PQLLUTIONAL
PULP AND PAPER
EFFECTS OF
MARCH; t967
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
In its assigned function as the Nation's prin-
cipal natural resource agency, tne Department of
the Interior bears a special obligation to assure
that our expendable resources are conserved, that
renewable resources are managed to produce op-
timum yields, and that all resources contribute
their full measure to the progress, prosperity,
and security of America, now and in the future
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news r e 1 ease news release
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
Northwest Region 570 Pittock Block, Portland, Oregon, 97205
\
April 25, 1967
HIGHLIGHTS
"POLLUTIONAL EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL WASTES IN PUGET SOUND"
A report by the
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Northwest Region, Portland, Oregon
The findings and recommendations of the comprehensive report,
"Pollutional Effects of Pulp and Paper Mill Wastes in Puget Sound,"
were made public on April 25 in a presentation by the Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration at a special meeting of the Washington
State Pollution Control Commission held at Olympia, Washington.
The 450-page report makes available in comprehensive detail the
results of four years of investigations carried out on a cooperative
basis by the staffs of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
and the Washington State Pollution Control Commission.
The studies which culminated in this report were initiated on the
recommendation of the 1962 Enforcement Conference. The Conference was
called by the Federal government at the request of the Governor of
Washington for Federal assistance in the abatement of pollution in
certain areas of Puget Sound under the provisions of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act.
Following the Enforcement Conference held on January 16-17, 1962,
Federal and State officials undertook detailed investigation of four
geographically separate areas on Puget Sound where water pollution is
known to occur principally because of waste discharges by pulp and
paper mills. The joint Federal-State studies began in April 1962 and
were completed in June 1966.
L!
'';''- of the Interior, FWPCfl
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BELLINGH<\M
ANACORTES
RETT
FOUR STUDY AREAS
PUGET SOUND
GENERAL WASTE
DISCHARGE POINT
POLLUTIONAL EFFECTS OF
PULP AND PAPER MILL WASTES
IN PUGET SOUND"
A REPORT BY THE
US. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL ADMINISTRATION AND
WASHINGTON STATE POLLUTION
CONTROL COMMISSION
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The four Puget Sound study areas with the pulp and paper mills
involved are as follows:
Bellingham (Georgia-Pacific Corporation)
Anacortes (Scott Paper Company)
Everett (Scott Paper Company, Weyerhaeuser Company, and
Simpson Lee Paper Company)
Port Angeles (Fibreboard Paper Products Corporation,
Rayonier Incorporated, and Crown-ZeHerbach Corp.)
The principal objective of the investigations in these four study
areas was to determine whether damage to the marine environment through
water quality degradation results from pulp and paper mill waste
discharges. Pollutional damage to the marine environment would have
widespread impact on the commercial and sports fishery resources. In
addition, water pollution not only detracts from the aesthetic and
scenic qualities of Puget Sound, but also restricts the many recreational
uses other than sports fishing.
The economic importance of the Puget Sound commercial and sports
fisheries is extraordinary. A sizeable portion of the 89,000,000 pounds
per year (1950-1963 average) of fish and shellfish harvested by commercial
fishermen operating out of Puget Sound ports is taken from Puget Sound
proper.
A total of 300,000 sportsmen fish Puget Sound and tributary streams
for migrating chinook, silver salmon, and steelhead trout, as well as
resident salt water fish. They spend an amazing total of $50,000,000 to
$60,000,000 each year for bait, tackle, boat, and other fishing expenses.
They caught about 785,000 salmon in 1963 and more than 100,000 steelhead
trout the 1962-63 season. Therefore, damage to the marine environment
through water pollution is a most significant consideration.
Where pulp and paper mill wastes have degraded water quality in the
study areas, extensive and damaging effects on the diverse community of
aquatic life were observed ranging from phytoplankton (minute, floating,
plant organisms fundamental to the marine-life food chain) to the
migrating fingerling salmon.
The sulfite waste liquors discharged to Puget Sound drift with the
tides and currents to disperse and dilute slowly in the surface waters.
Depending on the concentration, sulfite waste liquors have a marked
toxic effect on the marine life encountered, notably those forms in the
developmental or immature stages of the life cycle through which each
must pass.
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Fibrous wastes flushed into Fuget Sound from the pulp and paper
mills have formed massive bottom deposits of slowly putrefying organic
matter called sludge. These sludge deposits are smothering blankets
which eliminate all bottom-dwelling marine life, except for a few
undesirable primitive forms.
The overwhelming variety of pulp and paper mill wastes, when
discharged into confined areas of the marine waters of Puget Sound,
produce extensive alteration of the environment to which marine life
is subjected. The investigations covered the complexities involved —
sources and strengths of the wastes, occurrence and dispersal of wastes,
effects of wastes on marine life, the practicability of controlling
waste discharges, and other related considerations.
Through all the complexities involved, the single controlling
conclusion is that significant damages are sustained by commercial and
sports fishery resources. These damages were conclusively demonstrated
both by on-site and by laboratory evaluation of the effects on "indicator"
marine-life forms indigenous to Puget Sound waters.
The larval stage of the Pacific oyster was the principal test
organism representing the damaging impact on those shellfish which
also have a similar critical stage in their life cycle. Although the
larvae of the Pacific oyster may not ordinarily be found in all of the
study areas, they are representative of the larval stages of other
organisms which do inhabit the waters of the study areas. These include
the crabs, shrimp, clams, scallops, and the like.
Oyster larvae are minute young oysters with rudimentary shells.
They are found, in large part, in near surface waters with limited mobility
and subject to the chance opportunity of finding a suitable location for
attachment and development into the adult delicacy. In this stage of
its life cycle, the oyster is most susceptible to damage by degraded
water quality.
Sulfite waste liquors in excess of about 10 parts per million were
shown to produce abnormalities and extensive damage to the larvae of
commercially important Pacific oysters. Pulp mill sulfite wastes exceed
this value over widespread sectors of the areas investigated.
The English sole is the most important commercial fish of the wide
variety of flounders inhabiting Puget Sound. The intensive studies made
of the effect of pulp and paper mill wastes on English sole eggs indicated
potential damage to fish which propagate in a similar manner.
Juvenile salmon were used to observe the effects of pulp and paper
mill wastes on anadromous fish. Juvenile salmon pass through and school
in Puget Sound waters in large numbers. Many passing through areas
adjacent to the mills are killed or damaged by toxic conditions created
by pulp and paper mill wastes.
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Tests show that juvenile salmon encountering such toxic conditions
quickly become disoriented and engage in erratic behavior with no
evidence of instinctive avoidance of polluted waters. For some,
depending on the circumstances, the toxic environment proves lethal,
and they sink to the bottom. Others fall easy prey to predators. In
any event, losses of salmon, steelhead, and other migrating fish are
sustained in Puget Sound waters subject to pulp and paper mill pollution.
The demonstrated damages to the commercial and sports fishery
resources can be reduced only by proper handling or treating of pulp and
paper mill wastes. Such wastes must be adequately treated before dis-
charge, and the wastes remaining after treatment must be discharged
through submarine outfalls at depths sufficient to assure dilution and
dispersion by tides and currents.
Five basic recommendations are made in the report for treatment of
pulp and paper mill wastes. However, all five of the recommendations are
not necessarily applicable to each of the pulp and paper mills concerned,
since circumstances differ at each location. The attached tabulation,
which refers to the following discussion of the recommended types of
treatment, identifies the treatment recommended at each pulp and paper
mill. (Also attached is a "Simplified Schematic of Pulp and Paper
Processing.")
Types of Treatment Recommended
(1) Solid Wastes Removal; Remove 70% of all organic solids which
float, settle, or remain suspended in plant effluents.
(2) Sulfite Waste Liquor Reduction; Reduce SWL discharges so that
SWL concentrations are ten parts per million or less beyond
the waste dispersion zones which are defined in the report
for each area.
(3) Install Submarine Outfall; Discharge all residual wastes
(wastes remaining after treatment) through submarine outfalls
with adequate diffusers at depths more than fifty feet, except
in locations where lesser depths are acceptable as specified
in the report.
(4) Dredge Existing Sludge; Dredge and land disposal of the
existing sludge beds built up by pulp and paper mill waste
discharges.
(5) Eliminate Wood Chip Spills: Modify chip-barge unloading
operations.
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RECOMMENDED TREATMENT
PULP AND PAPER MILL WASTES
PUGET SOUND AREA
Bellingham
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Anacortes
Scott Paper Co.
Everett
Scott Paper Co.
Weyerhaeuser Co.
Simpson Lee Co.
Port Angeles
Rayonier, Inc.
Fibreboard Corp.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
CO
w
H
co
•4
SOLID W.
REMOVAL
(1)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
53
o
n
W H
H u
co !=>
3» w
OG
SULFITE
LIQUOR
(2)
X
X
X
X
g
H
l»
PQ
p
CO
INSTALL
OUTFALL
(3)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
^
M
H
CO
M
X
DREDGE
SLUDGE
(4)
X
X
X
X
X
X
W CM
H H
ELIMINA
WOOD CH
SPILLS
(5)
X
X
X
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SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF PULPAND PAPER PROCESSING
RAW MATERIALS
PROCESSES
WASTES
LOGS
ACID SULFITE OR
ALKALINE SULFATE
COOKING LIQUOR
"WHITE WATER"
OR PROCESS WATERS
BLEACH LIQUORS
FRESH WATER
^
s
k-
fc
DEBARK 1 NG
a
CHIPPING
WOOD
J
:HIPS
1
DIGESTION
OR "COOKING"
UNPURi
: PULP
SCREENING
a
WASHING
UNBLE
PU
J
ACHED
LP
I
BLEACHING
a
WASHING
BLEACHE
\
ID PULP
L
PULP DRYING
BAR KER WAS TES
"(bark 8 wood particles
or (dissolved lignins 8 chetnica
EVAPORATION
9BBVUP™R-*BE5™'L»^S
— RECOVERY
KRAFT
L> LIQUOR -+ CONDENSATE WASTES
RECOVERY
)
RS
s]
"WEAK LIQUOR"OR WASH WATERS
(dissolved lignins a chemi co Is
BLEACHING WASTES
(dissolved lignins a chemical s
"WH 1 TE WATER"
(suspended solids)
)
FRESH WATER
FIN ISHED PULP
(Bales or Rolls)
CONVERSION TO
PAPER PRODUCTS
FINISHED
PAPER PRODUCTS
MARKETS
"WHITE WATER"
(suspended solids)
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Several additional recommendations are made in the report regarding
major sources of water pollution from municipalities in the study areas.
Bellingham
The City of Bellingham should provide secondary treatment-and
effluent chlorination with effluent discharge beyond the Whatcom Waterway
and at depths greater than 25 feet. Also, the Fairhaven Sewer and other
unintercepted discharges should be collected and treated.
Everett
The Washington State Pollution Control Commission should conduct
additional bacteriological studies to determine when chlorination of
effluent from the City of Everett's waste stabilization pond should
be required.
Port Angeles
The City of Port Angeles should provide either primary treatment for
all domestic wastes if discharged through a deep diffuser outfall, or
secondary treatment if discharged into Port Angeles Harbor by submerged
outfall extending at least beyond the waterfront pier-head line.
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POLLUTIONAL EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL WASTES
IN PUGET SOUND
A REPORT ON STUDIES CONDUCTED BY THE
WASHINGTON STATE ENFORCEMENT PROJECT
March 1967
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
NORTHWEST REGIONAL OFFICE
PORTLAND, OREGON
WASHINGTON STATE POLLUTION CONTROL COMMISSION
OLYMPIA, WASHINGTON
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
No.
FOREWORD i
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS I
PART I - BACKGROUND
1. The Pollution Problem 1
2. General Study Area - Puget Sound 9
3. Water Uses 17
4. Waste Disposal 21
PART II - BELLINGHAM STUDIES
5. Introduction 25
6. Wastes 29
7. Waste Distribution and Water Quality 39
8. Juvenile Salmon 69
9. Bottom Organisms 95
10. Oysters 105
11. Oyster Larvae 131
12. Flatfish Eggs 157
13. Plankton 175
14. Periphyton 193
15. Bacterial Quality 201
16. Summary 205
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Page
No.
PART III - ANACORTES STUDIES
17. Introduction 211
18. Wastes 215
19. Waste Distribution and Water Quality 223
20. Oyster Larvae 233
21. Summary 239
PART IV - EVERETT STUDIES
22. Introduction 243
23. Wastes 249
24. Waste Distribution and Water Quality 269
25. Juvenile Salmon 303
26. Bottom Organisms 331
27. Oyster Larvae 347
28. Flatfish Eggs 361
29. Plankton 367
30. Bacterial Quality 377
31. Summary 381
PART V - PORT ANGELES STUDIES
32. Introduction 387
33. Wastes 391
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Page
No.
PART V - PORT ANGELES STUDIES (cont.)
34. Waste Distribution and Water Quality 403
35. Juvenile Salmon 425
36. Bottom Organisms 435
37. Oyster Larvae 441
38. Bacterial Quality 457
39. Summary 461
LITERATURE CITED 465
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FOREWORD
This report presents the work and findings of the Washington
State Enforcement Project, a joint Federal-State program investigating
water pollution in Puget Sound. The Project is a cooperative study
of the Washington State Pollution Control Commission and the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, Department of the Interior.
It was initiated on the recommendation of the enforcement conference
held in Olympia, Washington, on January 16-17, 1962. This conference
was convened under the authority of Section 8 of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act and for the purpose of considering the State of
Washington's request for Federal assistance in abating pollution in
Puget Sound. The proceedings and recommendations of the conference
were published in three volumes of transcript (Anon., 1962a).
The Project conducted investigations in four parts of the Sound
and is primarily concerned with the pollutional effects of wastes
discharged by seven pulp and paper mills. These study areas and
mills are:
Bellingham Georgia-Pacific Corporation (formerly
Puget Sound Pulp & Timber Company);
Anacortes Scott Paper Company;
Everett Scott Paper Company;
Weyerhaeuser Company (sulfite pulp mill) ;
Simpson Lee Paper Company;
Port Angeles Fibreboard Paper Products Corporation;
Rayonier Incorporated.
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Each of these mills discharges untreated or partially treated process
wastes into estuarine waters. The objectives of the Project were to
determine the effects of these wastes on water quality and marine life,
to delineate their interferences with legitimate water uses, and to
ascertain pollution abatement needs. To accomplish these ends, the
Project conducted an integrated and comprehensive study program of
in-plant waste surveys, waste distribution and water quality studies,
biological investigations, and economic studies. This study program
was begun in April 1962 and was completed in June 1966.
There are several smaller industries not discussed in this report
that discharge wastes into the study areas. These will be considered
by the Washington State Pollution Control Commission when Water
Quality Standards and associated implementation and enforcement plans
are developed for all the waters of Puget Sound„
The points of major waste discharge in the four study areas are
separated by considerable distances and physical features of land and
water. Thus, the pollution incident to each is a distinct and
individual situation,, This report considers separately each of these
areas and the studies conducted therein.
Only the summaries of data and information obtained are included
in this report. The raw data on which these are based are contained
in the files of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Portland, Oregon and the Washington State Pollution Control Commission,
Olympia, Washington. These data are available for inspection by all
interested parties. Similarly, the technical details of the methods
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and procedures employed in many of the field and laboratory studies
are described, by necessity, in brief terms. Persons interested in
a fuller description of these techniques will be accommodated.
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SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summarized in this section are the major findings reached in
the comprehensive studies that were conducted in each of the four
study areas. These findings, and the resulting recommendations, are
listed separately for each area in the same order discussed in the
main body of the report.
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BELLINGHAM STUDIES
SUMMARY
The Georgia-Pacific Corporation's pulp, board, and paper mill
located on Whatcom Waterway at Bellingham is the principal source of
wastes present in waters of the Bellingham study area. These wastes,
discharged directly into Whatcom Waterway adjacent to the mill, are
found dispersed in near-surface waters throughout the Bellingham-
Samish Bay system and, on occasion, even in the Anacortes area.
Project studies have shown that waste levels present in the
system are excessively damaging to the indigenous marine community.
These damages are essentially of two specific types: (1) those of an
acute nature, occurring mainly in Bellingham Harbor and associated
with the concentrated sulfite waste liquors and settleable solids-
bearing wastes discharged into Whatcom Waterway, and (2) those of a
more chronic nature, occurring throughout the outer waters of the
Bellingham-Samish Bay system and associated with dilute concentrations
of sulfite waste liquors.
In Bellingham Harbor, waste discharge from the Georgia-Pacific
mill results in high waste concentrations, sludge deposits, and
attendant water quality degradation. These conditions are incompatible
with marine life and interfere with other legitimate water uses.
Specifically, the wastes have been shown to:
1„ Be injurious to juvenile salmon, resulting in extensive
damage to the salmon fishery while juveniles are migrating
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through the Harbor area.
2. Suppress phytoplankton activity within the Harbor.
3. Contain settleable waste solids that form sludge deposits
in Bellingham Harbor; these deposits damage bottom organisms
and produce harmful water quality degradation, as well as
cause general aesthetically unattractive conditions.
It is imperative that all wastes discharged from the Georgia-Pacific
pulp, board, and paper mill be treated for removal of settleable
solids, and that the point of waste discharge be removed from the
confines of Whatcom Waterway.
Of even greater importance to the marine communities of the
study area are the concentrations of sulfite waste liquor found
dispersed throughout the surface waters of Bellingham and Samish
Bays. These wastes, even in relatively dilute concentrations (5 to
15 ppm SWL), are damaging to immature forms of indigenous fish and
shellfish, with such damages generally decreasing with distance from
the Georgia-Pacific mill complex. Specifically, Project studies have
shown that such wastes:
1. Damage oyster larva throughout the study area, with
excessive damage produced in northern Bellingham Bay.
2. Cause some adult and juvenile oyster mortality, particularly
in Bellingham Bay, and, more importantly, adversely affect
oyster growth and market condition throughout the study area.
3. Damage English sole eggs which are seasonally present in
surface waters throughout the study area. Extensive damage
would be expected at waste levels found in northern
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Bellingham Bay, with lesser damages expected in the
remainder of the Bellingham-Samish Bay system.
English sole eggs and Pacific oyster larva are two forms studied
intensively by the Project, but which represent a large group of
marine organisms expected to be similarly affected by Georgia-Pacific
wastes. This group includes some 10 species of sole, 6 species of cod,
anchovy, herring, smelt, 3 species of clams, and crabs, to mention some
of the more important.
The physical characteristics of the Bellingham-Samish Bay system
severely limit its ability Lo assimilate waste products. To prevent
additional damages to these important marine resources it is, there-
tore, necessary that sulfite waste liquors discharged by Georgia-
Pacific mill be reduced significantly at the source. Minimum
protection of these organisms during their most sensitive life stages
requires that SWL concentrations in the surface 50 feet of depth not
exceed 10 ppm beyond the initial waste dispersion zone. The initial
waste dispersion zone is defined as that area of Bellingham Bay north
of an east-west line (magnetic) extending from Post Point to Lummi
Peninsula 0
Discharge of raw and partially treated domestic wastes from
the City of Bellingham results in bacterial concentrations in the
Bellingham Harbor hazardous to human health.
Stokely-Van Camp and Bumble Bee Seafoods also discharge solids-
bearing wastes into Bellingham Harbor which contribute to the formation
of sludge deposits.
V
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RECOMMENDATIONS
To provide abatement of pollution occurring in Bellingham Harbor
and throughout the Bellingham-Samish Bay system, it is recommended
that:
A. Georgia-Pacific Pulp, Board, and Paper Mill
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing wastes
to provide for (a) removal of all settleable solids and
(b) 707o removal of volatile suspended solids.
2. Provide for a reduction in the discharge of sulfite
waste liquor solids by that degree necessary to achieve
the recommended levels of water quality in the
Bellingham study area (maximum of 10 ppm SWL in the
surface 50 feet of depth beyond the initial waste
dispersion zone).
3. Construct a submarine outfall equipped with an adequate
diffuser to permit discharge of all residual wastes
outside the confines of Whatcom Waterway into a depth
of not less than 25 feet (measured at MLLW).
4. Remove, by dredging, the existing accumulation of
sludge in the Harbor and dispose of such material on
land.
5. Modify chip-barge unloading operations to eliminate
spillage of wood chips.
B. Stokely-Van Camp and Bumble Bee Seafoods
1. Provide facilities to discharge all wastes to the City
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of Bellingham sewer system for treatment at the City's
sewage treatment plant.
C. City of Bellingham
1. Provide for collection of wastes discharged by the
Fairhaven sewer and other unintercepted discharges.
2. Provide secondary treatment and effluent chlorination
at the present primary plant site with effluent discharge
beyond the confines of Whatcom Waterway into a depth of
not less than 25 feet (measured at MLLW).
VII
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ANACORTES STUDIES
SUMMARY
The Scott Paper Company pulp mill located in Anacortes is the
major source of wastes now discharged to Guemes Channel. Pulping
wastes are pumped to the Channel from the mill site located on
Padilla Bay0 The tidal currents in Guemes Channel provide conditions
which are well suited to assimilate residual waste discharges.
However, pulping wastes discharged by the Scott Paper Company mill
do adversely affect water quality in the immediate waste dispersion
zone. This effect can be significantly reduced by extending the
outfall and diffuser section to a greater depth, thereby providing
greater initial dilution. Settleable solids materials in the waste
discharge probably do not settle in the immediate discharge zone
but are carried to outer channel limits and deposited. Nevertheless
removal of these materials is considered a prerequisite prior to
discharge to coastal waters.
Fish processing wastes are discharged into Guemes Channel by
Fishermen's Packing Corp. and Sebastian Stuart Fish Co. on a seasonal
basis „ The wastes discharged contain significant quantities of
settleable solids.
Domestic wastes from the City of Anacortes receive primary
treatment plus chlorination prior to discharge to Guemes Channel.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To provide abatement of pollution now occurring in Guemes Channel
and to better utilize the Channel's waste dispersal properties, the
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following is recommended:
A. Scott Paper Company
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing
wastes to provide for (a) removal of all settleable
solids and (b) 707» removal of volatile suspended solids.
2. Extend the present waste outfall line, equipped with
an adequate diffuser section, into Guemes Channel to
a depth of not less than 50 feet (MLLW).
3. Provide necessary additional pumping and/or discharge
facilities to insure that no bypassing of wastes to
Padilla Bay will occur.
B. Sebastian Stuart Fish Co.
1. Provide facilities to discharge all wastes to the
City of Anacortes sewer system for treatment at the
City's sewage treatment plant.
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EVERETT STUDIES
SUMMARY
The principal sources of wastes discharged to the Everett Harbor
and Port Gardner are the Weyerhaeuser Company sulfite pulp mill and
the Scott Paper Company pulp and paper mill located in Everett.
Concentrated pulping wastes from these two operations are discharged
through a deep-water outfall to Port Gardner, while large volumes of
log-barking, pulp-washing, bleaching, and paper-making wastes are
discharged to Everett Harbor immediately adjacent to the two mills.
A portion of these latter wastes receive primary treatment prior to
discharge.
Project studies have shown that damages resulting from these
discharges are essentially of two types: (1) those associated with
or caused by the discharge of large volumes of solids-bearing wastes
to Everett Harbor adjacent to the Scott Paper Company and Weyerhaeuser
Company mills, on occasion containing concentrations of toxic chemicals;
and (2) those resulting from the toxic effects of the sulfite waste
liquors when diluted and dispersed throughout the surface waters of
Port Gardner, Possession Sound, Port Susan, and Saratoga Passage.
In Everett Harbor, discharges from Scott Paper Company and the
Weyerhaeuser Company sulfite mill result in high waste concentrations,
sludge deposits, and attendant water quality degradation. These
conditions are incompatible with marine life and interfere with other
legitimate water uses. These wastes have been shown to:
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1. Cause injury or mortality to juvenile salmon migrating
through Everett Harbor.
2. Cause extensive bottom sludge deposits which produce toxic
concentrations of sulfides in the adjacent waters that are
damaging to fish and bottom organisms and result in overall
aesthetically unattractive conditions.
3. Suppress phytoplankton activity in the Everett Harbor area.
Abatement of these damages can be accomplished by providing for
removal of all settleable solids from the wastes and removing the
point of waste discharge from the confines of Everett Harbor.
The concentrations of sulfite waste liquor found in the surface
waters throughout the study area present an even greater threat to
marine communities indigenous to the area. As in the Bellingham-
Samish Bay system, these wastes in dilute concentrations, 5-15 ppm
SWL, have been shown to be damaging to larval forms of fish and
shellfish found in the study area. English sole eggs and Pacific
oyster larvae are two of the forms with which the Project has worked
intensively but which represent a large group of marine organisms
expected to be similarly affected. These include some 10 species of
sole, 6 species of cod, 3 species of clams, and anchovy, herring,
smelt, and crabs to mention a few of the more important.
Project studies have shown that such wastes:
1. Produce damages to developing English sole eggs found
throughout the surface waters of Port Gardner and
Everett Harbor. Extensive damage or mortality would be
expected in and adjacent to Everett Harbor, with the
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degree of damage decreasing at increasing distances from
the waste source.
2. Produce extensive damage to oyster larvae. Similar damages
would be expected to occur to other indigenous shellfish,
as indicated by damages to the sessile intertidal organisms.
To prevent additional damages and provide minimum protection of these
organisms during their most sensitive life stages, it is required that
SWL concentrations in the surface 50 feet of depth not exceed 10 ppm
beyond the initial waste dispersion zone. The initial waste dispersion
zone is defined as that area of Everett Harbor and Port Gardner within
a 1.5 mile radius of the southwestern tip of the peninsula bordering
Everett Harbor„
Although the strong pulping wastes disposed by the Scott and
Weyerhaeuser mills through the deep-water outfall produce relatively
high SWL concentrations throughout the deep waters of the Everett area,
the results of biological studies do not demonstrate that they presently*
cause any measurable damage to marine life inhabiting the deeper waters.
Admittedly, these biological studies primarily treated marine forms
that inhabit surface water. Review of presently available literature
and considered judgment, however, have not produced any available
evidence of damage or injury sustained by the marine life which
populates the deep waters of the Everett area and which would be
affected by the deep-water diffuser wastes. There remains some
likelihood, though, that these wastes may, in diffusing upward,
contribute to the surface SWL concentrations in the outer limits of
the study area. It is not possible to determine to what extent this
may occur.
XIII
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Wastes from the Simpson Lee Company sulfate pulp mill are
discharged into the Snohomish River some 10 miles upstream from its
mouth. This mill is relatively small but does discharge significant
quantities of settleable solids materials that contribute to the
extensive bottom sludge deposits adjacent to the mouth of the Snohomish
River.
The City of Everett's domestic wastes are treated in a waste
stabilization pond and then discharged into the Snohomish River at a
point 3.5 miles upstream from its mouth. Bacteriological studies in
the River have shown that bacterial concentrations now approach, and at
times exceed, those levels recommended by the Washington State
Pollution Control Commission. Intermittently high bacterial counts
were also noted in and adjacent to the Everett Harbor.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To provide abatement of pollution occurring in Everett Harbor
and throughout the Port Gardner system, as outlined above, it is
recommended that:
A. Scott Paper Company
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing
wastes to provide for (a) removal of all settleable
solids and (b) 70% removal of volatile suspended
solids.
2. Provide for a reduction in the sulfite waste liquor
solids discharged to and found in the surface waters
of the study area. These reductions should be sufficient
to achieve the recommended levels of waste quality
XIV
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(maximum of 10 ppm SWL in the surface 50 feet of depth
beyond the initial waste dispersion zone).
3. Construct a submarine outfall equipped with an adequate
diffuser to permit discharge of all residual wastes
outside the Everett Harbor.
4. Remove, by dredging, the existing accumulation of
sludge in the Harbor and dispose of such material on
land.
5. Modify chip-barge unloading operations to eliminate
all spillage of wood chips.
Weyerhaeuser Company Sulfite Mill
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing wastes
to provide for (a) removal of all settleable solids and
(b) 70% removal of volatile suspended solids.
2. Provide for a reduction in the sulfite waste liquor
solids discharged to and found in the surface waters
of the study area. These reductions should be sufficient
to achieve the recommended levels of waste quality
(maximum of 10 ppm SWL in the surface 50 feet of depth
beyond the initial dispersion zone).
3. Construct a submarine outfall equipped with an adequate
diffuser to permit discharge of all residual wastes
outside the Everett Harbor.
4. Remove, by dredging, the existing accumulation of sludge
in the Harbor and dispose of such material on land.
XV
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5, Modify chip-barge unloading operations to eliminate all
spillage of wood chips.
C. Simpson Lee Company
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing wastes
to provide for (a) removal of all settleable solids and
(b) 70% removal of volatile suspended solids.
D. City of Everett
1. Washington Pollution Control Commission conduct additiona
bacteriological studies to determine when chlorination of
the City of Everett's waste stabilization pond effluent
will be required.
XVI
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PORT ANGELES STUDIES
SUMMARY
There are two principal sources of pulp mill wastes in the Port
Angeles area; the Fibreboard Paper Products Corp. pulp and board mill
located on the south shore at the inner end of Port Angeles Harbor,
and the Rayonier Incorporated pulp mill located on the south shore at
the Harbor entrance. Both mills discharge process wastes directly to
Harbor surface waters. Of the two mills, Rayonier Incorporated is
by far the more significant waste source, contributing about 92 percent
of the combined discharges of SWL, COD, BOD5, and total solids. Wastes
from these mills are found throughout Port Angeles Harbor, particularly
in the southern portion, and eastward nearshore as far as Dungeness
Spit, some 12 miles from the Harbor entrance.
The Crown Zellerbach Corp. pulp (mechanical) and paper products
mill, located at the inner end of the Harbor, discharges its wastes
directly to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Except for some transient
local collection near the outfall these wastes generally are dispersed
seaward by Strait currents and, thus, are not prominent within the main
Port Angeles study area. However, during past years the now-discontinued
Crown Zellerbach discharge of high solids wastes into Port Angeles
Harbor substantially contributed to a large sludge bed still present at
the inner end of the Harbor.
Project studies have shown that these wastes are damaging to
marine life in the Port Angeles study area. The damages are of two
XVII
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types: (1) acute damages, occurring within the Harbor adjacent to
each mill and mainly associated with the concentrated sulfite waste
liquors and settleable solids in the mill effluents, and (2) chronic
damages, occurring throughout the study area and associated with
dilute concentrations of sulfite waste liquors„
Within Port Angeles Harbor, waste discharges from Fibreboard and
Rayonier produce high waste concentrations, sludge deposits and
attendant water quality degradation surrounding each mill. Also, the
sludge deposit formed by past Crown Zellerbach discharges continues to
seriously degrade water quality adjacent to that mill. These conditions
are incompatible with marine life and interfere with other legitimate
water uses. Specifically, mill wastes discharged into the Harbor have
been shown to:
1. Injure juvenile salmon migrating through the Harbor.
20 Form sludge deposits which damage benthic organisms,
produce harmful water quality degradation, and result
in general aesthetically unattractive conditions.
It is imperative that wastes from all three mills be treated
for removal of settleable solids prior to discharge.
Of even greater importance to marine life in the study area is
the presence of dilute sulfite waste liquor (from Fibreboard and
Rayonier mills) in waters throughout the Port Angeles study area.
Such wastes, even in concentrations as low as 5 to 15 ppm, have been
found harmful to immature forms of fish and shellfish. Project bioassay
studies in the Port Angeles area show that extensive damages occur to
oyster larva at waste levels found in surface waters of the Harbor and
XVIII
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eastward alongshore to Dungeness Spit. On the basis of other bioassay
studies reported for Bellingham and Everett (Parts I and III, this
report), these waste levels also are damaging to a wide variety of
important marine life found in the affected portion of the Port Angeles
study area, including crabs, clams, sole, cod, anchovy, herring and
smelt.
The waste assimilation capacity of the Port Angeles study area is
seriously limited by the presence of a large, slow moving, predominantly
anti-clockwise, eddy circulation of water between Port Angeles Harbor
and Dungeness Spit. This eddy tends to confine Fibreboard and Rayonier
mill wastes to shallower waters alongshore before eventually dispersing
them to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This results in harmful concentra-
tions of SWL throughout the eddy. Inadequate depth precludes relocation
of the mill outfalls (to any reasonable site) within the eddy system to
secure acceptable waste dilution. This is particularly true of the
Rayonier mill because of its large volume of waste discharge.
Therefore, to prevent further damage to the marine resources of the
Port Angeles study area, it will be necessary to significantly reduce
sulfite waste liquors at the source,, Minimum protection of the marine
biota during their most sensitive life stages requires that sulfite
waste liquor concentration not exceed 10 ppm within 50 feet of the
surface depth beyond an initial waste dispersion zone. The initial
waste dispersion zone is defined as the area within Port Angeles Harbor
bounded on the east by an arc formed by that radius originating from
Rayonier Incorporated and extending to the eastward end of Ediz Hook,
swung to the east.
XIX
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The Pen-Ply plywood mill discharges a small amount of glue wastes
to the Harbor, but no significant adverse effects on water quality
were observed.
The City of Port Angeles discharges all of its domestic wastes
untreated into Port Angeles Harbor. As a result, more than two miles
of the City's waterfront is bacterially contaminated for water-contact
use0 Also, this waste source contributes substantial BOD and settle-
able solids loading to the Harbor. Protection of those persons engaged
in contact use of these waters requires immediate abatement of this
pollution,,
RECOMMENDATIONS
To provide abatement of pollution presently occurring in Port
Angeles Harbor and the surrounding study area, it is recommended that:
A0 Rayonier Incorporated
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing wastes
to provide for (a) removal of all settleable solids and
(b) 70% removal of volatile suspended solids.
20 Provide for a reduction in the discharge of sulfite
waste liquor solids by that degree necessary to achieve
the recommended levels of water quality in the Port
Angeles study area (maximum of 10 ppm SWL in the surface
50 feet of depth beyond the initial waste dispersion
zone).
3. Construct a submarine outfall equipped with an
adequate diffuser to permit discharge of all residual
XX
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wastes to a depth of not less than 50 feet (measured
at MLLW).
4. Remove, by dredging, the existing accumulation of
sludge adjacent to the point of waste discharge and
dispose of such material on land.
B. Fibreboard Paper Products Corp.
1„ Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing wastes
to provide for (a) removal of all settleable solids
and (b) 707, removal of volatile suspended solids.
2. Construct a submarine outfall equipped with an adequate
diffuser to permit discharge of all residual wastes to
a depth of not less than 50 feet (measured at MLLW).
3. Remove, by dredging, the existing accumulation of
sludge in the harbor adjacent to the point of waste
discharge and dispose of such material on land.
CQ Crown Zellerbach Corp.
1. Provide primary treatment of all solids-bearing wastes
to provide for (a) removal of all settleable solids
and (b) 70% removal of volatile suspended solids.
20 Construct a submarine outfall to permit discharge of
all residual wastes to a depth of not less than 30 feet
(measured at MLLW) in the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
3. Remove, by dredging, the existing accumulation of sludge
adjacent to the mill in Port Angeles Harbor and dispose
of such material on land.
XXI
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D. City of Port Angeles
1. Provide for the collection of all domestic wastes
discharges and treatment of these wastes by one of
the two following alternate methods:
Alternate 1. Provide primary treatment and
effluent chlorination with discharge through
a deep diffuser outfall.
Alternate 2. Provide for secondary treatment and
effluent chlorination with final disposal through
a submerged outfall extending at least beyond
the waterfront pier-head line.
XXII
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1 .. THE POLLUTION PROBLEM
The seven pulp and paper mills considered in this report discharge
large quantities of process wastes into estuarine waters in i'our areas
oi Puget Sound. The characteristics of these wastes give rise to four
types of water pollution. First and of greatest concern is the toxic
effects of pulping wastes on marine life of the receiving waters.
These wastes are found in high concentrations in the vicinity of
discharge; therefore, problems of acute toxicity occur. After dispersion,
in the outer-bay waters, these wastes are found in lesser concentrations;
therefore, problems of acute or chronic toxicity to sensitive marine
organisms appear. Second is the problem of additional disturbance of
water quality in the vicinity of discharge; viz., conditions of reduced
dissolved oxygen concentrations, lowered pH values, and introduced
concentrations of other toxic substances. Individually or in combin-
ation, these conditions have a debilitating or damaging effect on the
marine life inhabiting or otherwise utilizing the affected waters.
Third is the problem of sludge deposits formed by settled waste solids.
Such deposits are commonly found in the vicinity of waste discharge,
and they are usually anaerobic hence, they produce toxic and odorous
gases. These deposits have a deleterious effect on bottom-dwelling
organisms. Last is the problem of aesthetic impairment of water
quality by colored, odorous, and turbid mill wastes. Coloration and
turbidity also reduce light penetration through the surface waters
and thereby inhibit phytoplankton productivity.
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THE PULP MILLS
Six of the mills considered herein are sulfite mills which employ
acid, calcium or ammonium base cooking liquors to free wood fibers from
other constituents of wood in the production of pulp. The seventh mill
is a sulfate (kraft) mill which utilizes alkaline cooking liquors for
the same purpose. Four of the mills have paper or board operations to
convert pulp into finished products. Other processes employed by one
or more of these mills include mechanical or hydraulic barking, wood
chipping, groundwood pulping, and pulp bleaching.
Although differences exist among the exact manufacturing processes
employed by individual mills, similar basic steps are followed by all.
These are illustrated in Figure 1-1. On the left side of this figure
appear the raw materials that enter the various processes; the progressi\
manufacturing steps are shown; and on the right side appear the types
of wastes produced in each of these steps.
Considering the manufacturing processes, wood is first debarked
and reduced to chips. These chips go to the digester where they are
cooked with appropriate chemicals to free wood fibers from the wood—
the non-fiber constituents being dissolved. (Several digestion processes
are in common use throughout the industry; Figure 1-1, however, considers
only two--the sulfite process and the sulfate or kraft process.) The
raw pulp from the digester is then washed and screened to remove cooking
chemicals, dissolved wood impurities, and rejects. The unbleached pulp
from this step is then bleached--in many cases — for the further
extraction of impurities. Bleached pulp is dried and baled for shipment
or transferred to the paper or board mill for conversion into finished
paper products.
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RAW MATERIALS
PROCESSES
WASTES
LOGS
ACID SULFITE OR
ALKALINE SULFATE
COOKING LIQUOR
"WHITE WATER"
OR PROCESS WATERS
BLEACH LIQUORS
FRESH WATER
^
s
k-
k.
DEBARK 1 NG
a
CHIPPING
WOOD
CHI PS
1
DIGESTION
OR "COOKING"
UNPURf
: PULP
SCREENING
a
WASHING
UNBLE
PU
\
ACHED
LP
[
BLEACHING
a
WASHING
BLEACHE
J
ID PULP
L
PULP DRYING
w BARKER WASTES
(bark a wood particles)
or (dissolved tignins Schemicals]
EVAPORATION
%BVUP™R-* RES™*L -STES
rcrrnvF RY
KRAFT
L*. LIQUOR -> CONDENSATE WASTES
RECOVERY
"WEAK LIQUOR"OR WASH WATERS
(dissolved lignins a chemicals)
BLEACHING WASTES
"(dissolved lignins B chemicals )
"WH 1 TE WATER"
(suspended solids)
FRESH WATER
FINISHED PULP
(Bales or Rolls
CONVERSION TO
PAPER PRODUCTS
I
FINISHED
PAPER PRODUCTS
MARKETS
"WHITE WATER"
(suspended solids)
FIGURE 1-1. Simplified schematic of pulp and paper processing.
-------
On the right side of Figure 1-1, additional boxed processes
are shown for wastes from the cooking or digestion process. From
sulfite mills, sulfite waste liquor is usually discharged into surface
waters or disposed in some manner on the land. (Five of the sulfite
mills considered herein discharge this liquor into surface waters.)
This waste, however, can be processed or treated to recover cooking
chemicals, heat, or by-products (upper box). Evaporation and burning,
sometimes in tandem with fermentation for alcohol production (as
partially practiced at one of the sulfite mills), is usually involved.
Sugars — thus immediate biochemical oxygen demand—and total solids —
lignin compounds—are removed, and the residual wastes produced have
less pollutional impact. At sulfate mills, it is normal to evaporate
and burn kraft waste liquors for the recovery of cooking chemicals
(lower box). Biochemical oxygen demand and dissolved solids are
reduced and condensate wastes are generated.
The most important feature of Figure 1-1 is the delineation of
the types of wastes generated. Barker wastes and Whitewaters from
pulp drying and paper conversion (hereafter referred to as barker
wastes and paper mill wastes) carry high concentrations of suspended
solids, and this is their important pollutional characteristic.
Settleable suspended solids in these wastes cause formation of sludge
deposits, and truly suspended solids create turbidity and reduce light
penetration in the receiving waters. In most cases, in spite of in-
plant recovery facilities—save-alls for fiber recovery and screens
for bark and wood chip recovery--these wastes carry suspended solids
loads that could be substantially reduced by provision of adequate
sedimentation facilities.
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The other wastes--sulfite waste liquors (from the sulfite process
without recovery), weak liquors, and bleaching wastes--are, collectively,
pulping wastes. They are either discharged as combined wastes or are
rapidly mixed in the receiving waters after discharge; therefore, in
this report, they are treated singularly as pulping wastes. The
pollutional characteristics of pulping wastes are (1) their high
biochemical oxygen demand, (2) their toxicity, and (3) their color.
They do carry some suspended solids but in much lesser amounts than
barker and paper mill wastes. Sulfite waste liquor (SWL) is emitted
in strong concentration from the digesters or blow pits and in dilute
concentrations in the weak liquors from subsequent pulp washings. SWL
is a heterogeneous mixture of inorganic and organic constituents; viz.,
spent cooking chemicals and dissolved, non-cellulose components of the
raw wood (lignins, sugars, etc.) not usable for making paper products.
The dissolved sugars and other readily-oxidized constituents give SWL
an immediate oxygen demand which is measured as a 5-day biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5). The dissolved lignins decompose very slowly;
therefore, do not exert an appreciable BOD5. This stability of the
lignin constituents provides a means of measuring SWL concentrations--
by the Pearl-Benson test, discussed later. SWL, in various dilute
concentrations, has a toxic effect on various organisms, but the exact
constituents responsible for this toxicity are not well known. Consequently,
throughout this report, SWL will be treated as a toxic agent with the
understanding that unknown components thereof are the inimical agents.
Bleaching wastes augment the pollutional effects of sulfite waste liquor.
The bleaching step is a further purification of the cellulose fibers of
-------
pulp. Accordingly, spent bleaching chemicals and dissolved, non-cellulose
materials are constituents.
STUDY PROGRAM
In each of the four study areas, a comprehensive study program
of three interrelated elements was conducted. Each program consisted
of (1) in-plant wastes surveys to determine the amounts and character-
istics of wastes discharged by the pulp and paper mills of consideration
and by other major waste sources in the respective area, (2) waste
distribution and water quality studies to determine the transport and
dispersion of mill wastes in the receiving waters and to assess their
effects on water quality, and (3) various biological studies to deter-
mine the effects of dispersed wastes and degraded water quality on the
marine life of the area. These individual studies are described in
the appropriate following sections.
Measurement of SWL. One aspect common to all studies was the
measurement of SWL concentrations. Because sulfite waste liquor is
the principal component of sulfite pulping wastes and because lignin,
the constituent by which SWL concentration is measured, is relatively
stable and not rapidly decomposed by biological action, SWL concentra-
tions were employed (1) to measure the relative strength of pulping
waste at the point of discharge, (2) to measure the relative concen-
trations of pulping wastes in the receiving waters and thereby trace
the transport and dispersion of these wastes after discharge, and (3) to
measure the relative concentrations of pulping wastes causing detrimental
effects on various organisms studied in situ or in bioassay tests.
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SWL concentrations were determined by the Pearl-Benson test
(Barnes, ejz.aj..; 1963). Briefly, this test measures, spectrophoto-
metrically, the relative concentrations of the lignin sulfonates of
SWL, referenced against a standard, calcium-base, 10% solids SWL
solution. Accordingly, SWL values, as presented in this report, are
concentrations in parts per million (ppm) by volume of a solution
containing 10% dry liquor solids by weight.
It is well known that the Pearl-Benson test also measures
phenolic materials and certain other substances commonly found in
natural drainage, domestic sewage, tanning wastes, kraft mill wastes
and wastes for various other sources. Such "apparent SWL" concentrations
can interfere with the use of the test for those purposes described
above. That this interference is small and insignificant in the areas
studied, however, is demonstrated by results from the following
investigations.
1. Background concentrations of SWL were collected from
tributaries discharging into each study area, from parts of
each area distant from the waste sources, and from all parts
of each area during periods when the sulfite pulp and paper
mills were closed either for a holiday or because of a labor
dispute. Background SWL concentrations were found to be
always less than 5 ppm and frequently less than 3 ppm.
Undoubtedly, these apparent SWL concentrations derived from
naturally-occurring materials originating in land drainage
or from non-sulfite pulping waste sources.
-------
2. SWL concentrations in the waste streams from sulfite pulp and
paper mills in each area were measured, and apparent SWL
concentrations in the waste streams from major, non-sulfite-
pulping waste sources in each area were measured. From
calculated total daily loads of SWL and apparent SWL based
on these data and flow information, it was determined that
the total discharge of apparent SWL from non-sulfite-pulping
sources was no greater than 3% of the total SWL discharge
from sulfite pulping sources in any of the study areas.
Consequently, SWL concentrations measured in the receiving
waters must derive, principally, from sulfite mill waste
discharges.
Accordingly, throughout this report, SWL concentrations greater than
5 ppm in the study area waters are taken as measurements of dispersed
sulfite pulping wastes.
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2. GENERAL STUDY AREA - PUGET SOUND
The general study area, Figure 2-1, includes the Strait of Juan de
Fuca, the Strait of Georgia, and the inland waters of Puget Sound.
Figure 2-1 also locates the four study areas: Bellingham, Anacortes,
Everett, and Port Angeles.
LOCATION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
The Puget Sound Basin occupies the northwest corner of the State
of Washington and extends into the southwest corner of British Columbia,
Canada. It covers an area of 3,600 square miles and is bounded on the
west by the mountains of the Olympic Peninsula, on the northwest by the
mountains of Vancouver Island, and on the east by the Cascade Mountains.
At its northern end it opens to the coastal waters of Canada through
the Strait of Georgia, and at its southern extremity it becomes a part
of the Puget Sound-Willamette trough, which extends southward through
Washington and into Oregon.
Puget Sound itself is a huge, glacially-formed estuary. It receives
freshwater inflows from numerous tributary streams and is connected with
the Pacific Ocean by the Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca. Although
a single body of water, it is extensively fragmented into numerous bays,
inlets, and channels. Its main channels are steep-sided with depths
normally ranging from 300 to 600 feet, but reaching maximums of about
900 feet in some locations. Its bays and inlets are usually much more
shallow, and many contain extensive delta areas formed at the mouths of
tributary rivers.
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FIGURE 2-1. Puget Sound - General study area.
10
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CLIMATE
The climate of the Puget Sound Basin is typified by cool, dry
summers and mild, wet winters. Mean annual temperatures average 51 F
and extreme annual temperatures average 3° and 96 F. Predominating
air circulation brings moisture-laden air from the Pacific Ocean into
the basin. Resulting annual average precipitation ranges from 23 inches
in the western sector of the Sound, in the rain shadow formed by the
Olympic Mountains, to 41 inches in the eastern sector, where the
Cascade Mountains form a. rain barrier. Light rains account for most
of the precipitation at the lower elevations, whereas heavy winter
snows are the predominant form at the higher elevations in the Cascade
and Olympic Mountains.
The surface winds over Puget Sound are quite complex and are
largely determined by local topography. Average monthly velocities
are in the neighborhood of 10 knots. In the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
the predominant winds are from the east in the winter and from the
west in the summer, with average velocities of about 15 knots. The
prevailing winds in each of the four study areas are:
Bellingham --from the west and southwest in the spring, summer,
and fall; from the southwest in the winter.
Anacortes--from the southwest and west in the summer; from the
southeast in the winter.
Everett--from the northwest in the spring, summer, and fall;
from the east and southeast in the winter.
Port Angeles--from the northwest and west during the summer;
from the south and southwest in the winter.
11
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TIDES
The ocean tides along the Pacific Coast of North America are of
the mixed semi-diurnal type, characterized by two unequal high tides
and two unequal low tides occurring during a single day. Generally,
tides of similar character occur in Puget Sound. Local geomorphology
modifies the basic tide wave, however, such that tidal conditions and
tidal ranges vary from point to point throughout the Sound. Mean tidal
ranges for the four study areas are:
Area Mean Tidal Range (feet)
Bellingham 5.2
Anacortes 4.8
Everett 7.4
Port Angeles 4.2
WATER CIRCULATION
Water circulation in Puget Sound is affected by freshwater
discharges, winds, and tides. The pattern of currents for the entire
Sound is quite complex and too vast a subject for this report. Generally,
a net seaward flow of surface waters and a net inward flow of deep waters
prevail. The surface flow carries the fresh waters discharged into the
Sound outward to sea, while the deep-water flow transports seawater
into the Sound. These flows enter and exit through the Straits of
Georgia and Juan de Fuca. Local geomorphology and hydrology modify,
in varying degree, this generalized situation, and for this reason, the
features of water circulation specific to each of the four study areas
are discussed in the appropriate sections to follow.
12
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TRIBUTARY STREAMS
Puget Sound receives freshwater runoff from numerous tributary
streams. The mean daily discharge for the entire basin, excepting
Vancouver Island, is 40,000 to 50,000 second-feet. Extreme basin
discharges have been 375,000 and 15,000 second-feet. The Snohomish
and Skagit Rivers each carry approximately one-third of the total
basin discharge, and the Stillaguamish and Puyallup Rivers each carry
about 8% of this total flow. The balance of the freshwater discharge
is fairly well distributed throughout the remaining areas of the Sound.
This freshwater inflow establishes throughout the Sound a surface
layer of less-saline water overlying more-dense seawater. Near the
mouths of the major streams, this surface layer is quite stable and
pronounced. Vertical mixing does occur, but does not completely destroy
this surface layer. Thus, in areas far removed from river discharges,
distinct gradients of increasing salinity (and increasing density) with
increasing depth still exist.
MARINE RESOURCES
The naturally rich and productive waters of Puget Sound support and
provide a habitat for a variety of fish and shellfish, and these in turn
support significant commercial and sport fishing activities. The
1950-1963 average annual commercial harvest of all fish — and shellfish
in the Sound amounted to over 89 million pounds (Ward, Robison, and
Palmen; 1964) and the average annual wholesale value of the Puget Sound
commercial harvest of fish — and shellfish for 1961 to 1963 amounted
_!/ Excludes Puget Sound landings of halibut, albacore, and silver smelt
which are primarily caught outside of the Sound.
