol-
lution from sources clearly not associated with power lines,
these episodes and others have created an acute awareness of
the air pollution problems. Consequently, the question of
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generation of any pollutant, and ozone in particular, by EHV
transmission lines, has been raised as a part of this general
environmental issue. Foremost in the raising of public con-
cern over these issues were the allegations presented in
Young, 1973, that significant ozone at ground level might
be expected from EHV transmission lines.
In order to resolve this problem, the American Electric
Power Service Corporation sponsored an extensive program of
research in 1970 and 1971 to determine if gaseous products
from 765 kV transmission lines could cause environmental prob-
lems. Other power companies, such as Commonwealth Edison,
initiated field studies in about this same time frame. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency also sponsored labora-
tory and analytical studies in this time period.
Past studies have approached the development of the con-
centration of ozone near transmission lines in a sequential
manner involving laboratory studies and analyses, which are
then confirmed by means of field measurements. The corona
losses associated with transmission lines are determined and
then the efficiency with which ozone and other oxide gases
are generated is determined. Once the amount of gas near the
conductor is determined in terms of the conductor geometry
and operating voltages, the atmospheric diffusion character-
istics and ozone decay properties are investigated to deter-
mine the possible ground-level concentrations. Hopefully,
the final result would be confirmed by a series of field
tests. Following the sequence of this scheme, the work is
reviewed in terms of three major areas:
1. laboratory measurements;
2. prediction; and
3. field measurements.
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3.2.2 Laboratory Measurements
Laboratory measurements of the production of ozone as a
function of corona loss, expressed in terms of the conductor
voltage gradient, conductor geometries, operating voltages,
and meteorological parameters have been reported in a series
of six papers. The most comprehensive study was that re-
ported by Scherer, Ware and Shih, 1973. This paper reported
the results of a comprehensive program involving laboratory
prediction and field measurements. The laboratory work was
conducted by Ion Physics Corporation, American Electric Power
at Canton, Ohio and Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Pre-
liminary results of a detailed laboratory study are reported
by Sebo, e_t al. , 1972, on a program conducted for American
Electric Power by the staff at Ohio State. Roach, et al.,
1974, summarizes extensive laboratory and analytical work
conducted by Westinghouse. Frydman and Shih, 1974, report
additional studies on the effects of the environment on ozone
production which are based on tests conducted at American
Electric Power Service Corporation's Canton laboratory. The
more recent paper by Sebo, et al., 1975, provides a compre-
hensive summary of the laboratory work conducted at Ohio State
University on ozone production rates for a variety of conductor
geometries and weather conditions. Whitmore and Durfee, 1973,
investigated wind and humidity effects on a program sponsored
by the EPA, and presented results comparable to those reported
by Scherer.
The above laboratory studies established the ozone pro-
duction rate as a function of conductor geometry, operating
voltages and simulated weather conditions. The following
general conclusions were noted.
1. The ozone production rate W (usually expressed
in grams 03 per killowatt hour of corona loss,
or pounds of 03 per killowatt hour) is a func-
tion of temperature and humidity, following the
relationship
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W = Aexp - i- + £
T , H
B C
where
T is the temperature
H is the humidity
A and B depend on conductor diameter
C is a constant.
Thus, the ozone production rate decreases with
increasing temperature and humidity.
2. For otherwise identical situations, the pro-
duction rate decreases with an increase in
conductor diameter.
3. The ozone production rate increases during
rain. Rain causes the appearance of positive
corona streamers, and positive streamers re-
sult in greater ozone production rate (W).
Heavy rain causes a higher ozone production
rate than does light rain.
4. The ozone production rate is affected by the
air flow rate, with the production rate de-
creasing as the air flow rate increases, at
least for smaller conductors.
5. For dry conductors the ozone production rate
increases very rapidly with the conductor
surface voltage gradient and corona loss
when positive corona streamers are first
formed. However, for further increases in
the voltage gradient at the conductor sur-
face, the ozone production rate tends to
become nearly a constant.
6. The ozone production rate for rain condi-
tions does not appear to be a strong func-
tion of either the conductor surface voltage
gradient or the corona power loss.
7. The average ozone production rate over many
conditions is (1/235) Ib/kWh.
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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8. The half-life of ozone was observed, on one
experiment, to be approximately 10 minutes.
Under more carefully controlled conditions,
the half-life was 45 minutes and, under con-
ditions of a water spray, was 27 minutes.
9. Once ozone is formed, it has a tendency to
diffuse upward, possibly from convection
currents introduced by local conductor
heating.
10. The nitrogen oxide production rate is roughly
I/10th that for ozone.
3.2.3 Analytical Prediction
Based on laboratory measurements, the analytical pre-
diction of ozone concentrations near high voltage transmission
lines has been considered in papers and reports by Scherer,
e_t al. , 1973; by Roach, e_t al. , 1974; by Whitmore, e_t al. ,
1973; and by Snow, et al., 1976.
Essentially, the experimentally determined ozone pro-
duction rates over an incremental section of the overhead
conductors is used in diffusion studies to determine how the
ozone diffuses or propagates to regions near the ground. Air
diffusion models which have been developed over the last half
century are used. However, to use these models for ozone dif-
fusion from extended transmission lines, some unrealistic as-
sumptions must be made, such as a very low velocity wind
prevailing in one fixed and arbitrary direction over very
long periods of time during inclement weather. In addition,
the recombination rate of the ozone is also important, par-
ticularly during precipitation, but is not known. The earlier
calculations did not consider decay rates, which tend to re-
duce ground level ozone concentrations; thus, the predictions
resulted in unrealistically high ozone levels.
Two limiting cases are considered, that is, where the
wind is perpendicular to the transmission line, and where the
wind blows parallel to the transmission lines. It is evident
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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that in the latter case, for very low non-turbulent wind con-
ditions blowing parallel to the transmission line, a progres-
sive accumulation along the line might occur under certain
idealized and hypothetical conditions. Even under idealized
conditions, certain data necessary for a precise calculation
is missing, such as the recombination time of ozone under
conditions of precipitation. Further, the hypothetical case
in which the wind blows in a constant direction with an in-
variant very low velocity parallel to the line under condi-
tions of heavy precipitation seldom, if ever, occurs. (The
ozone generation at the conductor is maximum during heavy
rain.) The actual variations of these meteorological para-
meters must be considered before a realistic assessment or
calculation can be made.
A sample calculation for ozone concentrations, based on
hypothetical weather conditions, is presented in Scherer,
e_t al, 1973. The calculation is based on an assumed corona
loss level and production efficiency of the effluents, in-
corporated with the EHV transmission line configurations.
The key parameters are:
Operating Voltage: 765 kV rms line-line
Line Height: 75 feet average (22.86 m)
Total Line Height: Transverse wind, infinite
longitudinal wind, 2.5
miles (4 km)
Production rate
of Total Oxidant: 0.08 oz/kWh*(2.27 g/kWh)
Foul-weather
corona loss: (1) 79 kW/mi-3 phase
(49 kW/km-3 phase)
(2) 135 kW/mi-3 phase
(83.7 kW/km-3 phase)
The results of the maximum ground level concentrations of the
total oxidants are summarized as follows:
*ounce or gram per kilowatt-hour
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Table 3.1
CALCULATED MAXIMUM GROUND-LEVEL
OZONE CONCENTRATIONS
Transverse Wind Speed
(mph)
Maximum Concentration
(ppb)
(1)
1 0.7
2 0.3
4 0.2
10 1.0
Longitudinal Wind Speed Maximum
(mph)
(1)
1 11.3
2 5.7
4 2.8
10 1.1
(2)
1.2
0.6
0.3
0.1
Concentration
(ppb)
(2)
19.3
9.7
4.9
1.9
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The authors state that the maximum concentrations for the
longitudinal wind case should probably be reduced by a fac-
tor of 4, since the diffusion calculations for the parallel
wind conditions are sensitive to the length of the line (or
the constancy of direction of the wind). The reduction of
ozone concentration due to recombination was not included
in this analysis.
Whitmore, e_t al. , 1973, has made rough analytical esti-
mates of the ozone contributed by power lines, and reports
that transmission lines appear to contribute only minimally
to local ozone levels in areas where transmission lines exist.
The plume dispersion theory and lab development of ozone
production rates have been used for most estimates of the
ozone concentrations near transmission lines. The more ac-
curate estimates are for the wind perpendicular to the trans-
mission line. Unfortunately, the most important case is the
one in which ozone can be progressively concentrated by a
wind blowing parallel to the transmission line. In this in-
stance, the inaccuracies embedded in assumptions are cumula-
tive as well, and generally tend to increase calculated values
As a consequence, parallel wind calculations made to date may
be regarded as plausible upper bounds subject to downward
revision.
In evaluating the environmental considerations for two
proposed 765 kV lines for the Detroit Edison Company, Shah,
1973, plots the anticipated ozone concentration profile for
the two proposed lines under the "worst possible weather con-
ditions." His predictions are shown as Figure 3.1, which has
been extracted from the cited report.
The calculations made with the plume dispersion model
also have another potentially serious limitation. The usual
dispersion model, which includes eddy diffusion due to the
wind, contains a factor, Q/v, where Q is the ozone generation
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Edge Of
Right-Of-Way
10 Minute Average Concentration
8 Hour Average Concentration
4OO 800 1200 1600 2000 24OO 2000
Laterial Distance From 1 Of Right-Of-Way (Ft.)
3200 36OO
3.1 LATERIAL OZONE CONCENTRATION LEVELS OF TWO 765kV
DECO LINES (FROM SHAH, 1973)
143
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rate in grams per second or pounds per second, and v is the
wind velocity. If v is made arbitrarily small, then one can
calculate very large values of Q/v, and hence large concen-
trations of ozone. However, the model is not valid for very
small v.
One reason for the invalidity is that these models do
not take into account the ozone recombination. Another reason
is that for very low values of v the air flow will be laminar,
and there will be no eddies. Snow, Shiau and Bridges, 1976,
have theoretically investigated the ozone concentrations near
transmission lines for the zero wind condition by using molec-
ular diffusion theory. The results of this analysis show that
significant amounts of ozone concentrations are not likely at
ground level, even assuming periods of absolutely still air
for as long as 54 hours. Figure 3.2 shows a theoretical curve
extracted from Snow, e_t al. , 1976.
This curve is based on calculations for a single wire
that assumes:
• the ozone production rate is constant at 1/279
Ib/kWh (this is slightly less than the average
value of 1/235 Ib/kWh given in Sebo, et al.,
1975);
• the corona loss is 30 kW/mile;
• the ozone is dispersed away from the transmission
line into the air with a diffusion constant of
D = 0.13 cm2/second;
• the ozone recombination rate half-life is 27
minutes.
The curve of Figure 3.2 shows negligible concentrations of
ozone and the limiting effect caused by ozone recombination.
The corona loss value used in these predictions are ap-
proximately a factor of 5 less than the value of 84 kW/km for
three phase 765 kV transmission lines under foul weather con-
ditions, as given by Sebo, 1975. Increasing the values shown
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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in Figure 3.2 to account for this difference in assumed corona
loss should not affect the basic conclusion that the ozone con-
centration under the no-wind condition should be no more than
a few parts per billion.
3.2.4 Field Measurements
Results of six measurement programs concerning the field
measurement of ozone from overhead EHV lines are summarized
in Table 3.2. In general, all measurements were capable of
resolving concentrations on the order of 2 ppb to 5 ppb out
of an ambient which generally ranged from 20 to 60 ppb. Also
note that these represent the measurements of five separate
groups, three of which were not connected with or sponsored
by the power industry. Some of the measurements were con-
ducted over at least a two year period of time at fixed lo-
cations , whereas others were conducted in a variety of
locations over shorter intervals. A typical procedure is to
determine the ambient levels by locating measurement sites
well away from or upwind of the power line, and then compar-
ing these results for locations near to or downwind from the
line. The conclusions of all of these studies were that the
power line provided no significant addition to the ozone con-
centration in the area. During one preliminary study, only
one measurement indicated a higher ozone concentration and
this could not be repeated.
In responding to the Federal Register Notice, Young,
1975, noted that many reported ozone field tests were con-
ducted while the lines were operated 8 to 1070 below the rated
voltage. The results on ozone generation by Sebo, 1975, indi-
cate that the ozone production rate is rather independent of
both the conductor gradient and the corona loss under foul
weather conditions. Under fair weather conditions, the normal
design voltage of the line should not produce significant
positive streamers. Thus, by the considerations presented
III RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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in Sebo, 1975, the ozone production should be rather insensi-
tive to small changes in surface gradient.
3.2.5 Measurement Methods
Until about 1970, ozone monitoring instruments depended
on the reaction of ozone with an aqueous potassium iodide
solution. The potassium iodide solution would also react
with other oxidants to record a total oxidant concentration.
