STUDIES REGARDING THE EFFECT OF
THE RESERVE MINING COMPANY
DISCHARGE ON LAKE SUPERIOR
SUPPLEMENT May 18, 1973
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Enforcement anil General Counsel
Washington, D.C. 20460
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STUDIES REGARDING THE EFFECT OF
THE RESERVE MINING COMPANY
DISCHARGE ON LAKE SUPERIOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCT
Library, Region V
1 North Wacker Drive
Chicago, Illinois 60506
SUPPLEMENT May 18,1973
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington,D.C. 20460
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3KVIROKM&ITAL PrCTECTICN AGENCY
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SUPPLEMENT CONTENTS*
E. Bennette Henson et al., The Ecological Effects of
Taconite Tailings Disposal on the Benthic Popula-
tions of Wes tern Lake Superior 1160
'"Armand E. Lemke, Characterization of the North Shore
Surface Waters of Lake Superior 1320
Joseph Shapiro, The Effects of Taconite Tailings On
the Phytoplankton of Lake Superior 1378
*Further scientific works will be added to the supplement as
appropriate.
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THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF TACONITE TAILING DISPOSAL
ON THE BENTHIC POPULATIONS
OF WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR
Prepared by:
E. B. Henson
University of Vermont
Burlington, Vt. 05401
E. C. Keller
West Virginia University
Morgantown, W. Va. 26506
A. J. McErlean
Office of Technical Analysis
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
W. P. Alley
Zoology Department
California State Univ. at Los Angeles
Los Angeles, Calif. 90032
P. E. Etter
Office of Technical Analysis
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
May 18, 1973
1161
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The Ecological Effects of Taconite Tailings Disposal
on the Benthic Populations of Western Lake Superior
E, B. Henson
E. C. Keller
A. J. McErlean
W. P. Alley
P. E. Etter
Errata and Addendum
Page Line
1165 9 Insert the word "generally" between "Pontoporeia" and "require".
1165 12 Should read "b. Pontoporeia requires ...".
1165 17 Insert "and perhaps detritus" after "bottom sediments".
1165 19 Delete "Reproduction occurs in the winter." and substitute
"Reproduction occurs intermittently throughout the year in the
deeper waters of the lake."
1189 1 Substitute "Pontoporeia" for "this organism".
1211 6 Delete "Alley and Anderson, 1968".
1213 Table
D "Greater than" symbol needed before "105 m".
1221 6 Insert "pelagic region of the" after the word "the".
1245 In the last sentence, delete "1939" and substitute "1949".
1254 Page 1254 should be inserted between pages 1257 and 1258.
1310 4 Insert "for the comparison of two means" between "test" and "for"
For all correlation matrix tables (tables 0, P, Q, BB, CC, DD)
a "-" sign means negatively correlated.
1318 Add the following reference to the LITERATURE CITED:
Smith, Stanford 11., 1972. Factors of ecologic succession in
oligotrophic fish communities of the Laurentian Great Lakes.
Journal Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Vol. 29, No. 6,
pp. 951-957.
1163
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AND CONCLUSIONS
1. During the Pleistocene glaciation, a unique assemblage of aquatic
fauna was introduced into certain North American Lakes. This fauna in-
cludes Pontoporeia andlfysis.
2. This assemblage of animals has been able to survive until today as
relicts or ecological remnants, in a small number of lakes in the Uniteti
States, including Lake Superior.
3. These species are considered to be endangered species.
4. The biology of Pontoporeia is summarized as follows:
a* Pontoporeia require temperature of less than 12°C, and
generally reproduce during the winter in waters of less than
6°C.
b* Pontoporeia requies well-oxygenated water.
c. The araphipod avoids strong illumination, and light controls
its limnetic behavior.
3- Pontoporeia is adversely affected by turbulence.
e. Pontoporeia feeds on the microbenthos, consisting of bacteria
and protozoa on the bottom sediments. Adult Pontoporeia do not
feed.
f. Reproduction occurs in winter. The adults die scon thereafter.
g. Pontoporeia select silty-sand sediments having the following
characteristics.
1165
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(1) less than 5% clay, 10-20% silt, and 60-70% sand
(2) with median particle size of 50 3.5-4.0
(3) sediments of soft consistency
h. Pontoporeia undergo diurnal migration, and are good swimmers.
Reproduction takes place during these limnetic excursions,
5. The Lake trophic ecosystem consists of two dominant energy
pathways:
a. Phytoplankton-^-Zooplankton—>%sis~»Chubbs & Smelt—XTrout
b. Micro-benthos —>Pontoporeia—»Chubbs & Smelt—*-Trout
6. The benthos/ and particularly Pontoporeia are very important com-
ponents of the ecosystem. Changes in populations of Pontoporeia will have
effects throughout the ecosystem.
7. Reduction of Pontoporeia populations will tend to:
a. Intensify competition among predators of Pontoporeia
b. Increase predation on Mysis
c. Reduce growth and abundance of fish populations
d. Increase the pressure on alternative food sources such as
fish eggs.
e. Alter the composition of the benthic population structure and
shift dominance relationships.
8. Statistical analysis of benthic data reveal that:
a. Prior to the discharge of tailings into Lake Superior, benthic
population structure and densities or organisms were the same at
sites above and below the discharge point.
1166
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b. Following tailing discharge into Lake Superior, PDntoporeia
populations were reduced southwest of the effluent.
c. Population structures southwest of the discharge point also
changed.
9. The release and deposition of taconite tailing markedly effect
the benthic ecosystem of Lake Superior.
1167
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Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the patience and
assistance of Ms. Grace Brown and
Mrs. Joan Conway in typing and preparing
this report.
1168
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Introduction
Data discussed in this report have been briefly surrmarizcxi
previously and provided to the defendant's lawyers in a written
form (Plaintiff's Document No. 638). In addition, the raw data
and reports, upon which the present discussion is based, have been
entered into evidence on several occasions. Nevertheless, since
these data can be easily confused and because a nutrber of documents,
dealing with a single collection, have been produced and subse-
quently revised, the specific data sources are listed in Table A.
This table shows that samples for benthic organisms have been
collected in 1949, prior to Reserve's operation, in 1968, and that
a large series of samples were taken during 1969. Apart from the
first two collections, all successive samples have been taken solely
by Reserve personnel.
Table A also gives the collection method or gear used, the spe-
cific number of samples, the extent of area sampled and the depths
and locations sampled. Locations of the listed collections are
shown in Figure A. It is important to note that the depths sampled
varied initially from opportunity sampling (unplanned) to stratified
sampling (all or most samples at a cannon depth of 200') in the
latter collections. The earlier collections (#1 and 2) covered
1169
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1170
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TABLE A (Continued)
List of Documents Cited
Doc. Reference
Number
la Burrows, C. R., 1950. Second Annual Progress hepor>. of
Fisheries Investigations Conducted in Connection with
Taconite Beneficiation Activities at Beaver Bay, Minnesota.
Minnesota Department of Conservation, Division of Game and
Fish. Investigative Report Mb. 99, January 1950.
Ib Skrypek, J. L., C. R. Burrows, K. Bishop and J. B. Movie,
1968. Bottom Fauna off the Minnesota North Shore of Lake
Superior as Related to Deposition of Taconite Tailings and
Fish Production. State ot Minnesota, Department of Con-
servation, Division of Fish and Game in cooperation with
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Spec. Publ. No. 57,
October 10, 1968.
2a "Resurie of Bottom Fauna Studies", dated August 11, 1969,
under name of D. W. Anderson.
2b "Appendix G, Preliminary Investigations of Bottom Fauna
Along the Southwestern Region of the North Shore, by David
W. Anderson, Reserve Mining Company, Silver Bay, Minnesota"
(13 pages).
3 "Reserve Mining Company Memorandum. To: K. M. Haley,
From: D. W. Anderson, Subject: Bottom Fauna Studies -
June 24 - July 3, 1969. Dated: August 11, 1970". Signed
by D. W. Anderson (9 pages).
4a "Reserve Mining Company Memorandum. To: K. M. Haley, From:
J. C. Gay, Subject: Bottom Fauna Studies, Statistical View-
point, Dated: May 25, 1970", under name of J. C. Gay
(10 pages).
4b "Reserve Mining Company Memorandun. To: K. M. Haley, From:
J. C. Gay, Subject: Bottom Fauna Study, Statistical
Analysis - Fall; 1969, Dated: January 20, 1970; Itevised,
February 26, 1970; Revised, March 25, 1970", under signa-
ture of J. C. Gay (20 pages).
4c "Bottom Fauna Study, Reserve Mining Company - 1969, dated
April 30, 1970, unsigned (18 pages).
5 "Preliminary Study of the Relationship of Organic Matter
and Sediment Texture to Bottom Fauna Organisms-unsigned,
undated (2 pages).
1171
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Fig. A. Map of Lake Superior showing approximate
along-shore distances sampled during the
periods 1948-49, 1968, and 1369. Arrow
indicates approximate location of the
tailing discharge
French R
1172
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smaller geographic distances along the shore compared to later
collections. The total alongshore distance covered r'or all sampling
periods is approximately 50 miles. In general, sampling effort has
been unbalanced with respect to the distance above and below the plant
outfall. More samples have been taken southwest of the plant than
to the northeast. (See Figure A)
Comparisons of the various collections and analysis of poten-
tial effect are limited by several factors. Not all collections were
made at the same time, location, nor at the same depth. Different
numbers cf samples were taken at irregular time intervals and various
collection methods were employed.
Methods for collection of field samples and the processing of
these samples in the laboratory have been detailed previously and
will not be reported in great detail here. In general, the methods
and techniques are similar enough for intercomparisons with certain
stipulations stated. Such comparisons, for instance, as numeric
density must be qualified by the statements that the Ponar dredge is
slightly more efficient than the Petersen dredge. Petersen dredge
collections, therefore, tend to underestimate the true density of
benthic organisms and therefore invalidate rigorous intercomparisons
of Ponar and Petersen data. Nevertheless, such comparisons as the
relative density at different sites along the shore within a given
collection period are valid. Also, regardless of gear efficiencies, the
ratiometric or percentage associations among the various groups col-
lected are considered independent of the particular sampling method.
1173
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Thus, although the actual nuirber of animals collected by each method
may vary, the relative numbers within the different gr->npc are con-
sidered independent of sampling bias. Analysis of this type of data
therefore should be limited to the relative, rather than the absolute,
numbers in a given species category. Except for graphic presentation
in the earlier report wherein data from different methods have been
pooled, all statistical comparisons have been performed with technique-
constant or time-constant data sets or by use of data transformations that
consider relative rather than absolute differences.
Review and discussion of previous analyses and conclusions concerning
benthic organisms
Many questions have been raised concerning the actual and possible
effects of Reserve's discharge on the ecology of Lake Superior. In
order to place this in perspective, it is necessary to establish a
foundation for the conclusions reached by Reserve consultants concerning
effects on benthic organisms.
The first benthic survey indicated in Table A was performed prior
to Reserve's operation with the stated purpose of defining baseline
conditions in the immediate area of the discharge. This report
(Document Reference la) stated that benthic organisms were "... sparse
both as to numbers and kinds of organisms.", that seasonal variation
was lacking, that total numbers varied with depth and that "...
{maximum densities] occur somewhere between 100 to 200 feet." Numerical
1174
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data for this report are treated in detail below but .it r.,-y be inserted
parenthetically here that sanples taken at this time tv,;r^ cjenerally
honogeneous both in respect to total numbers and numbers within taxon
groups. Thus, 8 years prior to the operation of the taconite plant,
benthic ocrnmunities were approximately nonogeneously distributed
within the study site and no above plant versus below plant difference?
were evident with respect to total numbers or to numbers within taxon
groups.
In 1968 (Table A, #2) benthic sampling was performed by a coopera-
tive effort that included four state agencies and Reserve Mining Co.
This study encompassed a larger geographic area and also obtained a
larger number of samples than the 1948 study. The final report
(Document Reference Ib) of the study made direct comparisons with the
earlier work and established various effects coincident with the
tailing discharge. The salient findings of this report were as
follows:
1) "Numbers of Pontoporeia ... were significantly lower below
than above the plant ..."
2) "Numbers of oligochaetes were significantly higher below
the plant at ... 100 feet but were significantly lower at depths of
250, 325 and 400 ft."
3) "Numbers of fingernail clams [sphaeriidae] were ... higher
below the plant at 175 feet but not elsewhere."
1175
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4) "Numbers of chironomids ... were ... higher below the plant
at two of the five depths ..."
5) "Volume of bottom fauna ... was significantly higher {below
plant] at ... 100 ft. ... but significantly lower at 325 feet."
6) " There is also seme indication that the deposition of fine
taconite tailings favor oligochaetes and chironomids although this
is not general at all depths..."
7) "It is likely that the significant differences ... can be
attributed to physical conditions associated with the deposition of
the fine portion of the tailings."
8) "... oligochaetes and chironomids were also more abundant
below than above the plant site in the 1949 ... [sample] ...".
Ihis report discusses other aspects of the survey and also ex-
trapolates these findings to the cortmercial fish catch. Although
later analyses have modified some aspects of these findings, the
majority of our work has reinforced and amplified these initial con-
clusions.
The remaining studies (Table A) performed solely by Reserve have
substantially failed to modify the findings noted above. In addition,
many confusing statements have been made concerning the remaining
studies performed by Reserve. For instance, in discussing a benthic
survey performed in April and May of 1969 and reported at the enforce-
ment conference, Reserve summarized its benthic findings as follows
(Document Reference 2b):
1176
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"1. Based on preliminary data; total bottom fa1 ma
densities are not diminished in zones :.•* tailings
deposition.
"2. Bottom fauna population densities are materially
lower southwest of Reserve's taoonite plant, wh£_re
no evidence of tailings deposition was found, than
the population densities associated with the
tailings type bottom found in the vicinity of the
Reserve plant.
"3. Based on the data presently available, it is not
realistic to draw any conclusions as to the bene-
ficial or detrimental effects of taoonite tailings
on the bottom fauna along the North Shore of Lake
Superior.
"4. This preliminary investigation has focused attention
on areas needing further research. Specifically,
the casual associations of organisms to bottom type
and the seasonal fluctuations in kinds and numbers of
bottom organisms."
Apart from the fact that these statements are not internally con-
sistent and that they contradict the earlier work performed by the
Company and state agencies, the data presented, when analyzed for the
present report,(see below pg. 15 ), yield significant correlations between
1177
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the amount of tailings present (as determined by diemicaJ analysis)
and the presence or absence of various taxa.
A subsequent collection (Document Reference 3) performed
during June and July of 1969 concludes as follows:
"1. There is a significant reduction in the total
numbers of bottom fauna organisms 4.5 miles
southwest of the plant. This reduction probably
extends to 7 miles southwest although its size
is considerably diminished at this distance.
"2. At sampling sites southwest of the plant there are
significantly fewer Pontoporeia than at the sampling
sites northeast of the plant. All of the differences
between sites in these two general locations which
may be formed have the same sign and many are sig-
nificant at the 5% level. There is, however, no
apparent relationship between the number of
Pontoporeia and the distance southwest (up to 27 miles)
of Reserve's plant. This feature indicates that some
natural factor(s) in the lake itself has a greater
influence on Pontoporeia than the presence of the
plant site. If the discharge of the plant were in-
fluencing numbers of Pontoporeia southwest of the plant,
presumably it would result in an increasing gradient
in the number of Pontoporeia as the distance from the
1178
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plant increases in a southwesterly di lect-un,
"3. There is a significant reduction in the nunfoer of
oligochaeta 4.5 miles southwest of the plant. Other-
wise the counts seem similar to one another at the
other sampling sites along the shore.
"4. There are probably fewer Sphaeriidae at all sites
southwest of the plant than those northeast. This
conclusion results from the fact that all the dif-
ferences in counts that can be formed between the
sites in these two areas have the saire sign although
none are significant at the 5% level. Again, the
Sphaeriidae counts southwest of the plant shows no
relationship to the distance from the plant.
"5. The nunfoer of Oiironomidae are probably significantly
increased at sites immediately southwest of the plant,
This nunfoer seems to diminish as the distance from the
plant is increased."
These findings directly contradict those stated earlier and
also introduce preliminary statistical analyses performed by the
Company. Additionally, log transformations and moving averages are
applied to collection data without justification for the purpose of
"... [reducing] ... the influenos of random variation or counts
1179
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along the lake shore ...".
Neither of these practices completely eliminates the large dif-
ferences noted previously with reference to above and below plant
comparisons. For instance, for Pontoporeia, significant differences
(p. < .01) between above and below stations occur whether or not the
arithmetic or log values are used or moving averages are used.
A detailed criticism of Reserve's analysis is contained in the
statistical section of the report. The present discussion is aimed
at summarizing the viewpoints held by the defendant through tijne and
examining these for consistency and soundness of scientific value.
It is difficult not to be skeptical concerning Reserve's conclusions
and practices with respect to the effects of the discharge on benthic
populations. The Company's efforts with respect to benthic collections
have been heralded as the most extensive collections ever performed
on Lake Superior and this statement may have sane validity. Yet, the
Company seems loath to accept the results of its own studies as the
conclusions of most recent reports show.
In the most comprehensive and sophisticated study yet performed
(#5 in Table A), the Company glosses over any direct comparison of
above vs. below data or examination of population structure changes
and generally concludes they may not have sampled enough to draw con-
clusions. These conclusions are part of a series of revised opinions
1180
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based on the same data. It is interesting to oorcpcir^ successive
drafts of the documents that presumably result in the opinions given
in the final document (Document Reference 4a). It is necessary also
to question the logic of asserting that benthic populations are too
variable to measure, that not enough sapples have been taken to
assess potential effects and then conclude that the discharge is
having no effect. One is also confused by the following statement:
"One thing, however, that is significant about tailings
is that the population is relatively uniform within
the tailings area. This probably is due to the uni-
form substrate produced by the tailings which would tend
to make the Pontoporeia normally distributed. Past
studies have shown that Pontoporeia tend to be normally
distributed providing, however, that all other factors
affecting their populations are uniform over this period.
This is probably the true effect of tailings on
Pontoporeia. A very local effect which does exist is
that bottom fauna populations are zero at the discharge
point. This is due to the heavy deposition or erosion
in the immediate vicinity of the discharge point. This
effect is very local as shown by a fast recovery to
uniform levels of bottom fauna populations."
1181
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One is further confused in that, after establishing the required
sampling level that would permit estimates of lakewide affect (about
400-1,000 additional samples are recommended), Reserve has failed to
follow through on its own recommendation. The final collection made
in September and October of 1969 (Table A) and the last benthic effort
known to us, consisted of only 27 benthic samples.
Since that time, Reserve's employees and their consultants have
staunchly maintained that there is no effect of tailings discharge on
benthic organisms apart from a "localized" effect. The extent of this
localized effect, its geographic limits and the overall effects upon
the ecology of the lake have yet to be measured.
It is against this backdrop of confusion, assertion followed by
denial, and revision that the following analyses have been initiated.
What follows is divided into two main parts: a discussion of the
biology and ecology of the Superior benthic organisms with an evaluation
of noted and possible ecologic effects; and a statistical examination
of available data.
1182
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UNIQUE QUALITIES OF THE GLACIOMARINE FAUNAL COMPONENTS
IN THE GLACIATED OLIGOTROPHIC LAKE ECOSYSTEM
WITH EMPHASIS ON THE AMPHIPOD PONTOPOREIA AFFINIS LINDSTROM
I. The Presence of Pontoporeia jn i;he Glaciated ...
Lakes of North America
A- The glacial event:
It should be considered an established fact thet
several thousands of years ago a massive global glaciation
invaded deeply into the North Aiuerican continent, and
extensively into the northern portions of Europe and
Arctic Asia. This glaciation made significant modi-
fications in the morphology of the northern hemisphere,
and effects of this glaciation persist to the present day.
This Pleistocene glaciation was a unique event in
the history of the earth. These glacial events occurred
so recently that rebound from release from the ice masses
is still measured today. During the Pleistocene epoch,
the earth still experienced winters and summers, and along
the southern borders of the ice sheets, the climate was
moderate. The major events of this global glaciation
have been well studied and documented, both in North
America and in Europe. (Hough, 1958; Flint, 1957; Daly,
1963).
1183
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B. Introduction of a proglacial biota into North America:
Associated with the Pleistocene and the glacial
events in North America, an association of aquatic plants
and animals of great significance was introduced into the
continent. Along the margins of the later ice fronts,
there existed at various times a continuous series of pro-
glacial lakes and connecting waterways. There was,
therefore, a water continuity extending arpund the Arctic
Ocean from the Baltic Sea, across Europe and Asia, along
the northern coasts of Alaska, through the chain of
Canadian lakes, through Lake Superior and the other Great
Lakes, the Finger Lakes of New York, to Lake George,
New York, and over to Lake Champlain in Vermont. An
association of aquatic animals that were inhabitants of
the Baltic Sea and the Eurasian coast were able to move
eastwardly with the changed oceanic conditions (£•<•[• /
shallower water and reduced salinity) along the Russian
coast, across the Bering Sea, and into the heart of
North America to New England.
This unique assemblage of plants and animals became
established in the new lakes and waters as the glaciers
melted away, and they are known as glacial marine relicts.
1184
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Some of the members of this group are listed in
Table B.
It was an extremely unique circumstance x.hat
allowed these events to take place and to introduce
this biota to our deepest and best quality lakes.
First, there occurred a climatic change that introduced
continental glaciation, and this so changed hydrographic
conditions along the northern coasts of Europe and Asia as
to induce genetic and ecologic races of aquatic species
in the coastal zones, and then, with the freshening of
the arctic waters, these species were able to colonize
eastwardly into North America; and because of the par-
ticular topography of Central Canada, the glacial margins
provided water continuity across the continent for the
dispersal of these populations all the way to New England.
After the glaciers departed, this association of animals
was able to survive as relicts or ecological remnants in
a small percentage of the lakes formed by the glaciers.
The number of these habitats suitable for survival is rela-
tively small, and numbers less than 50 lakes in North
America. (Bursa and Johnson, 1967; Henson, 1966;
Muller, 1964; Ricker, 1959; Segerstrale, 1937a).
1185
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Table B List of the Glaciomarine Relict Species
Found in Some of the Glaciated Lakes
Of North America
PLANTS:
Silicoflagellata:
Flagellata:
Distephenus speculum
Gymnaster sp.
ANIMALS:
Insects: Diptera
Chironomidae:
Crustacea:
Copepoda:
Schizopoda:
Heterotrissocladius
subpilosus Kieffer
Epischura lacustris
Limnocalanus macrurus
Senecella calanoides
Mysis relicta
Amphipoda:
Pontoporeia affinis
Pisces: Cottidae:
Myoxocephalis quadricornis
A number of species that are glacial relicts in
Europe are not found in North America (Muller, 1964).
The fingernail clam (Sphaeriidae) Pisidium conventus
may have traversed from North America to Europe by
by the same route as the listed species (Henson, 1966)
1186
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C. The post-glacial environment:
The retreating glaciers left behind them ands of
lakes that could have harbored these residue.1, spscies.
Though these species originated from marine or brackish
environments, they had become adapted to a fxesh water
environment.
As the glaciers retreated, a warmer climate advanced
into the once glaciated regions along with the native biota
that had been forced south. The shallower basins were
filled with outwash materials, and only the deeper basins
that maintained cold, well oxygenated water could retain
their stocks of these relict species.
The number of remaining lakes in the United States
that harbor this relict fauna is now extremely limited.
Only 19 lakes in the United States, including the five
Great Lakes, are known to contain Pontporeia (Table C)
and only 22 lakes are known in the United States that
harbor either Pontoporeia or Mysis, or both.