13
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to over $10,600,000 (Robison et ajL, 1962; Ward e_t aj_., 1963 and 1964).
An estimated 300,000 sportsmen (Crutchfield, 1963) fish Puget Sound
waters and its tributaries for chinook and silver salmon, steelhead
trout, and other saltwater fishes. Crabs and clams also are taken by
recreationalists. It is estimated that Puget Sound saltwater fisher-
men spend $50 to $60 million per year for bait, tackle, and boat and
other fishing expenses (Crutchfield, loc. cit.).
The important shellfish inhabiting the Sound are oysters, crabs,
hard-shelled clams, octopus, squid, shrimp, and scallops. Pacific and
Olympia oysters are commercially cultivated in many areas of the Sound,
including Samish Bay in the Bellingham study area and Padilla and
Fidalgo Bays in the Anacortes area. Annual harvests range from 3 to
4 million pounds. The other shellfish, particularly crabs and clams,
are harvested by both commercial and sport fishermen.
The anadromous fishery of the Sound includes the chinook, silver,
sockeye, pink, and chum species of salmon and the steelhead, sea-run
cutthroat, and dolly varden species of trout. All of these fish spend
their adult life in the saltwaters of Puget Sound and the Pacific Ocean
before migrating to tributary streams to spawn. The juveniles of these
fish spend varying amounts of time in the nursery streams and the
shore waters of the Sound before moving to sea to spend their adult-
hood. Salmon are a valuable commercial as well as an important game
fish. In 1963, commercial fishermen took nearly 7 million salmon,
while the sportsmen caught about 785,000. The trout are a regulated
game fish, and in the 1962-63 season, sportsmen took over 100,000
steelhead trout in 51 of the tributary streams of the basin.
14
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The saltwater fishery of the Sound includes (by local and common
name) rockfish, sole, flounder, lingcod, blackcod, truecod, sharks,
rays, skates, ratfish, perch, anchovy, candlefish, hake, herring,
pilchard, smelt, turbot, and greenling. All of these fish are
commercially harvested, either for their value as food fish or for
their incorporation into such products as fertilizer, vitamins, mink
food, fish food, and pet foods. The average annual commercial harvest
of these fish is about 46 million pounds. Many of these are also taken
by the sports fishermen.
Puget Sound also provides an appropriate environment for all
those animals and organisms of the food chain for those fish already
listed. Such life includes the smaller fishes, zooplankton, phyto-
plankton, and numerous types of invertebrates. In-total, Puget Sound
supports a large and diverse community of aquatic life.
15
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3. WATER USES
Principal water uses in Puget Sound are commercial and sports
fishing, water recreation, and water transportation. Also, significant
usage is realized in the enjoyment of the Sound's scenic beauty. These
several uses not only have a distinct impact on the economy of the
basin, but they also have a definite social value. As such, the waters
of Puget Sound constitute one of the most valuable resources of the
State of Washington and the Pacific Northwest. Water uses in each of
the four study areas are well developed and include all those itemized
above. Waste disposal is another water use but is of particular
concern because of its possible impairment to marine life and inter-
ference with the other water uses.
COMMERCIAL AND SPORTS FISHING
Commercial and sports fishing are carried out in all parts of
Puget Sound. The types of fish and shellfish harvested and the sta-
tistics on the annual catches for the entire Sound are given in Section 2.
In the Bellingham and Anacortes areas, several fisheries are
important. Commercial fishermen take bottom fish, shrimp, crab, and
herring in Bellingham and Samish Bays and crab in Padilla Bay. Lummi
Indian fishermen net large catches of salmon in Bellingham Bay near
the mouth of the Nooksack River. In the adjoining waters of Rosario
Strait and Bellingham Channel, bottom fish, herring, and salmon are
caught commercially. The cities of Bellingham and Anacortes are home
17
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ports for large, modern fleets which fish the local waters, other parts
of the Sound, and Alaskan and Pacific Ocean waters. Excellent harbor
facilities and several fish packing and canning plants are located in
these two cities. Commercial oyster farming is an important industry
in Samish, Padilia, and Fidalgo Bays. These shallow waters are par-
ticularly well suited for the culturing of Pacific oysters. Sportsmen
fish the Bellingham-Anacortes area for salmon, certain bottom fish,
and crabs. Sportsmen also angle for steelhead and sea-run cutthroat
trout in the Nooksack and Samish Rivers and in the other tributary
streams of the area.
Commercial fishermen take bottom fish, herring and crabs through-
out the Everett area, particularly in Saratoga Passage. Salmon are
taken by Indian fishermen on the Snohomish River and delta and in
Port Susan. Everett is a home port for a large commercial fleet,
which fishes both inside and outside the Sound. The Everett area also
supports a sports fishery. This includes principally salmon, clams,
and crabs in the estuarine waters and steelhead and other trout species
in the tributary streams.
In the Strait of Juan de Fuca in the Port Angeles area, commercial
fishermen catch salmon and some bottom fishes. As in the other areas,
Port Angeles has a large commercial fishing fleet and provides harbor
and supporting facilities for this industry. The Strait is also a
popular area for sport fishing. Salmon are caught in the Strait, and
steelhead and other species of trout are caught in the several small
streams of the area, particularly the Elwha River.
18
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RECREATION
Besides sport fishing, clam digging, and the harvest of other
shellfish, recreational water uses in Puget Sound include pleasure
boating, skin diving, and various beach activities such as swimming,
wading, beach combing, and picnicking. These recreational opportunities
are important and highly treasured benefits of employment and residency
in the region, and they play a major role in attracting visitors and
tourists to the area. Pleasure boating and its associated activities
are served by excellent marinas, yacht clubs, and other supporting
facilities throughout the Sound, including the four study areas. Skin
diving finds popularity by virtue of the varied marine life of the
Sound and the clear waters found in many parts thereof--the Port
Angeles area being one of the most popular of these. Fine beaches
and parks, and miles of scenic shoreline are found throughout the
Sound and in all four of the study areas. These provide sites for a
variety of beach and water-oriented recreational activities.
SHIPPING
The navigability of Puget Sound brings in water-borne commerce of
all types. This includes deep-draft, foreign and coastal shipping;
coastal and intra-sound barge traffic; ferry traffic; and log rafting.
The principal commodities carried are crude oil, grains, logs, wood
chips, and forest products including wood pulp and paper. Bellingham,
/
Anacortes, Everett, and Port Angeles are all major ports, and each
provides navigable channels and docking facilities capable of handling
all types of vessels. Together, these four cities handle about one-
third of the total Puget Sound shipping.
19
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OTHER
Water usage resulting from the scenic beauty of Puget Sound is
not to be overlooked. This includes its use as a beautiful setting
and view for homes and summer cottages, and as a pleasing background
for picnics, beach activities, and automobile trips. Throughout the
entire Sound, including all four of the study areas, the scenic
attractiveness of the Puget Sound waters is enjoyed by both tourists
and residents alike.
20
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4. WASTE DISPOSAL
The disposal of wastes into estuarine waters is a common practice
throughout the Puget Sound Basin. The regulation of this water use, so
as to prevent water pollution and safeguard the quality of natural
waters, is the responsibility of the Washington State Pollution Control
Commission. The State's pollution control legislation states, "It is
declared to be the public policy of the State of Washington to maintain
the highest possible standards to insure the purity of waters of the
State ..... and to that end require the use of all known available
and reasonable methods by industries and others to prevent and control
the pollution of waters of the State of Washington." The Commission
regulates municipal waste disposal on an individual basis, through
appropriate communications with the particular community. Regulation
of industrial waste disposal is accomplished under a system of waste ' -
discharge permits, which are classed as either temporary or permanent.
Temporary permits are granted under terms requiring further investiga-
tion of the pollutional impact of the wastes from an industry or pending
the installation of adequate waste treatment facilities within a reason-
able period of time. Permanent permits are valid for five years and
are issued to industries which have satisfied the Commission's
pollution abatement requirements. All industries must hold permits.
Where these procedures fail, the Commission has enforcement powers which
may be exercised through hearings and legal action.
A recent inventory by the Commission lists 178 separate waste
21
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sources which discharge into Puget Sound. This list contains 23 fish
and shellfish plants and 4 oil refineries, all of which have permanent
permits. For the food processing industry, 29 sources are listed; 27
have permanent permits and two have temporary permits for need of addi-
tional treatment facilities. The pulp and paper industry has 13 sources.
All of these hold permanent permits, but the 7 mills considered in this
report are discharging wastes of undetermined pollutional impact. Of
the 30 miscellaneous industrial waste sources, including chemical, metal,
quarrying, and other industries, 29 hold permanent permits and 1 holds a
temporary permit because of unsatisfactory waste treatment practices.
Sixty-five municipal waste sources are listed, and of these, 45 provide
satisfactory treatment while 20 are classed as requiring new or addi-
tional treatment facilities. In summary, most sources have controlled,
by means of adequate treatment or disposal methods, their waste dis-
charges into Puget Sound so as to minimize pollution and interferences
with other water uses. Exceptions to this are 7 pulp and paper mills,
3 other industries, and 20 communities. These sources are being inves-
tigated or have been ordered to provide adequate waste control facilities.
22
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-------
5. INTRODUCTION
The principal waste source in the Bellingham area is the sulfite
pulp and board mill operated by the Georgia-Pacific Corporation
(Figure 5-1). Process wastes are discharged into the surface waters
of Whatcom Waterway and are subsequently dispersed throughout Bellingham
Harbor and the Bellingham-Samish Bay system.
Other major waste sources in the Bellingham area are the Georgia-
Pacific Corporation paper mill, the City of Bellingham sewage treatment
plant, the Fairhaven outfall sewers, the Bumble Bee Seafood fish cannery,
and the Stokely-Van Camp pea cannery. The locations of these sources
are shown in Figure 5-1.
STUDY AREA
The Bellingham study area (Figure 5-2) includes Bellingham and
Samish Bays and Hale Passage. Principal tributary streams are the
Nooksack and Samish Rivers. The only sizable community in the area
is the City of Bellingham which includes suburban South Bellingham.
To the south of the Bellingham-Samish Bay system lies the Anacortes
study area--Padilla and Fidalgo Bays, and Guemes Channel—also shown
in Figure 5-2.
By definition, Bellingham Bay includes all waters of the study
area except Samish Bay (note the arbitrary boundary, Figure 5-2).
On its west side, the Bay opens to Rosario Strait, and through this
opening pass most of the tidal waters exchanged between the study area
25
-------
,•:•„•*<§
*V3S
LEGEN.O
(7) Georgia — Pacific Corporation pulp and board mill
(5) Georgia — Pacific Corporation paper mill
© City of Bellingham sewage treatment plant
(5) Fairhaven outfall sewers
(5) Bumble Bee Seafoods fish cannery
® Stokely-Van Camp pea cannery
•^ Point of waste discharge
FIGURE 5-1. Waste sources in Bellingham area.
26
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• LEGEND
\ ^ s
\ ts / .-. f^ Study Areo Boundary
S "
.-.
s
{ SV» i '^" \ > ..... Somish Bay Boundary
) \ / \\ """- 60 foot depth contour
L \ / "' ..... Mean Lower Low Water
' \
I "\
FIGURE 5-2. Bellingham study area.
27
-------
and other parts of Puget Sound. Some tidal exchange also passes
through Hale Passage and through the opening to Padilla Bay.
Bellingham Bay is relatively shallow; depths throughout much of the
Bay are less than 60 feet (Figure 5-2). Depths greater than 110 feet
occur in a small area south and east of Lummi Island.
Bellingham Harbor is that part of the Bellingham Bay fronting
the City of Bellingham and, by definition, enclosed in an arc of
1-1/3 miles radius (Figure 5-2). Whatcom Waterway (Figure 5-1) is a
part of the Harbor.
Samish Bay also is shallow. Depths throughout most of the Bay
are less than 60 feet, and tide flats which become exposed at low tides
cover a large area. Pacific oysters are commercially grown in the Bay.
The Nooksack River, the largest tributary to the area, carries an
average daily flow of over 3,700 second-feet and extreme daily flows of
46,200 and 595 second-feet. It is an important rearing stream for
anadromous fish, and its discharges have considerable influence on
water circulation in Bellingham Bay. Samish River, the second largest
tributary, carries an average daily flow of 250 second-feet and extreme
daily discharges of 5,830 and 11 second-feet. Other tributaries to
the area include Squalicum and Whatcom Creeks which discharge into
Bellingham Harbor, Padden Creek which discharges into Bellingham Bay
near South Bellingham, and Chuckanut Creek which discharges into
Chuckanut Bay. These carry very small flows.
28
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6. WASTES
STUDIES
Three in-plant surveys were conducted at the Georgia-Pacific pulp
and board mill (hereafter referred to as the Georgia-Pacific mill) dur-
ing February 11-14, 1963; December 9-12, 1963; and July 13-16, 1964.
Each survey covered a 72-hour period, usually starting at 8 a.m. on
Monday and terminating at 8 a.m. on Thursday. Three 24-hour composite
samples and additional grab samples were collected from each of several
in-plant waste streams.
Other major waste sources in the Bellingham area were surveyed on
the following dates:
Georgia-Pacific paper mill March 1-3, 1965
City of Bellingham sewage September 29, 1964
treatment plant
Fairhaven outfall sewers August 4, 1965
Stokely-Van Camp pea cannery August 5, 1965
Bumble Bee Seafoods fish cannery August 5, 1965
The details of these surveys are given later:.
METHODS
The survey program at the Georgia-Pacific mill was a cooperative
effort of the Project, the Washington State Pollution Control Commis-
sion, and the mill's technical staff. Pre-survey meetings were held
to define scheduling, sampling points, survey methods, and analytical
procedures. Composite samples collected during the survey were split
29
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between the Project and the mill for independent and duplicate
analyses. A manual of analytical methods prepared by the Project was
used by both parties. Post-survey meetings were held after samples
had been analyzed and results tabulated. Data were compared and
exchanged, discrepancies were discussed and resolved, and informa-
tion on waste flows and mill production were provided by the mill.
The twenty-four-hour composite samples were collected by automatic
equipment, where installed. Otherwise, these were made up of grab
samples collected at 30-minute intervals. Sample analyses, by both
the Project and the mill, included:
BOD; both 5-day and 20-day BOD by methods in A.P.H.A. (1962).
GOD; by the method in A.P.H.A. (1962) with the addition of
mercuric sulfate to correct for chloride interference.
SWL: by the modified Pearl-Benson method (Barnes, et a1.;
1963).
Total Sulfur; by a perchloric-acid oxidation, barium-sulfate
precipitation method developed by W. 0. Winkler of the
Project staff.
Total Solids; both fixed and volatile by methods in A.P.H.A.
(1962) but modified by adjustment of sample pH to 5.2.
Suspended Solids; both fixed and volatile by the methods in
A.P.H.A. (1962) but modified by the use of glass-fiber
filter paper under the asbestos mat.
Supernatant Suspended Solids; by the method in A.P.H.A. (1962)
but modified as above.
30
-------
In addition to composite samples, grab samples were periodically
collected from each waste stream. These were analyzed for pH (pH
meter) and settleable solids (Imhoff cone).
Surveys of the other wastes sources were conducted by the
Washington State Pollution Control Commission. Methods similar to
those described above were employed.
RESULTS
Georgia-Pacific Pulp and Board Mill. This plant operates a
calcium-base sulfite mill producing about 527 tons of pulp per day,
a board mill producing about 40 tons of paper board per day, and a
waste liquor recovery plant producing the marketable by-products,
alcohol and dried liquor solids. A semi-groundwood mill recently
was put into operation, but after completion of in-plant surveys;
thus no waste information was obtained.
Figure 6-1 is a schematic diagram of the mill layout and sewer
system. Survey sampling points are shown, also. Process wastes are
discharged into Whatcom Waterway and the log pond (both receiving
waters are common to Bellingham Harbor). Sanitary wastes are collected
and treated by the City of Bellingham.
Averaged results from the three surveys are tabulated in Table 6-1.
Waste loads from the pulp mill and board mill are listed separately,
and they reveal that the pulp mill is the larger source of wastes.
The Georgia-Pacific mill is unique among the Puget Sound pulp and
paper mills in that it utilizes sulfite waste liquor for the production
of alcohol and dried liquor solids. Approximately one million gallons
31
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* *
I
4
LEGEN D
= Sewer
(2) Sampling point
FIGURE 6-1. Schematic diagram of mill layout, sewer system, and sampling points; Georgia-Pacific
Corporation pulp & board mill, Bellingham, Washington.
32
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TABLE 6-1. Average daily waste loads discharged by the Georgia-Pacific
pulp and board mill in Bellingham, Washington.
Analyses
BOD 5
COD
SWL*
Total Sulfur
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
Ave. Tons Production/Day (air
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd
Pulp ^
#/Ton of
Production
519
2,547
22,960
149
2,154
1,663
43.4
38.6
19.2
dried)
Loss
till
Tons/
Day
139
677
6,032
39.5
571
427
12.6
11.0
5.2
527
1.9
32.6
Board !
#/Ton of
Production
32.1
105.7
316
--
126
75
64.9
40.2
39.0
40
2
1
Mill
Tons/
Day
0.5
1.7
5.0
--
2.1
1.3
1.1
0.6
0.6
.0
.2
*Weight of a 10% solids solution, per ton or per day as indicated.
per day of digester strength liquor are directed to a fermentation
plant where a yeast culture produces alcohol by utilization of the
fermentable sugars in the liquor. About 11,000 gallons per day of
alcohol are produced. A reported 35-50% of the alcohol plant effluent
is evaporated and dried to produce dried liquor solids. The alcohol
33
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fermentation process, in consuming wood sugars, reduces the oxygen
demand of the mill's wastes, and evaporation and drying of alcohol
plant effluent, in removing additional sugars and liquor solids, reduces
the total solids and FBI of the mill's waste load. Thus, the by-
product recovery practices of the Georgia-Pacific mill effect a partial
removal of pollutants that would otherwise be discharged into
Bellingham Harbor.
Georgia-Pacific Paper Mill. This mill is located adjacent to the
Georgia-Pacific pulp and board mill but is a separate manufacturing
facility. On six paper machines, it produces about 164 tons per day
of tissue paper products. Process wastes are discharged into Whatcom
Waterway via a single sewer (see Figure 5-1).
Three, 24-hour composite samples of the total waste discharge
were collected at this mill. Averaged results are tabulated in
Table 6-2.
Bellingham Sewage Treatment Plant. This primary treatment plant
serves a sewered population of 40,000. Mechanically-cleaned sediment-
ation facilities, separate sludge digestion and disposal, and effluent
chlorination are provided. Effluent is discharged into Whatcom
Waterway (see Figure 5-1).
A 12-hour composite sample of effluent was collected between
6:00 am and 4:00 pm. Average recorded flow during the survey was 5
mgd. Results, as interpolated for a 24-hour day, are tabulated in
Table 6-2.
Fairhaven Outfall Sewers. Untreated domestic wastes from a
population of about 6,300 in the South Bellingham area are carried by
34
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these two sewers. They discharge into Bellingham Bay within a block
of each other (see Figure 5-1).
Single grab samples were taken from each sewer at 10:00 am and
3:00 pm on August 4, 1965, and these were combined. Waste flows
were estimated from observed sewer water depth and velocity. Combined
results, as interpolated for a 24-hour period, are listed in Table 6-2.
Stokely-Van Camp. This plant processes peas intermittently during
the harvest season. Wastes are screened and discharged into the
Bellingham Boat Harbor (see Figure 5-1).
A 10-hour composite sample of this plant's total waste stream
was collected on a day when it operated 16 hours and processed 169,900
pounds of peas. Results, as interpolated for a 16-hour day, are
tabulated in Table 6-2.
Bumble Bee Seafoods. This plant processes salmon in season.
Operation is intermittent. Wastes are screened and pumped to a
discharge point outside of the Bellingham Boat Harbor (see Figure 5-1).
An 8-hour composite sample of the plant's total waste stream was
collected on a day when it operated at one-third capacity and
processed 240,000 pounds of salmon in a 21-hour period. Results, as
interpolated for full capacity and 16-hours daily operation, are given
in Table 6-2.
DISCUSSION
In Figure 6-2, the average daily waste loads from the Georgia-
Pacific pulp and board mill are compared with the combined daily waste
loads from other sources in the area; viz., the Georgia-Pacific paper
mill, Bellingham sewage treatment plant, Fairhaven outfall sewers,
36
-------
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Z
UJ
Ul
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Stokely-Van Camp, and Bumble Bee Seafoods. Note, that for the waste
load categories of SWL, COD, BOD5, and total solids, the Georgia-
Pacific mill is clearly the major source. Obviously, any abatement
of pollution attributable to these waste properties (discussed in the
following sections) will necessitate further treatment or recovery of
this mill's waste, over and above the alcohol and dried liquor solids
by-product recovery now practiced. This does not imply, however, that
the other waste sources have adequate treatment. Without a doubt, the
discharge of raw sewage from the Fairhaven outfall sewers needs
immediate correction. Also, it is recognized that the mere screening
of wastes from the Stokely-Van Camp and Bumble Bee Seafoods canneries
is minimal treatment.
Substantial amounts of suspended solids are discharged by both
the Georgia-Pacific mill and the other waste sources (Figure 6-2).
Settling tests (Imhoff cone) indicate that the 13.7 tons per day
suspended solids loss from the Georgia-Pacific mill could be reduced
to about 6 tons per day by adequate sedimentation facilities. Also,
settling tests indicated that the 4.1 tons per day solids loss from
the Georgia-Pacific paper mill could be reduced, through sedimentation,
to about 2 tons per day. Finally, primary treatment of the wastes
discharged by the Fairhaven outfall sewer, and the Stokely-Van Camp
and Bumble Bee Seafoods canneries could significantly reduce the total
4.7 tons per day suspended solids load presently emitted by these
sources.
38
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7. WASTE DISTRIBUTION AND WATER QUALITY
STUDIES
For the purpose of (1) describing the distribution of wastes
discharged by the Georgia-Pacific mill, and (2) determining the effects
of these wastes on water quality and bottom sediments, the Project
conducted oceanographic and related studies in the Bellingham area.
These investigations included field studies by the Project, and
literature search and evaluation of the considerable body of information
collected in independent study by outside agencies and institutions.
Circulation Studies. The Project completed two float studies--
one on October 18, 1962 when four floats were released in Whatcom
Waterway and one on October 19, 1962 when eight floats were released
in the northeastern corner of Bellingham Bay. Each float was a
crossed-vane current drogue suspended three feet below a marker buoy. -
Each was released from a small boat and a sextant was used to determine
the course of its subsequent movement.
In 1964-65, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (U.S.C.&G.S.)
obtained current data at numerous stations throughout northern Puget
Sound, including the Bellingham-Anacortes area (see Figure 7-9 for
station locations). At each station, anchored meters were used to
monitor current speed and direction at each of three depths for a
100-hour period. Summarized station data were provided the Project
as graphs of current speed and direction.
39
-------
The University of Washington Department of Oceanography conducted
two 21-day circulation studies in Bellingham Bay during May-July 1963.
Anchored, Richardson-type meters were employed for hourly monitoring
of current speed and direction at selected depths at each of the
stations shown in Figure 7-1A. Unpublished data are available from
the University. These studies were sponsored, in part, by the Georgia-
Pacific Corporation; the Project provided thirteen of the meters used.
In addition to actual measurement of water movement by floats
and meters, net water circulation patterns were inferred from patterns
of average SWL and salinity distribution as observed in the waste
distribution and water quality studies.
Waste Distribution and Water Quality Studies. The Washington
State Department of Fisheries made 27 water sampling cruises between
September 1956 and September 1959. Each cruise normally covered a
network of 31 sampling stations (Figure 7-IB) in the Bellingham-Anacortes
area. Properties sampled at surface and 20 feet were temperature,
salinity, DO, SWL, inorganic phosphate, and chlorophyll (surface only).
This work was reported by Westley (1957 and 1960) and by Westley and Tarr
(1959 and 1960).
The University of Washington Department of Oceanography made
14 water sampling cruises between November 1959 and November 1961.
Each cruise covered 26 stations (Figure 7-1C) in the Bellingham-Samish
Bay system. Properties sampled at selected depths to the bottom were
temperature, salinity, DO, SWL, and inorganic phosphate. Data were
presented by Collias and Barnes (1962). This work was done under
40
-------
\
S
\ tlV
Kf
\ '. i,
*\ <•
B
\
"^T
v,^
"A\V, <^-»—'
7 "%»^'*T^™*:
FIGURE 7-1. Station locations in Bellingham area: (A) current-meter stations of University of Wash-
ington Oceanography, May-July 1963; and water sampling stations of (B) Washington Department Fisheries,
September 1956-September 1959, (C) University of Washington Oceanography, November 1959-November 1961,
and (D) Project, October 1962-December 1964.
41
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contract for the Puget Sound Pulp and Timber Company (now Georgia-
Pacific Corporation) and the Office of Naval Research.
The Washington Pollution Control Commission conducted 16 water
sampling cruises in various parts of the Bellingham-Anacortes area
in 1957-58. Water properties sampled at the surface and bottom, and
occasionally mid-depth, were temperature, salinity, DO, and SWL.
This work was reported by W.P.C.C. (1958) and Wagner, e_t a\_. (1907).
The Project conducted 16 water sampling cruises in Bellingham
Bay between October 1962 and December 1964. Principal sampling
stations occupied on each cruise are shown in Figure 7-1D. Depths
sampled were 0, 2, 4, 7, 10, 20, 30, 50, and 70 meters, total water
depth permitting. Additional stations and depths were sampled as
necessary. Water properties measured were temperature, salinity, DO,
pH, and SWL. Water clarity, wind, and weather also were noted.
The Project collected water quality data in Bellingham Harbor
during the juvenile salmon bioassay studies of May 12-14 and May 26-28,
1964 (see Section 8). In these, surface samples were taken for
determination of temperature, salinity, DO, pH, SWL, and t^S. The
Project also collected water quality data in several of its other
biological studies (see Sections 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15).
Bottom Deposit Studies. The University of Washington Department
of Oceanography took 82 dredge and core samples of bottom sediments
in the Bellingham-Samish Bay system in 1960. Samples were analyzed
for color, odor, particle-size distribution, and course fraction
constituents including wood chips and fragments. This work was reported
by Sternberg (1961).
42
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The Project conducted three studies in Bellingham Bay to
describe the composition, amount, and areal coverage of bottom sludge
deposits. On May 1, 1963, a gravity core-sampler was used to collect
samples two inches in diameter and up to six feet in length from those
stations shown in Figure 7-2A. Samples were examined for color, odor,
composition, and vertical distribution of particle size. On
August 11, 1964, bottom samples were collected with a van Veen dredge
at locations shown in Figure 7-2B. These samples were examined in
the field for odor, color, and inclusion of wood fiber, wood fragments,
and other constituents. In the laboratory, portions of these samples
were analyzed for volatile solids content and were examined for the
identification and enumeration of included benthos (see Section 9).
In the third study, on May 10, 1966, bottom samples were taken with an
Ekman dredge from those stations shown in Figure 7-2C. These were
examined in the field and analyzed in the laboratory in the same manner
as those collected in August 1964.
METHODS
Project studies, for the most part, were conducted from the
45-foot research vessel, HAROLD W. STREETER. This vessel is equipped
with a chemistry laboratory and navigational and oceanographic sampling
equipment. For some sampling, however, particularly in Bellingham
Harbor and adjacent nearshore waters, outboard-motor boats were used.
Water samples were collected with 1.25-liter Nansen bottles or
3-liter Kemmerer samplers. Usual analyses were:
43
-------
(B)
(A)
(C)
FIGURE 7-2. Bottom sediment sampling stations in Bellingham Bay: (A) core samples of May 1, 1963;
(B) dredge samples of August 11, 1964; and (C) dredge samples of May 10, 1966.
44
-------
Temperature: with reversing mercury thermometers attached
to the Nansen bottles. In some cases, a continuous
record of temperature vs. depth was taken with a
bathythermograph.
Salinity: with a Hytech,* Model 6210, inductive
salinometer.
DO: by the Alsterberg modification of the Winkler
method (A.P.H.A0, 1962).
pH: with a Beckman, Model GS, meter.
SWL (10% solids): by the modified Pearl-Benson method
(Barnes, et_ al_., 1963).
Water Clarity (in situ): with a 30 cm diameter Secchi disc.
In some cases, in situ measurements of temperature and salinity were
taken with an Industrial Instruments, Model RS-5, inductive salinometer,
Also, in areas where high SWL concentrations were found to interfere
with the Winkler DO test, a Beckman, Model 777, probe was used to
analyze for dissolved oxygen, both in situ and in the laboratory.
Bottom samples for volatile solids analyses were frozen in the
field, delivered to the laboratory, and analyzed by the method in
A.P.H.A. (1962). Results were expressed as percent volatile solids,
dry-weight basis.
Methods employed in those studies by other agencies and institu-
tions are described in the references cited. Generally, these methods
were similar to those described above.
* Mention of products and manufacturers in this report is for
identification only and does not imply endorsement by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration or the Washington State
Pollution Control Commission.
45
-------
RESULTS
Surface Layer. Freshwater discharges, primarily from the Nooksack
River but also from other tributaries to the study area, form a surface
layer of less saline water, 5 to about 12 feet deep, covering most of
Bellingham-Samish Bays. Within this layer, salinity increases rapidly
with depth--but below, it increases much more gradually. Consequently,
the lower boundary of this layer is delimited by points where the
vertical salinity gradient changes. These features are illustrated in
Figure 7-3 by the vertical distribution of average salinity
(solid line) at each of three stations.
Density stratification associated with the surface layer retards
vertical mixing; hence, this layer is maintained as a relatively stable
and distinct body of water. Stability does decrease with distance from
the freshwater sources, however, because the freshwater forming this
layer must flow to sea and as it flows, the slight vertical mixing
permitted gradually entrains underlying saltwater and reduces density
stratification. Therefore, with increasing distance from the Nooksack
River, surface salinities increase (Figure 7-4) and the surface layer
deepens (Figure 7-3).
Georgia-Pacific wastes are discharged into near-surface waters.
Being less dense than deeper waters, these wastes are entrained in the
surface layer and, because of reduced vertical mixing, their subsequent
distribution is largely confined to the surface layer waters of the
study area; note the vertical distributions of average SWL
(dashed lines) in Figure 7-3. Estimates of the average mass-distribution
46
-------
Salinity(%0)
SWL(ppm)
Salmity(%o)
; SWL(ppm)
0
10
Q.
v 20
30
30
APPROX DEPTH
feet) OF THE
SURFACE
LAYER
Salinity:
29 30
50 6O
I I
a.
Q
APPROX DEPTH(feet)
OF THE SURFACE LAYER
70 -
80 -
FIGURE 7-3. Vertical distribution of average salinity and average SWL at three stations in Bellingham
Bay—data from University of Washington study of November 1959 - November 1961.
47
-------
LEGEND
Mean lower low
water
Surface salinity
FIGURE 7-4. Average surface salinity in Bellingham Bay—data from University of Washington study of
November 1959 - November 1961.
48
-------
of SWL in the upper part of Bellingham Bay (north of a line between
Point Francis and Post Point) indicate that 607o of the mill's waste
is contained within 10 feet of the surface and about 90% is contained
within 20 feet of the surface. For the whole study area, these
estimates are 50% and 70%,, respectively. Of importance, then, the
surface layer of the study area makes available only a small portion--
about 30%--of the total volume of Bellingham-Samish Bays for the
assimilation of Georgia-Pacific wastes. Except near the mill
(primarily in Bellingham Harbor), waters deeper than 20 feet possess
low SWL concentrations (see Figure 7-6); hence, they are little
affected by mill wastes.
Vertical Waste Distribution. The vertical distribution of
Georgia-Pacific wastes is shown in Figure 7-5 by vertical sections of
average, maximum, and minimum SWL concentrations at four stations in
the study area (note the differences in the SWL-concentration scales) .
Vertical waste distribution is shown also by the vertical section of
average SWL along a mid-bay transect (Figure 7-6A) and by the vertical
composite of maximum SWL observations along the same transect
(Figure 7-6B). These figures show the general confinement of dispersed
mill wastes in the surface 20 feet of water and the near-absence of these
wastes in deeper waters (SWL values greater than 5 ppm are considered
positive measures of mill wastes; see article, "Flushing of Wastes
During Mill Closure", page 53).
Horizontal Waste Distribution The horizontal distribution of
Georgia-Pacific wastes is shown in Figure 7-7 by the pattern of
average surface SWL in the study area. Note that mill wastes spread
49
-------
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-20'
LEGEND
Mean lower low
water
^ Surface SWL
(ppm)
FIGURE 7-7. Average surface SWL in the Bellingham study area--data from the University of Washington
study of November 1959 - November 1961.
52
49
-------
throughout the study area, including into Samish Bay. The horizontal
distribution of maximum observed concentrations of SWL is shown in
Figure 7-8. Note that most maxima greatly exceed average
concentrations „
Surface Circulation. Net transport (long-term movement) of
surface waters in the study area is seaward and out of the area. This
transport is driven by the inflows of freshwater. Consequently, in the
upper part of Bellingham Bay, net surface-water movement carries
Nooksack River water and Georgia-Pacific wastes southward and produces
the patterns of average surface salinity and average surface SWL shown
in Figures 7-4 and 7-7, respectively. Surface transport out of the
study area is shown in Figure 7-9. This information, derived from
U.S.C.&G.S. current meter data, shows surface water movement primarily
into Rosario Strait but also into Padilla Bay; consequently, some
dispersed wastes from the Georgia-Pacific mill are carried into the
Anacortes area.
Short-term surface circulation is variable and results primarily
from the variable actions of tides, winds, and combinations thereof.
Strong southerly winds tend to hold Nooksack River water in the
northern part of Bellingham Bay, causing it to spread into Bellingham
Harbor and contiguous waters. Northerly winds or the absence of winds
allow southward movement of River outflows. Consequently, short-term
patterns of surface salinity show much variation.
Short-term patterns of surface SWL also show hour-to-hour and
day-to-day changes, and they describe wide fluctuation in the transport
and dispersion of Georgia-Pacific wastes. As a result, SWL
53
-------
249
94
93 |52
451
152
319
1421
136
133
256
/
/
257 see
Figure
\
7-13
\
710
120
516
215
253
50
38
128
127
75
283
75
LEGEND
Mean lower low
water
Max. surface SWL
(ppm)
107
95
25
153
'91
25
55
21
55
17
25
39 36
14
20
17
14
14
10
143
26
16
IO
15
32
18
17
12 3
FIGURE 7-8. Maximum observations of surface SWL in the Bellingham study area--data from University of
Washington studies (11/59-11/61), Washington Department of Fisheries studies (9/56-9/59), Washington
Pollution Control Commission studies (1957-58), and certain Project studies (10/62-12/64).
-------
0.07 Kn.
.07 Kn.
0.06 Kn.
I
0.07 Kn.
LEGEND
Net surface transport
«~-,,^ Net surface current
°-07K"- at U.S.C. & G.S.
station (speed in knots)
Mean lower low water
FIGURE 7-9. Net surface circulation pattern and net surface currents in the Bellingham-Anacortes area;
data from U.S.C.&G.S0 current meter studies of 1964-65.
-------
concentrations much higher than average values are found in all parts
of the study area; compare Figure 7-8 with Figure 7-7.
Flushing of Wastes During Mill Closure. The Georgia-Pacific
mill was closed by a labor strike and little or no wastes were
discharged between November 12 and 25, 1964. From water quality data
collected in special cruises during and after this period, the surface
SWL patterns on November 18 and 25, and December 1 (Figures 7-10B, C,
and D, respectively) were derived. Figure 7-10A shows the average
surface SWL pattern (same as Figure 7-7) for the November 1959-
November 1961 period. Note the following features:
Figure 7-10B -- after 6 days of closure, waste concentrations
throughout the study area were considerably
reduced from average values.
Figure 7-10C -- after 13 days of closure, nearly all mill wastes
had been flushed from the study area, and except
in the vicinity of the mill, background SWL levels
of 2 to 5 ppm prevailed.
Figure 7-10D -- six days after resumption of operations, mill-waste
concentrations throughout the study area were
returning to level's observed under normal mill
operation.
These results evidence an estimated total flushing time of 14 to 17 -days
for the Bellingham-Samish Bay system. That is, for the freshwater
discharges (which influence the length of flushing time) prevailing
during the closure period, the Bay-system would have required from
56
-------
LEGEND
Mean lower
" low water
Surface SWL
(ppm)
-5-
LEGEND
Mean lower
low water
Surface SWL
(ppm)
(A)
(B)
5
\
L
V
SWL range
IOto<2l5
200
\SWL range
25 _^\ 200 to ±1000
>2
but <5
>2
but <5
;o
(D)
FIGURE 7-10. Patterns of surface SWL: (A) average over the period November 1959-November 1961
(B) observed on November 18, 1964, (C) observed on November 25, 1964, and (D) observed on December 1,
1964.
57
-------
14-17 days to flush itself essentially free (below 5 ppm) of
Georgia-Pacific mill wastes. This estimate falls within the range
of average flushing time estimates (3.2 to 78.0 days depending on
freshwater discharges) based on salinity relationships computed by
Westley (1960).
Of further importance are the very low background levels of
apparent-SWL observed in the study area during the closure period.
On November 25, when flushing of wastes from the area was nearly
completed, SWL concentrations at 17 stations outside (south) of the
5 ppm isopleth (Figure 7-10C) averaged 1.1 ppm and had a median of
1 ppm. Even on December 1, SWL concentrations at 20 stations outside
the 5 ppm isopleth (Figure 7-10D) averaged 2.8 ppm and had a median of
3 ppm; and on November 18, at 15 such stations (Figure 7-10B) they
averaged 3.3 ppm and had a median of 3 ppm. These data clearly show
that in the absence of Georgia-Pacific waste discharges background
levels of apparent-SWL throughout the study area would be less than
3 ppm and would probably be 1 ppm. Consequently, the background level
of 5 ppm used in this part of the report is definitely a conservative
value.
Water Quality in Bellingham-Samish Bays. In the outer waters of
Bellingham Bay and in Samish Bay (i.,6., all study area waters except
Bellingham Harbor), the principal water quality effect caused by
Georgia-Pacific wastes is the appearance of dilute concentrations of
sulfite waste liquors in the surface waters. Figure 7-7 shows that
surface waters over about half of the study area are affected by
average SWL concentrations of 20 ppm or greater and the remainder of
58
-------
the surface waters are influenced by average SWL concentrations
ranging from background levels (less than 5 ppm) to 20 ppm. More
important, Figure 7-8 shows that maximum surface SWL concentrations
reach levels of 100 to 1,400 ppm in Bellingham Bay and levels of
10 to 140 ppm in Samish Bay. The extent to which these concentrations
are toxic to marine life is related in the following sections.
Other water quality properties in the outer-Bay waters are only
slightly affected by mill wastes. Figure 7-11 shows that surface DO,
pH, and water transparency are slightly reduced in the area of high
SWL concentrations in the upper part of Bellingham Bay.
Water Quality in Bellingham Harbor. Contrary to the situation
in the outer-Bay waters, discharges of mill wastes produce extremely
high concentrations of sulfite waste liquors and considerable
degradation of water quality in Bellingham Harbor. This is illustrated
by the observed patterns of surface SWL, DO, and pH shown in
Figure 7-12. Note the high concentrations of SWL, varying from
200 ppm to over 6,000 ppm; the depressed levels of DO, down to
4 and 5 mg/1; and the low values of pH.
Extreme and, oftentimes, rapid changes in Harbor water quality
also were observed. These resulted from the variable actions of winds
and tides which considerably influence Harbor water circulation and
the immediate transport and dispersion of near-surface-discharged mill
wastes. Consequently, maximum and minimum values of SWL, DO, and pH
typical of those shown in Figure 7-13 were frequently recorded. Note
the extremes in SWL concentrations from values less than 100 ppm to
59
-------
I A) Surface SWL(ppm)
(B) Surface pH
IK
10
1C) Surface D 0 tmg/l)
ID) Water Transparency
(ft- Secchi disc)
FIGURE 7-11. Patterns of (A) surface SWL, (B) surface pH, (C) surface DO, and (D) water.transparency
observed in Bellingham Bay on July 3, 1963.
60
-------
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values greater than 6,000 ppm; the extremes in DO, from concentrations
less than 4 mg/1 to those greater than 9 mg/1; and the extremes in pH,
from values near 6 to values greater than 7. As indicated, the
Harbor is alternately affected by waters of good or acceptable quality
and waters of poor or degraded quality.
Bottom Deposits. Natural sediments in Bellingham Bay generally
consist of homogeneous, silt-clay muds containing about 1070 sand.
In many cases, this base formation is covered by a layer of very fine,
flocculated material, described as the oxidized layer because of its
brownish appearance (Sternberg, 1961). In Whatcom Waterway and
contiguous areas of Bellingham Harbor, however, this oxidized layer is
absent and the base formation is overlaid with a sludge deposit--
an oxygen-deficient layer of decomposing organic material composed,
primarily, of settled, volatile suspended solids discharged by the
Georgia-Pacific pulp and board mill (see Table 6-1) and the
Georgia-Pacific paper mill (see Table 6-2). This sludge is
characterized by its black color, its strong hydrogen-sulfide odor, its
content of wood chips and considerable amount of wood fiber, and
its relatively high volatile solids content (Figure 7-14B). Although
the depth of this deposit was measured only in Whatcom Waterway,
sludge probably accumulates in adjacent areas where docks (to the east)
and log storage (to the west) precluded sampling. Sludge thickness in
the Waterway varied from zero at the entrance to 21 inches at the inner
end (Figure 7-14A), and the sludge volume in the Waterway was estimated
to be about 42,000 cu. yds. To maintain navigability, the Waterway is
periodically dredged; hence these thicknesses and volume values do change.
63
-------
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In addition to the sludge in the Waterway, wood chips and bark
fragments are found in the sediments throughout the northern part of
Bellingham Bay (Figure 7-15A). In part, this material is torn bark
from log rafts and spillage from chip barges towed through the area.
However, it appears that a larger part comes from the disposal of
accumulated sludge periodically dredged from the Waterway at
Georgia-Pacific's chip-barge unloading facility. Barge loads of
dredged material have been observed being dumped off of Post Point,
and the area of disposal is the same as the area where anomalous
percent volatile solids were found in bottom sediment samples
(Figure 7-15B).
DISCUSSION
Because the Bellingham-Samish Bay system is influenced by a
relatively stable surface layer of less-than-seawater salinity, by
weak and variable circulation, and by protracted flushing, wastes
discharged by the Georgia-Pacific mill are not provided sufficient
dilution to avert their affecting water quality. In Bellingham
Harbor, the area of disposal and immediate dispersion, the large
volume of strong pulping and papermaking wastes discharged cause
substantial degradation of water quality and accumulation of settleable
solids. The Harbor does not have the assimilative or flushing capacity
to accept these wastes without the consequence of serious pollution.
In the remaining part of the study area, outer Bellingham Bay and
Samish Bay, the amount of strong pulping wastes emitted--sulfite waste
liquors and alcohol plant wastes — far exceed that which can be dispersed
65
-------
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00
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and diluted to non-damaging concentrations within the limited volume
available in the surface-water layer. Summarily, the Bellingham-Samish
Bay system does not have the assimilative capacity to handle the types
and amounts of wastes presently discharged by the Georgia-Pacific
complex—both the pulp and board mill, and the paper mill.
The following sections describe the types and degrees of damage
to marine life presently occurring in the study area, and each section
delineates the water quality criteria that are prerequisite for
preventing such damage. In preview, however, these criteria require,
principally, the reduction in SWL or pulping waste concentrations
throughout the study area, the maintenance of tolerable DO and pH levels
in the Harbor, and the prevention of solids accumulation in the Harbor.
Of importance here, these criteria, most probably, will have to be met
by means of waste treatment for the removal of dissolved solids and
biochemical oxygen demand from pulping wastes and the removal of
suspended solids from papermaking, barking, and other solids-bearing waste
streams. Relocation (within limits) or modification of present outfall
sewers for the disposal of present loads of untreated wastes will not
accomplish compliance with these criteria because of the above-mentioned
hydraulic characteristics of the Bay system. The system is too shallow
for accomplishing deep-water dispersion that would preclude adverse
effects on surface water quality. Furthermore, flushing is too weak
and water circulation is too variable in most parts of the study area
to effect rapid dispersion and transport of wastes from reasonably
located disposal sites. Solids accumulation also would occur at most
reasonably located disposal sites. In conclusion, the Bellingham-Samish
67
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Bay system is hydraulically unsuited as a receiving body of water for
the disposal of the large volume of partially treated wastes generated
by the Georgia-Pacific mills. Therefore, abatement of the existing
pollution of these waters must proceed through adequate treatment of
the mills' wastes.
68
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8. JUVENILE SALMON
The several tributary streams of the Bellingham area are
spawning and rearing grounds for the anadromous salmonids: Chinook,
silver, chum, and pink salmon; and steelhead, sea-run cutthroat, and
dolly varden trout. The Nooksack River contributes to a large
commercial fishery in Bellingham Bay, and the Samish River supports
a significant sport fishery. Squalicum, Padden, and Chuckanut Creeks
are lesser producers.
Annually, from March through July, juvenile (one year old or
less) salmon and trout migrate downstream and enter estuarine waters.
Pink, chum, and fall chinook salmon begin migrating soon after hatching,
and they enter Bellingham Bay as fry (about 1 to 2 inches in length).
In the Bay they usually seek nearshore waters for food and protection;
hence their seaward movement is along the shoreline until they are
large enough to move into offshore waters. Being weak swimmers,
however, some of these fry are occasionally swept by strong river
discharges directly into offshore waters, and their subsequent movement
to shoreline waters is delayed, if accomplished at all. Silver and
spring chinook salmon, and anadromous trout spend at least a year after
hatching in the rearing stream before migrating downriver. They enter
the estuary as fingerlings (from about 3 to 12 inches in length).
Since they are strong swimmers, they usually move directly into off-
shore waters, but spring chinook may spend a short time in nearshore
waters.
69
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STUDIES
Numbers of salmon fry and some fingerlings from the Nooksack River
and Squalicum Creek migrate through Bellingham Harbor and adjacent
waters. Since the Harbor is considerably polluted by Georgia-Pacific
wastes (see Figures 7-12 and 7-13), and because juvenile salmon can
be adversely affected by sulfite waste liquor (Williams, et^ a_K , 1953;
Washington Department of Fisheries, 1960) and by reduced dissolved
oxygen, low pH, and concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, other
toxicants, and combinations thereof (McKee and Wolf, 1963), juvenile
salmon migration-occurrence and bioassay studies were conducted in
Bellingham Harbor.
Migration-Occurrence Studies. From April through June 1963,
the Fisheries Research Institute (FRI) of the University of Washington
sampled juvenile salmon populations in Bellingham Bay to obtain
information on their seaward migration and distribution in the Bay.
This study, reported by Tyler (1964), included 75 near-surface tows in
the offshore sampling areas shown in Figure 8-1A.
The Project conducted four beam-trawl studies in the northern
part of Bellingham Bay during May 1964. In each study, 3 to 6 five-
minute tows (57 tows in all) were made along each of the three
transects shown in Figure 8-1B.
During April, May, and June 1964, the Project sampled fish
populations in Bellingham Harbor to determine occurrence of young
salmon in these waters. Sampling was accomplished by running a mobile
fishtrap along the 22 transects shown in Figure 8-2. A total of
226 runs were made over 13 sampling days.
70
-------
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-------
LEGEND
Fishtrop sampling
transect
FIGURE 8-2. Fishtrap sampling transects in Bellingham Harbor, April-June 1964.
72
-------
Bioassay Studies. The Project conducted bioassay studies in
Bellingham Harbor and contiguous nearshore waters during June 1963,
May 1964, and May and June 1965. The 1963-64 investigations were
in situ studies to delineate areas where significant juvenile mortal-
ities could occur. On eleven dates, live boxes, each containing ten
chum salmon fry, were placed at selected stations for exposure periods
of 4 or 24 hours. Usually, these boxes were placed at eight, nine, or
ten of the seventeen stations shown in Figure 8-8. During the exposure
period, each box was visited periodically (hourly during the 4-hour
periods and at the termination of the 24-hour periods) to observe test
fish mortalities and to collect water samples. Wind, weather, and
tide stage also were noted. In all, 89 exposure tests were conducted.
Twenty-four tests were concluded after four hours'exposure and the
remaining 65 were continued for the full twenty-four-hour period.
The 1965 investigation was a modified in situ study to examine
water quality changes associated with juvenile mortalities. Exposure
tests were conducted in two flow-through test chambers on board the
R/V HAROLD W. STREETER. These test chambers were constructed to permit
continuous observation of test fish reactions and to facilitate
frequent water sampling. Test water was continuously pumped (about 2
gpm) from the surface three feet of water at the station occupied.
Water was pumped separately to each chamber and was not recirculated.
In each test, ten chum salmon fry (average 43.2 mm, standard length)
were placed in either one of the test chambers, and their behavior
and mortalities were observed and recorded throughout the exposure
period. (During several of the tests, a 16-mm movie camera was used
to record distress behavior and subsequent mortality.)
73
-------
Concomitantly with behavioristic observations, samples of test chamber
water were taken at three- to fifteen-minute intervals. Twenty tests
were conducted at Station B (Figure 8-8). These exposure periods
ranged from a few minutes to over 4 hours; those lasting less than
4 hours were terminated by 100% mortality (Table 8-3). Five control
tests were conducted at Station A (Figure 8-8). Exposure periods in
these tests ranged from about 4 to about 46 hours (Table 8-3).
METHODS
Migration-Occurrence Study Methods. In the FRI townet studies,
most tows were made with a 10x20x43-foot net. However, for some of the
earliest tows, a net having a 9-foot square opening was employed.
Either net was towed through near-surface waters behind two boats.
Duration of each tow was about 15 minutes.
A 9x9-foot beam trawl was used in the Project trawl studies. As
in the FRI studies, this net was towed through near-surface waters
behind two boats, and at the end of each tow, captured fish were
counted by species.
The mobile fishtrap used in the Project's Harbor-occurrence
studies is shown in Figure 8-3. This device was suspended between two
outboard-motor boats and moved through the water such that fish were
scooped up by the front funnel section and were carried by the flow of
water up the inclined plane and into the rear holding box. A cross-
section of water 12 feet wide and 1-1/2 feet deep was sampled. Normal
procedure was to run the trap along each transect (Figure 8-2); to
record the time of run; and after completion to count, by species, the
fish captured.
74
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Bioassay Methods. Test fish used in both the 1963-64 and 1965
studies were outmigrant chum salmon fry captured by various beach-
seining techniques in or near the Nooksack River. These fish were
kept in a holding box near Control Station 3 (Figure 8-8) for a
period of not less than 48 hours prior to use. Only fish in good
condition were used for testing, and none was used more than once.