Certain other gases, i.e., sulfur dioxide, could negatively
affect the indicated ozone concentration. Within the past
five years, other instruments have been developed which mea-
sure ozone in terms of certain of its unique properties.
Two gases, nitrogen oxide (NO) and ethylene (02^) react with
ozone to emit light in proportion to the amount of ozone
reacting. This chemiluminescence principle is the basis for
a number of instruments currently being manufactured. Ozone
absorbs a specific band of ultraviolet light. This charac-
teristic has been developed into another technique for mea-
suring ozone in a 1 or 2 ppb range.
Currently, there are at least ten manufacturers con-
structing ozone monitoring equipment based on the above prin-
ciples. Each particular instrument will have certain advantages
and disadvantages. None can be considered perfect. All are
subject to interference by other gases or particulate matter
to some degree. Suggested maintenance and servicing vary with
the instruments, sensing components, and the sampling system.
Accuracies of + 2 ppb are claimed by the manufacturers, but
only under ideal conditions such as might be obtained in the
laboratory. Field experience has shown that instrument "A"
does not always read the same as instrument "B"; it might read
higher or lower depending on atmospheric conditions. Studies
have been made to provide "correction factors" for certain in-
struments compared to the so-called prime standard. Yet these
correction factors may not always be applicable to field
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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measurements made at low ozone levels (10-80 ppb), because
the instruments themselves can vary up to 8 ppb, when sampling
a constant ozone supply.
3.2.6 Conclusions
There are two major biological reasons why ozone is of
concern: (1) the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere
with the possible health consequences associated with in-
creased ultraviolet light (such as skin cancer) near the
earth's surface, and (2) the biological effects of abnormal
concentration of ozone near the earth's surface. Only the
latter is of interest in discussing power line effects. The
effects of ozone and similar oxidants on humans, animals and
vegetation has been presented in detail by the U.S. Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, 1970. This forms the basis
for the National Primary Air Quality Standard for photochemical
oxidants of an 80 ppb maximum one-hour arithmetic mean con-
centration not to be exceeded once a year.
The ozone values predicted by both Scherer, e_t al. , 1973,
and Roach, e_t al. , 1974, based on laboratory measurements and
diffusion analyses, are in the order of 1 ppb or less for the
transverse wind. Since the best measurement accuracy for con-
ducted field tests was in the order of 2 ppb, the more accurate
theoretical predictions and measurements results to date are
self-consistent. Predictions by Snow, ejt al. , 1976, for the
zero-wind condition indicate that problems should not be en-
countered for this special case, even for abnormally long pe-
riods of -calm.
The view that ozone problems are not likely to occur from
EHV transmission lines is supported in testimony in behalf of
the New York State Attorney General at the New York State Public
Service Commission Hearings by Leone, 1975, and Carroll, 1976.
Leone addresses the ozone effects on vegetation and concludes
that for the maximum predicted concentrations from 765 kV
(IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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transmission lines, no appreciable effect on New York State
vegetation should be expected. Carroll testifies concerning
the effect of ozone on animals and man. He concludes that
animals which have been tested show effects similar to those
described for humans, and that he does not believe that the
estimated ozone concentrations from transmission lines will
have any demonstrable effect on human health.
In the initial Brief by Staff, at the termination of the
Common Record Hearings on Health and Safety of 765 kV Trans-
mission Lines before the State of New York Public Service
Commission, Simpson, 1977, provides a summary of the ozone
related testimony. He notes that no significant adverse im-
pact was predicted by any witness in the hearings. Simpson
concludes that--"while such"--ozone related-"research may
prove interesting, Staff believes that the priority for it
must be regarded as low."
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3.3 Audible Noise
3.3.1 Introduction
Audible noise (often indicated as AN) is considered to be
the limiting design parameter for the design of transmission
lines for voltages of 500 kV or over, as noted in the Trans-
mission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above, 1975. The elec-
tric power companies and appropriate groups of the IEEE have
recongized the problem and have sponsored and performed con-
siderable work in this area. Measurement and analysis of
transmission line acoustic noise has been a part of several
major programs, such as General Electric's Project UHV spon-
sored by EPRI; Westinghouse's Apple Grove Project, partially
sponsored by American Electric Power Corp. (AEP); and Bonneville
Power Administration (BPA) The Dalles Project (EHVDC) also spon-
sored by EPRI. Other measurements and analyses have been con-
ducted on behalf of various parties to the New York State Public
Service Commission Hearing concerning a proposed EHVAC line.
The Institute de Recherce de 1'Hydro Quebec (IREG) has also been
active in this area. University studies exclusively concerned
with acoustical noise have been funded at Oregon State Univer-
sity by BPA and at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by
AEP. More recently, studies of the human response to transmis-
sion line noise have been initiated at the National Bureau of
Standards by the Energy Research and Development Administration
(ERDA)*, and at Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., by EPRI.
Acoustic noise from transmission lines is, like oxidant
production and radio frequency interference, related to the
corona loss along the line. EHV transmission lines are designed
to be essentially corona-free under fair weather conditions.
However, during periods when the transmission line becomes
covered with droplets of moisture, such as during rain, snow,
or fog conditions, the corona process is enhanced and audible
noise is produced.
*Now Department of Energy
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3.3.1.1 Noise Generation Mechanisms
During rain or fog, many water drop corona sources are
formed on the transmission line conductors. These water drops
constitute the prime source of audible noise from EHV trans-
mission lines. Figure 3.3 (from Scherer, H. N., Ware, B. J.,
1976) provides a simple illustration of the formation of corona
and audible noise due to a water drop on the underside of a
transmission line conductor. Step (a) shows the shape of the
water drop without electric stress. Step (b) shows the water
drop deformed by the electric field, such that corona forms
at the end of the drop, where the stress is highest. In step
(c), the water drop breaks up and one portion departs from
the conductor causing a streamer in the resultant air gap.
The nature of the sound associated with step (b) is probably
one of hissing or humming, and the sound associated with step
(c) is likened to a snapping, sputtering, or cracking.
The humming sound from the corona is primarily at 120 Hz
and its harmonics. The alternating voltage excitation of the
conductor and the threshold nature of corona, result in the
corona being produced during short periods during each cycle
when the voltage gradient at the discharge site exceeds the
corona onset value. The acoustic energy of a positive streamer
is much greater than for a negative streamer; however, the
average acoustic energies generated in the two half-cycles
of the ac line voltage may be comparable. (Trinh, N. G.,
1975). Thus the acoustic noise has predominant components
at multiples of 120 Hz. Audible noise frequency components
in the range of 2-5 Hz are also produced by corona-induced
vibration of the conductor (Transmission Line Reference Book,
345 kV and Above, 1975).
3.3.1.2 Quantifying Noise
The basic unit used to measure sound is the sound pressure
2
in newtons per square meter (N/m ). Since human beings can
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sense sounds over a large dynamic range, sound levels (S.L.)
are usually expressed in terms of decibels (dB) relative to
_ c o
2x10 N/m , which is considered to be the threshold of hear-
ing. The sound level in dB (S.L.) may be determined by:
S.L. = 20 Iog10 (Sound Pressure in N/m2 / 20xlO~6 N/m2)
3.3.1.2.1 Weighting Networks
The human ear does not have a consistent response over
the audio frequency range for a given sound pressure; conse-
quently, weighting factors have been developed to take into
account the variations in response. An instrument that mea-
sures the weighted sum of all the components of a noise is
the sound level meter. The weighting is performed by an elec-
trical network in the sound level meter. The weighting net-
work attenuates some frequency components of the noise more
than others to approximate the varying perceived loudness to
the human auditory system. There are several weighting net-
works specified by the American National Standards Institute,
1971. Typical frequency-response curves of weighting networks
that meet the limits specified by this reference are shown in
Figure 3.4 (as curves A, B, and C) , Readings taken with A or B
networks are not strictly sound pressure levels because of
the weighting; they are therefore termed sound levels.
As shown in Figure 3.4, the C network discriminates only
against very low and very high frequencies, and is flat be-
tween 20 and 4000 Hz.
The A scale is used most frequently to represent the re-
sponse of the human ear to ordinary noise sources. It is the
standard reference for occupational noise exposure and many
derived, statistical units. Sound levels measured using the
A-weighting are normally expressed in decibels relative to the
-5 2
reference sound pressure; PQ = 2x10 N/m . The decibel sound
pressure is designated by L. or dB (A), where
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LA = 10 Iog10 (PA/PQ2) (dB)
and P. is the A-weighted sound pressure fluctuation.
3.3.1.2.2 Frequency Analysis
Another method of classifying the frequency composition
of a noise consists of dividing the frequency spectrum into
various octave or 1/3 octave bands, an octave being the band
between any two frequencies having a ratio of 2:1.
The newer and more commonly used set of standard octave
bands is defined by center frequencies as follows: 31.5, 63,
125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, and 16,000 Hz.
Octave bands are satisfactory from the viewpoint of speci-
fication but are often too wide for practical work in noise
control. A complex noise source often has individual sources
producing more than one frequency of noise within a particular
octave. Therefore, a narrower frequency bandwidth is required
to provide adequate definition of the noise produced. Standard
bands which are essentially one-third octaves have been devel-
oped to meet this need. The one-third octave is sufficiently
narrow to define the noise source adequately for most noise
control work. Octave or 1/3 octave band frequency analysis
can be made with or without using a weighting network.
3.3.1.2.3 Accounting for Time
Much of the noise to which people are exposed is not con-
stant with time. Thus, the A-weighted level which, for exam-
ple, might be displayed on a chart recording, would not be a
constant with time. The recorded line would indicate that the
received sound level varies with time, the variations being
dependent on the nature of the sound-producing source.
Since the sound level varies with time, standardized pro-
cedures have been developed to express the time variability.
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For example, a dB(A) level can be found which is exceeded
507o or 9070 or 1070 of the measuring time. These levels are
then denoted L^Q, LgQ, or LIQ. In assessing how annoying a
noise is to people, both the average sound level and the
range of fluctuation is important.
A single number representation of the equivalent A-
weighted noise level over the measurement time is denoted by
L (also measured with an A-weighted network) . Leq is the
equivalent steady noise level which would contain the same
noise energy as the time varying noise during the same ob-
servation period. Mathematically, Leq is given by
Leq = 10 Iog[l/t2-t1) / PA(t)/PQ dt]
tl
and is expressed in dB(A); where to"*1! ^s t*le measurement pe-
riod, ?A(t) is the A-weighted time varying pressure level and
PQ is the reference. The time period for the analysis (t2~t^)
can vary with the application, but for many standards is over
an 8 or 24 hour period.
Since people respond to noise differently during the day
than during sleeping hours, procedures have evolved for weight-
ing the night-time noise more heavily. Typically, the night-
time noise is given a 10 dB penalty between 10 pm and 7 am.
The equivalent A-weighted sound level during a 24 hour period
with a 10 dB weighting applied to nighttime sounds is denoted
L, , and is also measured with the A-weighting scale.
Several other rating schemes have been developed for evalu-
ating different noises according to one aspect or another of
peoples' subjective response to the noise (see U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development, Report TE/NA172) . Many of
these may be applicable to assessing the influence of power
line acoustic noise on the subjective response of people.
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However, most of the available assessments are based on the
more commonly accepted A-weighted characterizations discussed
above.
3.3.1.3 Ambient Non-Power-Line Environments
The natural sources of acoustic noise in the environment
are myriad. There is some noise associated with all movement
or mechanical stressing of materials; and in the normal en-
vironment surrounding transmission lines, the major noise
source is wind acting upon fixed objects. Some additional
noise will be from animals or insects, but this contribution
may be small. The background noise will, of course, be highly
unpredictable since it is dependent upon many variables, such
as weather conditions. Therefore, the natural background noise
may vary from a minimum under still, calm conditions to a maxi-
mum under conditions of a thunderstorm or windstorm where there
is thunder, heavy rain, and high winds. The extreme variabil-
ity of these conditions makes statistical prediction of the
background noise at any particular location an extremely com-
plicated matter.
In addition, the man-made environment also contributes to
the background noise levels. All sorts of operating vehicles
have intense noise associated with them. Manufacturing facil-
ities can produce high levels of noise in the surrounding area.
There are also background noises--people shouting or talking--
and noise sources associated with residential areas, such as
power mowers or radios. Table 3.3 and Figure 3.5 show the range
of the sound levels normally encountered in common environments.
