EPA-450/3-77-022b
October 1977
                      RELATIOIN
            OF OXIDANT LEVELS
      TO PRECURSOR EMISSIONS
         AND METEOROLOGICAL
                     FEATURES -
            VOLUME II: REVIEW
                  OF AVAILABLE
            RESEARCH RESULTS
        AND MONITORING DATA
    U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
        Office of Air and Waste Management
     Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
     Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

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EPA-450/3-77-022b

Final Report                                                September 1977
                                                       (Originally published
                                          as an Interim Report November 1975)
THE RELATION OF OXIDANT LEVELS TO
PRECURSOR EMISSIONS AND
METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
Volume II:  Review of Available Research Results
             and Monitoring Data
             (As of November 1975)
By:  H. B. SINGH and W. B. JOHNSON
    SRI Internationa/
    E. REITER
    Colorado State University
Prepared for:

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA  27711
Attention:  MR. PHILLIP  L. YOUNGBLOOD


CONTRACT 68-02-2084

SRI Project 4432
Approved by:

R.T.H. COLLIS, Director
Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory

RAY L. LEADABRAND, Executive Director
Electronics and Radio Sciences Division
   !)    SRI International
         Menlo Park, California  94025  - U.S.A.

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                               CONTENTS


  I  BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES, AND
     LIMITATIONS OF THIS REVIEW	   1

 II  REVIEW OF THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE RELATION
     OF OXIDANT LEVELS TO METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES 	   3

     A.  Historical Overview	   3

     B.  The Stratosphere as a Source
         of Tropospheric Ozone  	   7

     C.  Natural Sources and Sinks of
         Ozone in the Troposphere	22

     D.  Long-Range Transport and the Nonurban Oxidant Problem  .  .  23

     E.  Summary of. Significant Scientific Findings	31

III  DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED RESEARCH STUDIES 	  35

 IV  SUMMARY OF AVAILABLE SOURCES OF OXIDANT/OZONE DATA	67

  V  REFERENCES AND COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY  	 107
                                  111

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       I   BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES, AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS REVIEW


     This review is a part of a research study being conducted for the

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  The overall study aims to
answer the following questions:

     •  What causes the high oxidant values that are frequently
        observed in rural areas well removed from emission
        sources?
     •  What are the effects of synoptic and smaller-scale
        meteorological variables on ground-level oxidant
        concentrations?
     •  How much does ozone of stratospheric origin contri-
        bute to ground-level oxidant concentrations?

     •  Is it possible on the basis of relationships between
        oxidant concentrations and synoptic-scale meteorological
        conditions to identify geographic regions for
        uniform oxidant control strategies?  If so, how?
As a logical first step in this effort, a relatively comprehensive survey

of the relevant available literature and data has been carried out and
is presented here.  The objectives of this review are to:

      •  Develop a clear picture of the current scientific
         consensus on the oxidant problem in the eastern
         United States, with particular emphasis on the
         relation of nonurban oxidant to meteorological
         processes.

      •  Provide a compilation of appropriate available data
         as a basis for selection of the most available data
         from specific sites for further detailed analysis.

Accordingly, Sections II, III, and IV of this report provide an over-

view of the current state of knowledge on the oxidant problem, a

descriptive listing of selected research studies,  and a summary of
available data sources, respectively.

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      Since the oxidant problem in the eastern United States is the



topic of this investigation, studies and data dealing specifically with



the West Coast oxidant problem have generally not been included in this



report.

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         II   REVIEW OF THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE
            RELATION OF OXIDANT LEVELS TO METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
A.   Historical Overview

     In the early part of this century it was discovered that ozone  is

synthesized in the stratosphere by chemical processes that involve photo-

dissociation of molecular oxygen.  It was found that Oo has a unique

vertical distribution with a maximum concentration of about 5-10 ppm

(10  v/v) occurring at about 25 km (Junge, 1963).  Thus the largest

natural source of ozone was discovered and found to be extremely impor-

tant in providing a protective (UV) shield against ultraviolet radiation

for the earth.

     In the early 1940s  ozone was also found to be a tropospheric

constituent, and the primary source was proposed to be the stratosphere.

In the intervening years, it has been postulated that the downward

transport of stratospheric ozone is controlled by air exchange mechanisms

across the tropopause or through tropopause gaps, particularly in the

vicinity of the jet stream and weather frontal zones (EPA, 1970) .

     Ozone took on a new role in the 1950s  when it was discovered that

ozone could be synthesized in the polluted air of cities by photochemical

processes involving reactions between hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen

(Leighton, 1961).   Bell (1959) showed that ozone or ozone precursors

could persist overnight and appear at high concentrations the next
  In this report, the terms "ozone" and "oxidant" are used inter-
  changeably for convenience, since the models predict ozone and the
  standards apply to oxidants, and the difference between the two is
  not important in our discussion.

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morning at distances as far as 100 miles away from their apparent



sources in southern California.  At this time it was still believed that



the principal source of world-wide tropospheric ozone was the stratos-



phere, since ozone produced in polluted urban areas was considered to



be only a localized problem, not contributing significantly to the



global budget.





     Based upon observed 0-j concentrations and diffusion theory,



Frenkiel (1960) and Paetzold (1961) concluded that there must be a



large tropospheric source of ozone.  McK.ee (1961), from the vertical



distribution of 03 measured over Greenland, concluded that there must



be local Oo synthesis.





     Went (1960) became the first to propose that natural ozone synthe-



sis could take place in the troposphere in a manner similar to ozone



synthesis in polluted air, with "terpenoid" compounds emitted by vege-



tation replacing the simpler olefins of the polluted air.  Based on



subsequent measurements, it was confirmed that both natural terpenes



and N02 (as NO) are emitted in great enough quantities to influence 0,



concentrations in the troposphere (Rasmussen and Went, 1965; Lodge and



Pate, 1963; Worth et al., 1967).





     During the 1960s ozone began to draw serious attention as a pollu-



tant in urban areas with a potential for both health and plant damage.



The primary precursors were identified as hydrocarbons and oxides of



nitrogen emitted by both mobile and stationary sources.  The focus of



photochemical pollution problems became Los Angeles, because of large



numbers of automobiles, intense sunlight, and meteorological features



leading to stagnation of air and trapping of pollutants.  The diurnal



variation of Oo was recognized, with ground-level ozone values starting



near zero in the early morning, building to a maximum in the late after-



noon, and then decreasing to low levels again by late evening.  Limited

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measurements in other urban areas demonstrated by the late 1960s that
photochemical pollution, while most severe in Los Angeles, was to be
found in almost all urban locations (NAS, 1974; Rubino, 1975; Jacobson
and Salotollo, 1975; Hawke, 1974).

     By 1970 the EPA promulgated National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for oxidants at 0.08 ppm, not to be exceeded more than once a
year (EPA, 1970).  To achieve this standard, abatement programs were
undertaken and further steps proposed to limit hydrocarbon and NO,,
                                                                 X
emissions as a means of controlling oxidants.  EPA has published procedures
for determining the necessary precursor reductions (Federal Register,
1971) to be applied in local areas in which a measurable oxidant problem
exists.  At this time, it was still believed that ozone was a local
urban problem only and that diffusive and destructive processes limited
the oxidant concentrations in rural areas to insignificant levels.
Therefore, control strategies (Federal Register, 1971) were based
primarily on emission controls at locations in which a photochemical
oxidant problem was observed.