Extreme care was exercised in all handling of test fish.
Transfers from the holding box and into the live boxes or test
chambers were accomplished with a nylon dip net, and exposure out of
the water was kept to a minimum. The adequacy of the handling
techniques is evident in that: (1) in the 1963-64 studies, no
mortalities ever occurred at Control Stations 1, 2, or 3, and 100%
survival was recorded at least once at every station except Stations
6 and 10; and (2) in the 1965 studies, no mortalities were ever
recorded at Control Station A, and 100% survival was obtained in
3 out of 20 tests at Station B.
The live boxes used in the 1963-64 studies were fiber glass
cylinders, 24 inches long and 12 inches in diameter (Figure 8-4A).
The ends were covered with 1/8-inch-mesh nylon netting to retain the
test fish but permit free circulation of water through the box. A
cedar block, bolted either to the inside or outside of the box,
provided buoyancy to float the box at the surface as shown in
Figure 8-4B.
One of the two test chambers used in the 1965 studies was a
clear lucite box, 48 inches long, 6 inches wide, and 10 inches deep
(Figure 8-5A). Water depth was maintained at 7 inches. The
76
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(8)
FIGURE 8-4. Live boxes used in in situ juvenile salmon bioassay studies: (A) typical live box and
(B) live box as placed at a station for an exposure test.
77
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(A)
(B)
FIGURE 8-5. Test chambers used in the 1965 bioassay studies in Bellingham Harbor: (A) lucite test
chamber, and (B) standard live box (inside large wooden tank) test chamber.
78
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transparent walls and the back-lighting of the chamber permitted both
visual and photographic observations of test fish reactions and
mortalities. The other test chamber (Figure 8-5B) consisted of a
standard live box (Figure 8-4A) positioned vertically and half
submerged in a wooden live tank (47 inches square, 12-inch water
depth) . The submerged end of the live box was covered with bobbinet
to retain the test fish but permit water circulation. The exposed
end was left open to facilitate observation of test fish.
In the 1963-64 studies, samples of near-surface water at each
live box were collected with a Kemmerer sampler. In the 1965 studies,
samples were siphoned directly from the test chambers. Sample
analyses in 1965 were:
Temperature: with a mercury thermometer.
Salinity: with a Hytech, Model 6210
inductive salinometer.
DO: with a Beckman, Model 777, probe
analyzer.
pH: with a Beckman, Model GS, meter.
SWL (10%. solids) : by the modified Pearl-Benson method
(Barnes, e_t al_. , 1963).
by the Hach lead-acetate method,,
: by the distillation method
(A.P.H.A., 1962).
Temperature, DO, pH, and H^S were analyzed on board ship immediately
after collection. Sample analyses in the 1963-64 studies were the
same except that NHo-N was not determined; pH was determined with
pH paper; and, in some cases, DO was determined by the Alsterberg
modification of the Winkler method (A.P.H.A., 1962).
79
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RESULTS
Migration. Townet data collected by FRI were evaluated by the
Project, and the results are given in Figure 8-6. The values shown
are sampling-area catch rates—the average catches of juvenile salmon
(all species) per ten minutes of tow for all tows in each of the
sampling areas depicted in Figure 8-1A. Also shown is the arbitrary
division of Bellingham Bay into three sections. The average catches
of juveniles per ten minutes of tow for all tows in each section are
shown as boxed values. Note that the highest sampling-area catch
rates and the highest section catch rate occur in the easternmost
sector of the Bay. These data show that the eastern shoreline is a
' major migration path for young salmon. This is confirmed by
other townet and beach-seine data collected by FRI which show that
Chuckanut Bay and Post Point are major schooling areas (Tyler, 1964).
Consequently, large numbers of Nooksack River and Squalicum Creek
outmigrants must move in and through Bellingham Harbor in their
seaward migration. This is verified by the relatively high tow-area
catch rates of 4.6, 9.7, and 3.9 obtained in the Harbor.
Project beam-trawl results show average transect catch rates of
8.9, 4.3, and 6.5 juvenile salmon per ten minutes of tow along
Transects 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Figure 8-1B). Note the high
catch rate (8.9) along Transect 1 which cuts through Bellingham Harbor.
Occurrence of Juveniles in Bellingham Harbor. Results of the
mobile-fishtrap studies are given in Figure 8-7. The values shown are
average area-catches of juvenile salmon (all species) per 10 minutes
of run. Note that juvenile salmon were captured in all areas. These
80
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LEGEND
Average sampling-area
catch rate (juveniles
per 10 minutes of tow)
Average section catch
rate (juveniles per 10
minutes of tow)
Mean lower low water
FIGURE 8-6. Average sampling-area and section catch rates of juvenile salmon in Bellingham Bay, from
FRI townet sampling results.
81
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LEGEND
/,
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A Area designation
Area boundary
3.9 Average area catch
rate (juvenile salmon
per 10 minutes of
run)
FIGURE 8-7. Average area catch rates of juvenile salmon in Bellingham Harbor, from Project fishtrap
sampling results.
82
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data demonstrate that outmigrants do move into Bellingham Harbor.
Note, also, that fewer fish were captured in areas nearer the Georgia-
Pacific waste discharge (into Whatcom Waterway) than in more distant
areas. In Area F, no fish were captured on 8 out of 11 sampling days,
hence an absence rate of 73%. Absence rates in the contiguous areas—
D, E, G, and H--ranged from 18 to 257o, whereas absence rates in the
remaining areas were either 0% or 8% (Areas A and C). Accordingly,
these results evidence (1) some avoidance by young salmon of the more
polluted areas and/or (2) some mortality and disappearance of juveniles
which enter such areas (dead salmon sink).
Occurrence of Mortality. Percentage terminal mortalities
observed at the end of 4-hour exposure in the bioassay tests conducted
in the 1963-64 studies are tabulated in Table 8-1. Stations and data
are arranged by area (see Figure 8-8) in accordance with the frequency
and intensity of mortalities observed. The following facts are evident:
1. No kills ever occurred at control stations in Area A.
2. In Area B, kills occurred in 49% of the tests and these
were usually high-percentage kills; _i.e_., in 837o of the
tests in which mortalities occurred, 20% or more of the
test fish died, and in half of the tests in which
mortalities occurred, all test fish died. Furthermore,
100% kills were observed one or more times at all stations
in Area B except at Station 8.
83
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LEGEND
Bioassay station;
1963-1964 Studies
B ioassay station;
1965 study
6-r ssi^ " "s*««s>«««&f
FIGURE 8-8. Juvenile salmon bioassay stations in Bellingham Bay; 1963-64 and 1965 studies.
85
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3. In Area C, kills occurred in 45% of the tests but most of
these were low-percentage kills; i_.e_., only two (25%) were
kills of 20% or more, and none was a complete kill.
Results of the 24-hour exposure tests (1963-64 studies) are given
in Table 8-2. Relationships similar to those above are evident; i_.e_. ,
(1) no kills in Area A, (2) frequent high-percentage kills in Area B,
and (3) frequent but usually low-percentage kills in Area C.
In addition to frequent high-percentage kills, mortalities in
Area B often occurred after relatively short exposures. Of the fifteen
cases of total mortality in 4-hour tests in this area, two of these
complete kills actually occurred in 10 minutes or less, five occurred
in 1 hour or less, and twelve occurred in 2 hours or less. Equally
rapid kills also occurred in tests which terminated in mortalities of
less than 100%. These results, then, together with those above,
describe Area B as a zone where conditions are frequently acutely
toxic to juvenile salmon.
Water Quality Associated with Mortalities. In the 1963-64
studies, it was observed that variations in wind and in tide stage
caused considerable differences in water quality in the Harbor, and
that these fluctuations in water quality, in turn, caused variations in
observed bioassay mortalities. When 100% kills occurred in the 4-hour
tests (Table 8-1), minimum observed DO's were always less than 2.4 mg/1
and maximum observed SWL's were always greater than 740 ppm. However,
when no kills occurred (4-hour tests), minimum observed DO's were almost
always (92% of the no-kill tests) greater than 2.4 mg/1 and maximum
observed SWL's were usually (71% of the no-kill tests) less than 740 ppm.
86
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Because of frequent water sampling, the 1965 bioassay study was
better designed to reveal levels of water quality associated with
mortality. Results of this study are summarized in Table 8-3. Note
that these data are arranged in the three groupings: 100% kills at
Station B, 0% kills at Station B, and 0% kills at Station A
(see Figure 8-8 for station locations). The following features are
described:
1. In the first grouping, 100% kills are associated with
significantly high concentrations of SWL, low concentrations
of DO, reduced pH's, and variable concentrations of NH3-N--
all of which evidence water quality degradation by mill
wastes. In all cases, these observed values are below or
approach the lethal limits (for each property) reported by
others (Williams, et al, 1953; McKee and Wolfe, 1963).
2. In the second grouping, zero mortalities at Station B are
associated with water quality values revealing some
degradation by mill wastes but nevertheless showing lesser
concentrations of SWL, higher DO concentrations, and higher
pH's than noted in the first grouping.
3. In the third grouping, absence of mortalities at Control
Station A are associated with quality values showing little
influence of mill wastes; £.£., low SWL concentrations, near-
saturation DO concentrations, normal pH's and low NH3-N
concentrations.
Other important features noted in Table 8-3 are the short
exposure periods associated with many of the 100% kills. Of the
88
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seventeen tests in the first grouping, total kills occurred in
15 minutes or less in six of these tests and in 2 hours or less in
twelve of these tests. In contrast, complete survival of test fish
was obtained for as long as 4 hours and 15 minutes at Station B and
for over 46 hours at Station A. Furthermore, observations of test
fish behavior were that:
1. When water quality was poor or was rapidly deteriorating,
test fish quickly became disoriented and engaged in erratic
behavior and aimless, non-directional swimming.
2. Test fish showed no avoidance behavior.
3. In the moments preceding observed mortality, test fish
invariably lost equilibrium and turned "belly up". Follow-
ing this period, the fish made brief, spasmodic movements
and then sank to the bottom. All 170 fish which died sank
to and remained on the bottom of the test chambers.
DISCUSSION
Of considerable importance are the findings that test kills did
not occur on all days at any one station and, on most test dates, that
kills did not occur at all stations in Area B where toxic conditions
most frequently occur. Hence, water quality favorable for normal
survival of juvenile salmon often prevails in this area and does allow
utilization of these waters by outmigrants of the Nooksack River and
Squalicum Creek. This fact is substantiated by the fish-trap catches
of young salmon throughout the Harbor (Figure 8-7). Once juvenile
salmon enter Area B or Area C, however, they may swim into zones of
polluted water or they may be entrapped in polluted waters which are
90
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moved throughout the Harbor by the actions of winds and tides.
Several times, test fish, either in a live box or one of the test
chambers, showed normal behavior before rapid degradation of water
quality produced immediate morbidity and rapid kills. Increases in
SWL concentrations at rates as high as 230 ppm per minute were
observed, and rapid decreases in DO concentrations and pH values also
were recorded. Certainly, the occurrence of 10070 kills in 15 minutes
or less in six tests of the 1965 study and 1007o kills in 10 minutes
or less in two tests in the 1963-64 studies show the rapidity with
which acute toxic conditions can develop in Bellingham Harbor.
The numbers of wild juvenile salmon actually killed by lethal
conditions in Bellingham Harbor are not known. In the first place,
these young fish invariably sink when they die. Consequently, kills
of juvenile salmon are not evidenced by floating dead fish as may be
observed with other species. Secondly, in all cases wherein mortality
occurred, death was preceded by loss of equilibrium and inability to
avoid predators for periods as long as 20 minutes. Hence, some loss
of wild fish can result from abnormally high predation. In view of
these considerations and from the results heretofore presented, it is
concluded that significant numbers of Nooksack River and Squalicum
Creek juveniles are killed by polluted waters in Bellingham Harbor
and, particularly, in that part of the Harbor designated as
Area B.
Because test fish kills most frequently occurred in the waste-
receiving waters of Area B, and because test kills were always
associated with high SWL concentrations and low pH values (Table 8-3),
91
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wastes discharged by the Georgia-Pacific mill are definitely
implicated as the cause of the test mortalities observed. The
exact toxic components of these wastes and/or the other factors
(DO, pH, etc.) actually responsible for these kills were not
determined. However, studied evaluation of the 1965 water quality
results leads to the conclusion that test mortalities were caused
by the single or combined effect of (1) toxic mill wastes, (2) low
dissolved oxygen concentrations, (3) low pH values, (4) high ammonia
concentrations, and possibly, (5) other properties (e.g., C0?
concentrations) not measured.
Results in Table 8-3 reveal that mortalities or distress
behavior never occurred at Station A where SWL concentrations were
always less than 150 ppm, DO concentrations were greater than 5 mg/1,
pH values were greater than 7, and NHo-N concentrations were less than
0.1 mg/1. Results from Station B indicate that, even at SWL
concentrations in the range of 1,000 to 2,000 ppm, young salmon survived,
providing that DO concentrations of about 5 mg/1, pH values of about
6.5, and ammonia concentrations of about 0.2 mg/1 prevailed. However,
when SWL exceeded 1,500 ppm in association with DO of less than 5 mg/1,
pH of less than 6.5, and NH3-N of greater than 0.2 mg/1 (first grouping,
Table 8-3), morbidity and mortality always occurred. Consequently, it
is concluded that the following water quality criteria must be met at
all times at all points in Bellingham Harbor if survival and well-
being of migrating Nooksack River and Squalicum Creek juvenile salmon
are to be assured:
92
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SWL less than 1,000 ppm
DO greater than 5 mg/1
pH greater than 6.5
NH3-N less than 0.2 mg/1
It is emphasized that these criteria are promulgated for the
protection of fry and fingerling salmon only. The protection of other
marine forms will require different criteria. Furthermore, these
criteria are based on the present situation as affected by the types
of wastes currently discharged by the Georgia-Pacific mill. If
pulping or waste liquor recovery processes are significantly changed,
for example, modification of or addition to these criteria may be
required. For this reason, it is further recommended that water
quality throughout Bellingham Harbor be adequate at all times to
permit complete survival and normal behavior of juvenile salmon in
4-hour _in situ bioassay tests.
93
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9. BOTTOM ORGANISMS
An important segment of the marine community of an estuary is the
benthic fauna. This group of bottom-dwelling animals includes most of
the crustaceans (£-£.., crabs, shrimp, barnacles, amphipods, and
isopods) and mollusks (£.g_., clams and snails); many types of worms;
and various other forms such as anemones, bryozoans, starfish, sea
urchins, and sea cucumbers. The benthic fauna is an integral part in
the food web of the marine community. Bottom fish feed heavily on
benthos, and these fish and some of the larger benthic animals are
food for larger carnivores. Also, the benthic fauna has a commercial
and recreational importance. Certain benthic animals (crabs and
shrimp) and many of the bottom-feeding fishes are harvested commercially,
and some of these forms are taken by sportsmen.
Benthic animals populate all types of bottom, from soft muds to
firm rock and gravel floors, but each bottom-type has its characteristic
benthic community composed of those forms best adapted to the particular
substratum. Deposits of sludge, however, often have a deleterious effect
on the natural benthic community of an area. Such deposits bring about
a physical change in the substratum, and many of the benthic types
indigenous to the area are eliminated through burial and suffocation.
Those benthic forms which do populate a sludge deposit are usually
those species (£.&•, certain types of worms) adapted to life in an
unstable substratum rich in organic material. Quite often, these
organisms are found in large numbers, but the community as a whole has
95
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a very low diversity, thus, a deleterious effect. In some cases, the
decomposition of organic material in a sludge deposit causes a sub-
stantial reduction or a depletion of dissolved oxygen on the bottom
and produces such toxic gases as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. These
conditions are usually fatal to most animals, and they often eliminate
all traces of benthic life.
STUDIES
Settled waste solids from the Georgia-Pacific pulp and board mill
and paper mill have formed a sizable sludge deposit in Bellingham
Harbor (see Section 7). This, in consideration of the above mentioned
factors, led to the Project's conduct of two benthic studies in these
waters. On August 11, 1964, a sediment sample was collected with a
0.25-cubic-foot van Veen dredge from each of the 16 stations shown in
Figure 9-1A. These were analyzed for percent volatile solids of the
sediment, and included benthos were identified and counted. On
May 10, 1966, a sediment sample was collected with an 0.125 cubic foot
Ekman dredge from each of the 12 stations shown in Figure 9-1B. These
were analyzed and examined in the same manner as those of the first
study.
METHODS
In both studies, the location and depth of each station were
determined, and the volume, temperature, and gross appearance (color,
odor, sedimentary composition, detritus inclusions) of each sample
were noted. The sample was thoroughly mixed, and a portion was taken,
frozen, and delivered to the laboratory for volatile solids analysia--
96
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97
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the results of which have been summarily presented in Figure 7-14B.
The remaining portion was placed in a glass jar containing a formalin
preservative and a vital stain and was delivered to the laboratory for
examination of the included benthos. In the laboratory, each sample
was washed and screened. Benthic organisms were hand-picked from the
screen and, under a microscope, were identified and enumerated. They
were classified as to kind (or type); e_.g_., "worms" included segmented,
unsegmented, round, and flat worms.
RESULTS
Results of both studies are summarized in Table 9-1. Note that
seven kinds of benthos were found and that worms composed the dominant
kind. Note, also, that greater numbers of organisms per sample were
collected on May 10, 1966. Apparently, in the type of sediments sampled,
the Ekman dredge used on this date was more efficient than the van Veen
dredge previously employed.
Figure 9-2 shows plots of total number of organisms per sample
vs. percent volatile solids of the sediment in the sample. Separate
plots are given for the data from each of the studies because of the
above-noted difference in sampling-gear efficiency. In both plots,
these data fall into two groups: Group 1 wherein a wide range of
total numbers is associated with volatile solids of 11% and less,
and Group 2 wherein a much reduced range of total numbers accompany
volatile solids of 15% and greater. Group 1 evidences natural variation
in community size where organic content of the sediment is near natural
levels. Group 2 represents conditions where accumulated sludge inhibits
community size. In each plot, the hypothesis that the mean total
98
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number of Group 1 differs from that of Group 2 is accepted at the
9970 confidence level.
Figure 9-3 is a plot of kinds of organisms per sample vs. percent
volatile solids of the sediment in the sample. Data from both studies
are combined, as the difference in sampling-gear efficiency does not
affect the kinds of benthos collected. This illustration clearly
shows the trend of increasing community diversity (increasing kinds
of benthos) with decreasing organic content of the sediments. This
monotonic association is significant at the 997o confidence level.
Figure 9-4 delineates the areas occupied by Groups 1 and 2 (of
Figure 9-2) and summarizes the differences in the community structure
of these benthic groups. Area I is occupied by Group 1 and is affected
by accumulated sludge which causes sediment volatile solids to exceed
15%. Area II is occupied by Group 2 but is little affected by sludge
deposits; hence, sediment volatile solids are at or approach natural
levels (7 to 8% for Bellingham Bay). Note, that on both study dates,
the numbers and kinds of benthos in Area I are significantly exceeded
by the numbers and kinds of benthos in Area II.
DISCUSSION
The above results clearly show that the thick sludge deposit in
Whatcom Waterway and adjacent log storage area (see Figure 7-14A)
adversely affect the benthic community of these waters. Where sludge
thickness is greatest, at the upper end of the Waterway (Stations 1, 2,
K, and L; Table 9-1), no benthos are found. As sludge thickness and
volatile solids decrease, increasing numbers of benthos are found, but
these are of one kind, worms. Outside of the area of heavy sludge
101
-------
LU
Q_
s
-------
Isopleth of 15%
volatile solids
I
Includes all area
covered by stations
in Figure 9-1 A
Number of Organisms/sample
Kinds/sample
Date
8/11/64
5/10/66
Area
I
II
I
II
Group
1
2
1
2
RE
0
14
0
1,094
mge
- 4
- 126
- 984
- 9,143
Median
2
36
24
2,785
R;
0
1
0
1
ange
- 1
- 6
- 1
- 6
Medi an
1
4
1
2
FIGURE 9-4. Comparison of benthic populations in Areas I and II of Bellingham Harbor on August 11, 1964,
and on May 10, 1966.
103
-------
accumulation, where sludge thickness is undetectable, and sediment
volatile solids are less than 15%, the size and diversity of the
benthic community sharply increase. From these facts, it is concluded
that waste solids discharged by the Georgia-Pacific mills cause
substantial damage to benthic life in Bellingham Harbor.
104
-------
10. OYSTERS
Historically, Bellingham, Samish, Padilla, and Fidalgo Bays have
been oyster-producing areas. The native, or Olympia, oyster occurred
naturally in these waters and was found in harvestable numbers by early
settlers of the region. Commercial exploitation, however, gradually
depleted these populations and today few Olympias can be found in
the study area. This exploitation and the infrequent spawning and
setting of the Olympia oyster because of unfavorable water temperatures
are given as the chief causes of its disappearance (Steele, 1964).
Adult Pacific oysters were imported from Japan in 1919 for planting
in Samish Bay0 These adults died in transit, but the "spat" (young
oysters attached to the adult shells) survived and grew after planting.
This gave impetus to the commercial production of Pacific oysters which
today is a well-established industry. Through 1964, the ten-year
average annual production of Pacific oysters in North Puget Sound was
over 58,000 gallons of oyster meats (Robison, Ward, and Palmen; 1965),
although there has been a general decline in production since 1954.
Production for 1964 was less than 49,000 gallons. The locations of
commercial and potentially-commercial oyster-growing areas in the
Bellingham-Anacortes study area are shown in Figure 10-1.
Although adult Pacific oysters grow and frequently spawn in the
study area, complete larval development and spatfall (the attachment of
young oysters to a substrate) occur infrequently because of unfavorable
conditions. The last known significant spatfall occurred in 1958
105
-------
,- „••—V •„,
LEGEND
••.••\_. Mean lower low water
Oyster growing areas
FIGURE 10-1. Commercial and potentially commercial oyster growing areas in the Bellingham-Anacortes area.
106
-------
(Woelke, 1959); only limited sets of Pacific oysters and rock oysters
(Pododesmus macroschisma) have been observed during this study. For
this reason, the industry is based on growing marketable oysters from
planted seed oysters (spat). Most seed oysters are imported from Japan,
although limited supplies of domestic seed are produced in Dabob Bay,
Washington, and Pendrell Sound, British Columbia.
A number of other edible bivalve shellfishes occur naturally in
the Bellingham-Anacortes area, and these support a significant sport
fishery. Among these are butter clams, native littleneck clams, Manila
oc Japanese littleneck clams, cockles, and the geoduc. These shellfishes,
like oysters, are filter feeders and are sedentary or sessile forms.
Previous studies by other agencies have shown that SWL evokes
comparable responses from larval, juvenile, and adult stages of several
kinds of shellfish as well as other marine organisms with pelagic and/or
sessile life stages. Examples of the kinds and life-stages of shellfish
tested are:
Pacific oyster — larvae, juveniles, and adults;
Olympia oyster — larvae, juveniles, and adults;
American oyster — larvae;
Hardshell clam — larvae and juveniles;
Nester clam -- larvae; and
Bay mussel — larvae.
Although two of these shellfish are not found in the study areas, the
striking similarity of responses to SWL is strongly indicative of the
effect of this waste on most, if not all, related species. In the
107
-------
absence of evidence to the contrary, it is not improbable that the ob-
served effects of SWL on the indigenous shellfishes listed above are
representative of the effects of SWL on the other resident species as
well.
ADULT OYSTER RESPONSE STUDY
The adult oyster response study in the Bellingham-Anacortes area
was conducted from April 1964 to July 1966 to determine the effects of
pulp-mill wastes on the commercially important Pacific oyster and on
other bivalve shellfishes. This study was • long-term, in-situ bioassay
in which adult and juvenile Pacific oyster populations were maintained
at raft stations. Initially, seven raft stations were located at
various distances from the Georgia-Pacific mill (Figure 10-2). One
raft, at Station C, together with all panels from Station D, were lost
during the severe storms of December 1964, and another, Station D, was
lost in late November 1965. Companion studies of the organisms that
attached to the equipment during the study provided information on the
effects of the wastes on other sessile forms.
Raft stations were chosen to permit the fullest expression of
the effects of water quality on the oysters by avoiding the complicating
effects of greatly varying bottom types and the mortalities caused by
the natural enemies of oyster—starfish, oyster drills, crabs, etc.
These and other advantages of the "hanging culture" method of oyster
production are given by Cahn (1950).
METHODS
At each raft (Figure 10-3A), two discrete test populations of
adult oysters were maintained. The Test #1 population initially
108
-------
A
•
•
C
•
D
• 6
LEGEND
••.. Mean lower low water
A • Oyster raft station
FIGURE 10-2. Oyster raft stations in the Bellingham-Anacortes area.
109
-------
• Anchor chain fastenings
' ••Oystw cull* string
Oyst*r panils
(A)Oyster Raft
(B) Oyster Panel
Note mortality in bottom
row, second from the
right (upper shell has
been removed).
FIGURE 10-3. (A) Typical oyster raft; (B) Typical oyster panel.
110
-------
consisted of about 175 each, of 1962 year-class and 1961 year-class
oysters obtained from the Patterson Oyster Company, Totten Inlet, near
Olympia, Washington. The Test #2 population originally consisted of
about 200 1962 year-class oysters obtained from the Patterson Oyster
Company, also. Both test populations were grown from Japanese seed
and had not been exposed to SWL prior to use in the study.
The Test #1 population was placed at the rafts during April 1964
and the Test #2 population during May-June, 1965. The oysters of the
two tests were cemented to both sides of fiber glass panels
(Figure 10-3B) which were suspended from the rafts, as shown in
Figure 10-3A. The uppermost row of oysters was about 2-1/2 feet below
the surface. Both populations diminished in number during the study
because of mortalities and other losses and the periodic sacrifices of
test animals for the determination of "condition index" (a measure of
fatness or market condition).
Populations of about 300 juvenile oysters (1964 year-class) also
were maintained at each raft. These were placed in March 1965, and
initially consisted of about 150 animals obtained from the Patterson
Oyster Company and about 150 from the Blau Oyster Company, Samish Bay.
The Patterson oysters were grown from Pendrell Sound, British Columbia,
seed and had not been exposed to SWL. The Blau oysters were grown from
Japanese seed and had been exposed to SWL in Samish Bay. The young
oysters, attached to shell-cultch pieces, were suspended in the manner
shown in Figures 10-3A and 10-4. The uppermost cultch piece was about
one foot below the surface.
At monthly intervals, the oyster populations at each raft were
examined for growth and mortality, and water samples were taken for
111
-------
.•Oyster cultch
. •' .•'. ..-5/16" Nylon rope
•'••••Oyster cultch
a, X4'":'... --4" Plastic rod
X
Young ayster ••
(spat)
.. Tygon tube
1/2" I.D.
FIGURE 10-4. Typical cultch string for the suspension of spat.
112
-------
determination of salinity, SWL, DO, and temperature. Mortalities were
evidenced by "gaping", the unnatural opening of the oyster's shell.
The growth of spat was determined by volumetric displacement in water--
an increase in volume from one sampling period to another representing
the growth over that interval of time. The growth of the Test #2
oysters was determined by volumetric displacement also, but growth of
Test #1 adults was obtained by photographing the oyster panels in a
specially designed camera jig. In the latter method, the shell area of
each oyster was measured with a planimeter on the photographs obtained
(Figure 10-3B); the increase in area between inspections was considered
a measure of growth. An analysis of the merits of various methods of
measuring oyster growth is given by Quayle (1951), and the growth of
Pacific oysters in Washington State waters is discussed by Woelke (1961a) .
Since the panels were numbered and the cultch pieces were identified by
position on the strings, the maintenance of a continuous history of
each individual adult animal or cultch piece was possible. The photos.
of the Test #1 panels also provided a record of the condition of these
oysters.
At varying intervals, depending on the season, about 25 adult
animals of the Test #2 population were sacrificed for the determination
of condition index (C.I.) and growth. A limited number of C.I.'s were
determined on Test #1 adults also. These C.I. analyses were done at the
Washington Department of Fisheries Shellfish Laboratory by the method
of Westley (1961). At the termination of the study, final C.I. determina-
tions were made on all remaining Test #2 adult oysters and overall growth
was determined.
113
-------
Other organisms associated with the oyster-raft community were
studied as well. Periphyton were collected on glass slides suspended
in the water at and near each raft (this study is described in Section
14). In addition, periodic observations were made of the invertebrates
attached to the oyster panels—e_.g_., nudibranchs, flatworms, sea
urchins, anemones, etc.—to determine the occurrence and abundance of
these organisms in relation to distance from the waste source.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in maintaining the raft
stations in the rough waters of Bellingham Bay during the winter months
of the study. After the rafts had been put in place in late 1963 but
before oyster populations were established, two of the rafts broke loose
in stormy weather, were recovered, and returned to their respective
stations. In early December 1964, the raft at Station D dragged anchor
during a blow and, when found, had drifted to the vicinity of Station C.
The Test #1 oyster panels were removed from the "D" raft and transferred
to the Station C raft so that "D" raft could be towed back to station.
Subsequently, the raft at Station C was lost in a severe storm with
both populations. The raft at Station "D" was later lost during a storm
in late November 1965. On one occasion, each, the rafts at Station F
and Station G were moved out of position by storms. In summary, then,
in decreasing order of overall exposure to adverse weather, the
stations would be ranked C, D, F, G, E, B, and A.
RESULTS
The significance of the results of some of the various parts of
the study is believed to have been obscured by the very marked
differences in exposure of the raft stations to storms and heavy
114
-------
weather, as noted above. However, despite these obvious differences,
all results were subjected to the same rigorous statistical analyses by
Dr. G. J. Paulik, and only those results which show responses clearly
overriding the differences that would be expected because of the
physical differences between stations are considered to be indicative
of the effects of SWL on juvenile and adult oysters.
Water Quality. A summary of water quality data for the two years
of the adult oyster studies is given in Table 10-1. Note that sampling
was done at the 3-foot level.
Mortality of Juvenile Oysters. A full discussion of analyses and
results is given by Paulik in a report to the Project (1966b). Briefly,
cumulative survival rates were computed using a modification of actuarial
or life-table methods (Paulik, 1965c).
The strings of juvenile oysters used in this study were those used
in the growth study. Mortality data were collected from April 29 to
October 19, 1965, and the confounding effects of severe winter weather
on survival were thus avoided.
Cumulative survival rates during the entire 5-1/2 month period for
the animals attached to each cultch piece are given in Table 10-2.
Missing entries are the result of losses of entire cultch pieces during
the study for which survival rates cannot be estimated.
The mortality percentages estimated from the mathematical analysis
of these data are:
A — 15.4
B -- 6.2
D -- 7.9
F — 4.8
G — 4.0
115
-------
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116
-------
TABLE 10-2. Cumulative survival estimates for juvenile
oysters for a 5-1/2-month period extending from the be-
ginning of May to the middle of October 1965.
Source
Blau
it
it
n
11
ii
n
n
n
ii
Patterson
n
11
n
n
n
n
ii
n
n
Cultch
piece
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Stations
A
.86
1.00
1.00
.75
1.00
1.00
1.00
-
.90
.76
1.00
.90
1.00
.57
.91
.80
o44
1.00
.50
.56
B
.89
.89
1.00
1.00
1.00
.71
-
-
1.00
-
1.00
1.00
,82
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
.87
.85
.73
D
1.00
-
1.00
.71
.87
-
.87
.94
.89
1.00
1.00
.77
.92
.85
1.00
1.00
1.00
.87
1.00
1.00
F
.75
.93
1.00
1.00
.87
-
1.00
1.00
-
.90
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
.94
1.00
1.00
.94
.92
G
1.00
.89
1.00
.92
1.00
1.00
-
1.00
1.00
-
1.00
.91
1,00
1.00
.92
1.00
.71
.82
.90
1.00
117
-------
These values and mean SWL levels (at the 3-foot depth) by station
are shown in Figure 10-5.
When the data are subjected to non-orthogonal analyses of variance,
the main conclusions of the study are:
1. The effect of station location on the mortality of juvenile
oysters is significant at the 0.025 level (i_.e_., the results
observed would occur by chance not more than 25 times in 1,000
trials). This significant location effect was due primarily
to the sharp drop in average survival at Station A. The large
mortality at this station was shown to be highly significant
statistically. The environmental conditions at Station A
clearly increased the mortalities suffered by the juvenile
oysters held there.
2. Depth had little effect on mortality.
3. The overall estimated difference in mortality of about 37=,
between Blau and Patterson oysters is not significant. However,
at Station A, the estimated mortality rate of 6.77o for Blau
oysters is significantly lower than the 23.27, rate for Patterson
oysters. The direction of this difference and the overall
difference indicates that oysters from an outside source (South
Sound) were more adversely affected by conditions closest to
the mill discharge point than were the Blau oysters reared
in Bellingham Bay. This probably reflects resistance developed
by prior exposure (Blau oysters) rather than genetic differences
because of seed source.
118
-------
15.4
331
6.2
32
No Data*
7.9
4
No Data
4.0
3
LEGEND
--.Mean lower low water
4.8 • Percent mortality
4 Mean SWL (3ft. depth)
FIGURE 10-5. Estimated percent overall mortality rates of juvenile oysters, Bellingham Bay, 1965.
119
-------
Mortality of Adult Oysters. Analyses of mortality of the Test #1
and the Test #2 adult oyster populations are given by Paulik in two
reports to the Project (1965c and 1966c). In both years of these
tests, the populations of experimental animals decreased very rapidly
because of mortalities, drop-off losses, and periodic sacrifices for
condition indices. Consequently, the effective sample sizes were
rather rapidly reduced during the course of the two experiments,
particularly during Test #2 when more frequent sacrifices for condition
indices were made (e_.g_., nearly 60% of the original population at
Station A were sacrificed during the experiment). These reductions
in sample size and the severe winter weather (see page 110 of this section)
are the apparent causes of a loss of experimental homogeneity during the
latter half of each test such that the data obtained appear to be much
less reliable and are subject to much greater variability than those
obtained during the first part of the experiments.
Test No. 1 Mortality. An analysis given by Paulik (1965c) showed
that there were no differences in survival rates between the 1962- and
1961-year class oysters in this study. The arithmetic means and
standard deviations of the cumulative survival rates from May 8 to
November 18 and to February 9 for the combined data from both year
classes are given in Table 10-3. A complete detailed analysis of the
data for each year class separately is given by Paulik (op.cit.).
Following the November inspection the populations of oysters held at
Stations C and D were lost in a severe storm. An analysis of the
variability of the mortalities between panels at the same station
showed that this intra-station variability increased significantly
120
-------
(at the 0.025 level) between the February 9 and June 10 inspection
dates indicating that experimental control deteriorated markedly during
the latter part of Test No. 1 in the winter and spring of 1965.
Inspection of the data presented in Table 10-3 reveals a trend of
decreasing mortality with increasing distance from the mill. The
observed straight line trend in mortality with distance from the mill
was statistically significant (at the 0.025 level) for both the November
and February sampling dates. These data are even more meaningful when
the differences in exposure to weather conditions at the stations are
considered.
TABLE 10-3. Mean percent combined mortality rates and standard
deviations for Test #1 oysters.
to November 1964
Station
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
mean %
11.4
8.8
10.1
8.3
7.1
7.2
5.2
s.d.
.064
.090
.077
.078
.053
.050
.036
to February 1965
mean %
15.9
10.7
--
._
10.1
9.0
8.1
s.d.
.059
.088
--
--
.068
.061
.047
121
-------
Test No. 2 Mortality. Since the primary objective of this test
was the evaluation of the effect of mill wastes on the condition index
of adult oysters, the effective sample sizes were rapidly diminished.
Within six months, the populations at most stations had already been
reduced to 407=, or less of the initial sizes. The diminished sample
sizes, and the loss of Station D in late November, makes questionable
the validity of data obtained in the latter part of the test. These
data are not included in the mortality data shown in Table 10-^.
TABLE 10-4, Cumulative percent mortality of Test #2 oysters at each
station, May-November, 1965.
Month
July
August
Sept.
October
Nov.
A
22.03
24.31
28.84
30.16
32.26
B
10.49
11.74
15.35
17.34
20.01
Station
D E
1.79 4.71
9.82 8.42
16.19 10.55
18.34 14.21
17.68
F
3.88
6.38
9.81
14.49
26.02
G
2.68
4.80
8.23
14.53
23.48
When the average cumulative percent mortalities are computed on
the basis of the successive monthly mortality percentages, the results
to January 12, 1966 are:
A = 29.67%
B = 17.20%
E = 13.99%
F = 18.24%
G = 15.78%
122
-------
On the basis of these data, the null hypothesis that station
location has no effect on oyster mortality is rejected at the
0.01 level. It is obvious that the statistically significant
differences in the station effect on mortality is due to the higher
mortality rate at Station A.
Condition Index (C.I.) of Adult Oyster. A rigorous statistical
analysis of the condition index as a valid biological assessment of
the health or well-being of oysters and a complete evaluation of the
Project's C.I. data are given in a report by G. J. Paulik to the
Project (1966e).
The C.I. data for Test #1 (1964-65) are given in Table 10-5.
The May sample was taken about a month after the oysters were
distributed to permit recovery from handling stresses, if any. With
the exception of Station C, the uniformity of C.I.'s between stations
at that time is evident. The much larger value at Station C in May
is a true outlier (0.05 level of significance) but, by August, the
oysters at this station no longer differed from those at adjacent
stations.
TABLE 10-5. Condition Indices of 1961 year-class oysters, Test #1.
Date (1964)
May
August
Station
A B C D E F G
11.6 12.8 16.0* 10.8 11.1 9.7 11.1
13.2 18.4 19.8 18.5 19.6 18.0 17.9
* A true outlier value.
123
-------
The C.I.'s of the August sampling measure the influence of
stations for the 3-months exposure. While the C.I. values for
oysters at Stations B through G were not significantly different, the
much lower C.I. at Station A, nearest the pulp mill, is a highly
significant difference—the hypothesis that this lower value could
have been an extreme value obtained by chance is rejected at the 0.01
level.
The C.I. data of Test #2 (1965-66) are given in Table 10-6.
Since about three months elapsed between the placement of the oysters
and the first sampling, all values measure the effect of station
environment.
TABLE 10-6. Condition Indices of 1962 year-class oysters, Test #2.
Date
Aug.
Oct.
Nov.
Jan.
Apr.
May
A
1965
1965
1965
1966
1966
1966
13
14
12
13
10
10
.8
.1
.6
.1
.9
.4
B
14.6
16.4
15.8
14.6
--
15.3
Station
D E
19.9 17.4
17.7 18.6
17.1
17.8
--
15.9
F
20.2
19.1
16.5
14.2
--
16.2
G
17.8
18.6
17.2
15.0
15.1
12.3*
* This value is unusually low—over 1/2 of oysters showed development
of sex products. If this datum is omitted from the analysis, the
differences between stations become even more apparent.
124
-------
Station C was lost during the Test #1 studies, and the series of samples
at Station D is incomplete because of the loss of the raft in November
1965. The data for April 19fa6 are limited because of the few remaining
test animals at the intermediate stations.
The condition indices of oysters at Station A were clearly much
lower than any of the values at any of the other stations and reflect
the consistently detrimental environment at Station A. This significant
del er iiirat i .;n in u ;;t:ei condition occurred ir: both Test' :,: 1 and Test ~l i
and also at differ»nt seasons within the same year.
The frequent- .sampling lost ''2 penults the employment ol a general
linear hypothesis i.iodc.1 to analyse these data. The estimated overall
condition indices derived from the model for each station are:
A = 12.48
B = ]5.09
D = 17.28
E = 17.11
F = 16.99
G = 16.00
Analyses of variance for these data show the station location
effect is highly significant (0.01 level)--obviously because of the
much lower value at Station A.
Growth of Juvenile Oysters. Descriptions of the statistical
analyses used and a discussion of results are given by Paulik in a
report to the Project (1966d).
The strings of juvenile oysters from both sources (i.e., Patterson
Oyster Co. and Blau Oyster Co.) were placed at the rafts in March 1965,
125
-------
and initial volumetric measurements were made in April 1965. The final
growth measurements were made in February 1966 after about a 10-month
period of exposure. During the study, one of the two strings at
Station E was lost, and the entire Test #2 population at Station D was
lost with the raft.
The volumetric measure of growth employed in this study overestimated
the amount of growth when there were losses between the initial and
the final measurements taken on a population of juveniles attached to a
single cultch shell. Since it was shown in the mortality section of
the report that juvenile oyster mortalities differed significantly
between stations, the amount of bias in the growth measurement likewise
differed from station to station. For this reason the growth data
presented in Table 10-7, below, do not provide a valid indication of
the effect of the environment on juvenile oyster growth.
TABLE 10-7. Observed and estimated average volume gain (in ml.) per
oyster by source and station.
Source
Station
A B F G
0* E* 0 E 0 E 0 E
Blau 22.53 22.53 35.86 35.86 30.05 30.05 28.07 28.07
Patterson 27.51 27.51 29.29 29.29 18.84 18.84 22.89 22.89
* 0—observed; E--estimated from mathematical model.
126
-------
The average gains in volume by station estimated from the
mathematical analysis of these data are: Station A—25.23; Station B--
32.57; Station F—24.45; and Station G—25.47. The difference in
volume gains between stations is significant at the 0.05 levels; but,
because of the differences in mortalities, it is not possible to ascribe
this significant difference in growth to the effect of environmental
conditions on juvenile oysters.
Growth of Adult Oysters. Descriptions of the statistical analyses
used and a discussion of results are given by Paulik in a report to
the Project (1967).
The sensitivity of the Test #1 and Test #2 growth studies
was affected by changes in numbers of oysters from station to station
resulting from mortalities, drop-off losses, and periodic sacrifices
of test animals for condition indices. Individual measurements were
affected by shell chipping that occurred while the shells were being
cleaned of attached organisms for photographing or for volumetric
measurement. While overall differences in growth between stations
were observed in both years, i..e_-, in Tests #1 and #2, because of
the intra-station variability in growth and the inter-station
variations in sample sizes, consistently significant differences in
growth were not demonstrated by a preliminary analysis of these
data.
Biota Associated with Oyster Panels. During these oyster studies,
observations of animals attaching to or living on the panels were made
routinely. Although time did not permit critical counts or exhaustive
127
-------
analyses of species, the absence or occurrence and relative abundance
of various organisms was noted. Since the panels were cleaned during
each sampling visit, either to photograph the oysters (Test #1) or
prevent excessive accumulations of encrusting organisms, such as
barnacles (Test #2), our observations reflect the success or failure
of a significant species to repopulate within the inter-sampling period
of about 30 days.
While there were annual differences in the abundance of certain
species (e_.g_., the barnacle set was very heavy in the warmer months of
1964 and 1965 but was very light through July 1966), a general pattern
of distribution related to distance from the pulp mill was obvious.
Except for an unusual period between August 1965 and May 1966, discussed
below, the distribution of species was as follows:
1. Not seen north of Station D, but common at all
other stations—
bryozoa
chitins
limpets
nudibranchs (apparently quite sensitive)
pectens
polychaetes:
sirpulids
sabellids
nereis
goose barnacles
green shrimp
128
-------
sea cucumbers
anemones
sea urchins
tunicates
ascidians
cling fish (rare)
blennies, 3 species
2. Rare or occasional at Station B, absent at Station A,
but common to abundant at all other stations—
obelia-like hydroid
scale-bearing polychaetes
amphipods
isopods
skeleton shrimp
3. Abundant at all stations--
barnacles
mussels
The exceptional period noted above began about the middle of
July 1965 and ended in late May 1966. During this period, a marked
improvement in water quality at Station A was seen, and the assemblage
of somewhat sensitive forms (category 2) began to appear. By October
1965, a few of the sensitive forms (category 1) were present, although
none of them was as abundant as elsewhere. During this period, the
mean SWL dropped to 168 ppm (overall mean--331 ppm) and other water-
quality parameters likewise improved. By July 1966, however, water
quality had deteriorated to former levels, and only barnacles and
muscels persisted.
129
-------
DISCUSSION
The results of this study and the one with larvae, following,
demonstrate a marked difference in susceptibility to SWL with difference
in age. The larvae are the most sensitive (see Section 11), followed
by the juveniles and adults in order. Acute or immediate effects of
SWL are shown by the larvae, whereas the chronic or long-term effects
are shown in these studies with juveniles and adults.
The trend toward reduced mortalities of all of the age groups with
increased distance from the waste source is evident in all of the tests,
particularly in the juvenile and Test #1 adult studies in which population
sizes were not rapidly reduced. A similar but less marked trend toward
better condition of oysters at stations further from the waste is
likewise evident. In every test, the effects of consistently adverse
environmental conditions at Station A were shown to be highly
significant. These findings are supported by the occurrence and
abundance of other organisms associated with the oyster panels.
These tests demonstrate that water quality at points closer to the
waste source than Station D is markedly detrimental to adult and
juvenile oysters in one year or less. Therefore, mean SWL levels of
about 10 ppm, with maximums of about 50 ppm, are shown to be harmful
(see Table 10-1).
130
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11. OYSTER LARVAE
Virtually every marine animal is planktonic at some phase of
its life cycle. For many of the finfishes and shellfishes, this
planktonic phase occurs during early development, usually during the
egg or larval stage, or both. Later these forms develop into nektonic
or benthic animals and no longer encounter the special problems of
planktonic existence.
During its planktonic phase, the animal lives in the open water
as a passively-drifting or weakly-swimming organism. Because of its
feeble mobility, it is subjected to all prevailing environmental
conditions and is unable to avoid those conditions that are injurious.
At the same time, the animal usually is quite sensitive to its
environment because it lacks many of the protective mechanisms of
later development. Therefore, being sensitive to but a captive of
its environment, the animal during its planktonic phase is often
adversely affected by degrees and kinds of pollution which may be
tolerated in its juvenile and adult stages. The result can be the
decline or disappearance of the species.
Planktonic early-life stages of a variety of marine animals are
found in the Bellingham and Anacortes area. Among these are the
larvae of shellfishes—oysters, clams, crabs, etc. These forms are
very sensitive to many pollutants, including pulp mill wastes, and,
for the most part, are more susceptible to injury by such substances
than are the juveniles and adults of the species (see Section 10).
131
-------
At the same time, they live and develop in the near-surface waters
wherein occur the highest concentrations of pulping wastes discharged
by the Georgia-Pacific mill at Bellingham (see Figures 7-5, 7-6, and
7-7) and by the Scott mill at Anacortes (see Figure 19-4). Because
of this portended damage to the valuable shellfish populations in
the Bellingham-Anacortes area, the Project conducted two Pacific
oyster-larva bioassay investigations—a field-sample oyster-larva
response study and a waste-sample oyster-larva response study.
STUDIES
The field-sample study was initiated in May 1963 and terminated
in August 1965. Surface samples of water (field samples) were collected
at monthly intervals from the stations shown in Figure 11-1. Extra
sets of samples from some of these stations also were collected on
July 6, 1964, and on November 16 and 25, 1964, to evaluate water
quality changes occurring during mill closure periods. Samples were
air transported to the Washington State Department of Fisheries
Shellfish Laboratory where they were bioassayed with Pacific oyster
larvae. All bioassays and associated laboratory analyses were
performed or supervised by Charles E. Woelke of the Laboratory's
staff.
The waste-sample oyster-larva response study was similar to the
above investigation. Twenty-four-hour composite samples of in-plant
wastes were collected (1) from five sewers at the Georgia-Pacific pulp
and board mill on July 14, 1964; (2) from the outfall aewer (total mill
waste load) of the Scott mill at Anacortes on August 4, 1964; and
132
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3
10 •
• 13
14
15
• 16
•
4
•
12
• 9
6*
8
21 •
19
•
17
20
FIGURE 11-1. Water sampling stations, field-sample oyster-larva response study.
133
-------
(3) from the outfall sewer (total mill waste load) of the Georgia-
Pacific paper mill on March 3, 1965. Composited effluent samples
also were collected from the Shell and Texaco oil refineries at
Anacortes on January 19, 1965. All samples were bioassayed with
Pacific oyster larvae in the same manner as the field samples from
the above study.
METHODS
Field-Sample Study. The flow diagram, Figure 11-2, shows the
basic feature of the field-sample response study. The series of
boxes to the left illustrates the procedures used to obtain fertilized
eggs; the series to the right deals with the collection of field
samples and the initial analyses for chlorophyll, salinity, and SWL;
and the lower center series shows the steps in the bioassay test,
the measurements of responses, and the terminal chemical analyses.
These procedures are as follows:
(left) 1. Conditioned female oysters were induced to spawn
by raising the water temperature and introducing
sperm shortly before field samples were to arrive
at the laboratory.
2. A number of the resulting zygotes (fertilized eggs)
were added to the replicate cultures of all field
and control samples.
(right) 1. A four-liter field sample was collected at each
station by seaplane and transported to the
laboratory within three hours. Three
134
-------
OYSTERS
WATER
CONDITIONING
4-6weeks ot 20°C
CARRY - ALONG
CONTROLS
'Three 4-liter sea water
l_
samples from laboratory
I
I 1
I
I
SPAWNING
Temp, raised to 25°-30°C-
for 2-3 hours; sperm added
INNOCULATION
20-30 thousand zygotes,
1/2 hours old or less,added
to each culture
BIOASSAY
LABORATORY CONTROLS"!
Equal to 10% of
number of field samples
L.
i
INCUBATION OF
3 REPLICATE
ONE-LITER CULTURES
for each field 6 control sample
-ot 20°C for 48 hours
TERMINAL SWL
AND SALINITY ANALYSES
250 ml.
ALIQUOT SAMPLE
Containing 100-200 larvae
RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS
Percent abnormal larvae
COLLECTION
4-liter sample
by seaplane
TRANSPORT
All samples to laboratory
within 3hours of collection
CHLOROPHYLL
ANALYSIS
500 ml.
INITIAL SWL
AND SALINITY ANALYSES
250 ml.
FIGURE 11-2. Flow diagram of the field-sample oyster-larva response study.
135
-------
(right) "carry-along controls" of seawater, taken from the
laboratory water supply, were carried through the
entire sampling flight to assess any changes that
may have developed from transporting and handling
methods.
2. At the laboratory, each field sample and each
carry-along control was divided into three one-liter
replicate cultures for bioassay. The remaining
one-liter portion was retained for the analyses
shown in the lower right of the diagram.
(lower 1. A number of laboratory-control cultures—equal to
center)
10% of the number of field sample cultures—were
set up, using laboratory seawater.
2. Each culture (into which a predetermined number of
zygotes had been introduced) was incubated for 48
hours.
3. Following incubation, the larvae in each culture
were concentrated with a sieve (35-micron mesh) and
were examined with a microscope for the determination
of the number of larvae with aberrant shell
development.