The wide range of sound levels to which people are exposed is
not limited to occurrences outside the home. Table 3.4 (from
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974) shows a summary of
sound levels measured inside 12 homes by the EPA. These mea-
surements specifically excluded areas where the noise resulted
from freeways and aircraft. In fact, the internal L, and L,
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QUALITATIVE
DESCRIPTIONS
DAY-NIGHT
SOUND LEVEL
(decibels)
-90-
OUTDOOR LOCATIONS
City Noise
(Downtown major
metropolis)
M
H
2
W
O
M
CO
W
Small Town
ja quiet
"" suburban
X LOS ANGELES--3*""floor apartment next
to freeway
LOS ANGELES--3/4mile from touchdown
at major airport
LQS ANGELES--Downtown with some
, construction activity
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-80-
—70-
TOM--Row housing on major avenue
WATTS — 8 miles from touchdown at
major airport
gr NEWPORT- -3. Smiles from takeoff at
* t •
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X X LOS ANGELES- -Old residential area
'
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X^, FILLMORE--Small town cul-de-sac
-50\ SAN DIEGO--Wooded residential
™ CALIFORNIA—Tomato field on farm
—40-
Fig. 3.5 OUTDOOR DAY-NIGHT SOUND LEVEL IN dB
re: 20 micropascals (20 micronewtons
per square meter) AT VARIOUS LOCATIONS
(EPA, 1974)
160
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Table 3.4
COMPARISON OF INTERNAL AND OUTDOOR SOUND LEVELS IN
LIVING AREAS AT 12 HOMES
(U.S. EPA, 1974)
Outdoors :
Average
Standard Deviation
Daytime
Sound Level
(Ld) in dB
57.7
3.1
j Nighttime
1 Sound Level
| (Ld) in dB
s
i
! 49.8
4.6
Day-Night
Sound Level
(Ld) in dB
58.8
3.6
Indoors:
Average
Standard Deviation
59.4
5.6
46.9
8.7
60.4
5.9
Differences:
Outdoors Minus Indoors
-1.7
2.9
-1.6
!IT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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(daytime levels) were slightly higher than those measured
outdoors, despite the apparent 18 dB or more average sound
level reduction due to the houses.
The EPA has summarized the estimates of the L, exposures
for the urban population as shown in Table 3.5. The median
L, value for the 134 million urban population is 59 dB(A).
The majority of the remaining population, residing in rural
or other non-urban areas is estimated to have outdoor L,
values ranging between 35 and 50 dB(A).(U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1974).
3.3.2 Standards and Guidelines
There are several documented guidelines and standards
which have been promulgated or proposed to protect the public
health and welfare from environmental noise. None of these
documents specifically accounts for any special characteristics
which may be inherent in the acoustic noise from power lines.
In fact, the data used to generate these documents generally
does not include power line noise or studies relating to the
subjective reaction to such noise.
3.3.2.1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has pub-
lished (1974) a document entitled Information on Levels of
Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and
Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety. The document
identifies levels to protect public health and welfare for
a large number of situations. The presented levels are not
to be construed as standards as they do not take into account
cost or feasibility. The states and other political sub-
divisions retain rights and authority for primary responsi-
bility to control the use of noise sources and the levels of
noise to be permitted in their environments. The levels iden-
tified provide State and local governments, as well as the
Federal Government and the private sector, with an informational
point of departure for the purpose of decision-making.
ilT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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The EPA levels document extensively uses the A-weighted
energy equivalent sound levels L and L, to define the pro-
tection of the public. L^ is weighted by 10 dB during the
hours 10 pm to 7 am.
The EPA has determined that virtually the entire U.S.
population will be protected against hearing loss from inter-
mittent noise if Leq/24) is ^ess tnan 70 dB- Tne document
identifies levels of interference with human activity for the
protection of health and welfare. Speech interference has
been identified as the primary interference of noise with
human activities. It is one of the primary reasons for ad-
verse community reactions to long-term annoyance. The 10 dB
nighttime weighting (and, hence, the term Ljn) is applied to
give adequate weight to all of the other adverse effects on
activity interference.
The EPA identifies an Ldn of 45 dB indoors and 55 dB out-
doors in residential areas as the maximum levels below which
no effects on public health and welfare occur due to inter-
ference with speech or other activity. Table 3.6 summarizes
the effects associated with an outdoor day-night sound level
of 55 dB. The relation used by the EPA for reduction in sound
level between outdoors and indoors is 15 dB (which is the ave-
rage sound attenuation and assumes partly-open windows). The
expected indoor daytime level for a typical neighborhood which
has an outdoor L, of 55 dB is approximately 40 dB, whereas
the nighttime indoor level is approximately 32 dB.
3.3.2.2 U.S. Department of Housing
and Urban Development
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
has prepared a booklet, Noise Assessment Guidelines, HUD TE/NA
171, and another, Noise Assessment Guidelines Technical Back-
ground , HUD TE/NA 172, which sets forth guidelines to provide
a "suitable living environment." Table 3.7 presents the HUD
interim standard for general external noise exposures. A
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Table 3.6
SUMMARY OF HUMAN EFFECTS IN TERMS OF SPEECH COMMUNICATION,
COMMUNITY REACTION, COMPLAINTS, ANNOYANCE AND
ATTITUDE TOWARDS AREA ASSOCIATED WITH AN OUTDOOR DAY/NIGHT
SOUND LEVEL OF 55 dB re 20 MICROPASCALS
(U.S. EPA, 1974)
Type of Effect
Magnitude of Effect
Speech - Indoors
- Outdoors
Average Community Reaction
Complaints
Annoyance
Attitudes Towards Area
17o dependent on attitude and other
non-level related factors
177o dependent on attitude and other
non-level related factors
Noise essentially the least impor-
tant of various factors
1007o sentence intelligibility (av-
erage) with a 5 dB margin of safety
1007o sentence intelligibility (av-
erage) at 0.35 meters
997o sentence intelligibility (av-
erage) at 1.0 meters
957o sentence intelligibility (av-
erage) at 3.5 meters
None evident; 7 dB below level of
significant "complaints and threats
of legal action" and at least 16 dB
below "vigorous action" (attitudes
and other non-level related factors
may affect this result)
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Table 3.7
EXTERNAL NOISE EXPOSURE STANDARDS FOR NEW CONSTRUCTION
(U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, TE/NA 172)
GENERAL EXTERNAL EXPOSURES
dB(A)
Unacceptable
Exceeds 80 db(A) 60 minutes
per 24 hours
Exceeds 75 dB(A) 8 hours
per 24 hours
Discretionary--Normally Unacceptable
Exceeds 65 dB(A) 8 hours
per 24 hours
Loud repetitive sounds on site
Discretionary--Normally Acceptable
Does not exceed 65 dB(A) more
than 8 hours per 24 hours
Acceptable
Does not exceed 45 dB(A) more
than 30 minutes per 24 hours
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proposed alternate format for HUD's interim acceptability cri-
teria is presented in Figure 3,6. This alternate format ex-
presses acceptability in terms of the cumulative probability
distribution of the noise exposure.
The HUD interim standard for interior sleeping quarters,
where noise is due to exterior noise sources and interior
building sources, lists the noise levels as "acceptable" if
they
• do not exceed 55 dB(A) for more than an
accumulation of 60 minutes in any 24 hour
period;
• do not exceed 45 dB(A) for more than 30
minutes during nighttime sleeping hours
from 11 pm to 7 am; and
• do not exceed 45 dB(A) for more than an
accumulation of eight hours in any 24
hour day.
3.3.2.3 States and Municipalities
The states of Illinois and New Jersey were the first two
states to adopt statewide noise emission limitations based on
land use and activity. The state laws employ octave band
analysis and dB(A) limits for each land use category and have
day/night provisions.
New Jersey regulation has established that between 7:00 am
and 10:00 pm 65 dB(A) is the level above which a violation can
be cited. As of 1976, for the hours of between 10:00 pm and
7:00 am, the New Jersey Act protects residential properties by
establishing a property line level of 50 dB(A).
New York State has proposed noise regulations which limit
the daytime sound level in residential areas to 65 dB(A). Dur-
ing nighttime hours (11:00 pm to 7:00 am) in areas where people
sleep, the proposed regulation limits the outdoors sound level
to 45 dB(A). In addition, restrictions are to be placed on the
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Jj
J
X
Jj
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h-
Z
UJ
UJ
a.
CLEARLY
UNACCEPTABLE
NORMALLY
UNACCEPTABLE
NORMALLY
ACCEPTABLE
CLEARLY
ACCEPTABLE
60
A-LEVEL (dB)
FIG. 3.6 PROPOSED ALTERNATIVE FORMAT FOR HUD'S
CRITERION FOR NON-AIRCRAFT NOISE
168
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octave band sound pressure levels (to prevent unusual sound
spectra), 1/3 octave band sound pressure levels (to prevent
excessive pure tones), and peak sound pressure levels (for
impulsive sounds). This proposed regulation and its relation
to power lines has been discussed by Driscoll and Haag, 1974.
A summary of existing municipal noise ordinances in 1973,
by Bragdon, 1974, showed an average (68 cities) fixed source
sound level of 59 dB(A) which was not to be exceeded at resi-
dential district boundaries for nighttime use.
3.3.3 Quantifying Transmission Line Acoustic Noise
The study of acoustic noise from EHV transmission lines
has been the outgrowth of other corona-related investigations.
The earlier investigations into acoustic noise, were conducted
in the laboratory, where investigations into radio frequency
noise and corona loss effects were being conducted. More re-
cently, comprehensive studies on full-scale three-phase test
lines at the Apple Grove 750 kV test project have been con-
ducted (Kolcio, e_t al. , 1973). These laboratory and extensive
field tests provided basic information which could be used by
the designers of transmission lines to account for various de-
sign alternatives on the production of acoustic noise. While
these studies provide the basis for most predictions, data from
existing EHV lines is being accumulated by individual power com-
panies and is being submitted to the IEEE, who is accumulating
a data base on acoustic noise from operating transmission lines.
3.3.3.1 Laboratory Studies
One of the first groups to report on acoustical noise from
transmission lines was Taylor, e_t al. , 1969. These investigators
conducted tests on the EHV corona performance of lines and had
considered some acoustic noise generation effects. The major
emphasis in this work was RI (Radio Interference) and corona
loss. Some consideration was given to reducing all corona ef-
fects by increasing the number of conductors and the individual
conductor diameters.
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In the 1970-71 time frame, the results of several labora-
tory studies were published. Juette and Zaffanella, 1970, pub-
lished data from the General Electric Project UHV. Based on
measurements of RI and AN (Audible Noise) measurements on some
four conductor test cages, under various weather conditions and
voltage gradients, the authors postulated an experimental rela-
tionship between RI and the acoustic noise levels. Pokorny,
Schlomann, and Barnes, 1972, published the results of a study of
the effects of the number of subconductors in a bundle, the diameter
of the subconductors in the bundle, and the applied voltage, on the
production of both AN and RI. These authors developed a universal
curve of AN as a function of the difference between the applied
voltage and the noise starting voltage. These authors also
noted a decided saturation effect which came into play at higher
surface gradients. Laboratory tests reported by Shankle, 1971,
showed that audible noise on conductors increases with the size
of the conductor for the same gradients, and also increases with
the number of subconductors in a bundle for the same gradients
and subconductor size. In normal transmission line design, how-
ever, the gradient is not a fixed parameter, but varies with the
subconductor number and diameter.
The work at Project UHV resulted in publications by Comber
and Zaffanella, 1973, 1974, which presented a semi-empirical
method of predicting the acoustic noise generated by transmission
lines. These papers indicated that the acoustic noise perform-
ance of a three-phase line could be predicted by using single-
phase test cage data, and they laid the foundation for the
prediction of acoustical noise. The procedures of Comber and
Zaffanella were refined and appear as Chapter 6 of the Trans-
mission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above, 1975.
The audible noise chapter of the Transmission Line Reference
Book, 345 kV and Above describes the nature of the noise and the
techniques for its measurements. The procedures to evaluate the
audible noise of any practical transmission line configuration
are shown in detail with equations and charts for an easy, direct
evaluation. The evaluation of the random noise component of the
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audible sound, defined through the dB(A) representation, under
heavy rain conditions, can be calculated by use of the presented
equations and curves, by a series of seven steps. Examples are
also presented on the use of the methodology. The authors also
present the methodology for determining the level of the 120 Hz
hum of regular bundles in heavy rain.
3.3.3.2 Field Studies
Audible noise experience with their first 500 kV conductor
prompted the Bonneville Power Administration to conduct labora-
tory investigations into the effects of certain design parameters
on the audible noise level. The BPA found little correlation
between field measured audible noise levels and those predicted
from the laboratory tests. In an effort to resolve the dis-
crepancies, the BPA constructed a three-phase test line. The
results of tests conducted on this line and from operating
transmission lines were reported by Perry, 1971. The tests
using this line for various subconductor diameters and numbers
permitted the investigators to draw a variety of conclusions,
including the validity of using short three-phase test spans
to determine accurately the audible noise performance of a
transmission line. Under simulated 735 kV operation, Perry
determined the A-weighted sound level at 100 ft from the center
phase during rain to be 52.9 dB.