It is clear that the natural habitats for these unique
species are being reduced (Henson, 1966) or eliminated.
Pontoporeia affinis and Mysis relicta, and the other as-
sociated relict species should be considered endangered
species.
1187
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Table c List of Lakes in the United States that
are known to have Natural Populations
of Pontoporeia affinis and Mysis relicta
Location
Great Lakes :
Washington:
Wisconsin:
New York:
Vermont :
Name of the Lake
Lake Superior
Lake Michigan
Lake Huron
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Lake Washington
Trout Lake
Green Lake
Cayuga Lake
Seneca Lake
Keuka Lake
Canandagui Lake
Owasco Lake
Skaneatales
George Lake
Fayetteville
Green Lake
Champlain Lake
Sunset Lake
Pontoporeia
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
St. Catherine Lake x
Michigan:
Dunmore Lake
Torch Lake
Mullett Lake
0
X
X
Mysis
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
X
X
X
X
1188
-------
The abundance and omnipresence- of th.is organism in
the oligotrophic environs clearly indicate its great im-
portance in the overall ecology of such id'-.-s, Since
this amphipod seems to be sensitive to pollution and
eutrophication, then its presence or absence in a given
locality can be used as a gauge in the determination of
the quality of the benthic environment. However, if
Pontoporeia affinis is to be used as an indicator of en-
vironmental changes, then its natural history as well as
environmental relationships must be understood so that
deviations can be recognized.
II . The Taxonomy and Distribution of Pontoporeia
A . Taxonomy :
Pontoporeia affinis was described by Lindstroru in
1855 from samples taken from Swedish lakes. The only other
species in this genus is P. femprata Kr oye r .
There is a certain amount of variation in the species ,
and because the adult male doesn't fully develop until
the last molt, it had actually been described as a separate
9
species. Segerstrale (1971) after several years of de-
tailed study, reported that these variants should not be
considered as subspecies, even though we might retain the
"subspecific" name for distinction. Therefore, P_. hoyi,
, P. kendalli , and £. weltneri are all P_. affinis .
The term P. affinis brevicornis refers to a smaller reduced
1189
-------
form of the species characteristic of the North
American populations. (Bousefield, 1958; Henson,
1954; Larkin, 1948; Segerstrlle, 1937a, 1971a).
1190
-------
B. Distribution:
Pontoporeia affinis has a northern cit'-viv.v.jl^r
distribution as follows: Eurasian The Baltic Sea,/
brackish coastal waters of the Arccic coasts or Russia
and Siberia, and as a glacial relict in the Baltic lakes
in the glaciated regions; the lakes along the coasts of
the Kara Sea, and down into the lakes oi Kamtchatka;
and in the estuaries and lower reaches of the rivers
draining north into the Arctic Ocean, and extending
about 1,000 km up the Yenissei River in Siberia.
North America: Along the brackish coastal regions
of Arctic Alaska, Ungava Bay, Canada, Hudson and James
Bays. Also in the St. Lawrence Estuary (Bousefield, 1955),
It is found as a glacial relict in the colder oligotrophic
lakes of central Canada, the Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes
of New York, and Lake Champlain in Vermont. The record
by Norton (1904) for Chamberlin Lake in Maine has been
found to be an error. The record for Lake Washington on
the west coast has recently been explained on geological
evidence (Segerstrale, 1971a).
According to Ricker (1959) and Bousefield (1958) ,
Pontoporeia is found in the glaciated regions of North
America west of the Ottawa River but not north of the
1191
-------
St. Lawrence River, but recently, DadsweU (parsonnel
coimnunication) has found it in a few lakes in western
Quebec. The known lakes in the United States that
contain Pontoporeia are listed in Table C.
1192
-------
III. Biology of Pontoporeia affinis
Although Pontoporeia are known to be err.: of the
dominant benthic forms in the Great. Lakes, the available
quantitative information concerning this species and
the associated fauna comes chiefly from studies performed
on Lake Michigan. While no attempt is being made to
equate these studies directly to all the Great Lskes,
including Lake Superior, these findings are instructive
with respect to that water body.
A, Reproduction
The size of the adult male and female ranges from
6 to 9 mm in Lake Michigan (Alley, 1968). When the
mature male develops during the last molt, it undertakes ,
pelagic excursions, using its long antennae and special
antennal sensory organs to locate mature females. The
mature male has an atrophied mouth; therefore, it does not
feed, and dies shortly after copulation. The adult female
carries the fertilized eggs within large marsupial plates
beneath her abdomen. By the time the embroyos are re-
leased, the female has degenerated almost to the point of
being a suspended brood pouch, and dies shortly after the
release of the young. The young are slightly less than
2 mm long when they are released from the brood pouch.
1193
-------
Size frequency histograms, collected throughout
the 1964, 1965, and 1966 sampling seasons lor Lake
Michigan, indicated that Pontoporeia living at a depth
of 10 m mature in one year, those inhabiting a depth
zone of 20-35m require two years to mature, and those
living at depths greater than 35 m possibly require
three years to mature. At depths beyond 35 m, the
amphipod population breeds intermittently throughout
the year. This basic pattern of growth and reproduction
seems to be consistent with Lake Huron (Cooper, 1962),
Great Slave Lake (Larkin, 1948) and the Baltic Sea
(Segerstrale, 1967).
B. Feeding and nutrition
The gut contents of several Pontoporeia collected
from Lake Michigan and of several maintained in the
laboratory were examined by Alley (1968). Aliquots of
cultured algae were added weekly to the aquaria of the
laboratory reared amphipods. The foregut of the labora-
tory reared amphipods contained sediment coated with
organic matter and intact algal cells. While the organic
matter on the sediment appeared to be digested, the cel-
lulose walls and chloroplasts of the algal cells appeared
to be little affected by the passage through the digestive
system. The foregut of the lake samples contained sediments
1194
-------
coated with a layer of organic material and an
occasional diatom frustule, while the. hinc.uUc, con-
tained only sediment and diatom frustules.
Marzolf (1963) concluded from laboratory experi-
ments that the selection of a substrate by Ppntoporeia
was significant only when organic matter was present as
a surface film on the sediments. He also found a
significant association between the density of this
amphipod and sedimentary bacterial numbers and the amount
of organic matter in the sediments. Zobell and Feltham
(1942) showed that certain species of bacteria are capable
of degrading cellulose, chitin, and lignin which most
animals find difficult, if not impossible, to digest.
They earlier (Zobell and Feltham, 1938) established that
a variety of marine organisms can utilise bacteria as
an energy source. Baier (1935) suggested that most
detritus feeders are nourished by the bacteria which de-
compose the detritus rather than by the detritus upon
which they appear to be feeding. Marzolf (1963) found
that in the laboratory, Ppntoporeia actively selected
the sediments that had been "conditioned" by the growth
of bacteria.
1195
-------
Pontoporeia are a very important link in the
lake ecosystem. They help to clean the bottom sediments
by consuming the organic material and transferring the
energy to higher trophic levels more available to the
larger members of the community.
C. Thermal relations
Pontoporeia is generally considered to be an oligo-
thermal species associated with cold water lakes? however,
Alley (1968) found densities greater than 20,000 amphipods/
2
m at 19° C. in Lake Michigan. Henson (1970) found similar
water temperatures trends in the Straits of Mackinac.
Samter and Weltner (1904) claim that Pontoporeia re-
o
produces only at temperatures below 6° C.; and Segerstrale
(1959) suggests an optimum temperature between 8-12° C.
Segerstrale (1937) found 21-24° C. to be the upper
survival limits on the basis of laboratory experiments.
In some recent laboratory studies/ Smith (1972) found
12° to be the surviving temperature for a 12-hour exposure,
but between 10-11° C. for a prolonged exposure.
D. Oxygen requirements:
Distributional records and field experience indicate
that Pontoporeia requires an ample supply of oxygen to
survive. No definitive study has been made of the oxygen
1196
-------
levels in the lakes where the species is present, but
generally they have about 50% saturation of oxygen
Juday and Berge (1927), in an investigation of Green
Lake, Wisconsin, found that PontopoJ:eia was able to
survive within the sediments when the vater contained
0.72 cc/1 dissolved oxygen one ureter above the bottom,
E. Photic reaction
This species avoids strong illumination. Smith (1972)
cultured his controls exposed to only 1 ft. candle of
0
illumination. Segerstrale (1970, 1971) gives strong evi-
dence that light has a controlling influence on the re-
productive nature of the animal. In the Finnish seas,
the animal buries itself in the soft sediments in shallow
water during the daytime, and becomes pelagic during the
night. Vertical migration is largely controlled by light
(Marzolf, 1965b).
F. Turbulence
There is some evidence that Pontoporeia prefer still
water. Henson (1970) observed that the species was
not commonly present in high energy environments at any
depth. Smith (1972) makes a special point of the adverse
effect of turbulence on the animals.
1197
-------
G. Substrate relationships:
During the daylight hours, in the shallow, .inshore
regions Pontoporeia remain burrowed in the surficial sedi-
ments. Marzolf (1965), in a laboratory study, found rhat
Pontoporeia selected sediment particle sizes smaller than
0.5 mm in diameter (sand) but did not discriminate between
smaller sizes to a particle size of 0.0078 mm (silt).
Field observations from Lake Michigan indicate that
amphipods are found in low numbers in clay sediments
(average diameter of sediment particle size less than
0.0039 mm) as well as gravel and glacial till (Alley, 1968).
This observation was verified by Henson (1970) when he
found that the abundance of Pontoporeia approximated the
normal distribution with respect to sediment type in the
Straits of Mackinac, Lake Michigan. Larger standing crops
of amphipods were found in the silty-sand sediments, and
in sediments containing 10-20 percent silt and 60-90 percent
sand. Substrates with a high clay content had relatively
small standing crops of Pontoporeia. This same trend was
shown by Adams and Kregear (1969) for eastern portions of
Lake Superior. They found that Pontoporeia dominate the
sand bottom environment while oligochaetes were most
abundant in the bedrock areas.
1198
-------
These animals do not remain indefinitely in the
sediments since some of the large juvenu.es, nature
males, and mature females undertake excursions into
the water column. Wells (I960, 1963} and Marzolf (1965)
have reported vertical migrations for Lakz Michigan„
Wells (1968) showed that a small proportion of the
Pontoporeia population are found above the sediments
at depths greater than 36 m during the day. Both
Wells and Marzolf found that most amphipods remained
in the sediments at night. Size frequency distributions
reported by Alley (1968) indicate that these vertical
migrations seem to be localized and migrations do not
extend laterally to any extent, at least in the nearshore
environment where the water depths are 30 m or less.
H. Organic carbon content of the sediments
The percent organic carbon content of the Lake
Michigan sediments shows that substrates which have the
greatest concentration of Pontoporeia contain the lowest
amount of organic carbon content (range of 0.06% to 0.71%),
These areas of the lake which contain the greatest organic
carbon content have few amphipods, probably because the
organic materials were overlaying clay sediments which are
not suitable for burrowing (range 3.02% to 4.02%).
1199
-------
Furthermore, the carbon compounds, found in the deeper
sediments, probably represent the terminal rain of
suspended particulate matter which is composed mainly
of undigestable cellulose, lignin, and chitin.
Depth
In the Lake Michigan study (Alley, 1968), 35
stations, located on five cross-lake transects in the
southern two-thirds of the lake, were sampled in tripli-
cate on a monthly basis from August to November 1964,
from April to November 1965 and from March to November
1966. Stations of the B and D transect were not
sampled after June 1966 (Fig. B).
A zone of maximum abundance of P. affinis occurred
between 30-60 m in Lake Michigan with the greatest
density of amphipods existing at the 30 m depth contour
(Fig. C). Powers and Alley (1967) found the average
density at the 10 and 20 m intervals to be almost 4,000
2
amphipods/m ; the 30 m contour to be greater than 8,500
2
amphipods/m ; and the 50-60 m contours to be almost 6,000
2
amphipods/m . The counts at the 70 m depth contour dropped
to almost 4,000 amphipods/m , and beyond 70 m, Pontoporeia
2
gradually declined in numbers to about 600 amphipods/m
at a depth of 270 m. Mozley and Alley (1973) showed that
a similar trend of Pontoporeia abundance occurs in
Lake Huron.
1200
-------
CHICAGO
FIG. B Index map of the Lake Michigan macrobenthos
stations of the long-term study area that were sampled
from 1964 to 1966.
1201
-------
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90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
DEPTH, METERS
FIG. C . Average numbers of amphipods/m pooled "by 10 -m depth
increments vs . depth in meters .
1202
-------
The interface of the sublittoral and profundai
environments seems to occur around the 35 n contour
in Lake Michigan. This region corresponds roughi/
to the lower limit of the therF\ocline.
Variations in Pontoporeia counts are considerably
greater within the sublittoral habitat because this
area is characterized by the greatest environmental
stresses and environmental heterogeneity. Molar
action generated by storms and. bottom currents can
cause considerable shifting of the sublittoral sub-
strates. In addition, bottom temperatures range from
1° to 19° C.
Within the sublittoral regions of Lake Michigan,
for instance, Pontoporeia has developed two distinct
reproductive patterns that appear to be related to
the water temperature. Amphipods mature in one year
in the warm, shallow, inshore regions of the sublittoral
and require two years to mature in the deeper portions
of this zone. Pontoporeia of the sublittoral are geared
for a late winter-early spring period for reproduction.
Pontoporeia reaches its maximum density at the
junction of the sublittoral and profundai zones and
this generalization probably applies to all the Great Lakes
1203
-------
The surficial sediments within this area are little
affected by turbulence, and the range of bottom tempera-
tures is not so extreme as in the shallower inshore
waters. In this area and the adjacent profundal zone,
Pontoporeia matures and breeds intermittently throughout
the year. There appears to be a greater proportion of
breeding females in the amphipod population that inhabits
this area and the contiguous profundal areas.
The junction of the sublittoral and profundal zones
represents a reasonably stable environment where
Pontoporeia can effectively utilize the rain of suspended
particulate matter that is created through the enrichment
by upwelling, local runoff, and also the dominant along-
shore currents. It must be emphasized that this junction
changes with seasons, and its location within an area
is dependent on the morphometric features of the lake
and the prevailing meteorological conditions.
The profundal zone represents the most stable en-
vironment of the lake with all areas sharing a common low
water temperature. The Pontoporeia of this region
probably require three or more years to mature, and
although breeding is intermittent throughout the year,
only a very small portion of the population appears to be
mature at any particular time. The density of Pontoporeia
in this area shows a strong inverse relationship with
1204
-------
depth, which probably reflects the lack or suitable
nutrients and the absence of an appropriate burrowing
substrate.
Small scale patterns of spatial distribution and
microassociations
Short-term patterns of spatial distribution and
the microassociation of macrobenthic groups of Lake
Michigan were investigated about 2,QCO m off Mona Lake,
Michigan, at a depth of 18 m by Alley (1968) and Alley
and Anderson (1968). Systematic and random samples were
collected from a uniform fine beach sand by two divers
who sampled with a hand coring device. The amphipod
population was composed of two juvenile size groups
of Pontoporeia (a 2 mm and a 7 mm group). In this uni-
form sandy environment the amphipod population conforms
to the normal distribution (Fig. D).
Interspecific microassociations, which were examined
by correlation analysis that compared the interaction
of large and small Pontoporeia with the major taxonomic
groups (Oligochaeta, Sphaeriidae, and Chironomidae)
showed that both size groups exhibited a significant
inverse relationship with Oligochaetes (Figs. E, F, and G)
Large Pontoporeia also showed a significant inverse
relationship with the Sphaeriidae (Fig. G) but neither
size group displayed any form of association with the
Chironomids.
1205
-------
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Number of ;3i)ha©riidae/Quadrat
FIG. G Association of juvenile Pontoporeia af finis ~7 nm in
length and Sphaeriidae of the short-term study area.
1209
-------
It is often difficult to interpret the implications
of biological association because the term itself is a
loose definition which makes no distinction between re-
lationships derived from mutualism, parasitism, symbiosis,
competition, and predation with those based on similar or
dissimilar habitat requirements. The patterns of assocja-
tion are also influenced by the size of the units from
which the samples are obtained. The relationships between
organisms may vary from time to time and from place to
place.
Segerstrale (1965), in an investigation of the Baltic
Sea, found an inverse relationship between the successful
recruitment of the bivalve Macoma baltica and the abundance
of Pontoporeia affinis. He also found a significant nega-
tive relationship between the abundance of the priapulid
worm Halicryptus spinulosus and P. affinis. Segerstrale
concluded that Pontoporeia ingested the spat of Macoma
and the eggs of Halicryptus as it fed on detrital material.
Although in Lake Michigan the larvae of the Sphaeriidae
develop within the mantle cavity of the adult clam, the
immature individuals, when released from the brood pouch,
are often small enough to be ingested by large amphipods.
Since the feeding habits of Pontoporeia are not completely
1210
-------
understood, it is difficult to determine if this
amphipod actively seeks small clams or the c-ggs of
the Oligochaetes when feeding in the substrates of
Lake Michigan.
K. Patterns of seasonal distribution
In this detailed study (Alley, 1968; Alley and
Anderson, 1968) , stations of the same transect were
sampled on two successive days to determine if the
standing crop of Pontoporeia varied from day to day
at a particular locality or at a series of station.
Statistical testing indicated that the standing crop
remains reasonably uniform over short periods of time.
Pontoporeia/ collected at the 35 stations, were com-
bined into four depth zones: 10-35 m, 36-65 m, 66-105 m
and greater than 105 m for the monthly sampling periods
(Fig. K). The 10-35 m zone was considered sublittoral.
The 36-65 m zone represented the most nearshore area of
the profundal and was greatly affected by terrestrial
surface drainage and the nearshore aquatic environment.
The 65-105 m zone represented a transitional area which
was only partially influenced by the nearshore environ-
ment, and the greater than 105 m zone was considered to
be almost totally free of the nearshore influence. The
amphipod counts were converted to a square root trans-
formation to facilitate statistical analysis.
1211
-------
GEOMETRIC MEAN NUMBER OF POMTOPOREIA
CVI
in
-------
Pooled amphipod counts of the four depf^ zones
were treated statistically to determine if the standing
crops of amphipods were significantly different for the
three sampling years. This test showed no apparent
yearly difference in the standing crop . values for the
10-35 m, 36-65 m, and the greater than 105 m depth zones.
It is difficult to interpret the significant yearly
fluctuations which occurred at the 66-105 m depth zone
because the differences do not seem to be the result of
a biological phenomenon nor does it represent a major
change in the aquatic environment. The grand geometric
mean number of Pontoporeia for the four depth zones of
the three sampling seasons and the results of the
Kruskal-Wallis test are presented in Table D.
TABLE D The grand geometric number of Pontoporeia a,ffinis
for the three sampling seasons. H represents the results
of the Kruskal-Wallis test.
Depth Zones 1964 1965 1966 H
10-35 m 62 55 67 2.78
36-65 m 78 75 75 0-52^
66-105 m 50 59 58 7.76
105 m 35 40 36 3.81
All Stations Combined 53 55 54 0.55
Significant at 5%
1213
-------
A re-examination of Fig. H and Table D show that
although there was no significant seasonal variation
in the abundance of amphipods at the 10-35 m zone,
there was considerable variation within comparable
sampling periods. In 1965 there was a general increase
in the population from April to August/ followed by a
slight decline from August to November. The 1966 popu-
lation decreased in numbers from March to April, in-
creased from April to August, and then decreased sharply
from August to November. The numerical decrease from
March to April 1966 represents the death of spent, mature
females. The low density of amphipods in the late spring
and early summer is probably attributable to losses
arising from the elutriation-screening device that is
used to separate the organisms from the sediment. Large
numbers of newly released amphipods may have been swept
through the separating screen. As the small amphipods
increased in size, they were less likely to be lost in
this manner. The remaining three depth zones do not appear
to show any well defined patterns within the sampling periods.
L. Patterns of standing crop
All observations from each station of the five cross-
lake transects were pooled for the three sampling periods
to provide information of the distribution of standing
1214
-------
crop in certain shallow inshore stations (Fig. I.} ,
located in the sublittoral :^one? such as A-l, A-6,
B-l, and B-8,is lower thai1, stations which are locate-.1
at. greater depths and farther from shore. Furthermore,
the variation in counts rt these inshore stations is
considerably greater than at the offshore stations.
These inshore stations usually represent stations
of variable substrates or are close enough to the
shore to be affected by land-generated pollution.
Stations situated in the northern basin of the lake
have, in general, a greater standing crop than stations
located in the southern basin that are situated at
comparable depths.
1215
-------
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1216
-------
the Lake S uper igr Ecosyg t^rri
A. Background on ecosystera dynamics
Plants and animals living in a lake are intimate j.y
inter-related with each ether and the environment. No
species is an isolationist. What happens to one spectra
will have some impact and effect on others; and if some-
thing happens to a dominant species,, the impact on other
species will be of even greater magnitude. It has been
shown in the earlier part of this discussion that
Pontoporeia and the other faunal elements of glacioruarine
relicts persist today as geologic remnants of former times.
It is further emphasized that associations between and among
these relict assemblages have also been fixed in time.
The nutritional pathways form a significant portion
of the ecosystem. In simple terms, the ecosystem will
consist of primary producers (plants, and the phytoplankton)
that have the capacity to incorporate and transfer inorganic
carbon (with the energy of sunlight, and nutrients in the
water) , in the form of carbon dioxide or bicarbonates into
organic carbons in the form of sugar or plant protoplasm.
Food is made from non-food.
1217
-------
These plants are eaten by animals at the next
trophic level (the herbivores/ zooplankton) f.hat transfer
the plant food and incorporate it as animal food.
Herbivores are then consumed by primary carnivores and
so on up the food chain. This transfer of energy (food)
up successive trophic levels is known as the trophic
dynamics of the ecosystem. The nutritional, or trophic
inter-relationship is an extremely important facet of
the ecosystem.
Certain events or human activities can greatly affect
the dynamic balance of an established ecosystem (McErlean
& Kerby, 1972). Consider a small food chain (Fig. J)
consisting of 10 components (species). Each horizontal line
represents a trophic level, and each higher level obtains
its energy from the level below it. The arrows indicate
the direction of energy flow and feeding specificity.
For example, in Fig. Ja (an illustrative model), species (10)
feeds on both (9) and (8) while species (7) feeds exclusively
on (4). Assume that some stress is applied to species (4)
that might eliminate species (4) as an adequate prey for
species (7). If species (4) is eliminated, this directly
affects species (7) in that there is no more food available,
and consequently, species (7) is eliminated. But also
1218
-------
CO
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en
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71
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P- gi en
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(D O
ft
HI
1219
-------
eliminated is species (6) since it also has the restricted
diet of species (4). Consequently, the structure of the
ecosystem can be reduced to the model shown in Fig. Jb
In this model there is less buffering capacity for now
only three species support the system, and the stability
of the system is dependent on the availability and per-
sistence of the three remaining species. In Fig. Jb
it can be seen that all energy must now be passed through
species (5) to maintain the energy budget at previous levels
The system now allows fewer permutations and the out-
come is dependent on the assumptions made. For example,
if species (10) favored species (9), and species (9)
fed mostly on species (6) and (7), species (10) would
therefore be forced to change its diet to species (8)
which might be much more inefficient. Therefore, species
(10) in the long run might suffer/ and the population
of (10) would be at a disadvantage. This model will be
applied to the situation in Lake Superior.
B. The Lake Superior ecosystem
The benthos of Lake Superior consists of Pontoporeia
affinis, tubificid worms, the fingernail clam Pisidium
conventus, and the midge larvae of Heterotrissocladius
subpilosus, and some lesser components. However,
Pontoporeia is by far the most abundant species in Superior
1220
-------
as well as in the other Great Lake (Eiltunen, 1969;
Henson, 1966; Powers and Alley, 1967; Anderson and
Smith, 1970) .