(lower 1. Terminal chemical analyses for SWL and salinity were
left)
done on a portion of the culture water.
A more complete description of the technique has been given by Woelke
(1961b).
136
-------
Bioassay results were reported in terms of the percent of abnormal
larvae in each culture after incubation. Larvae not fully shelled
(shell did not completely cover the soft body parts--Figure 11-3A) were
counted as abnormal, whereas all fully-shelled larvae (Figure 11-3B) were
considered to be normal, without regard to other abnormalities that
might have been evident. This procedure avoided subjective interpreta-
tion in counting and provided a conservative measure. That this
criterion is meaningful is attested to by the fact that repeated efforts
to rear abnormal larvae to juvenile oysters have all met with failure.
All results and data from the field-sample response study were
statistically analyzed by Dr. Gerald J. Paulik, Biometrician,
University of Washington School of Fisheries. Descriptions of the
statistical tests employed are given by Paulik in four interim reports
(1963, 1964, 1965a, and 1965b) and in a final report (1966a).
Waste-Sample Study. Twenty-four-hour composite samples were
collected from individual within-mill waste streams. Aliquots of these
samples were analyzed for SWL, total solids (fixed and volatile),
suspended solids (fixed and volatile), total sulfur, BOD^, and COD by
the same procedure described in Section 6. The samples were shipped
under refrigeration to the Washington Department of Fisheries Shellfish
Laboratory where they were immediately prepared for bioassay. Serial
dilutions of one part waste sample to 10, 20, 100, 200, 1,000, 2,000,
10,000, 20,000, 100,000, and 200,000 parts of fresh unpolluted seawater
(laboratory water supply) were made. Each dilution was divided into
three replicate cultures and these were bioassayed by the same procedure
used in the field-sample study. At least nine controls of fresh
137
-------
*
(A) Abnormal, incompletely-shelled larvae with shell
deformities evident and soft body-parts not completely
enclosed within the shell. The evenly-rounded dark
object, lower left, is not a larva.
•x.
(B) Normal, fully-shelled larvae with no evident shell
deformities and soft body-parts completely enclosed
within the shell.
FIGURE 11-3. Pacific oyster larvae, 48 hours old. (A) Abnormal larvae, (B) Normal larvae incubated in
a water sample having an SWL concentration of 37 ppm. Courtesy of the Washington State Department of
Fisheries Shellfish Laboratory^
138
-------
seawater were bioassayed with each set of samples. Bioassay responses
were determined in the same way as in the field-sample study.
Charles E. Woelke supervised the conduct of this study and statistically
analyzed and evaluated the results.
RESULTS
Results of Field-Sample Study. The results given in this section
are fully presented and discussed by Paulik in a final report (1966a),
unless otherwise cited. Terminal statistics derived from the analyses
of the field-sample results are presented in Table 11-1. These
statistics reflect the removal of all bioassay response results and
chemical data:
1. from samples having salinities of 20°/oo or less--correlative
tests indicate that salinities below 20°/oo adversely affect
oyster-larva development and that abnormalities increase with
decreasing salinity (the criterion of salinity greater than
20°/oo is conservative and provides a margin of safety);
2. from samples bioassayed during the 1963-64 winter period
(October through March, inclusive); analyses showed that
during this period laboratory and carry-along controls
exhibited unusually high average abnormalities and unusually
high variability in abnormalities among replicates, both
caused by poor eggs taken from brood stock oysters which
could not be conditioned properly;
3. from samples collected early on July 6, 1964, before the
Georgia-Pacific and Scott mills' wastes began again after the
139
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-------
July 4th holiday (with the cessation of normal waste
discharges, waste concentrations in the study area were
abnormally low); and
4. from samples collected on November 18 and 25, 1964, when
both mills were closed by a labor strike and waste
concentrations in the study area were abnormally low
(see Figure 7-10).
Consequently, Table 11-1 and the treatment of the field-sample data
following consider only those data (1) derived from or associated
with bioassay responses not influenced by low salinity and poor
test-animal stock and (2) those associated witt normal mill operations;
i.e., the usual ranges of water quality and environmental factors
prevailing in the study area.
Column 3 of Table 11-1 gives the "mean percent-abnormal" value
for each station. These response measures, together with the mean
SWL values, column 5, are presented (rounded off) in Figure 11-4 to
show the relationships of both to location, with respect to the two
mills--the Georgia-Pacific mill and the Scott mill.
The "mean-net-risk" statistics shown in column 4 provide a
slightly better measure of relative toxicity than "percent abnormal"
since these values reflect the adjustment of field-sample abnormality
results by the laboratory-control abnormality results for the day the
field samples were collected, assuming that larval abnormalities
observed in field samples were produced by environmental stresses
plus experimental or laboratory stresses. However, the two statistics
agree so closely that any conclusions regarding the effect of the amount
141
-------
100_
1120
69
59
_
245"
20
14
68
104
26
24
4.0
5.9
13
9.5
2.8
3.7
,1.8
1.4
8.5
5.8\
2.0
2.0
3.6
3.0
IIO
2.2
3.7
6.1
2.2
2.3
1.2
1.8
/2.0
4.9
2.2
LEGEND
Meon percent obnormol
Meon SWL conc.(ppm)
2J/
0.3
9.0
3.9
FIGURE 11-4. Mean percent oyster-larva abnormality and mean SWL concentration at each field-sample
station in the Bellingham-Anacortes area; field-sample oyster-larva response study, May 1963 through
August 1965 (see Table 11-1 for description of data removed).
142
-------
of sulfite waste liquor in the water on larval development will be
the same regardless of which statistic is employed.
In Table 11-1, a definite relationship between mean percent
abnormal and mean SWL concentration is seen; i_.£., mean percent
abnormal values increase with increases of SWL concentration. In
Figure 11-4 the mean percent abnormal values are seen to increase
with decreasing distance from either of the two mills. When these
relationships are considered, together with the observed decreases in
SWL and abnormalities that followed mill closure and the increases
in SWL and abnormalities that followed mill reopenings, there can be
no doubt that pulping wastes are inimical to oyster-larva development
and that the two mills named are the sources of these damaging wastes.
Larval Abnormality vs. SWL Concentration. Figure 11-5 presents
the relationship between percent abnormal and SWL concentration.
The formula parameters of the logistic curve shown were estimated by
an iterative non-linear weighted least-squares technique. All results,
excluding those associated with low salinity, 1963-64 winter bioassays,
and mill-closure sampling described above, were grouped into SWL
intervals of the geometric progression, 0-5, 4-8, 8-16 ppm, etc., and
the mean percent-abnormal and mean SWL values of each of these intervals
were used to supply the data for this curve. Note that larval
abnormality begins to increase very rapidly at SWL concentrations around
10 ppm, and that near-100% abnormality is reached at about 60 ppm SWL.
Larval Abnormality in Controls. Laboratory controls employed
unpolluted seawater from the Laboratory's water supply. Consequently,
larval abnormalities noted in these controls are taken to be responses
143
-------
o
o
o
GO
o
-------
to experimental stresses. Carry-along controls utilized the same
water source, but these were carried in the airplane during the
collection of field samples. Abnormalities observed in these controls
are taken to measure experimental stresses plus any stresses attributable
to alteration of the sample water through sample handling and
transportation. A third set of controls, field controls, was
arbitrarily defined as all field samples that met all of the three
criteria: (1) had salinities of greater than 20°/oo, (2) were not
collected during the 1963-64 winter period when poor test animals were
used, and (3) had SWL concentrations of 2.0 ppm and less. The bases
for criteria 1 and 2 have been given and the bases for criterion 3
are that SWL concentrations of 2.0 ppm and less, as measured by the
Pearl-Benson test, are background levels and indicative of little or
no concentrations of pulping wastes and that earlier analyses indicated
that the bioassay test was not affected by any of the measured
environmental factors except SWL (and low salinity).
Table 11-2 presents the mean percent-abnormal values for each
of these controls for each month and for the entire study. Note that
overall means of control abnormals (bottom row) are about 2% and
significantly lower than the mean abnormal values found at stations
where above-background concentrations of SWL were observed (Table 11-1).
Note also that the field-control and carry-along-control abnormalities
are not significantly different from the laboratory-control
abnormalities. This indicates that the study techniques used were
sensitive and valid for detecting the effects of pulping wastes on
oyster-larva development.
145
-------
TABLE 11-2. Summary of the percent-abnormal values in the control
bioassays of the field-sample oyster-larva response study in the
Bellingham-Anacortes area, May 1964 through August 1965. Data
collected October 1963 through March 1964 excluded.
Month
May 1963
June
July
Aug.
April 1964
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan. 1965
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Field
(SWL $T 2 ppm,
No. of
Samples
7
11
13
-
2
1
1
9
10
4
7
18
6
2
7
8
5
4
4
7
3
Controls
Salinity > 20°/oo)
Mean %
Abnormal
5.55
1.67
2.05
-
0.71
10.77
0.19
2.31
2.98
1.90
1.55
1.09
2.09
3.16
0.46
1.13
0.78
3.95
1.42
4.95
1.37
Laboratory
Controls
Mean %
Abnormal
0.69
1.23
1.91
1.10
0.46
4.16
0.19, .
1.17I/
0.13
3.27
2.21
2.241/
2.53
3.34
0.97
0.44
0.35
0.75
0.69
0.69
0.69^'
Carry -along
Controls
Mean 7,
Abnormal
4.48
0.43
0.79
0.34
6.74
2.22
0.961'
-
2.02
3.79 ,
4.14i/
0.93
2.75
0.18
0.81
1.03
2.99
0.66
0.80
-
Over-a11 Mean
(weighted)
2.17
1.47
2.19
\J Three samples
2/ Four samples
3/ Two samples
146
-------
Larval Abnormality During Mill Closure. During the period of
November 12-26, 1964, a labor strike stopped production and the
discharge of wastes at both the Georgia-Pacific and the Scott mill.
The results from samples collected during this period on November 25,
together with results from the regular sampling dates, October 27 and
November 30, that preceded and followed this period, are given in
Table 11-3. Note that SWL concentrations decreased between October 27
and November 25 and increased between November 25 and November 30.
The probabilities that these decreases and subsequent increases were
due to chance are less than 0.57» (one-sided distribution-free sign
test—Paulik, 1965a and 1965b). Hence, the null hypothesis that mill
operations were not responsible for these changes is rejected. Note
also that percent-abnormal values decreased between October 27 and
November 25 and then increased between November 25 and November 30.
The probabilities that these decreases and subsequent increases were
due to chance are less than 2.5% and 0.5%, respectively (loc. cit.) .
Therefore, the null hypothesis that mill operations were not responsible
for the observed changes in abnormalities among the dates considered,
also, is rejected. Results obtained from samples collected on the
mill-closure date of July 6, 1964, as compared with results from
June 23 and July 9, 1964, show similar relationships.
Figure 11-6 shows the percent-abnormal and SWL values for
November 25 in relationship to location with respect to the two mills.
The near-complete flushing of pulping wastes from the Bellingham
system that had been accomplished by this date (see Figure 7-10) resulted
in the low levels of abnormality noted.
147
-------
TABLE 11-3. Percent-abnormal and SWL values for samples collected at
selected stations in the Bellingham-Anacortes area on October 27,
November 25, and November 30, 1964--before, during, and after mill
closure, respectively.
Station
2
4
6
7
8
13
9
12
10
15
14
October
SWL
(ppm)
190
6
4
2
1
< 1
1
1
8
1
-
27, 1964
Percent-
Abnormal
100.0
2.3
1.3
0.9
2.9
2.1
1.0
1.7
2.4
1.0
-
November
SWL
(ppm)
5
-------
0.2
5
0.2
0.6
1.6
0
0.2
0.8
0
0.7
0
0.5
-------
Results of the Waste-Sample Study. Results given below are
fully presented and discussed by Woelke in a report to the Project
(1965, unpublished).
For each waste sample, percent-abnormal values from the several
dilutions were plotted on probit paper against the appropriate dilution
ratios and SWL concentrations. From the line of best-fit, dilution
ratios and SWL values for the 0, 20, 50, and 100% abnormal levels were
determined. These data are shown in Table 11-4. Note that SWL
concentrations do not comparatively measure the relative toxicity of
the several wastes tested; e_.g_., the dilutions of alcohol plant wastes
and pulp washing-screening wastes that produced no abnormality had
about-equal SWL concentrations, yet the former waste is about 20 times
more toxic than the latter, as evidenced by a comparison of the dilution
ratios. This was not unexpected; SWL concentration, as determined by
the Pearl-Benson test, is merely a measure of the relative intensity
of the color complex formed by sulfonated lignins and test reagents.
Whereas the test may representatively measure the concentrations of
lignins and hence, the relative concentrations of sulfite waste liquors,
it does not measure the relative concentrations of the toxicant (s) that
interfere with oyster-larva development. Quite clearly, in comparing
the relative toxicity of various within-mill waste streams, the values of
dilution ratio must be used.
It is seen in Table 11-4 that alcohol plant wastes are the most
toxic of those several waste streams generated by the Georgia-Pacific
complex at Bellingham (both the pulp and board mill and the paper mill).
Next in level of toxicity are the bleach plant wastes and the pulp
150
-------
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washing-screening wastes; both have about the same effect on oyster
larvae. Least toxic are the board mill, hydraulic barker, and paper
mill wastes. Accordingly, these results evidence the relationship
that the toxicity of a waste increases as its proportional content of
strong pulping wastes (sulfite waste liquors of the cooking process)
increases. Hence, pulp washing-screening wastes which contain lesser
amounts of cooking liquors are less toxic than alcohol wastes, etc.
Wastes discharged by the Scott mill at Anacortes include strong
pulping wastes and, as noted above, such wastes are highly toxic.
Wastes discharged by the two oil refineries at Anacortes have a
very low toxicity.
To better illustrate the toxic effects of the waste streams
considered in Table 11-4, the amounts of dilution water required to
reduce the toxicity of each to non-harmful levels (no larval abnormality)
were computed and are tabulated in Table 11-5. Note that considerable
amounts of dilution water are required for the alcohol plant, bleach
plant, and pulp-washing-screening wastes produced by the Georgia-
Pacific pulp and board mill. However, the weak and variable currents
and circulation patterns in Bellingham Harbor and Bellingham Bay do
not immediately provide these amounts of water. Consequently, dispersion
and mixing of these wastes throughout all of the surface waters of
the study area are required to effect adequate dilution.
Considerable amounts of dilution water also are required by the
Scott mill waste discharge. However, the large volumes of tidal
flow passing through Guemes Channel more nearly satisfy this
requirement. Relatively low volumes of dilution water are required
152
-------
to alleviate the toxic effects of paper and board mill wastes, barker
wastes, and oil refinery wastes.
TABLE 11-5. Dilution water required to reduce the toxicity of Bellingham-
Anacortes area wastes such that they would have no effect on oyster-larva
development.
Waste Stream
Georgia-Pacific pulp and board mill
Alcohol plant
Bleach plant
Pulp washing and screening
Board mill
Hydraulic Barker
Georgia-Pacific paper mill
Scott mill-Anacortes
Shell oil refinery
Texaco oil refinery
Waste Flow*
(mgd)
2.74
13.20
17.30
1.13
1.43
5.30
5.67
2.1
3.0
Dilution Water
Required for no
Abnormality
(cfs)**
84,800
41,000
26,800
1,750
220
820
877,000
65
460
* Average flow rate for the period when samples were collected in
million of gallons per day.
** Cubic feet per second (one cfs is equal to 643,317 gallons per day)
153
-------
DISCUSSION
Results presented in Table 11-2 clearly show that field samples
having SWL concentrations between 0 and 2 ppm produce oyster-larva
abnormalities of about 2%. Such abnormalities are not significantly
different from those experienced in laboratory and carry-along controls.
Therefore, it is concluded that such levels of SWL and percent abnormal
are representative of non-polluted conditions. This conclusion is
supported by data collected on November 25, 1964 (see Figure 7-10 and
associated text, Table 11-3, and Figure 11-6). On this date, after
13 days of flushing had acted to remove pulping wastes from the study
area, SWL concentrations were less than 2 ppm (except in the northeastern
" corner of Bellingham Bay), and percent-abnormal values were equal to
or less than TL throughout the study area.
At SWL concentrations greater than 2 ppm, increasing oyster-larva
abnormalities are detected. Abnormalities are slightly above control
levels at SWL concentrations between 2 and 8 ppm, are significantly
greater than control levels at SWL concentrations between 8 and 16 ppm,
and increase to exceedingly higher levels at SWL concentrations greater
than 16 ppm (Figure 11-5). Accordingly, the conclusions of the study
are:
1. Complete protection for oyster larvae can only be obtained
by permitting no SWL concentrations greater than 2 ppm (as
attributed to pulping wastes).
154
-------
2. Slight damage to oyster-larva populations occurs at low
levels of waste concentration; viz., 2 to 8 ppm SWL. At
these levels, percent oyster-larva abnormals average 4.13.
The 95% confidence range interval for this mean is 2.54% to
6.07%.
3. Significant damage to oyster-larva populations occurs at the
higher waste levels of 8 to 16 ppm SWL. At these levels,
the mean percent abnormal is 5.87 (the 95% confidence range
interval for this mean is 1.25% to 10.48%). This conclusion
agrees with that reached by Gunter and McKee in their review
of literature (1960); _i.e_., SWL concentrations of 8 to 16 ppm
represent the threshold of toxicity for Pacific oyster larva.
4. Excessive injury to oyster larvae takes place at SWL
concentrations greater than 16 ppm. Above 16 ppm SWL, the
mean percent abnormal is 76.13. The 95% confidence range
interval for this mean is 67.59% to 84.66%.
Referring to Table 11-1 and Figure 11-4 in consideration of the
above conclusions, it is seen that (1) excessive damage to oyster
larvae prevails throughout northern Bellingham Bay (north of the
southern tip of Lummi Island) and in Guemes Channel in the vicinity
of the Scott mill waste discharge, (2) significant damage occurs in
the region of Bellingham Bay between Lummi and Guemes Islands, and
(3) slight damage to oyster larvae occurs throughout the remaining
parts of the Bellingham-Anacortes area with the exception of the
southeastern portion of Samish Bay and the southern portions of
Padilla and Fidalgo Bays where little damage was detected. Summarily,
155
-------
it is seen that pulping wastes, particularly from the Georgia-Pacific
mill, have caused water quality throughout the largest part of the
Bellingham-Anacortes area to be inimical or less than satisfactory
for the proper development of Pacific oyster eggs and larvae.
Results in Tables 11-4 and 11-5 and in the associated text
indicate that strong pulping wastes--digester wastes, including the
alcohol plant wastes from the Georgia-Pacific mill--are the principal
causes of the above described damages. Clearly, treatment of these
strong wastes is indicated for the protection of shellfish life in
the study area. As is indicated above, treatment of strong pulping
wastes by the Georgia-Pacific mill will partially but not completely
eliminate the presently prevailing adverse effects of mill wastes on
shellfish life. To accomplish complete protection for oyster larvae
and other sensitive early-life forms, it is suggested that suitable
treatment of the weaker mill wastes--pulp washing-screening and
bleaching wastes, in particular--will have to be accomplished in
addition to the treatment of strong pulping wastes.
156
-------
12. FLATFISH EGGS
Other planktonic early-life stages occurring in the Bellingham
study area are those of the several species of flounders (mostly
Pleuronectidae) common to Puget Sound. The commercially most important
of these is the English sole (Ward, Robison, and Palmen, 1964). These
fish tend to seek out and spawn in embayments, such as Bellingham Bay.
When fertilized, the eggs of these fishes float, and subsequent
embryonic and larval development takes place in the near-surface
waters. It is in this surface zone, however, that the sensitive
early-life stages are most apt to encounter concentrations of pulp
mill wastes, and there is evidence that they are injured by the
toxicity of these wastes. For this reason, English sole egg studies
were conducted to determine (1) the distribution and abundance of
English sole eggs in the Bellingham study area, and the associated
water quality, and (2) the relationship between the injury caused
and the strength of the dispersed pulp mill wastes.
STUDIES
English Sole Egg Distribution Study. Studies of the occurrence
and distribution of English sole eggs in Bellingham Bay were conducted
from January through March 1966. English sole eggs and associated
water quality were sampled on four occasions from ten selected stations
in Bellingham Bay.
English Sole Egg Bioassay Study. The investigation consisted of
laboratory bioassays conducted during the period of January through
157
-------
April 1965. In the study, English sole eggs were fertilized in the
laboratory and then incubated for about seven days in dilutions of
sulfite waste liquor (SWL) ranging in strength from 6 to 1,000 ppm
SWL. After incubation, the eggs and larvae (yolk-sac fry) were
examined under a microscope to determine response—either injury or
retarded development--to the various concentrations of SWL. The study
was conducted by Project personnel at the Friday Harbor Laboratories
of the University of Washington.
METHODS
Egg Distribution Study Methods. Fish eggs were collected at ten
stations in northern Bellingham Bay (Figure 12-1) at depths of 1, 17,
and 33 feet. Three half-meter nets, with a mesh aperture of 0.55 mm,
were towed simultaneously at 3 knots for five minutes. The plankton
samples thus collected were preserved in Stockard's solution and sent
to the laboratory where the English sole egg fraction was removed.
The volume of English sole eggs in each sample was measured in a
15-ml centrifuge tube. Simultaneous water samples were taken with
Nansen bottles from the three depths just prior to each tow and
analyzed for salinity and SWL by standard procedures.
Bioassay Study Methods. Mature English sole were captured by
dragging an otter trawl from the R/V HAROLD W. STREETER in Port Madison,
Port Discovery, and Holmes Harbor (Figure 12-2)--areas unaffected by
discharges of pulp and paper mill wastes. Ripe fish were not found
earlier than January 18 nor later than March 22. Captured fish were
emptied directly into a water-filled tank and sorted underwater.
Selected fish were transferred gently to a circulating seawater live
158
-------
9 7 4
• • •
10
•
FIGURE 12-1. Station locations in the Bellingham area at which flatfish eggs were collected and water
quality was determined.
159
-------
8ELLINGHAM
Georgia- Pacific
pul p mill
FRIDAY
HARBOR
Laboratory |
ANACOfRTES
HIAJRBOR
PORT DISCOVERY
Scott a
Weyerhaeuser
pulp mills
o 5 )O
^3PC9MG9MHBMBMw
NAUTICAL MtLES
FIGURE 12-2. Spawning areas from which parent stock of English Sole were taken for the flatfish egg
study.
160
-------
tank on the deck of the STREETER and transported to the laboratory.
Fish were never held on board longer than 24 hours, and mortalities
were remarkably few. In the laboratory, fish were separated by sex
and kept in circulating seawater tanks. Only fresh, ripe fish which
had been kept less than a week and which had reached maturity prior to
capture were used as parent fish.
Twenty-four hour composite samples of sulfite waste liquor were
supplied by the Scott Paper Co. from their Anacortes mill. These
samples were received at the laboratory approximately 24 hours after
being drawn. On arrival at the laboratory, they were placed in the
fume hood and ventilated for an additional day. Hence, all samples
bioassayed were at least 48 hours old. After stabilization, each
sample was analyzed for SWL and then serially diluted with fresh,
filtered seawater to form stock solutions of 10,000, 1,000, and
100 ppm SWL (based on 107» solids). These stock solutions were further
diluted to form seven test solutions in a logarithmic series of
concentrations: 5.6, 13.5, 32, 75, 180, 420, and 1,000 ppm SWL.
One each of the seven test solutions and three replicate controls
(seawater) were tested in each of the six bioassays. The amount of raw
wastes in any test solution never exceeded 1.570 of the total volume
so that the salinity (32 /oo throughout the study) and other colligative
properties of the native diluting seawater were preserved. The dilution
water itself was drawn from the all-glass seawater system of the
Friday Harbor Laboratories.
After preparation, samples were drawn from each test solution for
the determination of SWL (Barnes, e£ a^L.; 1963); DO by a Beckman oxygen
electrode, Model 777; and pH by a Beckman Zerometric pH meter.
161
-------
Two-liter, wide-mouth, flintglass jars were used as incubation
vessels. During the bioassay, each vessel was gently stirred by slowly
bubbling with air through a glass tube (A.P.M.A., 1962). Incubation
temperature was stabilized by placing the vessels in a water bath
being circulated with seawater at ambient sea-surface temperature,
8°C throughout the experiments.
One thousand ml of each test solution were put into each incubation
vessel and brought to bioassay temperature in the water bath. As
suggested by Oppenheimer (1955), antibiotics (50 ppm each of penicillin G
and streptomycin sulfate) were added to prevent bacterial infection of
the eggs and to preserve the initial concentration of SWL. Preliminary
checks and other experimental evidence indicated that this concentration
and combination of antibiotics was effective for these purposes without
adversely affecting the eggs or larvae.
Ripe eggs and sperm were stripped directly from the parent fish
into a shallow vessel of chilled seawater. After 15 minutes, the majority
of eggs were fertilized and rose to the surface. About 200 fertilized
eggs were transferred to each control and test vessel. The approximate
number transferred was determined by Sedgwick-Rafter cell count of a
similar sized aliquant. The eggs were incubated until 24 hours after
Larvae appeared in the control vessels. The eggs and larvae were
removed from the solutions, concentrated by filtration through #6
bolting cloth, anesthetized in MS 222 (tricaine methanesulfonate) to
minimize deformation, and fixed in 170 formalin. The pH and DO of the
test solutions were determined at the end of the experiment for
comparison with the initial measurements of these properties. No
significant changes in pH or DO were ever observed.
162
-------
The eggs and larvae were examined under a dissecting microscope,
and total counts of the forms in each of the following categories were
made:
1. Dead eggs - no embryonic development apparent (Figure 12-3A).
2. Developing eggs - intact eggs containing embryos; no
indication of hatching (Figure 12-3B & C).
3. Transitional larvae - those larvae still having ventral
flexure or parts of the shell adherent (Figure 12-3D).
4. Normal larvae - (Figure 12-4A).
5. Abnormal larvae - those larvae showing serious deformities
or flexures (Figure 12-4B, C, & D) considered anomalous by
Polikarpov Ivanov (1961) and Dr. Allyn H. Seymour, Professor
of Fisheries, Univ. of Washington, Seattle (personal
communication).
6. Uncertain - those larvae considered unclassifiable.
RESULTS
It was found that significant numbers of English sole eggs were
present in the surface waters of Bellingham Bay during the peak of the
reproductive season (Table 12-1). It is important to note that large
numbers of eggs occur (1) in waters with high SWL concentration, and
(2) in waters of a specific gravity less than that of the eggs (1.022).
Sulfite waste liquor, even when dilute, is severely damaging to
developing English sole eggs. The deleterious effects of SWL range
from the ultimate damage of killing the eggs to the relatively subtle
damage of delaying hatching time. The results presented here are
average values based on the six bioassays.
163
-------
(A) Dead egg. No apparent
embryonic development.
(B) Developing egg. Limited
embryonic development; frequently
observed.
(C) Developing egg. Embryonic
development virtually complete.
(D) Transitional fry. The
organism has hatched, but has
not yet straightened.
FIGURE 12-3. Four observed stages of development of English sole eggs after about seven days'
incubation in test and control solutions.
164
-------
(A) Normal fry.
(B) Abnormal fry. Most fre-
quently seen deformity.
(C) Abnormal fry.
(D) Abnormal fry. Another kind
of deformity frequently seen.
FIGURE 12-4. Four observed stages of development of English sole eggs after about seven days'
incubation in test and control solutions.
165
-------
TABLE 12-1. Flatfish egg distribution in the Bellingham area; March 2,
1966.
Station Depth
(ft.)
1 1
17
33
2 1
17
33
3 1
17
33
4 1
17
33
5 1
17
33
6 1
17
33
7 1
17
33
8 1
17
33
9 1
17
33
10 1
17
33
Temp.
(°C)
6.6
7.1
7.1
6.6
6.8
7.1
5.5
6.6
6.6
6.2
6.6
7.0
6.4
6.7
7.0
4.5
6.3
6.5
5.6
6.5
6.8
6.1
6.8
6.9
5.0
6.7
6.7
4.9
6.5
6.7
Salinity
(°/oo)
25.5
26.8
27.0
23.7
27.0
27.0
24.2
26.9
27.0
25.2
26.7
27.3
25.4
27.2
27.4
19.8
26.0
26.4
24.4
26.8
27.6
25.0
27.0
27.1
21.3
26.3
28.9
22.5
26.5
27.3
Specific
Gravity
1.0200
1.0210
1.0211
1.0186
1.0212
1.0211
1.0191
1.0211
1.0212
1.0198
1.0210
1.0214
1.0200
1.0214
1.0215
1.0157
1.0205
1.0207
1.0193
1.0211
1.0217
1.0197
1.0212
1.0213
1.0169
1.0206
1.0227
1.0178
1.0208
1.0214
SWL
(ppm)
55
19
12
179
51
9
175
106
20
83
28
13
94
25
11
61
35
8
60
41
18
83
34
17
73
60
16
69
64
10
Volume
of Eggs
(ml)*
0.9
0.5
1.0
1.8
1.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
5.5
5.8
1.0
0.7
1.7
0.6
0.6
1.3
1.6
0.9
3.5
2.1
0.5
3.5
0.8
0.8
0.5
4.3
0.7
0.3
10.0
1.5
One ml contains approximately 1,000-1,200 fertilized English sole eggs.
166
-------
(A) Percent of eggs killed during
incubation.
(B) Percent of eggs which failed
to hatch within normal incubation
period.
(C) Percent of eggs which failed
to develop into normal fry within
normal incubation period.
V)
o
o
UJ
Q
UJ
O
^
°
X
o
<
X
0
t-
o
UJ
-^
u.
X
o
X
s
UJ
§5
Q.
o
_J
UJ
UJ
o
0 >_
H cc
o
J-1
< 2
u. Q;
T ^^
oz
X O
z
(rt ""
0
UJ
0
S^
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0 —
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30
20-
10-
•
•__•___ '
f — ~~*
/
S CONTROL
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5.6 13.5 32 75 180 420 1000
P B 1 (ppm)
.
^•~~~*
/ C 0 N T R O L
*
I 1 I 1 1 I I
5.6 13.5 32 75 180 420 1000
P B 1 (ppm)
/'
/
•- * "
/
Q
CONTROL
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5.6 13.5 32 75 180 420 1000
P BI (ppm)
FIGURE 12-5. Three responses of fertilized English sole eggs to various concentrations of sulfite
waste liquor.
167
-------
Ultimate damage was exhibited by the mortality of fertilized eggs
prior to any embryonic development. This is shown in Figure 12-5A by
the relationship between the percentage of dead eggs and the concentra-
tion of sulfite waste liquor. Note the extremely low mortality rate
(less than 3%) of eggs reared in the absence of SWL in the controls.
This low value gives added significance to what may at first appear to
be small losses in the lower and intermediate concentrations of SWL.
Another type of damage was manifested as failure of fertilized
eggs to hatch in a normal period of time (Figure 12-5B). This category
includes those dead eggs mentioned above and those eggs which exhibited
some embryonic development but failed to hatch in the time period
sufficient for the successful hatching of most (about 94%) control eggs.
This damage, then, comprises both the mortality and the retarded
development of fertilized eggs. Notice that a significant degree of
hatching failure occurred at the intermediate concentrations of SWL
(10 to 180 ppm SWL), and that severe damage of this type occurred at
the higher waste concentrations (above 180 ppm SWL).
A third type of damage (Figure 12-5C) is evidenced by the failure
of fertilized eggs to develop into normal appearing larvae. This is the
broadest category of damage considered, for it includes all observed
deviates: (1) dead eggs; (2) developing but unhatched eggs, and
transitional larvae which had not reached, during the incubation period,
the stage of development exhibited by larvae in the controls; and (3)
developed but abnormal larvae. Although the percentage of abnormal
and undeveloped larvae in the controls was quite high (about 297») , there
168
-------
was a significantly greater number of such aberrancies in all SWL
concentrations above 13.5 ppm. In the intermediate SWL concentrations
(13.5 to 180 ppm), about one-half of the eggs did not develop into
normal larvae; at higher concentrations, very few eggs reached the
normal larval stage.
In the latter two types of damage, portions of the anomalies
noted were unhatched eggs and transitional larvae, each of which is
evidence of retarded development as compared to the degree of
development reached in the control solutions. These responses of
retardation are more clearly illustrated in Figure 12-6. For each
test solution and the control, the percentages of eggs which were left
in each of the two pre-larval stages of development are shown. Note
that significant retardation does not occur until SWL concentrations
exceed 180 ppm. At higher concentrations, inhibition of development
increases rapidly and is significant. Also, the results at the higher
concentration indicates a change in the relative severity of inhibition.
In SWL concentrations of 420 ppm and less, the percentages of developing
eggs and transitional larvae are about equal. At 1,000 ppm, however,
the percentage of developing eggs greatly exceeds that of transitional
larvae. This indicates increased severity of inhibition; for
obviously, the unhatched egg is in a state of further retardation than
is the transitional larva.
DISCUSSION
The findings of the distribution study demonstrate that large
numbers of English sole eggs are spawned into areas polluted by SWL
169
-------
Q
Ul
ffl
70-
6O-
5O-
40-
(/) 3O—
O
O
U 20-
IO—
O-
Transitional fry
Developing but
unhatched eggs
n Developing but
5.6 13.5 32 75 ISO
P B I ( pp m )
42O IOOO
FIGURE 12-6. Percentages of English sole eggs in pre-larval stages of development at the end of
incubation.
170
-------
and that they develop in the surface layers where the highest
concentrations of SWL occur. Hence, the critical tolerance levels
determined by bioassay procedures are germane to situations existing
in nature and should be used as tolerance limits of SWL concentration
if the English sole population is not to be damaged.
The results of the bioassay study demonstrate that there is
little doubt that sulfite waste liquor is an effective agent in
disrupting the normal metabolic processes of developing English sole
eggs. Figures 12-5A, B, and C show that deleterious effects occur
at concentrations of SWL chronically present in surface waters of
Bellingham Bay. Significant changes in response are rarely seen at
waste concentrations of 6 ppm SWL but always at 14 ppm, suggesting
strongly that a critical threshold exists somewhere around 10 ppm SWL.
The damage induced at this threshold is not significantly increased
by augmented concentrations of SWL until another critical level is
reached at approximately 180 ppm SWL. Above this concentration,
survival of exposed eggs is hopeless. Table 12-2 presents the results
in terms of the percent increase in damage (above that observed in
the controls) associated with the various tested concentrations of SWL.
Note that even at 14 ppm there is a fivefold increase in egg mortality;
the number of eggs that fail to hatch is three times the control level;
and the percentage of eggs which fail to become normal larvae is almost
double its very high control value. Evident are the plateau of damage
at intermediate values of SWL, and a sharp increase in damage at SWL
values above 180 ppm.
171
-------
TABLE 12-2. Increase in response of English sole eggs to increasing
concentrations of sulfite waste liquor.
Fail to Become
SWL Dead Eggs Fail to Hatch Normal Larvae
(ppm) _ (%} _ (%) _ (%)
6 14 15 29
14 509 215 65
32 659 288 73
75 805 358 78
180 836 369 126
420 709 931 228
1,000 1,150 1,631 239
172
-------
To afford optimal conditions for English sole egg development
in Bellingham and Samish Bays, SWL concentrations in the surface
waters should be limited to less than 14 ppm.
173
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13. PLANKTON
The term "plankton" is applied to all those animals and plants
which live freely in the water and which, because of their small size
or feeble powers of locomotion, are passively drifted by the currents.
Practically every major group of animals, either as adults, as larvae,
or as both, is found among the plankton. Though the size range of the
various planktonic organisms ranges from less than 5 microns (the
smallest flagellates) to 2 meters (certain jellyfish), the vast
majority are less than several millimeters long. Individually
insignificant, collectively they are the most important group of
organisms in the sea for they represent over 90% of the total biomass
present.
Plankton form the base of the food web in the nutritional economy
of the sea. Not only do they provide food for most small fish and
invertebrates which in turn are the food of the larger fish, but they
are also ingested directly by all filter feeders, such as oysters and
clams, and some carnivores, such as juvenile salmon, herring, and many
other commercially valuable shellfish and finfish. It is evident,
then, that any factors which influence the plankton, secondarily
influence the entire marine biota. It is for these cogent considerations
that the Project conducted a study to evaluate the influence of pulp
and paper mill wastes on the plankton.
175
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STUDY
The objectives of the plankton study in the Bellingham area were
(1) to determine the constituents, characteristics, and patterns
of zooplankton and phytoplankton of the area; (2) to determine rates
of phytoplankton productivity throughout the area; and (3) to relate
these data to each other, to specified environmental factors such as
light, nutrients, and SWL concentration, and to location with respect
to the Georgia-Pacific mill. The results supply information about
the capacity of the waters of Bellingham Bay to support life, and they
show, to the extent possible, how mill wastes affect this capacity.
Ten sampling cruises were made at four- to eight-week intervals
between August 1964 and July 1965, inclusive. On each cruise, ten
stations (Figure 13-1) were occupied: four stations on a transect
from Whatcom Waterway to the entrance of Hale Passage and one station
at each of six oyster-raft sites. All work was conducted aboard the
R/V HAROLD W. STREETER.
METHODS
At each station on each cruise, observations were made of the
time of day, phase of tide, wind direction and velocity, weather and
sea conditions, air temperature, light penetration (Secchi disc
measurement), and total depth (sonic measurement). Water temperatures
and salinities at surface, 7 feet, and 20 feet were measured with an
induction salinometer (Industrial Instruments, Model RS-5). Solar
energy at the surface was measured with a pyrheliometer. Relative light
176
-------
I
•
5
o
3
LEGEND
4
* 6 Mean lower low water
O
o Raft station
• Transect station
80
09
10
O
FIGURE 13-1. Phytoplankton productivity stations in the Bellingham area.
177
-------
at depth (7 and 20 feet) was measured with an irradiance meter of
Project design. Values were expressed as percentages of incidence
surface light.
Zooplankton for quantitative analysis was collected in horizontal
tows at surface and 20 feet at each station. Clark-Bumpus nets were
employed. Net mesh was #6; thus, only those organisms exceeding
0.0165 inches in size were retained. The zooplankton collected were
preserved in formalin and forwarded for identification and enumeration
to taxonomists at Oregon State University Department of Oceanography.
Table 13-1 is a faunal list of animals found and indicates those
which were classified into species and those which were assigned to
higher groupings. This information was computer processed and
tabulated into the several categories: settled volume of organisms per
unit volume of water, total numbers of organisms per unit volume of
water, numbers of each form per unit volume of water, and the relative
importance of each form in each sample.
Samples of water and phytoplankton were collected with a 6-liter,
Scott-Van Dorn bottle at the surface and at the 7- and 20-foot depths,
depths at which light levels were most frequently 357° and 27o,
respectively, of surface illumination. These were collected for chemical
analyses, phytoplankton identification, and the determination of primary
productivity. Each sample was subdivided into nine subsamples, each
of which was drawn directly from the sampler. These subsamples were
analyzed as follows:
pH. A 50-ml aliquant was analyzed on board ship with a Beckman
pH meter, Model GS.
178
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TABLE 13-1. Faunal list of the zooplankton.
Copepoda
Acartia clausi
Acartia danae
Acartia longiremus
Acartia tonsa
Aetideus armatus
Aetideopsis rostrata
Calamis cristatus
Calanus £inmarchicus
Calanus plumchrus
Candacia columbiae
Centropages mcmurrichi
Clausocalanus arcuicornis
Corycaeus affinis
Epilabidocera amphitrites
Eucalanus bungii
Eurytemora sp.
Harpacticoida
Metridia lucens
Microcalanus pusillus
Oithona similis
Oithona spinirostris
Oncaea sp.
Paracalanus parvus
Pareuchaeta japonica
Pseudocalanus minutus
Scolecithricella minor
Tortanus discaudatus
Copepodites
Nauplius larvae
Others
Appendicularia (Tunicata)
Chaetognatha (arrow worm)
Ctenophora
Doliolida (tunicata)
Euphausiacea
Evadne sp. (cladocera)
Gamraaridae (Amphipoda)
Hyperiidae (Amphipoda)
Isopoda
Pre-adult forms (other than Copepoda)
Anomura megalops (crab)
Anomura zoea (crab)
Amphipoda larva
Brachyura megalops (crab)
Brachyura zoea (crab)
Callianassa _s_p_. larva (ghost shrimp)
Cirripedia cypris (barnacle)
Cirripedia nauplius (barnacle)
Cyphonautes larva
Euphausiacea calytopsis
Euphausiacea furcilla
Mysidacea
Natantia (shrimp)
Noctiluca j?p. (Dinof lagellata)
Ostracoda
Podon sp. (Cladocera)
Salpa sp. (tunicata)
Siphonophora (jelly fish)
Medusae (jelly fish)
Fish egg
Fish larva
Gastropoda larva
Mitraria larva
Mysidacea larva
Pelecypoda larva
Pluteus larva
Polychaeta larva
Natantia larva (shrimp)
Upogebia sp. larva (ghost shrimp)
179
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DO. A 250-ml aliquant was immediately analyzed on board ship by
the Alsterberg modification of Winkler method (A.P.H.A., 1962).
Salinity and SWL. A 250-ml aliquant was submitted to the
laboratory for the determinations of salinity by titration
(Strickland and Parsons, 1960) or with a Hytech inductive
salinometer, Model RS-7A; and SWL by the modified Pearl-Benson
method (Barnes, et^ al_.; 1963).
Phosphate, Silicate, and Nitrate. Three 120-ml aliquants were
immediately frozen and delivered frozen to the laboratory for
the determination of reactive phosphate, reactive silicate, and
nitrate by methods described by Strickland and Parsons (1960).
Reducing Sugars. A 120-ml aliquant was immediately frozen and
delivered to the laboratory for the determination of reducing
sugars by the Nelson method (Nelson, 1944) as modified for
estuarine waters by W. 0. Winkler (Project staff).
Phytoplankton. A 500-ml aliquant was preserved with formalin
and transferred to the laboratory where it was concentrated,
stained, and mounted on a microscope slide for identification and
enumeration. Diatoms, certain of the other algae, and certain
flagellates were identified to genus; other forms were grouped
more broadly. Table 13-2 is a list of the forms found and
indicates the level of identification pursued. All data were
computer processed and tabulated in much the same way as the
zooplankton data, and the same categories of information were
extracted.
180
-------
TABLE 13-2. Floral list of the phytoplankton and associated protozoa.
Chrysophyta
Centrales
Actinoptychus
Arachnoidiscus
Attheya
Bacteriastrum
Biddulphia
Cerataulina
Chaetoceros
Climacodium
Corethron
Coscinodiscus
Coscinosira
Cyclotella
Dactyliosolen
Ditylum
Eucampia
Euodia
Hemidiscus
Hyalodiscus
Isthmia
Lauderia
Leptocylindrus
Melosira
Paralia
Planktoniella
Rhizosolenia
Schroderella
Skeletonema
Stephanodiscus
Stephanopyxis
Streptotheca
Thalassiosira
Triceratium
Cyanophyta
Anabaena
Anacystis
Oscillatoria
Chlorophyta
Chlorella
Oocystis
Scenedesmus
Ghrysophyta
Pennales
Achnanthes
Amphora
Amphipleura
Amphiprora
Asterionella
Campylodiscus
Campylosira
Ceratoneus
Climacosphenia
Cocconeis
Cymbella
Diatoma
Diploneis
Eunotia
Fragilaria
Gomphonema
Grammatophora
Gyrosigma
Licmophora
Navicula
Nitzschia
Plagiogramma
Pleurosigma
Rhabdonema
Rhoicosphenia
Rhopolodia
Stauroneis
Suriella
Synedra
Tabellaria
Thalasionema
Thalassiothrix
Tropidoneis
Protozoa
Ciliata
Amoeba
Salpingacantha
Tintinnopsis
Tintinnidium
Vorticella
Mastigophora
Euglena
Phacus
Dinoflagellata
Ceratium
Distephanus
Glenodinium
181
-------
Chlorophyll. Phytoplankton chlorophyll content was used as a
proportional measure of living plant material in a sample. A
one-liter aliquant was coarse-filtered through #6-mesh plankton
netting, and then drawn through an AA (0.8 micron aperture)
Millipore filter. This procedure effectively excluded the large
zooplankters but retained the phytoplankters on the membrane.
After filtration the membrane was placed on filter paper,
labeled, and stored in an aluminum dessicator in the freezer.
Later, it was delivered to the laboratory for chlorophyll
analysis by the modified method of Richards as described by
Strickland and Parsons (1960). Measurements were made of
chlorophyll a_, b_, c_; plant carotenoids; and animal carotenoids.
These data were computer-processed at the Department of
Oceanography, Oregon State University.
Phytoplankton Productivity Rate. The rate of phytoplankton
productivity was measured by following changes in the dissolved
oxygen content of a water sample using the "Light and Dark
Bottle" technique. Changes in dissolved oxygen were related
to carbon production, using relationships established for the
marine environment (Strickland, 1960), and results are expressed
as the amount of carbon fixed per unit volume of water per unit
time.
A two-liter aliquant was coarse-filtered through #6-mesh plankton
netting and passed into a four-liter, opaque polyethylene bottle.
The sample was allowed to warm slightly and then was shaken to
182
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reduce its dissolved oxygen content. After equilibration at the
higher temperature, the sample was subdivided into three portions:
the first portion was immediately analyzed to yield the basal
oxygen value; the second portion was drawn into duplicate opaque
bottles and incubated for six hours in the dark at ambient
seawater temperature; the third portion was placed in duplicate
clear bottles and incubated for six hours at ambient seawater
temperature and under light conditions approximating those at
which the water sample was taken. Both light and dark bottles
were incubated in a two-compartment, shipboard incubator of
Project design. Circulating seawater provided the same incubation
temperature for both types of bottles. After incubation, the
dissolved oxygen content of the second and third portions was
determined, and the changes from the initial value were noted.
Results were computer-processed at the Department of Oceanography,
Oregon State University, and the productivity of each sample
depth of each station was expressed as milligrams of carbon
fixed per cubic meter of water per hour. All dissolved oxygen
measurements were made by the Alsterberg modification of the
Winkler method (A.P.H.A., 1962).
RESULTS
Data obtained from the study are summarized as mean values in
Tables 13-3, 13-4, and 13-5. Note that almost all of the chemical
and physical properties measured at a given depth show little
significant variation among stations. The exceptions are the mean
183
-------
< O O -i 3 3
H W U < 0
184
-------
c JJi .c .2 "2
-------
3 3^
i C j
P < L
186
-------
SWL concentrations which decrease with distance from the Georgia-
Pacific mill and the very high mean sugar concentration and mean
oxygen consumption rate near the mill (Station 1). These data describe
findings in keeping with those discussed in Section 7.
Examination of the biological data (Tables 13-3, 13-4, and 13-5)
indicates that there is little variation in the dynamic structure of
the plankton community among the various stations at a given depth.
There is no significant difference between the annual mean values at
any one station and the annual mean values at all other stations
combined for the following: chlorophyll a_ concentration, phytoplankton
concentration, number of phytoplankton taxa (diversity), zooplankton
concentration, number of zooplankton taxa, and the percentage of adults
making up the zooplankton. Further, the dominant organisms of both
phytoplankton and zooplankton are generally the same at all stations.
It is thus apparent that the structure of the plankton community is
essentially the same throughout the study area, even though the raw
data showed considerable, but expected, seasonal variation in the
numbers and kinds of plankters.
Phytoplankton productivity rate is the only biological property
that exhibited significant interstation differences in annual mean
values. Note in Table 13-3 that low rates of productivity were
o
obtained at surface at Station 1 (a mean of 4.6 mg carbon fixed/in /hr)
o
and at Station 5 (a mean of 13.1 mg carbon fixed/m /hr). To evaluate
the differences between these values and mean values obtained at
other stations in the study area, consideration was given to information
187
-------
exhibited by all raw data—that conditions of low temperature and
low light intensity (depth) also inhibit productivity. Accordingly,
with the removal of all data collected at water temperatures less
than 10°C and all data collected at the 7- and 20-foot depths, it
was found that mean productivity at Station 1 was significantly
lower (99% level) than the associated mean value at all other
stations combined, and that mean productivity at Station 5 was
significantly lower (957o level) than the associated mean value at
all other stations combined except Station 1. Otherwise, no
significant interstation differences in productivity were seen.
Because average SWL concentrations are highest at Stations 1
and 5, an association with productivity was suggested and the graph
of Figure 13-2 was constructed using only those data collected at
surface and at temperatures equal to or greater than 10°C. To
compensate for the variation found in standing crop, the values in
this graph are presented as productivity rate per unit of chlorophyll a_.
Note that a monotonic relationship does not exist between productivity
rate/mg of chlorophyll £ and SWL concentration, but that a threshold
effect occurs. Phytoplankton productivity falls off markedly at SWL
values around 50-70 ppm. This drop in productivity per unit of
chlorophyll a_ is shown in a different manner in Table 13-6, where the
productivity data of Figure 13-2 is summarized by groupings associated
with the SWL concentration ranges of 0-50 ppm, 51-100 ppm, and 101 ppm
and greater.
188
-------
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189
-------
TABLE 13-6. Summary of phytoplankton productivity rate per unit of
chlorophyll a_ (mg carbon fixed/m /hr/mg Chi.a) associated with the
three broad ranges of SWL concentration observed in the Bellingham
area; for samples taken at the surface at temperatures equal to or
greater than 10°C.
Statistic
Range
Mean
Median
SWL Concentration Range
0-50 ppm 51-100 ppm
0.25 to 2.28 0.25 to 1.15
0.90 0.64
0.80 0.56
Greater than
100 ppm
0.08 to
0.44
0.51
0.71
DISCUSSION
It is shown that phytoplankton populations are essentially the
same, qualitatively and quantitatively, at each of the stations
examined in the Bellingham area. Phytoplankton productivity, also,
varies little among stations throughout the study area except at
Station 1 in Bellingham Harbor and Station 5 near Post Point. At
these sites, the phytoplankton productivity rate commonly is quite low;
hence the capacity of these waters to effectively support the lower
organisms that serve as food for higher forms, such as salmon and
oysters, is impaired. The conclusion drawn is that phytoplankton are
continuously being swept throughout the study area by water currents
and circulation, and, that once these cells are brought into contact
with high concentrations of pulping wastes, they are physiologically
injured and fail to function normally. This injury does not translate
into alteration of the community structure because of the constant
movement of phytoplankton into and out of the affected area.
190
-------
The data presented in Figure 13-2 and Table 13-6 clearly show
that the phytoplankton sustain significant injury at SWL
concentrations greater than 50 ppm. Referring to Figure 7-7, it is
seen that average SWL concentrations greater than 50 ppm prevail
throughout the northeastern quarter of Bellingham Bay. Consequently,
a substantially large portion of the Bellingham study area is
affected by water quality inimical to phytoplankton.