Likely, the most comprehensive field data collection ef-
fort to date was the Apple Grove 750 kV test project, which
was a joint investigation by the American Electric Power Serv-
ice Corporation and Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Work
on this program was reported by Kolcio, el: al. , 1973. This
paper reports the acoustic noise results for the three test
lines available at Apple Grove. The three lines used different
sized conductors in a four conductor bundle configuration. The
paper cites that 26,400 out of 200,000 all-weather records were
used to develop an audible noise performance curve for the test
lines. Also, a correlation is given of simultaneous readings
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of audible noise, radio noise, and corona loss. The audible
noise results from these tests are presented in a large num-
ber of curves of audible noise frequency spectrum for the
various lines under various conditions. It was noted that
the data presented was obtained without heating current ap-
plied to the line. Past experience showed that conductor
heating, as is the case when power is being supplied to a
load by the line, results in the prevention of water conden-
sation during light fog conditions and speeds up drying after
rain and fog. In essence, the conductor heating should re-
duce the audible noise level during fog.
Based on the Apple Grove data, Byron, 1974, provides
estimates of the audible noise level near a typical 765 kV
transmission line. These estimates are presented in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8
AUDIBLE NOISE MEASUREMENTS
(Byron, 1974)
Heavy rain Upper level, 56 dB(A)
Rain Mean level, 53 dB(A)
Fog Mean level, 51 dB(A)
Fair weather Mean level, 37 dB(A)
The data in this table are for a location at the edge of the
right-of-way. Results of a study conducted by Truax, 1972,
compared a four-conductor bundle with 1.427 inch subconductors
with a six-conductor bundle using 1.108 inch conductors. At
a distance of 140 ft from the tower center line, the four-
conductor bundle resulted in an audible noise of 58.5 dB(A),
while the six-conductor bundle produced an audible noise of
51.5 dB(A).
A more recent summary of the Apple Grove test data by
Scherer and Ware, 1976, is presented in Table 3.9. The table
shows the results of data obtained over a two year period at
775 kV. Over 160,000 audible noise records were analyzed and
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Table 3.9
COMPARISON OF THE MEAN AND 95% "A" WEIGHTED LEVELS
FOR ONE YEAR AND TWO YEAR DATA
(Scherer and Ware, 1976)
dB(A)
RAIN LINE A
B
C
ONE YEAR
MEAN 95%
56
57
62
^
FOG LINE A
B
C
FAIR LINE A i
B
C
49
49
59
43
40
55
59
TWO YEARS
j MEAN
i 54
59 • 56.5
64
61
i
i
60 i 49
59
62
49
46
57
49.5
59
41
40
54
95%
57
59
63
59
58
62
52 j
47
58
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of these 58,000 were during rain, snow, and fog. The table
shows the data for the three test line configurations and
shows the mean level and the level that the noise is below
for 95% of the time.
3.3.4 Impact of Transmission Line Audible Noise
The extensive laboratory and field work that has been
conducted has resulted in a good understanding of the audible
noise levels which will be produced by a transmission line of
a particular configuration and voltage. However, the ability
to predict the audible noise during the design phase of a
transmission line, or the ability to accurately measure the
noise produced by an existing line, are only a part of the
overall problem. The noise must be related to its impact on
people. The noise standards and guidelines which have been
discussed, are an attempt to establish noise level limits
which will protect the public health and not provide signifi-
cant annoyance or nuisance to people under its influence.
The existing standards and guidelines are not consistent with-
in themselves as a group. In addition, these standards and
guidelines have been developed from a vast existing data base
of noise levels and the response of humans to the noise from
sources that do not have spectral or temporal characteristics
similar to the noise produced by the transmission lines. Thus,
considerable controversy exists over the application of such
standards and guidelines to the noise produced by power lines.
3.3.4.1 Subjective Surveys
One approach to assessing the effect of power line noise
on people is to ask those living near existing power lines for
their reaction to the noise. Another slightly different method
is to register or record the complaints of people residing near
the power lines. Neither of these two approaches is very sci-
entific, and many other factors can come into play in deter-
mining the person's response. For example, the person's response
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to the audible noise produced by the power line, can be sig-
nificantly influenced by his feeling about the presence of
the power line, e.g., his experience with the construction
crews who installed the line, his satisfaction with the fi-
nancial arrangements made with the power company in their
acquisition of the rights-of-way, and so on.
From the standpoint of complaints of existing EHV lines,
testimony by Cohen, 1976, at the New York Hearings related
the experience of Hydro-Quebec on this matter. Cohen stated
that Hydro-Quebec had ten years of operating experience with
735 kV transmission lines with over 2500 miles of 735 kV line
currently in service. He stated that the Hydro-Quebec criterion
for audible noise was 50 dB(A) at the edge of the right-of-
way under heavy rain conditions. He further stated that there
were over 500 homes which are located within 100 ft of the edge
of the right-of-way, and that not a single audible noise com-
plaint had been made at any time during the entire history of
their 735 kV operation.
Information submitted in response to the Federal Register
Notice, concerning surveys of persons living near existing
power lines do not shed much light on the impact of the line
audible noise on these persons. Busby, et al., 1974, reported
on a field survey of farmer experience with 765 kV transmission
lines. In this survey, 18 farmers responded to a questionnaire.
No specific questions on the questionnaire involved audible
noise; however, after the survey sheet was completed by the
survey team, additional questions were asked. One question
was, "Does the noise of the line bother you?" In reporting
the results of the survey, under the heading of noise, it is
stated that five of the 18 mentioned noise, especially during
periods of rain, snow, or fog. Thus, the survey does not pro-
vide a good insight into the farmers' reaction to the line
noise. Similarly, a survey undertaken by Upstate Citizens
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for Safe Energy Transmission (UPSET), 1975, the results of
which were supplied in response to the Federal Register Notice,
also does not provide a very good indication of how the line
noise affects people. It is reported that all 12 persons sur-
veyed reported that the lines made noise, describing it as a
buzz, sizzle, hum, hiss, or zap, with the noise increasing
during damp, humid weather. This shows that people near the
line can hear the noise; however, it does not provide any in-
sight into whether or not the noise really disturbs the people
or interferes with important functions such as verbal communi-
cations or sleep.
3.3.4.2 Use of Available Data
The prediction of the audible noise levels to be expected
from a transmission line under various weather conditions can
be agreed upon quite well by the scientific community. How-
ever, determining the effect that this noise level will have
on people, or how to apply the available data as a function of
time in assessing compliance with available noise level guide-
lines, is a subject of controversy. The lack of agreement as
to how to treat available data and predictions is aptly demon-
strated by the lack of agreement between various witnesses at
the New York State Public Service Commission Hearings.
In assessing the levels to be anticipated from the pro-
posed 765 kV transmission lines, witnesses relied upon the data
available from Project UHV and the testing at Apple Grove. Al-
though some disagreement existed on the levels to be anticipated
during fog conditions, the differences were resolved by ac-
knowledging the differences in respective definitions of fog.
The two areas of interference with human activities were iden-
tified as interference with speech and interference with sleep.
While complete agreement was not reached on the interference
to speech, the major controversy centered on the possible ef-
fects of the line noise on sleep. The dichotomy of opinions
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ranged from the view of Pearsons, 1976, who presented calcu-
lations to show that the line adequately adhered to the EPA
levels document, and thus would not interfere with sleep, to
that of witness Driscoll, 1975, who concluded that from his
calculations, incidence of sleep interference may extend to
900 ft from the center of the transmission line during heavy
fog or snow.
Although the various methods of treating the available
data produced significantly different results, the most sa-
lient disagreements existed in two areas. The first is whether
the L or L,-0 level obtained from the transmission line during
the worst case weather conditions, i.e., during heavy rain,
should be used for assessing the likely interference of sleep;
or whether L, values should be used. Disagreement existed
on whether L, should be obtained by averaging the line noise
obtained during rain over a 24 hr period, or whether the L,
should be obtained by averaging on an annual basis over all
weather conditions.
A second major disagreement existed in how much attenua-
tion should be attributed to the sound entering into the sleep-
ing quarters through a partially opened window. The estimates
used by different witnesses ranged from a worst case low of
10 dB attenuation to 19 dB attenuation.
The level of noise used as a threshold for sleep disturb-
ance was 35 dB(A); however, some parties felt that this was
quite conservative and may not be indicative of a level for
sleep disturbance for all types of sounds. That is, the more
or less steady sound of the transmission line audible noise
may not produce the same response as vehicle traffic having
the same equivalent sound level. Other factors which were
not felt to be adequately represented in the various analyses
presented included the masking effects of wind and rain noise.
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Thus, although audible noise levels can be anticipated
from EHV transmission lines, it appears that the prediction
of these levels is reasonably well understood. However, the
use of these levels to predict the human response is not well
agreed upon.
3.3.4.3 Psychoacoustics
The problem of assessing the human response to the type
of audible noise created by corona on high voltage transmission
lines has been recognized and was the subject of a workshop
sponsored by the IEEE, in 1974. Papers and discussions pre-
sented at this workshop evidenced that the general public re-
sponds to the acoustic noise from EHV transmission lines in
a different manner than to other common manmade noises, like
traffic or airplanes.
Wells, 1974, points out that a possible explanation is
that the annoyance due to AN from power lines is not measured
very well by using the sound rating systems presently in com-
mon use. He points out that the dB(B) is a somewhat better
choice than the dB(A) sound measure, from a subjective stand-
point. By means of examples, Wells also shows that special
purpose rating scales like the Noise Pollution Level (NPL) or
Traffic Noise Index (TNI) are not suitable for taking into ac-
count the problem of random time variations of the noise. He
suggests that another rating, such as the Noise Complaint Po-
tential (NCP) may provide a much better means for taking into
account the time variability of the noise.
In addition, Wells concludes:
1. the value of a reasonably precise basic measure
lies in the fact that if limits are set using a
poor measure, a transmission line that exceeds
the specified limit may actually be rated by
listeners as much as 10 dB, or more, less ob-
jectionable than one which does not exceed the
limit;
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2. as far as actual human reaction to this type
of noise is concerned, the analysis of the
subjective effects of time variability is ex-
pected to be more critical than the actual
choice of a basic measure; and
3. it is suggested that definitive research ef-
fort be undertaken to determine the optimum
method of rating the time variability of such
noise.
In the same workshop, Bragdon and Miller, 1974, review
the salient characteristics of power line noise and compare
the dB(A) levels of AN to other environmental noise levels.
Their conclusions are:
1. The intensity of corona noise relative to
other environmental noise sources is rela-
tively minor.
2. Currently, the linear mileage exposure to
high voltage lines (500 kV and above) com-
pared to other environmental noise sources
constitutes a small degree of exposure.
3. Corona audible noise is generally audible
only during rain or fog, a condition which
greatly reduces its environmental impact.
4. Compared to other environmental sources,
corona audible noise maintains relatively
stable high frequency responses, in con-
trast to other sources, which experience
a decrease in response above 2-5 kHz. At
low frequencies, the response is similar
to other environmental sources.
5. Theoretically, corona audible noise func-
tions as a line source. The fluctuating
temporal characteristics (during rain) also
result in spatial variations.
6. The fluctuations (L!0 - 90) of corona audi-
ble noise are greater than most environ-
mental noise sources. In addition, corona
noise is characterized by a rapid rate of
change of fluctuations, while other noise
source variations are "slow" with respect
to the response time of the human ear.
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Although the present acoustical impact of power
transmission lines appears to be minor, as the
consumer demand for electrical energy increases,
there will be a greater requirement for high
voltage power lines. This demand will potentially
increase population and land use exposure, which
may result in a greater community impact.
A panel discussion at the Psychoacoustics Workshop served
as the focal point for airing ideas and questions raised during
the workshop sessions. A summary of the panel discussions was
prepared by the session chairman, Janischewsky, 1974. Impor-
tant points brought out in the summary included the recounting
that existing or proposed regulations on audible noise are
normally developed with noise sources such as traffic and in-
dustry in mind. Until the noise from power lines is further
studied, regulations imposed could be expected to poorly fit
the needs of power lines. Inadequacies of present regulations
with respect to audible noise from transmission lines include
not accounting properly for the slow variation with time of
the noise, which is weather-related and does not depend on
the time of day. Another aspect of noise from transmission
line corona that is not taken into consideration in present
day regulations is the masking effect caused by the rain.
There are indications that the effect of noise from the trans-
mission lines is reduced during the rain because it is masked
by the noise caused by raindrops hitting objects on the ground.
A useful purpose would be served when a specific measure suit-
able for description of annoyance from audible noise caused by
transmission line corona would be developed.