      However, in a study conducted by EPA in 1970 in a rural area of
western Maryland and eastern West Virginia, oxidant values exceeding the
NAAQS were frequently measured.  This finding was responsible for the
subsequent initiation of a number of intensive field studies covering
a broad area east of the Mississippi River.  It was discovered that
high oxidant concentration was  not limited to any given rural location
but was a widespread phenomenon.

      While there is no doubt that high oxidant values can be measured
in rural and remote locations, the sources have become a matter of
considerable controversy.  It is agreed qualitatively that stratosphere
and natural ozone precursors contribute to the tropospheric background.
The possibility of other tropospheric sources (Chemides and Walker, 1973)

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cannot be ruled out.  It is also becoming more evident that processes

that destroy ozone or ozone precursors are not as effective as initially

believed, and large-scale transport from urban to rural areas may be a

key aspect of the oxidant problem.  On the basis of several recent

studies, it has become clear that sources of nonurban ozone must be

identified before effective control strategies can be developed.

      The implications of these findings may be significant for control

strategies at the national level, as discussed by Altshuller (1975).

For example, regional-scale control strategies may be required to achieve

the NAAQS if long-range transport of ozone is found to be important.

If the "natural" ozone concentration is in excess of the current standards,

the standards are too stringent.

      In subsequent sections we will review the available scientific

literature that deals with the following major questions:

      •  How much of the tropospheric oxidant can be attri-
         buted to stratospheric exchange processes, and
         how do these processes occur?

      •  What are the natural tropospheric sources and
         sinks of oxidant, and what is their significance
         to the oxidant budget?

      •  What is the geographical extent of the transport
         of oxidant or oxidant precursors, and what is its
         effect on air quality control strategies?

      Considerable overlap between these questions occurs in the avail-

able research papers.  This is to be expected since the ultimate explana-

tion of oxidant behavior is likely to involve a number of different

mechanisms.

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B.   The Stratosphere as a Source of Tropospheric Ozone

     1.   Mass Exchange Mechanisms

          The exchange of air masses between stratosphere and troposphere

is accomplished by various mechanisms of different efficiency.  These

mechanisms are summarized below.


          a.   Seasonal Adjustments in the Height
               of the Mean Tropopause Level

               In spite of some ambiguities in the definition, and there-

fore in the exact location, of the tropopause level, it is evident from

statistical studies that this level in each hemisphere undergoes seasonal

fluctuations, becoming lower during fall and higher during spring.

Staley (1962) pointed out that his seasonal variation contributes towards

a net flux of air between stratosphere and troposphere, upward or down-

ward, depending on the season. The lowering and rising of the tropopause

should not be envisioned as a continuous process, however.  It comes

about by an imbalance between the vertical mass fluxes produced by the

mean Hadley circulation in low latitudes  and by the eddy transport

processes mainly in the jet-stream region of middle latitudes.  There

also is a compensatory horizontal mass flux within the stratosphere,

directed from the summer to the winter hemisphere.

               Table 1 (Reiter, 1975a) provides an estimate of changes

in the median tropopause pressure over North America between January  1963

and July 1963.  Since the total mass of stratospheric air above the

winter tropopause is approximately 4260 x 10   g, the seasonal variation

of tropopause heights over North America—when applied to the whole

northern hemisphere--amounts to approximately 10 percent of the mass

equivalent to one hemispheric stratosphere.

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                               Table  1
           SEASONAL VARIATION OF MEDIAN TROPOPAUSE PRESSURES
                   (IN MILLIBARS) OVER NORTH AMERICA
                            (Reiter, 1975a)
Latitude
(deg)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70

Tropopause
Pressures (mb)
Winter




95
100
160
200
220
250
250
240
225
230
240

Summer




120
120
120
120
120
140
200
210
225
230
240

Ap
+ (25)
+(25)
+(25)
+ (25)
+25
+20
-40
-80
-100
-110
-50
-30
0
0
0

Mass Change
(1017 g)
+28.4
+56.7
+55.6
+55.0
+53.3
+41.3
-78.9
-148.8
-174.6
-177.1
-72.6
-38.8
0
0
0
-400.5
        b.  Transport by the Mean Meridional
            Circulation Across the Tropopause

            Figure 1 (from Louis, in Reiter et al., 1975) shows the distri-
 bution for the four seasons of the integrated mean meridional mass flux,
 ty ,  i.e., the mass-weighted stream function defined by
                     v =
                                                                    (1)
                         2rr Rp  dz
                     w =
                            2
                         2TTR p
(2)
where  v  is the northward component
       w  is the vertical component
       R  is radius of the earth
       p  is air density
       i  is latitude
                                 8

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 90   «0    70   60   30    40   30    20
                                             10   20    30   40   50    60   70   80    90
                              (a)  DECEMBER-FEBRUARY
              60   50    40   30    20   10    0    10   20   30    40   50    60   70
                                  (b)  MARCH-MAY
                                                                         SA-4432-2
FIGURE  1
MEAN MERIDIONAL CIRCULATION (MASS FLOW IN UNITS OF 1012 g s'1)
FOR  THE FOUR SEASONS (From Louis)

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                                                                        80   '0
                                (c)  JUNE-AUGUST
                  50   40
                   °No.rh
                            (d)  SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER
                                                                      SA-4432-3
FIGURE  1
MEAN MERIDIONAL CIRCULATION (MASS FLOW  IN UNITS OF  1012
FOR  THE FOUR SEASONS (From Louis)  (Concluded)
gs-1)
                                    10

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            The upward  fluxes from the troposphere into  the stratosphere

and consequently, for reasons of continuity, the downward fluxes into

the troposphere accomplished by the Hadley circulation,  can be obtained

from Figure 1 as follows:
                                   Total Flux in         Contribution to
   Season         Mass Flow           3 Months         Northern Hemisphere

Dec. - Feb.     10 x 1012  g/s      788 x 1017 g        622 x  1017 g

March - May      4 x 1012  g/s      311 x 1017 g        272 x  1017 g

June - August  7.5 x 1012  g/s      583 x 1017 g        389 x  1017 g

Sept. - Nov.     7 x 1012  g/s      544 x 1017 g        560 x  1017 g

          Annual total  flux to northern hemisphere:    1843 x  10 ' g

This flux corresponds to 43 percent of the mass equivalent to one
hemispheric stratosphere.


        c.  Transport by the Mean Meridional Circulation
            into the Other Hemisphere

            From Figure 1  we can also estimate the interhemispheric

exchange of mass within the stratosphere as a function of season.  We

arrive at the following numbers:

                                           Total flux in 3 months
   Season         Mass Flow            into Northern Hemisphere (+)

Dec. - Feb.     6.5 x 1012 g/s               505 x 1017 g

March - May     2.0 x 1012 g/s               156 x 1017 g

June - August  -6.5 x 1012 g/s              -505 x 1017 g

Sept. - Nov.   -2.0 x 1012 g/s              -156 x 1017 g


            The mass flux  between the stratospheres of the two hemis-

pheres, thus,  replaces 661 x 10   g of mass from one hemisphere within

one year.   This is equivalent to 16 percent of the mass of one hemis-

pheric stratosphere.
                                  11

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        d.  Transport by Large-Scale Eddy Exchange, Mainly
            in the Mid-Latitude Jet-Stream Region

            Intrusion of stratospheric air into the troposphere by
large-scale eddy exchange occurs mainly within the jet-stream front
during the tropopause-folding process, i.e., during periods of active

cyclogenesis.   A number of case studies illustrating this mass-transfer
process are available in the literature (e.g., Danielsen, 1960, 1961,

1964, 1968; Danielsen et al., 1970; Mahlman, 1964a, b, 1965a, b, 1966;

Reiter, 1963b, c, 1964, 1968; Reiter et al., 1969; Reiter and Mahlman,

1964, 1965a, b, c, d; Staley, 1960, 1962).  The return flow of tropos-

pheric air into the stratosphere occurs at levels above the jet-stream

fronts  and at potential temperatures characteristic of the core of the
jet-stream itself (Reiter et al., 1969).