There are a large number of zooplankton species ia
Lake Superior that serve as herbivores in the lake,
but Mysis reljcta dominates in significance in the
ecosystem. Among the fish species in the lake, the
major components are the chubbs (Leucichthys spp.),
the lake trout (Salvelinus namaYcush) , the deep-water
sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis), and the burbot
(Lata lota maculosa). Rawson (1951) has shown that
the commercially important benthic fishes: longnose
sucker, Catostomus catostomus, and the white sucker,
Catostomus commersonii, feed directly on Pontoporeia.
Stomach analysis show that the diet of the longnose
sucker can be as high as 63 percent Pontoporeia while
the intake of the white sucker is about 30 percent
Pontoporeia. Freshwater fishes of the family Cottidae
commonly known as "muddlers" in the Great Lakes, are
bottom dwellers that rely heavily on Pontoporeia as a
food source. Some of these fishes represent important
food items of pelagic fishes such as the lake trout,
Salvelinus namaycush, and the American burbot, Lota lota,
(Hubbs and Lagler, 1959).
1221
-------
Nevertheless, of the benthos, Pontoporeia is the
dominant species. Pontoporeia feeds on the organic
detritus and the microbenthic community of the cottom
sediments, which includes large numbers of bacteria
and protozoa (Marzolf, 1965; Perrotte, 1971). My sis
also feeds on the particulate organic matter and the
profundal zooplankton.
Among profundal fish populations, the chubbs feed
almost exclusively on the Pontoporeia and Mysis (Moffett,
1956; Wells & Beeton, 1963; Anderson and Smith, 1970).
Mysis and Pontoporeia comprise the major source of food
for the small (young) lake trout and the burbot as well
as the sculpin. Pontoporeia and Mysis are therefore the
major source of food for the young trout and burbot,
and the chubbs and sculpin.
Many pelagic fishes, at sometime in their life history,
feed directly on swimming Pontoporeia. Van Oosten et al.
(1938) have shown that juvenile lake trout and the American
burbot eat this amphipod; Gordon (1961) indicates that
the American smelt, Osmerus mordax, also eat Pontoporeia;
and finally the diet of the common whitefish, Coregonus
clupeaformig; which is one of the most valuable food fishes
of the Great Lakes, consumes as much as 63 percent
Pontoporeia in its diet.
1222
-------
The larger trout and burbot feed primarily on the
chubbs and this has a controlling effect o,: the chubbs.
The commercial fisheries constituted the next trophi-.;
level that harvested the trout, and to a lesser extent
the burbot. [Added to this cast is the marine Ic-.irpzsy
(Petromyzon mar in us) that invaded Lake Superior sever.,-:.'
years ago.]
A simplified scheme of the.-je i'ood relationships is illustra-
ted in Fig.jc. There are two main trophic pathways. The first,
derived from nutrient input, shows the energy pathway through
the phytoplankton, the zooplankton, Mysis, the chubbs,
and then to the lake trout and burbot, and then to man
and the lamprey. The second pathway is derived from the
microbenthos, and leads through the Pontoporeia, the
chubbs (and young trout and burbot, and the sculpin),
to the large trout and burbot, and then to man and the
lamprey.
The introduction of the lamprey into Lake Superior be-
tween 1950 and 1960 has had an influence on the upper portion
of the system in that two predators now prey on the trout.
In Lake Michigan the introduction of the lamprey had a
major impact on the ecosystem. The lamprey first eliminated
the trout, then shifted to the burbot, and after both of
these fish were eliminated, the lamprey began attacking
the larger chubbs in descending order (Moffett, 1956).
1223
-------
s
-------
In Lake Superior, the lamprey never .rained the same
degree of control of the system as it ri I •<<> L^ke
Michigan. The lamprey control program by the fedoraL
government appears to have been successful , but-, the
lamprey would continue to be a threat to the lake t.rc;'r
if present control measures fai.3 , or if the laruprey
begins to increase in numbers. In a balanced system
where the lamprey does not significantly reduce the
trout population, the stress would not be transferred
down the energy pathways.
On the other hand, stress exerted in the bottom
of the pathway system can propagate an effect through
to the higher levels. It will be shown later that the
discharge of tailings into Lake Superior has had the
effect of reducing populations of Pontoporeia and
modifying benthic population structure. Possible
effects on the ecosystem can be visualized as follows.
Again referring to Fig. Jc a reduction in abundance of
Pontoporeia will have two effects. A reduction in the
standing crop of Pontoporeia, since Pontoporeia is the
major source of food for the sculpin, the chubs, small
trout and small burbot, as well as many other fish in
the lake (Anderson and Smith, 1970), may intensify the
competition for food among these several species of fish.
1225
-------
The more omnivorous fish will be favored, and there
would be more attention to Mysis as a source of food;
but Mysis may also be reduced in numbers because of the
turbid water. In other words, there could be a localized
food shortage which would adversely affect the abundance
and growth of the chubs, trout, sculpin, and burbot.
There would be a selectivity of advantage and disadvantage
among the several species of chubs. The intensified
competition for food could increase the incidence of
cannibalism among the fish, and cause an increase in the
consumption of fish eggs and other food sources.
The reduction of Pontoporeia could also require ad-
justments in the feeding habits of the lamprey; the
lamprey, selecting the larger fish, would be likely to
shift to the larger chubs, as happened in Lake Michigan.
Since Pontoporeia is the main grazer on the micro-
benthos, this niche will be open for other profundal
benthos, and the Oligochaetes would be the group to
increase in abundance. Evidence presented in this report
shows that a decrease in Pontoporeia is accompanied by an
increase in Oligochaeta. The worms are not the preferred
diet of the chubs, however, and an increase in the worms
would not be reflected by an increase in the population
of chubs.
1226
-------
C. Pontoporeia; as an indicator of pollution and
eutrophication
Pontoporeia occupiers a unique position in the benr.hir
environment of the Great Lakes, Firstly, it is the moot
abundant species in the sublit..tu
-------
adjacent to large metropolitan areas. This disruption
of the benthic community was dramatically reported for
the western portion of Lake Erie by Carr and Hiltunen
(1965). The dominant burrowing mayfly, Hexagenia spp.,
decreased to only one percent of its former abundance
while Oligochaetes/ Sphaeriids, and Chironomids signif-
icantly increased in numbers. This trend in Lake Erie
seems to be sweeping further and further eastward as the
tempo of enrichment and pollution increases (Veal and
Osmond, 1968). The deterioration of the benthic community
has now entered areas of the lake where the once-dominant
Pontoporeia are now nonexistent. This characteristic pattern
of normal fauna displacement has been reported over wide
areas of the Great Lakes: Cook and Powers (1964) for the
St. Joseph River area, Lake Michigan; Ayers and Huang (1967)
for the Milwaukee Harbor, Lake Michigan; Schneider et al.
(1969) for Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron; and Kinney (1972) for
major nearshore areas of Lake Ontario.
The exclusion of Pontoporeia from an area that it
previously occupied may be due to several factors operating
independently or in a combination. If the organic materials
found either within or upon the substrate reach a sufficient
concentration, then the aerobic microfauna and microflora
can consume much or all of the dissolved oxygen in the
1228
-------
nearbottom environment, directly suffocating more
sensitive species. In addition, the r:rn,;r;-.ol properties
of the interstitial substrate environuent are .ui ,f.-.red
by anaerobic conditions, often resulting in the pro-
duction of toxic chemicals, such as hydrogen sulf.lde.
This newly created environment ^ s fairly stable and,
subsequently denies the sednnents to many burrowing
animals. Organisms may also be eliminated from the
environment by the addition of poisons, such as bioci^es,
industrial wastes and domestic effluents.
The abundance of Pontoporeia can also be affected
by changing the physical properties of the environment.
Alley (1968) showed that large juveniles in the sub-
littoral environment can tolerate large variations in
bottom temperatures (a range of 1°-19°C). However,
Sarnpter and Wiltner (1904) observed that temperatures
greater than 7° C prevented egg production in Pontoporeia,
It is obvious from these findings that these amphipods
can be eliminated from any inshore area by a seemingly
slight elevation in water temperature simply because
they can no longer reproduce. The disruption of the
substrate by accelerated sedimentation can also eliminate
or reduce the numbers of Pern.topo>reia, particularly if
the introduced sediments have the consistency of either
1229
-------
fine silts, clay, or have a grain size which is smaller
than clay. These animals simply cannot burrow to any
extent into compacted fine sediments. Their normal
feeding habits indicate that they ingest detritus
and sediments as they feed and this eating process
may possibly be disrupted by fine, compacted sediments.
Furthermore, if they cannot burrow into the substrate,
then they are openly exposed to their predators, and
are possibly consumed in greater numbers than would
normally be expected.
The increased turbidity in the superficial waters
would be expected to inhibit the action of the phyto-
plankton which thereby reduce the productivity of the
lake and, in turn, reduces the contribution of organic
matter to the bottom sediments; and thereby, in a feed-
back, further inhibits the potential production of
Pontoporeia.
The forerunners of the ecological disasters which
struck Lake Erie (the decline of the important commercial
fisheries and the total collapse of the biological com-
munities of its western basin) represented minor changes
in the nearshore waters. It was thought that these changes
were insignificant and that pollution and eutrophication
were not important in Lake Erie at that time.
1230
-------
Introduction of the alewife into La>:«. Superjor
in about 1954 also deserves consideration as to the
possible role of this species in the ecosystem structure
of the lake. The alewife is a problem fish and has
caused much concern and expense in some of the other
Great Lakes. The main predator on the alewife is
the large lake trout and it has been well documented
that the lake trout plays a very significant role in
keeping the alewife population controlled (Smith, 1972) ,
Since young lake trout feed on Ppntoporei.a, any re-
duction in Pontoporeia will tend to reduce the lake
trout population, as was discussed earlier; and this,
in turn, may tend to allow alewife populations to
increase in Lake Superior.
Pontoporeia occupies a critical and pivotal
position in the Lake Superior ecosystem. No single
species in the lake, other than Mysis/ has such a
controlling influence on the entire biology of the
lake. A reduction in the populations of Pontoporeia
and the other changes that have been documented in
this respect should serve as a warning that the lake
ecosystem may be in jeopardy.
1231
-------
Analyses of Lake Superior Benthic ftata
Following the acquisition of the available data from
Reserve Mining/ the data were examined to ascertain the most
appropriate method of data analyses to answer specific ques-
tions and hypotheses to be tested. Certain of the data sets
were not amenable to standard (parametric) statistical evalu-
ation due either to the fact that the question to be asked
was specifically directed towards the relative distribution
of benthic organisms or that the data were only reported as
average values, thereby precluding standard analyses because
of a lack of replication.
The specific general question "asked of the data" was
concerned with whether statistically significant differences
among benthic populations were present as a function of
proximity to the Reserve Mining outfall or tailing deposition.
In the evaluation of the data, certain assumptions were neces-
sary and these were generally centered around the nature of
the question and the subsequent hypothesis being tested.
For the evaluations concerning the chi-square (x2) tests,
the distributional problems of concern in benthic analysis
were not required, only reasonably moderate numbers of counts
or average counts in comparable categories.
In the evaluation of the data by the method of linear
correlation, the basic assumption of random acquisition of the
data and essentially a normal distribution (bell shape) of
the two variables to be compared was of prime importance.
1232
-------
Certain non-linear relationships were evaluated by transfor-
mation of the raw data specifically by convr-r^ion to
logarithms or squares. These transformations change non-linear
associations into linear models so that they can be analyzed
by conventional parametric techniques. For example, the
doubling phenomenon of many life growth processes is not
of a linear nature, witness the world human population gi-owth
curve (over time). If one wanted to examine this phenomenon
in a linear fashion, the log transformation could be used
to change a multiplicative relationship into an additive
relationship; to make it more easily understood and easier
to treat statistically.
An analysis of variance (Snedecor, 1956) is a test devised
to evaluate differences which possibly occur among a series
of average values. The underlying assumptions of the analysis
of variance (ANOV)are the relative normality (bell shape) of
the shape of the distribution of the variable being measured
(such as the number of Pontoporeja). The distribution must
be relatively normal in shape but this is not a rigorous re-
striction (Nissen and Ottestad, 1943) for the analysis of
variance. The assumption of the randomness of obtaining the
sample is also necessary and it is our understanding that the
Reserve Mining data were gathered in this manner.
1233
-------
The sampling designs used by Reserve Mining in these
studies were presumably structured to examine changes in
the benthic communities in the area of the Reserve outfall.
The hypothesis to be tested under these sampling designs was
based on the null hypothesis which states that among the
means no differences occur in the area under examination.
In other words, there should be no statistical differences
among any of the counts or measurements from any of the
sampled sites/ except for sampling errors, counting errors,
etc., and error due to natural variability which is charac-
teristic of living communities. Further, the statistical
evaluations are made with a preselected value (critical limit)
that establishes the chances of accepting or rejecting the
null hypothesis. The probability associated with this
critical limit of acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis
is based on the number of samples and the number of means
being compared. This probability is presented as P<.05 (<=
less than); P<.01 or P<.001 and denoted by:
Probability Statement "chances"^
P<.05 but not <.01 = * 5 in 100
P<.01 but not <.001 = ** 1 in 100
P<.001 + *** 1 in 1,000, etc.
We will also use the terminology (N S ) to represent no sig-
nificant difference for probability statements greater than
P = .05 probability level.
1234
-------
General Methods of Analyses and Their General, Us_e
The X2 (Chi-square) test for contingency ^Goldstein 1964)
is used to evaluate the relative distribution of various
categories, such as, number of Pontoporeia, number of Oiigc-
chaetes, etc.
Chi-square is computed by the following formula:
_
~
where o = observed; E = expected, and £ represents the
summation of the categories being examined. Table Ea,
presents hypothetical data to illustrate the use of
In this instance, geographic location is being examined
with respect to a fictitious DDT spill. The calculated
value for the data given in Table Ea would be small and
presents no statistical reason to reject the null hypothesis;
that there is no difference between the two sets of data.
This would not be true if the collection data appeared as
in Table Eb. A calculated x2 for these data would permit
an investigator to reject the null hypothesis and conclude
that the data are statistically different with a specified
level of probability. Tables have been computed by theo-
retical statisticians to ascertain the critical limits of
acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis: the probability
associated with these critical limits is based on degrees of
freedom (DF) which may be generally explained as the number
of observations and the number of ways the data are arrayed.
1235
-------
Table Ea
Average Number of Animals Collected
Time In Eastern In Western
Period Portion of Lake Portion of Lake Total
Before DDT Spill 78 73 151
After DDT Spill 25 28 53
Total 103 101
Table Eb
Average Number of Animals Collected
Time In Eastern In Western
Period Portion of Lake Portion of Lake Total
Before DDT Spill 74 31 105
After DDT Spill 30 77 107
Total 104 108
1236
-------
Thus, each manipulation requires the loss of a degree of
freedom and for small data sets a larger-value '"or x2
to be significant. The acceptance of the nulx hypothesis
in chi-square analysis represents no significant deviations
between the observed distribution and the expected distri-
bution. Rejection of the null hypothesis indicates that
something other than random chance has occurred and, in fact,
the observed distribution does not conform to the expected
distribution.
Linear correlation analysis, which is computed by the
least squares method, tests for relationships among variables
two at a time. The linear correlation coefficient (r) can
range from -1 to +1 with 0 representing no relationship and
+1 a perfect positive relationship and -1 a perfect negative
relationship. A positive relationship (+) indicates that
as one variable increases in magnitude so does the other
variable. A negative relationship (-) indicates that as
one variable increases in magnitude, the other decreases.
The significance of the correlation is based on the degrees
of freedom. The null hypothesis to be tested for correlation
analysis will be that no relationships or associations exist
between the two variables being examined. The hypothesis
being tested is again the null hypothesis: that there is
no relationship, i.e., r=o.
1237
-------
The analysis of variance (ANOV) is used to examine
a series of means for the significance of a difference
(or no difference) between 2 or more means. The null
hypothesis states that there is no difference between
or among the means. The over-all ability distinguishing
differences between means is a function of sample size.
As sample sizes increase, one can detect relatively small
differences between means. The critical level of acceptance
or rejection of the null hypothesis is based on two factors:
number of means being compared and the number of samples
used in the calculations of the means. Tables have been
computed which provide values for these levels of significance.
1238
-------
Hypotheses Concerning Statistical and Ecological
All hypotheses were directed towards determining whether or not
any significant modifications of the benthic environment occurred in
the area surrounding the Reserve outfall. Data, which were obtained
from this area, were spread across a variety of transects. The
selection of sampling sets was based on an experimental design
whose objectives were not clearly stated in the Reserve documentation.
It is difficult to ascertain the rationale of their benthic sampling
program from 1968 to date. It is clear, however, that the basic
hypothesis under which they operated was, that no differences existed
within their sampling and natural fluctuations within this area
accounted for any differences seen. The most recent argument of
Reserve Mining, that the data are unsound due to a significant dif-
ference between two types of sampling error, is unwarrented (unless
they specifically designed their sampling program to test the hypo-
thesis that variability among dredge samples was greater than vari-
ability within dredge samples). An experimental design which focuses
on the variability among dredge samples is not the clearest way to
achieve the information desired about the effects of the taconite
discharge on benthic communities. The only logical method to design
the ANOV tests is to use whichever sampling error is greater; in this
case, variation among different dredges. This is the most conserva-
tive method of testing the hypothesis that no difference exists among
1239
-------
segments of the benthic cotmunities from site to site or above
outfall versus below the outfall. In almost all analyses, our
evaluations have shown significant differences in abundance
(rejections of the null hypotheses) among the sites and above and
below the outfall. And these differences have been detected using
the most conservative (the largest) estimate of sampling error
Inferences about the numerical fluctuation of the taxonomic
groups as well as an evaluation of the quality of the benthic en-
vironment can be obtained from these statistical tests. Statistical
methods generally stop with the acceptance or rejection of the null
hypothesis; however, the results of testing can be generally pro-
jected to some conclusion about the ecosystem under evaluation with
some degree of certainty. This form of evaluation, which is coupled
with the experience of aquatic biologists, is the analytical ap-
proach that we have used in arriving at the conclusions presented
below.
Data partitioning (i_.£-, allocation of effect to a supposed
cause or treatment) is a corrmon method of analysis which identifies
subareas of the data where the major differences occur. Sometimes
internal partitions of a major data set are used, such as the Least
Significant Differences Test (or the Tukey's Test) where an average
estimate of variation of sampling is used as the basis for comparison
of major groups such as sampling sites or locations.
1240
-------
Another method of data partitioning is to subdividr the data
into selected categories such as: a comparison of u,-r,s above the
outfall with data below the outfall. This partitioning can present
information relating to the status of specific geographical or
ecological regions. The testing programs and conclusions presented
in subsequent sections will examine: the inter-relationships which
exists between the benthic environment and certain physical parame-
ters such as distance from the outfall, percent tailings in the sub-
sediment and depth; differences in the abundance of taxonomic groups
above and below the outflow; and relative distributional differences
of the components of the benthic community.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSICNS OF SIGNIFICANT STATISTICAL
FINDINGS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION
Analyses of the 1949 and 1968 Data from the Survey of Benthos of
Lake Superior Near the Taconite Processing Plant (Document Reference
# la, lb).
The general statistical methodology used in this evaluation was
the chi-square contingency test. We are using this contingency test
to evaluate the relative distributions of taxonomic groups, i_.e_.,
Pontoporeia, Oligochaeta, Sphaeriidae, and Chironomidae (= Insecta)
across classification categories. It is the purpose of these evalua-
tions to ascertain whether there were statistically detectable shifts
among the categories tested. In evaluating these data with chi-square,
the 5% probability level was used as the minimum critical level. Also,
the mean numbers of organisms were used as the data base since these
1241
-------
were the only available data.
The results of the chi-sguare analysis show that no significant
differences were found between the combined average data obtained
in May, July, and September of 1949 for the two sites, one above and
the other below the outfall (Table F and Figure Ka These results
indicate that the relative distributions of the organisms are sta-
tistically the same population when comparing the above vs. below
data of 1949. This substantiates the results presented in the
Burrows 1949 and Skrypeck Reports. (See Table A, Document Reference
# la, Ib)
Table F
Taxon
Mean Number of Organisms/m by Taxon
Combined Data from 1949 (May, July,
September Samples) Depths 55-434'
1.7 miles above 2 miles below Total
Bontpporeia
Oligochoeta
Sphaeriidae
Chironomidae
Other
521
282
36
55
9
502
308
38
72
9
1,023
590
74
127
18
Total
903
929
1,832
* for contingency (calculated = 3.464)
5% probability X? critical value for four degrees of
freedom = 9.49
Hypothesis that the two do not differ in their relative
distributions is accepted. The distribution of organisms
is probably the same.
1242
-------
The data presented in Table G are for the same, gr-ari. >ral area
taken at a later date (July, 1968) by Reserve Mining Ooirpany.
These stations were combined into above and below the plant data
sets and were examined statistically in the sapie manner as the
1949 data. There was a highly significant distributional difference
among the taxonomic groups surveyed in July of 1968 when one examined
the coirbined stations above the plant vs. the combined stations below
the plant.
1243
-------
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1244
-------
Table G Mean Number of Organisms/in^ by Taxon,
July 1968. Depths Ranging Jrern j'-j' to 400'.
Combined data.
Taxon 2 stations above 4 stations below Total
Pontoporeia
Oligochaeta
Sphaeriidae
Chironomidae
Other
Total
761
379
112
24
2
1,278
194
550
69
53
1
867
-'55
929
18 1
77
3
2,145
X2. for contingency (calculated) = 322.727
5% probability X2 critical, value for four degrees of freedom -
9.49
Hypothesis that the two locations are the same in their re-
lative distributions is rejected. The distribution of
organisms is greatly different.
Table H shows an evaluation of the total nuirbers of organisms from
combined data in 1949 vs. 1968. The purpose of this test was to examine
whether there was a relative shift in the total numbers of organisms
above and below the outfall between the years 1949 and 1968. The test
indicated there was a statistically significant shift in the relative
distribution of the total number of organisms above vs. below the
outfall between 1939 and 1968.
Table.H Mean Number of Organisms/m2 Combined Data
1949 vs. 1968.
Year Above Below Total
1949
19fiR
903
1,278
929
867
1,832
2,145
Total 2,181 1,796 3,977
1245
-------
X2 for contingency (calculated) (with Yates correction) =
44.50
5% probability X2 critical value for one degree of
freedom = 3.84
Hypothesis that the two stations do not differ in their
relative distributions is rejected. The distribution of
organisms is greatly different.
Tables I and J are to be examined together. The X2 test results
to ascertain possible shifts in the relative distributions of the
organisms between the 1949 and 1968 for the same month (July) as sub-
divided upshore and downshore from the plant 1.7 miles and 2 miles,
respectively. It is apparent that there is a shift in the relative
distributions of the organisms between the sites for both years. The
two dates are different with regard to the relative distribution of
taxonomic groups, with the difference being ascribed, in part, to
differences in the frequency of Oligochaeta and Ghironomidae. Chi-square
results are extremely significant in both cases well beyond the 5%
probability level.
The magnitude of the July differences in 1968 is much greater
than those of July 1949; however, the important point concerns the
reason for the shift in 1949 vs. 1968. In 1949 the shift was primarily
a function of considerably fewer Oligochaeta (proportionately) below the
outfall. In 1968 the difference was due to an excess of Oligochaetes
1246
-------
below the outfall which replaced the Pontoporeia \r\ dominance.