As noted in the introduction to this section, two research
programs are now underway to provide a more definitive assess-
ment of the influence of transmission line audible noise on
people. These two efforts, sponsored by ERDA and EPRI, will
hopefully provide needed basic information on the acceptable
noise from transmission lines.
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3.4 Radio and Television Interference
3.4.1 Introduction
Radio noise and television interference are corona re-
lated phenomena. The problems associated with radio inter-
ference were not seriously addressed until the late 1940's,
with the advent of operating voltages in excess of 250 kilo-
volts. Rorden, 1952, notes that the study of this question
was started by the Bonneville Power Administration during the
war emergency, when short supply of materials created demand
for extreme economy. Rorden also makes another point, which
has been accepted in transmission line design since that time.
He notes that it would be impractical to use conductors that
are not in continuous corona in rain.
As the operating voltages increased, radio interference
became an important factor in the many compromises necessary
in the design of the transmission line, and the choice of the
route as well. The level of radio interference that is gen-
erated by a transmission line, is a highly complex function
of many parameters including atmospheric conditions, conduc-
tor size, number of conductors per bundle, operating voltage,
and others. Understanding the nature of radio interference,
and its relation to specific line parameters, such that the
line can be designed to minimize interference problems, has
taken many years.
As the transmission line voltages were increased, many
studies were conducted, and considerable data was gathered.
Lippert, e_t al. , 1958, report extensive tests at the 500 kV
level for the American Gas and Electric Company, in which the
RI characteristics of bundled conductors consisting of 2, 3,
and 4 subconductors were obtained. Later, extensive tests
were conducted at the Keystone Project for the purpose of
determining a satisfactory conductor diameter with regard to
RI for a transmission line at 550 kV, as reported by the Stone
and Webster Engineering Corporation, 1963.
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The difficulty in obtaining an adequate assessment of
the manner in which various parameters influence the genera-
tion of radio interference is exemplified in Mather, 1963,
who analyzed several thousand sets of readings in an attempt
to obtain correlation with the variables of temperature,
humidity, barametric pressure, wind, air density, and line
voltage. Since wetness was not one of the parameters ac-
curately monitored, adequate causal effects were not obtained
in this study. In developing the first 765 kV line, the Apple
Grove test facility provided invaluable information on the
selection of the conductor size that would permit good radio
reception. The work conducted at Apple Grove on radio in-
fluence is described in a series of articles by Taylor, e_t al. ,
1965; Shankle, et al., 1965; and Kolcio, e_t al. , 1969.
With regard to radio interference, the economics of
transmission lines played a major role. Kolcio, e_t al. , 1969,
notes that since it would not be economically feasible to use
a conductor size that would permit good radio reception for
all weather conditions, the present basic philosophy places
almost all of the weight on selecting a specific conductor
diameter that will allow satisfactory radio reception during
fair weather conditions in urban areas. Thus, for EHV trans-
mission lines, some radio frequency interference is anticipated
near the line in rural areas, and under conditions of foul
weather. The nature of radio frequency interference from
transmission lines is such, however, that the interference
diminishes rapidly as a function of distance away from the
transmission line. Thus, the interference is quite localized
near the transmission line.
The fact that radio frequency noise is highly variable
with the weather conditions, and falls off very rapidly as
a function of distance from the line, are factors resulting
in quite varied public response to power line radio frequency
noise. In addition, the actual interference experienced by
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a radio receiver or television set, is a function of the de-
sired signal level at the reception location. The varied
response of persons living near EHV transmission lines is
exemplified by the results of two farmers' surveys submitted
in response to the Federal Register Notice. One, conducted
by UPSET, 1975, indicates that of twelve farmers surveyed,
ten complained that their TV and radio reception were not
as good as neighbors who lived further from the power line.
However, the survey conducted by Busby, et al., 1974, resulted
in 17 farmers reporting TV reception as good as before the
line was installed, one said better, and one reported worse.
Since both the radio frequency noise from the transmis-
sion line, and the desired signals, are quantifiable, guide-
lines for evaluating TVI and RI complaints have been established.
An example are those developed by the Bonneville Power Admini-
stration, and submitted in response to the Federal Register
Notice. This document shows that complaints of radio or
television noise can be accommodated within certain limits,
to provide those living near the transmission line with rea-
sonable reception. However, the complaint must be valid, and
the power company must be made aware of the existence of prob-
lems. In the survey by Busby, e_t al. , 1974, of 18 farmers,
only two knew the utility person to contact for correcting
difficulties.
In the following sections the nature of the electromag-
netic noise from transmission lines will be discussed. This
will be followed by a discussion of effect of this noise on
broadcast reception, and finally a discussion will be pre-
sented on the methods used to reduce the impact of such noise
on broadcast communications for persons living near trans-
mission lines.
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3.4.2 The Nature of Electromagnetic Noise
from Transmission Lines
Two types of broadcast signals are of interest to most
of the public. These are radio reception and television re-
ception. Radio reception to most people means the use of a
standard broadcast-band AM radio receiver. Since the fre-
quency of the electromagnetic signal to be received by these
two types of receivers differs significantly, and also since
the signal processing and display by the two types of re-
ceivers are so different, interference to these two types of
services is generally separately discussed.
Previous sections of this report have discussed the elec-
tric and magnetic fields associated with transmission lines.
The signals received by communications receivers are similar
but are higher in frequency and are modulated with informa-
tion. Thus, the units of measure for radio signals are simi-
lar to those noted earlier for fields associated with the
60 Hz transmission line. That is, the basic quantity of in-
terest is the electric field, and its units are volts per
meter. However, for radio broadcast signals, the fields are
quite weak; therefore, the signal levels are usually stated
in microvolts per meter. A microvolt is 1 millionth of a
volt.
Both the noise signal from the transmission line and the
desired communications signal are usually expressed in terms
of microvolts per meter field strength. Since the magnitude
of radio frequency signals can vary over a large range, de-
pending on the location of the point of interest with respect
to the signal source, the decibel notation is often used, with
the signal being expressed in dB relative to 1 microvolt.
The electromagnetic noise from transmission lines which
may interfere with broadcast-band radio reception is gen-
erally denoted as RI. The noise that may interfere with TV
reception is denoted as TVI.
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It is important to note that there are two distinct
sources for RI and TVI from high voltage transmission lines.
These are gap generated noises, and corona generated noise.
Gap generated noise is independent of line voltage or design.
It results from loose hardware and improperly made connec-
tions such that electrical arcing exists between two elec-
trodes which act as a source of interference. The location
of these discharges can be easily determined and completely
eliminated by various techniques, such as are discussed in
Loftness, 1974. Gap generated noise, in general, can only
be noticed during fair weather, since the corona generated
noise during foul weather overshadows that produced by the
hardware. Since gap generated noise involves no long term
environmental problem and can be adequately resolved by the
power companies on a case-by-case basis, the discussions which
follow will be principally concerned with the noise produced
by corona.
3.4.2.1 Radio Interference--RI
Radio interference--RI, is the term used to denote the
electromagnetic noise from transmission lines that exists at
frequencies that are below about 10 MHz. From the standpoint
of the public, however, the most important frequency range is
that between 0.535 to 1.605 MHz. This is the frequency range
used for standard amplitude modulated (AM) sound broadcasting.
The noise is produced by corona discharges, which occur during
the positive half cycles of the transmission line voltage.
The CIGRE Working Group 36.01, 1974, shows that by considering
the amplitude and duration of the impulsive discharges which
occur during various portions of the 60 Hz line voltage cycle,
it can be shown that the positive discharges produce approxi-
mately 20 dB greater interference in this frequency range than
do negative discharges.
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Since the radio noise field is primarily determined by
the positive impulsive discharges, the nature of the noise
field as a function of frequency is related to the temporal
characteristics of these positive discharges. The CIGRE
Working Group shows that the spectral content of the radio
noise is principally below approximately 1 MHz. Above 1 MHz,
the field intensity of the noise falls off rapidly. This is
illustrated in Figure 3.7, which was obtained from the above
CIGRE reference.
For both fair and foul weather, the corona sources are
distributed along the transmission line. During foul weather,
the discharges are associated with the water drops on the
transmission line conductors. The fair weather interference
is typically a factor of 10 less than that during foul weather,
i.e., a factor of 20 dB. Since under these conditions, incre-
mental sources of interference exist all along the transmission
line, the total interference as measured at any point near the
transmission line may consist of contributions from impulsive
sources extending over some 10 's of kilometers along the line.
It has been noted above that the RI due to a transmission
line decreases very rapidly as a function of distance away
from the transmission line. This is illustrated in Figure 3.8,
which was obtained from data presented in the above CIGRE re-
port, and compares the lateral profile of RI from a 765 kV
line to that of a 380 kV line, both obtained under rain con-
ditions. They note that the attenuation law for the noise
field can be simply expressed as a function of the distance
D between the measurement point and the closest conductor as,
E . ,V k
where k lies between 1.4 and 1.9 and is a function of the line
configuration and the properties of the soil. E and D are
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LINES (CIGRE, 1974)
188
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the field and distance, respectively, at a reference point,
and E and D are the field and distance to the measurement
point.
Both semi-empirical and quasi-analytical methods have
been perfected sufficiently that satisfactory predictions of
the radio interference levels for transmission lines from 22
to 800 kV are possible. The semi-empirical method emphasizes
data developed on the basis of long term recordings under a
variety of weather conditions, whereas the quasi-analytical
methods employ empirical test results developed on small con-
ductor bundles. These empirical small-line-segment results
are then employed using rigorous analysis to predict the in-
terference level.
Shah, 1975, in his response to the Federal Register Notice,
notes that the two methods which are commonly used today by
the electric utility industry to calculate radio interference,
are that of Gary and Moreau, 1971, and that presented in the
Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above. Most pre-
diction methods usually rely on the heavy rain case as a refer-
ence for interference production, since the levels obtained
under these conditions are more consistent than during fair
weather. The fair weather interference is more variable, since
it is dependent upon the surface conditions of the conductors.
As noted above, the fair weather interference is approximately
20 dB less than that obtained during heavy rain.
The method presented in the Transmission Line Reference
Book..., 1975, for determining the RI from transmission lines,
is quite straightforward and easy to use. The procedure pre-
sented in this reference uses a series of curves to predict
the RI level. A base case is provided for different basic
line geometries and operating voltages. The curves for these
base cases provide the RI levels as a function of the number
of conductors and subconductor diameters. Several additional
sets of curves are provided for parameter adjustments from
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that used in the base case. Included are curves to adjust
for
1. voltage departures from base case,
2. bundle diameter variation,
3. variation in phase spacing,
4. variation in average line height, and
5. variation in measurement position with
respect to the line.
In a recent paper describing extensive measurements per-
formed on Commonwealth Edison Company EHV transmission lines,
Fern and Zalewski, 1977, compared their measurements with
calculated values obtained using the procedures of the Trans-
mission Line Reference Book. They note that the calculated
radio interference values at a distance of 50 feet from the
outside phase conductor were 73.9 dB for heavy rain, 70.9 dB
for wet conductor, and 51.9 dB for average fair weather. The
corresponding maximum measured values obtained were 70 dB for
wet conductor and 50.5 dB for the dry conductor condition (The
above values are dB above 1 microvolt per meter). CIGRE, 1974,
notes that in practice, the interference level of a transmis-
sion line cannot be found with an accuracy better than around
+ 2 dB. This applies to both calculated and measured levels.
3.4.2.2 Television Interference--TVI
Interference caused by overhead EHV transmission lines
to television reception is, in general, caused by the same
mechanisms as is RI, that is, by gap and corona effects. In
addition, however, a passive type of interference can be in-
troduced by the presence of the transmission line, due to the
rescattering of the desired signal, which causes ghosting.
The frequency range of interest for television reception ex-
tends from 54 to 890 MHz. This frequency range also encom-
passes the band of frequencies used for FM broadcast reception.
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A general lack of refinement exists for the prediction
of TVI as compared to RI. This lack of development may be
traced in part to the apparent absence of problems in cor-
rectly designed and maintained overhead lines. The first
report to the industry on television interference resulting
from precipitation on 500 kV transmission lines was made by
Clark and Loftness, 1970. CIGRE, 1974, has stated that
When an overhead line has been correctly designed
to prevent radio interference in the frequency
range around 1 MHz, interference problems above
30 MHz will be accidental. If interference hap-
pens, it will, in most cases, be caused by sparks
on insulators and hardware, and seldom by micro-
spark or corona.
This statement may be applicable for typical receiving
conditions in the vicinity of a high voltage transmission
line. However, Clark and Loftness, 1970, note that due to
the high signal-to-noise ratio required for good TV recep-
tion, interference situations near the line under foul weather
conditions can arise.