            Only very few studies are available that give quantitative

estimates of this eddy flux across the tropopause level  (Danielsen,
1960; Reiter and Mahlman, 1965; Reiter et al., 1969).  Our best guesses
indicate that 22 to 23 cyclogenetic events occur per year in the polar-

front jet-stream region of the North American longitude sector, with an
average mass transport contribution of about 6 x lO*7 g each, providing

an annual mass flux out of the stratosphere  of approximately 135 x 10 ' g
in the sector 70° to 180° W, and of approximately 405 x  10 ' g  around
the hemisphere.  This number includes only the latitude belt 40° to  60° N.
If one were to allow for the effects of the  subtropical  and artic-front
jet  streams of winter, and of the tropical easterly jet  stream  of summer,
one might  estimate the total eddy mass  flux  from the  stratosphere to  the

troposphere to be 800 x  10   g.  For reasons of mass  continuity, an
equal amount  of  tropospheric air will have to enter the  stratosphere  in

eddy exchange processes.  This  flux corresponds to roughly 20 percent

of the mass equivalent to one hemispheric stratosphere.
                                  12

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        e.  Meso- and Small-Scale Eddy Transport Processes




            Thunderstorms penetrating the tropopause level, as well as



small-scale turbulence continuously present in the atmosphere, will



contribute in a minor way towards the mass exchange between troposphere



and stratosphere.  Since these processes are either very slow-acting



(due to the relatively small vertical eddy exchange coefficients normally



effective at tropopause level), or are present with significant magni-



tude only sporadically (e.g., clear-air turbulence at tropopause level,



or thunderstorms penetrating the tropopause), the total contribution



towards the mass flux from the stratosphere to the troposphere from



meso- and small-scale eddy processes most likely lies near 1 percent of



the mass equivalent to one hemispheric stratosphere.





     2.  Implications on Ozone Transport from the Stratosphere




         From the foregoing discussion the annual mass budget of the



stratosphere of the northern hemisphere appears as follows:



            Seasonal adjustments of tropopause level    10%



            Mean meridional circulation                 437=.



            Stratospheric exchange between hemispheres  167°



            Large-scale eddies                          207»



            Small-scale eddies                   negligible

                                    Total:              897o




         These transport processes would act on an atmospheric tracer



that has been introduced into the northern hemisphere stratosphere and



disperses from there into the northern hemisphere troposphere and into



the southern hemisphere stratosphere.  A typical tracer of this sort is



9^Sr, injected in large quantities into the northern hemisphere lower



and middle stratosphere during the US and USSR atmospheric tests before



the Test Ban Treaty went into effect in 1963.  Figure 2 illustrates a


        90
typical   Sr distribution in the stratosphere.





                                  13

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        Km 20 -.
                                                           120.000
                                                         - 100.000
                                                         - 80,000
                                                         - 60,000
                                                         - 40,000
                                                         - 20,000
            90* 6O»      30
                      NORTH
  30*
SOUTH
60*90*
                                                          SA-4432-4
FIGURE 2   90Sr CONCENTRATIONS DURING  MARCH-MAY 1965 IN UNITS
            OF DISINTEGRATIONS PER  MINUTE PER 1000 STANDARD FT3
            Decay  corrected to time of  sampling.  Dots show location of mean
            aircraft data;  crosses indicate mean balloon samples.  (From List
            and  Telegadas, 1969)
                                    14

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     Figure 3 shows the northern and southern hemispheric burdens of



" Sr, as well as the total stratospheric burden, as functions of time.



The e-folding residence time of "^Sr in the northern hemisphere appears



to be 14 months (before the effects of the French and Chinese tests) .



If we assume that concentrations of radioactive debris,  N  , diminish



according to

where  T  is the e-folding residence time,  N  is taken to be 100 percent,



AN  is 89 percent and  At  is one year, we arrive at  T = 1 . 12  years or



13.4 months.





     According to Figure 3, the e-folding residence time in the southern



hemisphere stratosphere appears to be of the order of 21 months.



Assuming that the mean meridional and eddy exchange processes between



stratosphere and troposphere are as effective in the southern as in the



northern hemisphere, we have to blame the discrepancy in e-folding resi-



dence times between the two hemispheres on the following fact:  inter-



hemispheric exchange processes within the stratosphere tend to reduce



the radioactive burden of the northern hemisphere where the original



source was located.  At the same time this transport process  increases



the southern hemisphere burden.  Therefore, in approximation we can write
where  S  (= 16 percent, the stratospheric mass exchange between hemis-



pheres) is the "source" of stratospheric debris for the southern hemis-



phere in the form of transport from the northern hemisphere.  This



16 percent contribution towards the mass budget of the stratosphere now



appears as a "source" of debris and has to be removed from the "sink"



effects of the mass budget.  Therefore, for the southern hemisphere, we
                                   15

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   «*-!
                              A  TOTAL STRATOSPHERE
                              •  NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE
                               o  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE
                              ' 9 LARGE ATMOSPHERIC TESTS IN
                                 RESPECTIVE HEMISPHERE
        1963     I96«     1965     1966     1967     1968     1969
                                                              1970     I97i     1972
                                                                         SA-4432-5
FIGURE  3   STRATOSPHERIC INVENTORY  OF 9°Sr   (From Krey et al.  1974)
                                          16

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have to assume a value of 73 percent for  AN  (89% - 16%).  For  N  =  100

percent and  At = 1 year  , we thus arrive at  T = 1.75 years  or  21

months, which is exactly what Figure 3 indicates.

     E-folding residence times for other radioactive tracers introduced

into the lower and middle stratosphere under similar conditions yield

similar residence times (for references see Reiter, 1975b).

     The above discussion leads us to the following preliminary conclu-

sions:

     •  The estimate of an annual exchange of 16 percent of the mass
        equivalent to one hemispheric stratosphere appears to be
        accurate when applied to tracers in the lower and middle
        stratosphere.

     •  The total effects of other transport processes listed
        above have been estimated with similar reliability.

     The mixing ratios of ozone, as reported by Newell (1964) (see

Figure 4), show a distribution with respect to latitude and height that
is similar to that for ^Sr.  ^he axis of maximum ozone mixing ratios

dips downward from the equator to high latitudes, similar to the axis

of maximum ^Sr concentrations (see Figure 5 for similar evidence  from

additional other tracers).