191
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14. PERIPHYTON
Free surfaces of submerged objects soon become coated with an
aggregation of small plants and animals. This kind of aggregation is
called "periphyton" and includes both benthic and facultative benthic-
planktonic organisms. Truly planktonic forms which have no means of
attachment are excluded unless they become enmeshed in the periphyton
film.
PERIPHYTON STUDY
The periphyton communities in the Bellingham-Samish Bay system
were studied to determine the effects of pulping wastes to this portion
of the marine biota. Field work for the principal part of the study
was done between February 9 and September 1, 1964. Subsequent
samples were taken from November 17 to December 2, 1964 to evaluate
changes in conditions concurrent with a shutdown of the Georgia-Pacific
mill. Sample analyses have been completed, and the statistical
evaluation of results is under way.
Methods. Glass slides, suitably mounted in a rack (Figure 14-1),
were submerged 30 inches below the water surface at each of 17 stations
(Figure 14-2). Two, one-by-three-inch slides were placed in each tier
of grooves to provide upward and downward directed collecting surfaces.
Racks were suspended from the adult oyster rafts at Stations 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, and 10. As a check on possible shadow effects from the rafts,
additional racks were suspended from anchored floats approximately 50 feet
193
-------
Suspended by nylon rope
Alaskan yellow cedar-'
Glass slides-''
(two placed in each position)
Lead weight
9 1/2"
FIGURE 14-1. Glass slide rack.
194
-------
•
1
12
10.
lOa*
90
• 4
6a
% \
6
7
••5a
FIGURE 14-2. Periphyton slide rack stations in the Bellingham-Anacortes area.
195
-------
from the rafts. These auxiliary stations were labeled 5a, 6a, 7a, 8a,
9a, and lOa, respectively. At Stations 2, 3, 4, 11, and 12 (where no
oyster rafts were located), racks were similarly suspended from anchored
floats. Station 1, established at the Marietta Bridge over the Nooksack
River, was abandoned before the end of the study.
Slides were exposed for intervals of 7 to 30 days. The collection
schedule was designed so that the period of exposure for one slide over-
lapped that of another; e_.£., Slide 1 was exposed from day-one to day-
seven, Slide 2 from day-one to day-fourteen, Slide 3 from day-seven to
day-fourteen, and so on. A total of 1,174 slides was exposed during
the study.
Exposed slides were removed from the racks and placed in a solution
of 47» formalin and seawater. In the laboratory, these were scraped, and
the attached organisms were stained and resuspended on counting slides.
Identification and enumeration were accomplished by phase-microscopic
examination of 20 fields at 400X magnification. Table 14*1 lists the
genera identified. Results are expressed in total number of organisms
per unit area and in number of organisms of each genus per unit area.
With each collection of slides, water samples were taken at the
3-foot depth. These were analyzed for;-
1. salinity—by the silver nitrate titration method (Strickland
and Parsons, 1960) or with a Hytech, Model RS-7A, induction
salinometer;
2. PBI--by the method described by Barnes, et_ aj.. (1962);
3. total soluble phosphate—in freshwater samples by the stannous
chloride method (A.P.H.A., 1962) and in saltwater samples by
the method described by Strickland and Parsons (1960);
196
-------
TABLE 14-1. List of periphytic taxa identified and enumerated.
Chrysophyta-Pennales (Diatoms)
Achnanthes
Amphora
Asterionella
Ceratoneis
Climacosphenia
Cocconeis
Diatoma
Eunotia
Fragilaria
Gomphonema
Chrysophyta - Centrales
Actinoptychus
Biddulphia
Campylodiscus
Chaetoceros
Coscinodiscus
Chlorophyta (Green algae)
Agmene1lum
Chlorella
Cyanophyta (Blue-green algae)
Protozoa
Anabaena
Suctoria
Ephelota
Tokophrya
Mastigophera
Distephanus
Miscellaneous
Amphipoda
Bryozoa
Cirripedia
Grammatophora
Isthmia
Lauderia
Licmophora
Meridian
Navicula
Nitzschia
Pleurosigma
Rhabdonema
Rhoicosphenia
Cyclotella
Ditylum
Hyalodiscus
Melosira
Paralia
Desmid
Rhizoclonium
Anacystis
Sarcodina
Actinopodia
Amoeba
Copepoda
Hydra
Isopoda
Nauplius larva
Rhopolodia
Stauransis
Stauroneis
Striatella
Surirella
Synedra
Tabellaria
Thalassiothrix
Trepidomeis
Tropidoneis
Planktoniella
Rhizosolenia
Skeletonema
Thalassiosira
Ulothrix
Volvox
Oscillatoria
Ciliata
Epistylis
Leprotintinnus
Salpingacantha
Tintinnidium
Tintinnopsis
Nematoda
Obelia
Pelecypoda
Polychaeta
197
-------
4. total soluble nitrate--In freshwater samples by the phenol-
disulfonic acid method (A.P.H.A., 1962) and in saltwater
samples by the method described by Strickland and Parsons
(1960).
The statistical analysis of data was done by Dr. Gerald Paulik,
Biometrician, University of Washington School of Fisheries. An
analysis of the slides collected at the stations is summarized in
Table 14-2.
TABLE 14-2. Numbers of genera of organisms on glass slides in twelve
stations in Bellingham Bay.
Station
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Number of
Slides
Examined
4
46
52
38
73
76
71
72
76
67
48
34
Total Number
of Genera Found
at Station
11
18
32
25
33
37
35
39
40
36
39
17
Inspection of the data presented in Table 14-2 reveals that
reduced numbers of genera were found at Stations 1, 2, and 12.
Station 1, located in the Nooksack River, reflects those predominantly
freshwater forms not affected by mill wastes. Stations 2 and 12 were
located in the extreme northern portion of Bellingham Bay and may
198
-------
reflect the influences of environmental factors other than pulping
wastes.
These data are undergoing additional analyses through the use
of very sophisticated computer programs.
199
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15. BACTERIAL QUALITY
The waters of the Bellinghatn area, particularly those of
Bellingham Harbor, are used for commercial fishing, towboat
operations, recreational boating, log rafting and sorting activities,
and shoreline recreation. Water contact incidental to these uses
makes the bacterial quality of these waters important. Sources of
bacterial pollution include discharges of primary treated wastes
from the City of Bellingham and untreated wastes from the Fairhaven
sewers (see Figure 5-1), sundry boats, and waterfront industries and
properties. To evaluate this pollution problem, the Project conducted
bacteriological studies in Bellingham Harbor and contiguous waters.
STUDIES
Five bacteriological surveys were conducted in the Bellingham
area by the Project, one each in August 1964 and March, April, May,
and June 1965. On each survey, surface samples were taken from each
of seventeen stations (Figure 15-1) located to describe the bacterial
quality of upper Bellingham Bay, the Nooksack River, and Whatcom
Creek. Concentrations of total coliforms and fecal streptococci were
determined for each sample. Surface water temperature and salinity
also were measured at each station whenever possible.
METHODS
Bacteriological samples were collected in sterilized, 6-ounce
capacity, wide-mouth polyethylene bottles. Samples were either
201
-------
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processed for bacterial analysis immediately in the shipboard
laboratory of the Project's oceanographic vessel HAROLD W. STREETER,
or were refrigerated and transported directly to the Project's
Portland, Oregon laboratory for processing. Under the latter method
the maximum elapsed time between collection and laboratory processing
did not exceed eight hours. All total coliforms and fecal streptococci
determinations were performed using the membrane filter technique
(A.P.H.A., 1965).
RESULTS
Study results are summarized in Figure 15-1 in terms of the
average concentration of total coliforms observed at each station over
the five surveys. Note that the average bacterial count exceeded
1,000 organisms/100 ml throughout most of Bellingham Harbor and at
the Nooksack River and Whatcom Creek stations. Also note that bacterial
concentrations increase significantly with proximity to Whatcom Waterway.
Based on these results the most significant probable source of bacterial
pollution is the effluent from the City of Bellingham's primary sewage
treatment plant.
DISCUSSION
Bacterial standards presently proposed by the Washington Pollution
Control Commission require that average concentrations of total coliforms
be less than 1,000/100 ml for safe water-contact use of coastal waters.
Results of Project studies show that this value is grossly exceeded in
Bellingham Harbor, particularly in Whatcom Waterway. Therefore, these
waters are polluted and, under present conditions, should not be used
for water-contact activities.
203
-------
The most significant probable source of bacterial pollution to
the Harbor is the effluent from the City of Bellingham's primary
waste treatment plant discharging to Whatcom Waterway. Untreated
wastes from the Fairhaven sewers and from waterfront properties also
contribute substantially to this problem. Further, high BOD's and
settleable solids loadings associated with these wastes compound the
water quality degradation in Bellingham Harbor resulting from waste
discharge by the Georgia-Pacific pulp and paper mill complex.
204
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16. SUMMARY
The Georgia-Pacific Corporation's pulp, board, and paper mill
located on Whatcom Waterway at Bellingham is the principal source of
wastes present in waters of the Bellingham study area. These wastes,
discharged directly into Whatcom Waterway adjacent to the mill, are
found dispersed in near-surface waters throughout the Bellingham-
Samish Bay system and, on occasion, even in the Anacortes area.
Project studies have shown that waste levels present in the
system are excessively damaging to the indigenous marine community.
These damages are essentially of two specific types: (1) those of an
acute nature, occurring mainly in Bellingham Harbor and associated
with the concentrated sulfite waste liquors and settleable solids-
bearing wastes discharged into Whatcom Waterway, and (2) those of a
more chronic nature, occurring throughout the outer waters of the
Bellingham-Samish Bay system and associated with dilute concentrations
of sulfite waste liquors.
In Bellingham Harbor, waste discharge from the Georgia-Pacific
mill results in high waste concentrations, sludge deposits, and
attendant water quality degradation. These conditions are incompatible
with marine life and interfere with other legitimate water uses.
Specifically, the wastes have been shown to:
1. Be injurious to juvenile salmon, resulting in extensive
damage to the salmon fishery while juveniles are migrating
through the Harbor area.
20!
-------
2. Suppress phytoplankton activity within the Harbor.
3. Contain settleable waste solids that form sludge deposits
in Bellingham Harbor; these deposits damage bottom organisms
and produce harmful water quality degradation, as well as
cause general aesthetically unattractive conditions.
It is imperative that all wastes discharged from the Georgia-Pacific
pulp, board, and paper mill be treated for removal of settleable
solids, and that the point of waste discharge be removed from the
confines of Whatcom Waterway.
Of even greater importance to the marine communities of the
study area are the concentrations of sulfite waste liquor found
dispersed throughout the surface waters of Bellingham and Samish
Bays. These wastes, even in relatively dilute concentrations (5 to
15 ppm SWL), are damaging to immature forms of indigenous fish and
shellfish, with such damages generally decreasing with distance from
the Georgia-Pacific mill complex. Specifically, Project studies
have shown that such wastes:
1. Damage oyster larva throughout the study area, with
excessive damage produced in northern Bellingham Bay.
2. Cause some adult and juvenile oyster mortality, particularly
in Bellingham Bay, and, more importantly, adversely affect
oyster growth and market condition throughout the study area.
3. Damage English sole eggs which are seasonally present in
surface waters throughout the study area. Extensive damage
would be expected at waste levels found in northern Bellingham
Bay, with lesser damages expected in the remainder of the
Bellingham-Samish Bay system.
206
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English sole eggs and Pacific oyster larva are two forms studied
intensively by the Project, but which represent a large group of
marine organisms expected to be similarly affected by Georgia-Pacific
wastes. This group includes some 10 species of sole, 6 species of cod,
anchovy, herring, smelt, 3 species of clams, and crabs, to mention some
of the more important.
The physical characteristics of the Bellingham-Samish Bay system
severely limit its ability to assimilate waste products. To prevent
additional damages to these important marine resources it is, therefore,
necessary that sulfite waste liquors discharged by Georgia-Pacific mill
be reduced significantly at the source. Minimum protection of these
organisms during their most sensitive life stages requires that SWL
concentrations in the surface 50 feet of depth not exceed 10 ppm
beyond the initial waste dispersion zone. The initial waste dispersion
zone is defined as that area of Bellingham Bay north of an east-west
line (magnetic) extending from Post Point to Lummi Peninsula.
Discharge of raw and partially treated domestic wastes from
the City of Bellingham results in bacterial concentrations in the
Bellingham Harbor hazardous to human health.
Stokely-Van Camp and Bumble Bee Seafoods also discharge solids-
bearing wastes into Bellingham Harbor which contribute to the formation
of sludge deposits.
207
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17. INTRODUCTION
The Scott Paper Company sulfite pulp mill is the waste source of
principal consideration in the Anacortes area. Located in the City of
Anacortes, this mill discharges all process wastes into Guemes Channel
(Figure 17-1).
Other major wastes sources in the area are the Texaco and Shell
oil refineries on March Point, the City of Anacortes sewage treatment
plant, the Sabastian Stuart Fish Co., and the Fishermen's Packing Corp.
Figure 17-1 also shows the locations of these sources.
STUDY AREA
The Anacortes study area includes Padilla and Fidalgo Bays and
Guemes Channel (Figure 17-2; also see Figure 5-2). The City of
Anacortes is the only municipality in the area.
Both Padilla and Fidalgo Bays are shallow. Depths throughout all
of Fidalgo Bay and most of Padilla Bay are less than 60 feet (see the
60-feet depths contour, Figure 17-2). The deeper waters of Padilla Bay
occupy a channel along the east side of Guemes Island. This channel
joins the Bellingham study area to the north, and it carries some
exchange of waters between the two study areas.
Guemes Channel, a narrow, moderately deep channel, carries large
tidal flows between Padilla-Fidalgo Bays and Rosario Strait. These
flows and attending turbulence effect rapid transport and dispersion
of wastes discharged into the Channel.
211
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18. WASTES
STUDIES
In-plant waste surveys were conducted at the Scott Paper Company
mill during May 18-21, 1964, and February 8-11, 1965. In each survey,
three 24-hour composite samples and additional grab samples were
collected from the sewer line carrying the mill's total waste load to
Guemes Channel (Figure 18-1). Both surveys were conducted, jointly,
by personnel of the Project, the State, and the Scott mill.
The State surveyed the Anacortes sewage treatment plant during
April 26-27, 1965, and the Sabastian Stuart Fish Co. on April 26,
1965. Waste data submitted regularly to the State by the Texaco and
Shell refineries provided information on these two waste sources.
METHODS
Procedures and methods employed in the Scott mill surveys were
the same as those described in Section 6. Analyses of samples
collected by the State were the same as those described in Section 6.
RESULTS
Scott Paper Company. This mill employs the ammonia-base sulfite
process to produce about 138 tons per day of short-fiber pulp. Pulp
is bleached, dried, and baled for shipment to other mills, but
principally to the Scott Paper Company mill at Everett.
215
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TO GUEMES
CHANNEL DIFFUSER
Sampling point
SALTWATER COOLINq
EFFLUENT
New flow
direction
LEGEND
Existing sewers
= = === Discontinued sewers
FIGURE 18-1. Mill layout and sewer system; Scott Paper Company, Anacortes, Washington.
216
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No paper is produced. Barking of logs is accomplished by mechanical
means, thus no water-borne barking wastes are generated.
A schematic diagram of the mill layout and sewer system is shown
in Figure 18-1. Formerly, two sewers (dashed lines) discharged a
portion of the mill's wastes into Fidalgo Bay, and a force main
discharged strong wastes into Guemes Channel. In January 1964, the
mill altered this system to divert all pollutional wastes, via force
main, to Guemes Channel. Now, the only flow normally reaching Fidalgo
Bay is uncontaminated saltwater used for cooling purposes in the acid
plant.
Average results of the two surveys — the average daily waste
load discharged into Guemes Channel — are tabulated in Table 18-1.
Anacortes Sewage Treatment Plant. This primary treatment plant
with effluent chlorination treats combined wastes for an estimated
population of 7,000. Treated wastes are discharged into Guemes Channel
(see Figure 17-1).
A 24-hour composite sample of effluent was collected. Results
are tabulated in Table 18-2.
Sabastian Stuart Fish Co. This plant cans salmon in season.
Operation is intermittent and daily production varies. Wastes are
screened and discharged into Guemes Channel (see Figure 17-1).
A 7-hour composite sample of screened wastes was collected on a
day when the plant operated at one-third capacity and processed about
72,000 pounds of salmon (processed weight) in 11 hours operation.
Results, •• interpolated for full capacity and 16-hours daily operation,
•re given In Table 18-2.
217
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TABLE 18-1. Average daily waste load discharged by the Scott Paper
Company at Anacortes, Washington.
Analyses
BOD 5
COD
SWL*
Total Sulfur
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
Ave8 Tons Production/Day (air dried)
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids Loss
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd.
#/Ton of
Production
989
3,437
27,980
161
2,671
2,417
77.4
76.5
14.2
Tons/Day
68
237
1,924
11.1
184
167
5.3
5.2
1.0
138
3.8
5.8
* Weight of a 107o solids solution, per ton or per day as indicated.
Fishermen's Packing Corp, This plant packs various types of
fish in season. Operation is intermittent and daily production varies.
Wastes are screened and discharged into Guemes Channel (see Figure 17-1).
This plant was not sampled. However, it is estimated that waste
loads at full production are about equal to those for the Sabastian
Stuart Fish Co. (see Table 18-2).
218
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TABLE 18-2. Average daily waste loads discharged by other major waste
sources in the Anacortes area.
Analyses
BOD 5
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Waste Volume, mgd,,
Tons /Day
Anacortes Sewage Sabastian Stuart
Treatment Plant Fish Co.
0.4 1.3
0.1 10,6
<0.1 7.6
<0.l 1.1
<0.1 < 0.1
0.9 0.1
Texaco and Shell Refineries. Both of these refineries operate
modern, well designed, and well operated secondary treatment facilities.
Treated wastes are discharged into Guemes Channel and Fidalgo Bay
(see Figure 17-1)»
Under provisions of the permanent industrial permits issued by the
State, these refineries are required to monitor and report the quantity
and quality of their effluent discharges. These data, as currently
reported, are listed in Table 18-3. In all categories, both industries
meet the effluent requirements also prescribed by their industrial waste
permits; therefore, the State considers their waste treatment practices
as adequate.
219
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TABLE 18-3. Quantity and quality of treated effluents discharged by
the Shell and Texaco refineries at Anacortes.
Property
Average daily flow (MGD)
Maximum daily flow (MGD)
Average daily pH
Maximum pH range
Average daily phenol (mg/1)
Maximum daily phenol (mg/1)
Average sul fides (mg/1)
Average mercaptans (mg/1)
Average daily total-oil (mg/1)
Maximum total -oil (mg/1)
Texaco
3.0
12.0
7.1
6.4-8.4
0.02
0.15
< 0.1
< 0.1
4.3
15
Shell
2.1
9.2
6.8
5.0-8.4
0.08
0.11
nil
nil
4.6
15
DISCUSSION
At the time of the conference in 1962, the Scott mill was
discharging considerable quantities of wastes into Padilla Bay. Weak
circulation in the Bay provided inadequate dispersion and dilution of
these waters; consequently the Bay was being polluted. For this reason,
the Scott mill and the Anacortes area were considered in the Project's
studies.
To abate pollution of Padilla Bay, the mill diverted all wastes
except cooling wastes to Guemes Channel. This change was made to take
advantage of the waste transport and dispersion capacities of the
220
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Channel. The mill presently provides no waste treatment. Primary
treatment facilities will remove some 4 tons/day of settleable solids
now discharged to the Channel.
The State considers as adequate the waste treatment and disposal
practices of the Anacortes sewage treatment plant and the Shell and
Texaco refineries. On the other hand, waste screening practiced by
the two fish canneries is recognized as being inadequate. The primary
treatment of the cannery wastes will significantly reduce the settleable
solids discharged to the Channel.
221
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19. WASTE DISTRIBUTION AND WATER QUALITY
STUDIES
To describe the dispersion of wastes discharged by the Scott mill
and to determine the effects of these wastes on water quality, the
Project undertook oceanographic and related investigations in the
Anacortes area. These involved field studies by the Project, and
literature search and evaluation of the considerable body of information
collected in studies by State agencies and the University of Washington.
Many of these studies were a part of investigations conducted in the
Bellingham area0
Circulation Studies„ The Project conducted a surface-current
float study on November 17, 1962 to investigate the large eddy current
in Guemes Channel near the entrance to Fidalgo Bay. Crossed-vane
current drogues, each suspended three feet below a marker buoy, were
used. The course traveled by each float was determined using a sextant.
The U. S0 Coast and Geodetic Survey (U.S.C.&G.S.) collected current
data at six stations (Figure 19-2) in the Bellingham-Anacortes area
during 1964-65. At each station, anchored meters were employed to
monitor current speed and direction at each of three depths for a
100-hour period.
The Washington Pollution Control Commission (Wagner and Ice, 1958)
conducted a comprehensive current study in August 1958. Floats were
released at numerous locations in Guemes Channel and in Padilla and
Fidalgo Bays during various tidal phases on nine different days.
223
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Special attention was given to the vicinity of Scott mill's waste
outfall in the Channel. Water samples for SWL, salinity, and phenol
analysis were collected also.
The Washington State Department of Fisheries (McKinley, 1959)
did a tidal current survey in Swinomish Slough during March-April 1958.
The purpose of this study was to obtain data for estimating the volume
of Padilla Bay tidal water supplied through the Slough.
Waste Distribution and Water Quality Studies. The Washington
State Department of Fisheries and the Washington Pollution Control
Commission each conducted water sampling cruises in the Anacortes area as
a part of investigations in the Bellingham area. These studies are
described in Section 7, and sampling stations are shown in Figures 7-1B
and 19-1A.
The Project conducted a water sampling cruise in the Anacortes
area on November 17, 1962, and routinely collected water samples in the
plankton ecology study (see Section 22) conducted between July 1963
and July 1964. Sampling stations for both studies are shown in
Figure 19-1B. Depths sampled were 0, 5, 10, and 25 meters, and water
properties measured were temperature, salinity, DO, pH, and SWL.
Water clarity, wind, and weather also were noted.
METHODS
Study methods followed by the Project were the same as those
described in Section 7. Methods used by the University and State
agencies were similar to those employed by the Project.
224
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(A)
(B)
FIGURE 19-1. Water sampling stations in the Anacortes area: (A) Washington Pollution Control
Commission, 1957-58 studies, (B) Project, 1962-1964 studies.
225
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RESULTS
Net Circulation. Net water circulation in the Anacortes area is
described in Figure 19-2. Although this pattern, based on current
data collected by U.S.C.&G.S. in their 1964-65 survey, describes only
surface conditions, similar net circulation was observed at depth.
Note that a net drift of water from the Bellingham-Samish Bay system
enters Padilla Bay and flows southward through the Bay, westward
through Guemes Channel, and out into Rosario Strait. This net pattern
results from the predominance of ebb tide transport over flood tide
transport. The importance of this net circulation pattern is two-fold:
(1) the net drift of water from the Bellingham-Samish Bay system
carries, into the Anacortes area, dispersed wastes originating at the
Georgia-Pacific mill, and these wastes influence water quality in
Padilla-Fidalgo Bays; and (2) the net transport of water through
Guemes Channel effectively flushes Scott~mill wastes out of the study
area. This flushing is comparatively rapid, for the mean travel time
to move wastes from the Scott mill outfall to the west end of Guemes
Channel is estimated to be 4 hours.
Tidal Currents. Prevailing tidal currents in Guemes Channel
are usually strong. At the west end of the Channel, the average
maximum ebb velocity is about 2.1 knots, and the average maximum flood
velocity is about 0.9 knots (U.S.C.&G.S., 1966). These strong currents
result from the large amounts of water required in the twice-daily
emptying and filling of the Padilla-Fidalgo Bay tidal volume passing
through the relatively narrow and shallow cross-section of the Channel.
These strong currents effect rapid and effective dilution of the Scott
mill wastes discharged into the Channel.
226
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\
<0,OI Kn.
.O7 Kn.
.07 Kn.
0.06 Kn.
0.07 Kn.
LEGEND
Net surface transport
0.07 Kn. at'Vs'c00! ^s""
station (speed in knots)
Mean lower low water
FIGURE 19-2. Net surface circulation pattern and net surface currents in the Bellingham-Anacortes area,
data from U.S.C.&G.S. current meter studies of 1964-65.
227
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Guemes Channel Eddy. Typical flood and ebb surface current
patterns in the Anacortes area are shown in Figure 19-3. Of special
importance is the large, generally clockwise, surface eddy at the
east end of Guemes Channel where it adjoins Fidalgo and Padilla Bays.
This eddy, present during both flood and ebb tides, is characterized
by numerous tide-rips and surface turbulence. Based on observations
of several floats released near the Scott mill outfall in Guemes
Channel (Wagner and Ice, 1958), this eddy appears to limit the flood
excursion of Scott mill wastes into Padilla and Fidalgo Bays. Further-
more, it effects rapid dilution and mixing of these wastes with
Channel waters,
Waste Distribution,. Wastes from the Scott mill enter Guemes
Channel via a submerged, 15-port diffuser pipeline discharging at a
depth of 30 feet at the point shown in Figure 19-4. Effluent is
evident as a small, surface patch of highly colored water over the
outfall and under the adjacent docks where circulation is poor. From
this effluent boil, wastes are rapidly dispersed, both vertically and
laterally, throughout the Channel. Surface water samples taken along
the path-of-movement of floats released over the outfall showed a
logarithmic decrease in waste concentrations from 3,000-10,000 ppm SWL
at the outfall to 50-250 ppm SWL one-half nautical mile away (Wagner
and Ice, 1958). SWL values measured at points one mile and more from
the outfall were, in almost all cases, less than 10 ppm.
There appears to be little transport of Scott mill wastes into
Padilla and Fidalgo Bays. Data collected in the 27 cruises by the
Washington Department of Fisheries show average SWL levels of less
than 3 ppm—background levels--throughout these two Bays. Maximum
228
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\
(A)
\
IB)
FIGURE 19-3. Typical tidal current patterns in the Anacortes area; (A) flooding tides; (B) ebbing tides.
229
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SWL observations in these waters (Figure 19-4) seldom exceeded 7 ppm,
except as noted below.
Maximum SWL values observed in all surveys are shown in
Figure 19-4. The higher maxima noted in the northern part of Padilla
Bay (as far south as the southeastern tip of Guemes Island) evidence
the inflows of dispersed wastes from the Bellingham-Samish Bay system.
On the dates of their observation, these maxima were associated with a
progression of higher SWL concentrations northward but low SWL values
to the south and west, thus describing the southward distribution of
Georgia-Pacific mill wastes rather than the northeastward distribution
of Scott mill wastes.
Water Quality. Measurements of dissolved oxygen, pH, water
transparency, and phenols were made on various cruises in the Anacortes
area. Except in samples taken immediately adjacent to the outfall,
all values of these water quality properties approached those of the
ambient sea water. Dissolved oxygen values approaching zero were
occasionally observed over the outfall but were of localized extent and
did not appear to persist beyond the immediate outfall vicinity.
DISCUSSION
The hydraulic characteristics of Guemes Channel--strong tidal
currents, net ebb-flow flushing, and eddy mixing and dilution—cause
this body of water to be nearly ideal for waste disposal. Scott mill
wastes are so rapidly dispersed that they have a significant effect
on water quality only in the vicinity of their discharge and have a
subtle, but detectable, effect on water quality only within one mile
231
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of their discharge. In Padilla and Fidalgo Bays, it has not been
positively shown that these wastes influence water quality; only near-
background levels of SWL are evident in these waters.
In spite of this excellent dispersion and dilution of discharged
wastes, the present practice of disposing wastes without diffusion
into the near-surface waters of Guemes Channel is considered to be
unsatisfactory. This disposal system produces waste concentrations
of from 10-10,000 ppm SWL in the vicinity of the outfall, and these
concentrations are injurious to marine life (see following Sections 20,
21, and 22). Further, it produces a surface patch of highly colored,
aesthetically displeasing wastewater over the outfall and under the
docks fronting the City of Anacortes. These conditions, however, can
be alleviated by discharging present waste flows through a deep-water
diffuser to the accomplishment of better utilization of the excellent
assimilative capacity of the Channel. Diffuser discharge would
effect jet mixing, and deep-water discharge would effect buoyant mixing
and would place the wastes at depths where net ebb-flow flushing is
more pronounced. Waste concentrations in the near-surface waters
of the Channel would be markedly reduced, providing (1) acceptable
water quality for the more sensitive marine forms--plankton, and
embryonic and larval forms—commonly inhabiting near-surface waters
and (2) enhancement of aesthetic quality along the City's waterfront.
232
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20. OYSTER LARVAE
The oyster-larva study in the Anacortes area was part of that
study conducted in the Bellingham area and is described in Section 11.
Briefly, between May 1963 and August 1965, surface water samples were
collected at monthly intervals at six stations (Figure 20-1A) . These
were flown to the State's Shellfish Laboratory for bioassay with
Pacific oyster larvae by the procedures previously described. In
addition to this regular program, two special bioassay investigations
were conducted to evaluate water-quality changes associated with
closures of the Scott mill during July 6-12 and November 12-26, 1964,
and a waste-sample study was conducted on a 24-hour composite sample
of total waste flow (see Section 11 for discussion and results) .
RESULTS
As stated in Section 11, the statistical analyses of results from
this study show that SWL is the dominant factor associated with the
primary response measurement--larval abnormality.
Larval Abnormality. The relationship between SWL and larval
abnormality, as observed in the combined Bellingham-Anacortes area, is
shown in Figure ll-5a The results given reflect the removal of
the data from certain samples (see Table 11-1); thus, this curve shows
only the effects of dispersed mill wastes on the development of oyster
larvae. Note that significant increases in percent abnormality begin
at SWL values of 10 ppm.
233
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3.6 28.5*
61
•
2.3
•
2.7
(A)
0.7 • °'5
(B)
FIGURE 20-1. Mean percent larval abnormalities in the Anacortes area (A) for the period May 1963-
August 1965 and (B) on November 25, 1964, during mill closure.
234
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Figure 20-1A shows mean percent larval abnormalities by station
for the Anacortes area. Note (1) the high abnormality level at
Station 14, near the discharge point for Scott mill wastes and (2) the
comparatively low mean abnormality levels at all other stations in the
study area. Associated mean SWL levels show a similar relationship;
_i.£., a mean of 110 ppm at Station 14 compared with mean levels of
3 ppm or less at each of the other stations. These results indicate
the relatively rapid dispersion of Scott mill wastes in Guemes Channel.
Waste concentrations and their injurious effect on oyster larvae are
critically high only in the vicinity of the waste outfall and are
relatively low throughout the rest of the study area.
Results obtained from the samples collected at Station 14 fall
into two distinct classes of data: (1) low abnormalities associated
with low SWL values and (2) high abnormalities associated with high
SWL values. These results are shown in Table 20-1. At this station,
under certain tide conditions, sampling was within the effluent discharge
zone of the Scott diffuser, and these samples were high in SWL and
produced high larval abnormalities when bioassayed. Under different
tide conditions, sampling was outside the effluent discharge zone,
and the waste dispersion in Guemes Channel resulted in samples which
were low in SWL and produced low larval abnormalities when bioassayed.
It is significant that water taken from the same station caused widely
different degrees of injury to oyster larvae depending on the
concentration of pulping wastes.
235
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TABLE 20-1. Associated values of SWL and larval abnormality for
samples collected at Station 14 in the Anacortes area.
SWL
(ppm)
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
6
Ave. 2
Low Values of
Larval Abnormality
(%)
0.0
0.6
1.6
0.5
2.2
2.3
6.6
2.6
0.5
1.9
SWL
(ppm)
31
49
54
55
138
180
270
362
1,470
290
High Values of
Larval Abnormality
<%)
73.5
99.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
99.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
96.9
It should be noted that for Station 14 the mean percent of
abnormals during the study (see Table 11-1 and Figure 20-1A) does not
describe the conditions to be expected at this station at any one
time. Instead of the mean, either a percent of abnormals near 100
or a percent of abnormals near 0 would be most likely. Similarly,
under certain conditions of waste dispersion, abnormalities at
Stations 15 and 16 were well above the mean levels shown in
Figure 20-1A, and, occasionally, exceeded 20%.
Larval Abnormality During Mill Closure. During the period
November 12-26, 1964, a labor strike stopped production at the Scott
mill, and waste discharge into Guemes Channel ceased. To asaeas water
quality changes accompanying this closure period, field samples for
bioassay were collected from two stations (Figure 20-1B) before, during,
236
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and after closure. A description of this special study and its results
are given in Section 11.
Results show that mill closure produced significant decreases of
both larval abnormality and SWL at the two stations and that resumption
of production produced significant increases of both larval abnormality
and SWL to levels regularly observed (see Table 11-1). Figure 20-lB
shows the larval abnormalities observed at both stations on November 25,
after 13 days of closure. These very low levels of abnormality may be
considered as background levels of natural occurrence and they were
associated with background SWL levels of less than 1 ppm.
DISCUSSION
Although the mean levels of oyster larva abnormality seen
throughout most of the Anacortes study area are moderately low
(Figure 20-1A), the results obtained during mill closure indicate
that the abnormalities observed, nonetheless, are caused by the
pulping wastes from the Scott mill.
While present disposal practices limit the effect of the Scott
mill wastes, the occasional high levels of abnormalities observed at
stations some distance from the waste source (Stations 15 and 16)
indicate that the full assimilative capacity of Guemes Channel is
not being utilized. The tremendous volume of dilution water needed
to reduce the toxicity of these wastes to non-harmful levels is
discussed in Section 11 and is shown in Table 11-5. Therefore, it is
recommended that more adequate diffusion of mill wastes be provided
(see Section 19).
237
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21. SUMMARY
The Scott Paper Company pulp mill located in Anacortes is the
major source of wastes now discharged to Guemes Channel. Pulping
wastes are pumped to the Channel from the mill site located on
Padilla Bay. The tidal currents in Guemes Channel provide conditions
which are well suited to assimilate residual waste discharges.
However, pulping wastes discharged by the Scott Paper Company mill
do adversely affect water quality in the immediate waste dispersion
zone. This effect can be significantly reduced by extending the
outfall and diffuser section to a greater depth, thereby providing
greater initial dilution. Settleable solids materials in the waste
discharge probably do not settle in the immediate discharge zone
but are carried to outer channel limits and deposited. Nevertheless,
removal of these materials is considered a prerequisite prior to
discharge to coastal waters.
Fish processing wastes are discharged into Guemes Channel by
Fishermen's Packing Corp. and Sebastian Stuart Fish Co. on a seasonal
basis. The wastes discharged contain significant quantities of
settleable solids.
Domestic wastes from the City of Anacortes receive primary
treatment plus chlorination prior to discharge to Guemes Channel.
239
-------
If
ft.
-------
22. INTRODUCTION
The waste sources of principal consideration in the Everett
area are the Scott Paper Company sulfite pulp and paper mill, the
Weyerhaeuser Company sulfite pulp mill, and the Simpson Lee Paper
Company kraft pulp and paper mill. All three are located in the
City of Everett (see Figure 22-1)„ The first two discharge process
wastes into the Everett Harbor and Port Gardner; the latter discharges
process wastes into the Snohomish River at a point nine miles above
its mouth.
Other major waste sources in the area are the City of Everett
stabilization pond, two Weyerhaeuser Company lumber mills, and the
Weyerhaeuser Company kraft pulp mill (see Figure 22-1).
STUDY AREA
The Everett study area (see Figure 22-2) includes Saratoga Passage,
Port Susan, Possession Sound, Port Gardner, and the lower 10-miles of
the Snohomish River. Where divisions between these bodies of water
are not well defined, arbitrary boundaries are shown.
Saratoga Passage adjoins Possession Sound on the south and
Skagit Bay (not shown) on the north. It is a deep steep-sided body
of water. Offshore depths range from 200 feet to nearly 600 feet.
For all practical purposes, Saratoga Passage is a basin opened at
only one end, opening to Possession Sound to the south.
243
-------
LEGEND
I. Scott Paper Co. sulfite pulp and paper
mill
2. Weyerhaeuser Co. sulfite pulp mill
3. Simpson Lee Paper Co. kraft pulp and
paper mill
4. City of Everett waste stabilization pond
5. Weyerhaeuser Co., Plant "B"
6. Weyerhaeuser Co., Plant "c"
7. Weyerhaeuser Co. kraft pulp and paper
mill (paper mill wastes discharge)
8. Weyerhaeuser kraft mill pulping waste
lagoon
A Points of discharge
mm Deep-water diffuser
FIGURE 22-1. Waste sources in the Everett area.
244
-------
LEGEND
Boundary of water body
Study area boundary
/\
\
\
n\
\ --^^
\PORT """
/> \
__ \ GARDNER
I \
\
O
FIGURE 22-2. Everett study area.
245
-------
Port Susan also is opened at only one end, opening to Port
Gardner and Possession Sound to the south. Shallow waters occur at
its northern end, over the delta formed by the Stilliguamish River,
and in its southern part, over the delta formed by the Snohomish
River. Otherwise, it is steep-sided and deep (200 to 360 feet).
It adjoins Possession Sound over a sill between Camano Head and
Gedney Island and adjoins Port Gardner over a sill east of Gedney
Island (see the 225-foot depth contour, Figure 22-3).
Possession Sound is a deep, steep-sided channel connecting the
study area to other parts of Puget Sound. Offshore depths range
from 200 feet to over 600 feetc
Port Gardner is an arm of Possession Sound. Depths throughout
most of the Port range from 200 to 600 feet. More shallow waters
occur along its northern boundary; in the region of Gedney Island,
in the vicinity of the Inner Harbor, and over the sill connecting the
Port with Port Susan.
Located in the northeastern corner of Port Gardner is Everett
Harbor (see Figure 22-3), a small, semi-enclosed basin having depths of
30 to 90 feet. The arbitrary boundary shown delimits the southwestern
extent of the Harbor. Heavy industry, including the Scott and
Weyerhaeuser mills, is located on the Harbor, and almost all deep-
draft shipping for the Everett area dock in this basin. The Harbor
also is a major log storage area.
Port Gardner receives all wastes discharged by the Scott and
Weyerhaeuser mills. Strong wastes (mostly sulfite waste liquors)
from both mills are combined and discharged directly into this body
246
-------
LEGEND
225 - foot depth contour
Everett Harbor boundary
— Deep water diffu«er
FIGURE 22-3, Central portion of Everett study area.
247
-------
of water through a deep-water diffuser (see Figure 22-3). The diffuser
portion is a multi-port pipe section, 1,000 feet long and terminating
3,000 feet offshore. It discharges wastes between the depths of 300
and 340 feet. Other process wastes from the Scott mill are discharged
at depth into Everett Harbor, and other process wastes from the
Weyerhaeuser mill are discharged into sub-surface waters of the Harbor.
These wastes disperse into Port Gardner.
The lower part of the Snohomish River is shown, in detail, in
Figure 22-3. It consists of four major channels: the main channel
(designated "Snohomish River"), Union Slough, Steamboat Slough, and
Ebey Slough. The three sloughs empty into Port Susan, whereas the
main channel makes a U-bend, flows south inside a natural and man-
made jetty, and empties into Port Gardner (although at high tides,
some flow passes over the jetty and enters Port Susan). The estimated
average daily discharge of the River is 10,000 second-feet and estimated
extreme daily discharges are 130,000 and 90 second-feet. The main
channel, which is periodically dredged for navigation, carries the
largest part of, the River's discharge.
248
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23. WASTES
STUDIES
In-plant waste surveys were conducted at the principal waste
sources in the Everett area on the following dates:
Scott Paper Company April 8-11, 1963
February 24-27, 1964
August 3-6, 1964
May 17-19, 1966
Weyerhaeuser Company sulfite mill March 11-14, 1963
January 20-23, 1964
September 14-17, 1964
Simpson Lee Paper Company June 3-6, 1963
March 9-12, 1964
Each survey period covered 72 hours, and during this time, three
24-hour composite samples and additional grab samples were collected
from each of several waste streams within each mill. These surveys were
conducted, jointly, by personnel of the Project, the State, and the
mill involved.
The other major waste sources of the area were surveyed by the
State on the following dates:
City of Everett stabilization pond June 3, 1965
Weyerhaeuser Company lumber mills June 3, 1965
Weyerhaeuser Company kraft mill January 11-14, 1965
The details of these surveys are described later.
METHODS
Survey procedures and methods of sampling and analysis were the
same as or similar to those described in Section 6. Generally,
249
-------
composite samples were collected with automatic samplers or were made
up of grab samples collected at 30-minute intervals. Sample analyses
included 5- and 20-day BOD, COD, SWL, sulfur, total solids (fixed and
volatile), suspended solids (fixed and volatile), Imhoff-cone settle-
able solids, and pH. Waste stream flows and production were reported
by the mills.
RESULTS
Scott Paper Company. This mill, located on Everett Harbor (see
Figure 22-1), produces calcium- and ammonia-base, paper-grade sulfite
pulp and various types of towel and tissue paper. Pulp production is
about 828 tons per day. About half of this is used internally in the
paper mill; the remainder is market pulp for shipment to other mills.
Hydraulic barking, pulp bleaching, and pulp drying and baling are part
of the pulping operation. Paper production is about 528 tons per day.
In addition, a refiner groundwood mill was recently added to the
Company's facilities. This plant produces about 50 tons of pulp per
day by a high-yield mechanical process. Its wastes contain chemicals
and fiber losses, and these were measured during the fourth in-plant
survey.
Figure 23-1 is a schematic diagram of the mill layout and sewer
lystem. The heavy lines designate the new waste sedimentation
facilities and interceptor sewer system put into operation in July 1965
(after completion of the first three in-plant surveys). The lighter
solid and dashed lines show, respectively, the retained and discontinued
parts of the sewer system that operated prior to the addition of these
new treatment facilities. Survey sampling points are shown also.
250
-------
New flow 0irection
./r.
I
WASTE
SEDIMENTATION
TANKS
TO DEEP-WATER
4 DIFFUSER
LEGEND
Existing sewers
Discontinued sewers
New sewers and units
of the primary waste
treatment facilities
Sampling point
FIGURE 23-1. Schematic diagram of mill layout, sewer.systems, and sampling points; Scott Paper Company,
Everett, Washington.
251
-------
Strong digester wastes are collected from the blow pits and
discharged into Port Gardner through a deep-water diffuser, jointly
owned and operated by the Scott mill and the Weyerhaeuser sulfite mill.
Sanitary wastes are collected and treated by the City of Everett. All
other wastes are discharged into Everett Harbor. As shown in Figure 23-1,
these other mill wastes were formerly discharged through seven sewers.
The new sewer system intercepts five of these sewers and collects
some wastes from the pulp mill, thereby collecting the high-suspended-
solids wastes within the mill for diversion to new sedimentation
facilities. Therefore, present waste discharges into Everett Harbor
are paper mill Whitewaters, which have passed through save-alls for
fiber recovery; clarified effluent from the sedimentation facilities;
and low-suspended-solids wastes from the pulp mill. The latter two
waste flows are discharged near the bottom of the Harbor through
multiport diffusers. The new sedimentation facilities are designed to
provide 2.4 hours' detention for a waste flow of 15 mgd. Sludge is
mechanically collected, dewatered in a centrifuge, and burned.
Centrifuge effluent is discharged back to the clarifier influent
except for two hours per day when discharge is to the Harbor.
Averaged results from the first three survey are tabulated in
Table 23-1. All suspended solids data derived from these surveys have
been excluded from this table because (1) with present treatment, they
no longer describe the mill's true discharge of suspended solids, and
(2) problems with non-representative sampling induced significant
errors in the suspended solids measurements taken during these early
surveys. Note, in Table 23-1, that the pulp mill is the principal
252
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contributor of BOD, SWL, sulfur, and total solids. The paper mill
contributes, primarily, a suspended solids load vhich is reflected
in the Everett Harbor waste load in Table 23-2.
In the fourth in-plant survey, attention was given to measuring
the mill's total discharge of suspended solids and to evaluating the
efficiency of the new sedimentation facilities. Averaged results
are tabulated in Table 23-2. The Everett Harbor load derives from
treated effluents, untreated paper mill Whitewaters, and those
low-solids pulp mill wastes not treated. The Port Gardner load derives
from solids contained in the strong digester wastes discharged through
the deep-water diffuser. Note that Everett Harbor receives most of the
suspended solids discharged.
TABLE 23-2. Average daily suspended-solids waste load discharged by
the Scott Paper Company in Everett, Washington; data based on results
from the fourth in-plant survey.
Analyses
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
Tons /Day
To Everett Harbor To
19.1
17.3
11.1
Port Gardner
5.4
5.1
3.6
Measurements (fourth survey) of suspended solids in the influent
and effluent of the new sedimentation facilities indicate the treatment
efficiencies: total suspended solids, 80 to 90%; volatile suspended
254
-------
solids, 80 to 90%; and BOD5, 60 to 70%. The percentage BODs reduction,
although substantial, affects only a small portion of the mill's total
BOD5 load, most of which derives from the strong digester wastes
discharged untreated through the deep-water diffuser. In consideration
of the fact that some waste streams are not provided treatment in the
new sedimentation facilities, reduction of the mill's total suspended
solids load is less than indicated by the above efficiencies. Based on
the total raw solids load developed by the mill, but excluding the
solids load discharged into Port Gardner via the deep-water diffuser,
the new sedimentation facilities effect a reduction of about 60% in both
total suspended solids and volatile suspended solids discharged into
Everett Harbor.
Weyerhaeuser Company Sulfite Mill. This mill is located at the
entrance to Everett Harbor (see Figure 22-1). It employs the calcium-
base sulfite process to produce both paper and dissolving grades of
pulp. Production averages about 300 tons per day. Output is shipped
to customers; no paper is produced at this mill. Hydraulic barking,
pulp bleaching, and pulp drying and baling are part of the pulping
process.
Figure 23-2 is a schematic diagram of the mill layout and sewer
system. During the first two in-plant surveys, screened wastes from
the hydraulic barker were discharged to the log pond through the sewer
indicated by the lighter dashed line. Subsequently, the company
installed primary settling facilities for these barker wastes and began
discharging clarified effluent through one of the main sewers
discharging underneath the dock. These new facilities are designated
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by heavy dashed lines. Other parts of the sewer system are shown
by heavy solid lines. Survey sampling points also are shown.
Strong digester wastes and caustic extract from the bleach plant
are discharged (along with strong digester wastes from the Scott mill)
into Port Gardner through a deep-water diffuser. Sanitary wastes are
collected and treated by the City of Everett. All other mill wastes
are discharged into the near-surface waters at the entrance to
Everett Harbor through three sewers (Figure 23-2).
Average results from the three surveys are listed in Table 23-3.
Note that the pounds-per-ton of production loads are higher than
respective loadings at the mills previously described. This is due
to the significant portion of dissolving-grade pulp produced during
two of the surveys; the production of dissolving pulp results in lower
pulp yields and higher waste loadings. Also note that the average
suspended solids loss was 6.5 tons per day. Settling tests indicated
that this loss can be reduced to about 3.5 tons per day with the
provision of additional sedimentation facilities.
Combined Scott-Weyerhaeuser Waste Load. Wastes from the Scott
and Weyerhaeuser sulfite mills are discharged either into Port Gardner
as combined wastes through the deep-water diffuser or into Everett
Harbor and contiguous waters. With respect to the dispersal and water
quality effects of these wastes, these two mills can be treated as a
combined, single source with the two points of discharge: one at depth
in Port Gardner and one in the near-surface waters of Everett Harbor.
For this reason, a tabulation of combined waste loads is given in
Table 23-4. Note that about 90% of the oxygen demand, sulfite waste
257
-------
TABLE 23-3. Average daily waste load discharged by the Weyerhaeuser
Company sulfite mill in Everett, Washington
Analyses
BOD 5
COD
SWL*
Total Sulfur
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
Ave. Tons Production/Day (air dried)
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids Loss
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd.
#/Ton of
Production
1,065
4,704
37,630
222
4,141
3,157
41.6
37.9
21.8
Ton* /Day
160
704
5,690
33.2
620
468
6.7
6.0
3.5
304
2.0
26.5
* Weight of a 10% solids solution, per ton or per day as indicated.
liquor, sulfur, and total solids is discharged into Port Gardner. The
waste load discharged into Everett Harbor is, primarily, suspended
solids.
Simpson Lee Paper Company. This is an old mill that produces a
variety of fine papers. It differs from the other mills surveyed in
that it produces pulp by the sulfate (kraft) process; therefore, strong
258
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digester wastes are evaporated and burned for the recovery of cooking
chemicals rather than disposed to surface waters. Pulp production is
about 100 tons per day and this entire production is bleached. Paper
production is about 180 tons per day. Purchased pulp supplements mill
production to supply this paper demand. Mechanical barking is employed,
thus no water-borne barking wastes are produced.
At the time of the conference in 1962, the Simpson-Lee mill was
operating a de-inking mill that processed about 40 tons per day of old
magazine stock. Although never surveyed, estimates based on the
common characteristics of de-inking mill wastes indicated that high
BOD and suspended solids loads were generated by this facility. This
de-inking process has since been discontinued, and today the de-inking
plant is used to repulp from 3 to 6 tons per day of broke (the cuttings,
trimmings, and other paper wastes from the paper converting operations).
Salvaged fiber is returned to the paper mill. This process change has
substantially reduced the mill's BOD and suspended solids discharges
into the Snohomish River.
A schematic diagram of the mill layout and sewer system is shown
in Figure 23-3. Sampling points also are shown. All in-plant process
wastes flow to a single pump sump. At this point, from 3 to over
30% of the waste volume regularly overflows into a by-pass sewer that
discharges directly into the Snohomish River. The rest of the wastes
are pumped to a swamp area wherein they flow along a short, meandering
channel prior to discharge into the River through a submerged sewer.
This swamp area provides a few hours detention time. Sanitary wastes
are collected and treated by the City of Everett.
260
-------
MAIN SEWER TO SWAMP
BY-PASS
LEGEND
Sewers
Sampling point
FIGURE 23-3. Schematic diagram of mill layout, sewer system; and sampling points; Simpson Lee Paper
Company, Everett, Washington.
261
-------
Averaged results of the two surveys at this mill are tabulated
in Table 23-5. Note that the pounds-per-ton-of-production values for
BOD5, COD, total sulfur, and total solids are low in comparison with
respective values from the sulfite mills surveyed. These lower values
result from the evaporation and burning of digester liquors for the
recovery of cooking chemicals, a necessary practice in sulfate pulp
production. On the other hand, note that the pounds-per-ton-of-
production values for suspended solids are high compared with respective
values at other mills. These result from the losses of fiber, fine-
particulate clays, sizing, and other additives incorporated in the fine
papers produced at this mill.