To a limited extent, the methods developed for the pre-
diction of RI, can be extended to the TVI region. In essence,
based on limited data, the predictions of interference field
levels at low frequencies are extended to the TVI range on
the basis of a 20 dB per frequency decade roll-off in the
field intensity. However, the roll-off in field intensity
at the higher frequencies is somewhat countered by the wider
bandwidth used in television receivers. Thus, adjustments
for the bandwidth are necessary to account for this fact.
The Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above, pre-
sents base case and parameter modification curves for esti-
mating TVI levels.
3.4.3 The Effect of Electromagnetic Noise on Communications
The effect of the electromagnetic noise from EHV trans-
mission lines on radio and television reception is not only
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dependent upon the noise signal, but is also dependent upon
the signal that is desired to be received. Thus, a level of
radio noise that, in one location, may not produce any prob-
lems at all, can produce significant interference in another
area where the signal from the broadcast station is weaker.
Shah, 1975, notes that Commonwealth Associates specifies EHV
transmission line designs to give grade B reception at the
edge of the right-of-way for most radio stations having grade
B reception prior to line construction. A pre-construction
field survey of ambient radio station signal strengths and
an analysis of up to 10 years of weather readings (to deter-
mine the mean foul weather radio interference value) is used
in this assessment.
3.4.3.1 RI
As noted above, the interfering effect of a noise signal
on the reception of a desired signal is a function of both the
level of the noise signal and of the desired signal. In fact,
it turns out that the ratio of these two signal levels pro-
vides a good means for assessing the interfering quality of
the noise signal. For standard AM broadcast radio service,
the ratio of the desired to noise signal for varying degrees
of reception quality has been determined on the basis of sub-
jective listening tests. The IEEE, 1971, presents the results
of these listening tests, where EHV transmission line noise
was the interfering signal. These results are shown here as
Figure 3.9. CIGRE, 1974, presents similar subjective recep-
tion quality information. They note that, in practical terms,
the higher codes, e.g., 4 and 5 are definable quite precisely
in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio. On the other hand,
the lower codes 3 to 0 become increasingly subjective and
are given largely as suggestions.
The Transmission Line Reference Book notes that a signal-
to-noise ratio of approximately 15, or 24 dB meets the Federal
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Communication Commission requirement for satisfactory serv-
ice. This signal-to-noise ratio falls midway between the
categories of very good and fairly satisfactory as shown on
the curve in Figure 3.9.
The stated signal-to-noise ratio can only define the
level of interference, when the level of the broadcast sta-
tion signal is known. Since the signal that can be received
from broadcast stations can vary over wide ranges, depending
on the distance to the station transmitter and other factors
such as the weather and the time of day, it is generally ac-
cepted that the signal-to-noise ratio criterion will only be
applied to those stations for which the receiver location is
in the primary service coverage area. The primary service
coverage area is that in which the ground wave from the broad-
casting tower is not subject to objectionable interference
from other stations or objectionable fading. Primary service
area field strengths for rural areas are taken as those areas
where the field strength lies between 100 and 500 microvolts
per meter. Thus, based on these field strengths from the
broadcast station, and a signal-to-noise for "satisfactory
service" of 15, an acceptable level of radio noise from the
transmission line at the receiver can be determined.
3.4.3.2 TVI
Clark and Loftness, 1970, note that television interfer-
ence is, in general, less noticeable on the higher channels.
This is due to the roll-off in interference level as frequency
increases. They note that for colored television, the inter-
ference results in noise bands which drift slowly upward across
the screen, when the power frequency is 60 Hz. Bridges, 1976,
in his review of the subject, notes that the measurement pro-
cedures and the correlation with the subjective response to
television interference is not nearly as progressed as for
interference to broadcast receivers. Bridges suggests that
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additional work is necessary in the development of an objec-
tive criterion of picture quality under transmission line
noise conditions. He also notes that additional work is de-
sired in the development of measurement instrumentation, for
the TV frequency range, which will measure a quantity that is
closely related to an objective criterion for picture quality.
The Transmission Line Reference Book notes that several
investigators have attempted to relate viewer tolerability
with signal-to-noise ratio by using conventional radio noise
meters. They also note that these investigations have not
produced uniform results. Project UHV has conducted subjec-
tive viewing tests in an effort to determine a relationship
between the quality of reception and the signal-to-noise ratio.
From these tests, they determined that a reasonable design
criterion would be for the noise to be less than that neces-
sary for "tolerable reception" which corresponds to a signal-
to-noise ratio of 17 dB as measured by a peak detector and
referenced to a 3 MHz bandwidth. Based on the FCC regula-
tions for the minimum field intensity that must be provided
for the principal community to be served by the station, which
is 74 dB above 1 microvolt per meter for channels 2 through
6, these investigators determined that a noise field strength
of 57 dB (peak) above 1 microvolt per meter in a 3 MHz band-
width should not be exceeded.
3.4.4 Mitigation
Typical interference mitigation procedures are illustrated
in the Bonneville Power Administration Guidelines for Evaluating
TVI and RI Complaints. In this document, the BPA states that
in order to constitute a valid RI complaint, the signal-to-
noise ratio must be 15:1 or below, and the signal strength
available from a station must be 100 yV/m or greater. In
addition to the above, at least 307o of the radio stations
meeting these signal strength requirements must be deteriorated
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in order for the complaintant's location to qualify for cor-
rective action. They note that a complaintant for which the
above criteria are met for AM broadcast service, will be pro-
vided with FM reception where such is available.
CIGRE, 1974, notes that most of the complaints concerning
television interference are from viewers whose homes are on
the transmitter side of the transmission line. This is a re-
sult of ghosting caused by the reflection of desired signal
off of the line structure. A typical solution for this case
is to use a high gain television reception antenna with a high
front-to-back ratio. The use of a higher quality television
antenna, or the relocation of the antenna to a tower mast, can
often also mitigate the interfering effect of electromagnetic
noise from the line. In the reception of distant television
signals, the height of the receiving antenna is very important.
Jordan, 1950, shows that for the conditions applicable for
analyzing practical television propagation and reception, the
received signal level is directly proportional to the height
of the receiving antenna.
The BPA Guidelines for Evaluating TVI and RI Complaints
state that correction for television interference will be made
when a reasonable viewable picture would be displayed in the
absence of interference, and the signal-to-noise ratio due to
interference is below 100:1 with a 500 kHz measurement band-
width. They note that correction will be assured for no more
than a total of 4 channels, and that correction will normally
be limited to that possible from one remote antenna mast per
complaintant.
Thus, while it is not practical to design EHV transmis-
sion lines that do not produce any electromagnetic noise, this
effect of corona is one of the principal parameters controlling
the line design. Even so, under foul weather conditions, RI
and TVI may become apparent in certain locations. For those
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cases where objectionable interference does occur, these
situations are normally handled on a local basis rather than
to redesign the whole transmission line. These cases are
handled by re-orientation, relocation, or replacement of re-
ceiving antennas to overcome the interference problem.
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REFERENCES
American National Standards Institute SI.2, Method for the
Physical Measurement of Sound (New York) 1962,
Anderson, I., "Effects of Natural and Artificially Generated
Air Ions on Mammals," Sixth Int. Biometereological Congress
(Noordwijk) 3-9 September 1972, pp. 229-238.
Asanova, T. P., and A. I. Rakov, "The State of Health of Persons
Working in Electrical Field of Outdoor 400 and 500 kV Switch-
yards," Hygiene of Labour and Professional Diseases, No. 5
(1969), (010-02).*
Auerbach, S. I., e_t al. , "Environmental Sciences Division An-
nual Progress Report for Period Ending September 20, 1972,"
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report ORNL-4848 (February
1973).
Balderston, G., and L. E. Zaffanella, "Electric Fields as a
Parameter of 750-1150 kV Line and Substation Design—Measur-
ing Methods, Design Practices, and Plans for Future Investi-
gations," Proc. Symp. on EHV AC Power Transmission, Joint
American-Soviet Committee on Cooperation in the Field of
Energy, Washington, DC (February 1975), U.S. Dept. of the
Interior, Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, OR.
Bankoske, J. W., and G. McKee, "Ecological Influence of Electric
Fields," Electric Power Research Institute Report EPRI 129
(May 1975), (029-04).
Barnes, H. C., "Prepared Testimony (American Electric Power
EHV Experience and Supported Research)," Common Record Hear-
ings on Health and Safety of 765 kV Transmission Lines,Cases
26529 and 26599 (New York Public Service Commission, 1976),
(014-13).
Barnes, H. C., and V. Caleca, "Initial Experiences on the 765 kV
System of the American Electric Power Company (U.S.A.)," Inter-
national Conference on Large High Tension Systems (CIGRE) Paper
31^06, Paris, France (1970 SessionJT (045
Syst
^W7
Barnes, H. C., A. J. McElroy, and J. H. Charkow, "Rational Analy-
sis of Electric Fields in Live Line Working," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems PAS-86(4): 482-492 (1967), (045-05),
(045-32) .
*In this reference list, citations ending with a bracketed
numeric indicator were a part of the technical material sub-
mitted in response to FRL312-2. The technical material sub-
mitted is presented in Appendix B, along with a description of
the indicator key, which relates the material to the respondents
who are listed in Appendix A.
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198
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Bennett, L. R., "Reply Brief of Power Authority to the Ad-
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Gary, C., and M. Moreau, "Predetermination of the RI Level
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IEEE Radio Noise Subcommittee Working Group No. 3, "Radio
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IEEE Trans, on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS 90 (1971),
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IEEE Working Group on Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Ef-
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IEEE Working Group on Electrostatic Effects of Transmission
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765 kV Transmission Lines, Cases 26529 and 26599 (New York
Public Service Commission, 1976), (014-02).
Stansik, W. N., and P. E. Coffey, "Rural and Urban Ozone
Relationships in New York State," Journal of Air Pollution
Association, 24 (1974), 564.
Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation, "Radio Influence
Study, 550 kV Transmission Line Keystone Project," Stone
and Webster Engineering Corporation J.O. No. 10690, Boston,
Massachusetts (September 19/3) , (U3~7-02) .
Strumza, M. V., "Influence sur^la saute humaine de la proximite
des conducteurs dfelectricite a haute tension (The Influence
of High Tension Electrical on Human Health)," Arch. Mai Prof.,
31 (1970), 269-275, (010-14).
Sunde, E. B., Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems
(New York: Bover Publications, 1968).
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
210
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Taylor, E. R., V. L. Chartier, and D. N. Rice, "Audible Noise
and Visual Corona from HV and EHV Transmission Lines and
Substation Conductors--Laboratory Tests," IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-85(5), (1969), 666-679.
Taylor, E. R., N. Kolcio, and W. E. Pakala, "The Apple Grove
750-kV Project - 775 kV Radio Influence and Corona Loss
Investigations," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems
PAS-84 (July 1965), 573-579, (045-16).
Taylor, E. R., W. E. Pakala, and N. Kolcio, "The Apple Grove
750-kV Project - 515-kV Radio Influence and Corona Loss
Investigations," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems
PAS-84 (July 1965), 561-573, (045-17).
Terry, J. H., and H. B. Noll, "Reply Brief on Behalf of
Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation," Common Record Hearings
Concerning the Health and Safety Issues Relating to 765 k'V
Transmission Lines before the State of New York Public
Service Commission (September 1977).
Thacher, P. D., "Fringing Fields in Kerr Cells," Sandia Re-
port SLA-74-0302 (1974), see also IEEE Transactions Elec-
trical Insulation, EI-11 (June 1976)~
The Detroit Edison Company, "Response to EPA Request for Data
Regarding the Health and Environmental Effects of EHV
Transmission Lines," 25 June 1975).
Toler, J. C., "Prepared Testimony (Effects of Electric and
Magnetic Fields on Cardiac Pacemakers)," Common Record
Hearings on Health and Safety of 765 kV Transmission Lines,
Cases 26529 and 26599 (New York Public Service Commission,
1976), (014-03).
Tranen, J. D., and G. L. Wilson, "Electrostatically Induced
Voltages and Currents on Conducting Objects Under EHV
Transmission Lines," IEEE Trans, on Power Apparatus and
Systems PAS-90(2), (1971), 768-776, (045
r App
^57J7
Trinh, N. G., "Analysis of the Second Harmonic (120 Hz)
Audible Noise Generated by Line Coronas," presented at the
IEEE PES Summer Meeting, San Francisco, California (20-25
July 1975), A75 501-7.
Truax, C. J., "765 kV Audible Noise Study," METIFOR Study
for Consumers Power Company by General Electric Company
(1972).
NT RESEARCH INSTATE
211
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Tucker, R. D., and 0. H. Schmitt, "Tests for Human Perception
of 60 Hz Moderate Strength Magnetic Fields," Appendix E of
Biologic Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields Associated
with Proposed Project Seafarer, National Academy of Sciences
(1977).