     Since the photochemical life-time of Oo is relatively long at levels

below 25 km (for references see Reiter, 1971 and Reiter et al., 1975) we
can regard it almost as an inert tracer when comparing it, for instance,
     90
with   Sr.  However, the following exception applies:  in contrast to
9^Sr, o^ is produced in both hemispheres.  Interhemispheric transport

processes within the stratosphere, therefore, will have no profound
effect on the mean residence time of 0-j.   To calculate the mass budget

of one hemisphere, as it applies to ozone, we thus use Equation (3),

with a value  AN = 73  that includes all effects except the one from

interhemispheric exchange.  The e-folding residence time of 0-j in  the
                                  17

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         30mb
         50mb
        100 mb
                  10   20  3O 40  5O  6O  70  80

                         LATITUDE  (°N)
                                        SA-4432-6

FIGURE  4   SLOPES OF SURFACES OF  PREFERRED MIXING
           (SHORT LINE SEGMENTS) FOR  WINTER SEASON
           AS DERIVED  FROM HEAT  FLUX DATA
           Solid lines  represent mean potential temperature (°A)
           and dashed lines mean ozone mixing ratio (/jgm/gm)
           after Newell (1964).  (From Reed and German, 1965)
                           18

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   o
      90* N
FIGURE 5   OBSERVED  LEVELS  OF MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION AND  MEAN ANNUAL
            ISENTROPES
            Numbers in parentheses are months from injection into the stratosphere to
            observation (From Machta et a/., 1970)
                                       19

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lower and middle stratosphere, therefore, should be of the order of


1.4 years or approximately 16 months  (similar to the e-folding residence

        QO
time of   Sr in the total stratosphere as shown in Figure 3).



     It is not surprising that estimates of the 0_ residence time in the


stratosphere made from the phase lag between the maximum in total Oo and


that in surface Oo concentrations are much larger than this estimate of


16 months.  Junge (1962, 1963) and Fabian and Junge (1970) arrive at a

stratospheric residence time of three to five years, a tropospheric


residence time of 3.3 months, and a tropospheric vertical flux of


approximately 0.5 x 10"' g/nr/sec (equivalent to 0.804 x 10^ tons of

                                                                Q
Oo per year over the entire  globe).   A vertical flux of 1.3 x 10  tons


of Oo per year over the globe was estimated by Regener and Aldaz  (1969).

Since Oo is continuously generated photochemically in the stratosphere,

Equation (3) is inapplicable, even for a crude estimate of residence


time.  Influx of Oo, from higher levels and from lower latitudes also


provides a source for the atmospheric "box" that comprises the northern


hemisphere stratosphere between the tropopause and approximately 30 km.


     From satellite data, Lovill (1972) estimates the average global


value of total ozone to be 303.3 Dobson units (or milli-atmospheric-
                                                          o
centimeters, i.e., the height of the layer in units of 10   cm if all

ozone were compressed to normal temperature and pressure).  To convert


these units into mass of ozone we apply the gas law


                                 ^t
                            P = ^- P T  ,                           (5)

                       O         o
where  p = 1013.25 x 10J dynes/car , the universal gas constant


R* = 8.31436 x 10^ erg mole -1 deg K~ , the molecular weight of ozone,


m = 47.998, T = 273.16 deg K.  We arrive at a density for ozone of

                 ~     3
p = 2.14138 x 10"J g/cm , at normal temperature and pressure.  The


weight of the average ozone column, therefore, is 6.4948 x 10   g/cm .


                                  20

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On a hemispheric basis  (area = 2.55 x 10  km^) this amounts to

1.6565 x 1015 g, or 1.6565 x 109 tons.

                                                           9
     The annual downward flux in one hemisphere (0.402 x 10  tons) thus


corresponds to approximately one-quarter of the total atmospheric burden.

Dividing the latter by  the former to arrive at a crude measure of resi-

dence time (Ehhalt, 1973) one obtains a value of about four years, which

falls within the range  given by Junge.


     Since the average  tropospheric ozone mixing ratio of the troposphere


is « 0.1 M
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ground.  In the further investigation of the impact of stratospheric
ozone concentrations on ground-level ozone concentrations, we will there-
fore concentrate our attention almost exclusively on this transport
mechanism.

C.   Natural Sources and Sinks of Ozone in the Troposphere
     In the 1950s (Leighton, 1961; Wayne, 1962), it was shown that ozone
synthesis was possible in polluted atmospheres.  In 44 out of 251 cases,
Bering and Borden (1967) found ozone concentration below 5 km to be
greater than above 5 km.  In seven of these cases, the 0^ concentration
was greater at or below 2.5 km than at the tropopause.  As argued by
Kroening and Nye (1962) , tropospheric layers of 0-j concentration near
the tropopause can be explained by stratospheric intrusion, but high
values near the ground can be more easily explained in terms of in-situ
synthesis than in terms of subsidence, through half the troposphere, of
a layer of high Oo content.
     As previously mentioned in Section I-A, Went (1960) suggested a
photochemical mechanism for tropospheric ozone synthesis using natural
terpenes and NC^.  Ripperton et al. (1971) tested this hypothesis under
controlled conditions  and confirmed that this process can result in
ozone formation similar to that occurring in polluted atmospheres.
Rasmussen and Went (1965) found an average of 1 pphm  (maximum of 5 pphm)
of atmospheric terpenoid compounds in the Appalachian and Ozark Mountains.
Lodge and Pate (1963) measured an average of 0.09 pphm NOo (maximum of
0.5 pphm) in Panama, and Worth et al., (1967) measured an average of
0.4 pphm NOo (maximum of 2.6 pphm) in the southern Appalachians.  Thus
it is clear that both natural terpenes and natural N0£ are emitted in
quantities significant enough to influence 0-j behavior.
     Crutzen (1973) pointed out that the methane oxidation chain, which
ultimately leads to the production of CO, represents a large source of
                                   22

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ozone.  Chemides and Walker (1973) presented a photochemical theory of



tropospheric ozone synthesis from the methane oxidation chain.  Calcu-



lations indicate that this mechanism can support an ozone production




rate of 5 x 10" cnrVs .   Their  calculations  yield  a  photochemical  life-



time of Oo ranging from about one day at 5 km to about 10 days at 10 km.



Since the mixing time due to the presence of eddies in the troposphere



is about 30 days (Junge, 1962), this result suggests that 0^ is in photo-



chemical equilibrium in the troposphere, contradicting the usual view of



Oo as a relatively inert constituent of tropospheric air.





     The model of Chemides and Walker (1973) was found to satisfactorily



explain the general variation of Oo with season as well as its depen-



dence on altitude.  Indeed there is agreement that earlier assumptions



that ozone is destroyed on heterogeneous surfaces only were incorrect



and that gas phase ozone destruction is an effective sink for ozone



(Ripperton and Vukovich, 1971).  Lightning from thunderstorms may also



cause local increases in ozone, but by itself this mechanism constitutes



an insignificant ozone source in remote areas (Shalanta and Moore, 1972).