Table - Mean Number of Organisms/m2 b\ T-xon, July 194S
Taxon 1.7 miles above 2 miles below Total
Pontoporeia
Oligochaeta
Sphaeriidae
Chironomidae
Other
Total
506
455
58
70
18
1,107
405
.164
43
45
4
661
911
619
101
115
22
1,768
X2 for contingency (calculated) = 55.52
5% probability X critical value for four degrees of
freedom =9.49
Hypothesis that the two Stations do not differ in their
relative distributions is rejected. The distribution of
organisms is greatly different.
2
Table J Mean Number of Organisms/m by Taxon, July 1968
Taxon 1.7 miles above 2 miles below Total
Pontoporeia
Oligochaeta
Sphaeriidae
Chironomidae
Other
Total
613
415
109
23
1
1,161
254
535
105
73
1
968
867
950
214
96
2
2,129
X for contingency (calculated) = 137.76
5% probability X2critical value for four degrees of
freedom =9.49
Hypothesis that the two stations do not differ in their
relative distributions is rejected. The distribution of
organisms is greatly different.
1247
-------
The data of 1949 and 1968 for above stations (at approximately
1.7 miles) was oonpared (Table K) and showed a significant shift in
the distributions of the different groups. Essentially, the data
showed that the Oligochaetes were lower in relative frequency in 1968
and the Pontoporeia and Sphaeriidae were greater in relative proportion
in 1968, oonpared to the distributions of 1949.
Table K Mean Nurrber of Organisms by Taxon for July
data 1949 and 1968 for above (1.7 miles NE)
station.
Tajon 1949 1968 Total
Pontoporeia
Oligochaeta
Sphaeriidae
Chironomidae
Other
506
455
58
70
18
613
415
109
23
1
1,119
878
167
93
19
Total 1,107 1,161 2,268
* for contingency (calculated) = 65.25
5% probability -'X critical value for four degrees of
freedom = 9.49
Hypothesis that the two stations do not differ in their
relative distributions is rejected. The relative distributions
of organisms are greatly different-between the two years.
1248
-------
Table L presents the data for 1949 and 1968 from the sites
dcwncurrent (SW) from the outfall. It also cleat-ly 'le^r-strates
a significant shift between the distributions, notably the enormous
excess of Oligochaetes in the 1968 sample compared to the 1949
sample.
Table L Mean Nutrfoer of Organisms by Taxon for July
Data 1949 and 1968 for below station (2 miles)
Taxon 1949 J968 Total
Pontoporeia
Oligochaeta
Sphaeriidae
Insecta
Other
405
165
43
45
4
254
535
105
73
1
659
700
148
118
5
Total 662 968 1,630
X for contingency (calculated) = 214.79
5% probability .X2 critical value for four degrees of
freedom =9.49
Hypothesis that the two stations do not differ in their
relative distributions is rejected. The distribution of
organisms is probably different.
In the examination of Figures Kb and L shows a clear indi-
cation of the major shift of the Pontogoreia population both in terms
of absolute numbers and relative abundance, as one approaches the out-
fall and proceeds away from the discharge point for data collected in
1969. There is a corresponding shift in the Oligochaeta and
1249
-------
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1.251
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Chirononidae populations. This is dramatically reflected in the
shift in distribution of absolute numbers which starts downshore
from the plant. This is also clearly indicated in the proportional
distribution of these t>ro groups of organisms. A gradual increase
in the number of Sphaeriidae occurs after the 2.5 mile mark as one
proceeds southwest (downshore) from the plant. There is an unstable
change in the Sphaeriidae and Pontoporeia as one proceeds downshore
from the plant with an increase of Pontoporeia at the final sampling
site 23 miles downstream. These figures indicate an extreme imbalance
within the taxonomic groups which is the result of an environmental
stress.
In Table M the mean numbers of organisms again are as examined
for data acquired in 1969. The relative distributions are examined
now as a function of the miles from the plant, both upshore and down-
shore, so that both positive and negative values in terms of direction
from the plant are evaluated to see if there is heterogeneity or homo-
geneity of the relative counts along the 200 foot depth contour. The
Chi-sguare test of the data in Table M clearly indicates an enormous
amount of heterogeneity in the benthic communities.
When one examines the relative proportions presented in Table N,
one can see that the major community disruption occurs at 2.5 miles
southwest of the plant with Pontoporeia going from the relative pro-
portion of 68% to 15%. Simultaneously, the Oligochaeta shift from
1252
-------
8% to 41%, respectively. Also of note in the shifts of the distribution
is the major increase in Chironomidae from northeast of the plant having
a relative proportion of 18% to a twofold increase (to about 42%) just
downshore fron the plant. If some sampling sites had been placed
closer to the outfall on both sides, a clearer picture would undoubtedly
be presented in terms of the impact of taconite tailings on the general
ecosystem. This same criticism applies to the nearshore sites and to
the problem of defining the limits of effect in the offshore direction.
Available data do not permit an estimate of the extent of effect in
this regard. If Reserve's turbidity current functions as it has been
described, tailing effects on benthic populations must extend at least
to the limits of particulate deposition at a minimum, or to the 900 foot
contour. It is naive, however, to assume that effects on the benthic
conntunity terminate discretely at the edge of the turbidity current
perimeter. At the present time it is not possible to estimate the
entire area of effect due to the fact that sampling has not been per-
formed in these areas. Table N, For clarity, presents the relative
distribution of the various benthic componentsT as percentages. Ihe
major shifts occur near the outfall (between 2.5 miles NE and 2.5 miles
SW), and range from 68% to 15% for Pontoporeia and from 18% to 42% for
Chironomidae.
1253
-------
scale were usually also correlated on a transformed scale. In addition,
the significance of the correlation did not change with transformation;
variables that were inversely related on a linear scale were also in-
versely related on the transformed scale. Analyses performed on trans-
formed data therefore generally reinforce and amplify the results
obtained in linear analyses. Tables summarizing these results show
the significance of the correlations (+ or -); the notation "0" is
used to signify no significant correlation at the .05 level.
Table 0 is a summary of all of the significant linear correlations
detected with at least P < .05, from all of the June-July data.
1254
-------
Table M Mean number of organisms by Tajon/m2 at 200" Depth
and Estimated Percentage of Tailings for
Various Stations Along Sampling Line 5.
Data for April-May 1969.
Miles fron
Plant #Pont. #01ig. tSphaer. #Chironi. fTotal %Tailings
9.0 NE
5.5 NE
2.5 NE
2.5 SW
5.0 SW
10.0 SW
17.0 SW
20.0 SW
23.0 SW
635
721
804
323
301
510
259
133
201
140
233
93
876
589
488
259
377
90
129
93
79
50
111
151
136
144
90
312
50
212
898
736
273
294
101
54
1,216
1,097
1,188
2,147
1,737
1,422
948
755
435
0
0
0
80
60
40
5
0
0
Total 3,887 3,145 983 2,930 10,945
X2for contingency (calculated) = 2850.25
5% probability x2 critical value for 32 degrees of
freedom =45.0
Hypothesis that the two stations do not differ in their
relative distributions is rejected. The distribution of
organisms is probably different.
Table N Percentage of Organisms by Taxon/m2 at 200'
Depth and Estimated Percentage of Tailings.
Data Acquired April-May 1969. These percen-
tage Data Refer to the Raw Scores Given in
Table N.
Miles from
Plant
9.0 NE
5.5 NE
2.5 NE
2.5 SW
5 SW
10 SW
17 SW
20 SW
23 SW
Pont.
52.2
65.7
67.7
15.0
17.3
35.9
27.3
17.6
46.2
Olig.
11.5
21.2
7.S
40.3
33.9
34.3
27.3
49.9
20.7
Sphaer.
10.6
8.5
6.6
2.3
6.4
10.6
14.3
19.1
20.7
Chiron.
25.7
4.6
17.8
41.8
42.4
19.2
31.0
13.4
12.4
Total
100.
100.
99.9
99.9
100.
100.
99.9
100.
100.
%Tailings
0
0
0
80
60
45
5
0
0
1255
-------
Correlations of Data for June and July 1969
Data obtained from the Reserve Mining Company (Document Reference # 3)
for June-July were analyzed by the method of linear correlation with
corresponding scale transformations, to evaluate possible non-linear
effects. The data are partitioned into the three data sets: upcurrent
(NE), dcwncurrent (SW), and all data combined.
The abbreviations of the variables and their meaning are as
follows:
SITE = 19 sites from NE to SW above and below the plant
outfall.
TOTOFG = the total number of organisms
PCNT = number of Pontoporeia
OSLIGO = number of Oligochaetes
SPHAER = number of Sphaeriidae
CHIRCN = number of Chironomidae
PCTAIIS = the estimated percentage of tailings obtained
from estimates provided in the data report.
VISTATTiS = the estimate of the presence or absence of
visible tailings as noted in the data report
LOCMELE = the distance in miles above or below the outfall
(+ is above, - is below).
TOTSQ = the number of total organisms squared
1256
-------
PCNTSQ = the nurrber of Pontoporeia squared
QLIGOSQ = the nunber of Oligochaetes squared
SPHAERSQ = the nunber of Sphaeriidae squared
CHIEDSQ = the nunber of Chironomidae squared
LTOTOR = the log of the total nurtber of organisms
LPCNT = the log of the number of Pontoporeia
LOLIQO = the log of the nunber of Oligochaetes
LCHIHDN = the log of the number of Qiironomidae
LSPHAER = the log of the nunber of Sphaeriidae
REGION = sites northeast of the outfall vs. sites
southwest of the outfall (_i. e. above vs. below)
No attempt will be made to present, in tabular form, all results
from correlation analyses performed for these data (Document Reference
3) and for data given in Document Reference 4. The large number of
possible two-at-a-time combinations of the 20 variables examined on
linear, log and square scales and the possible permutations of linear
with other scales precludes the inclusion of these results. Nevertheless,
the analyses have been performed and the results have been made available
to Reserve's lawyers. For clarity and to conserve space only linear
combinations (PONT vs. PCTAILS, CHIRON vs. LOCMTIE, etc.) will be
treated in tabular form.
With respect to the results of the non-linear combinations it should
be noted that variables that were significantly correlated on a linear
1257
-------
Table O
Correlation matrix for all linear variables analyzed
by regression analysis. The following notations are
employed: + = positively correlated, = negatively
correlated and O = no significant correlation at
P .05. Document Reference 3, all data combined.
—
s
1
T
E
—
0
P
c
T
A
1
L
S
—
0
+
V
1
s
T
A
1
L
S
—
+
0
0
L
O
C
M
1
L
E
+
0
0
0
O
T
O
T
O
R
G
+
—
—
0
0
0
p
O
N
T
O
0
0
0
0
O
0
O
0
L
1
G
O
+
0
0
0
0
0
+
0
s
p
H
A
E
R
0
0
+
-f
—
0
O
0
O
c
H
1
R
O
R
E
G
I
O
N
1258
-------
The relationship of various components of the benthic community to
site is evident, all of the Pontoporeia estimates, both linear and
non-linear, were significantly negatively correlated with site as
one proceeds downcurrent past the effluent; there is a significant
decrease in numbers of Pontoporeia.
Total organisms, whether measured on linear or non-linear scales,
were all correlated with position with relation to the effluent viz.
whether the samples are counted above the effluent or below the
effluent. Since Region I was assigned to be above the effluent, these
analyses indicate that there are more total organisms above the
effluent than below. (Table o)
The numbers of Pontoporeia are strongly associated with region
and both linear and non-linear estimates of the Sphaeriidae. One of
ifhe most important findings is the correlation of the number of
Pontoporeia with the percentage tailings: significant decrease of the
numbers of Pontoporeia occurs coincidentally with the increase in the
percentage tailings. (Table O) The correlations of the numbers of
Sphaeriidae also showed strong associations with the region (above or
below the effluent) with more being present in the upcurrent sites
(Table 0).
One of the strongest relationships detected in these analyses is
that of the numbers of Chironomidae with the percentage tailings and
the presence of visible tailings — as the percent tailings and visible
1259
-------
tailings increases, the number of Chirononids also increases signifi-
cantly. There is also a negative relationship between distance (SW)
from the effluent and the numbers of Chironomids (Table 0).
Not surprisingly, the percentage tailings was highly correlated
with the visible tailings. Percentage tailings was also highly
significantly correlated with region with a general absence of tailings
upcurrent and presence downcurrent (Table 0).
The correlation analysis of the visible tailings also showed
significant positive correlations with the log of the nurrfoer of
Chironomids and a negative relationship with the region.
Correlation of the location by mile again showed a strong relation-
ship with the log or squares of the number of Chironomidae. Clearly,
this confirms the previous finding that as one moves into the downcurrent
effluent area, there is an increase in the number of Chirondmids.
The correlation of the square of the number of Pontoporeia was
also highly significantly related positively to region and to the linear
and non-linear estimates of the Sphaeriidae. PONTSQ is negatively
correlated with the site, IDCMILE and the percentage of tailings.
Again, this series of relationships show clear negative relationships
viz; as the percentage tailings increases, the number of Pontoporeia
decreases.
The correlations of the squared transformation of the number of
Sphaeriidae are the same as the linear function of the number of
1260
-------
Sphaeriidae. The correlations of the squared transformations of the
numbers of Chironomidae is similar to the linear function, except
that there is an additional significant relationship with the log of
the number of Pontoporeia. This could indicate that there are signifi-
cant displacements of Pontoporeia by Chironomidae over the range
encompassed by all of the data but not as a linear function of each
other.
The correlations of all log transformations of all of the count
data showed only two non-linear correlations (over and above those
associated on the linear scale) and these were: the log of the number
of Oiironomidae with site (negative) and the log of the number of
Pontoporeia with the square of the number of Chironomidae (negatively).
Even though these analyses are clearly tests of relationships, it
is evident that the correlations indicate groupings of variables as a
function of above or below the effluent. In short, the number of
Pontoporeia, the number of Sphaeriidae, and the total number of organisms
are positively related with the region under examination (higher above
and lower below). Conversely, the visible tailings and percentage of
tailings are negatively correlated with location above or below the
outfall (lower above and higher below).
Correlations Below the Effluent
Table P is a presentation of the linear correlation results of
downshore data only (Document Reference # 3). In this partition of the
1261
-------
data, we examine the degree of relationship among the variables from
the zone of highest probable impact (at the effluent) to a "recovery"
zone some 30 miles downcurrent (SW).
1262
-------
Table P
Correlation matrix for all linear variables analyzed
by regression analysis. The following notations are
employed: + = positively correlated, = negatively
correlated and 0 = no significant correlation at
P .05. Document Reference 3, downshore (SW) data
only.
R
E
G
I
O
N
O
s
I
T
I
0
P
c
T
A
1
L
s
0
—
+
V
1
s
T
1
L
S
0
0
—
—
L
0
C
M
L
E
0
0
O
0
0
T
O
T
O
R
G
0
0
0
0
0
0
P
O
N
T
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
O
L
1
G
O
O
0
O
0
0
0
0
0
s
P
H
A
E
R
O
—
+
+
—
O
0
0
0
c
H
1
R
0
1263
-------
The expectation should be of a gradual shift from the
effects of heavy deposition to an area of extensive recovery
for the macrobenthic organisms.
The first correlations evident (those with site) show the
precise relationship in this graded zone. The percent tailings,
presence of visible tailings, and all scales of the
Chironomidae are negatively correlated, i.e., as the site
numbers increase from a low of 7 at 2.5 miles SW to a high
of 19 at 30 miles SW, there is a decrease of the above variables
(Table P)• Hence, as one moves southwest from the outfall,
the percent tailings, visible tailings, and the number of
Chironomidae significantly decrease.
The significant negative correlations of the numbers of
Chironomidae and site number, the log of the number of
Pontoporeia, and the distance from the effluent, along with
the high positive correlations of the number of Chironomidae
with the percent tailings and the presence of visible tailings,
is indicative of the magnitude and extent of the environmental
and biotic shifts of this graded impact zone. The Chironomidae
significantly increased as the percent tailings and presence
of tailings increased? further, as one gets closer to the ef-
fluent (from 30 miles SW), the numbers of Chironomidae increase.
Also, there appears to be a significant replacement of
Pontoporeia southwest of the effluent.
1265
-------
The percent tailings significantly decreases as one pro-
ceeds further southwest from the effluent and all of the measures
of the number of Chironomidae (linear, log/ and square) increase
as the percent tailings increase. The significant relationships
of the visible tailings are essentially the same as that of
the percent tailings.
Clearly, the negative relationships of the mile location
downcurrent (SW) from the effluent show the most dramatic
association of the data set with the percent tailings, visible
tailings, and the series of Chironomidae counts, all decreasing
as one progresses away from effluent towards the southwest
(Table P) .
Negative correlations of the log of the number of
Pontoporeia and the log and square transformations of the
numbers of Chironomidae were highly significant. These non-
linear scales indicate the nature of the direct shift of the
decreased number of Pontoporeia to the increased number of
Chironomidae and that the number of Chironomidae are signifi-
cantly correlated to the percent tailings and the location down-
current (SW) of the effluent.
Table Q is a summary of the significant linear correlations
upcurrent (NE) of the effluent wherein only the site and the
LOCmile variables are correlated, negatively. This is a meaning-
less correlation; however, it emphasizes the fact that the upshore
1266
-------
Table Q
Correlation matrix for all linear variables analyzed
by regression analysis. The following notations are
enplcved: + = positively correlated, = negatively
correlated and O = no significant correlation at
P .05. Document Reference 3, upshore data only.
O
s
1
T
E
0
0
.
P
c
T
A
1
L
S
O
0
0
V
1
s
T
A
1
L
S
0
—
0
0
L
0
C
M
1
L
E
0
0
0
O
0
T
O
T
O
R
G
0
0
0
0
0
0
P
O
N
T
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
O
L
1
G
^^
O
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
s
P
O
0
0
0
O
O
0
0
0
R
E
G
I
O
N
A
E
R
C
H
I
R
O
1267
-------
area is not subject to the same degree of environmental stress
as the area below (SW) of the discharge.
These series of analyses indicate major changes of the
benthic communities which occur as a function of variables which
represent specific aspects of the physical environment associated
with some aspect of the Reserve Mining outfall; specifically,
mile distance from the outfall, visible tailings, percent
tailings, and site. These analyses confirm the previous con-
clusion concerning the rejections of the null hypotheses from
independently gathered data that no differences existed among
the data gathered. Hence, the extensive differences detected
above and below the outfall from previous data are validated
and the area of effect is shown to be even more extensive by
the present analyses. These analyses clearly establish re-
lationships between components of the benthic community and
physical parameters which are direct functions of the Reserve
discharge. These analyses also establish the shifts of the
communities among their components, especially Pontoporeia
being replaced by Chironomidae as the percent tailings increases
(or as one becomes closer to the effluent).
Recall that there exists an extensive series of relation-
ships in the data below the outfall and for the data as a whole
(18 in the downshore set and 40 in the total data set) and
there is a lack of relationships in the upshore data (one
relationship, only site number and mile location were correlated)
1268
-------
These factors are very strong indicators that in the more or
less "control" sample area upcurrent (NE), no significant
relationships exist since there is only random "natural"
variation present whereas for all of the data and the "recovery"
area (near SW) there are extensive modifications in both physical
and biotic factors which reflect strong relationships (that
are probably so subtle in the upshore data that they are not
detectable over and above "natural" variation) as a function
of the effluent and its dispersion.
Analyses of Summer/ 1969 Data Sets
A series of analyses were completed on data obtained in
the summer of 1969 (Document Reference #3). Replicated samples
were taken along four transects at the 100, 200, 300, 400, and
500 depth intervals. The four transects (see Figs. M, N, 0, & P)
were located at 8.5 miles NE, at 2.5 miles SW, at 10 miles SW,
and one at 25.0 miles SW of the effluent point. Only average
values were made available by Reserve Mining; hence, it was not
possible to complete rigorous analyses. Correlation and
analyses were completed as well as graphic presentations for
clarity.
Because of the limited data available and limited sites
examined, no generalized linear shore relationships will be
attempted. These data were analyzed with the purpose of
1269
-------
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1270
-------
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1271
-------
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-------
examining the depth profiles of the communities since the
linear distributions were already examined in the data pre-
viously discussed. In regard to depth correlations, four
negative relationships were evident: depth and the log of the
number of Sphaeriidae, depth and the log of the number of
Oligochaetes, depth and the log of the total number of organisms,
and depth and the log of the number of Pontoporeia. The first
three were highly significant and the latter one, only moderately
so. The number of these three types of organisms decline as
one sampled deeper and deeper depths, as did the log function
of their numbers. Figures M, N, 0, & P show the extent of
these declines as a function of depth.
Although the relationships shown in these figures indicate
the general nature of the decline of the organisms, it is not
clearly indicative of the benthic community structure (com-
position) . Figure M gives a graphic representation of the
three-dimensional view of the relationship of the numbers of
Pontoporeia as a function of depth and distance from the ef-
fluent. Unfortunately, the choice of sampling sites and the
absence of data at the outfall preclude an accurate specific
picture of the "true" nature of these interrelationships;
however, it is clear that if adequate data were available,
it would probably show a very marked influence of the effluent
1274
-------
on the depth and length profile of the numbers of Pontoporeia.
A "trough", located 2.5 miles SW of the plant, runs from the
200 through 500 feet zones. This represents a considerable
shift in the generalized bathymetric features beyond the 100
foot depth zone. Pontoporeia are not equally distributed across
the depths regardless of the mileage away from the effluent.
A visual intuitive test of the null hypothesis would undoubtedly
result in a rejection since clearly one can see that the
distribution is not homogeneous across either site (mile
location) or depth and appears highly modified near the effluent.
Figure N is most dramatic in many respects showing an
enormous excess of Oligochaetes at the 400 foot depth at the
site closest to the effluent; of almost equal importance is
the excess number of Oligochaetes at the 100 foot depth, with
a large depression in numbers at the 200 and 300 feet depths
nearest the effluent. Again, as with Pontoporeia (Fig. M)
there is a very strong intuitive impression that these locations,
both in distance (miles from the effluent) and in depth, are
obviously different above vs. below the effluent.
Figure 0 shows that the numbers of Sphaeriidae are generally
similar to Oligochaetes except for the 2.5 miles/400 ft. depth
coordinate, which is the same sample on which the Oligochaetes
showed an excess. Again, the data indicate a depression effect
near the effluent (2.5 miles distant).
1275
-------
In Figure P, the indication that the number of
Chironomidae increases as the percent tailings increases
(as predicted fro.u the earlier data analyses, Table P
is again evident at the 100, 200, 400, and 500 ft. depths.
The prediction is based on the previous 200 feet analysis
and because of the strong correlation with increase in
percent tailings as one approaches the outfall. Again,
the visual impression clearly indicates that the numbers
of Chironomidae are not evenly distributed in the areas
sampled.
The summary three dimensional figure (Fig. G)
reflects the composite distribution of the total number
of benthic organisms reported. Visual interpretation again
leads us to project that the average total number of benthic
organisms is not the same over the three-dimensional grid
examined.
1276
-------
o
o
o
o
o
m
O.
-------
Peaks and valleys are evident, with the mcst dramatic change
occurring nearest the outfall. It is important to remember
that this nearest sample site is approximately 132,000 ft.
away from the outfall. Closer sampling points obviously would
greatly clarify the modification effects of the outfall; how-
ever, if modifications of the order of magnitude shown in the
nearest site are occurring, by projection, one would expect
even greater community changes at the outfall.
A visual overlay of these figures (Figs. M7 N, 0, and P)
indicates enormous disruption of the relative distributions
of these communities which strongly supports the highly signifi-
cant statistical results obtained earlier by the method of
Chi-square.