UPSET, "Report of a Survey Undertaken by Upstate Citizens for
Safe Energy Transmission (UPSET) on Effects of High Voltage
Power Lines in Northern New York," (June 1975).
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Safety and Fire Technical Bulle-
tin No. 13 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office,
December 1967).
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Air Quality
Criteria for Photochemical Oxidants, Chapters 3 and 4, USDHEW,
Washington, DC (March 1970), (010-22).
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Re-
search and Technology, Noise Assessment Guidelines Technical
Background, HUD Report TE/NA 172.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Information on Levels of
Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and
Welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety, 550/9-74-004
(March 1974).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, An Examination of Electric
Fields Under EHV Overhead Power Transmission Lines, EPA-520/2-
76-008, U.S. EPA Office of Radiation Programs, 9100 Brookville
Road, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, April 1977.
Waibel, R., "Objective Proof of the Influence of 50 Hz Electric
Fields on Man," a paper presented at the Third International
Colloquium in Marbella, Spain, International Section of the
ISSA for the Prevention of Occupational Risks Due to Elec-
tricity (27-29 October 1975).
Ware, B. J., "Effect of 765 kV Transmission Lines on Animal
Grazing Habits," American Electric Power Internal Report
(1974), (045-41).
Wells, R. J., "Subjective Analysis of the Noise from High Volt-
age Transmission Lines," in Psychacoustics: Proceedings of
a Workshop (New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, Inc., 1974), 48.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Electrical Transmission and
Distribution Reference Book, 4th ed.,copyright 1964.
Whitmore, F. C., and R. L. Durfee, "Determination of Coronal
Ozone by High Voltage Power Transmission Lines," EPA Report
EPA-650/4-73-003 (NTIS Order No. PB229994/AS),
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
212
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Young, L. B., Power Over People (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1973), (036-02).
Young, F. S., "Packing the Power Corridor," Electric Power
Research Institute Journal (May 1976).
Young, L. B., "Report to the United States Environmental Pro-
tection Agency on Effects of Extremely High Voltage Trans-
mission," (1975).
Zalewski, R. A., "Effect of EHV Lines on Heart Pacemakers,"
IIT Research Institute Final Report E8128 (June 1975),
sponsored "by American Electric Power Service Corporation.
Zalewski, R. A., "Electrostatic Induction, Audible Noise and
Radio Interference of EHV Transmission Lines, " IIT Research
Institute Final Report (Draft) E8153 (August 1976), Final
Report in preparation conducted for Commonwealth Edison
Company, Transmission Engineering.
IIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
213
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APPENDIX A
RESPONDENTS TO FRL 312-2
In March 1975, the Environmental Protection Agency requested data and
information on the health and environmental effects associated with the oper-
ation of extremely high voltage transmission lines (FRL 312-2 Federal Register,
40(53): 12312, March 18, 1975,) Over 50 responses totaling over 6000 pages of
matertal were received.
This appendix presents a list of the respondents together with a very
brief description of the type of response which was prepared by the EPA. These
brief descriptions are intended to be indicative of the content of the response
but are certainly not comprehensive or necessarily balanced descriptions of the
submitted material. Also shown for each respondent is a File Number. This
File Number keys the respondent to the technical information that was submitted.
The technical information is listed in Appendix B.
NT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
214
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NDENT
DATE ^CLOSURES, ATTACHMENTS, AND REMARKS
enneth C. Frank 001
Assistant
e of California Cities
ly, CA
03/26 Single page letter requesting information on
transmission lines energized below 500 kV.
evin T. McLaughlin
onmental Engineer
Authority State of NY
Box R
any, NY 13424
avid H. Askegaard
g Assistant Administrator
Electrification Admin.
ngton, D. C.
r. S. Young 004
er, Research Projects
nghouse Elec. Corp.
iraddock Avenue
Pittsburg, PA 15112
002 03/24 Single page letter on terminology
003 04/03
]. W. Atman
jrmance Electrical Prod.
,2868
sburg, PA 15241
lugene L. Lewis
"onmental Coordinator
Engineers
ander Drive
ingford, CT 06492
Frank A. Denbrock
p Vice President
snwealth Associates
E. Washington Avenue
John H. Williams
Power Siting Commission
Box 1735
nbus, OH 43216
005 04/04
006 04/18
007 04/14
008 04/15
Marvin S. Blair 009
ctor of Regulatory
npliance
a Public Power Dist.
Harvey
a, NB 68102
Single page letter requesting EPA to include
summary of effects from 230 kV through higher
voltage lines and include DC lines
04/02 Two page synopsis of experience and offer to
conduct reimbursable studies.
Single page letter with single page attachment
describing a Hall Corona Detector.
Single page letter transmitting: "A study of
environmental aspects of electric transmission
and distribution facilities in the state of
Connecticut," Vol. 1 - 78 pages, Vol. 2 - 523
pages.
Single page letter transmitting: "Qualifications
for: EHV-UHV transmission line environmental
research, effects on human, animal, insect and
plant life," about 100 pages.
Single page letter noting a cooperative study
with Dept. of Dairy Science, OSU has started to
examine EHV effects on milk production, fertility
and behavior of dairy cattle.
04/28 Single page letter noting no 765 kV lines in
Nebraska, hence no comment
215
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3NDENT
FILE 1975
NO. DATE
ENCLOSURES, ATTACHMENTS, AND REMARKS
).D. Voytko, Manager
;strial Resources
nghouse Elec. Corp.
.899
;burg, PA 15230
'allace 0. Alspack
Hectromagnetics Div.
)nal Bureau of Standards
ier, CO 80302
Jilliam L. Flournoy, Jr.
County Planning Dept.
900 Courthouse
igh, NC 27601
3on W. Deno
act UHV
"al Electric Co.
sfield, MA 01201
Job Simpson
f Counsel
York Public Service
mission
oil and Avenue
ny, NY 12208
Rodger F. Duffy
ning Director
trong County Planning
vision
E. Market Street
anning, PA 16201
Alfred C. Herschel
hapel Street
sta, ME 04330
Kenneth A. Busby
,e of New York Department
Agriculture and Markets
ding 8, State Campus
ny, NY 12235
Elbert Tabor
'ce of Air Quality
Protection Agency
sarch Triangle Park, NC
010 04/24 Single page letter submitting copies of 24
reports.
Oil 05/13
012 05/19
013 05/07
014 05/07
Single page letter with single page attachment
describing development of electromagnetic field
probes for frequencies above 10 MHz.
Single page letter which points out that
localities could be required to establish
minimum set-back requirements if hazards are
found.
Two page letter pointing out commercial
availability of an electric field strength
meter.
Two page letter pointing out NYSPSC has two
applications pending for construction of
765 kV lines. Hearings will be held and
copies of prefiled testimony will be sent
when available. (Note prefiled testimony
received March 11, 1976)
015 05/28 Single page letter requesting information.
016 06/07
Two annotated newspaper articles, one on radar
disabled veterans the other on microwave
irradiation of the American embassy in Moscow.
017 06/06 Single page letter transmitting, "A field
survey of farmer experience with 765 kV
transmission lines," 10 pages.
018 06/09
Submission of ozone study, "Determination of
corona ozone production by high voltage power
transmission lines."
216
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'ONDENT
FILE
NO.
1975
DATE
ENCLOSURES, ATTACHMENTS, AND REMARKS
John I. Waterman 019
ial Assistant to Senator
gh Scott
ed States Senate
ington, DC 20510
Alwyn Scott
rtment of Electrical and
mputer Engineering
ersity of Wisconsin
son, WI 53706
Joseph M. Farley
heastern Electric
liability Council
Box 2641
ingham, AL 35291
Stephen A. Sebo
rtment of Electrical Eng.
State University
mbus, OH 43210
Stephen B. Ross
les Yulish Associates
Seventh Avenue
York, NY 10011
Scott M. Bailey, P.E.
East!awn, Apt. 11B
and, MI 48640
J. N. O'Neal
ng Administrator
eville Power Admin.
Box 3621
land, OR 97208
J. P. McClusky
onwealth Edison
Box 767
ago, IL 60690
Arthur Levy
elle
King Avenue
mbus, OH 43201
020
04/07 Single page letter transmitting single page
letter from Mr. Robert E. Sentgeorge, President
Concerned Citizens of (Butler County) Penn.
Township with attached consultants report,
13 pages.
06/09 Two page letter indicating that the impact of
EHV fields on the following should be investi-
gated: latent or incipient epilepsy, pacemaker,
nervous system development, psychological
effects, and shocks.
021 06/19
022 06/20
023 06/17
024 06/15
025 06/17
026 06/27
027 06/25
Four page letter indicating EPA study not
needed; outlines activities of Electric Power
Research Institute, Energy Research and
Development Administration, IEEE groups,
utility systems, and CIGRE; includes list
of 19 references.
Single page letter transmitting paper on ozone
from EHV lines.
Single page letter transmitting draft copy of
report titled, "Electric transmission lines:
how do they affect the environment?" 31 pages.
Single page letter referring to Russian data,
loss of a law suit in Michigan by a power
company, and indicating need of EPA to take
action to prevent hazards.
Single page letter noting plans of BPA to
construct a 1100 kV prototype line, and in-
cluding a six page report titled, "Environ-
mental impact of overhead transmission lines,"
and 15 references.
Single page letter transmitting two papers and
two letters; letters concern audible noise and
information for farming under transmission
lines respectively.
Single page letter transmitting article on
oxidant measurements
217
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INDENT
FILE
NO.
1975
DATE
ENCLOSURES, ATTACHMENTS, AND REMARKS
Frank A. Jenkins 028
5 Power Company
. Box 2178
•lotte, NC 28242
Harry A. Kornberg 029
:tric Power Research Inst.
I Hi 11 view Avenue
) Alto, CA 94303
06/25 Two page letter addressing same points raised
in file 021 above.
06/13
Robert W. Flugum
-gy Research and Develop-
jnt Administration
lington, DC 20545
H. C. Anderson
: Power Engineering
>ciety
. Box 4
jnectady, NY 12301
E. D. Callahan
jmbia Gas System
srvice Corporation
tountchanin Road
nington, DE 19807
Owen A. Lentz 033
t Central Area Reliability
jordination Agreement
. Box 102
tor, OH
030 06/27
031 06/26
032 06/27
06/27
R. E. Kary
zona Public Service Co.
. Box 21666
enix, AZ 85036
Thomas A. Phemister
ociation of American
ail roads
hington, DC 20036
. Louise B. Young
' Sheridan Road
netka, IL 60093
034 06/27
035 06/30
036
Two page letter with 7 attached references
and descriptions of ongoing research work.
Three page letter detailing ERDA's interests
and responsibilities and enclosing scopes of
work for electric field effects and electric
field measurements proposals.
Two page letter detailing sources of infor-
mation such as EPRI, CIGRE, power companies,
and equipment manufacturers and offer to assist
by providing technical information.
Four page letter pointing to problems assoc-
iated with design, operation, and maintenance
of pipelines in the vicinity of high voltage
transmission lines, suggests possibility of
joint study and encloses selected bibliography
of 9 items.
Two page letter addressing ECAR's interests;
expresses view that concern is legitimate but
that request for "views on criteria... for dis-
charge limits is premature;" suggests that a
procedure be established for review of pre-
liminary assessment by interested parties.
Single page letter with an attached compila-
tion of work that has been done in areas
addressed in FRL-312-2.
Three page letter on subject of the influence
of electric supply lines on railroad communi-
cations and transmittal of two references
(see file 044).
Sixteen page letter report titled, "Report to
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on
effects of EHV transmission," and copies of
her book, Power Over People, and her article
in Bulletin of Atomic Scientists.
218
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'ONDENT
DATE ENCLOSURES, ATTACHMENTS, AND REMARKS
V. S. Boyer 037
adelphia Electric Co.
Market Street
adelphia, PA 19101
06/24 Two page letter transmitting company studies
on electrostatic fields, ratio influence,and
audible noise from 500 kV line.
H. W. Wright
sylvania Power and
ght
North Ninth Street
intown, PA 18101
W. Donham Crawford 039
on Electric Institute
'ark Avenue
York, NY 10016
038 06/25
Two page letter transmitting pertinent pages
of an Environmental Assessment for a 1180 kV
line and a study of multiple use of EHV right-
of-ways .
06/30 Single page letter defining the Edison
Institute composition and interests
Dean B. Siefried
York Power Pool
'est Route 59
ng Valley, NY 10977
lander
1 Electronic Systems
>mmand
n'ngton, DC 20360
K. R. Shah
lonwealth Associates
E. Washington
cson, MI 49201
R. S. Talton
Dlina Power and Light Co.
Fayetteville Street
2igh, NC 27602
040 06/27 Eleven page letter report addressing areas
called out in FRL 312-2; 12 references.