D.   Long-Range Transport and the Nonurban Oxidant Problem





     Most of the nonurban data taken before the mid-1960s consistently



reports low ozone values all over the world.  McKee (1961) reports a



maximum ozone concentration of 0.013 ppm based on his measurements in



Greenland.  Junge (1963) summarizes a number of observations prior to



1961, with most of the concentrations being below 0.045 ppm (see Table



2).  Only one location reports 0^ values as high as 0.06 ppm.  In the



Antarctic region, the mean surface ozone values ranged from 0.01 to



0.034 ppm, based on data from April 1957 to May 1958.   At the Admundsen



Scott Station located at the geographical South Pole monthly average



mean values of 0.01 to 0.04 were obtained (Aldaz, 1967).  During other



studies conducted by the University of North Carolina during 1964 and






                                  23

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                           Table  2
   COMPILATION OF REPRESENTATIVE OZONE CONCENTRATION NEAR THE
GROUND AND AT HIGHER LEVELS WITHIN THE TROPOSPHERE  (Junge,  1963)
OZONE CONCENTRATION ug/m3 C

OBSERVER
Gotz & Volz
(1951)

Ehmert (1952)

Kay (1953)


Regener (1954)



Regener (1954)

Teichert (1955)

Brewer (1955)



Teichert &
Warmbt (1956)













Price & Pales
(1959, 1961)

Wexler et al .
(1960)

Ramanathan
et al. (1961)


Dave (1961)




LOCATION ,
TIME AND RESULTS
Arosa, Switzerland,
1950-51, high valley,
daily maxima value
Ueissenau, Bodensee,
Germany, 1952
Farnborough , England ,
1952-53

Mt. Capillo and
Albuquerque, New
Mexico, USA,
1951-52
O'Neil, Nebraska,
USA, 1953
Lindenberg Observ.,
Germany, 1953-54
Tromso, Norway, 1954



Fichtelberg, Central
Germany, 1954-55



Brocken, Central
Germany, 1955

Ka 1 t ennordhe im ,
Central Germany,
1955
Wahnsdorf, near
Dresden, East
Germany, 1954-55

Mauna Loa, Hawaii,
1958

Little America
Antarctica, 1958

Srinagar, North
India, 1957-1960


Ahmedebad, 1954-55




a Influence of ozone destruction near
To sooe extent
this applies also to
ALTITUDE
(Meters)
1860 m above
sea level

20 m above
ground
0-12000 m
above ground

3100 and 1600 m
above sea level


12 m above
ground
80 m above
ground
0-10000 m
above ground


1215 m above
sea level



1152 m above
sea level

494 m above
sea level

257 m above
sea level


3000 m above
sea level

50 m above sea
level, near
the ground
1700 m above
sea level


50 m above sea
1 eve 1 , near the
ground

RANGE AVERAGE
APPROXIMATE APPROXIMATE
19-90
daily maximum
values
0-90
all values
26-50
a few aircraft
soundings
3-120 .
all data


0-90
all data
0-50
all data
60-70
a few air-
craft sound-
ings
20-67
month ly average
values of
hourly observa-
tions
26-52
monthly average
values
15-25
monthly average
values
2-26
monthly average
values of hourly
observations
20-80
daily maxi-
mum values
10-70
all values

26-59
monthly average
values of daily
maxima
24-50
monthly average
values of daily
maxima
the ground not eliminated in these average
other sets of data, exce
pt for those which
50



353
38b


36a



35"

30a

65



40




40


20"


123



50


50


50



40



values.
refer
to dailv maximum values.
b Values likely
c To convert ug/
too low due to ozone destruction in the intake
m^ to pphffl, divide by
20.
tube.



                              24

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1967 in rural North Carolina, high ozone values were not observed
(RTI, 1975).

     However, as mentioned earlier, a study sponsored by EPA in 1970 in
a rural area of western Maryland and eastern West Virginia, oxidant values
well in excess of the NAAQS  (0.08 ppm) were frequently measured (EPA,
1970; Richter, 1970)^ which led to a number of studies on the rural oxi-
dant problem.  In the summer of 1972, the EPA sponsored a special study
for ozone measurements in Garret County, Maryland, and Preston County,
West Virginia (EPA, 1972).  Approximately 11 percent of the 1043 hourly
measurements measured by the gas-phase chemiluminescent method exceeded
0.08 ppm.  The maximum Oo value during the study period (4 August to
25 September 1972) was 0.12 ppm.  Simultaneous measurements of NC>  and
                                                                 X
nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC) concentrations yielded values that were
at or near geochemical levels.  Neither natural nor anthropogenic sources
in the study area appeared capable of producing the required precursor
species (HC and NOX) in sufficient quantities for synthesis of ozone at
the levels observed.

     A more extensive study was conducted in the summer of 1973, when
ground-level ozone was measured at McHenry,  Maryland, Kane, Pennsylvania,
Coshocton, Ohio, and Lewisburgh, West Virginia between 26 June and 30
September 1973.   The measurement period at Kane extended through October.
A C-45 aircraft equipped with a solid-phase chemiluminescent ozone meter
was used to measure 0^ aloft.  Hourly 0^ concentrations exceeded the
NAAQS for oxidants 37, 30, 20 and 15 percent of the hours for which data
were available at McHenry, Kane, Coshocton,  and Lewisburgh, respectively.
The aircraft data further indicated that the source of high Oz was
located at the surface, because vertical Oz profiles showed a distinct
concentration decrease with altitude.  Maximum hourly ozone concentra-
tions were 0.16 ppm at McHenry, 0.14 ppm at Kane, 0.17 ppm at Coshocton,
and 0.13 ppm at Lewisburgh.

                                   25

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     Miller et al. (1972) measured ozone at several rural and urban



locations near Fresno, California during the period 17-27 August 1970,



and found the NAAQS was widely exceeded.  In the rural locations the



11-day average for each of the hours between 11 a.m. and 6 p.m. was in



excess of 0.08 ppm, with the lowest hourly average about 0.05 ppm.  High



03 concentrations in rural areas were attributed to transport from the



Fresno urban area; however, the authors were unable to explain why the



Oo concentration remained high when the prevailing wind was not from the



direction of the city.





     Since 1973, a great deal of emphasis has been placed on the non-



urban problem.  The oxidant conditions that had been typically observed



in California were found to be quite widespread.  Based on limited 1973



oxidant data in New York state, Stasiuk and Coffey (1974) concluded



that, since average daily rural ozone concentrations at widely separated



sites correlated well with the daily maximum urban ozone concentrations,



a common source was implied.  They discounted transport as the primary



source of high nonurban oxidant values.





     In another study, Cleveland et al. (1975) conducted an analysis of



data from the New Jersey/Pennsylvania area  and concluded that the



oxidant problem in rural Ancora was caused by regional oxidant transport



from the Philadelphia-Camden urban complex.  These authors also observed



that Sundays, with typically lower emissions, were overrepresented among



the days that exceeded the NAAQS in New Jersey.





     Wolff (1974), in a preliminary investigation of the tri-state (New




York-New Jersey-Connecticut) photochemical oxidant problem, concluded



that the NAAQS is widely exceeded in the tri-state region and  suggested



that this may be due to precursor transport from the Philadelphia-Camden



area, especially with west or southwest winds.  No correlation was found



between the early morning  (6 to 9 a.m.) hydrocarbons and the afternoon
                                  26

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ozone at any given station.  High afternoon temperatures  (> 86°F) and a



mixing  depth of  less  than  500  m resulted in high 0   concentrations.