The tons-per-day loading values indicate relatively low BOD5 and
total solids discharges into the Snohomish River. Under normal river
flow conditions, these loads would not have an adverse effect on water
quality. On the other hand, the suspended solids discharge of 22.1
tons per day is relatively high in spite of the flotation-type save-alls
on each of the paper machines. This load contributes turbidity and
settleable solids to the River. Settling tests indicate that it can be
reduced to about 5 tons per day by provision of adequate sedimentation
facilities.
Everett Stabilization Pond. This facility—two ponds in series--
treats City of Everett domestic wastes. It serves a connected population
of about 50,000. Effluent is discharged into the Snohomish River
(see Figure 22-1).
A 12-hour composite sample of effluent was collected between
6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. Results, as interpolated for a 24-hour day,
are tabulated in Table 23-6.
262
-------
TABLE 23-5. Average daily waste load discharged by the Simpson Lee
Paper Company at Everett, Washington
Analyses
BOD5
COD
Total Sulfur
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
#/Ton of
Production
46
119
6
367
134
166.2
66.2
36.3
Tons /Day
6
16
0.9
49
18
22.1
8.8
4.8
Ave. Tons Production/Day (pulp + paper, air dried) 271
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids Loss 3.3
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd. 10.1
Weyerhaeuser Lumber Mills. These two mills, located on the
Snohomish River (see Figure 22-1), generate liquid wastes in their
debarking operation. These are given primary treatment in mechanic-
ally-cleaned clarifiers and effluents are discharged into the River.
Normally, the barkers operate 16 hours each day.
At each mill an 8-hour composite sample of clarified effluent
was collected. Combined results for both mills, as interpolated for
16-hours daily operation, are given in Table 23-6.
263
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Weyerhaeuser Company Kraft Mill. This mill (see Figure 22-1 for
location) produces about 417 tons per day of bleached sulfate pulp.
No paper is produced. Process wastes are discharged at two points;
pulp-drying-machine wastes, which carry some suspended solids, are
discharged via the "sweet sewer" into the Snohomish River; and all
other wastes, including condensate wastes from kraft liquor recovery,
are pumped into a large holding lagoon. Lagoon effluent is discharged
into Steamboat Slough over a 5-hour period on each ebbing tide.
Three, 24-hour composite samples of sweet sewer wastes and lagoon
effluent were collected by automatic samplers. Averaged results for
each of these discharges are tabulated in Table 23-6.
DISCUSSION
Wastes flows into the receiving waters of the Everett area
can be categorized as three discharges: (1) strong pulping wastes
from the Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills discharged via the deep-water
diffuser into Port Gardner; (2) weak pulping and paper mill wastes
from the Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills discharged into Everett Harbor;
and (3) all other wastes — from the Simpson Lee mill, the Weyerhaeuser
kraft and lumber mills, and the Everett stabilization pond—discharged
into the Snohomish River (includes Steamboat Slough). The waste loads
contributed by each of these discharges are delineated in Figure 23-4.
Strong pulping wastes discharged into Port Gardner contribute,
by far, the greatest amounts of sulfite waste liquor, total solids, and
oxygen demand entering the Everett waters (upper half, Figure 23-4).
That these waste properties affect water quality in the broad area of the
265
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Commercial fishermen in the area report that, in the absence of wind,
gill nets laid out in the evening are usually in the same area the
next morning. Consequently, tidal currents in the Everett area do
not effect rapid dispersion and transport of discharged wastes as
occurs in Guemes Channel in the Anacortes area (see Section 19).
Net Circulation. Net circulation patterns observed in the
hydraulic model studies are shown for the 30-, 165-, and 330-foot
depths in Figure 24-4. These results describe a three-layer net-
circulation system:
1. In the surface layer of water, net motion is generally
southward (Figure 24-4A).
2. At mid-depth, net motion is generally northward
(Figure 24-4B).
3. In the bottom layer, net motion is, again, generally
southward (Figure 24-4C).
This three-layer system is quite pronounced in Possession Sound.
In Port Gardner, however, the system weakens; a distinct net motion
is observed in the surface layer, but much weaker net motions are
seen in the mid-depth and bottom layers.
The consequence of this three-layer circulation system is the
differential dispersion of pulp and paper mill wastes in the study
area. Generally, wastes discharged near the surface into Everett
Harbor tend to be moved southward through Port Gardner and into
Possession Sound. Wastes discharged at depth in Port Gardner tend,
initially, to spread in all directions throughout the Port (there
being no strong circulation patterns at depth) and, eventually, to
277
-------
,30-foot depth contour
\
V-^
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,330-foot depth contour
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FIGURE 24-4. Patterns of net circulation at (A) 30 feet, (B) 165 feet, and (C) 330 feet in the Everett
area; data from hydraulic model study.
278
-------
move either northward into Saratoga Passage and Port Susan, if at
mid-depth, or southward into Possession Sound, if in the bottom
layer.
Surface Layer. Freshwater is discharged into the Everett area
from the Snohomish River, the Stillaguamish River (into Port Susan),
and the Skagit River (into Skagit Bay-Saratoga Passage). Resulting
is a surface layer of less-dense water overlying more-dense saline
water. In those parts of the study area receiving these discharges--
including Everett Harbor and contiguous waters at the mouth of the
Snohomish River--this surface layer is quite stable; jL.£. , density
stratification inhibits vertical mixing of the surface water with
underlying saline water. Therefore, wastes discharged into the near-
surface waters of Everett Harbor are confined in vertical distribution
within the surface layer, and lateral transport of these wastes
follows that of the freshwater. As already described, this lateral
transport is generally southward, since all entering freshwater must
flow toward the sea.
Flushing of Port Susan. Port Susan is a semi-closed body of water
opened only at its southern end over sills on either side of Gedney
Island (see Section 22). Because of these geomorphic features, the
Port is not afforded continuous tidal flushing such as occurs in the
more-open waters of Port Gardner and Possession Sound. Instead, net
circulation consists of (1) inflowing saline water from Port Gardner
entering at mid-depth and moving very slowly northward, and (2) out-
flowing less-saline water (originating from Stillaguamish River
discharges) on the surface. Net current velocities are very low;
279
-------
therefore, flushing--the periodic renewal of water--is a long-term
situation. Consequently, pulp and paper mill wastes carried into
Port Susan in the inflows of water from Port Gardner have a long
residence time in the Port and are afforded very little additional
dilution because of weak mixing.
Annual flushing of Port Susan is provided, however, by upwelling
ocean water entering the study area. Cold, highly-saline, low-
oxygenated water, upwelled in the Pacific Ocean along the Washington
coast during the spring and summer, enters and slowly spreads at depth
throughout Puget Sound, reaching the Everett area in the late summer
or fall. This influx of dense water enters Port Susan and moves
northward along the bottom. It displaces the existing water mass
upwards and causes it to be flushed out of the Port on the surface.
Thereby, the water mass of the Port is annually renewed and long-
resident wastes are purged from the system.
Vertical Waste Distribution. Vertical waste distribution is
illustrated in Figure 24«5. Shown are the patterns of average SWL
concentration in the vertical sections along the four sampling
transects. These are derived from results of the Project's
11 oceanographic cruises.
Evident is the separation between the distribution of wastes
in the surface layer and the distribution of wastes at depth. This
separation occurs in the depth region of 15-35 feet, and it is the
result of density stratification inhibiting vertical mixing of surface
waters with underlying, more-saline waters. Wastes discharged into
the near-surface waters of Everett Harbor (weak pulping and paper mill
280
-------
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so
133d Ml HldSQ
133d Nl HldSQ
281
-------
wastes) are shown spread in a surface lens extending 2-4 miles out from
the Harbor. Wastes disposed at depth in Port Gardner (strong pulping
wastes) are seen distributed both vertically and horizontally throughout
the bottom waters. In the far regions of the system, 4-5 miles from
the Harbor and diffuser, separation between the surface and deep-water
distribution patterns weakens due to dilution of the wastes from both
sources and to gradual mixing of the surface and underlying waters.
Accordingly, wastes concentrations in these far regions derive from
both Everett Harbor and deep-water diffuser wastes.
Wastes discharged by the deep-water diffuser are less dense than
the receiving waters of Port Gardner; hence, they are subject to an
initial buoyant rising. Jet mixing at the diffuser and turbulence
during the rise dilute the waste mass with environing saline water
and, thereby, reduce its density differential. Eventually, density-
equilibrium with surrounding waters is reached and initial buoyant
rising ceases--in this case, at about the 250-foot depth (see the 200 ppm
SWL contour, Figure 24-5). From this point, the wastes are transported
and dispersed by the water currents and turbulence of the Everett system.
Of significance, discharge-strength diffuser waste concentrations are
confined to the deep waters of Port Gardner.
After the initial rising, considerable lateral transport and
dispersion with accompanying vertical dispersion take place. This is
shown by the plumed configurations of the distribution patterns shown
in Figure 24-5. The main body of wastes—depicted by the dashed lines —
continues to rise slowly, but this rise is arrested at about the
150-foot depth. Consequently, maximum concentrations of the
282
-------
dispersed wastes continue to be confined to the deep water of the
system.
The small plume of wastes noted at the 75-foot depth (Figure 24-5)
resulted from waste discharges through a break in the deep-water
diffuser line during the survey period. This break has since been
repaired, and the subject anomaly no longer exists.
Horizontal Waste Distribution. Horizontal waste distribution in
the surface layer is shown in Figure 24-6 by patterns of SWL concen-
tration at the 0-, 15-, and 30-foot depths. Similarly, horizontal
distribution at depth is shown in Figure 24-7 by SWL patterns at the
100-, 165-, and 330-foot depths. These patterns are derived from
results of the Project's 11 oceanographic cruises.
Most prominent is the broad spreading of wastes at all depths
throughout the Everett system. Generally, in conformance with net
circulation features previously described, there tends to be greater
southward transport of wastes near the surface (Figure 24-6) and near
the bottom (Figure 24-7C) and greater northward transport of wastes
at mid-depth (Figure 24-7A & B). This latter transport serves to
carry wastes into Port Susan (particularly notable in Figure 24-7B)
and into Saratoga Passage.
Water Quality - Port Gardner and Contiguous Waters. In the broad
areas of the Everett system--excluding Everett Harbor—the most
important effect on water quality caused by waste discharges of the
Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills is the spreading of pulping wastes.
Minimum observed SWL concentrations are greater than background values
(0-2 ppm) at almost all points in the study area. Highest waste
283
-------
II
.,
LEGEND
Contour of average SWL concentra-
tion (ppm)
FIGURE 24-6. Horizontal distribution of average SWL concentrations (A) at surface, (B) at 15-foot
depth, and (C) at 30-foot depth in the Everett area, May 1962 to May 1963.
284
-------
B
20
50
LEGEND
Contour of overage SWL concentra-
tion (ppm)
FIGURE 24-7. Horizontal distribution of average SWL concentrations (A) at 100-foot depth, (B) at 165-
foot depth, and (C) at 330-foot depth in the Everett area; May 1962 to May 1963.
285
-------
concentrations are found below the 150-foot depth and, as previously
described, derive from the discharge of strong pulping wastes through
the deep-water diffuser. Generally, throughout the central portion
of the study area (Port Gardner, the southern part of Port Susan, and
contiguous parts of Possession Sound and Saratoga Passage) average
SWL concentrations at depth exceed 15 ppra and reach 250 ppm near the
diffuser (Figures 24-5 and 24-7). Maximum SWL concentrations at depth
in this central region range from 25 to 750 ppm (Figure 24-8). In the
surface layer (0 to 35 feet deep), discharges of weak pulping and
paper mill wastes cause lesser waste concentration; average SWL values
range from 10 to 25 ppm (Figures 24-5 and 24-6) and maximum SWL
concentrations range from 15 to 100 ppm (Figure 24-8).
Inflowing water from Port Gardner introduces SWL concentrations
of between 30 and 50 ppm into Port Susan (see Transect D, Figure 24-5)
Since there is little chance for further dilution once the wastes
enter Port Susan, these concentrations maintain throughout the deep
waters of the Port throughout most of the year. Average SWL concen-
trations of about 30 ppm are found at mid-depth in the northern part
of this basin.
Other measured effects on water quality in the broad areas of
the Everett system include (1) reduced pH and dissolved oxygen
content in the deep waters surrounding the deep-water diffuser and
(2) coloration and reduced light penetration in the surface waters
covering most of Port Gardner.
Harbor Circulation. For the purpose of discussing water
circulation characteristics, Everett Harbor is separated into two
286
-------
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287
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areas: Area A, the semi-closed inner harbor adjacent to Scott mill,
and Area B, the remaining harbor waters opening to Port Gardner and
adjacent to Weyerhaeuser sulfite mill (Figure 24-9). Within Area A,
tidal currents are extremely weak and variable with near-stagnation
apparent in some of the innermost pier areas. As a result, Scott
mill wastes are only slowly dispersed throughout this area, particularly
along the east dockfront. Net transport in Area A is basically two-
layer; saline water from depth in Port Gardner moves inward along the
bottom while fresher inflow—the 70 cfs Scott mill waste discharge—
moves outward near the surface. Consequently, net movement of Scott
mill wastes is out of Area A and Everett Harbor, but weak and variable
short-term circulation serves to disperse the wastes throughout the
Harbor before moving them into Port Gardner.
In Area B, currents are also weak and variable and are often
part of eddies created by tidal currents at the mouth of Snohomish
River. Thus surface-discharged wastes from Weyerhaeuser mill may be
transported northward or southward into Port Gardner. Current speeds
in Area B are generally less than 0.25 knot at all depths, although
surface currents are considerably influenced by winds greater than
5-10 knots and, during such periods, may move faster and at a
different direction than sub-surface currents. The inward net
transport of saline water at depth in Area A has been observed in
Area B as far as the Weyerhaeuser dock area. Because of the general
circulation pattern in Area B, Weyerhaeuser mill wastes are dispersed
and transported into Port Gardner more rapidly than those from the
Scott mill in Area A. However, periods of slack motion do occur in
288
-------
Area A
o
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OR -
98
126
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LEGEND
Water sampling station
Surface SWL concentrations:
average (large number),
minimum (numerator), and
maximum (den .-ninator)
Everett Harbor boundary
FIGURE 24-9. Areas A and B of Everett Harbor; stations 1 and 2 in Area A, and surface SWL concentrations
observed in Area B during juvenile salmon bioassay study of May 7-23, 1963.
289
-------
Area B, particularly near the dockfront, which result in high waste
concentrations around the Weyerhaeuser mill,
Water Quality - Everett Harbor. In describing waste distribution
and water quality, Everett Harbor may be separated into the same two
areas as described above: Area A, which is influenced by Scott mill
wastes, and Area B, where water quality is largely affected by
Weyerhaeuser mill wastes. All water sampling in Everett Harbor was
a part of biological studies conducted therein,, Total sulfides, DO,
and pH values, measured during the floating-lab juvenile-salmon
bioassay studies in the Harbor, are summarized in Table 25-4.
Average SWL, DO, and pH values derived from the harbor station
(Station 1) occupied in the plankton study are given in Table 29-1.
In September 1963, Scott Paper Company converted its method of
waste discharge (into Area A) from a surface outfall to a submerged
dockfront diffuser. In evaluating the effect of this changeover on
water quality in Area A, a comparison of "before and after" data
shows:
1. Foam problems and attendant water murkiness have been
considerably reduced.
2. Maximum surface SWL concentrations near the outfall have
been reduced by about half, by creation of a more uniform
waste distribution with depth.
30 The distribution of average SWL concentrations has not
changed appreciably, particularly in the Harbor waters
which join Areas A and B and open to Port Gardner. Thus,
290
-------
oceanographic data collected prior to diffuser installation,
describing the distribution of Harbor wastes into the outer
waters, is representative of present conditions.
4. The dissolved oxygen regime is essentially unchanged, and
low DO levels, approaching zero, still occur.
5. Sulfides produced by Harbor sludge deposits are still
present.
Water quality data collected at two stations (Figure 24-9) in Area A
after installation of the dockfront diffuser are summarized in
Table 24-1.
In Area B waste distribution and water quality are extremely
variable due to the eddy-nature of the tidal currents. Concentrations
of SWL range from lows of about 10 ppm adjacent to Port Gardner to
highs exceeding 1,000 ppm near Weyerhaeuser mill dock. Surface SWL
concentrations observed during the May 7-23, 1963 juvenile salmon
bioassay study (Section 25) are summarized in Figure 24-9. Low DO
values approaching zero occasionally occur in some of the pier areas.
Sludge Deposits - Everett Harbor and Port Gardner. The Scott
and Weyerhaeuser mills presently discharge an average of 10.5 tons
per day of settleable solids, primarily wood fibers, into Everett
Harbor and its entrance waters. These mills also discharge an average
of 2.3 tons of settleable solids per day into Port Gardner, through
the deep-water diffuser. Weak and variable currents in these
receiving waters allow the settling and deposition of these solids
in the vicinity of their discharge. Consequently, sludge deposits
are formed in and immediately outside of Everett Harbor.
291
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TABLE 23-5. Average daily waste load discharged by the Simpson Lee
Paper Company at Everett, Washington
Analyses
BOD 5
COD
Total Sulfur
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
#/Ton of
Production
46
119
6
367
134
166.2
66.2
36.3
Tons /Day
6
16
0.9
49
18
22.1
8.8
4.8
Ave. Tons Production/Day (pulp + paper, air dried) 271
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids Loss 3.3
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd. 10.1
Weyerhaeuser Lumber Mills. These two mills, located on the
Snohomish River (see Figure 22-1), generate liquid wastes in their
debarking operation. These are given primary treatment in mechanic-
ally-cleaned clarifiers and effluents are discharged into the River.
Normally, the barkers operate 16 hours each day.
At each mill an 8-hour composite sample of clarified effluent
was collected. Combined results for both mills, as interpolated for
16-hours daily operation, are given in Table 23-6.
263
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PORT GARDNER
Average 8.4%
Range 5.3 - 9.7 %
— ID-
LEGEND
Contour of percent vola-
tile solids
— — Deep-water diffuser
FIGURE 24-11. Percent volatile solids in the sludge and bottom sediments of Everett Harbor and Port
Gardner.
295
-------
rise to the water surface and escape into the atmosphere. These
conditions usually occur at low tides.
In the vicinity of the deep-water diffuser, a second deposit of
sludge blankets the bottom. This mass contains wood fibers and some
wood chips intermixed with mud and silt, the natural sediments of the
area. Volatile solids exceed 10%; hence, organic content of this
deposit slightly exceeds that of contiguous natural sediments.
Black-to-grey color and a musty or slight hydrogen sulfite odor
evidence some anaerobic decomposition of organic material in this
deposit.
Elsewhere in Port Gardner and in Possession Sound, natural
sediments are odorless, are olive-grey in color, and contain varying
amounts of mud, silt, and sand. They are aerobic, as indicated by
their color, lack of odor, and the types of inhabiting bottom organisms
(see Section 26).
Water Quality - Snohomish River. Background levels of SWL in the
Snohomish River range from 0 to 7 ppm and average 3 ppm. These were
determined from grab samples taken periodically during 1964-65 at a
point about one mile upstream from Station 1 (Figure 24-12). Since
these samples were taken above major wastes discharges into the River,
the results obtained are "apparent SWL" attributed to natural-drainage
materials (see Section 1).
A summary of Snohomish River water quality results obtained in
the plankton ecology studies of 1963 is given in Table 24-2. Sampling
station locations are shown in Figure 24-12.
296
-------
4
3.
5
•
•2
FIGURE 24-12. Water quality sampling stations on the Snohomish River.
297
-------
TABLE 24-2. Summary of observed concentrations of SWL and DO in the
Snohomish River
SWL*
Station
1
2
3
4
5
Average
at
Low Tides
(ppm)
4
7
8
7
10
Average
at
High Tides
(ppm)
--
--
15
19
27
Average
(ppm)
10.5
10.3
9.9
9.5
8.0
DO
Minimum
(ppm)
9.1
9.2
8.9
8.2
4.0
Less than
5 ppm
(7o)
0
0
0
0
19
SWL and apparent SWL (see Section 1) referenced against a 10% SWL
solids solution.
Concentrations of SWL in the river vary, depending on the tide
stage. At low tide stages, average SWL concentrations range from a
near-background 4 ppm at Station 1 to 10 ppm at Station 5 near the
mouth of the river. These values are associated with strong fresh-
water outflows and attending salinities of less than 5 /oo. Hence,
the increase in SWL concentrations between Stations 1 and 5 is
attributed to inflows of apparent SWL between these two stations; _i.£. ,
inflows of land-drainage and waste discharges from the Simpson Lee
kraft mill, the Everett stabilization pond, the Weyerhaeuser lumber
mills, and the Weyerhaeuser kraft mill sweet sewer (see Figure 22«1
and Table 23-6). Note that wastes from the Simpson Lee mill, discharged
between Stations 1 and 2, make a small contribution (3 ppm discounting
298
-------
any land-drainage contributions) to river SWL concentrations. This is
true, also, for the other three waste sources.
At higher tide stages, average SWL concentrations range between
15 ppm at Station 3 to 27 ppm at Station 5. These values are
associated with tidal excursions of Port Gardner water into the River
and attending salinities of 20 /oo or greater. Since these excursions
hold-up river discharges and thereby minimize SWL contributions
from upstream sources, these high-water SWL averages derive, principally,
from intruding Port Gardner waters; hence, they originate from wastes
discharged by the Scott and Weyerhaeuser sulfite mills. At Station 5,
high-tide-stage SWL concentrations exceed 25 ppm twenty-five percent of
the time and reach maximum values of 50 ppm and greater. These high
concentrations occur most frequently from August through mid-October
when river discharge is low, thus permitting greater tidal excursion.
Average dissolved oxygen concentrations in the Snohomish River
range from 10.5 ppm at Station 1 to 8.0 ppm at Station 5 (Table 24-2).
Only at Station 5 do concentrations fall below 5 ppm; 197» of the
samples taken had DO concentrations ranging between A and 5 ppm and
these occurred during low river discharges in September.
Bottom samples collected at 17 points between Stations 1 and 3
(Figure 24-12) defined bottom sediments composed of fine to coarse
sand. There is no evidence of sludge or wood fiber accumulations
in the river sediments.
DISCUSSION
The Everett area, unlike the Bellingham area, encompasses
relatively deep waters. And, although strong water circulation,
299
-------
such as occurs in the Anacortes area, is not available for the rapid
transport and dispersion of wastes within and out of the area, water
currents and circulation in the Everett area are sufficient to
utilize the high volume of dilution water contained therein. The
Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills have taken advantage of these geomor-
phological and hydraulic features by disposing their strong pulping
wastes at depth through a deep-water diffuser, and this means of
disposal has proved quite effective. Except in and near Everett
Harbor, waste concentrations greater than 25 ppm SWL are confined
below the 35-foot depth and maximum waste concentrations are contained
below the 150-foot depth. Accordingly, excessive pollution of the
surface waters of the study area has been alleviated by the transfer
of this pollution to the deep waters.
Pollution of the surface waters of the area (0- to 35-foot depths)
is caused, almost entirely, by the weak pulping wastes (pulp washing
and screening wastes), bleaching wastes, and paper mill wastes
generated by these two mills. They are largely responsible for the
surface-water waste concentrations that range from background to
25 ppm SWL (excluding Everett Harbor).
Water quality of Everett Harbor is greatly affected because it
receives the discharges of the above mentioned weak pulping, bleaching,
and paper mill wastes, and because it is affected by the decomposition
products evolved from the substantial sludge deposits that cover the
Harbor bottom. Water circulation of the Harbor is weak and does not
provide sufficient flushing action for maintenance of acceptable water
quality. Even though the recent installation of diffuser facilities
300
-------
by the Scott mill has alleviated much of the foam and turbidity that
previously characterized the Harbor, this water body is still afflicted
with SWL concentrations ranging up to 200 ppm, DO concentrations
ranging down to 0 mg/1, low pH levels, and biologically injurious
concentrations of sulfides and other toxicants.
Water quality of the Snohomish River is only slightly affected by
waste discharges from the Simpson Lee mill, the Everett stabilization
pond, and the Weyerhaeuser lumber and kraft mills. A small depression
of dissolved oxygen, down to about 8 mg/1 average, and a small increase
in apparent-SWL concentrations, up to 10 ppm, are the principal
influences attributable to these waste sources. Furthermore, although
the combined settleable solids discharge from these sources is quite
large (see Figure 23-4), current velocities are sufficient to prevent
formation of sludge beds within the River. However, eventual
sedimentation must occvir once these solids are flushed to the River
mouth and Port Gardner. Note the large sludge deposit at the mouth of
Snohomish River (Figure 24-10). Conversely, pulping wastes from the
Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills are carried into the lower reach of the
River on flood-tide excursions and these wastes have a detectable
influence on water quality—SWL concentrations up to 50 ppm maximum
and depressions of dissolved oxygen concentrations down to 4 and 5 mg/1.
In the following sections, attention is given to the adverse
effects on marine life caused by the waste concentrations and water
quality conditions described above. In preview, the prevailing water
quality of Everett Harbor, the lower reach of the Snohomish River, and
the surface waters of the broad reaches of the study area has been
301
-------
found to be injurious, or less than satisfactory for many marine
forms—juvenile salmon, sensitive early-life stages of shellfishes,
and phytoplankton. Details of these damages are fully discussed in
the following pages, but of importance here, such damages derive,
almost wholly, from the weak pulping, bleaching, and paper mill
wastes discharged by the Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills.
302
-------
25. JUVENILE SALMON
Annually, from April through July, juvenile salmon migrate down
the Snohomish River and enter the estuarine waters of the Everett area.
Many of these young fish move down the main channel of the River and
enter Port Gardner near the entrance to Everett Harbor. Because of
their tendency to seek nearshore waters, numbers of these main channel
fish enter and move through the Harbor before migrating to schooling
areas along the southeastern shore of the Port. However, recorded
fish kills and preliminary bioassay studies in 1962 revealed that
water quality inimical to juvenile salmon frequently occurs in the
Harbor. Recorded observations of fish kills and fish in distress are
tabulated in Table 25-1. In all cases, fish were killed rather rapidly,
in less than an hour. Fatalities were the result of both toxicity
and heavy predation of distressed fish, particularly by sea gulls.
In most cases, these kills were associated with detected amounts
of the toxic sulfides released from bottom deposits of decomposing
sludge. Results obtained in the preliminary in situ bioassay studies
of 1962 revealed that mortalities always occurred when sulfide
concentrations of 0.4 mg/1 or greater were detected, and that
such mortalities most frequently occurred in those areas of the
Harbor surrounding the Scott mill and the Weyerhaeuser mill. On the
basis of these findings, further investigation was undertaken (1) to
better describe the migratory pathways of Snohomish River juveniles,
(2) to verify the occurrence of juvenile salmon in Everett Harbor, and
303
-------
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(3) to better define the areas and causes of fish mortality in the
Harbor.
STUDIES
Migration Studies. The Fisheries Research Institute (FRI) of
the University of Washington conducted studies in the Everett area in
1962, 1963, and 1964 to determine migration routes and schooling areas
of juvenile salmon from the Snohomish River. The 1962 study was a
preliminary investigation which included both shoreline and offshore
sampling of juvenile populations (Tyler, 1963). Shoreline sampling
involved a total of 58 beach-seine hauls at various locations along
the Gedney Island shoreline, the shoreline between Priest Point and
Tulalip Bay, the Tulalip Bay shoreline, and the southern shoreline
between Elliot Point and Everett Harbor (refer to Figure 25-1A) .
Offshore populations were sampled in 51 townet hauls at various
locations in Port Gardner and adjacent parts of Port Susan.
In the 1963 FRI study, reported by Tyler (1965), shoreline and
offshore salmon populations again were sampled by beach-seine and
townet techniques. A total of 131 beach-seine hauls were made at
11 locations (Figure 25-1A) over 22 sampling dates between March 26 and
June 28, 1963. A total of 75 townet trawls in 16 offshore sampling
areas (Figure 25-1B) were made over 9 sampling dates between April 24
and May 24, 1963.
The 1964 FRI study (Tyler, 1965) was directed principally toward
determining the distribution of pink salmon fry in offshore waters.
A total of 232 townet trawls in the sampling areas shown in
305
-------
•o
c
co
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306
-------
Figure 25-2A were made over 11 sampling dates between April 9 and
May 14, 1964. No beach seining was done in this study.
Occurrence Studies. To verify the occurrence of juvenile
salmon in Everett Harbor, the Project sampled Harbor fish populations
with a mobile fishtrap on five dates in May-June 1962 and two dates in
May 1963. The Harbor was divided into five zones (Figure 25-2B) and
each zone was sampled on two or more of these dates. Also, when
juvenile salmon were sighted in the Harbor, their numbers were
estimated and recorded.
Bioassay Studies. The Project and the Washington Pollution
Control Commission (WPCC) conducted in. situ bioassays in Everett
Harbor in April and May 1963. The Project study was directed toward
delineating areas of the Harbor where test kills, hence lethal
conditions, most frequently occur. The WPCC study was designed to
determine the cause of test kills by closely monitoring water quality
and test fish behavior and mortality during bioassay.
The Project conducted 45 live-box tests at the stations and on
the dates listed in Table 25-3. Station locations are shown in
Figure 25-8. In each test, ten fish were placed in a live box on
station and were exposed in the near-surface water for a period of 2
to 8 hours, unless 100% kill terminated the test in less than 2 hours.
Chum salmon fry were used in all tests except those on May 23 when
chinook salmon fingerlings were used. During the tests, each live box
was visited periodically (every 20 minutes in most tests) to observe
test fish mortality and to collect water samples. Wind, weather, and
tide stage also were noted.
307
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The WPCC conducted 14 floating lab tests at the stations and
on the dates listed in Table 25-4. Station locations are shown in
Figure 25-9. In each test, ten chum salmon fry were placed in the
live tank of the lab (Figure 25-3) and were exposed in the near-surface
waters for periods of 2 to 6-2/3 hours, unless 1007= kill terminated
the test in less than 2 hours. The floating lab was designed to
accommodate three operators plus equipment, so that during a test,
fish behavior and mortality could be continuously observed and
water samples (pumped from inside the live tank) collected at
intervals of 20 minutes or less.
METHODS
Migration Study Methods. FRI used a 256xl2-foot beach seine in
their 1962 and 1963 studies. For each sample, this net was laid out
from a skiff and hauled into shore. Fish captured were identified
and counted.
In most FRI townet sampling, the net used measured 10x20 feet at
the entrance, and tapered back 46 feet to a zippered cod end. Mesh
sizes decreased from 3-1/2 inches (stretch mesh) at the entrance to
1.2 inches, 0.8 inch, and to 0.2 inch (bobbinet) at the cod end. In
some of the early tows of the 1963 study, a net with a 9-foot square
entrance was used. For each sample, the net was towed behind two
boats for a fixed period of time and was then hauled in for identifi-
cation and counting of fish captured. In 1963, tows were normally for
15 minutes, but occasionally, for 30 minutes. Tow periods in the 1964
study were 5 minutes.
309
-------
Occurrence Study Methods. The mobile fishtrap used for
sampling salmon populations in Everett Harbor is described in
Section 8 and illustrated in Figure 8-3. To obtain a sample, this
trap was run within a zone (see Figure 25-2B) for a period ranging
from 20 to 84 minutes. After each run, captured fish were identified
and counted.
Bioassay Methods. Fish used in both the live-box and floating-
lab bioassays were chum fry or chinook fingerlings captured by
beach seining in the Snohomish River main channel or delta. These
fish were kept in a holding box in the main channel (see Figure 25-7A)
for not less than 24 hours prior to use. Only those fish in good
condition were used in the tests, and none was used more than once.
Handling techniques were the same as those described in Section 8.
The live boxes used in the Project studies were the same as those
described in Section 8 and illustrated in Figure 8-4.
The floating lab used by WPCC is pictured in Figure 25-3. It was
a floating platform with a center opening through which was suspended
a live tank (24 inches x 48 inches x 36 inches deep) covered with
16-mesh screen. The top of the tank was opened to facilitate
observation of test fish. Water samples from inside the tank were
pumped with either a hand-operated bilge pump or a 12-volt centrifugal
pump and were analyzed, except for salinity, on board the float.
Water sample analyses by WPCC and the Project were as follows:
Temperature: with a mercury thermometer.
DO: by the Alsterberg modification of the
Winkler method (A.P.H.A., 1962).
310
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pH: with a Beckman, Model N, meter.
Total Sulfides: by the methylene blue colorimetric
method (A.P.H.A., 1962).
Salinity: with a Hytech, Model RS-7A, inductive
salinometer.
Residual Chlorine: by the orthotolidine method (A.P.H.A.
1962).
RESULTS
Migration. Beach-seining results from FRI's 1962 study show
major schooling areas of "chum, pink, and silver salmon near Elliot
Point and around Gedney Island (Figure 25-4). Minor schooling areas
were found along the southern shore of Port Gardner (northeast of
Elliot Point), and in and outside of Tulalip Bay. Offshore townet
catches of juveniles were obtained in Tulalip Bay and contiguous
outside waters; in the delta area off of Steamboat Slough; and in
Port Gardner near Everett Harbor and southwest thereof. Altogether,
1962 results indicate that Snohomish River outmigrants move in all
directions (Figure 25-4) and are distributed throughout Port Gardner
and contiguous waters.
Beach-seining results from FRI's 1963 study are summarized in
Figure 25-5. Values shown are the average catches of chum, silver,
and chinook juveniles (no pinks in 1963) per beach-seine haul at each
of the seining sites depicted in Figure 25-1A. Note that young salmon
school along all shorelines accessible from the Snohomish River. Also
note that juveniles school on the southern shoreline near the entrance
of Everett Harbor.
311
-------
FIGURE 25-3. Floating lab used for in situ bioassay studies by the Washington State Pollution Control
Commission.
312
-------
LEGEND
Mojor schooling or«o
Minor schooling area
Appartnt migration routt
FIGURE 25-4. Major and minor schooling areas and apparent migration routes of chum, pink, and silver
juveniles out of the Snohomish River; FRI 1962 study.
313
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LEGEND
Average catch of juvenile salmon
(all*p«ci««) per beach seine
haul
NOTE
Total beach-seine catch included
about 3460 chum, 1160 silver,
and 280 Chinook juveniles
FIGURE 25-3. Average shoreline catches of juvenile salmon in Port Gardner and Port Susan; FRI 1963
study.
314
-------
Townet results from FRI's 1963 study are summarized in Figure 25-6.
Values shown are average area catches of juvenile salmon (all species)
per 10 minutes of tow for all tows made in the areas delineated in
Figure 25-1B. Note the relatively even distribution of juveniles
(mostly chum and silver fry) in the offshore waters. Note, also, that
(1) sizable catches of young salmon were obtained in the main channel
of the Snohomish River a short distance above its discharge into Port
Gardner, and (2) juveniles were caught near and inside Everett Harbor.
In FRI's study of 1964, pink salmon fry dominated offshore townet
catches during the two sampling periods: April 9-14 (1,901 pinks out
of 1,970 total juveniles) and April 24-29 (397 pinks out of 458 total
juveniles). These pink fry were concentrated in the deeper waters of
Port Gardner and Port Susan (Figure 25-7A) and few were captured in the
Inner Harbor and contiguous waters. Whether or not pinks also were
schooling in shoreline waters was not determined, because no beach
seining was done0 If, in fact, pinks were concentrated only in off-
shore waters in April 1964, this distribution differed from that
observed in April 1962 when FRI beach-seine sampling found dominant
populations of pink fry in all of the schooling areas depicted in
Figure 25-4, but townet sampling captured few fish in offshore waters.
FRI townet results obtained during May 11-14, 1964--after the
peak of the pink migration--reveal a relatively even distribution of
juveniles of all species throughout Port Gardner and adjacent
315
-------
o.o
4.6
i.e
3.1
4.3
LEGEND
4.6 Average catch of juvenile salmon (all
species) per 10 minutes of tow
NOTE
Total townet catch included 407 chum,
316 silver, and 2 Chinook juveniles
3236
o.r 3-
6.2
8.0
FIGURE 25-6. Average offshore catches of juvenile salmon in Port Gardner and Port Susan, FRI 1963 study.
316
-------
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317
-------
Port Susan waters (Figure 25-7B). Note that during this period,
juveniles were caught in and near Everett Harbor.
Occurrence of Juveniles in Everett Harbor. Fishtrap catches
of juvenile salmon in Everett Harbor in 1962-63 are given in
Table 25-2. Note that young salmon were caught in all five zones of
the Harbor (see Figure 25-2B), and that all four species were
represented in the total catch. Also, schools of chum and pink
juveniles (from several fish to an estimated 1,800 fish per school)
were sighted in Zones B and C on eight different occasions in 1962-63,
These data, therefore, evidence the utilization of the Inner Harbor
by migrating Snohomish River juveniles.
TABLE 25-2. Numbers of juvenile salmon caught in Everett Harbor,
1962-63
Chum
Silver
Pink
Chinook
A
5
6
16
9
B
3
3
15
12
Zone
C
139
20
124
35
D
0
10
27
14
E
0
0
18
3
Total
Inner
Harbor
147
39
200
73
Total minutes 148
of sampling
146
280
140
50
318
-------
Occurrence of Mortality. Percent mortalities observed at
termination of live-box bioassays in which exposure periods were
less than 8 hours are given in Table 25-3. Stations and data are
arranged by area (see Figure 25-8) in accordance with the frequency
and intensity of mortalities observed. The following facts are
evident:
1. In Area A, kills occurred in seven of eight tests, and
three of these were 100% kills.
2. In Area B, kills occurred in six of twelve tests, and two
of these were 1007» kills.
3. Throughout the remainder of Everett Harbor, complete
survival was noted in all but four tests wherein only 107o
mortality was recorded.
4. Zero mortality was observed in all but one (207o kill) of
the control tests outside the Harbor.
These results clearly show that Areas A and B are zones where
conditions inimical to juvenile salmon survival frequently occur.
Water Quality Associated with Mortalities. In four of the five
live-box tests in which 1007o kill occurred, distress and subsequent
mortality were associated with the release of sulfides (probably H2S)
from decomposing sludge on the bottom of the Harbor; viz.,
Station 2 on May 9 - 1007» mortality occurred within ten minutes
after floating sludge, gas bubbles, and H2S odor
suddenly appeared around the live box. Immediately
prior to this release of bottom material, a log raft
319
-------
TABLE 25-3. Percent mortalities at termination of live-box tests in
which exposure periods were 8 hours or less; Everett area, May 1963.
Date
Area
A
B
Remainder
of
Everett
Harbor
Control
Area
Station
1
2
3
4
19
20
21
22
23
24
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
25
26
5/7/63
70
30
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5/9/63 5/21/63 5/22/63 5/23/63
100 0*
100
100*
70
0 100
0
30 10
10 100
0 0
20 0
0 10*
0
0
10*
10*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0 10
0 0
0 20
0 0*
*Chinook fingerling used in these tests. Otherwise chum fry were
used.
320
-------
25
•„
NOTE
See above inset for Control
Stations 25 and 26 south
of the Inner Harbor
12*
Area B
Area A
10*
17*,
15 •
19*
•20
V^1
22
2*.
24*
LEGEND
• 22 Live-box bioassay
test station
FIGURE 25-8. Live-box bioassay test stations and Areas A and B in the Everett Harbor.
321
-------
was pulled through this area causing substantial
mixing of the shallow water column (then about
10-15 feet deep at a minus tide). Subsequently,
while floating sludge was still present, immediate
distress of test fish and 100% kill within
10 to 30 minutes resulted in each of three repeat
tests.
Station 4 on May 23 - a total-sulfide concentration of 2.0 mg/1
was measured at the live box at the time that 100%
kill was noted. This kill occurred at low tide and
after an exposure period of 55 minutes.
Station 19 on May 22 - a 100% kill of test fish occurred one hour
after low tide and 20 minutes after sulfides
(0.1 to 0.2 mg/1) were first detected at the station.
Station 22 on May 22 - 1007= kill of test fish occurred 70 minutes
after low tide and 25 minutes after total sulfides
(0.3 mg/1) were first detected at the station. Also,
test fish showed immediate distress and 60% died
within five minutes after sulfides were first noted.
These observations are very similar to those noted in the fish kills
and in the preliminary in situ bioassays of 1962; _i.e_., mortalities,
in most cases, were associated with detectable, but low, concentrations
of sulfides occurring at or about low tide stage when reduced water
depth allowed surface waters to be affected by toxic I^S released from
bottom sludge.
322
-------
Results from the floating-lab bioassays are summarized in
Table 25-4. Data are arranged by area (see Figure 25-9) and, within
each area-grouping, are arranged into two mortality-groupings:
(1) data from tests in which mortality occurred and (2) data from
tests in which no mortality occurred. The following features are
evident:
1. With but two exceptions, all kills observed at the floating
lab were associated with detected concentrations of total
sulfides, whereas observations of no-kill were associated
with the absence of detectable sulfides. At Station 1 on
May 21, a 90% kill occurred with zero sulfides but with
DO concentrations of 0.0 mg/1 minimum and 1.7 mg/1 median;
hence hypoxia was probably responsible. At Station D on
April 27, there occurred the only instance of complete
survival when total sulfides were detected.
2. Dissolved oxygen concentrations were generally somewhat
lower in tests in which mortalities occurred than in tests
wherein complete survival obtained. However, except for the
hypoxia situation noted above, it appears that DO deficiency
was not a primary cause of mortality, although it may have
intensified sulfide-caused kills.
3. Test fish reactions to total sulfides were immediate distress
and abnormal behavior, followed by mortality within 20 to 45
minutes (refer to 100% kills at Stations B, E, K, and I).
The above facts implicate sulfides as being the toxicant causing
most test fish kills in Everett Harbor. However, three situations
323
-------
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LEGEND
Floating-lab bioassay
test station
FIGURE 25-9. Floating-lab bioassay test stations in the Everett Harbor.
325
-------
evidence the occasional occurrence of other toxicants fatal to
juvenile salmon:
1. On April 11, 1963, 0.4 mg/1 of residual chlorine was
detected in the water in front of the Scott mill. Test fish
were bioassayed in this water with 807o mortality resulting
within 10 minutes and 1007» mortality within 19 minutes.
2. On April 12, 1963, residual-chlorine concentrations exceeding
1.0 mg/1 again were detected in front of the Scott mill. A
bioassay with chum salmon fry resulted in mortalities within
3 minutes.
3. On May 9, 1963, blue-green wastewater, presumably discharged
from the Scott mill Whitewater sewer (see Figure 23-1),
appeared at the surface and drifted into the area of Station 2
(Figure 25-8). A routine live-box bioassay was being
conducted at this station at the time, and immediate distress
of test fish followed by 1007o mortality within 13 minutes
was observed. While these blue-green wastes surrounded the
station, a second test resulted in 1007, mortality within
10 minutes after test fish showed immediate distress upon
being placed in the live box.
These results evidence the discharge of chlorine and other wastes that
are acutely toxic and capable of killing wild fish occurring in the
Harbor.
DISCUSSION
Migration and occurrence study results (Figures 25-4, 25-5, 25-6,
and 25-7B, and Table 25-2) clearly show that juvenile salmon occur in
326
-------
and immediately outside of Everett Harbor. Bioassay results
(Tables 25-3 and 25-4) show that water quality in the larger part of
the Harbor—excluding Areas A and B--is usually acceptable for
juvenile salmon survival. Consequently, it is concluded that, of the
many juvenile salmon that migrate down the Snohomish River main
channel and enter Port Gardner near the Harbor entrance, substantial
numbers move, without inhibition, into and through the Harbor.
Observed fish kills (Table 25-1) and bioassay results
(Table 25-4 and test) show, however, that fish utilizing the Harbor
can occasionally encounter toxic concentrations of sulfides, chlorine,
or other toxicants. Toxic conditions develop so rapidly that they
entrap fish by causing immediate disorientation so that their ability
to escape to waters of favorable quality is severely inhibited. While
thus distressed, fish suffer either abnormally high predation or
fatalities due to continued exposure to the ambient toxicity.
Therefore, it is concluded that juvenile salmon (and other fish) that
utilize the Harbor have been killed by toxic conditions that
intermittently occur therein.
Results presented in Tables 25-1 and 25-4, and in the accompanying
text, show that juvenile salmon suffer morbidity and, usually,
mortality whenever detectable amounts of sulfides, hydrogen sulfide,
or residual chlorine are measured or observed. Also, morbidity and
mortality have been observed in association with blue-green wastes
(which presumably contained some unknown toxicant) discharged by the
Scott mill and with waters low in dissolved oxygen. On the basis of
these and the above findings, therefore, it is recommended that the
327
-------
following water quality criteria be met at all times and at all
points in Everett Harbor to assure protection of young salmon and
other fishes:
Total sulfides no detectable amount
Residual chlorine no detectable amount
DO greater than 5 mg/1
To ensure that these criteria are met, and to prevent damage from
other agents or waste components that are toxic to marine fishes, it
is further recommended that water quality throughout the Harbor be
adequate for the survival and normal behavior of juvenile salmon
during 4-hour, iii situ bioassays similar to the live-box tests
described in Section 8.
Suspended solids contained in the several waste streams discharged
into the Inner Harbor by the Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills
(see Section 23) and wood chips spilled during unloading of chip
barges at both mills are the principal sources of the toxic concentra-
tions of sulfides that have occurred in the Harbor. A substantial
portion of these organic solids settle in the Harbor and form the
sizable sludge deposits depicted in Figure 24-10. Anaerobic
decomposition of this sludge produces ^S (among other products), and
this is released in toxic concentrations to surface waters during low
tides or when boat traffic mixes the water column. Both phenomena,
however, are the result of weak circulation and flushing of the
Harbor; i_.e.., sufficient detention time in the Harbor permits settling
of suspended solids, and inadequate transfer of oxygen to the bottom
waters allows the development of anaerobic conditions in the sludg* maai,
328
-------
Summarily, the Harbor does not have the capacity to accept large
amounts of organic waste solids without the consequential development
of anaerobic sludge deposits. Abatement of H2S toxicity and compliance
with the H2S criteria previously recommended, therefore, will require
a substantial reduction in the discharge of suspended solids by the
Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills to alleviate future sludge accumulation
and will necessitate the removal of existing sludge deposits.
Discharges of chlorine and other toxicants--possibly slime
control agents, cleansing agents, or dyes--have been the detected or
apparent causes of the non-H2S toxicity observed in the Harbor.
Because of weak circulation in the Harbor and lack of adequate
dispersive facilities at the termini of mill sewers* these materials,
after discharge, persist in toxic concentrations for protracted
periods of time before dispersion and dilution to non-damaging levels.
Consequently, abatement of these toxic conditions will require,
primarily, the prevention of all discharge of such toxic materials
into the Harbor and, secondarily, the provision of multiport diffusers
on all outfall sewers.
* The Scott mill now discharges all but Whitewater wastes through
multiport diffusers (see Figure 23-1).
329
-------
26. BOTTOM ORGANISMS
It is shown in Section 24 that settleable solids in the wastes
discharged by the Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills have caused considerable
accumulation of sludge in Everett Harbor and adjacent outside waters.
Also, the quality of these waters is affected by concentrations of
bleaching, weak pulping, and other process wastes, all of which are
potentially toxic to marine life. Such conditions can have a
deleterious effect on bottom-dwelling organisms and on the fauna of
the shoreline intertidal zone, and for this cogent reason, the Project
conducted several benthic studies in the Everett area0
STUDIES
Two studies were undertaken to assess the effects of sludge
deposits on the benthic community of Everett Harbor. On May 16, 1962,
sediment samples, one from each station, were collected at the
20 stations in the Harbor (Figure 26-1). These were analyzed for
sediment volatile solids content, and examined for the included
benthos,, In the second study, during May 22-24, 1962, sediment samples
were taken from 16 stations in Port Gardner, outside of the Harbor
(Figure 26-2A)0 The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate
the structure of benthic communities in areas not affected or
little affected by accumulated sludgea Samples from the studies were
analyzed and examined in the same manner as those of the first study„
In addition to the above, a third investigation was undertaken
331
-------
<*OQ SOO
14
SCOTT
PAPER CO
WEYERHAEUSER CO,
FIGURE 26-1. Sediment sampling stations in Everett Harbor, May 16, 1962.
332
-------
Area DI
•8
Area E
Deep Water Diffuser
(A)
(B)
FIGURE 26-2. (A) Sediment sampling stations in Port Gardner, May 22-24, 1962, and (B) Intertidal
sampling stations on the Port Gardner shoreline, May 22-24, 1962.
333
-------
during May 22-24, 1962, to determine the effects of water quality
and accumulated sludge on intertidal organisms inhabiting the shoreline
from Everett Harbor to Elliot Point. Samples of shoreline substrata
and samples from piling were collected at the six stations shown in
Figure 26-2B. The benthos of each sample were examined.
METHODS
Bottom samples taken in Everett Harbor on May 16, 1962, were
collected with a 0.125-cubic-foot Ekman dredge, modified by having
a 40-mesh screen mounted under the top flaps and a two-foot diameter
steel shoe encircling the dredge to prevent sinking into soft sludge
and sediment. Samples were brought aboard the boat, were sifted
with a 40-mesh screen, were preserved, and were transported to the
laboratory for identification and enumeration, under microscope, of
included benthic life. Sediment volatile solids were analyzed by the
method in A.P.H.A. (1962), and results thereof were expressed as
percent volatile solids, dry-weight basis.
Bottom samples taken in Port Gardner during May 22-24, 1962,
were collected with a clamshell snapper, except at Station 2 where
a Peterson dredge was used0 These were brought on board and examined
for a description of sediment constituents, odors, and visible organisms,
A portion of each was placed in a plastic bag, iced, and transported to
the laboratory for volatile solids analysis0 The remaining portion of
each was washed and concentrated with a 40-mesh screen, preserved, and
taken to the same laboratory for identification and enumeration of
entrained organisms.
At each station in the intertidal study of May 22-24, 1962,
334
-------
square-foot and core samples of the shoreline substrata were collected
at sampling points positioned along transects (one at each station)
laid out perpendicular to the water's edge and extending from the
high-tide mark to the front of the ebbing tide (low tides were
-1.3 to -1.9 feet during the study). The locations of sampling points,
substratum characteristics, and other information are given in
Table 26-1. Also, in this study, samples were taken from piling located
at or near each station.
A single square-foot sample was taken at each sampling point
except Point A at Station II. A square-foot metal frame was used to
delimit a randomly selected area. Substratum within the frame was
dug out to a depth of six inches and was sifted through a 40-mesh
screen. The screened samples were bottled and preserved, and taken to
the laboratory for examination.
Two core samples were collected at each sampling point except
Point B at Station III and Point A at Station V, These were collected
with a two-inch (I.D.) plastic tube pushed to a depth of two inches.