Analyses of the Summer, 1969 Data (Document Reference #3)
Several x2 tests were completed on the data from the depth
survey conducted in the summer of 1969 and illustrated in
Figs. M, N, 0, P, and Q. The X2 for contingency test was
used to test whether the relative proportions of the numbers
(counts or mean counts) are from the same statistical population,
i.e. , that the relative frequency of the counts among depths
above the plant are the same as those below the plant. This
series is divided into several separate tests in the major cate-
gories enumerated; specifically, number of total organisms,
number of Pontoporeia, number of Oligochaeta, number of Chironomidae,
and number of Sphaeriidae. Those organisms classified as "other"
were not analyzed due to their relatively small proportions.
1278
-------
2
In all cases, the calculated x values were considerably
in excess of the critical tabular X2 value considered to be
attainable by chance alone (in this case, equal to 9.49, at
the 5 percent probability level).
The following tables (Tables R, s, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z, & AA)
are self explanatory in regard to their specific tests.
The generalized conclusion is that there are highly significant
inconsistencies among the distributions of the various benthic
components above vs. below the effluent.
Table R Chi-square for contingency evaluation
of the X total number of organisms
from samples taken 8.5 miles above
and 2.5 miles below the taconite
plant in the summer of 1969. Compar-
isons involve the relative distri-
bution of the total number of
organisms for the five depths
(100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F
E
E
T
100
200
300
400
500
892
1,820
851
887
647
3,512
1,180
346
5,880
474
4,404
3,000
1,197
6,767
1,121
TOTAL 5,097 11,392 16,489
The calculated chi-square = 3764.442 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
critical x2 value at the 5% P level = 9.49,
The hypothesis that the two regions do not
differ in their relative distribution for
the five depths is rejected.
1279
-------
Table S Chi-square for contingency evaluation
of the X Pontoporeia from samples
taken 8.5 miles above and 2.5 miles
below the taconit'e plant in the
summer of 1969. Comparisons involve
the relative distribution of the
Pontoporeia for the five depths
(100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 180 666 846
E 200 1,140 326 1,466
E 300 385 66 451
T 400 553 40 593
-500 360 98_ 458
TOTAL 2,618 1,196 3,814
The calculated chi-square = 1185.024
with 4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" X value at the 5% P level =
9.49. The hypothesis that the two regions
do not differ in their relative distri-
bution for the five depths is rejected.
Table T Chi-square for contingency evaluation
of the X Oligochaeta from samples taken
8.5 miles above and 2.5 miles below the
taconite plant in the summer of 1969.
Comparisons involve the relative dis-
tribution of the Oligochaeta for the
five depths (100, 200, 300, 400, and
500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 526 2,266 2,792
E 200 167 274 441
E 300 300 94 394
T 400 100 4,580 4,680
500 141 129 270
TOTAL 1,234 7,343 8,577
The calculated chi-square = 2346.227 with
4.degrees of freedom. The tabular "critical"
X2 value at the 5% P level = 9.49. The
hypothesis that the two regions do not differ
in their relative distribution for the five
depths is rejected.
1280
-------
Table U Chi-square for contingency evaluation
of the X Insecta from samples taken
8.5 miles above and 2.5 miles below
the taconite plant in the summer of 1969.
Comparisons involve the relative distri-
bution of the Insecta for the five depths
(100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 20 246 266
E 200 227 406 633
E 300 100 140 240
T 400 174 460 634
500 100 206 306
TOTAL 621 1,458 2,079
The calculated chi-square = 93.160 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" X* value at the 5% P level =
9.49. The hypothesis that the two
regions do not differ in their relative
distribution for the five depths is rejected.
Table V Chi-square for contingency evaluation of
the X Sphaeriidae from samples taken 8.5
miles above and 2.5 miles below the taconite
plant in the summer of 1969. Comparisons
involve the relative distribution of the
Sphaeriidae for the five depths (100, 200,
300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 166 334 500
E 200 286 174 460
E 300 66 46 112
T 400 60 800 860
500 46 4JL 87_
TOTAL 624 1,395 2,019
The calculated chi-square = 503.290 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" X2 value at the 5% P level =
9.49. The hypothesis that the two regions
do not differ in their relative distri-
bution for the five depths is rejected.
1281
-------
Table $ Chi-square for contingency evaluation
of the X total number of organisms
from samples taken 8.5 miles above
and 10.0 miles below the taconite
plant in the summer of 1969. Com-
parisons involve the relative distri-
bution of the total number of organisms
for the five depths (100, 200, 300,
400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 892 1,768 2,660
E 200 1,820 2,299 4,119
E 300 651 1,180 2,031
T 400 887 246 1,133
500 647 133 780
TOTAL 5,097 5,626 10,723
The calculated chi-square - 1075.366 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" X2 value at the 5% P level =
9.49. The hypothesis that the two regions
do not differ in their relative distri-
bution for the five depths is rejected.
Table X Chi-square for contingency evaluation of
the X Pontoporeia from samples taken 8.5
miles above and 10.0 miles below the
taconite plant in the summer of 1969.
Comparisons involve the relative distri-
bution of the Pontoporeia for the five
depths (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 180 434 614
E 200 1,140 773 1,913
E 300 385 507 892
T 400 553 73 626
500 360 33_ 393
TOTAL 2,618 1,820 4,438
The calculated chi-square = 711.829 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" x2 value at the 5% P level = 9.49,
The hypothesis that the two regions do not
differ in their relative distribution
fez the five depths is rejected.
1282
-------
Table Y Chi-square for contingency evaluation of the
X Oligochaeta from samples taken 8.5 miles
above and 10.0 miles below the taconite
plant in the summer of 1969. Comparisons
involve the relative distribution of the
Oligochaeta for the five depths (100, 200,
300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 526 828 1,354
E 200 167 933 1,100
E 300 300 180 480
T 400 100 53 153
500 141 40 181
TOTAL 1,234 2,034 3,268
The calculated chi-square = 537.971 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" X2 value at the 5% P level =
9.49. The hypothesis that the two regions
do not differ in their relative distribution
for the five depths is rejected.
Table 54 Chi-£quare for contingency evaluation of
the X Insecta from samples taken 8.5 miles
above and 10.0 miles below the taconite
plant in the summer of 1969. Comparisons
involve the relative distribution of the
Insecta for the five depths (100, 200, 300,
400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 20 220 240
E 200 227 280 507
E 300 100 333 433
T 400 174 107 281
500 100 47_ 147
TOTAL 621 9,987 1,608
The calculated chi-square = 262.989 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular "critical"
X2 value at the 5% P level = 9.49. The
hypothesis that the two regions do not
differ in their relative distribution
for the five depths is rejected.
1263
-------
Table AA Chi-square for contingency evaluation
of the X Sphaeriidae from samples
taken 8.5 miles above and 10.0 miles
below the taconite plant in the
summer of 1969. Comparisons involve
the relative distribution of the
Sphaeriidae for the five depths
(100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 feet).
Depth Above Below Total
F 100 166 286 452
E 200 286 313 599
E 300 66 160 226
T 400 60 13 73
500 46 13 5£
TOTAL 624 785 1,409
The calculated chi-square = 103.850 with
4 degrees of freedom. The tabular
"critical" x2 value at the 5% P level =
9.49. The hypothesis that the two regions
do not differ in their relative distri-
bution for the five depths is rejected.
1284
-------
In an attempt to further clarify the changes of the benthic
community and to demonstrate the shifts in this part of the
ecosystem, data given previously were analyzed graphically.
Figure P, presents the relative distribution of the components
of the benthic communities at the 200 ft. depth and also for
all depths combined. The two pie charts to the left of the line
represent those distributions above (upcurrent or NE) the ef-
fluent. The exact distances for each site are given below the
pie diagram. Pontoporeia represent the dominant benthic form
8.5 miles NE of the effluent "control or natural baseline".
If we compare this site with the site downcurrent from the
effluent (2.5 miles/ SW, we see a dramatic shift within the
span of 11 miles. Undoubtedly other changes are occurring of
a yery marked nature in the proximity of the effluent.
Note that the proportion of Pontoporeia never returns to
its upcurrent or "natural" level, even at 25 miles downcurrent
from the effluent. Note also that, dependent upon the depth,
either Oligochaetes or Chironomidae "take over" or replace
Pontoporeia as the dominant taxa. This is the clearest in-
dication of a dramatic change in community structure as a
function of distance downcurrent from the effluent.
1285
-------
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1286
-------
ANALYSES OF DATA FROM FALL 1969
(Document Reference #4;a,b,c/
The most extensive set of benthic data available from the
Reserve Mining files were obtained from a large-scale sampling
involving 5 sample sites/ with 5 or 6 replications being taken
at each site and with 5 subsamples being counted for each dredge
sample. Sampling sites were located at 11 and 6 miles northeast
of the effluent and 2.5, 11, and 30 miles SW of the outfall.
Two types of analyses were performed on these data: 1) cor-
relation, and 2) analyses of variance. As before, transformations
were performed on count data to ascertain the most appropriate
scale of evaluation of the results. Again, the data were par-
titioned into three major subsets; data above (NE) the outfall,
data gathered from sites below (SW) the outfall, and all data.
Correlation Analyses Among all of the Data (Document Reference
#4;a,b,c)
Table BB is a summary table of all of the significant linear
correlations found among the environmental and biological para-
meters. As before, to conserve space, only the linear correlation
pairs are tabulated. The general statements made concerning the
previous sets of data where regression analysis was employed apply
also to the present analysis. Transformed data usually yielded the
same significant relationships and no changes in sign were noted.
These results are also available. The position or location of
128?
-------
Table BB
Correlation matrix for all linear variables analyzed
by regression analysis. The following notations are
employ?d: + = positively correlated, = negatively
correlated and 0 = no significant correlation at
P .05. Document Reference 4, all data conbined.
1 o — o
? + o
I cp Tl
T V
f I
ls I
1
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S
—
0
—
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+
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—
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O
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+
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0
p
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O
+
o
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0
—
+
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1288
-------
the sampling sites was positioned so that site 1 was located
most northeast of the effluent, and site 5 was the southwestern-
most site. Except for percent tailings, all the significant
correlations with respect to site were negative. These in-
cluded: all of the measures of the number of Pontoporeia,
all of Sphaeriidae and the log of the number of Sphaeriidae
(Table BB).The three major indications of a significant shift
in the benthic community (number of Pontoporeia, number of
Sphaeriidae, and the total number of organisms), were all signifi-
cantly reduced as one progressed southwest from the point of
discharge.
Table BB also shows the significant correlations with
region and the mile location of the sites. Three of these
correlations indicate essentially that the total number of
organisms decreases as one proceeds towards the southwest.
The number of Pontoporeia were negatively correlated with the
number of Chironomidae and with the percent tailings present.
These correlations suggest a major community shift from
Pontoporeia to Chironomidae (Table BB).
The Oligochaeta, on the other hand, were also strongly
associated (positively) with the Chironomidae, the Sphaeriidae
(positively), and were also positively correlated to the percent
tailings. Hence, as the percent tailings increases, so do the
Oligochaeta, and as the numbers of Oligochaeta increase, so do
the numbers of Chironomidae and Sphaeriidae (Table BB).
1289
-------
The Sphaeriidae were also negatively correlated with the
location of the site (positive), site number (negative), and
with the Oligochaeta and the Chironomidae. The number of
Sphaeriidae increase as the percent tailings increases, and
they also increase along with the numbers of Chironomidae
and Oligochaeta (Table BB).
Of all of the benthic component groups, however, the
Chironomidae are associated with a greater number of other
changes than any of the other benthic variables. The number
of Chironomidae were negatively correlated with distance down-
current, the region, and all of the Pontoporeia variables
regardless of scale. Positive correlations include the percent
tailings, and the numbers of Oligochaeta and Sphaeriidae.
Clearly, number of Chironomidae is the most extensively af-
fected variable in this table (Table BB). Chironomids appear as
a replacement for Pontoporeia and are most highly associated
with the percent tailings, viz. where high percent tailings
occur, high numbers of Chironomidae also occur.
From these and previous analyses, the major controlling
factor in upsetting the benthic community structure is the
percent tailings present. All components of the benthic com-
munity are significantly affected by the percent tailings;
the numbers of Chironomidae, Oligochaeta, and Sphaeriidae,
all increase significantly as the percent tailings increases,
whereas the numbers of Pontoporeia decrease significantly as
the percent tailings increases.
1290
-------
The correlations of the mile location of the station and
all components of the Chironomidae, Sphaeriidae, and Oligochaeta
were significantly negatively related, as is the number of
total organisms. As one proceeds downcurrent from station one,
there is a significant decrease in the level of the numbers of
Chironomidae, Sphaeriidae, Oligochaeta, and total number of
organisms (Table BB), The general explanation of this phenomenon
will be shown later to be explained by the extremely strong re-
lationship in only the three downcurrent (SW) sites (Table CC).
In regard to the variables and their non-linear transfor-
mations, all generally agree with their linear equivalents.
That is, tailings are correlated with numbers of Pontoporeia
in a simple linear fashion and with all the transformed variables
based on Pontoporeia, such as logs or squares. This is probably
due to the fact that the data in this set (Table BB) were well
replicated and the entire raw data were available for analyses
which was not the case for the previous data sets where the
evaluations were made from the mean values.
The significant correlations of region with most of the
benthic community components [see Table BBJ numbers of
Pontoporeia (+), numbers of Chironomidae (-), numbers of
Oligochaeta (-), and total numbers of organisms (+)] indicate
again the magnitude of the differences. These differences,
between the two regions (up vs. downcurrent), will be more fully
examined by analyses of variance in a later section.
1291
-------
Correlation Analyses for Downshore Data (Document Reference
#4;a,b,c)'
All downcurrent sites were organized into a single data
set for correlation analysis. The general level and types of
significant correlations detected in these data sets strongly
reinforce the trends noted earlier as one proceeds downshore
(SW) from the Reserve Mining effluent (Table CC).
The site numbers and LOCMILE (miles-distant from the
outfall) 3, 4, and 5 are strongly correlated with virtually
every linear and non-linear variable of the benthic community,
examined as well as percent tailings (Table CC). These
associations are partitioned into two general groups:
1) those which increase with site number and LOCMILE,
and 2) those which decrease with site number or LOCMILE.
The strongest correlations obtained in these analyses with
site and LOCMILE were those with the percent tailings.
As one approaches the outfall, larger and larger percentages
of tailings are found.
1292
-------
Table CC
Correlation matrix for all linear variables
analyzed by regression analysis. The
following notations are eitployed: + =
positively correlated, = negatively cor-
related and O =*_ no significant correlation at
P_ .05. Document Reference 4, downshore (SW)
data only.
R
E
G
I
O
N
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—
1
T
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0
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s
0
0
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+
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0
+
—
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4-
0
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1293
-------
The interrelationships of site number, LOCMILE, and average
percent tailings were plotted on the abscissa with the pro-
portion of Pontoporeia, Chironomidae, Sphaeriidae, and
Oligochaeta being plotted on the ordinates (Figs. S and T).
The reduction in the number of Pontoporeia is associated with
the replacement of this species by an increased number of
Chironomidae, with only a slight change in the number of
Sphaeriidae. The distribution of the relative community
structures, shown graphically in Fig. U for these data, is
additional evidence of the strong nature of the interrelation-
ships which occur among the components of the benthic community
and the distances from the effluent and the percent tailings.
This segment of the analyses also demonstrates the major re-
lationships evident in previous discussions, except that the
strength (nearness to a. perfect correlation) of the down-
current study is more persuasive than all previous studies.
1294
-------
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1295
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1296
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1297
-------
The benthic community structure shift for the 200 ft. contour
is verified by Fig. U. Pontoporeia comprise about 50% of the
community in the two sites above the outflow but less than that
at the two sites immediately downcurrent (SW). Pontoporeia
becomes the dominant species 30 miles from the effluent location.
The data collected in the fall of 1969 show that massive dis-
tributional shifts in benthic population structure occur to at
least 11 miles downcurrent from the outfall.
In short, all taxonomic groups are associated in one way
or another with the presence of the outfall and/or distance
from the outfall. This clearly indicates the massive and
highly significant effect the outfall (percent tailings) has
on the structure and level of the benthic communities evaluated.
Correlation Analyses of the Fall 1969 Data for the Upcurrent
(NE) Sites Only (Document Reference #4;a,b,'cT
The summary given in Table DD of the significant correlations
found in the two upshore (NE) sites reinforces the findings of
the previous correlation study (Tables 0, P, & Q) that only a few
of the upshore correlations were found to be significant.
The correlations of certain variables versus site indicate
that there might be a disruption of organisms at the near
effluent site, even though Reserve's data reports maintain
that no tailings are found at the near effluent site.
1298
-------
Table DD
Correlation matrix for all linear variables analyzed
by regression analysis. The following notations are
enployed: + = positively correlated, =» negatively
correlated and 0 = no significant correlation at
P .05. Document Reference 4, upshore data only.
0
s
1
T
E
0
0
P
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T
A
1
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S
0
0
0
V
1
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1299
-------
These rather weak correlations are exhibited in Fig. V
where the changes in the relative values of these benthic
components are shown as a function of distance above the plant.
As one approaches the effluent from the northeast, there is
an increase in the total number of organisms present
(see Fig. V). Likewise, there is an increase in the
number of Pontoporeia and Oligochaeta between mile 11 and mile 6
upcurrent (NE) from the effluent. The relationship of the
location by mile to the community components is identical to
that of the site and is also evident in Fig. U. The Oligochaeta
and the Chironomidae are also positively associated.
To summarize the findings of these upshore analyses/ fewer
associations are noted and those that are (with site and loc-
mile primarily) are a function of the general increase in the
total numbers of organisms (Fig. V), The Chironomidae and the
Oligochaeta have a stronger association in these sites than
in the downcurrent stations that are under ecological stress.
Results of Analyses of Variance (Fall 1969 Data - Reserve Mining
Report - Document Reference tt4;a,b,cT
One of the most critical methods of examining data of the
type generated on these studies is analyses of variance. With
this test we can examine average differences among sites and be-
tween the two regions (above and below the effluent). As before,
1300
-------
U. U. —I Z> LU Z t-
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1301
-------
we have partitioned the data into three groups; 1) data
collected below the outflow (SW), 2) data from above the outflow
(NE), and 3) all data. The partitioning permits a clear inter-
pretation of modifications of the benthic environment. In these
analyses, there are two kinds of errors estimated, as previously
discussed, dredge variation at the time of sampling, and
errors due to sample processing. From practical experience,
we know that dredge sampling has a greater variation than
laboratory processing. Therefore, we have chosen to use the
variation among dredge samples as the source of unexplained
variation. This choice gives an extremely conservative statis-
tical test and it is proportionately more difficult to reject
the null hypothesis when using it. Recall that the sampling
design was devised to test the null hypothesis, that no dif-
ferences exist among the sampling sites or regions (above vs.
below). Hence, the rejection of this hypothesis permits us
to conclude that something other than random variation has
occurred in the environment being tested.
Table EE is the summary table of the analysis of variance
from the Reserve data for the fall of 1969. It is divided into
two parts, the first tests for differences among the 5 sites,
and secondly, to tests for differences between the areas above
the outfall and below the outfall. The columns marked "sampling
site" refer to the probability that the rejection of the null
1302
-------
Table EE
ANOV Analysis for Variables at 200' with
Probability < F Values for SITE and REGION
(Document Reference # 4; a,b,c).
All Data Combined
Sampling Site
Above vs. Below
Variables
PONT
OLIGO
CHIRON
SHPAER
TDTORG
IPONT
LOIJEGO
LCHIRON
LSPHAER
LTOTOR
PONTSQ
OLIGOSQ
CHIROSQ
SPHAESQ
TOTOSQ
Prob.< F
SITE
0.0002
0.0001
0.0001
0.0500
0.0001
0.0002
0.0001
0.0001
0.0331
0.0001
0.0003
0.0001
0.0001
0.1002
0.0001
Prob. < F
REGION
***
***
***
NS
***
***
***
***
*
***
***
***
***
NS
***
0.0002
0.0223
0.0008
0.6280
0.0491
0.0004
0.5854
0.0055
0.8440
0.0273
0.0001
0.0129
0.0010
0.5657
0.0725
***
*
***
NS
*
***
NS
**
NS
*
***
*
**
NS
NS
1303
-------
hypothesis (no differences among the sites) is wrong.
For example (see Table EE) for the number of Pontoporeia,
the "F" value has a probability of 0.0002 which means we
have only about 2 chances in 10,000 of being wrong in saying
that there are differences among the sites (over and above
sampling, laboratory analytical, and natural variability).
We, therefore, conclude that there are probably extensive
differences in numbers of Pontoporeia among the five sites
across the sampled intervals (Table EE). Likewise, for
most of the linear variables, PONT, OLIGO, CHIRON, SPHAER,
and total organisms, there are significant differences among
the sites except for the number of Sphaeriidae. When one
examines transformations to determine if there is some other
non-linear scale on which differences may occur, we generally
find the same set of statistical decisions as the linear series
with a few exceptions (Table EE). For the squared trans-
formations , four of the five variables examined showed high
probabilities of rejection of the null hypothesis.
1304
-------
The salient feature of these linear and non-linear tests
is to examine the combined set of statistical decisions to
determine if patterns emerge. The most consistent pattern
is simply that enormous differences are found in the composi-
tion of the benthic community regardless of the scale examined
(Table EE). The number of Sphaeriidae do not change dras-
tically from one site to another.
The picture that emerges in comparing above vs. below
effluent data can be generalized, but it is not the same as
the pattern which emerged in the site analyses (Table EE).
In the linear phase of the analyses/ there were the same
set of statistical decisions (not as strong in the case of
the number of Oligochaeta or total organisms) but nevertheless
these differences are distinct and unmistakable. When we
examine the general pattern, the number of Pontoporeia and
number of Chironomidae are extremely different in the regional
comparisons. Both the number of Oligochaetes and the total
number of organisms are significantly different in the linear
phase and the log of the total number of organisms is signifi-
cantly different, as is the square of the number of Oligochaeta,
1305
-------
The generalized pattern of differences falls into three
groups: 1) highly significant difference (number of
Pontoporeia and number of Chironomidae, 2) significant but
not strongly so (number of Oligochaeta and the total number
of organisms)/ and 3) not significant (the number of
Sphaeriidae). The general statement of conclusion is:
significant differences in numbers of Pontoporeia,
Chironomidae, Oligochaeta, and total numbers of organisms
exist above and below the outfall.
Table FF represents the analyses of variance for various
parameters of the three sites downcurrent (SW) from the ef-
fluent at the 200 ft. contour. Since all of the null hypotheses
were rejected at high probabilities, it will suffice to state
that extensive differences exist for all variables among the
three sites downcurrent (SW) of the effluent. The magnitude
of these differences clearly indicates that the sites are not
homogeneous and, indeed, some reasons other than natural,
random, or sampling variation must be responsible for these
differences.
1306
-------
Table FF ANOV Analysis for Variables at 200' with
Probability < F Values for Differences
Between Sites (Document Reference # 4; a,b,c)
All Downshore Data/ Fall 1969
Variables
PONT
OLIGO
CHIRON
SPHAER
TOTORG
LPONT
IDLIGO
LCHIRDN
ISPHAER
LTOTOR
PONTSQ
OLIGOSQ
CKEROSQ
SPHAESQ
TOTOSQ
Prob. < F
SITE
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0041
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0043
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0003
0.0049
0.0001
***
***
***
**
***
***
***
***
**
***
***
***
***
**
***
1307
-------
Table GG shows ths summary for analyses of variance
in the comparison of the two upshore sites for the Fall 1969
data. The general pattern is one of similarity, since only
6 of the linear and non-linear variables are significant and
none of them is highly significant. As pointed out previously
in the correlation analyses, there is a slight but signifi-
cant increase in the Oligochaetes and the total number of
organisms from 11 miles NE to 6 miles NE of the effluent.