Wolff also observed high Oo concentrations associated with the sea-breeze



cycle,  and proposed a hypothesis similar  to the  one  suggested by Lyons



and Cole (1974).





     Lyons and Cole observed very high oxidant values in  1973 in southern



Wisconsin rural  areas and  along the shoreline of Lake Michigan.  Rural



hourly  ozone values as high as 0.2-0.3 ppm were  measured  several times.



The results of this study  indicated that  significant mesoscale and even



synoptic-scale transport of ozone into this particular area might occur.





     Several other studies conducted in California (Cavanagh and Smith,



1973; Blumenthal et al., 1974) confirmed  large-scale transport of ozone



and ozone precursors.  In  Los Angeles.it was found that the urban plume



may extend as much as 70 to 100 miles downwind of the city.  Studies at



Houston and Phoenix (Rasmussen et al., 1974) and Philadelphia (Cleveland,



1975) confirmed  that  transport from urban centers as far  as 30-50 miles



downwind is quite widespread.





     Extensive oxidant monitoring in rural areas was conducted in 1974.



Perhaps the most comprehensive single study to date  on urban/nonurban



oxidant interrelationships was conducted  in the  Ohio Valley in the



summer of 1974.  It was concluded that oxidant values in  the rural areas



clearly exceeded the  NAAQS.  After about  30 to 50 miles,  a single urban



plume was found  to lose its identity (RTI, 1975).  It was also found



that a distinct  and nearly identical diurnal ozone variation at widely



separated locations indicated that area-wide mixing processes were impor-



tant.  Specific  air trajectories could not be consistently associated



with the arrival of air containing high or low oxidant values.  It was



found that high  oxidant values persisted with the incoming movement of



high pressure systems.  Martinez (1975),  in reviewing the relation of
                                   27

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oxidant values with meteorological features, found that high rural
oxidant values appear to be related to the influence of high pressure
cells, maximum temperatures above 60 F, abundant sunshine, low wind
velocities, and low-level atmospheric instability.
     On the basis of the Ohio studies, Ripperton et al.   (1974) support the
surface origin of high oxidant values and discount the possibility of
significant stratospheric transport.  Rasmussen and Robinson (1975)
present a qualitative surface ozone model which describes the approxi-
mate oxidant contributions to be expected in rural and urban locations
from both natural and anthropogenic sources.
     Other studies in the New York-New Jersey-Connecticut area have
attempted to relate the high east coast rural oxidant values to various
meteorological factors (Graedel et al., 1974).  Bruntz et al.  (1974)
have attempted to obtain an empirical correlation between Oo, solar
radiation, wind speed, and air temperature by using statistical curve-
fitting methods.  Cleveland et al.  (1975) explain that the high night-
time ozone values in Massachusetts are indicative of transport from
the New York-Connecticut area.  Coffey and Stasiuk (1975) propose that
the high nonurban ozone concentrations would result in a reverse trans-
port to urban areas, making any urban oxidant controls ineffective.
Rubino et al. (1975) report high urban and nonurban 0- values in
Connecticut, and attribute this to transport from New York City.
     In the Houston area, the Goober III study (Fowler et al.  1975)
confirmed that oxidant was transported from Houston to a nonurban site
in Prairie View (40 miles northwest of Houston).  However, during the
Yellow Pine study conducted during April-June 1974 in eastern Texas,
no evidence of transport could be found.  The measured ozone concentra-
tions showed a diurnal profile, with peak Oo concentrations in the early
afternoon.  The NAAQS was exceeded only twice during the monitoring period.
                                   28

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     Becker  (1974) analyzed data from the Wisconsin area, where 0., was



monitored at seven urban and four nonurban locations.  The rural sites



in southern Wisconsin were found to experience more hours of alert



levels  (400 ppb) than the four urban Milwaukee sites.





     Based on his ozone measurements in Miami, Florida, Nagler  (1974)



confirmed the high 63 levels on an area-wide basis, with indications of



long-range transport from the Chicago-Pittsburgh urban complex  (Fank-



hauser, 1975).





     In Beulah, North Dakota, a relatively remote location, it was found



that 23 percent of all one-hourly average concentrations exceeded the



NAAQS, based on a brief sampling study in July 1974.  Values as high as



0.12 ppm were measured and no evidence of transport was found.  It was



suggested that scarcity of foliage in the area with which 0-, might



react could account in part for the high ozone values (Browning, 1975) .





     In a modeling study based on measurements from the Ohio Valley and



Los Angeles, Johnson and Singh (1975) examined the significance of 0.,



in the upper inversion layer in terms of its effects on concentrations



at the surface level.  They found that high night time ozone values



and the "weekend effect" could be explained by ozone layers aloft



dispersing downwards during turbulent conditions.  This phenomenon is



expected to be significant in both urban and rural locations.  It may



be especially significant in nonurban areas because of the lack of



primary ozone-destroying precursors.





     Among the locations that showed low oxidant values were monitoring



sites in Wyoming and Montana.  At the Powder River Plant in northwest



Wyoming, ozone data taken from 1 January to 30 June 1974 yielded values



that were typically between 0.03 and 0.05 ppm (Ancell, 1975).  The



maximum hourly concentration measured was 0.071 ppm.  At McRae, Montana



(Tsao, 1974)  0-j was monitored from December 1973 to June 1974  with a






                                  29

-------
total of 3820 hourly values obtained over a period of 184 days.  At no
time did the maximum 0- value exceed the NAAQS.  A vast majority of the
data was below 0.06 ppm.
     It is obvious, therefore, that effective control strategies cannot
be formulated until there is general agreement on some of the basic
questions.  Altshuller  (1975) has attempted to delineate some of the
important questions that must be answered.  He concludes that the
effects of downwind transport and the growth of suburban cities must be
isolated.  He also points to a scenario that may apply on the east coast
area, in which urban plumes constantly intermix with naturally emitted
precursors as well as with other plumes.
     The question of what is a natural ozone background is also a
confusing one, since recent data seem inconsistent with measurements
made a few years ago.  While it is not possible to completely define
the accuracy of data taken before the mid-1960s, it is difficult to
make a strong argument  that the earlier data are wrong (RTI, 1975).
However, even today there is considerable controversy about ozone
measurement methods, and the possibility that all EPA measurements are
22 percent too high (Demore et al., 1975) would imply that the nonurban
problem is probably less serious than hitherto believed.
     Vertical ozone profiles showing a characteristic decline with
height have been used as the primary argument in favor of the surface
origin of ozone in rural areas (RTI, 1975).  However, high concentra-r
tions of ozone aloft at these same rural areas are found trapped within
inversion layers (Johnson and Singh, 1975).
     As more data become available it should be possible to develop a
consensus on what is a  typical background ozone level, what is the
nature and extent of urban transport, and what strategies must be used
to control the oxidant  problem.  If trajectory analyses cannot define

                                  30

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consistent source-receptor relationships, and if area-wide effects are

shown to be prevelant, regional strategies will have to be developed.


E.   Summary of Significant Scientific Findings

     As has been discussed in this section, a number of intensive studies

have been made on the urban/nonurban oxidant relationship, and a wealth

of data are at hand.  In addition, a number of monitoring stations over

the continental United States have helped generate an extensive data

base for both urban and nonurban locations.  Although considerable

disagreement still persists on various points, a number of findings

have been generally confirmed by these efforts, and are summarized

below:

     •  Urban oxidants are directly attributable to precursor
        emissions and their relationships (HC, NOX, HC/NOX)
        in urban areas.