041 05/23
042 06/30
043 06/30
Thomas 0. Phemister 044 07/02
Harold N. Scherer, Jr. 045 06/24
*ican Electric Power
jrvice Corporation
'oadway
York, NY 10004
Single page letter transmitting Final Envir-
onmental Impact Statement for Sanguine (Navy's
Extremely Low Frequency Communications System)
and related material.
Single page letter transmitting 7 page report
addressing points raised in FRL 312-2 includ-
ing 11 references and data on electric field
profiles of 525 kV lines.
Two page letter expressing opinion that EPA
"should not embark on the program outlined in
the notice (FRL 312-2)."
See file 035; single page letter sending
references mentioned in earlier letter.
Single page letter transmitting letter reports,
reprints, and references in following four
areas:
1) Measurements and analytical methods for
quantifying electric and magnetic fields;
5 page report, 5 reprints, and 14 additional
references.
2) Measurements and analysis of induced voltages
and currents; 5 page report, 3 reprints, 25
additional references
3) Electric discharge currents; 14 page report,
22 reprints, 43 additional references
4) Health effects; 7 page report, 13 reprints,
13 additional references.
219
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ONDENT
DATE ENCL0SURES» ATTACHMENTS, AND REMARKS
Detroit Edison Company
Second Avenue
oi t, MI 48226
046 06/25
K. H. Walker
ronmental Protection
ency Rochester Field
'fice, Region II
Dean B. Siefried
York Power Pool
'est Route 59
ng Valley, NY 10977
Curtis C. Johnson
/ersity of Utah
; Lake City, UT 84112
A. C. Fagerland
sumers Power Company
West Michigan Avenue
cson, MI 49201
Jim Munafo
tate Citizens for Safe
nergy Transmission (UPSET)
No. 2
non, NY 13652
Stanley B. Doremus
. Department of Interior
047
A 107 page special report addressing, measure-
ment and analytical methods for quantifying
electric and magnetic fields, measurement and
and analysis of induced voltages and currents,
electric discharge phenomena and health effects,
Report contains some 76 references. Two addi-
tional published reports on environmental im-
pact of EHV also submitted.
Transmittal of article on licensing 765 kV
lines in New York.
048 07/14 Addendum to file No. 40.
049 07/09
Transmittal of article on wave length
dependent energy absorption in man
050 06/25 A fourteen page report addressing issues
07/07 raised in FRL 312-2 with 13 references.
051 06
052
T. A. Phillips
ef, Bureau of Power
era! Power Commission
hington, DC 20426
Daniel B. Childs
1 Brighton Dam Road
okville, MD 20729
053 07/10
054 11/28
Transmittal of report titled, "Report of Survey
Undertaken by Upstate Citizens for Safe Energy
Transmission (UPSET) on Effects of High Voltage
Power Lines in Northern New York."
Single page letter transmitting comments of
Departmental organizations: Bureau of Recla-
mation, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bonneville
Power Administration (see also file No. 025).
Fish and Wildlife submission gives abstracts
of 8 related articles.
Single page letter outlining responsibilities
Federal Power Commission. Necessity for future
EHV facilities.
Single page letter expressing concern about
EHV line from Mt. Airy to Brighton, MD and
enclosing an article from Nov. 10 Washington
Star, titled "ultra-high-voltage lines:
danger at a distance."
220
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APPENDIX B
TECHNICAL MATERIAL RECEIVED IN RESPONSE TO FRL 312-2
This appendix provides an alphabetical listing of technical material
received in response to FRL 312-2. The listing was organized by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency during their preliminary analysis of the material.
This material consists mostly of published articles, though some technical
memorandums and internal reports are included in the list. The original source
of an item was not always indicated on the material received. In some cases
the original source could be verified independently and this information is
included in the list. However, the accuracy and completeness of a citation
depends for the most part on the material as originally submitted. The num-
bers appearing in brackets at the end of the citation identify the source.
For example "{055-10}" would be the 10th reference submitted with file 055.
The file numbers are included with the list of respondents in Appendix A. Only
material actually received appears in the list. A number of the respondents
included bibliographies or lists of references. This wealth of material has
not yet been compiled and the reader interested in these items is referred to
the original submissions.
221
-------
Anon., "A discussion of extra high voltage overhead transmission," Commonwealth
Edison, Chicago, IL, March 1975 {026-01}
Anon., "A study of environmental aspects of electric transmission and distribu-
tion facilities in the State of Connecticut," Vol. 1 and Vol. 2, Cahn Engineers,
Inc., Wallingford, CT 06492, November 1974 {006}
Anon., "Air quality criteria for photochemical oxidants," Chapters 3 and 4,
USDHEW, Washington, DC, March 1970 {010-22}
Anon., Compilation of Navy Sponsored ELF Biomedical and Ecological Research
Reports, Volumes I and II, Report No. EMPRO-2, Naval Medical Research and
Development Command, Bethesda, MD, February 1975 {041-05}
Anon., "Electric transmission lines: how do they affect the environment?"
(Draft) Charles Yulish Associates, New York, NY, June 1975 {023}
Anon., "Final environmental statement related to the proposed Greenwood Energy
Center Units 2 and 3," Section 5.5.1.2, Transmission Lines, U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Washington, DC, November 1974 {046-03}
Anon., "Grounding of fences and buildings," BPA Transmission Line Standard
Specification, Part 12, Chapter 1, Bonneville Power Administration, Portland,
OR, 1971 {025-08}
Anon., "Guidelines for evaluating TVI and RI complaints," Bonneville Power
Administration, Portland, OR
Anon., "Induced voltages on railroad equipment from 345 kV transmission lines,"
Detroit Edison, Detroit, Michigan (circa 1971), {044-01}
Anon., Navy Sponsored ELF Biological and Ecological Research Summary, Depart-
ment of the Navy, Washington, DC, March 1975 {041-041
Anon., "Radio influence study, 550 kV transmission line project," Stone and
Webster Engineering Corp., Boston, MA, September 1963 {037-02}
Anon., "Rules and regulations on labour protection at 400, 500, and 750 kV A.C.
substations and overhead lines of industrial frequency," SCNTY, Orgres, 1971
(see Note 1) {010-06}
Anon., SANGUINE System Final Environmental Impact Statement for Research
Development, Test and Evaluation, Naval Electronic Systems Command, Washington,
DC, April 1972~T041-Ol7
Anon., SANGUINE System Final Environmental Impact Statement for Research,
Development, Test and Evaluation, (Technical Annexes). Naval Electronic
Systems Command, Washington, DC, April 1972 {041-02}
Anon., Supplement tp_ the SANGUINE System Final Environmental Impact Statement
for Research, Development, Test and Evaluation, Naval Electronic Systems
Command, Washington, DC, February 1975 {041-03}
222
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Anon., "Tips on how to behave near high voltage power lines," Bonneville
Power Administration, Portland, OR, November 1973 {025-07}
Asanova, T.P. and A.I. Rakov, "The state of health of persons working in
electrical field of outdoor 400 and 500 kV switchyards," Hygiene of Labour
and Professional Diseases, No. 5, 1966 (see Note 2) {010-02}
Balderston, G., and L.E. Zaffanella, "Electric field as a parameter of 750-
1150 kV line and substation design—measuring methods, design practices, and
plans for future investigations," Proc. Symp. on EHV AC Power Transmission,
Joint American-Soviet Committee on Cooperation in the Field of Energy,
Washington, DC, February 1975, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bonneville Power
Administration, Portland, OR
Bankoske, J.W. and G. McKee, "Ecological influence of electric fields,"
Electric Power Research Institute Report EPRI 129, May 1975 {029-04}
Barnes, H.C., "Prepared testimony (American Electric Power EHV experience
and supported research," Common Record Hearings on Health and Safety of
765 kV Transmission Lines, Cases 26529 and 26599, New York Public Service
Commission, 1976 {014-13}
Barnes, H.C. and V. Caleca, "Initial experiences on the 765 kV system of the
American Electric Power Company (U.S.A.)," International Conference on Large
High Tension Systems (CIGRE), Paper 31-06, 1970 Session, Paris, France {045-10}
Barnes, H.C., A.J. McElroy, and J.H, Charkow, "Rational analysis of electric
fields in live line working," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, PAS-86
(4): 482-492 (1967) {045-05} {045-32}
Barnes, H.C. and B. Thoren, "The AEP-ASEA UHV project results to 1973, and
planning of a system test station and line," International Conference on Large
High Tension Systems (CIGRE), Paper 31-10, 1974 Session, Paris, France {045-01}
Bawain, S.M., R.J. Gavalas-Medici, and W.R. Adey, "Effects of modulated very
high frequency fields on specific brain rhythms in cats," Brain Research, 58:
365-384 (1973) {010-19}
Becker, R.O., "Prepared testimony (medical and biological significance of ex-
posure to low frequency electric and magnetic fields)," Common Record Hearings
on Health and Safety of 765 kV Transmission Lines, Cases 26529 and 26599,
New York Public Service Commission, 1976 {014-04}
Bracken, T.D., "Field measurements and calculations of electrostatic effects
of overhead transmission lines," presented at 1975 IEEE Power Meeting, San
Francisco, CA, IEEE Paper F 75 573-6, 1975 {025-06}
Busby, K., D. Driscoll, and W.E. Washbon, "A field survey of farmer experience
with 765 kV transmission lines, November 18-20, 1974," Agricultural Resources
Commission, State Campus, Albany, NY 12226 {010-12} {017} {045-33}
Byron, R.A., "Design EHV lines to reduce impact,11 Electrical World, pp. 74-77,
January 1974 {045-18}
223
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Carroll, R.E., "Prepared testimony (effects of low level ozone concentrations
on man)," Common Record Hearings on Health and Safety of 765 kV Transmission
Lines, Cases 26529 and 26599, New York Public Service Commission, 1976 {014-14}
Carstensen, E.L., "Prepared testimony (biophysical evaluation of biological
effects of electric and magnetic fields)," Common Record Hearings on Health
and Safety of 765 kV Transmission Lines, Cases 26529 and 26599, New York
Public Service Commission, 1976 {014-11}
Chartier, V.L., J.F. Roach, and M.L. Fenger, "Ozone and NOX production rate
measurements on four conductor bundles for the American Electric Power Service
Corporation," Report No. AST-71-812, Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
November 1971 {045-21}
Clark, C.F. and M.O. Loftness, "Some observations of foul weather EHV tele-
vision interference," presented at 1970 IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York,
IEEE
Cohen, L., "Prepared testimony (Hydro-Quebec experience with 735 kV lines),"
Common Record Hearings on Health and Safety of 765 kV transmission lines,
Cases 26529 and 26599, New York Public Service Commission, 1976 {014-12}
Corcoran, R.P., "The design of a uniform field electrode configuration for the
Waltz Mill Project," Westinghouse Report AST-74-983, September 1974 {029-03}
Dalziel, C.F. and W.R. Lee, "Lethal electric currents," IEEE Spectrum, :
44-50, February 1969 {010-23}
Deno, D.W., "Calculating electrostatic effects of overhead transmission lines,"
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224
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Fletcher, J.L., "Prepared testimony (effects of noise on wildlife and domestic
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•
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IEEE Working Group on Electrostatic Effects of Transmission Lines, "Electro-
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IEEE Working Group on Electrostatic Effects of Transmission Lines, "Electro-
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IEEE Working Group on Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Effects of Overhead
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225
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765 kV Transmission Lines, Cases 26529 and 26599, New York Public Service
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Mathews, H.G., "Gradients caused by power transmission," Westinghouse Report
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1976 {014-07}
Morozoy, Yu.A. and O.M. Gromov, "Device for measurement of industrial frequency
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Robertson, L.M., D.F. Shankle, J.C. Smith, and J.E. O'Neil, "Leadville high-
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223
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Sazanova, I.E., "Physiological and hygienic assessment of labour conditions
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Sebo, S.A., T.L. Sweeney, J.T. Heibel, and M. Frydman, "Measurements of
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Whitmore, F.C. and R.L. Durfee, "Determination of coronal ozone by high volt-
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230
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Note 1: Numbers in square brackets are for information retrieval purposes
only.
Note 2: Translations of this article and others are in G.G. Knickerbocker,
"Study in the USSR of Medical Effects of Electric Fields on Electric
Power Systems," (Translations from Russian) Special Publication
Number 10 of the IEEE Power Engineering Society, 1975. Available
from: Single Publication Sales Department, IEEE, 445 Hoes Lane,
Piscatawaway, NJ 08854, $5.00, IEEE Publication No. 78-CH01020-7-PWR.
Note 3: Publication is available from the National Technical Information
Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, P.O. Box 1553, Springfield, VA
22151, prices and order numbers are included in the citation.
231
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