The general pattern above the effluent is a significant
increase in the total number of organisms and the number of
Oligochaeta.
The general summary of the analyses of variance points
to three general conclusions: 1) there are extensive dif-
ferences in the number of benthic organisms above vs. below
the effluent; specifically, the total numbers of organisms,
the numbers of Pontoporeia, the numbers of Oligochaeta, and
the numbers of Chironomidae; 2) differences exist among the
three downcurrent (SW) sites for all of the benthic components;
and 3) minimal differences occur between the two sites above
the effluent point.
1308
-------
Table GG ANOV Analysis for Variables at 200' with
Probability < F Values for Differences
Between Sites (Document Reference # 4; a,b,c)
All Upshore Data, Pall 1969
Variables
PONT
QLIGO
CHIRON
SPHAER
TOTORG
LPONT
IDLIGO
LCHIRCN
LSPHAER
LTOTOR
PONTSQ
OLIGOSQ
CHIROSQ
SPHAESQ
TOTOSQ
Prob.< F
SITE
0.1355
0.0124
0.7684
0.5298
0.0327
0.1607
0.0186
0.6199
0.6214
0.0351
0.1143
0.0143
0.7333
0.7062
0.0348
NS
*
NS
NS
*
NS
*
NS
NS
*
NS
*
NS
NS
*
1309
-------
EVALUATIONS OF RESERVE REPORT #5
FOR DIFFERENCES ABOVE vs. BELOW THE OUTFALL
Evaluations were also completed for data reported in
Table A as Document Reference #5. The evaluations were con-
ducted by x2 for contingency for the overall data and dis-
tributional data and by the t test for the number of
Pontoporeia. The t test showed that there was a highly
significant difference between the two means (X above =
47.09 and the X below = 31.31). The x2 value for testing
the relative distributions of the components of the benthic
community above and below the effluent are presented in
Table HH. Again, the results of this test show that there
is a major (significant) shift in the composition of the
communities above vs. below the effluent.
In Table II is presented the set of data for the dis-
tribution of the data among the 5 sites. As before, ex-
tensive differences exist among the relative distributions
of the benthic community for the two sites above vs. the
three sites below.
1310
-------
Table HH Chi-square for Contingency to Evaluate
the Relative Distribution of Numbers of
Organisms Above and Below the Reserve
Outfall. Data for September, October 1969.
Pont. Oligo. Chiron. Sphaer.
.above
Below
Total
518
501
1,019
227
398
625
78
178
256
210
291
501
1,033
1,368
Chi-Square = 53.5, 3 degrees of freedom. Highly significant
P < .05. Reject null hypothesis.
1311
-------
Table II Chi-Square for Contingency to Test the
Relative Distribution of Numbers of
Pontoporeia, Oligoohaeta, Chironomidae,
Sphaeriidae Above and Below the Reserve
Outfall. Data for September, October 19<
(Document Reference # 5) .
11 miles (NE)
6 miles (NE)
2.5 miles (SW)
11 miles (SW)
25 miles (SW)
Pont.
249
269
114
265
172
Oligo.
162
125
120
236
42
Chiron. Sphaer.
42 107
36 101
90 103
80 118
8 70
Chi-Square Value = 200.56 12 df. x2 highly significant.
Reject null hypothesis.
1312
-------
Summary of Statistical Analyses
Statistical analyses of these benthic data indicate no
significant differences in the population structure prior to
plant operation. Numeric densities for the various components
of the benthos are approximately the same.
Following the plant startup and for all subsequent
collections, ecologically and statistically significant
changes occur in the benthos. Community structure is altered
and numeric differences occur. These changes and differences
were found to be generally coincident with factors associated
with tailing discharge. On the basis of these analyses, it
is possible to conclude that the release of tailings greatly
affects benthic organisms in Western Lake Superior. This
effect should be understood with respect to the entire
ecosystem.
1313
-------
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1315
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1316
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1317
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0
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; 1318
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1319
-------
Characterization of the North Shore Surface Waters of Lake Superior
Armond E. Lemke
United States Environmental Protection Agency
National Water Quality Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota 55804
1320 A
-------
Introduction
Lake Superior, the largest body of fresh water in the world (in
surface area), was studied intensively along the north shore from Just
north of Two Harbors, Minnesota to Grand Marais, Minnesota. This study
was conducted during the period from early July 1972 to late October
1972. Tho study ^SjUlitiated to evaluate the water quality in the far
western end of Lake Superior, and to evaluate the impact on Lake Superior
of the daily dumping of 67,000 long tons of taconite tailings at Silver
Bay, Minnesota. This study is prepared for litigation in the case of
United States vs. Reserve Mining Company, and consists of several phases.
This report characterizes the water conditions found in the water along
the North shore of Lake Superior with respect to the presence or absence of
taconite tailings, light penetration, temperature and bacteria, and phyto-
plankton differences in the euphotic zone. Information gathered previously
by several investigators and reported in the hearings conducted by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration and the Federal Water
Quality Administration was the determining factor in deciding which
parameters received the most scrutiny.
1321
-------
Station Locations
The selection of the sampling sites for this investigation are
discussed in detail in a concurrent report by John W. Arthur. Briefly,
selection was made to differentiate as much as possible those effects
caused by the addition of taconite tailings and those effects caused by
runoff from local streams along the north shore of Lake Superior.
Information from lake current studies, such as Adams (1970), indicated
that the general trend of the currents is from Silver Bay toward Duluth,
therefore, our stations were selected northeast of streams which enter
the lake along the North Shore.
Most of the samples were taken from four transects established in
early July, and located as follows: Silver Cliff approximately 5
miles northeast of Two Harbors, Minnesota; Split Rock Light House
approximately 7 miles southwest of Silver Bay, Minnesota; Shovel Point
(Crystal Bay Point) approximately 6 miles northeast of Silver Bay,
Minnesota; and Sugar Loaf Cove approximately 5 miles southwest of
Taconite Harbor, Minnesota. At each of these locations the most
prominent radar landmark was selected and the stations were established
at one, three, and five nautical miles offshore, perpendicular to the
general trend of the shore line in each area. The stations are
referred to by the first letter of each word in the station name and
a number for the offshore distance. The station three miles offshore
at Split Rock Lighthouse will be called SR-3. Buoys were placed at
each of these locations for use in another phase of the investigation
and samples were taken within one-eighth miles of the buoy.
1322
-------
Location of these buoys during each sampling run was a major |
problem. Summer conditions on Lake Superior are such, that during much ;
of the calmest weather, the cold lake water causes surface fog, limiting i
i
visibility. The radar units used to initially locate the stations had '
i
sufficient versatility so that we were able to get in the general area I
of the buoy by vectoring off of the shore, and then by changing range j
i
actually locating the buoy. Attrition of the surface buoys because of !
severe weather during the last stages of the study was circumvented by i
<
taking very careful vector readings from the shore by radar and then '•
sampling in the area where these readings indicated the buoys had been. \
On several occasions high waves obscured the buoy from direct radar i
i
f
location and upon reaching the area indicated by the shore vectors the '
buoy was within one-quarter mile by visual observation, assuring us that ;
samples taken without location of the buoy, were sufficiently accurate '
i
as to location. i
;
Late in the study period two transects were established in the j
Grand Marais, Minnesota area because taconite tailings were found at
all of the other transects. These new stations were on transects
directly out from the Coast Guard station point at Grand Marais and
out from the large point northeast of Five Mile or Guano Rock,
approximately six and one-half miles northeast of Grand Marais. See
map, Figure 1.
1323
-------
Sampling Techniques
The kinds of samples and measurements made on site during this
work were as follows: A six liter sample for analysis of total suspended
solids and tailings; A three gallon sample for plankton analysis which
was preserved immediately with Uttermohls solution; and a sterile
sample of at least 700 ml for bacteria analysis. The first two were
taken with a Van Dorn water bottle of six liter capacity. The bacteria
samples were taken with the use of a Zobell sampler modified to hold
a one liter sterile bottle. This bottle was opened at depth by breaking
a small glass tube using a drop messenger which allows the sterilized
and evacuated bottle to partially fill with water and provides an
uncontaminated sample. The bottle was retreived rapidly and the influent
tube clamped to maintain it in a uncontaminated condition. Samples for
bacterial analyses were immediately iced. Suspended solids-tailings
samples and bacteria samples were taken at forty and twenty foot depths
and the plankton analysis samples were taken only at the twenty foot
depth at each station.
All samples were labelled on the bottle with a code number and depth
of collection. A security seal and a chain of custody tag were affixed.
Some of the bottles used for the tailings-suspended solids samples were
self-sealing and no security seal was used on .these bottles. All bottles
used for collecting samples were washed and rinsed with distilled water
prior to use. These bottles were all new in the case of the algae
and tailings sample bottles. The bacteria bottles were prepared in
the usual method by autoclaving after hot water washing and distilled
1324
-------
water rinsing. More detailed descriptions of bottle preparation will
be found in the reports of Robert W. Andrew and Victor Cabelli for this
investigation.
Site measurements included the following: Secchi disc readings,
temperature readings each five feet from 45 ft to the surface and a
submarine photometer reading at each five feet. In certain cases
during part of the study a current device, which consisted of a weighted
winged drogue supported by a light line and float of just sufficient size
to hold it at depth, was used to make rough measurements of current
direction and speed. This data is reported in Table 4. Some
directional measurements only were obtained by the diving crew working
on another part of the investigation.
Subsequent to the retrieval of the last sample of the day's
operations, the samples were returned to a landing area by the most
direct route. If the area was different than that of a safe mooring,
the samples were returned to the National Water Quality Laboratory
by courier. If the mooring and landing area were the same the
sampling crew returned the samples personally.
The bacteria samples were processed at the National Water Quality
•
Laboratory and a detailed discussion of the findings are in a concurrent
report by Victor Cabelli.- 1° this report only the total counts are
reported. The samples for total suspended solids and tailings were
processed at the laboratory also and these methods are found in a
concurrent report by Robert W. Andrew. The data reported here are from
those analyses. Plankton samples were shipped to Dr. Alfred M. Beeton
at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee for analysis and his findings
will be reported separately.
1325
-------
Discussion of Data
The Secchi disc readings were used exclusively as a source of light
penetration determinations. Secchi disc readings varied about 7 to 8
meters between the least clear and the most clear readings at each station.
Although the range was approximately the same the means were quite
different. Ranging from 5.5 meters at Silver Cliff 1 mile to 10.9 meters
at Guano Rock 1 mile and Grand Marais 3 mile. The maximum readings,
14.5 and 14 meters, were found at the Grand Marais and Guano Rock Stations,
respectively. The lowest reading found during our regular sampling
was 2.5 meters at Silver Cliff 1 mile two days after the heavy rain of
September 20, 1972 on the adjacent shore area (Table 1).
Total suspended solids data received from Robert W. Andrew and
appearing in Table 4 were plotted against Secchi disc for each station
after averaging the reported level for the twenty and forty foot samples
for each sampling date. This was accomplished because the Secchi readings
are an integration of the light penetration down to the depth of the
reading, making the average of the two readings, a more realistic
estimation of the light scattering power at the sampling site. The
plots appear in Figures 2-8 of this report. The regression line and
the r indicated are calculated using all of the points indicated on the
graph but for clarity each of the stations is represented by a different
symbol. Based on Snedecor and Cochran (1967), the regression lines of
those plots at Silver Cliff, Split Rock are significant at the 1% level
and that of Shovel Point is significant at the 5% level. Those at Sugar
Loaf, Grand Marais and Guano Rock are not significant at the 5% level.
1326
-------
8
Tailings concentrations as indicated by cummingtonite analysis and
expressed as mg/1 of tailings in the water samples were also received
from Robert W. Andrew. Although tailings were measured in some of the
samples at each of the four stations closest to the point of discharge,
only those samples obtained at the Split Rock Stations had measurable
tailings in more than one-half of the samples taken. Many samples for
which tailings were not measurable were associated with the plant shut-
down period. A regression analysis of all samples taking Secchi disc vs.
tailing concentration yielded an r value of .212 which was significant at
5# but not at 1%.
Fig. 2k shows a plot of Suspended Solids vs. tailings, taking all of
the 20 ft. samples in the study. The r value for this plot is .358 which
is significant at 1%. On this basis one can conclude that if there were
no tailings present the turbidity would be significantly lower.
Plots of temperature vs. date of occurrence found in Figures 12-17
show that the maximum surface water temperatures in the study area
occurred during the last two weeks in August and reflect a period of
bright warm weather in an otherwise cold cloudy summer. The shallow
sampling depths used precluded the detection of any thermocline. The
five-mile forty-foot readings are the least variable, probably because
the greater wind action away from the land decreases the possibility
of local warm or cold spots.
1327
-------
Overview of North Shore of Lake Superior
Surface Water Conditions
Lake Superior is a classic example of an oligotrophic body of water.
Shallow water temperatures near shore reached an extreme of 15.5° C in
the study area. The lake bottom depths at the study stations varied
from 450 feet at Guano Rock 1 mile to 900 feet at Split Rock 5 mile.
Total bacteria counts were 1000/100 ml or less except after heavy run-
off from adjacent land area. Secchi disc readings were generally lower
southwest of Silver Bay and were extremely low during green water
episodes and storm run-off.
Adams (1970) described the summer circulation patterns in Lake
Superior after a very comprehensive study over two seasons. The limited
data which we developed supports his findings. Of particular interest
are Adam's statements concerning upwelling along the North Shore
particularly under the influence of strong offshore winds. Our sampling
of the Split Rock stations illustrated this very well. On September 22
the 1 mile station Secchi was 5.0 meters, bacteria 29,100/100 ml, and
total suspended solids 1.15 mg/1. At the three mile station the values
were 10.5, 1330, and 0.45, and at the five mile the values were 4.0,
44,000, and 1.45, respectively. These readings obtained two days after
a rain of nearly 4 inches in 24 hours was recorded in the adjacent land
areas. The values obtained at one and five miles were similar although
slightly higher than those obtained after a lesser rain the month previously
in the area. The clear water readings at the three mile"station vere
apparently taken from a discreet body of water in that area.
1328
-------
10
A detailed discussion of the bacterial flora at the sampling sites
on the North Shore will be presented in a concurrent report by Victor
Cabelli. Data obtained from him and appearing in tabular form in his
report on the total counts were plotted against Secchi disc which were
shown previously to be related to solids in suspension (Figures 9-11) .
In all cases the r value reported is significant at the 1% level.
That such is the case has been reported by Pfister et al. (1968). Any
increase in turbidity is likely to increase the bacterial flora in the
water. Direct correlation of bacteria with total suspended solids
resulted in an r significant at 1%.
Although our direction and current rate data is limited as
stated previously, an indication of the various currents which could be
encountered shown by the drogue data for Sugar Loaf transect for
October 4, 1972 (Table 4). At one mile station the rate of travel was
12.5 ft/min and the direction was 210° or approximately southwest; three
mile rate was 10 ft/min and the direction was 130° or southeast; five
mile rate was 17 ft/min and the direction was 20° or north-northeast.
The wind was less than five miles per hour southwest this day. This
suggests eddy currents on that date. Many of the current direction values
obtained were in a south to west quadrant; that is the values ranged
between 180° and 270° magnetic. At various times, however, all points
of the compass were represented. This means that any material suspended
in the surface water of the lake can be transported in any direction.
1329
-------
11
Rainfall for the adjacent land area and the study area during the
sampling period was abnormally heavy. The weather bureau at Duluth
Airport recorded a total of 3.82 inches of rain on August 15-16, 3.95
inches on August 20-21 and nearly a one day record of 3.77 inches
on September 20. Secchi disc, total suspended solids and total bacteria
counts all show the effect of the land run-off from this precipitation.
The rains in July were more general along the shore than those in August.
All stations showed the effects, with the 1 mile stations being most
affected, except at Split Rock where the 3 mile station shows the
most effect. Secchi values of 4-5 meters, total suspended solids near
2 mg/1 and bacteria counts above 10,000/100 ml were found at three of
the stations. The August 20 rain was concentrated from Silver Bay toward
Duluth and at the Silver Cliff stations the lowest Secchi values 2.5-3.5
meters, highest suspended solids 1.3-2.0 mg/1 and highest total bacteria
counts 24,600/100 ml to 35,000/100 ml of the study period at regular
stations were observed.
1330
-------
12
Observations of Effects Attributable to Taconite Operations
Visual effects of the taconite operations, i.e., green water was
an intermittent phenomenon and will be handled separately in this
report. A plot of the tailings concentration at all of the stations
vs. date are shown in Figures 18-22. Also shown on these Figures
are the dates of no operation of the taconite processing plant. Those
samples obtained prior to plant shut down all contained taconite
tailings. After shutdown less and less tailings were found in the
area until in the samplings accomplished on August 28 and 29 tailings
were not measurable. At the next sampling period> approximately two
and one-half weeks after plant start up, tailings again were measured
in the samples and by the end of the sampling period all stations
had shown tailings at least once. The most rapid disappearance and
reappearance of tailings after plant shutdown and start up occurred
at the Split Rock stations which were closest to the discharge area.
1331
-------
13
Green Water
Green water along the north shore of Lake Superior received study
during the sampling period. Two rather large green water masses were
sampled to check the amount of tailings occurring as dissolved solids
in the green water areas. Samples taken in areas affected by the heavy
run-off mentioned previously were also compared.
The first striking episode of green water was noted on September 1,
1972, approximately one week after start up of the taconite operation
following a one month shutdown. : Meterological conditions were
a clearing sky and a strong northwest wind in the plant area. Samples
taken near the edge of the green water area had total solids of 2.0 and
1.1 mg/1 and tailings concentrations of 2.0 and 0.7 mg/1 at 20 and 40 ft,
respectively. At the time of the sampling the green water area extended
from the delta to southeast of King's Landing but was discontinuous in
the area of the SR-1 station. A sample taken there at the 20 ft level
contained 1.0 mg/1 suspended solids and 0.7 mg/1 tailings with a Secchi
disc reading of 6.0 meters. A sample taken 1 mile south of Pellet
Island contained 3.4 mg/1 suspended solids, of which at least 2.5 mg/1
was tailings.
The second green water episode was first observed early on October 17,
1972. The only measurable precipitation reported for October 1-19 was
0.29 inches on October 10; thus North Shore streams were observed to be
low and clear on October 17. Green water samples were taken in the
afternoon of October 17. At this time the green water was discontinuous
from the delta of the taconite processing operation, but extended in a
1332
-------
14
solid mass from Pellet Island in an approximately one-half mile wide band
to Split Rock light. Southwest from there it fanned out into the lake so
that at the mouth of the Gooseberry River it was about 7 miles wide.
The green water became discontinuous in the vicinity of Encampment Island
(Figure 23).
Four sets of samples, each set consisting of a sample from 5 ft and
40 ft, were taken at this time. One set was obtained in a clear blue
water area approximately one mile directly off shore from the delta. A
second set also in an apparent clear blue area was taken approximately
1 mile directly offshore from King's Landing. The third set was obtained
from a green water area approximately one-fourth mile off King's Landing.
The fourth area selected from the air as the most green area, was
sampled approximately one-third mile southwest of Split Rock Point.
Table 2 presents the values found at these sampling sites. Temperature
data (Table 3) indicates that the clear water directly in front of the
delta was water inside the harbor and was colder than that about-a mile
offshore. The values of Table 2 appear to substantiate this cold area
as an upwell because of the low suspended solids and high Secchi readings.
Tailing amounts were the lowest in the very clear surface water adjacent
to the delta. Next lowest tailings were found in the apparent blue water
in sample group two. The highest levels were found in the area of heaviest
green water and are the highest tailings, total suspended solid
concentrations, and lowest Secchi readings found in the open lake during
the study. Of interest is the difference in Secchi disc determinations
between set 1 and set 2 where the total suspended solids are approximately
equal, but the amount contributed by the tailings is much more, and the
Secchi and concurrent light penetration is reduced.
1333
-------
15
Apparent color is different, in areas with low Secchi readings
(15-3.5 meters) and high suspended solids (1.5-3.0 mg/J), if the tailings
fractions of the total solids differ markedly. The color of the high
tailings area is a bright almost chartruse green, whereas the apparent
color after heavy run-off, as noted on the August 25 and September 22
sampling runs, was a more brownish to grey color. The run-off water
was accompanied by large amounts of floating debris not found in the
green water high taconite areas.
1334
-------
16
Conclusions
As a result of the described studies and personal observations,
the following conclusions have been formulated by this author.
The taconite processing operations at Silver Bay, Minnesota are
contributing to an increase in turbidity in Lake Superior, particularly
in the area southwest of Silver Bay, but also to a lesser extent in
other nearby areas. Suspended solids in the same area have been
increased as the result of the ore-processing operations.
Material from the tailings discharge is being transported to all
parts of the study area, and current data indicates that this being
the case the tailings fines are at least being distributed throughout
the Duluth arm of Lake Superior.
The green water seen along the North Shore of Lake Superior is
being caused in a significant part of the episodes by particulate
matter from the tailings operations.
1335
-------
Bibliography
Adams, Charles E. Jr. Summer circulation in Western Lr>'<-e Superior.
Great Lakes Res. Center, U. S. Lake Survey, Detroit, Mich. 1970.
Pfister, Robert M., Patrick R. Dugan, and James I. Frea. Particulate
fractions in water and the relationship to aquatic microflora.
Proc. llth Conf. Great Lakes Res., pp. 111-116. 1968.
1336
-------
Table 1. Secchi disc mean maximum and minimum in meters.
Station
Silver Cliff
1
3
5
Split Rock
1
3
5
Shovel Point
1
3
5
Sugar Loaf
1
3
5
Grand Marais
1
3
5
Guano Rock
1
3
5
Mean
5.5
6.8
7.2
7.2
7.7
7.0
9.0
9.0
8.7
8.85
9.75
9.70
8.75
10.9
9.3
10.9
10.5
10.3
Maximum
7.5
9.5
9.0
11.5
10.5
9.0
11.5
13.5
12.0
12.0
13.5
12.5
11.5
14.6
11.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
Minimum
2.5
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.5
4.0
7.0
6.5
5.0
5.0
7.0
7.5
7.0
8.5
7.5
7.0
8.0
9.0
1337
-------
JJ
Table 2. Results of analysis of green water samples.
(a)
Total suspended
Location Secchi (m) solids rug/liter Tailiu6s mg/liter
9/1/72
2.75 mi. SW Reserve delta
20' 3.0 2.0 2.0
40' 3.0 1.1 0.7
1 mi. South Pellet Island
20' 2.5 3.4 +2.5
9/1/72
In discontinuous area
Split Rock 1 Buoy
20' 5.0 1.0 ' 0.7
9/27/72
Greenwater patch
Cove: North Split Rock Light.
Surface sample 6.0 0.9 0.9
10/17/72
1 mile offshore King !sLanding
Clear area
5' 6.5 .7 .1
40' .3 .2
1 mile southeast Reserve Harbor
Clear area
5' 11.0 .4 < .1
40' .5 < .1
1/4 mi. offshore King's Landing
Green area
5' 1.8 2.2 2.0
40' 1.9 1.7
1/3 mi. southwest Split Rock Point
Heavy Green
5' 1.4 5.4 4.8
40' 4.4 4.0
All data provisional pending establishment of accuracy of methods of
analysis. 1338
-------
Table 2. Temperature on October 17, 1972.
(b)
Location
1 1/4 mile 120* from
Reserve Harbor
1 mile
3/4 mile
1/2 mile
1/4 mile
Harbor mouth
In harbor
Surface 5 ft. 40 ft.