     •  Oxidant levels are generally higher in those suburban areas
        that are located directly downwind from central urban locations.
     •  In the absence of NO, the sinks for oxidant such as
        N02, olefins, particulate matter, and surface features
        scavenge ozone slowly.  However, urban plumes can affect
        oxidant levels at a range exceeding 50 miles.
     •  Oxidant aloft may be effectively isolated from destructive
        precursors and can be entrapped within stable inversion
        layers.  This oxidant can diffuse downward either during
        the following day or at night if turbulent conditions
        persist.  The persistence of oxidant in layers aloft
        and its downward diffusion occurs in nonurban as well
        as urban locations.
     •  While short-range horizontal transport of oxidant and
        oxidant precursors has been generally invoked as the
        cause of high oxidant levels, recent investigations
        indicate mesoscale and even synoptic-scale transport
        of oxidant over  the United States.   Distances of travel,
        persistence of oxidant and oxidant  precursors, and the
        contributions of large and small sources superimposed
        on large-scale transport have prevented the identifica-
        tion of clear cut source-receptor relationships by

                                  31

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trajectory analysis.  An analysis of nonurban hydro-
carbon data, even though limited, suggests that
nonurban hydrocarbons are composed of the same
complex mixtures that characterize urban areas.
Similar oxidant diurnal variations are also observed
in both urban and nonurban areas.

Lightning from thunderstorms may cause brief local
increases in ozone but by itself constitutes an
insignificant source of ozone.

Ozone contributions from natural precursors and
stratospheric ozone injections are likely to be
between 0.04 and 0.05 ppm.  Ozone from natural hydro-
carbons may increase the ambient ozone by 0.02 to
0.05 ppm, however the atmospheric conditions that
are conducive to ozone production from photochemical
processes are usually different  from conditions that
favor transport from the stratosphere.

Typically, high temperatures  (>  60°F), abundant solar
flux, low wind speeds, high pressure cells and low-
level instability present favorable conditions for
elevated oxidant levels.  A fairly good statistical
correlation exists between oxidant levels and tempera-
ture, relative humidity, and  inverse mixing height.

Synoptic-scale weather patterns with migratory anti-
cyclones achieve a widespread mass of air contamination.

High pressure cells often have the highest oxidant
concentrations near the center of the cell in an area
of about 100 to 200 miles in  diameter, where conditions
are apparently conducive to high oxidant formation.
More recent results favor the area-wide mixing hypothesis,
in which natural precursors constantly intermix with
urban plumes.  So far, trajectory analysis has not been
useful to relate high or low  rural oxidant concentra-
tions to any specific sources.   A significant possi-
bility is the transport of hydrocarbon precursors of
lower reactivities from urban locations over long
distances, which then intermix with NOX from both
natural and anthropogenic sources to form high oxidant
concentrations in rural areas.

For a long time the belief has been that oxidants were
formed from reactive hydrocarbons such as olefins, some
aromatics and aldehydes  only, and nonreactive hydrocarbons
                          32

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which were a significant portion of the hydrocarbons
emitted, did not contribute to oxidant formation,  it
has now become clear that all hydrocarbons (even
methane) are capable of forming oxidants and the only
real difference is the relative time of irradiation.
Thus very low reactivity hydrocarbons (say alkanes)
will eventually lead to ozone formation but the
chemical processes may take several days.   Such
occurrences will lead to a higher background of ozone,
and long-range transport of hydrocarbons and thereby
of oxidants.
                          33

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             Ill   DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED RESEARCH STUDIES







     In this section we present brief summaries of the results of a



selected number of research studies that are judged to be significant in



terms of the relation of oxidant levels to meteorological features.



Both theoretical studies and observational studies that contain analyses



of data are included.  With regard to observational studies, the emphasis



in this review has been placed on the results of analyses of oxidant or



ozone data collected in the United States east of a line from the



western border of the Dakotas southward to El Paso, Texas.   However, a



few studies elsewhere that contain results of apparent general signifi-



cance have also been included.  The summaries are presented in alpha-



betical order, by author.
                                  35

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(1)  Flux Measurements of Atmospheric Ozone over Land and Water
     (Aldaz, 1969)

     Based on experimental measurements, it is estimated that ozone
                               -1   3  -2  -1
destruction rates are 0.60 cm s  (cm cm   s  ) over land, 0.04 cm/s

over fresh water, and 0.02 cm/s over the ocean.  Assuming a destruction

rate of ozone by tropical vegetation that may vary from 0.06 cm/s to

3.0 cm/s, it is estimated that global sinks for ozone vary from 5.4 to
        29            -1                    9
8.6 x 10   molecules s    (or 1.3 to 2.1 x 10  tons of ozone per year).

Because of the land-sea distributions of the northern and southern

hemisphere, the southern hemisphere is estimated to account for 1.5 to
        29            -1
3.1 x 10   molecules s  .  The ozone density is taken to vary from
             3
35 to 55 |o,g/m , depending on latitude.
                                  36

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(2)  Evaluation of Oxidant Results at CAMP sites in the United States
     (Altshuller. 1975)

     Oxidant measurements available between 1964 and 1973 at six CAMP

sites  (Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and

Washington, D.C.) were evaluated.  Elevated oxidant concentrations

were characterized by season, hour of the day, Sundays compared to

weekdays, sampling site, and long-term trend.  With the exception of

Chicago, downward oxidant trends are reported at all CAMP sites.  These

and other studies indicate that proportional declines in suburban

locations have not been achieved.  It is concluded that effects of

downwind urban transport cannot be isolated from the growth of suburban

cities.  The paper points to the significance of urban plumes that

extend 50 to 100 miles downwind, constantly intermixing with natural

emissions as well as with other urban plumes.  If long-range transport

is indeed important, regional scale strategies will be required.  It

has been generally observed at CAMP sites that a general downwind shift

in HC/NOX ratios is occurring.  This could also explain the greater

linear decrease in oxidants,  compared with the nonmethane hydrocarbons.
                                 37

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(3)  Mesoscale Flows and Ozone Levels in a Rural California
     Coastal Valley (Baboolal. 1975)

     The mesoscale flow over a rural California coastal valley is

characterized using year-long data collected by a network of field sites

made up of surface winds, acoustic radar, sigma meter, and temperature

soundings.  With the additional support of the historical meteorological

data the air pollution is defined.  The presence of well-developed

drainage flows with noticeable turbulence appears on the acoustic radar

record; this is supported by the sigma meter turbulence measurements.