The two samples were composited, preserved with 4% formalin, and taken
to the laboratory for subsequent examination.
Piling samples were taken with a square-foot frame to delimit a
randomly selected area. A single sample was taken at each of
Stations I, II, III; two samples were taken at Station IV; and four
samples were collected at Station V-VI. Samples were taken about
midway between the high- and low-water marks on the piling„ Organisms
were scraped from the piling with a wood chisel and were bottled,
preserved, and shipped to the laboratory0
335
-------
TABLE 26-1. Information on sampling points from which square-foot
and core samples were collected in the intertidal study.
Station
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Sampling Points: linear feet seaward
of the high tide mark & substratum
characteristics. Remarks
A
20
Gravel
0
Sand
0
Gravel
20
Sand,
gravel,
and
rocks
0
Sand
0
Gravel
and
rocks
B
50
Gravel
100
Sand
50
Gravel
100
Gravel;
clam bed*
50
Sand
100
Gravel
and
rocks;
clam bed*
C
69
Gravel
and
sand
150
Sand
450
Sandy
mud
250
Sandy
mud
250
Sandy
mud
250
Sand
D
170 Oil, raw sewage,
Sand and black sludge;
silt no shrimp
250 Some large rocks;
Sand no shrimp
Shrimp present
A very clean beach;
shrimp present
Shrimp present
This site used by
clam diggers
* Little-neck clams
336
-------
In the laboratory, the core samples were washed by decanting to
separate the organisms from the sand. The decanted water was then
passed through 40-mesh and 100-mesh screens. Before discarding the
sand, two aliquants were examined for the presence of small clams,
ostracods, and other organisms of high specific gravity. The screenings
were examined under a dissecting microscope, and the included organisms
were identified and counted. This same procedure was used, also, for
analyzing the square-foot samples. Without prior processing, the piling
samples were examined under a dissecting microscope and the organisms
identified and counted.
RESULTS
Results from the sediment samples collected in Everett Harbor on
May 16, 1962, are tabulated in Table 26-2. These data are divided
into three groups as dictated by the area from which they were collected
(see Figure 26-1 for area limits). Note the near-complete absence of
organisms in Area A, the Capitella at Stations 5 and 9 being the only
life found. These data describe a biologically unproductive area, most
likely caused by the burying, suffocating effects and the toxic products
of anaerobic decomposition of the heavy sludge deposit in this part of
the Harbor. Conditions improve, somewhat, at the entrance to the Harbor
where moderate numbers of organisms appear at Stations 10 through 16.
These are predominantly Capitella (segmented worms), with a few
nematodes at Stations 10, 11, and 14, and a few scavenging amphipods
(crustaceans) at Stations 11, 12, and 14. In spite of the appearance
of organisms at these stations, some accumulation of sludge is
337
-------
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338
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indicated by the low population diversity and the predominance of
the sludge-inhabit ing forms,, Conditions again change in Area B,
in the vicinity of the Weyerhaeuser mill, where very high numbers
of either Capitella (segmented worms) or Gammeridae (crustaceans)
are found„ Again the absence of population diversity and predominance
of sludge-inhabiting forms indicate heavy sludge deposits. Toxic
conditions are not indicated, however, since large numbers of organisms
are present.
Results from the sediment samples collected outside of Everett
Harbor during May 22-24, 1962, are tabulated in Table 26-3. As in
the previous table, these data are grouped by area (see Figure 26-2A
for area limits). Although some differences are seen among the benthic
community structure and sediment volatile solids of each of the three
areas, the important features of these data are that the benthic
communities outside of the Harbor tend (1) to be more diverse; (2) to
include mollusks, often in dominant numbers; and (3) to be of moderate
population density; that is, neither very low or very high numbers of
organisms per sample. These features are most apparent in Areas D
and E where the absence of sludge is indicated by the moderate to low
percentages of volatile solids found in the sediments collected. The
benthic fauna of Area C more closely compares with that of the Harbor
Entrance Area (Table 26-2). Field descriptions of the samples taken in
Area C showed significant amounts of wood fiber, tideland odors, and
dark color, all of which evidence some accumulation of sludge but less
than occurs in Areas A and B of the Harbor.
339
-------
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340
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Results from the square-foot substratum samples collected along
the Port Gardner shoreline are given in Table 26-4. Note, in the
bottom part of this table, that the diversity (kinds) and density
(numbers) of the population at Station I are lower than observed
at the other four stations (the low diversity at Station V as
compared with that at adjacent stations, appears to be the influence
of the very clean sand and absence of rocks or gravel at this station).
This difference in community structure at Station I most likely is
caused by the sludge, oil, and raw sewage found on and in the substrata
at this Harbor station,,
Results from the core samples collected during the same survey
are tabulated in Table 26-5. The same features are noted; the
population diversity and density at Station I are lower than respective
values at the other stations. As above, these two results evidence
the deleterious biological effects of the sludge and wastes commonly
found on the beaches and intertidal areas of Everett Harbor.
In Table 26-6 are shown the results from the piling samples
taken along the Port Gardner shoreline,, These data show the definite
trends of increasing population diversity and increasing population
density with increasing distance from the points of waste discharge
in and immediately south of (the deep-water diffuser) Everett Harbor.
Important components of these trends are increasing numbers and kinds
of crustaceans and mollusks, and increasing numbers of nematodes
with increasing distance. Conversely, the numbers of segmented worms
decline. Since sludge and waste deposits would not influence piling-
341
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TABLE 26-4. Results from the square-foot substratum samples collected
on the Port Gardner shoreline during May 22-24, 1962
Kinds
Algae
Segmented Worms
Nematodes
Crustaceans
Amphipod -Isopod
Shrimp -Crab
Barnacle
Mollusks
Mussel
Clam
Snail
Other
Total Kinds
Total Number /Square Foot
Number of Organisms per Square Foot
a /
at Each Station—
I II III IV V VI
pr.b/ pr. pr.
20 312 8 42 201 96
1 6 1
8 15 20 121 6 347
31 418
< 1 252 41 814 561
cl <1 6 29 69
8 3 3 11
<1
-------
TABLE 26-5. Results from the core samples collected on the Port Gardner
shoreline during May 22-24, 1962
Number of Organisms per Square Foot at Each
Station—
Kinds _I II III IV V VI
Algae pr.— pr. pr,
Segmented Worms 710 4,354 5,030 2,015 6,782 3,121
Nematodes 228 10,809 517 2,376 8,588 2,916
Crustaceans
Copepod-Ostracod 6 24 1,700
Amphipod-Isopod 12 18 48 513 48 754
Shrimp-Crab 12 433
Barnacle 349 40
Mollusks
Mussel 6 12
Clam 8 32
Other 24
Total Kinds 3 74748
Total Number/Square Foot 950 15,542 5,607 4,976 15,430 8,980
aj Average of the 2 or 4 samples collected at each station
b/ Present
343
-------
TABLE 26-6. Results from the piling samples collected on the Port Gardner
shoreline during May 22-24, 1962.
Kinds
Green Algae
Segmented Worms
Nematodes
Crustaceans
Amphipod-Isopod
Barnacle
Other
Mollusks
Mussel
Total Kinds
Total Number /Square Foot
Number of Organisms per Square Foot
I II III IV2-7 V-VI-^
abund .
166 19 5
2 10 51
2 11 861 145 161
305 929 5,436 2,675 2,065
7
3 109 639 976
33457
473 943 6,408 3,488 3,265
a/ Average of the 2 samples collected
b/ Average of the 4 samples collected
344
-------
sample results, these trends must be associated with improving water
quality with increasing distance from the Harbor. That water quality
does so improve is shown by decreasing SWL concentrations toward
Elliot Point (see Figure 24-6),
The same trends of increasing population diversity, population
density, and numbers of crustaceans, mollusks, and nematodes are
apparent in the square-foot and core-sample data of Tables 26-4 and
26-5, but these trends are partially obscured by the effects of
substratum type on the community structure. Therefore, with the
support of the piling-sample data, it is evident that the intertidal
community of the Port Gardner shoreline also is affected by water
quality, in addition to the sludge effect noted at Station I.
DISCUSSION
The above results describe two pollutional effects caused by
the wastes discharged by the Scott and Weyerhaeuser mills. Sludge
deposits formed by waste solids greatly inhibit the sustentation of
natural benthic communities in Everett Harbor and contiguous waters.
In the upper part of the Harbor, virtually no benthic life exists,
whereas, in the vicinity of the Weyerhaeuser mill, an abnormally dense
but non-diverse population of worms and amphipods prevails. In the
Harbor entrance area and southward to the vicinity of the deep-water
diffuser, lesser but detectable damage to benthic life is distinguished
by lower population diversity and density than describe bottom
communities found further out in Port Gardner. Intertidal marine
life also is affected in the same manner; sludge and waste accumulations
345
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found on Harbor beaches serve to diminish community diversity and
density.
Secondly, mill wastes dispersed in the surface waters of
Port Gardner have an adverse, probably toxic, effect on intertidal
organisms. Greater numbers of mussels, clams, barnacles, and certain
other animals occur in areas further removed from the points of waste
discharge. That intertidal organisms do suffer such toxic effects is
supported by results elsewhere in this report that demonstrate the
toxicity of pulping wastes to oyster larvae, English sole eggs,
juvenile salmon, and other marine forms.
Alleviation of the damage to benthic life in Everett Harbor and
contiguous area will require the elimination of existing sludge
deposits and the prevention of future sludge accumulation in these
waters.
346
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27. OYSTER LARVAE
As in the Bellingham-Anacortes area, planktonic early-life stages
of a variety of marine animals are found in the Everett area. Since
these planktonic forms are usually more susceptible to alterations of
the environment than are later life stages, the greatest damage to a
species is likely to occur during the egg or larval stages.
Commercial oyster production formerly was practiced in Port Susan,
but no commercial oyster grounds are present now. The beaches between
Everett and Mukilteo in past years supported a sport fishery for
clams; now clam digging is restricted to the immediate vicinity of
Mukilteo. However, other beaches in the Everett area (e.g_., Gedney
Island) still provide a sport fishery for clams.
To assess the potential damage to shellfishes and other forms in
the Everett area, the Project conducted two investigations using Pacific
oyster larvae bioassays: (1) a field-sample oyster-larva response
study; and (2) a waste-sample oyster-larva response study.
STUDIES
The field-sample oyster-larva study in the Everett area was
conducted at ten stations (Figure 27-1). Surface water samples were
collected at the stations at monthly intervals between May 1963 and
August 1964; and additional samples were taken during the periods of
July 6-9 and November 16-30, 1964, to evaluate water-quality changes
during closures or reduced operation of the Scott and Weyerhaeuser
347
-------
• 2
3
•
8
• 10 9 •
FIGURE 27-1. Water sampling station, field-sample oyster-larva response study.
348
-------
mills. Supplementary samples were collected on July 13, 1965, as
checks on water quality and to provide additional "overlap" sampling.
The waste-sample oyster-larva response study was conducted on
24-hour composite samples of in-plant wastes (1) from four waste
sewers at the Scott pulp and paper mills on August 4, 1964; (2) from
four waste sewers of the Weyerhaeuser sulfite pulp mill on September 15,
1964; and (3) from the Simpson Lee kraft and paper mill on September 15,
1964; and (4) from the Weyerhaeuser kraft mill, after about six hours'
detention in a holding lagoon, on January 19, 1965.
All bioassays and associated laboratory analyses for both studies
were performed or supervised by Charles E. Woelke of the Washington State
Shellfish Laboratory staff.
METHODS
The methods and procedures used in these studies are described
in Section 11.
RESULTS
Results of Field-Sample Study. The results of the oyster-larva
bioassays for the Everett area are presented and discussed by
Dr. G. J. Paulik, Biometrician, University of Washington School of
Fisheries, in a final report (1966a). Descriptions of the statistical
tests used are described by Paulik in four interim reports (1963, 1964,
1965a, and 1965b) and in the final report (op. cit.).
349
-------
Bioassay-response results of the 17-month study are presented in
Table 27-1. These results are based on data derived after removal of
(1) samples having salinities of 20°/oo, or less; (2) samples bioassayed
during the 1963-64 winter period; and (3) samples collected early on
July 6, 1964—before waste flows began again after the July 4 holiday—
and on November 16 and 23, 1964, when, because of a labor strike, the
Scott mill was not operating and the Weyerhaeuser mill was operating
at about 60% of the normal level. The rationale for the removal of
these samples is given in Section 11. For the Everett area, these
exclusions restrict the usable samples to essentially the spring
and summer periods.
Therefore, Table 27-1 and the discussion below consider only those
data derived from (1) samples not influenced by low salinities or test
eggs of questionable quality and (2) from those samples taken during
normal mill operations which reflect the usual ranges of water quality
and environmental conditions found in the study area.
Column 3 of Table 27-1 gives the response measure "mean percent-
abnormal" for each station. These values together with the mean SWL
values, Column 5, are presented (rounded) in Figure 27-2. In spite of
the fact that the samples were taken over a wide variety of meteorological
and hydrographic conditions, there are clear-cut differences between
the individual stations.
In Table 27-1, a definite relationship between mean percent
abnormal and mean SWL concentration is seen--mean percent-abnormals
increase with increases in SWL concentration. This relationship is
evident as well in Figure 27-2 where it may be seen also that percent
350
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9.9 Mean percent abnormal
10 Mean SWLconc.(ppm)
2.6
3.6
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•-RT
63.3
66.2 ~3i~>
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T • 6.4/
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FIGURE 27-2. Mean percent oyster-larva abnormality and mean SWL concentration at each field-sample
station in the Everett area; field-sample oyster-larva response study, May 1963 through August 1965
(See Table 27-1 for description of data removed).
352
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abnormal values increase with decreasing distance from the primary
waste discharge point of both mills, the diffuser near Station 4.
It is evident that pulping wastes affect oyster-larva development
and that the sources of these damaging wastes are the Scott and
Weyerhaeuser mills.
Larval Abnormality vs. SWL Concentration. Figure 27-3 shows
the relationship between the percent of abnormal larvae and the SWL
concentration. The method of deriving this logistic curve is given
in Section 11. Note that larval abnormality begins to increase very
rapidly at SWL concentrations of about 6 ppm and that near-100%
abnormality is reached at about 40 ppm. When this curve is compared
to the curve of the Bellingham-Anacortes area (Section 11) and that
of the Port Angeles area (Section 37), it is evident that the waters in
the Everett area show a higher toxicity at the lower SWL levels than
those in the other two study areas.
Larval Abnormality in Controls. In Section 11, a comparison
was made between laboratory controls, carry-along controls, and
"field controls." The latter were arbitrarily defined as samples that
(1) had salinities greater than 20°/oo, (2) were not collected during
the 1963-64 winter period, and (3) had SWL concentrations of 2.0 ppm
or less.
When these restrictions are applied to samples from the Everett
study area, all but one of the samples are excluded by the third
criterion (SWL values be 2 ppm or less) and the one sample had less
than 20°/oo salinity. If the SWL requirement is relaxed to include
all samples with SWL values greater than 2 but not more than 4, only
353
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8
-------
five samples from the Everett area fall into this category. For these
five samples, the mean percent abnormals is 2.28 and that of controls
is 1.47. These values are indistinguishable both practically and
statistically, but the very small number of samples involved here
requires that consideration of field-control samples for determination
of non-harmful conditions must be based on data from the Bellingham-
Anacortes area (Section 11) and the Port Angeles area (Section 37).
Larval Abnormality During Mill Closure. While the labor strike
of November 12-26, 1964, stopped all production at the Scott mill, the
Weyerhaeuser mill continued production at about 60% of capacity0
Consequently, while SWL concentrations at some stations dropped to
levels below the overall mean for those stations, the concentrations
remained at or about the usual levels at other stations. For example,
an oceanographic cruise on November 19, seven days after the strike
began, revealed surface SWL values about the same or slightly greater
than the 1962-63 average for the same transect. At Stations 3 through 7
of this study, SWL concentrations declined generally but were still
14 to 18 ppm and resulted in 71% to 100% abnormals. With reference to
the logistic curve (Figure 27-3), note that SWL levels would have to be
reduced to about 10 ppm before marked changes in the response measure,
percent abnormals, would occur.
Although the July 4 holiday shutdown was of comparatively short
duration, essentially all production was halted for about 3 days.
When the results of usable samples collected the morning of July 6
are compared to the overall mean values for the same stations (Table 27-2),
the improvement resulting from even limited cessation of wastes
355
-------
can be seen (salinities less than 20°/oo preclude comparisons with all
but two samples collected June 23 and July 9, 1964).
TABLE 27-20 Percent-abnormal and SWL values for samples with salinities
>20°/oo collected on July 6, 1964 and overall mean values for the same
stations--Everett study area.
Station
1
3
7
8
10
Results
SWL
July 6
4
4
5
4
4
(ppm)
Mean
6
10
16
6
10
of the Waste-Sample Study.
July 6
1.0
1.0
2.3
2.9
2.5
Results of this
% Abnormal
Mean
3.6
9.9
48.5
6.4
13.1
study, given
below, are fully presented and discussed by Woelke in a report to the
Project (1965 unpublished). The descriptions of methods used and data
treatment are given in Section 11. Briefly, 24-hour-composite samples
of waste streams were serially diluted with fresh unpolluted seawater
and were bioassayed with oyster larvae. The response measures, percent
abnormals, of the various dilutions of a waste were plotted on probit
paper against the appropriate dilution ratios and SWL concentrations;
from the line of best fit, dilution ratios and SWL values for the 0,
20, 50, and 1007o abnormal levels were determined. These data are given
in Table 27-3.
356
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Note that when the data are arrayed by dilution ratio, SWL values
do not show any particular pattern, although the most toxic wastes
are associated with the pulp-cooking process. This suggests that no
single toxic component exists in the waste samples, or if one does
exist, it is not being measured by the Pearl-Benson Index test for SWL.
Note also that many of these wastes are toxic (i.e_., 20% abnormality)
at or below the SWL level generally accepted as "background." This
implies that the absence of high SWL levels in areas receiving pulp
mill wastes does not rule out the pulp mill as a source of material
causing adverse biological responses.
To further illustrate the toxic effects of the waste streams
considered in Table 27-3, the amounts of dilution water required to
reduce the toxicity of each to non-harmful levels (no larval abnormality)
were computed 'and are shown in Table 27-4. It may be seen that very
large amounts of dilution water are required for digester wastes and
combined kraft and paper mill wastes and considerable amounts are
needed for bleach wastes and lagooned kraft mill wastes.
The strong digester wastes of the Scott pulp mill and the strong
digester wastes and caustic-extract wastes of the Weyerhaeuser pulp
mill are discharged through the 300= to 345-foot deep diffuser line
into Port Gardner (see Section 23) where considerable dilution does
occur. However, the high mean percent abnormals seen at Stations 3
through 10 (Figure 27-2) are evidence of the insufficient dilution and
widespread occurrence of these strong wastes, even at the surface.
358
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TABLE 27-4. Dilution water required to reduce the toxicity of Everett
area wastes to zero (have no effect on oyster-larva development).
Waste Stream
Scott Sulfite Mill
Digester
Pulp washing and bleach plant
Scott Paper Mill
Whitewater
Paper machine
Weyerhaeuser Sulfite Mill
Digester
Combined digester and
caustic extractor
Combined pulp washing, screen
room, settled barker wastes,
and saltwater cooling water
Bleach plant
Caustic extractor
Weyerhaeuser Kraft Mill
Waste Flow*
(mgd)
13.15
40.32
3.49
8.40
4.50
9.50
7.80
8.00
5.00
Dilution Water
Required for
no Abnormality
(cfs)**
2,034,600
62,400
108
65
696,000
1,470,000
24,140
24,760
1,550
Total waste flow
Simpson Lee Kraft and Paper Mill
Total waste flow
24.96
9.82***
38,620
152,000
* Average flow rate, in millions of gallons per day, for period
when samples were collected.
** Cubic feet per second (one cfs is equal to 643,317 gallons
per day).
*** Average flow during in-plant survey of March 9-11, 1964.
359
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DISCUSSION
The effect of SWL on the various shellfish adults and larvae
tested thus far is discussed in Section 10. It is noted that the
larvae of these animals are particularly sensitive and respond to very
similar, and low, levels of SWL.
While no commercial oyster grounds remain in the Everett area, a
substantial but much reduced sport fishery for clams exists. Protection
of this resource will require reduction of surface SWL levels in Port
Gardner and contiguous waters to a maximum of 10 ppm. Even at this
level, some damage to the resource will occur (Figure 27-3), since
the wastes here exhibit greater toxicity than elsewhere.
Attention is called to the amounts of dilution water required to
reduce the strong sulfite pulping wastes (Table 27-3) to non-damaging
levels (Table 27-4). Although these strong wastes are dispersed
through a deep diffuser now (see Section 24), the consistently high
levels of oyster-larva abnormalities at Stations 4 through 7 are
evidence of the ineffectiveness of dilution. Even at Station 3
(Gedney Island), 50% oyster-larva abnormality is exceeded in one-third
of the usable samples.
Clearly, treatment of the strong pulping wastes before discharge
through the diffuser is necessary to protect the shellfish resource in
the Everett area.
360
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28. FLATFISH EGGS
Other plank.ton.ic early-life stages occurring in the Everett study
area are those of the several species of flounders (mostly
Pleuronectidae) common to Puget Sound. The commercially most important
of these is the English sole (Ward, Robison, & Palmen; 1964). These
fish tend to seek out and spawn in embayments, such as Port Gardner and
Port Susan. When fertilized, the eggs of these fishes float, and
subsequent embryonic and larval development takes place in the near-
surface waters. It is in this surface zone, however, that the sensitive
early-life stages are most apt to encounter dilute concentrations of
pulp mill wastes, and there is evidence that they are injured by the
toxicity of these wastes. For this reason, English sole egg studies
were conducted to determine: (1) the distribution and abundance of
English sole eggs in the Everett study area, and the associated water
quality; and (2) the relationship between the injury caused and the
strength of the dispersed wastes.
STUDIES
English Sole Egg Distribution Study. The English sole egg
distribution study in the Everett-Port Gardner area was performed in
conjunction with and in the same manner as the English sole egg
distribution study in the Bellingham area described in Section 12„
Briefly, fish eggs and associated water quality were sampled at
8 stations in the Everett Harbor-Port Gardner area (Figure 28-1)
361
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5
•
2
•
4
•
FIGURE 28-1. Station locations in the Everett area at which flatfish eggs were collected and water
quality was determined.
362
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at depths of 1, 17, and 33 feet on the four occasions during January
through March, 1966. The English sole egg fraction was removed from
the preserved plankton sample and measured volumetrically.
It was found that significant numbers of English sole eggs were
present in the surface waters of Everett Harbor and Port Gardner
during the peak of the reproductive season (Table 28-1) . It is
important to note that large numbers of eggs occur (1) in waters with
high SWL concentration, and (2) in waters of reduced salinity with
specific gravity less than that of the eggs, which is 1.022.
English Sole Bioassay Study. This study is the one conducted
at Friday Harbor from January through April 1965 and is discussed in
detail in Section 12. Briefly summarizing the results of that study,
it was found that SWL concentrations of 14 ppm increase egg mortality
500 percent over controls, hatch failure 215 percent, and failure of the
eggs to develop into normal larvae 65 percent. Concentrations of SWL
above 180 ppm virtually preclude development of any normal larvae.
DISCUSSION
The findings of the distribution study demonstrate that large
numbers of English sole eggs are spawned into areas polluted by SWL
and that they develop in the surface layers where the highest
concentrations of SWL occur.
It is readily seen in Table 28-1 that SWL concentrations as high
as 80 ppm exist in regions of maximum egg concentration. If the
English sole potential of the Everett Harbor-Port Gardner area is not
to be damaged, the critical tolerance levels determined by the
363
-------
TABLE 28-1.
Flatfish egg distribution in the Everett area; March 3,
1966
Station Depth
(ft.)
1 1
17
33
2 1
17
33
3 1
17
33
4 1
17
33
5 1
17
33
6 1
17
33
7 1
17
33
8 1
17
33
Temp.
(°C)
7.5
7.8
7.8
5.9
7.0
7.7
7.0
7.8
7.8
6.9
7.5
7.7
6.4
7.8
8.0
6.5
6.7
7.8
6.6
7.0
7.4
6.6
7.5
7.7
Salinity
(°/oo)
23.1
28.0
28.3
15.0
22.2
27.5
22.0
23.1
28.5
21.9
26.3
28.3
22.1
27.1
28.2
22.5
25.0
27.8
21.7
24.6
27.3
21.3
26.0
28.0
Specific
Gravity
1.0181
1.0218
1.0221
1.0119
1.0174
1.0215
1.0172
1.0180
1.0222
1.0172
1.0206
1.0221
1.0174
1.0211
1.0220
1.0177
1.0196
1.0217
1.0171
1.0193
1.0213
1.0167
1.0203
1.0219
SWL
(ppm)
151
79
81
27
39
71
42
80
49
45
35
80
18
17
39
17
17
39
27
19
29
29
15
27
Volume
of Eggs
(ml)*
<0.1
1.5
1.0
<0.1
3.0
0.3
1.0
5.8
2.1
3.6
1.8
3.7
<0.1
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.6
^0.1
0.5
1.1
* One ml contains approximately 1,000-1,200 fertilized English sole
eggs.
364
-------
bioassay study must not be exceeded. It is therefore recommended,
to afford optimal conditions for English sole egg development, that
the Scott mill and the Weyerhaeuser mill put into operation appropriate
abatement measures to reduce SWL concentrations in the surface waters
to less than 14 ppm.
365
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29. PLANKTON
The objectives of the plankton study In the Everett area are
identical to those in the Bellingham area described in Section 13.
Ten sampling cruises were made at four- to eight-week intervals
between August 1964 and July 1964, inclusive,, On each cruise five
stations (Figure 29-1) were occupied: Station No. 1 in the inner
harbor, Station No. 2 over the end of the deep diffuser pipeline,
and three others further removed from the harbor„ All field work was
conducted aboard the R/V HAROLD W. STREETER. The measurements and
analyses made, and the methods used, were identical to those in the
Bellingham area (see Section 13)„
RESULTS
Data obtained from the study are summarized as mean values in
Tables 29-1, 29-2, and 29-3. Note that almost all of the chemical and
physical properties measured at a given depth show little significant
variation among stations. The exceptions are the mean SWL concentrations
which decrease with distance from the inner harbor and the very high
mean oxygen consumption rate in the inner harbor (Station 1). These
data describe findings in keeping with those discussed in Section 24.
Examination of the biological data (Tables 29-1, 29-2, 29-3)
indicates that there is little variation in the dynamic structure of
the plankton community among the various stations at a given depth.
367
-------
4
•
•
I
FIGURE 29-1. Phytoplankton productivity stations in the Everett area.
368
-------
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There is no significant difference between the annual mean values at
any one station and the annual mean values at all other stations
combined for the following: chlorophyll a concentration, phytoplankton
concentration, number of phytoplankton taxa (diversity), zooplankton
concentration, number of zooplankton taxa, and the percentage of
adults making up the zooplankton. Further, the dominant organisms of
both phytoplankton and zooplankton are generally the same at all
stations. It is thus apparent that the structure of the plankton
community is essentially the same throughout the study area, even though
the raw data show considerable, but expected, seasonal variation in the
numbers and kinds of plankters.
Phytoplankton productivity rate is the only biological property
that exhibited significant interstation differences in annual mean
values. Note in Table 29-1 that comparatively low rates of productivity
were observed at the surface at Station 1 (a mean of 9.8 mg carbon
fixed/m /hr). To evaluate the differences between these values and
mean values obtained at other stations in the study area, consideration
was given to information exhibited by all raw data--that conditions of
low temperature and low light intensity (depth) also inhibit
productivity. Accordingly, with the removal of all data collected at
water temperatures less than 10°C and all data collected at the 7- and
20-feet depths, it was found that mean productivity at Station 1 was
significantly lower than the associated mean value at all other
stations combined.
Because average SWL concentrations are highest at Station 1 an
association with productivity was suggested. Figure 29-2 was
372
-------
7.00
6.00
5.00
ol
o
o
4.00
o
J3
O
O
1"
>-
3.00
O
o
cc
a.
2.00
1.00
50
too
150
200
250
SWL CONCENTRATION (ppm)
FIGURE 29-2. The relationship of phytoplankton productivity rate per mg of chlorophyll a vs. SWL
concentration for samples collected at the surface at temperatures equal to or greater than 10°C in
the Everett study area.
373
-------
constructed using those data collected at surface stations and at
*.
temperatures equal to or greater than 10°C. To compensate for the
variation found in standing crop, the values in this graph are
presented as productivity rate per unit of chlorophyll a_. Note that
a monotonic relationship between productivity rate per mg of
chlorophyll a_ and SWL concentration does not exist, but that a
threshold effect occurs. Phytoplankton productivity begins to decline
at SWL values around 30 ppm. This drop in productivity per unit of
chlorophyll a_ is shown in a different manner in Table 29-4, where the
productivity data of Figure 29-2 is summarized by groupings associated
with the SWL concentration ranges of 0-50 ppm, 51-100 ppm, and 101 ppm
and greater.
TABLE 29-4. Summary of phytoplankton productivity rate per unit of
chlorophyll a_ (mg carbon fixed/m /hr/mg chlorophyll a) associated
with the three broad ranges of SWL concentration observed in the
Everett area; for samples taken at the surface at temperatures equal to
or greater than 10 C.
Statistic
Range
Mean
Median
SWL
0-50 ppm
0.13 to 6.21
1.45
0.96
Concentration Range
51-100 ppm
0.33 to 1.46
0.73
0.52
Greater Than
101 ppm
0.48 (only one
0.48
0.48
value)
374
-------
DISCUSSION
It is shown that phytoplankton populations are essentially the
same, qualitatively and quantitatively, at each of the stations
examined in the Everett area. Phytoplankton productivity, also, varies
little among stations throughout the study area except at Station I
in Everett Harbor. At this site, che phytoplankton productivity
rate commonly is quite low; hence the capacity of these waters to
effectively support the lower organisms that serve as food for higher
forms, such as salmon and oysters, is impaired. The conclusion drawn
is that phytoplankton are continuously being swept throughout the
study area by water currents and circulation, and, that once these
cells are brought into contact with high concentrations of pulping
wastes, they are physiologically injured and fail to function normally.
This injury does not translate into alteration of the community
structure because of the constant movement of phytoplankton into and
out of the affected area.
The data presented in Figure 29-2 and Table 29-4 clearly show
that the phytoplankton sustain significant injury at SWL concentrations
greater than 50 ppm. Referring to Table 29-1, it is seen that average
SWL concentration within the inner harbor is greater than 50 ppm.
Consequently, this portion of the Everett study area is affected by
water quality inimical to phytoplankton.
Abatement of this damage will require treatment or reduction of
weak pulping and paper mill wastes discharged by the Weyerhaeuser
and Scott mills. The relationship between productivity and SWL
concentration (Figure 29-2) indicates that these pulping wastes are
375
-------
responsible for the observed damage and the location of the station
(Station 1) where productivity is significantly reduced points to
these mills as being the source of such wastes.
376
-------
30. BACTERIAL QUALITY
The waters of Port Gardner, Everett Harbor, and the lower
Snohomish River system are used for commercial and sport fishing,
log rafting and sorting activities, towboat operations, pleasure
boating, and shoreline recreation. Water contact incidental to these
uses makes the bacterial quality of these waters important. Sources
of bacterial pollution include the unchlorinated effluent from the
City of Everett's waste-stabilization pond (see Figure 22-1 for pond
location), and untreated wastes from boats and unsewered waterfront
properties. To evaluate this pollution problem the Project conducted
bacteriological studies in nearshore waters of the Everett area.
STUDIES
The Project conducted three representative bacteriological
surveys in the Everett area, one each in March, April, and May 1965.
On each survey, concentrations of total coliforms and fecal strepto-
cocci were determined for surface samples taken at each of 16 stations
located in Port Gardner, Everett Harbor, and the lower Snohomish River
(Figure 30-1). Associated surface water temperature and salinity also
were measured at each station.
METHODS
Sample collection, handling, and bacterial analyses during the
Everett area bacteriological studies were essentially the same as those
described in Section 15.
377
-------
GO
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to
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111
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378
-------
RESULTS
Results of the Everett area bacteriological studies are shown
in Figure 30-1 in terms of the three-survey average concentrations of
total coliforms. Note that average bacterial counts in Port Gardner
and the open waters of Everett Harbor were less than 300/100 ml, while
counts in the lower Snohomish River and in certain dock-front areas of
the Harbor were from about 800 to 2,700/100 ml. Fecal streptococci
counts were variable but increased substantially when high counts of
total coliforms were observed; this feature implies that the major
source of bacterial contamination in the Everett study area is of
human origin.
At each of the higher count stations in the lower River and
Harbor area (Figure 30-lB) only one of the three coliforms readings
averaged exceeded 600 organisms/100 ml, indicating an intermittent
source. At the lower Snohomish River station (average coliform
concentration of 950/100 ml, per Figure 30-lB) the high bacterial
count was observed during the only ebb tide sampled; this suggests the
City's waste stabilization pond, located upriver, as the most probable
source. Within the Harbor, the intermittent high bacterial counts
were observed in the active pier areas, most probably reflecting discharge
of untreated wastes from cargo ships, sundry small boats, and unsewered
dockfront properties. An additional possible source of intermittent
contamination of the Harbor area is occasional storm overflow from
the City's combined waste collection system.
379
-------
DISCUSSION
Bacterial standards proposed by the Washington Pollution Control
Commission for these waters require an average total coliforms
concentration of less than 1,000/100 ml for water contact uses. Based
on the Project's bacteriological studies, this criterion is essentially
satisfied in most of the Everett study area. However, along the eastern
dockfront of Everett Harbor, intermittent high bacterial counts raised
the three-survey average coliforms concentrations to as much as
2,700/100 ml. Also, in the lower Snohomish River a high bacterial
count on ebb tide resulted in only a marginally acceptable average
coliforms concentration of 950/100 ml. These areas, then—the Everett
Harbor dockfront, and, to a lesser extent, the lower Snohomish River—
exhibit bacterial conditions which are potentially hazardous to public
health.
Results of Project studies indicate that the most probable sources
of bacterial contamination are the unchlorinated effluent from the
City's waste stabilization pond on the Snohomish River, and untreated
wastes from ships, small boats, and unsewered dockfront properties
in Everett Harbor.
380
-------
31. SUMMARY
The principal sources of wastes discharged to the Everett Harbor
and Port Gardner are the Weyerhaeuser Company sulfite pulp mill and
the Scott Paper Company pulp and paper mill located in Everett.
Concentrated pulping wastes from these two operations are discharged
through a deep-water outfall to Port Gardner, while large volumes of
log-barking, pulp-washing, bleaching, and paper-making wastes are
discharged to Everett Harbor immediately adjacent to the two mills.
A portion of these latter wastes receive primary treatment prior to
discharge„
Project studies have shown that damages resulting from these
discharges are essentially of two types: (1) those associated with
or caused by the discharge of large volumes of solids-bearing wastes
to Everett Harbor adjacent to the Scott Paper Company and Weyerhaeuser
Company mills, on occasion containing concentrations of toxic chemicals;
and (2) those resulting from the toxic effects of the sulfite waste
liquors when diluted and dispersed throughout the surface waters of
Port Gardner, Possession Sound, Port Susan, and Saratoga Passage.
In Everett Harbor, discharges from Scott Paper Company and the
Weyerhaeuser Company sulfite mill result in high waste concentrations,
sludge deposits, and attendant water quality degradation. These
conditions are incompatible with marine life and interfere with other
legitimate water uses. These wastes have been shown to:
381
-------
1. Cause injury or mortality to juvenile salmon migrating
through Everett Harbor.
2. Cause extensive bottom sludge deposits which produce toxic
concentrations of sulfides in the adjacent waters that are
damaging to fish and bottom organisms and result in overall
aesthetically unattractive conditions.
3. Suppress phytoplankton activity in the Everett Harbor area.
Abatement of these damages can be accomplished by providing for
removal of all settleable solids from the wastes and removing the
point of waste discharge from the confines of Everett Harbor.
The concentrations of sulfite waste liquor found in the surface
waters throughout the study area present an even greater threat to
marine communities indigenous to the area. As in the Bellingham-
Samish Bay system, these wastes in dilute concentrations, 5-15 ppm
SWL, have been shown to be damaging to larval forms of fish and
shellfish found in the study area. English sole eggs and Pacific
oyster larvae are two of the forms with which the Project has worked
intensively but which represent a large group of marine organisms
expected to be similarly affected. These include some 10 species of
sole, 6 species of cod> 3 species of clams, and anchovy, herring,
smelt, and crabs to mention a few of the more important.
Project studies have shown that such wastes:
1. Produce damages to developing English sole eggs found
throughout the surface waters of Port Gardner and
Everett Harbor. Extensive damage or mortality would be
expected in and adjacent to Everett Harbor, with the
382
-------
degree of damage decreasing at increasing distances from
the waste source.
2. Produce extensive damage to oyster larvae. Similar damages
would be expected to occur to other indigenous shellfish,
as indicated by damages to the sessile intertidal
organisms.
To prevent additional damages and provide minimum protection of these
organisms during their most sensitive life stages, it is required that
SWL concentrations in the surface 50 feet of depth not exceed 10 ppm
beyond the initial waste dispersion zone. The initial waste dispersion
zone is defined as that area of Everett Harbor and Port Gardner within
a 1.5 mile radius of the southwestern tip of the peninsula bordering
Everett Harbor.
Although the strong pulping wastes disposed by the Scott and
Weyerhaeuser mills through the deep-water outfall produce relatively
high SWL concentrations throughout the deep waters of the Everett area, -
the results of biological studies do not demonstrate that they presently
cause any measurable damage to marine life inhabiting the deeper waters.
Admittedly, these biological studies primarily treated marine forms
that inhabit surface water. Review of presently available literature
and considered judgment, however, have not produced any available
evidence of damage or injury sustained by the marine life which
populates the deep waters of the Everett area and which would be
affected by the deep-water diffuser wastes. There remains some likelihood,
though, that these wastes may, in diffusing upward, contribute to the
surface SWL concentrations in the outer limits of the study area. It
383
-------
is not possible to determine to what extent this may occur.
Wastes from the Simpson Lee Company sulfate pulp mill are
discharged into the Snohomish River some 10 miles upstream from its
mouth. This mill is relatively small but does discharge significant
quantities of settleable solids materials that contribute to the
extensive bottom sludge deposits adjacent to the mouth of the Snohomish
River.
The City of Everett's domestic wastes are treated in a waste
stabilization pond and then discharged into the Snohomish River at a
point 3.5 miles upstream from its mouth. Bacteriological studies in
the River have shown that bacterial concentrations now approach, and
at times exceed, those levels recommended by the Washington State
Pollution Control Commission. Intermittently high bacterial counts
were also noted in and adjacent to the Everett Harbor„
384
-------
f f
-------
32. INTRODUCTION
Fibreboard Paper Products Corporation's sulfite pulp and board
mill and Rayonier Incorporated's sulfite pulp mill (Figure 32-1) are
the waste sources of principal consideration in the Port Angeles area.
Both mills discharge process wastes into the surface waters of Port
Angeles Harbor.
Other major wastes sources in the study area are the Crown
Zellerbach Corp0 groundwood pulp and paper mill, the Pen-Ply plywood
mill, the City of Port Angeles, and the U0 S0 Coast Guard Air Station.
The locations of these sources and their points of discharge also are
shown in Figure 32-1.
STUDY AREA
The Port Angeles study area includes Port Angeles Harbor and the
near-shore waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca from a point 2-1/2
miles west of the Elwha River mouth to the end of Dungeness Spit
(Figure 32-2). Port Angeles is the only community within the area.
Port Angeles Harbor is partially enclosed by Ediz Hook, Its
eastern boundary, where it opens to the Strait, is delimited by the
arbitrary boundary shown in Figure 32-2. Depths in the southern half
of the Harbor are less than 60 feet0 In the northern half, depths to
192 feet occur.
The Strait of Juan de Fuca is one of the two channels—the Strait
of Georgia being the other—connecting Puget Sound with the Pacific
387
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Oceanu Accordingly, large volumes of tidal flows pass through the
Strait and largely dominate water circulation in the study area.
390
-------
33. WASTES
STUDIES
The principal waste sources of the Port Angeles area were the
subject of in-plant waste surveys on the following dates:
Fibreboard Paper Products Corp. July 16-19, 1963
April 21-24, 1964
October 27-30, 1964
Rayonier, Incorporated September 16-19, 1963
June 8-11, 1964
October 5-7, 1964
During each survey, three 24-hour composite samples and additional
grab samples were collected from each of several in-plant waste
streams (see Figures 33-1 and 33-2). Project, State, and mill personnel
acted jointly in collecting and analyzing these samples.
The State conducted an in-plant survey at the Crown Zellerbach
Corp0 during January 25-27, 1965 and collected a grab sample of total
waste discharge from the Pen-Ply Plywood Mill on April 24, 1965. At the
Crown Zellerbach mill, three 24-hour composite samples and additional
grab samples were collected from each of six in-plant waste streams.
Waste discharges from the City of Port Angeles sewer system were
not sampled. Information on population served, total waste discharge,
and location of outfall sewers was obtained from the City's consultant;
Cornell, Rowland, Hayes, and Merryfield. Information on the Coast Guard
Air Station waste treatment facilities was obtained from an engineering
report by the 13th Coast Guard District,
391
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METHODS
Survey procedures, and sampling and analytical methods employed in
the Fibreboard, Rayonier, and Crown Zellerbach surveys were similar to
those described in Section 6. Analyses of the Pen-Ply sample were the
same as those described in Section 6.
RESULTS
Fibreboard Paper Products Corporation. This mill, located near
the west end of Port Angeles Harbor (see Figure 32-1), produces about
60 tons per day of bleached, ammonia-base sulfite pulp, about 40 tons
per day of stone groundwood pulp, and variable quantities of re-pulped
waste paper. Re-pulped waste paper and virgin pulp are used to produce
about 100 tons per day of board stock for packaging and wallboard0
Excess virgin pulp is dried for shipment to other company-owned mills.
Mechanical log barking is employed„
Figure 33-1 is a schematic diagram of the mill layout, sewer system,
and sampling points. The principal in-plant sewers (solid lines) combine
and discharge through a single sewer into near-surface waters of the
Harbor. Composite samples from sampling point #4 were used to measure
the mill's total waste load. The sewer designated by the dashed-line
normally carries only acid plant cooling water, but occasionally, it also
carries some overflow of fiber from the groundwood mill. Although this
sewer was not the subject of composite sampling, a series of settleable
solids samples were collected from sampling point A.
Averaged results of the mill's total waste load, as obtained in the
three surveys, are tabulated in Table 33-1. The pounds-per-ton-production
values shown are computed on the basis of the combined production of the
394
-------
bleached sulfite pulp, groundwood pulp, and board; hence they are
not comparable with similar load values from the other mills sur-
veyed.
TABLE 33-1. Average daily waste load discharged by the Fibreboard
Paper Products Corporation, Port Angeles, Washington
#/Ton of
Analyses Production
BOD5 228
COD 983
SWL -/ 9,150
Total Sulfur 53
Total Solids 794
Volatile 686
Suspended Solids 46.2
Volatile 42.9
Supernatant Suspended Solids 10.3
2/
Ave. Tons Production/Day —
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids Loss
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd
Tons /Day
22
94
864
5.1
76
65
4.4
4.1
1.0
191
2.1
4.2
— Weight of a 10% solids solution, per ton or per day as indicated.
_' Combined production of board, and groundwood and bleached sulfite
pulp (air dried) .
395
-------
Rayonier, Incorporated. This mill (see Figure 32-1 for location)
produces both dissolving and paper grade pulp by the calcium-base
sulfite process. Pulp is bleached, dried, and shipped to market. No
paper products are produced. Pulp production, a mixture of both
dissolving and paper grades, during the three in-plant surveys averaged
467 tons per day.
A schematic diagram of the mill layout, sewer system, and sampling
points is shown in Figure 33-2. Note that hydraulic barker wastes are
passed through a settling tank prior to discharge. Although settling
time is brief, some solids are removed. These are diverted to a hog
fuel pile and burned. Settled barker wastes and all other mill wastes
are discharged into the near-surface waters of the Harbor through the
five outfall sewers shown.
Averaged results of Rayonier mill's total waste load, as obtained
in the three surveys, are tabulated in Table 33-2.
Crown Zellerbach Corp. This mill produces about 95 tons per
day of refiner groundwood pulp, about 305 tons per day of stone
groundwood pulp, and about 480 tons per day of newsprint and telephone
directory paper. All pulp production is bleached. Both mechanical
and hydraulic barking are employed.
Hydraulic barker wastes discharge into a lagoon on mill property
where settleable solids are removed. Sanitary wastes flow to septic
tanks from which effluents discharge into the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
All pulp and paper mill process wastes presently are discharged through
four sewers into the near-surface waters of the Strait (see Figure 32-1)
Previously, however, some high solids wastes were disposed into Port
Angeles Harbor where they produced a sludge deposit (see Section 34).
396
-------
TABLE 33-2. Average daily waste load discharged by Rayonier, Inc.,
Port Angeles, Washington.
#/Ton of
Analyses Production
BOD5 1,031
COD 4,638
SWL* 41,360
Total Sulfur 302
Total Solids 5,110
Volatile 3,202
Suspended Solids 70.5
Volatile 63.9
Supernatant Suspended Solids 20.5
Ave. Tons Production/Day (air dried)
Ave. % Volatile Susp. Solids Loss
Ave. Waste Volume, mgd
Tons/Day
235
1,057
9,430
69.5
1,157
727
16.7
15.1
4.9
467
3.2
35.66
* Weight of a 10% solids solution, per ton or per day as indicated.
Averaged survey results--the mill's total daily waste load—
are tabulated in Table 33-3.
The pulping processes employed by the Crown Zellerbach mill differ
greatly from the sulfite and sulfate (kraft) processes previously
described. Both the refiner groundwood and stone groundwood processes
are mechanical defibering operations. Steam is used to soften the
wood chips, but no chemical digestion is employed. Consequently,
397
-------
dissolved chemicals, lignins, and wood sugars -- materials which
impart BOD^, COD, SWL, and total solids to a waste -- are present in
low concentrations in the mill's pulping wastes. The bleaching opera-
tion, however, does generate some quantity of these waste materials.
Note, then, that the BODs, COD, apparent SWL, total sulfur, total
solids, and total volatile solids loads (Table 33-3) discharged by
the Crown Zellerbach mill are comparatively much smaller than respective
loads from the sulfite mills surveyed. On the other hand, the suspended
solids loss from the Crown Zellerbach mill is very high (Table 33-3),
compared to the other mills surveyed. This results from higher fiber
losses of groundwood pulping as against chemical pulping.
Pen-Ply Mill. This plywood manufacturer discharges glue wastes
into Port Angeles Harbor (see Figure 32-1). Estimated waste flow is
5 gpm.
Sampling results, as interpolated for a 24-hour, 5 gpm flow, are
given in Table 33-3. The indicated apparent-SWL load derives from
phenolic compounds of the glue wastes.
Port Angeles Sewage. The City of Port Angeles discharges un-
treated domestic wastes from a population of 15,300 into Port Angeles
Harbor through nine outfall sewers and into the Strait of Juan de Fuca
through one outfall sewer (see Figure 32-1). The consulting engineering
firm of Cornell, Howland, Hayes, and Merryfield has prepared a prelim-
inary report on interceptor and primary treatment facilities needed to
abate these untreated discharges. The next actions will be for the City
to hold a bond election and have their consultant prepare construction
plans and specifications.
398
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TABLE 33-3. Daily waste loads discharged by other major waste sources
in the Port Angeles area.
Analyses
BOD5
COD
21
Apparent SWL -
Total Sulfur
Total Solids
Volatile
Suspended Solids
Volatile
Supernatant Susp. Solids
Waste Volume, mgd
Crown
Zellerbach
Corporation
12.1
52.1
393
1.1
46.7
36.7
35.9
34.3
6.5
9.7
Tons /Day
Pen-Ply
Mill
0.2
- -
6.5
- -
0.2
< 0.1
<0.1
<0.1
- -
0.1
Port Angeles
Sewage I/
1.9
- -
- -
- -
7.4
3.9
1.8
1.2
- -
3/
2.2 -
!_/ Computed waste load based on 2.2 mgd flow and sewage characteristics
of 210 ppm BOD5, 800 ppm total solids, 420 ppm volatile total solids,
200 ppm suspended solids, 135 ppm volatile suspended solids, and
130 ppm supernatant suspended solids.
2/ From non-sulfite-pulping constituents which give an apparent-SWL
indication in the Pearl-Benson test -- equivalent to tons of a 10%
solids solution per day.
3_/ Dry weather discharge. Wet weather discharge is 6.8 mgd.
399
-------
The aggregate waste load presently disposed by the City is given
in Table 33-3. Values shown were computed from the City's average
daily discharge of 2.2 mgd and estimated concentrations of BOD5, total
solids, and suspended solids.
Coast Guard Air Station. This air station, including a Naval
Reserve barracks, is located at the end of Ediz Hook (see Figure 32-1).
Prior to May 1966, it discharged untreated domestic wastes into Port
Angeles Harbor. Presently, its wastes are treated in four septic tanks
and disposed by drainfields on the Hook. These facilities are designed
to handle wastes from over 225 persons, and they are considered adequate
by the Washington State Health Department.
DISCUSSION
Figure 33-3 compares the combined daily waste load from the Rayonier
and Fibreboard mills with the combined load from the other major waste
sources in the study area; viz., the Crown Zellerbach mill, the Pen-Ply
mill, and the City of Port Angeles. For the waste categories of SWL
(and apparent SWL), COD, 6005, and total solids, the Rayonier and Fibre-
board mills are, very clearly, the principal sources. Furthermore, of
these two mills, Rayonier is the larger source; it contributes about
92% of their combined load (compare values from Tables 33-1 and 33-2).
Accordingly, if discharges of these waste properties are to be reduced
to protect water quality and marine life of the Harbor, treatment of
Rayonier and Fibreboard wastes, particularly their sulfite pulping
wastes, will be necessary.
For the category of suspended solids (Figure 33-3), combined dis-
charges from the other waste sources surpass those from the Rayonier and
400
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Fibreboard mills. This obtains from the exceptionally high suspended
solids loss in Crown Zellerbach's groundwood pulping and paper
operation—some 35.9 tons per day (Table 33-3). Settling tests (Imhoff
cone) indicate that suspended solids losses can be reduced to 6.5 tons
per day at the Crown Zellerbach mill, to 4.9 tons per day at the
Rayonier mill, and to 1.0 tons per day at the Fibreboard mill. In
total, a reduction to 12.4 tons per day from the 57.0 tons per day
presently discharged. Adequately sized and designed sedimentation
facilities would effect these reductions.