5.1° C
4.9
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.4
1 mile off King's Landing 4.2* 4.0* 4.0*
and
4 miles from Pellet Island
out of green water
1/3 mile off King's Landing 4.0* 3.9* 3.5*
and ,
4 miles from Pellet Island
in green water
1/3 mile off Split Rock Point 4.0* 3.2* 3.0*
in very green water
Temperatures not calibrated - all temperatures relative.
1339
-------
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1377
-------
The Effects of Taconite Tailings
on the
Phytoplankton of Lake Superior
May 1973
Joseph Shapiro
1378 A
\
-------
INTRODUCTION
During th« past few years considerable interest has developed
in d«terminin$ the chemical factors that limit and control the
growth of planktonic algae in Lake Superior. This interest stems
both from g«n»ral awareness of the problem of eutrophication, or
over-enrichflWint of lakes, that has become prominent in recent years,
and from th« us* of Lake Superior as a receiving body for taconite
tailings. Various studies have been done, aimed mostly at determining
the limiting factors and finding out whether taconite itself stimulates
i
algal growth. Among the latter studies are those by Andrew and Glass
(1970), Goldman (1970), McGee (1970), and Shapiro (1970). The results
of thes« inv««tigations, although individually too few to permit
statistical evaluation, together provide consistent evidence that
taconite tailings do stimulate the growth of the native algae in
Lake Superior. Furthermore, studies by Schelske et. al. (1972) and
by Shapiro and Glass (1970) have established that the algae of the
open waters of Lake Superior are limited by phosphorus and manganese.
It was in an attempt to determine the validity of these results
and to clarify any relationships between the stimulation by taconite
and by phosphorus and manganese that the present study was undertaken.
1379
-------
METHODS
The experiments described in this report were carried out ii
the laboratories of the Limnological Research Center, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, under the immediate and continuous
supervision of Dr. Joseph Shapiro, Professor of Ecology and
Associate Director of the Limnological Research Center. All were
done on samples of water collected from Lake Superior by the staff
of the National Water Quality Laboratory at Duluth, and shipped in
iced containers directly to the Limnological Research Center by
truck. Samples of taconite tailings were shipped at the same time.
All experiments were similar in design and execution. Samples
(800 ml) of the lake water containing the native algae were incubate
in screw-capped 1 liter Erlenmeyer flasks in a light incubator at a
light intensity of from 200 to 400 foot candles and temperatures
from 6 to 8°C. To some of the flasks were added various amounts of
taconite tailings and to others various amounts of phosphate, and/or
manganese. Some of the flasks were wrapped in heavy aluminum foil
to act as dark controls.
Evaluation of the effects of the treatments on the growth of
the algae was done on samples taken periodically and by use of three
different procedures,o~14 uptake, chlorophyll fluorescence, and
algal counting.
1. C~ 14 up take
One method for determining the response of the algae to the
treatments would be to filter them from the water and weigh them.
However, the relatively low concentration of algae in Lake Superior
waters makes it impossible to perform this procedure with any
degree of accuracy and so a "tracer"technique was used. When the
water was first received, and before it was poured into the flasks,
1380
-------
one milliCurie' of radio-carbon, C-14f wag added as NaHCO3 to about
35 liters of it. The very small amount of sodium bicarbonate
added little to the carbon content of the water, and did not change
the pH, but it did enable the incorporation of carbon into algal
material to be followed by periodically filtering samples of algae
from the flasks and determining the degree of radioactivity of
those algae. Specifically, water samples containing 50 ml were
filtered through a 1 inch diameter 0.45 micron Millipore filter,
the filter was glued to an aluminum pUanchette, dried, and the
radioactivity counted in a Picker Proportional Counter,
Several special precautions were taken to insure accuracy:
ja. In the first experiment, only 15 inches of vacuum were used to
draw the samples through the filters so as not to damage the algae.
Subsequent experiments on a single flask showed (table below) that a
full vacuum of 30 inches could be safely used and so this was done
in subsequent experiments.
Vacuum used cpm on filter
15" 7167
15" 6966
15" 6869
30" 6684
30" 6639
30" 7065
b. After drawing the samples through the filters, double distilled
water was drawn through them to rinse excess radioactivity from
the filters before removing them from the apparatus. To verify the
utility of this procedure, experiments were done in which two fil-
ters were used in series and the radioactivity of the lower one
1381
-------
determined separately. As shown below, the second filter contained
almost no radioactivity indicating that the rinsing procedure was
effective.
Filter cpm
top 1727
bottom 9
top 1017
bottom 5
c_. Dark controls were used to verify that C-14 "uptake" was indeed
uptake by photosynthesizing algae rather than adsorption onto
chemical precipitates.
d. Sufficient counts were counted in each case for statistical
accuracy, i.e, 10,000-20,000, or 5 minutes.
During a previous investigation along the same lines this
approach to monitoring algal growth was criticized on the ground
that it used long-term uptake of C-14 by the algae instead of the
2-4 hours recommended in several publications (eg. Vollenweider,
1969). It should be made clear that the 2-4 hour periods were
recommended for measuring instantaneous rates of photosynthesis but
that what is being measured here is growth, and, in order to measure
growth, it is necessary to allow the algae to accumulate carbon for
sufficiently long periods of time to determine whether the growth
is indeed different in different circumstances. In fact rather
than the long-term uptake of C-14 invalidating the results, it tend
to reinforce them. As the algae grow, some of the C-14 already
incorporated must be respired and returned to the system. Thus the
amount of C-14 held by the algae will decrease. As this process is
1382
-------
likely to be faster in more rapidly growing algae, the long exposure
would tend to flatten out any response so that any differences
found would, in fact, tend to be minimized. Thus if any error is
present it will result in the underestimation of differences between
treatments rather than emphasize them.
2. Chlorophyll
The second method used for evaluation of algal response was to
determine the fluorescence of the chlorophyll of the algae by means
of a fluorometer. The instrument used was a Turner Model III self-
balancing Fluorometer modified with the appropriate photomultiplier
and filters as recommended by Lorenzen. All samples were read in
a large volume, flow-through cell at lOx sensitivity. Samples con-
taining enough chlorophyll to send the instrument off-scale were
diluted with double distilled deionized water and their fluorescence
calculated. The instrument used has been shown to be linear in
response throughout the range of measurements made. Because the
higher concentrations of taconite added fluorescence to the samples
the graphs are presented as changes from the original values.
3. Algal numbers
In order to verify that changes in radioactivity or chlorophyll
really did reflect changes in algal abundance, the algal populations
in certain flasks were examined and enumerated at the beginning and
end of each experiment. Samples preserved in Lugol's solution were
settled in counting chambers and examined using a Wild inverted
microscope. All species present and their numbers were enumerated.
1383
-------
RESULTS
Because the work involved three samples of Lake Superior
water collected at different times and because the three samples
were used for somewhat different purposes, the results are
presented as three separate experiments.
Experiment I
The water with which this experiment was done was collected
August 17, 1972 at 2:15 PM, 5 1/2 miles off shore at Sugar Loaf CPve
The experiment was set up between noon and 5 PM August 18 and con-
tinued to the afternoon of September 6. The light intensity at
the center of the flasks was 400 foot candles to begin with, later
reduced to 200 foot candles and the temperature in the cabinet was
7-8°C.
The purposes of the experiment were twofold;
1. To determine whether or not taconite tailings stimulate algal
growth.
2. To determine whether the addition of manganese stimulates algal
growth. This was done because the previous work had suggested that
Lake Superior algae were manganese limited and that stimulation
previously shown by tailings might have been due to the manganese
leaching from them,
Taconite tailings were added to the appropriate flasks, as a
slurry, at volumes relative to the lake water of .0001%, .001%,
.01%, and .10%. This produced concentrations by weight of 0.41 mg/1
4.1 mg/1, 41 mg/1, and 410 mg/1. Manganese was added as a solution
of MnCl2*4H?0 in volumes sufficient to produce concentrations of
Mn of 2, 4, 8, and 16 micrograms/liter. Where possible replicates
1384
-------
and dark controls were used, as shown in Tables 1,2, and 3, and
Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4.
EFFECTS OF TACONITE ALONE
014
The stimulatory influence of taconite tailings on C-14 uptake
is clearly shown in Table 1 and Figure 1. While the addition of
.0001% tailings had no positive effect, (but see Figs. 5 and 11),
concentrations of .001% and .01% clearly stimulated the algae to
take up C-14 at considerably increased rates over the controls.
Filtration of 0.1% suspensions was done only on the last day due to
the great difficulty of filtering them. These showed inhibition,
possibly because the high turbidity of the suspensions inhibited
photosynthesis.
Note that although some differences occur among the replicates
e.g. .001% C (day 19) and .0001% B (day 19),' in general;e,g.
.01% day 19, replicates agree very well. Note too that the uptake
of C-14 in the dark controls was negligible showing that the high
counts were most likely the result of photosynthetic activity by
the algae. Statistical analysis (Keller) shows a highly significant
linear relationship between C-14 uptake and taconite concentration
in the range .0001-,01% taconite (r=0.86, P=0.0006).
Chlorophyll
Table 2 and Figure 2 illustrate the effect of taconite tailings
on the production of chlorophyll in the flasks. These results,
although less regular, corroborate the C-14 findings and show that
on the day of termination of the experiment the response was positive
at all concentrations of taconite from .0001% to 0.1%. The initial
1385
-------
decline in chlorophyll values visible on the 4th day wa'3 attributed
to too intense illumination and the lighting was reduced by half
on day 5. Again the replicates were generally close in value.
Algal counts
Three samples were enumerated (Table 3}, the original water
sample, one of the controls at day 19, and one of the .001% raconite
flasks at day 19. The last was done instead of the .01% sample
which had shown greater stimulation, but in which the taconite
particles interfered with counting. The results confirmed that
more algae had grown in the flasks containing taconite. In fact the
ratio of the numbers of algae in the .001% flasks to the control,
2517/1304 = 1.9, is close to the ratio of the C-14 counts in the
same two flasks (1.6). The pattern of response is interesting.
Among the algae most stimulated to grow by the taconite were Fragilai
Asterionella, small Cyclotella and Stephanodiscus, Dinobryon sociale,
anc^ Di^dymocystis. Statistical analysis (Keller) shows that the
relative abundance of the major groups differs significantly be-
tween the control flask and the .001% taconite flask, and between the
control population and both final populations.
Conclusion
The conclusion is clear. By all three criteria, C-14 Uptake,
chlorophyll increase, increase in algal numbers, the taconite stimula
growth by the algae present in the lake.
EFFECTS OF MANGANESE ALONE
Tables 1 and 2 and Figures 3 and 4 summarize the effects of
manganese additions.
1386
-------
10
C-14 uptake
In every case, by the 19th day the average counts in the flasks
with manganese added exceeded those for the controls. However the
effects are, even allowing for some discrepancy in. the replicates,
not linear. Four micrograms/liter of manganese clearly is more
stimulatory than 8 or 16 and more so than 2. This type of response
has been noted by the investigat or and others (e.g. Goldman 1966)
for trace metal stimulation of algae.
v
Chlorophyll
I
These data (Figure 4), again showing the effects of too much
light to the fourth day, corroborate the greater stimulation of the
lower concentrations of manganese.
Conclusion
The algae in the sample of water with which the experiment was
done responded positively to small additions of manganese in the
range 2-4 microgram/liter but were inhibited at concentrations of
8-16 micrograms/liter,
Discussion
The data above show that the algae were stimulated by tailings
and by manganese. Because tailings have been shown to leach manganese
(Glass 1970) the question arises as to whether this is the mechanism
by which taconite stimulates the algae, and whether it is the sole
mechanism. Comparison of the C-14 uptake by the .01% flask (Figure
1) with the C-14 uptake by the manganese-containing flasks (Figure 3)
suggests that no manganese addition can stimulate the algae as much
as can taconite alone f i.e. that taconite contains something that
stimulates algae beyond what can be achieved by manganese. However,
aa addition of manganese to taconite causes no further stimulation
1387
-------
( i'lcy^es 1 =m-."> L; Tables ' ?J-d _
that dt least part of uiie cscry^:.
re f it • si evlv-vii "
. s , in "act,, due
jhjs the oc'.'iO j us: 3r
that are now limit i:icr th
subs tonnes 1.;. ..langan-^e.
l.-r er.
o
1 J r. ? tW',
-ad L'l
Acce.s s :)j. v :-j tudios
Because this v;as the f.i r, t
ca I :,viat ioas wore.-: made to ^a-.-clat
1... Do-^a Lhe addition of '"- i -i--1 ",
inci 3SS",? . he alkalinity of t if. v •.
i-.l:as the supply of CO^? The oh • -;
fsed v/.?s d -•*. r or?1?' riecl by t j ttv^ <•.-C!>
r-^coided ^-i1.!! a Bec;:",-.','i }-n RIO L-.. / .
of 0,57 a-'d O.^f, mM/1 r-;-3,'--icLi\",i :
1 mi, pro"->. a viai COD !r,tj.;iin'_; J i>i ' ; .' .
rl wit'vr, to a volume r> ' a'^'. "• -. • i n-' . ''.y
""'hat jr., '/, L i-i liiCurio- i r. ,,,','• .'.
t'"-. i -. i
iini llj T;T/1'VG /lire c , This ;:--. i-c _;• • n..-- \
detect i;;"'") by vhe inethod ?,s,-J, 'h.i-
ond 0.70, v,jluf'"3 iiirobabl- r.r : : ; .-.; i'-c
the un3piked san'r->]i'-: (0 67 anh 0 ,'-• v>
not cause more tuan a ri,^;vL i'-^:r"- .
2.) Does 'c.h~± aduition ^f ; '^;r?'r • :\ :
£ollo\>": r:cr tioie ^urpmarizes a-it a L.U "' .
-.-. •.•.cr.t: b^vr\ra'. irioe.: are^er is j.nd.
c-.- r '". :.'. -•i.'.-.~ inpvionci .
. ' ~ n Jr. i---;-:.:•-n^te in a ' eri -j.i ly
-v: .../^"
• • .,,f ':.-. -ke Mu -',-v.i.or ^at;Nr
: r , n,. r. IL,-,'^.', f;c .^ nil of 4 , „= ,:i.
/. H
•' -'j j- L: i'- '.--C..ODS vaejded vax.ie'-:,
^ :>:. of the C-14 was as
: t 1 •, " I'.jvar Mal!CO../: -, J
: ! 0- r- o'- ? ake water „
'-•/•"!• JO, v/3P 'tsedv Ti'.i.-o
r-. , " , ": 3 rrd lii ,-.ranu:/35 ^ i tf-
.-:'3 i '- ; IfSK1 ~;''an 0,001
• . rv:r',;,.;so and is i>.?low
>;. rob ;r--1 ed by titrati on of
: . . 'I...-: inil-ies uf C^ (>9
• j '7j.t], C--14 doe,
i ^ ' 1 i "^ \ "" V
-------
12
Alkalinity raM/1.
Sample Day 0 Day 19
Lake Superior unspiked .67, .68
Lake Superior spiked .69, .70 .71
Lake Superior spiked + .0001% .69, .70
Lake Superior spiked + .001% .69, .70
Lake Superior spiked + .01% .71, .71 .73
Lake Superior spiked + .10% .81, .81 i .85
Addition of taconite does indeed increase the alkalinity but the
effect is detectable only at concentrations of taconite exceeding
.01% by volume. As even .001% caused algal growth stimulation
the stimulatory effect was not likely due to increased availability
of C0». It is possible that a small part of the depressant effect
of 0.1% taconite on C-14 uptake is due to the increased alkalinity
caused by this addition as this would dilute the C-14 of the spike
and suggest an apparently lowered uptake.
3.) Did the alkalinity decrease in the sealed flasks during the
experiment i. e. did using screw-capped flasks affect the results?
The data in the.above table for day 19 show that this did not
happen. The amount of growth that took place used only an insig-
nificant fraction of the CO,, available.
Experiment II
This experiment, begun at noon on September 25 and extending
to October 16, was done with water collected on September 23, seven
miles off shore, six miles NE of Hovland, Minnesota and stored in
the dark at low temperature. Illumination in the incubator was
1389
-------
13
maintained at about 200 foot candles and the temperature was
about 7°C. C-14 spike was as in experiment I.
The purposes of this experiment were?
1. To repeat the taconite stimulation portion-of the first
experiment
2. To determine the effects of phosphate addition to Lake Superior
water
3. To determine the effects of adding phosphate and taconite
together, with and without manganese.
The freshly supplied taconite slurry was added at three con-
centrations -- .0001%, .001%, .01%. Manganese was added as before,
as MnCl^, and phosphate was added as KH2P04. The results are
shown in Tables 4, 5, and 6, and Figures 5-10.
EFFECTS OF TACONITE ALONE
C-14
The addition of taconite alone stimulated C-14 uptake by the
algae at all concentrations used (Figure 5), These results corroborc
those of experiment I and show that even the lowest level of taconite
used, .0001%, has a stimulatory effect. As in experiment I the
replicates agree well and dark controls showed negligible uptake of
the isotope. Statistical Analysis (Keller) shows a highly significar
linear relationship between C-14 uptake and taconite concentration ir
the range .0001-.01% taconite (r=0.91, P=,0001).
Chlorophyll
The chlorophyll data (Table 5 and Figure 6) are irregular, but
tend to substantiate the C-14 data.
1390
-------
14
Algal counts
The first three columns in Table 6 show the results of algal
counts at day 0, and after 21 days on one of the controls and on
one of the .001% taconite flasks. Again it would have shown more
effect had the algae at the .01% taconite concentration been
counted, but the particles of taconite once more interfered with
the observation of the algae under the microscope. As in experiment
I these results corroborate the C-14 data. The total number of
algae in the control at day 21 was about 1500/ml and that in the
taconite flask 2000/ml. Again Fragilaria, Stephanodiscus and
t
Cyclotella and Dinobryon sociale provided much of the increase.
Statistical analysis (Keller) shows that the distribution of algae
among the four major groups was different from the control in the
presence of taconite.
Conclusion
Taconite tailings stimulate algae growth in Lake Superior as
measured by all three criteria.
EFFECT OF PHOSPHATE ALONE
C-14
Table 4 and Figure 7 (note scale) show the striking effect of
phosphate addition to the Lake Superior water. Except for the last
day, 10 micrograms P/liter seemed to be even more stimulatory than
20 — similar to the manganese effect in experiment I.
Chlorophyll
The chlorophyll results in Figure 8 (note scale) corroborate
the phosphorus stimulation, again with 10 micrograms P/liter being
at least equal in effect to 20 except for the last sampling.
1391
-------
15
Algae
The algae counts (Columns 5 and 6, Table 6) show that both
10 and 20 micrograms B/liter resulted in significantly more algal
growth than in the control, especially in the case of the 10
micrograms P/l where three algae, Fragi1aria, Osci1iatoria, and
Didymocystis grew exceptionally well. Statistical analysis (Keller)
shows that the populations in the P-containing flasks were different
from that in the control.
Conclusion
Addition of phosphate alone stimulates algal growth in Lake
Superior water.
EFFECTS OF TACONITE PLUS PHOSPHATE
Because taconite seemed in Experiment I to provide two sources
of algal stimulation, one of which was probably manganese, and
because phosphate alone can stimulate algal growth, combinations of
taconite and phosphate with and without manganese were used to
determine whether the second stimulatory agent of taconite could in
fact be phosphate.
C-14
The experiments performed are detailed in Table 4 along with
the results as plotted in Figures 5,7, and 9. Again adding manganes
to .001% taconite caused no further stimulation (Figure 5) but again
taconite was capable of greater stimulation (.01%, Figure 5) than
was manganese (Fig. 7). The greatest effects (Figure 9) were
exhibited however when 20 micrograms of phosphorus were added to
.001% taconite and to .01% taconite. C-14 uptake stimulation was
very high in both cases and clearly exceeded that due to taconite
1392
-------
16
alone at any level or to phosphate at the 10 and 20 microgram levels
of addition i.e. the effect was markedly synergistic. Interestingly,
the flasks to which were added 20 micrograms P plus 8 rnicrograms
Mn, while showing great stimulation, yielded significantly lower
results, again suggesting that taconite supplies something, though
perhaps not phosphate, in addition to Mn.
Chlorophyll
Table 5 and Figure 10 show, as with C-14 uptake, that in the
presence of either .001 or .01% taconite, 20 micrograms/liter of
phosphorus cause great stimulation, greater than 20 micrograms
phosphorus alone or than 20 micrograms phosphorus and 8 micrograms
manganese.
Algal counts
The same effects of phosphorus on taconite are seen in Table 6,
columns 3 and 4. The flask with .001% taconite alone had about
2000 algal cells/ml after 21 days but the addition of 20 micrograms
of phosphorus increased this to 76,500 — about 38-fold, Interestingly,
using this mode of evaluation the substitution of 8 micrograms of
manganese for the taconite resulted in about the same growth of the
algae (Column 8} . The taconite and manga,nese both stimulated the same
algae in the presence of phosphate — Fragilaria, Asterione11a,
Stephanodiscus and Cyclotella, Didymocystis, and possibly Oscillatoria.
Although statistical analysis (Keller) suggests that the populations
in the two flasks, .001% taconite + 20ppbP>and SppbMn + 20ppbP5are
qualitatively different, inspection of the two sets of algal counts
suggests that they are remarkably similar, qualitatively as well as
quantitatively. This is indicated in the table, below in which the
numbers of algae in the two flasks are shown in relation to the
numbers at the beginning of the experiment. This great similarity
1393
-------
17
is further evidence that it is the manganese of the taconite vhnt
is its primary algal-stimulating component. The statistical analyst
must be looked at here in the light of the lack of replications, the
high variability in algal enumeration, and the fact that the test
used, Chi-squared, is particularly sensitive to small differences.
Increase with Increase with
Algal Group . 001%T + 20P 8Mn___+ 2OP
Chrysophyta 116 fold 171 fold
Cyanophyta 68 fold 100 fold
Chlorophyta 90 fold 73 fold
Cryptomonads '0.52 fold 0.38 fold
and flagellatea
Total 70 fold 80 fold
»
Conclusion
The growth stimulating properties of taconite are greatly
enhanced by the presence of phosphate. Probably the taconite
supplies sufficient manganese so that the algae are capable of
using the phosphate. In the presence of 20 micrograms/liter of
phosphorus^ .001% taconite and .01% taconite are about equal in stimu-
lation. It would appear therefore as though .001% taconite yielded
enough manganese for all the phosphate to be used. Comparison with
the experiment with 8 micrograms of manganese plus 20 micrograms of
phosphorus suggests that the .001% taconite is providing more than
8 micrograms of manganese/liter, or that the taconite has a growth
stimulator in addition to manganese and not identical with phosphate,
Experiment III
This experiment. was done from November 2 to November 22 with
water collected November 1 offshore at Grand Portage Bay. This samp;
1394
-------
was closer inshore than the previous two. The incubator illumina-
tion was about 200 foot-candles, temperature 6°C. The C-14 spike
used in this experiment was half that of the previous two experiments
due to a shortage of the isotope. The purposes of this experiment
were:
1. To test the stimulatory effect of taconite alone,
2. To test the stimulatory effect of manganese alone,
3. To test the stimulatory effect of taconite at two levels of
phosphate.
EFFECTS OF TACONITE ALONE
C-14
Table 7 shows the experiments done and the results as graphed
in Figure 11. In this experiment the concentrations of taconite
used were lower, ranging from .00001% to ,01%, Because of the
many combinations used, replicates were fewer, as were dark controls.
However again increasing concentrations of taconite seeing to stimulate
the algae to a greater extent. The stimulation seems less than in
Experiments I and II, possibly because the sample had been contaminated
with manganese from land runoff, but, as in the other two experiments,
statistical analysis (Keller) shows a highly significant correlation
between C-14 uptake and taconite concentration in the range .00001%-
.01% (r=0.92, P=0.0008).