The discharge of raw sewage by the City of Port Angeles is a
sanitary malpractice capable of causing serious bacterial pollution
(see Section 38) and endangering health. The Washington Pollution
Control Commission has a long-standing policy requiring primary
treatment (sedimentation) and disinfection of any domestic wastes
discharged into surface waters. The City has been notified of the
policy and has started action to comply.
402
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34. WASTE DISTRIBUTION AND WATER QUALITY
STUDIES
The Project conducted oceanographic and related studies in the
Port Angeles area to (1) describe distribution of wastes from the
Crown Zellerbach, Fibreboard, and Rayonier mills, and (2) determine
the effects of these wastes on water quality and bottom sediments.
Others have conducted independent studies of pollution in the
Port Angeles area as follows:
Washington Pollution Control Commission: Peterson and Gibbs
(1957) investigated municipal and pulp mill pollution in a study
which included float studies to determine water circulation patterns,
and water sampling surveys to measure temperature, salinity, DO, SWL,
and bacteria; Pine and Clemetson (1961) used skin divers to make
visual observations of the marine biota and bottom sediments near
Rayonier and Fibreboard mills; water temperature, concentrations of
salinity, DO, SWL, and sulfides, and volatile solids content of bottom
grab samples were measured by Ott, Livingston, and Mills (1961).
Rayonier, Incorporated: Charnell (1958) summarized the results
of extensive field surveys of pulp mill wastes in Port Angeles Harbor,
including float studies, determinations of water temperature, salinity,
DO, SWL, and pH, and observations of the nearshore marine biota; Stein,
Denison, and Isaac (1963) discussed flood tide distributions of
salinity, DO, SWL, pH, and water transparency in Port Angeles Harbor,
skin diver reconnaissance of sludge deposits adjacent to Rayonier mill,
and observations of marine biota.
403
-------
The results of these studies were reviewed and considered along
with Project data.
Circulation Studies. Four float studies were conducted by the
Project, one each in September, October, and November, 1962, and
September 1963. Each study consisted of tracking the movement of
8 to 10 crossed-vane current drogues released at various locations
and depths in Port Angeles Harbor. Both flood and ebb tide conditions
were tested.
The Project also conducted an exploratory dye study near the
Fibreboard outfalls in July 1962. Equipment failure limited the scope
of this study to visual observations of dye movement at the surface.
At the Project's request, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
occupied a current-monitoring station in the Harbor (Figure 34-1A)
during its 1964-65 current study of northern Puget Sound. Currents
were observed at the 15-, 87-, and 145-foot depths for a 100-hour
period, July 14-18, 1964. Data for this station and for several other
stations in the adjacent Strait of Juan de Fuca were provided the
Project as graphs of current speed and direction.
In addition to actual measurements of currents, net water
circulation was inferred from observed distributions of wastes, water
quality, and water density.
Waste Distribution and Water Quality Studies. The Project
conducted 14 oceanographic cruises in the Port Angeles area at
approximately monthly intervals between September 1962 and January 1964,
Principal sampling stations were located as shown on Figure 34-1A. The
sampling station located in the Strait of Juan de Fuca about one mile
404
-------
Also U.S.C.aG.S.
I Current meter station
/ ^
o
LEGEND
• Oceonographic
studies, Sept. 1962-
Jan. 1964.
O Plankton ecology
studies, July 1963-
June 1964.
O
(A)
LEGEND
• Core sample
A Grab sample
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
'
A
A
A
A
A
A A
A A
A A
'A A
A
A
A
(B)
FIGURE 34-1. (A) Water sampling stations occupied in the Port Angeles area during the oceanographic
and plankton ecology studies, and -(B) bottom sediment sampling stations ot :upied in Port Angeles Harbor
on September 30, 1964.
405
-------
north of Ediz Hook was selected as a "control" station, representative
of Strait waters unaffected by local pulp mill pollution. At each
station, samples were taken from the surface and the 2-, 5-, 10-, 20-,
30-, 50-, and 70-meter depths, total depth permitting. Water properties
measured were temperature, salinity, DO, SWL, and pH. Secchi-disc
measurements and weather conditions also were recorded for each station.
One cruise, on August 30, 1963, was conducted during a period when the
Rayonier mill was closed by a labor strike.
Water quality data in the Port Angeles area also was collected
during each of several biological studies conducted by the Project.
In particular, water quality data comparable to that collected during
the oceanographic studies were obtained during nine plankton ecology
cruises conducted between July 1963 and June 1964. Stations sampled
are shown also on Figure 34-1A.
Bottom Deposit Studies. On September 30, 1964, the Project
collected 22 core samples and 50 grab samples from the floor of
Port Angeles Harbor (Figure 34-lB). This study was conducted to
(1) determine composition of bottom sediments, (2) describe areas of
sludge accumulation, and (3) describe the benthos. The core samples,
taken with a gravity coring apparatus, were examined in the field for
sediment texture, color, odor, and sludge layer thickness. Grab samples
of the surface sediments were taken by van Veen dredge and were examined
in the field for odor, color, and inclusion of wood fibers and fragments
and other constituents. Portions of the grab samples also were analyzed
in the laboratory for volatile solids content and for included benthos
(see Section 36) .
406
-------
METHODS
Field and analytical methods used in the Port Angeles area waste
distribution and water quality studies were similar to those described
in Section 7 and in the references cited.
RESULTS
Tidal Currents. Tidal current predictions are listed (U.S .C.&G.S.,
1966) for nearby points in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, but not for
points within Port Angeles Harbor. Currents in Port Angeles Harbor
consist of a dominant eddy motion, generated by currents in the
adjacent Strait of Juan de Fuca, superposed upon weak tidal filling
and emptying currents. The eddy develops nearshore between Ediz Hook
and Dungeness Spit and, in general, tranports water alongshore in the
direction opposite to main currents in the Strait (Figure 34-2) . The
western boundary of the eddy is usually located just inside the Harbor
entrance; thus Rayonier wastes most often are dispersed into the eddy
fringe rather than into the "closed" circulation of Port Angeles Harbor.
Due to interaction and resonance effects in Puget Sound basin,
flood and ebb currents in the Strait of Juan de Fuca are not necessarily
in phase with their respective counterparts of rising and falling tide
levels at Port Angeles; thus, the Harbor may either fill or empty
coincident with flood or ebb current in the Strait. Generalized surface
current patterns in Port Angeles Harbor for both rising (filling) and
falling (emptying) tide levels are shown in Figure 34-3 for flood
current in the Strait and in Figure 34-4 for ebb current in the Strait.
Near-surface currents in the Strait of Juan de Fuca are generally less
than 2 knots in magnitude and have a definite ebb-direction predominance
407
-------
Fl
oo
(A)
(B)
FIGURE 34-2. Eddy circulation patterns alongshore between Ediz Hook and Dungeness Spit during (A) flood
and (B) ebb currents in the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
408
-------
Flood
Tide Level Rising
(A)
Flood
Tide Level Falling
(B)
FIGURE 34-3. Patterns of surface circulation during flood current in the Strait and under conditions
of (A) rising tide level and (B) falling tide level within the Harbor (after Charnell, 1958).
409
-------
Ebb
Tide Level Rising
(A)
Ebb
Tide Level Falling
(B)
FIGURE 34-4. Patterns of surface circulation during ebb current in the Strait and under conditions of
(A) rising tide level, and (B) falling tide level, within the Harbor (after Charnell, 1958).
410
-------
due to seaward movement of freshwater inflow to Puget Sound basin.
Within Port Angeles Harbor surface currents are generally less than
0.5 knot, unless wind-aided, with long periods of essentially slack
motion in the northern and western portions. Flood tide motion occurs
mostly in the northern portion of the Harbor, while ebb movement is most
prominent in the southern portion. This motion results in a net anti-
clockwise circulation which tends to disperse Fibreboard wastes eastward
through the southern portion of the Harbor.
Surface Layer. Freshwater from land drainage in Puget Sound basin
moves seaward in the near-surface waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
This results in a generally stable density stratification of waters
throughout the Port Angeles study area. Freshwater sources within the
Harbor consist of municipal and industrial waste discharges and several
small seasonal creeks along the southern shore. These local inflows
add to near-surface density stability in Port Angeles Harbor as well as
provide for a net outflow of surface waters, particularly in the southern
portion. There are no local large freshwater sources; thus, the vertical
density gradient is much more gradual than in the Bellingham and Everett
areas, and a waste-confining surface layer does not usually develop.
The stratification is sufficient, however, to inhibit downward mixing
of surface-discharged wastes, with the result that highest waste
concentrations are found mostly at the surface,
Net Circulation. Net circulation of surface waters in the
Port Angeles area is characterized by:
1. A net anticlockwise circulation within Port Angeles Harbor,
due to predominance of northside flood and southside ebb
motion.
411
-------
2. A net ebb-direction transport in the Strait of Juan de Fuca
of about 2 miles per day, due to seaward movement of freshwater
land drainage (Herlinveaux and Tully, 1961).
3. A net eastward drift alongshore between Port Angeles Harbor
and Dungeness Spit, due to eddy movement associated with
net ebb-direction transport in the Strait.
The main effects of net circulation on waste distribution in the
Port Angeles area are the general restriction of wastes to the southern
portion of the Harbor, the movement of some wastes eastward alongshore
toward Dungeness Spit, and their eventual transport seaward once
dispersed into the Strait.
Vertical Waste Distribution. Vertical distributions of average,
maximum, and minimum SWL concentrations are shown in Figure 34-5 for
four representative stations in Port Angeles Harbor. Vertical distri-
bution of average SWL along a north-south transect within the Harbor
entrance is shown in Figure 34-6A. These patterns of vertical waste
distribution illustrate:
1. Waste concentration generally decreases with depth
throughout the Port; this is most pronounced nearest
the waste sources, becoming less evident with distance
from the sources.
2. A well-defined, waste-restricting surface layer is not
present; except for locations very near the waste sources,
the gradient of average waste concentration with depth is
fairly uniform from surface to bottom.
3. At least some waste concentration is present at all depths
within the Port; samples taken at the "control" station in
412
-------
50
SWL (ppm)
100 150
200
SWL (ppm)
50' 100 150 200
SWL (ppm)
20 40
SWL (ppm)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
IU
10
20
Q.
Ill
Q
30
UJ
10
X
£20
30
t-O—I
FIGURE 34-5. Vertical distribution of average, maximum, and minimum SWL concentrations at four stations
in Port Angeles Harbor; data from oceanographic studies, September 1962 to January 1964.
413
-------
NAUTICAL MILES
0.5 LQ
1.5
Location of |
vertical •
transect \
I
J
50 UJ
u
Q.
100 UJ
o
ISO
CONTOURS OF SWL /A\
CONCENTRATION (ppm)
LEGEND
2^ Contour of SWL
/ concentration
(ppm)
100
(B)
FIGURE 34-6. Distribution of average SWL concentrations (A) along a north-south vertical transect within
the Harbor entrance; and (B) at the surface in the Harbor; data from oceanographic studies, September
1962 to January 1964.
414
-------
the Strait during each cruise and in the Harbor during
a pulp mill closure showed that background SWL (FBI) values
are less than two ppm at the surface and less than one ppm
at depths greater than 50 feet.
In addition, the vertical transect of waste distribution
(Figure 34-6A) shows the tendency for confinement of the bulk of the
wastes to the southern portion of the Harbor.
Horizontal Waste Distribution. Horizontal distribution of
pulp mill wastes in the Port Angeles area is shown by the patterns
of average surface SWL within the Harbor (Figure 34-6B) and between
the Harbor and Dungeness Spit (Figure 34-7B). These distributions
show the general confinement of the bulk of the wastes to the southern
portion of the Harbor, as well as eventual movement of some wastes
eastward toward Dungeness Spit; both features are consistent with
water circulation patterns previously described. Maximum observed
surface SWL concentrations within the Harbor (Figure 34-7A) and
between the Harbor and Dungeness Spit (Figure 34-7B) are distributed
in essentially the same patterns as average SWL. These maximum SWL
values — from about two to more than ten times as great as corresponding
average values, depending on location—illustrate the extent to which
short-term water circulation affects waste movement in the Port Angeles
area; for instance, the high maximum values near Ediz Hook (Figure 34-7A)
reflect the intermittent northward circulation of Rayonier mill wastes
through eddy-siphoning action by flood current in the Strait (see
Figures 34-2 and 34-3).
Flushing of Wastes During Mill Closure. No wastes were discharged
from Rayonier mill between August 19 and September 3, 1963 due to mill
415
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• 4
• 692 '•
.149 250 4_2
61
206 55 490
106
•362 •
235 789 938
• •
LEGEND '«0
3825 3500 176
106 Maximum observed * • 9
• surface SWL
concentration (ppm)
(A)
. surface SWL concentration (ppm)
1UU Maximum
(B)
FIGURE 34-7. (A) Distribution of maximum observed surface SWL concentrations in the Port Angeles area,
data from oceanographic studies, September 1962 to January 1964 and from plankton ecology studies,
July 1963 to June 1964. (B) Distribution of average and maximum surface SWL between Ediz Hook and Dung
Dungeness Spit, data from oyster larvae bioassay studies, May 1963 to July 1965.
416
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closure by a labor strike; thus, the only pulp mill wastes discharged
into the Harbor during this period were those from Fibreboard mill.
Waste distribution observed on August 30, eleven days after Rayonier
closed operations, is shown in Figure 34-8 by the vertical distribution
of SWL along a north-south transect and the surface SWL pattern.
Comparison of these patterns with the distributions of average SWL
in the Harbor described previously (see Figure 34-6) show
(1) Fibreboard wastes are prominent only in the inner portion of the
Harbor, (2) the main portion of the Harbor has been flushed of nearly
all wastes at all depths, and (3) in the absence of pulp mill wastes,
background readings of SWL approach zero.
The mass of SWL contained within the Harbor during the August 30
survey is estimated at 1,730 tons, equivalent to the amount of SWL
discharged by Fibreboard mill in 2.0 days (see Table 33-1). Thus,
assuming that all wastes observed on August 30 were derived from
Fibreboard discharge, the average flushing time of Fibreboard wastes
out of Port Angeles Harbor at this time was also 2.0 days.
Water Quality in Port Angeles Harbor. The principal effect of
pulp mill wastes on water quality in the Port Angeles area is the
presence of sulfite waste liquors in concentrations potentially toxic
to marine life. Average surface SWL concentrations in the Harbor
(Figure 34-6B) exceed 15 ppm essentially over the entire area and
exceed 50 ppm in about 507» of the area. Maximum observed surface
SWL concentrations (Figure 34-7A) exceed 1,000 ppm within a one-half
mile radius of Rayonier outfall and, during the juvenile salmon studies
(see Section 35), exceeded 25,000 ppm within about 100 yards of their
417
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NAUTICAL MILES
0.5 LO
1.5
Location of
vertical
transect
50
b.
z
X
»-
0.
100
150
CONTOURS OF SWL /A*
CONCENTRATION(ppm) v '
<50
LEGEND
2^ Contour of SWL
' concentration
(ppm)
(B)
FIGURE 34-8. Distributions of SWL concentrations (A) along a north-south vertical transect within the
Harbor entrance, and (B) at the surface in the Harbor; August 30, 1964.
418
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outfall. About two and a half miles east of the Harbor entrance
(Figure 34-7B) the average and maximum surface SWL values were 200 ppm
and 1,365 ppm, respectively. Average SWL was 12 ppm near the base of
Dungeness Spit, more than 10 miles from the Harbor. The extent to which
these concentrations are harmful to marine life is presented in following
sections (also see Parts II, III, and IV).
Other water quality properties in the Harbor are variably
influenced by pulp mill wastes; Figure 34-9 shows a typical surface
pattern of correlation between increasing SWL concentrations and
decreasing water quality in terms of DO, pH, and water transparency.
Surface DO in the southern portion of the Harbor averages about
one mg/1 less than "control" DO in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Low
DO values do occur, however; fifteen percent of surface samples taken
along a 0.3 mile radius from Rayonier outfall had DO values less than
5 mg/1. On the other hand, surface pH values in the Harbor generally
showed only slight depression except in areas immediately adjacent to
the outfalls.
Water quality data taken during the juvenile salmon bioassay
(see Table 35-2) show that serious water quality degradation--SWL values
above 800 ppm, DO approaching zero, pH depressed, and presence of sulfides--
occurs in the dockfront areas near each of the three pulp mills.
Bottom Deposits. Natural sediments in Port Angeles Harbor vary
from gravel and coarse sand near the shoreline to homogeneous, olive-
green colored, odorless muds which cover most of the Harbor floor.
In some parts of the Harbor the upper inch of mud is brownish color,
containing abundant mud balls and worm castings. In the southern and
419
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western portions of the Harbor, natural sediments are overlain by
extensive sludge beds mainly associated with pulp mill operations.
The sludge consists of two types: a brownish-black to black, fine-
grained, flocculent material smelling of hydrogen sulfide (fUS); and
a light grey-colored mass composed mainly of wood fibers and also
having a strong I^S odor.
The distribution and thickness of the sludge deposit is shown
in Figure 34-10A; the zero contour represents a diffuse boundary
beyond which no trace of sludge or ^S odor were detected. The Harbor
area enclosed by this zero contour is about 7 million square yards,
or slightly more than 2 square miles. Total volume of sludge contained
in the Harbor within the limits of the one-inch thickness contour is
approximately 280,000 cubic yards. The sludge layer is thickest--
16.5 inches — at the western end of the Harbor where currents are too
weak to disperse settleable wastes before sedimentation. Most of this
particular accumulation primarily resulted from past discharge of paper
mill wastes to the Harbor by Crown Zellerbach mill; this effluent since
has been rerouted to the Strait (see Section 33) but the sludge bed
remains. Another area of appreciable sludge layer thickening surrounds
Rayonier mill where a maximum sludge depth of 14.5 inches was measured.
Chunks of floating sludge, buoyed to the surface by gases of decomposi-
tion and smelling of t^S, have been frequently observed in both of these
areas.
The distribution pattern of percent volatile solids in the Harbor
surface sediments (Figure 34-10B) resembles that of the sludge distribu-
tion (Figure 34-10A) except for the noticeable volatile solids build-up
421
-------
(A)
_5
14.5
IB)
'61.4
FIGURE 34-10. (A) Thickness in inches and area! distribution of sludge deposits, and (B) distribution
of percent volatile solids in the sludge and bottom sediments in Port Angeles Harbor; September 30, 1964.
422
-------
along the western portion of the north shore. This particular build-up,
in large part, is due to extensive log-rafting operations in that area.
DISCUSSION
The natural landforms of Ediz Hook and Dungeness Spit transform
currents in the Strait of Juan de Fuca into a variable, but predominantly
anticlockwise, eddy-system of water circulation between Port Angeles
Harbor and the Spit. Consequently, pulp and paper processing wastes
discharged by the Fibreboard and Rayonier mills are dispersed mainly
through the southern portion of the Harbor and eastward alongshore
toward Dungeness Spit. Because of the eddy-nature of the circulation
and limited depths in the dispersal zone, dilution of these wastes
within the system is not sufficient to prevent adverse effects
on water quality. Within the Harbor, the discharge of strong wastes
results in substantial water quality degradation and settleable solids
accumulation surrounding both the Fibreboard and Rayonier outfalls.
Further, currents are too weak to scour and remove the extensive
sludge bed formed at the western end of the Harbor by the now-discontinued
discharge of high-solids wastes from Crown Zellerbach's paper mill.
Outside the Harbor, the confining eastward eddy-circulation of wastes,
particularly those from Rayonier mill, results in waste concentrations
in the system well above those found to be seriously damaging to the
marine environment. In summary, the hydraulic characteristics of the
Port Angeles Harbor-Dungeness Spit eddy system are not adequate to
accept the large volumes of strong pulp and paper processing wastes
without resulting in serious pollution of the system.
423
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In following sections are described the types and degrees of waste-
attributed damages to marine life now occurring in the study area.
Each section presents water quality criteria and abatement measures
for prevention of such damages. In preview, adequate abatement will
require significant reduction in SWL concentrations throughout the
system, physical removal of existing sulfide-producing sludge beds,
prevention of further solids accumulation, and maintenance of tolerable
levels of DO and pH in the Harbor. Significantly, these measures must
be met primarily by treatment of the wastes for removal of settleable
and volatile dissolved solids, rather than by changes in disposal
practices. Because of the presence of the large eddy system and its
confining effect on wastes, a change in outfall location to any reasonable
site within the Harbor or eastwards alongshore would simply relocate the
damaging effects rather than remove them as required. There is not
sufficient depth available at reasonable locations within the system
to provide for adequate dilution of wastes by disposal through a
deep-water diffuser outfall. Also, currents are too weak and variable
to insure prevention of sludge accumulation at reasonably located outfall
sites. In conclusion, local hydraulics makes the Port Angeles Harbor-
Dungeness Spit eddy system unsuitable for the disposal of untreated
wastes from the Fibreboard and Rayonier mill operations. Thustcompliance
with the water quality criteria and abatement measures must be effected
by adequate treatment of mill wastes prior to discharge.
424
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35. JUVENILE SALMON
The Elwha and Dungeness Rivers, Morse Creek, and other smaller
streams tributary to the Strait of Juan de Fuca in the Port Angeles
area (see Figure 32-2) are natural spawning and rearing grounds for
the several species of salmon and anadromous trout common to Puget
Sound. Some of these streams also are planted with hatchery-reared
salmon. Accordingly, during the spring and summer months, juvenile
salmonids migrate from these streams and move into and through the
subject study area, including Port Angeles Harbor. Port Angeles
Harbor, however, is polluted by waste discharges from the Rayonier
and Fibreboard mills and by sludge deposits formed from waste solids
discharged by these mills and, previously, by the Crown Zellerbach
mill (see Section 34). Therefore, water of a quality inimical to
young salmon occurs in parts of the Harbor, and for this reason, the
Washington Pollution Control Commission (WPCC) undertook juvenile
salmon occurrence and bioassay studies in these waters during April
and May 1964.
STUDIES
Occurrence Study. Beach-seine sampling was employed to determine
the occurrence of juvenile salmon in the Harbor. Samples were
regularly taken at the seining stations depicted in Figure 35-1.
In addition, estimates of the number of young salmon seen at these
stations and in the Boat Basin (Figure 35-1) were recorded.
425
-------
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426
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Bioassay Study. Thirteen bioassays were conducted in the Harbor
to determine the incidence and causes of conditions deleterious
to juvenile salmon. These were conducted at the six bioassay stations
also shown in Figure 35-1. In each test, concurrent in situ bioassays
were run in the live tank of a floating lab (on station) and in each
of five or six perimeter live boxes located in the vicinity of the
station but 50 to 300 feet away from the floating lab. In each
bioassay, ten test fish were placed in the live tank or live box and
were exposed in the near-surface water for a period of 2% to 4% hours,
unless a 100% kill terminated the bioassay in less than 2% hours. At
the floating lab, test-fish behavior and mortality were continuously
observed and water samples (pumped from inside the live tank) were
collected at intervals of 20 minutes or less. The live boxes were
visited less frequently to observe the condition and mortality of test
fish. With one exception, water samples were not collected at the live
boxes.
METHODS
Occurrence Study Methods. Beach-seine samples were taken with a
100 x 6-foot, bag-type net. For each sample, hauls parallel to the
shoreline for about 100 feet were made. Fish captured were identified
and counted.
Bioassay Methods. Fish used in Tests A, C, D, G, H and I were
pink salmon fry. In other tests, both pink and chum salmon fry were
employed. These fish were collected in an area unaffected by high
concentrations of mill wastes or by sludge deposits (along the Ediz
Hook shoreline between Station A and C—Figure 35-1) and were kept in
427
-------
a holding box near Station C for at least 24 hours before use. Only
those fish in good condition were used in the tests, and none was
used more than once. Handling techniques were the same as those
described in Section 8.
The floating lab used is described in Section 25 and pictured in
Figure 25-3. The live boxes used for perimeter bioassays are
described in Section 8 and illustrated in Figure 8-4.
Water samples collected from inside the live tank of the floating
lab were analyzed for temperature, DO, pH, total sulfides, and
salinity by the methods described in Section 25. In addition, SWL
(10% solids) was determined by the modified Pearl-Benson method
(Barnes, et al.; 1963). Except for salinity and SWL which were
analyzed in the laboratory, analyses were made on the float immediately
after collection.
RESULTS
Occurrence of Juvenile Salmon in the Harbor. Results of beach-seine
sampling and visual observations of fish in Port Angeles Harbor are
tabulated in Table 35-1. These data evidence the occurrence of young
salmon, particularly chum and pink fry, in the Harbor and even in the
vicinity of the Rayonier mill where pulp wastes substantially affect
water quality.
Bioassay Mortalities and Associated Water Quality. Results of the
13 bioassay tests are summarized in Table 35-2. These data are
arranged by area, and within each area-grouping, are arranged into the
categories: (1) data from tests wherein 100% mortality occurred at
the floating lab, and (2) data from tests in which no mortality occurred
428
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TABLE 35-1. Numbers of juvenile salmon and other fish caught or seen
in Port Angeles Harbor, April-May 1964.
Station Species
A Pink and Chum
Chinook
Silver
Total Number
Caught by
Beach Seining
419
2
1
Estimated Number
Visually
Observed
50
Pink and Chum
Pink and Chum
349
1,100
D
E
Boat Basin
Pink and Chum
Smelt
Starry Flounder
Pink and Chum
Sea -run Cutthroat
Starry Flounder
Smelt
Pink and Chum
78
50
1
205
4
4
*
1
35
* Smelt were consistently captured at this station but were not counted.
at the floating lab. The water-quality data for each test are derived
from the water samples collected at the floating lab; no samples were
taken at the perimeter live boxes but for the single exception footnoted,
The mortalities observed in the perimeter live-boxes during each test
also are given.
429
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The mortality data in Table 35-2 evidence the frequent
occurrence of toxic conditions in the vicinity of each of the three
mills. In the vicinity of the Crown Zellerbach mill, 26% of all
bioassays (including both floating-lab and live-box bioassays) yielded
100% kills; in the vicinity of the Fibreboard mill, 33% of all bioassays
resulted in 100% kills; and near the Rayonier mill, 37% of all bioassays
resulted in 100% kills. With but two exceptions (both 100% kills
in Test A), these complete kills occurred during minus tides. These
kills occurred very rapidly, and each was preceded by a period when
the test fish exhibited severe distress and loss of equilibrium.
Note, that in the floating-lab bioassays, five 100% kills occurred
after exposure periods of 20 minutes or less, and all 100% kills
occurred within exposure periods of 100 minutes or less.
The water quality data in Table 35-2 indicate that sulfides were
the principal cause of the mortalities observed. With but one
exception (Test L), all 100% kills in the floating-lab bioassays were
associated with total sulfides of 0.3 mg/1 or more. On the other hand,
complete survival of test fish only occurred when observed maximum
concentrations of total sulfides were 2 mg/1 or less. In several of
the sulfide-associated kills, other factors may have contributed to
the fatalities noted; ;L.e_., dissolved oxygen concentrations were
significantly low in Test B, and DO became depleted in Tests E and M;
SWL concentrations were significantly high in Tests E, F, and M; and
pH was significantly low in Test M. In Test L, in which only a trace
of total sulfides was detected, depletion of dissolved oxygen and
exceedingly high SWL concentrations were probably the cause of
431
-------
mortality noted at the floating lab. During this test, the test fish
reacted much differently than in other tests; viz., they surfaced,
acted sluggish, and displayed jerking movements; and accumulative
mortality, rather than proceeding rapidly, increased slowly but
continuously throughout the exposure period.
DISCUSSION
The finding of juvenile salmon and other fish in Port Angeles
Harbor demonstrates their natural utilization of these waters.
Furthermore, the bioassay results show that, even in those parts of
the Harbor most affected by sludge deposits and waste discharges from
the Rayonier and Fibreboard mills, water quality is frequently adequate
for the survival of young salmon; i_.£., complete survival was observed
in 50% of the bioassays conducted near these mills (Table 35-2).
Consequently, it is concluded that juvenile salmon at times migrate
into and through Port Angeles Harbor without being inhibited by the
water quality therein.
Bioassay results in Table 35-2 also show, however, that water
acutely toxic to juvenile salmon can develop in the Harbor. The toxic
conditions develop rapidly enough to entrap fish by causing immediate
loss of equilibrium and inhibiting their ability to escape to waters
of favorable quality. Rapid mortalities follow. It is concluded,
therefore, that numbers of juvenile salmon and, possibly, other fishes
are killed by polluted waters in the Harbor.
The water quality results in Table 35-2 implicate sulfides as the
principal toxicants causing the bioassay mortalities noted. These
432
-------
data also indicate that depressed dissolved oxygen concentrations,
high SWL concentrations, and low pH levels have additional adverse
effects. Therefore, from this information and similar information
presented in Sections 8 and 27, it is recommended that the following
water quality criteria be met at all times and at all points in Port
Angeles Harbor to provide for the protection of young salmon and
other fishes in these waters:
Total sulfides no detectable amount
DO greater than 5 mg/1
SWL (10% solids) less than 1,000 ppm
pH greater than 6.5
Other toxicants no detectable amount
To ensure that these criteria are met, it is further recommended that
water quality throughout the Harbor be adequate for the survival and
normal behavior of juvenile salmon during 4-hour in situ bioaasays
similar to the live-box tests described in Section 8.
The cause of toxic concentrations of total sulfides in Port
Angeles Harbor are the sludge deposits formed from waste solids
discharged by the Rayonier and Fibreboard mills and, previously, by
the Crown Zellerbach mill (see Section 34 and Figure 34-10).
This sludge undergoes anaerobic decomposition and, thereby, produces
HoS which affects surface-water quality, particularly during minus
tides. Clearly, abatement of sulfide toxicity will require removal of
existing sludge deposits and prevention of future accumulations through
substantial reduction in the discharge of suspended solids into the
Harbor by the Rayonier and Fibreboard mills.
433
-------
The causes of the adverse effects of depressed dissolved oxygen
concentrations, high SWL concentrations, and low pH levels are,
primarily, the discharges of digester-strength sulfite waste liquor
by the same two mills. Clearly, abatement of these problems will
require the reduction or treatment of these wastes.
434
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36. BOTTOM ORGANISMS
Settled waste solids from the Crown Zellerbach, Fibreboard,
and Rayonier mills have accumulated to form extensive sludge deposits
in Port Angeles Harbor, particularly in the western third of the
Harbor and in the vicinity of the Rayonier mill (see Section 34 and
Figure 34-10). For the reason that such deposits can have a deleterious
effect on benthic fauna, the Project conducted a benthic study in the
Harbor on September 30, 1964,,
STUDY
Sediment samples, one from each station, were collected with a
0025-cubic-foot van Veen dredge from the 31 stations shown in
Figure 36-1 „ These were analyzed for percent volatile solids of the
sediment, and the included bottom organisms were identified and their
relative numbers estimated.
METHODS
Sampling and laboratory procedures were the same as described
in Section 9; J^o^., gross appearance of the sample was noted and
recorded, a portion was frozen and delivered to the laboratory for
volatile solids analysis, and the remaining portion was preserved,
stained, and delivered to the laboratory for examination of the
benthos. Organisms were classified as to kind, each kind being a
group o£ organisms having similar life zones and food habits.
In each sample, the relative number of each kind was estimated;
_i0£., abundant, common, few, scarce, rare, and none.
435
-------
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RESULTS
Results of the study are tabulated in Table 36-1. To provide a
numerical estimate of the population densities, the relative-number
categories were assigned rank numbers as described in the footnote
of the table. Further, the data are grouped by area (see Figure 36-1),
as indicated by differences among population densities, population
diversities, and sediment volatile solids (values in the last three
columns) of the areas.
Note in the Main Area of the Harbor (1) that population densities
are moderate and fairly consistent as indicated by the range of total
relative numbers from 8 to 17; (2) that population diversity is high
and consistent as evidenced by the 4 to 7 range in kinds of organisms
per sample; and (3) that percent volatile solids in the sediments are
generally low, ranging from 3 to 10% except for three anomalous values.
These data describe the natural and unaffected benthic fauna and sediment
characteristics of the Harbor. In Areas 1, 2, 3, and 4, population
densities and population diversities are significantly lower (95%
confidence limit) and percent volatile solids of the sediments are
significantly higher (95%, confidence level) than respective values
in the Main Area. These comparisons describe associated damage to
the benthic fauna and accumulation of organic waste solids in the
sediments in those portions of Port Angeles Harbor distinguished by
shading in Figure 36-1. Furthermore, the data of Table 36-1 describe
greater benthos damage and greater sludge disposition in Areas 1 and
4. Areas 2 and 3 appear to be transition zones from areas of
substantial damage to the main area where little or no sludge
effects are evident.
437
-------
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DISCUSSION
The total shaded area of benthos damage in Figure 36*1 covers,
approximately, the same area as covered by sludge one inch thick and
greater (Figure 34-10A), and as covered by sediments containing
volatile solids of 10% and greater (Figure 34-10B). That the three
mills—Crown Zellerbach, Fibreboard, and Rayonier--have been the
principal sources of the waste solids that caused the described
sludge deposit and biological damage is evident from the configuration
of the referenced areas in all three figures. Furthermore, substantial
quantities of pulp fiber were found in all samples collected in this
sludge deposit.
Untreated domestic wastes also are discharged into the Harbor
by the City of Port Angeles (see Figure 32-1) . These contribute
settleable solids to the sludge mass described, but this contribution
is considerably smaller than that of the three mills combined; _i.£. ,
1.2 tons per day vs. 53.5 tons per day of volatile suspended solids
(see Tables 33-1, 33-2, and 33-3).
The largest area of sludge accumulation is in the western end
of the Harbor (Areas 1 and 2, Figure 36-1). Weak circulation in the
closed end of the Harbor and waste discharges by the Crown Zellerbach
and Fibreboard mills contributed to this situation. The Crown Zellerbach
mill has modified its in-plant sewer system and now discharges all
wastes including solids-bearing wastes into the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
However, continued waste discharge by the Fibreboard mill and little,
if any, removal of accumulated sludge by the weak currents in this
western portion of the Harbor serve to maintain this sludge deposit.
439
-------
It is clearly evident that abatement of damage to the benthic
fauna of Port Angeles Harbor will require the removal of existing
sludge deposits and prevention of future sludge accumulation.
440
-------
37. OYSTER LARVAE
Planktonic life stages of shellfish and other marine animals are
found in the Port Angeles area. These planktonic forms are usually
more susceptible to alterations of the environment than are later life
stages, and the greatest and most subtle damage to a species may occur
during the egg or larval stages. Although no commercial oyster grounds
are present, a commercial and sport clam fishery is found along the
beaches toward and past Dungeness Spit wherever suitable bottom
materials occur. Dungeness crabs are taken throughout the area. To
assess the potential damage to the early-life stages of marine organisms
in the Port Angeles area, the Project conducted two investigations
using Pacific oyster larva bioassays: (1) a field-sample oyster-larva
response study and (2) a waste-sample oyster-larva response study.
STUDIES
The field-sample oyster-larva study in the Port Angeles area
was conducted at 12 stations (Figure 37-1). Surface water samples were
collected at these stations at monthly intervals between May 1963
and August 1964; additional samples were taken during the periods of
July 6-9 and November 16-30, 1964, to evaluate water-quality changes
during closures of the Rayonier and Fibreboard Products mills.
Supplementary samples were collected on July 13, 1964, as checks on
water quality and to provide additional "overlap" sampling.
The waste-sample oyster-larva response study was conducted on
24-hour composite samples of in-plant wastes from (1) three waste lines
441
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at the Rayonier pulp mill on June 9, 1964, (2) two waste lines at
Fibreboard Products mill on April 22, 1964, and (3) four waste lines
at the Crown Zellerbach mill on January 27, 1965.
All bioassays and associated laboratory analyses for both studies
were performed or supervised by Charles E. Woelke of the Washington
Shellfish Laboratory staff.
METHODS
The methods and procedures used in these studies are described
in Section 11.
RESULTS
Results of Field-Sample Study. The results for the Port Angeles
area are presented and discussed by Dr. G. J. Paulik, Biometrician,
University of Washington School of Fisheries, in a final report (1966a)
Descriptions of the statistical tests used are given by Paulik in
four interim reports (1963, 1964, 1965a, and 1965b) and in the final
report (op. cit.).
Bioassay-response results of the 16-month study are presented in
Table 37-1. These results are based on data derived after removal of
(1) samples having salinities of 20 /oo or less, (2) samples bioassayed
during the 1963-64 winter period, and (3) samples collected early on
July 6, before waste flows began again after the July 4th holiday,
and on November 16 and 23, 1964, when the mills were not operating
because of a labor strike. The rationale for the removal of these
samples is given in Section 11.
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Table 37-1 and the discussion below, then, consider only those
data derived from (1) samples not influenced by low salinities or
poor test animals and (2) from those samples taken during normal mill
operations which reflect the usual ranges of water quality and
environmental conditions found in the study area.
In column 3 of Table 37-1, the response measure "mean percent-
abnormal" is given for each station. These values, together with the
mean SWL values, column 5, are shown (rounded) in Figure 37-2> Note
that, in spite of the fact that the samples were taken over a wide
variety of meteorological and hydrographic conditions, there are
clear-cut differences between the individual stations. Further, a
definite relationship is evident between mean percent abnormal and
mean SWL concentration—mean percent abnormals increases with increases
in SWL concentration. Note also that percent-abnormal values increase
with decreasing distance from pulp mill waste sources. These
relationships, together with observed decreases in SWL and abnormalities
that followed mill closures and the increases in SWL and abnormalities
following resumption of production, are evidence that pulping wastes
affect oyster larva development and that the sources of these wastes
are the pulp mills in Port Angeles.
Larval Abnormality vs SWL Concentration. Figure 37-3 shows the
relationship between percent abnormals and SWL concentration. The
method of deriving this logistic response curve is given in Section 11.
Note that larval abnormality begins to increase very rapidly at SWL
concentrations of about 10 ppm and that near-10070 abnormality is
reached at about 50 ppm. When this curve is compared to the curve of
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the Bellingham-Anacortes area (Section 11) and that of the Everett area
(Section 27) it is evident that the wastes of the Port Angeles area
are intermediate in toxicity, being more toxic in the lower
concentrations than the wastes of the Bellingham-Anacortes area but
less toxic than wastes of the Everett area at similar concentrations of
SWL.
Larval Abnormality in Controls. In Section 11 a comparison was
made between laboratory controls, carry-along controls, and "field
controls". The "field controls" are defined as samples that (1) had
salinities greater 20°/oo; (2) were not collected during the 1963-64
winter period; and (3) had SWL concentrations of 2.0 ppm or less.
When these restrictions are applied to samples from the Port
Angeles area, the results are as shown in Table 37-2. Note that the
overall mean of control abnormals (bottom row) are about 2% and are
significantly lower than the mean abnormal values found at stations
where above-background concentrations of SWL were observed (Table 37-1).
The field-control and carry-along-control abnormalities do not differ
significantly from the laboratory-control abnormalities and strengthen
the conclusion that the techniques used were both sensitive and valid
for detecting the effects of pulping wastes on oyster-larva development.
Larval Abnormality During Mill Closure. A labor strike stopped
production at all of the mills in Port Angeles during the period of
November 12-26, 1964. In Table 37-3 the results from samples collected
on November 16 and 23, during the shutdown, are compared with the overall
mean results and those obtained on November 30, after resumption of
production.
448
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This demonstration of the relationship between water toxicity
and pulp mill operations is striking and unmistakable. Note that
SWL values fell to 5 ppm or less at all stations by November 16,
after about four days of little or no production, and to zero, essentially
by November 23, after about 11 days. These data suggest a total flushing
time of more than four days during this period and, also, clearly
establish normal or "background" levels of SWL and percent-abnormal
oyster larvae for the Port Angeles area; i.e., less than 1 ppm SWL
and less than 2% abnormals--about the same as laboratory controls.
The marked increase in SWL concentrations and in percent abnormal
larvae at all polluted stations is noted on November 30, about five
days after production was resumed. The probability that such an
increase in SWL was due to chance is less than 0.05, and the probability
that the increase in percent abnormals was due to chance is less than
0.005 (the same results would occur by chance less than five times in
1,000 occurrences). In both cases, the null hypothesis that the reopening
of the mills did not affect either the SWL values or the percent of
abnormal larvae is rejected. Results obtained from samples collected
on July 6, 1964 (after the July 4th holiday closure), as compared with
the results of June 22 and July 9, 1964 sampling, show similar
relationships,
The percent abnormal and SWL values for November 23 in relationship
to distances from the Port Angeles mills are shown in Figure 37-4,
The near-complete flushing of the Port Angeles system after 11 days is
evidenced by the low (background) levels of percent abnormals and SWL.
451
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Results of the Waste-Sample Study. The results of this study,
given below, are fully presented and discussed by Woelke in a report
to the Project (1965, unpublished). The descriptions of methods used
and data treatment are given in Section 11 of this report. Briefly,
24-hour-composite samples of wastes were serially diluted with fresh
unpolluted seawater and were bioassayed with oyster larvae. The
response measures — percent abnormal larvae--of the various dilutions of
a waste were plotted on probit paper against the appropriate dilution
ratios and SWL concentrations; from the line of best fit, dilution ratios
and SWL values for the 0, 20, 50, and 100% abnormal levels were
determined. These data are given in Table 37-4.
It is seen that the most toxic wastes are associated with chemical
pulping processes although the SWL levels do not show any particular
pattern when the data are arrayed by dilution ratios. In this regard,
note that the pulping process employed by Crown Zellerbach is
mechanical, and dissolved chemicals, lignins, wood sugars, etc., are
in low concentrations in the mill's pulping wastes. These substances
are produced to a degree in this mill's bleaching operation, however
(see Section 33).
All of the Crown Zellerbach wastes are discharged to the Strait
of Juan de Fuca where adequate dilution is available. However, the
wastes from the Rayonier and Fibreboard Products mills are discharged
into Port Angeles Harbor where a total flushing time exceeding four
days is indicated by our data. To further illustrate the toxic effects
of the waste streams shown in Table 37-4, the amounts of dilution water
required to reduce the toxicity of each to non-harmful levels (i.e., no
larval abnormality) were computed and are shown in Table 37-5. On the
453
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454
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basis of this study, it is calculated that over 270 billion gallons
per day of unpolluted dilution water would be required in Port Angeles
Harbor to dilute these wastes to that degree.
TABLE 37-5. Dilution water required to reduce the toxicity of Port
Angeles area wastes to zero (have no effect on oyster larva
development).
Waste Stream
Waste Flow*
(mgd)
Dilution Water
Required for
no Abnormality
(cfs)**
Rayonier
Main sewer
Screen room
Barker
Fibreboard Products
Composite sewer
Crown Zellerbach
Bleach wash
Main mill paper machine
Groundwood screenings
Groundwood refiner
20.90
9.00
0.70
4.60
2.92
5.90
0.91
1.34
323,370
27,850
110
71,170
9,040
9,130
280
210
* Average flow rate, in millions of gallons per day, for period
when samples were collected.
** Cubic feet per second (one cfs is equal to 643,317 gallons
per day).
455
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DISCUSSION
Although no commercial production of oysters is known for the
Port Angeles area, an appreciable sport and commercial clam fishery is
found along the beaches toward and past Dungeness Spit where suitable
bottom materials occur. As noted in Section 10, all of the bivalve
mollusk larvae and adults tested thus far show about the same response
to similar levels of SWL, so the results of this study reveal probable
damage to the shellfishes of the Port Angeles area.
Since the circulation in the Port Angeles area is a counter-clockwise
eddy system with pulpmill wastes being dispersed eastward alongshore
toward Dungeness Spit, treatment of these wastes is necessary for
shellfish protection. Attention is called to the tremendous amounts
of dilution water required to reduce the toxicity of these wastes to
non-harmful levels (Table 37-5) and the rather slow flushing of the
wastes following complete cessation of production (see page 436).
456
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38. BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES
The waters of Port Angeles Harbor are used for commercial and
sport fishing, log rafting and sorting activities, towboat operations,
pleasure boating, sport diving, and shoreline recreation. Water
contact incidental to these uses makes the bacterial quality of these
waters important. Sources of bacterial pollution within the Harbor
include the discharge of untreated wastes from the several City of
Port Angeles sewer outfalls (see Figure 32-1 for outfall locations),
waterfront industries and properties, and boats. Studies were
conducted by the Project to assess the extent of bacterial pollution
in Port Angeles Harbor.
STUDIES
The Project conducted three bacteriological surveys in Port Angeles
Harbor, one in September 1964 and two in August 1966. On each survey,
concentrations of total coliforms and fecal streptococci were
determined for surface samples taken at each of 28 sampling stations
located within the Harbor (Figure 38-1). Associated surface water
temperature and salinity also were measured at each station.
METHODS
Sample collection, handling, and analyses during the Project
bacteriological studies of Port Angeles Harbor were the same as those
described in Section 15.
457
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RESULTS
The average concentration of total coliforms observed at each
station over the three surveys is shown in Figure 38-1. Note that
the average bacterial count exceeds 1,000 organisms/100 ml along at
least two of the City's three miles of waterfront. A comparison of
the bacterial distribution (Figure 38-1) with the locations of the
City of Port Angeles' sewer outfalls (see Figure 32-1) shows that
the highest bacterial counts are found definitely associated with
sewer outfall locations.
DISCUSSION
Bacterial standards proposed by the Washington Pollution Control
Commission for these waters require that average concentrations of
total coliforms be less than 1,000/100 ml for water contact use. The
Project's studies show that this criterion is severely violated along
a two-mile section of the City of Port Angeles waterfront. Thus, this
area is contaminated and should not be used for water contact activities.
The principal cause of bacterial pollution in Port Angeles Harbor
is the shoreline discharge of raw sewage from the City of Port Angeles.
These wastes, collectively estimated at 2.2 mgd (see Section 33), also
contribute substantial BOD and solids loadings to the Harbor, resulting
in local water quality degradation and solids accumulations. Preliminary
design of a waste collection system and primary treatment facility was
developed for the City by an engineering firm in 1966 but it has not
progressed to construction; thus bacterial contamination and sewage
pollution of the Harbor persist. This continuing discharge of raw wastes
459
-------
by the City produces an unreasonable public health hazard and nuisance
condition which should be immediately abated.
460
-------
39. SUMMARY
There are two principal sources of pulp mill wastes in the Port
Angeles area; the Fibreboard Paper Products Corp. pulp and board mill
located on the south shore at the inner end of Port Angeles Harbor, and
the Rayonier Incorporated pulp mill located on the south shore at the
Harbor entrance. Both mills discharge process wastes directly to
Harbor surface waters. Of the two mills, Rayonier Incorporated is by
far the more significant waste source, contributing about 92 percent of
the combined discharges of SWL, COD, 6005, and total solids. Wastes
from these mills are found throughout Port Angeles Harbor, particularly
in the southern portion, and eastward nearshore as far as Dungeness
Spit, some 12 miles from the Harbor entrance.
The Crown Zellerbach Corp. pulp (mechanical) and paper products
mill, located at the inner end of the Harbor, discharges its wastes
directly to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Except for some transient
local collection near the outfall these wastes generally are dispersed
seaward by Strait currents and, thus, are not prominent within the main
Port Angeles study area. However, during past years the now-discontinued
Crown Zellerbach discharge of high solids wastes into Port Angeles
Harbor substantially contributed to a large sludge bed still present at
the inner end of the Harbor.
Project studies have shown that these wastes are damaging to marine
life in the Port Angeles study area. The damages are of two types:
(1) acute damages, occurring within the Harbor adjacent to each mill
461
-------
and mainly associated with the concentrated aulfite waste liquors and
settleable solids in the mill effluents, and (2) chronic damages,
occurring throughout the study area and associated with dilute
concentrations of sulfite waste liquors.
Within Port Angeles Harbor, waste discharges from Fibreboard and
Rayonier produce high waste concentrations, sludge deposits and attendant
water quality degradation surrounding each mill. Also, the sludge
deposit formed by past Crown Zellerbach discharges continues to seriously
degrade water quality adjacent to that mill. These conditions are
incompatible with marine life and interfere with other legitimate
water uses. Specifically, mill wastes discharged into the Harbor have
been shown to:
1. Injure juvenile salmon migrating through the Harbor.
2. Form sludge deposits which damage benthic organisms,
produce harmful water quality degradation, and result
in general aesthetically unattractive conditions.
It is imperative that wastes from all three mills be treated
for removal of settleable solids prior to discharge.
Of even greater importance to marine life in the study area is
the presence of dilute sulfite waste liquor (from Fibreboard and Rayonier
mills) in waters throughout the Port Angeles study area. Such wastes,
even in concentrations as low as 5 to 15 ppm, have been found harmful to
immature forms of fish and shellfish. Project bioassay studies in the
Port Angeles area show that extensive damages occur to oyster larva
at waste levels found in surface waters of the Harbor and eastward
462
-------
alongshore to Dungeness Spit. On the basis of other bioassay studies
reported for Bellingham and Everett (Parts I and III, this report),
these waste levels also are damaging to a wide variety of important
marine life found in the affected portion of the Port Angeles study area,
including crabs, clams, sole, cod, anchovy, herring and smelt.
The waste assimilation capacity of the Port Angeles study area is
seriously limited by the presence of a large, slow moving, predominantly
anti-clockwise, eddy circulation of water between Port Angeles Harbor
and Dungeness Spit. This eddy tends to confine Fibreboard and Rayonier
mill wastes to shallower waters alongshore before eventually dispersing
them to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This results in harmful concentrations
of SWL throughout the eddy. Inadequate depth precludes relocation of
the mill outfalls (to any reasonable site) within the eddy system to
secure acceptable waste dilution. This is particularly true of the
Rayonier mill because of its large volume of waste discharge. Therefore,
to prevent further damage to the marine resources of the Port Angeles
study area, it will be necessary to significantly reduce sulfite waste
liquors at the source. Minimum protection of the marine biota during
their most sensitive life stages requires that sulfite waste liquor
concentration not exceed 10 ppm within 50 feet of the surface depth
beyond an initial waste dispersion zone. The initial waste dispersion
zone is defined as the area within Port Angeles Harbor bounded on the
east by an arc formed by that radius originating from Rayonier Incorporated
and extending to the eastward end of Ediz Hook, swung to the east.
The Pen-Ply plywood mill discharges a small amount of glue wastes
to the Harbor, but no significant adverse effects on water quality were
observed.
463
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The City of Port Angeles discharges all of its domestic wastes
untreated into Port Angeles Harbor. As a result, more than two miles
of the City's waterfront is bacterially contaminated for water-contact
use. Also, this waste source contributes substantial BOD and settleable
solids loading to the Harbor. Protection of those persons engaged in
contact use of these waters requires immediate abatement of this
pollution.
464
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474
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