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll data, Table 8 and Figure 12, substantiate the
stimulatory effects of the taconite.
Algal counts
Columns 1, 2, and 3 in Table 9 corroborate the growth stimulatory
1395
-------
19
effect of the taconite. Again it was not possible to enumerate the
algae in the flasks showing the most stimulation (.01%T).
Algal identification
According to Ruth Beeton who examined the preserved samples,
the great increase in the Stephanodiscus-Cyclotella group was
mostly due to SteBhanodiscus Jhajntzschii (may be S. tentfis^ but more
likely hantzschii) with some contribution from Cyclptella pee11ata^
Conclusion
Although the sample used was collected closer to shore than
those previously used, all three evaluation procedures show stimulatic
of the algae by taconite alone.
EFFECTS OF MANGANESE ALONE
C-14
Table 7 and Figure 13 show the stimulation by manganese. The
effect is less than ifc, the previous two experiments, again probably
because of the proximity of the sample to shore.
Chlorophyll
Table 8 and- Figure 13 corroborate the effect of manganese alone.
EFFECTS OF TACONITE IN THE PRESENCE OF PHOSPHATE
C-14
Table 7 shows the combinations used. All five levels of taconit
(including 0%) were tested for stimulation against a background of
both 5 micrograms P/liter and 25 micrograms P/liter. The results
are plotted in Figures 15 and 16 (note scale differences).
Figure 15 shows the taconite effects on a background of 5 micro-
grams P/liter. As expected, just the addition of P alone caused sorm
IIQfi
-------
20
stimulation over the lake water control. The addition of .00001%
taconite had no significant effect but concentrations of taconite
of .0001%, .001%, and .01% caused significant stimulation over that
of the phosphorus alone. These results are replotted in a somewhat
different fashion in Figure 17 showing the results after 20 days of
growth. Not« that above .00001% the curves for taconite at 0 P and
taconite at 5 micrograms P/liter diverge more rapidly, indicating
that not only i* taconite a more potent stimulator in the presence
of P, but that it becomes proportionately more so at higher concen-
trations of taconite. Statistical analysis (Keller) shows a highly
significant linear relationship of C-14 uptake to taconite concen-
tration in the presence of SppbP (r=0.80, P=0.017),
Figures 16 and 18 illustrate the same phenomenon. Again the
addition of taconite to lake water containing 25 micrograras P/liter
stimulates C-14 uptake and again much more so at higher taconite
concentrations. Even .00001% taconite in 25 micrograms P/liter
probably is somewhat more stimulatory than 25 micrograms P/liter
alone. Statistical analysis (Keller) shows a highly significant
linear correlation (r=0.97, P=0.009) and highly significant rank
correlation (r=0.90, P=0.0065) of C-14 counts with taconite additions
of 0.00001% to .001%.
Interestingly, (Figures 15 and 16) no additions of manganese to
the P were able to provide stimulation as great as that due to addition
of taconite to P. Once more this suggests a second growth-promoting
substance in the taconite, other than Mn or P.
Ch1orophy11
Table 8 summarizes the results as do Figure 19 and 20. These
data show essentially the same responses as the C-14 uptake.
1397
-------
21
Algal counts
The last 2 columns in Table 9 show that, as in Experiment II,
manganese and taconite behave very similarly in a qualitative and
quantitative manner in stimulating algal growth in the presence of
phosphate. The algae stimulated most were —
Lyngbya contorta
Dinobryon sociale
Stephanodiscus and Cyclotella
Synedra
Ceratoneis
Pi dy mo cy s t is
The totals in the two flasks were remarkably similar and suggest
that .001% taconite provides at least 4ppb of Mn.
Conclusion
The algal growth stimulation effect of small concentrations of
taconite is greatly enhanced by the presence of phosphate at concen-
trations of P as low or lower than 5 micrograms/liter and as high or
higher than 25 micrograms P/liter.
1398
-------
22
SUMMARY AND CONCUSSIONS
1. The results of all three experiments establish the fact that
taconite tailings stimulate the growth of the native algae of Lake
Superior when added in concentrations as low as 0.041 milligrams
per liter or as high as 410 milligrams per liter.
2. The stimulation is evidenced by the increased uptake of C-14,
increased production of chlorophyll, and increased abundance of
the algae at the higher taconite concentrations.
3. All three criteria show that manganese additions at low concen-
trations stimulate the growth of the algae of Lake Superior.
4. All three criteria show that phosphate additions at low concen-
trations stimulate the growth of the algae of Lake Superior.
5. The greater effect of taconite than manganese, the failure of
manganese to increase the effect of taconite, and the great similarities
in response between phosphorus plus manganese, and phosphorus plus
taconite, indicate that one of the active agents of taconite is the
manganese that dissolves from it.
6. There is evidence for a stimulating agent in taconite that is
neither manganese nor phosphorus.
7. Addition of phosphorus in concentrations as low as 5 parts per
billion and as high as 25 parts per billion greatly enhances the
stimulatory effects of taconite at all concentrations of taconite
tested. Stimulation of the growth of algae by taconite in the presence
of phosphorus was as much as 58 fold greater than stimulation by
taconite in the absence of phosphorus.
8. Most stimulations resulted in significant changes in the relative
abundances of the 4 major groups of algae found in the lake water.
1399
-------
23
REFERENCES
Andrew, R.W., and G.E. Glass, 1970.
Effect of taconite tailings on algal growth, pp. 73-87 in,
"Effects of Taconite on Lake Superior", National Water Quality
Laboratory, Duluth.
Beeton, Ruth, 1973.
Personal communication.
Glass, G.E., 1970.
The dissolution of taconite tailings in Lake Superior, pp. 87-
102 in, "Effects of Taconite on Lake Superior", National Water
Quality Laboratory, Duluth.
Goldman, C.R., 1966.
Molybdenum as an essential micronutrient and useful watermass
marker in Castle Lake, California, pp. 229-238 in, "Chemical
Environment in the Aquatic Habitat", Koninklijke Nederlandse
Akademie Van Wetenschappen.
Goldman, C.R., 1970.
Taconite tailings as a biostimulant for algal growth. 8 pp.
mimeo.
Keller E., 1973.
Personal communication. Data on file in office of J, Shapiro,
Lorenzen, C.J., 1966.
A method for the continuous measurement of in—vivo chlorophyll
concentration, Deep Sea Res. 13;223~227.
McGee, Richard, 1970.
Stimulation of algae growth by taconite tailings, 23 pp. mimeo,
Schelske, C,L., L.E. Feldt, M.A, Santiago, and E, Stoermer, 1972.
Nutrient enrichment and its effect on phytoplankton production
1400
-------
24
and species competition in Lake Superior. Proc. 15th Conf.
Great Lakes Res., 1972, pp. 149-
Shapiro, J., 1970.
Algae growth studies in Lake Superior, 6 pp. mimeo.
Shapiro, J.,.and G.E, Glass, 1970.
Chemical factors stimulating growth of Lake Superior algae,
17 pp. Paper presented at the 1970 Conference on the Biology
of Lake Superior.
Vollenweider, R.A., 1969.
A manual on methods for measuring primary production in
aquatic environments, International Biological Program, Handbook
No. 12, pp. 213.
1401
-------
Table 1.
Carbon-14, net counts per minute
Flask
0%T A
B
C
Dark
.0001%T A
B
C
Dark
.001%T A
B
C
Dark
.01%T A
B
C
Dark
.1%T A
B
C
Dark
2ppbMn A
B
4ppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbMn A
B
16ppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbMn A
*.001%T B
Dark
SppbMn A
+ .1%T B
Dark
1
864
660
1,149
118
881
750
1,113
64
923
849
1,141
94
836
732
1,185
77
744
997
764
816
52
743
954
1,424
1,095
67
1,128
1,017
53
4
2,735
3,088
3,386
148
2,790
2,442
3,609
93
3,351
3,230
3,398
156
3,482
3,363
3,608
112
2,668
3,003
2,976
3,059
78
3,079
2,847
2,897
3,351
117
3,108
3,409
96
Days of Experiment
7 11 14
3,864
4,071
4,088
145
3,690
2,492
4,539
95
5,209
4,192
3,910
107
4,804
5,128
5,720
129
3,910
4,804
3,925
4,071
90
3,470
3,690
4,457
3,925
125
5,024
3,864
200
4,581
4,735
4,973
163
4,283
2,570
5,560
83
6,822
5,623
4,827
100
7,607
7,380
8,594
139
4,758
5,560
5,591
5,321
177
4,690
4,712
4,668
4,718
67
7,446
4,055
109
5,437
5,321
5,328
110
4,948
2,958
6,034
97
8,823
7,219
6,966
80
10,499
9,973
10,611
284
5,154
7,786
7,492
6,822
174
5,236
6,383
5,890
6,966
77
6,136
9,497
109
19
7,167
7,065
7,219
146
7,065
5,787
8,982
185
14,258
11,872
8,038
162
15,357
16,366
16,640
135
8,170
6,302
7,606
105
5,823
11,878
12,319
11,337
105
7,910
9,407
8,306
9,688
132
10,074
13,672
148
8,520
6,730
112
1402
-------
Table 2.
Chlorophyll
Days of Experiment
Flask
0%T A
B
C
Dark
.0001%T A
B
C
Dark
.001%T A
B
C
Dark
.01%T A
B
C
Dark
.1%T A
B
C
Dark
2ppbMn A
B
4ppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbMn A
B
16ppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbMn A
+.001%T B
Dark
SppbMn A
+ ,1%T B
Dark
0
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
19.5
19.5
19.5
19.5
25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
39.0
39.0
39.0
39.0
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
39.0
39.0
39.0
4
15.0
12.0
11.9
20.5
13.0
9.0
14.0
15.0
25.0
20.0
10.5
20.0
23.0
22.5
20.0
27.0
35.4
39.0
35.0
40.0
14.0
16.0
13.0
15.0
21.0
11.5
9.0
25.4
14.5
12.5
13.0
15.0
21.5
37.5
39.5
27.0
7
13.5
18.0
19.5
13.0
13.0
13.0
20.0
19.0
23.0
16.0
19.0
13.0
23.5
22.5
23.0
16.0
38.5
40.5
41.0
33.0
17.0
19.0
15.5
16.0
21.0
16.0
13.0
16.0
11.0
10.5
12.5
27.0
12.5
43.0
45,0
32.5
11
15.0
21.0
15.0
17.0
13.5
8.0
16.0
10.5
24.5
22.0
14.0
9.5
35.0
34.5
32.0
14.0
47.0
43.5
46.0
31.0
14.0
21,0
23.0
26.0
14.5
15,5
20.0
18.0
21.0
7.5
21.5
27.0
18.5
48.0
47,0
30.5
14
21.0
19.5
20.5
9.0
19.5
21.5
24.0
8.0
37.0
23.5
20.5
8.0
46.0
34.0
32.0
13.0
52.0
46.0
53.0
23.0
21.0
31,0
27.5
26.5
11,0
20.0
23,5
24,0
20.0
7.0
24,0
30,0
14,0
51.5
50.0
30.0
19
19.0
25.0
9.0
26.0
26.5
29.0
8.5
43.0
37.0
31.5
11.0
50.5
48.0
16.0
63.5
58.0
72.0
29.0
27.0
40,5
46,0
35.0
8,0
26.0
31.5
31.5
35.0
7.0
28.0
43,0
10.0
61.5
62,0
30.0
1403
-------
Table 3.
Algae Counts
Lake Superior Experiments
Aug 18 - Sept 6, 1972
Alga
(Chrysophyta)
Fragilaria crotonensis
Asterionella formosa
Nitzschia actinastroides
Rhizosolenia eriensis
R. longiseta
small Cyclotella & Stephanodiscus
Dinobryon bavaricum
D. socials
D. divergens
Synedra spp.
small chrysophyte flagellates
Total
(Cyanophyta)
Aphanothece clathrata
Synechococcus elongatus
Oscillatoria sp.
Total
(Chlorophyta)
Oocystis spp.
Elakatotrix gelatinosa
Didymocystis sp.
Ankistrodesmus spirilliformis
A. falcatus
Tetraedron minimum
Chlamydomonas sp.
Total
(Cryptomonads & y flagellates)
Cryptomonads 1
2
3
yflagellates
Total
Nurrojers/ml
Sample
Original
day 0
4
16
4
116
15
20
15
17
207
2
60
62
7
4
28
2
4
13
58
i
49
71
36
80 '
236
Control A,
day 19
143
30
23
225
307
68
30
53
82
961
7
67
11
85
30
7
4
4
7
52
90
30
86
206
.001% tai
day
270
90
108
1387
38
251
41
4
45
2234
4
4
68
19
~8T
64
45
' 83
192
GRAND TOTAL
563
1304
2517
1404
-------
Table 4.
Carbon-14, net counts per minute
Flask
0%T A
B
C
Dark
.0001%T A
B
C
Dark
.001%T A
B
C
Dark
,01%T A
B
C
Dark
lOppbP A
B
Dark
20ppbP A
B
Dark
20ppbP A
+.001%T B
Dark
20ppbP A
+ ,01%T B
Dark
SppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbMn A
+.001%T B
Dark
SppbMn A
+ 20ppbP B
2
1,827
1,782
2,256
45
1,791
2,119
1,828
60
2,152
2,048
2,171
58
1,819
1,949
1,898
62
2,511
2,348
41
1,905
2,577
49
2,166
2,424
68
1,639
1,889
45
1,908
2,026
29
2,124
2,299
39
2,388
2,454
Da1
.,_ ... ji
5
3,401
3,621
4,437
48
4,046
4,005
4,030
66
3,727
3,880
4,603
61
3,792
3,919
4,646
85
6,165
6,071
70
4,247
5,943
72
5,687
7,246
88
5,024
5,671
95
3,969
4,148
64
4,508
4,408
273
5,979
6,085
/s of Experiment
10
5,671
5,704
6,488
44
6,507
6,363
6,662
79
6,383
6,917
7,520
69
6,467
7,015
7,973
70
14,788
18,322
45
9,497
11,601
118
25,289
29,385
83
18,429
23,502
81
6,243
6,252
56
7,191
7,141
52
16,233
21,250
16
7,120
7,743
9,275
78
8,054
7,687
9,275
85
8,862
9,254
9,705
102
10,390
10,390
12,434
105
23,783
35,687
157
20,806
24,664
131
56,311
68,939
225
65,548
83,306
163
8,153
9,105
80
9,407
9,382
103
43,457
54,768
21
9,064
9,029
8,789
83
9,085
8,484
10,472
100
9,168
10,872
11,402
107
13,814
15,067
12,960
113
30,742
48,166
96
38,068
48,753
55
90,909
102,564
103
105,263
111,111
183
9,520
11,534
70
10,444
10,811
137
68,966
81,633
1405
-------
Table 5,
Chlorophyll
Flask
0%T A
B
C
Dark
.0001%T A
B
C
Dark
.001%T A
B
C
Dark
.01%T A
B
C
Dark
lOppbP A
B
Dark
20ppbP A
B
Dark
20ppbP A
+.001%T B
C
20ppbP A
+ ,01%T B
Dark
SppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbMn A
+.001%T B
Dark
SppbMn A
+ 20ppbP B
2
16.0
18.0
17.0
15.0
14.0
15.5
15.0
13.0
17.0
17.0
18.0
15.0
22.0
21.0
22.5
19.0
17.0
18.5
13.0
16.0
18.0
13.5
17.5
19.0
13.5
22.0
22.0
19.0
16.0
15.0
13.0
16.5
18.5
14.0
20.0
18.5
Da;
5
20.0
19.0
18.0
11.5
21.0
25.0
21.0
11.5
21.0
21.0
22.5
12.5
23.5
26.0
27.0
17.0
35.0
33.5
12.0
32.0
38.5
12.5
31.0
42.0
12.0
32.0
39.0
16.5
20.0
21.0
12.0
20.0
20.5
11.5
37.5
31.0
£S_ of Experiment
10 16
23.5
26.5
28.0
8.0
26.0
26.0
26.0
12.0
25.5
26.0
25.5
7.5
33.5
36.0
37.0
12.0
77.0
95.0
8.0
64.5
80.5
7.5
8.0
12.5
27.5
27.5
8.0
30.5
31.5
8.5
90,0
94.5
21.5
23cO
27.0
8.5
28.0
28.0
26.0
9.0
31.5
30.0
25.0
11.0
39.5
33.5
42.5
14.0
140
160
6.0
148
170
6.0
352
316
7.5
376
384
12.0
24.0
23.0
9.0
29.5
28.0
9.5
258
243
21
24.0
26.0
26.0
7.5
28.0
26.0
25.0
7,0
28.0
28.0
28.0
7.5
43.0
39.0
41.5
14.0
175
220
6.5
312
370
6.0
410
370
7.0
425
346
11.5
26.5
25.0
6.0
27.0
24.0
8.5
385
385
1406
-------
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1408
-------
Table 7.
Carbon-14, net counts per minute
Flask
0%T A
B
.00001ST A
.0001%T A
B
,001%T A
B
.01%T A
B
Dark
2ppbMn A
B
4ppbMn A
B
SppbMn A
B
Dark
SppbP A
B
SppbP A
+.00001%T B
SppbP A
+.0001%T B
5ppbP+.001%T A
5ppbP+.01%T A
2 SppbP A
B
2 SppbP A
+.00001%T B
2 SppbP A
+.0001%T B
25ppbP+.001%T A
2 SppbP A
+ . 01%T Dark
5ppbP+4ppbMn A
5ppbP+ SppbMn A
25ppbP+4ppbMn A
2 5ppbP+ SppbMn A
2 SppbP A
+4ppbMn B
1
275
273
220
199
319
218
274
218
176
5
235
254
291
296
229
270
7
210
232
285
231
303
237
360
279
198
225
239
251
212
274
212
240
11
181
269
205
221
303
271
Day
5
1,385
1,242
1,435
1,410
1,337
1,481
1,455
1,506
1,443
19
1,490
1,376
1,337
1,378
1,533
1,261
11
1,819
1,641
1,633
1,684
1,608
1,343
1,773
1,831
1,729
1,689
1,720
1,779
1,742
1,639
1,467
1,663
29
1,989
1,580
2,014
1,698
1,815
1,558
rs of experiment
11 15
2,160
1,963
2,549
2,636
2,076
2,678
2,664
2,761
2,840
75
2,639
2,554
2,102
2,210
2,784
1,964
58
5,013
4,684
3,983
4,762
3,902
4,435
5,195
5,319
4,329
5,277
5,025
5,464
6,135
4,098
6,369
5,495
54
6,135
3,614
6,472
5,155
5,682
4,329
2,528
2,503
3,155
2,837
2,496
3,152
3,027
3,795
3,849
57
2,722
3,019
2,555
2,603
3,003
2,169
40
5,720
5,821
5,487
6,108
6,684
6,574
7,973
8,541
5,423
6,893
6,445
7,246
10,229
7,607
15,358 .
15,175
39
7,786
3,616
11,669
9,777
15,011
10,902
20
2,861
3,330
3,365
3,384
2,577
3,671
3,517
4,804
4,746
37
3,289
3,168
2,783
3>019
3,296
3,219
36
7,167
7,090
6,302
6,684
9,064
6,730
9,777
11,534
6,022
10,023
8,412
10,282
16,780
15,598
37,037
35,061
77
8,745
7,167
25,947
24,363
32,760
25,947
1409
-------
Table 8.
Chlorophyll
Flask
0%T A
B
.00001%T A
.0001%T A
B
,001%T A
B
.01%T A
B
Dark
2ppbMn A
B
4ppbMn A
B
SppbMn A
B
Dark
Sp'pbP A
B
SppbP A
+.00001%T B
SppbP A
+ .0001%T B
5ppbP+.001%T A
5ppbP+.01%T A
2 SppbP A
B
2 SppbP A
+.00001%T B
2 SppbP A
+.0001%T B
25ppbP+.001%T A
25ppbP+.01%T A
Dark
5ppbP+4ppbMn A
5ppbP+8ppbMn A
25ppbP+4ppbMn A
2 5p_pbP+ SppbMn A
2 SppbP
+4ppbMn A
+.01%T B
1
14.0
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
16.5
21.5
20.0
20.5
14.0
14.5
14.5
14.0
15.0
14.5
14.5
14.5
16.5
14.5
14.0
15.0
15.0
15.5
20.5
13.5
14.5
14.5
14.0
16.0
15.0
15.5
21.0
20.5
13.0
14.0
14.0
15.0
21.0
20.5
Days of experiment
5 11 15
18.5
16.5
19.5
28.0
20.0
21.0
20.0
27.0
25.0
17.0
19.5
23.0
18.0
18.0
22.0
18.0
12.0
33.0
32.0
29.5
27.0
23.0
24.5
28.5
34.5
27.5
29.0
34.0
30.0
37.0
26.5
26.0
36.0
16.0
30.0
25.0
37.0
30.0
39.0
32.5
26.0
2a.s
30.0
28.0
25.5
28.0
25.0
35.0
33.0
15.5
29.0
28.5
24.0
24.0
30.0
23.0
10.5
69.0
72.0
68.0
77.0
78.0
81.5
83.0
96.0
75.0
93.0
88.0
95.0
126
88.0
99.5
101.0
15.0
85.5
61,0
122
90.0
116
112
31.5
26.0
29.5
28.0
27.0
31.5
31.0
42.0
40.0
13.0
25.5
29.0
28.0
26.0
29.0
23.5
7.0
55.0
63.5
84.0
80.5
76.0
76,5
86.0
115
68.5
84.5
83.5
98.5
168
185
327
345
12.5
69.0
66.5
155
160
260
250
20
26.5
24.5
27.0
24.5
28.5
33.0
27.0
48.0
40.0
12.5
24.0
30.0
23.5
25.5
28.0
23.0
6.5
65.0
67.0
73.0
69.0
91.5
72.0
81.0
130
165
195
180
180
245
335
375
620
12.0
69.0
66,0
315
345
428
468
1410
-------
Table 9.
Algae Counts
Lake Superior Experiments
Nov 2 - Nov 22, 1972
Numbers/ml
Sample
(Chrysophyta)
Fragilaria spp.
Asterionella formosa
Rhizosolenia eriensis
Tabellaria flocculosa
Synedra ulna.
Synedra spp.
Stephanodiscus-Cyclotella
Stephanodiscus niagarae
Nitzschia spp.
Ceratoneis sp.
Navicula spp.
Dinobryon sociale
Dinobryon bavaricum
Dinobryon divergens
Total
(Cyanophyta)
Oscillatoria planctonica
Lyngbya contorta
Lyngbya limnetica
Microcystis aeruginosa
Microcystis incerta
Total
(Chlorophyta)
Didymocystis sp.
Ankistrodesmus falcatus
A. falcatus var. spi:
Total
(Cryptomonads & f:
Cryptomonads 1
2
Euglena sp.
Total
GRAND TOTAL
Original
day 0
6
13
15
la 13
2
2
2
53
:a
0
49
.liformis
~~49
rellates)
4
6
2
12
114
Control A
day 20
17
9
24
71
11
2
4
4
118
7
43
310
67
4
17
88
722
2
724
9
43
2
54
1176
.001%T A
day 20
24
79
13
101
52
58
2
7
4
71
4
52_
467
6
43
7
13
69
1320
4
1324
4
41
45
1905
,001%T+25P
day 20
210
45
3300
5400
91J950
255
1200
102,360
315
105
15
435
10,050
3jO
10,080
75
75
112,950
4Mn+25P
day 20
105
450
1200
91,350
285
135
93,525
450
15
465
16,050
60
T5
16,125
210
210
110,325
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