Three times daily, temperature profiles, taken at increasingly greater

distances from the Pacific Coast, were used to characterize the

inversion climatology of the marine layer.  Simultaneous ozone soundings

reveal unusually high levels aloft, suggesting the rural valley itself
to be the unlikely source.  This suggestion is supported by the results

of a limited modeling effort.
                                  38

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 (4)  Three-Dimensional Pollutant Gradient Study—1972-1973 Program
      (Blumenthal et al.. 1974)
     Two years of data on the 3-D distribution and transport of
aerosols and gaseous pollutants in the South Coast  (Los Angeles),
San Joaquin Valley, and San Francisco Bay air basins were obtained
and analyzed.  Two hundred forty sampling flights on 59 different
days were made by two aircraft in conjunction with ground-level sampling.
Extensive meteorological data were obtained along with the scattering
coefficient, condensation nuclei, 0~, NO , CO, turbulence, temperature,
                                   •J    X.
and humidity data obtained by the aircraft.
     The data present a detailed picture of the mixing layer structure
and ventilation processes in the Los Angeles Basin and point out the
modifications to the normal mixing and ventilation processes that lead
to episode conditions.  The air pollution problem in Los Angeles and
other air basins is shown to be a regional problem exemplified by the
accumulation of pollutants in a stagnant air mass and subsequent
transport to downwind areas.  Various statistical and other analyses
were performed on the data,  which demonstrated the changes in the aerosol
and gaseous pollutants as they aged and indicated certain factors
contributing to aerosol formation and growth.
     Other special studies were performed, which documented  in some
detail the structure of a few point source plumes and demonstrated
the possible buoyant effect of roadways.  A 24-hour sampling program
in the eastern Los Angeles Basin documented the overnight stability
of ozone at high concentrations in aged polluted air.
                                39

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(5)  Some Large-Scale Features of the Vertical Distribution of
     Atmospheric Ozone Associated with the Thermal Structure
     of the Atmosphere  (Breiland. 1968)

     Ten-case running means of the vertical distributions of hydro-

static stability and of the vertical fractional gradient of the partial

pressure of ozone computed from ozone and temperature soundings
arranged according to tropopause height are presented for four stations
located in different latitudes.  It is shown that the characteristic
large-scale features of the vertical distributions of the vertical
ozone gradient correspond closely to similar characteristic large-

scale features of the thermal structure of the atmosphere depicted by

the vertical distributions of the hydrostatic stability.  The layer
structure of the ozone gradient and of the hydrostatic stability both

show characteristic features that vary significantly with latitude and

with the height of the tropopause.
                                 40

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 (6)  The Dependence of Ambient Ozone on Solar Radiation, Wind
     Temperature, and Mixing Heigh  (Bruntz et al..  1974)

     Based on physical theory and "weathervane plots" of data  collected

 from New York metropolitan area, the authors conclude that 0.,  concentra-

 tions are statistically related to wind speed, solar radiations, and air

 temperature.  They obtain the following equation using statistical  curve-

 fitting methods, and claim a correlation coefficient of 0.84 between the

 observations and the predicted values:

 Ot = 3.29 (±0.70) +0.21  (±0.04)  log   S - 0.61  (±0.11) log    V
     + 2.65  (±0.36) Iog1() T

where

                 [03(PPb) +5]
      S = solar radiation  (Langleys)

      V = wind speed  (mi hr  )

      T = air temperature  (deg F)
                                 41

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(7)  The Transport of Photochemical Air Pollution From the
     Camden-Philadelphia Urban Complex (Cleveland and Kleiner. 1975)

     This paper reports the results of an analysis of ground-level

hourly chemiluminescent ozone measurements obtained from 1 May 1973

to 30 September 1973 and from 1 May 1974 to 13 September 1974 from

four stations surrounding the Fhiladelphia-Camden urban complex.

With the aid of a graphical-statistical technique, it is shown that at

each of four sites in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, ranging from 27 km

to 49 km away from the center of the Camden-Philadelphia urban area,

ozone concentrations are higher when the air is flowing from the urban

area to the site.  It is judged by the authors that this accounts for

some of the ozone previously observed in the nonindustrial, low-traffic-

density area of Ancora, New Jersey, where concentrations of primary

pollutants are low, but where ozone daily maxima frequently exceed the

federal standard.  It is thus concluded that photochemical air pollution

in this area is a regional rather than a local phenomenon, and ozone

resulting from emissions from the urban area is widespread  and not

confined to the urban area itself.
                                  42

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(8)  The Analysis of Ground-Level Ozone Data from New Jersey, New York.
     Connecticut, and Massachusetts:  Data Quality Assessment and
     Temporal and Geographical Properties (Cleveland et al., 1975)

     Hourly ground-level ozone measurements from 41 sites in eastern

New York, northern New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts from

1 May 1974 to 30 September 1974 were analyzed.  Various techniques for

assessing data quality and uniform calibrations show the data to be of

high reliability for yielding information on the ozone problem in the

region.  Nighttime concentrations, relative to those during the day, are

highest in Massachusetts; more specifically, the ratio of the upper

quartile of hourly average ozone concentrations at 1500 hours EST to

the upper quartile at 0100 hours EST decreases with increasing distance

from New York City, which is in the center of the tri-state urban

complex (northern New Jersey, southwestern Connecticut and New York

City).  The site distributions of daily maximum concentrations are high-

est in the Stamford-Greenwich region of Connecticut and next highest in

a region to the east and northeast of Stamford-Greenwich.  The lowest

0,, concentrations were found in Boston, Waltham, Springfield, Newark

and Elizabeth; however, all five stations were located next to automobile

emission sources and the NO emissions could account for the low oxidant

levels measured at these poorly located sites.
                                  43

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(9)  Long-Range Transport of Photochemical Ozone in Northwestern
     Europe (Cox et al., 1975)

     Measurements of the concentrations of ozone and trichlorofluoromethane

in the atmosphere were obtained in 1973 at three locations in the

southern British Isles.  The U.S. Air Quality Standard for photochemical

oxidants was exceeded on a number of days at all three sampling sites,

including one situated in southern Ireland.  The authors conclude that

in suitable meteorological conditions, measurable amounts of photochemical

pollution of anthropogenic origin are transported over distances up to at
least 1,000 km in northwestern Europe, and that occasionally continental

emissions provide a major contribution to photochemical pollution in the

United Kingdom.  During such periods photochemical pollution is essentially
a regional rather than a local problem, with uniformly elevated concentra-

tions of photochemical ozone being observed simultaneously over different

parts of the United Kingdom.  It follows that, should controls on the

emission of the pollutant precursors  (hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides)

be considered necessary to reduce future levels of photochemical oxidants

in the United Kingdom, then such controls are unlikely to be effective in

the absence of similar controls elsewhere in Europe.
                                  44

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 (10)   Vertical Distribution of Photochemical Smog in Los Angeles
       Basin  (Edinger. 1973)

       Aircraft soundings of oxidant concentration and temperature in

the vertical  section from the Santa Monica coastline inland to the

 San Bernardino  area were analyzed.   In addition  to  the  polluted  layer

confined beneath the temperature inversion, laminae of pollution were

detected within the inversion layer with concentrations of oxidant as

high as those observed in the ground-based smog layer.  It is hypoth-

esized that the upper layers of pollution are formed when a portion of

the smog moving up the heated mountain slopes that bound the basin on

the north moves out horizontally from the slopes at elevations between

the top and bottom of the inversion.


 (11)   Penetration and Duration of Oxidant Air Pollution in the
       South  Coast Air Basin of California  (Edinger et al., 1972)

       On June 18, 19, and 20, 1970, two aircraft, a rawinsonde, two

pibal stations, and four ground stations provided simultaneous samples

of total oxidant, temperature, and winds up to 8000 ft in an area extend-

ing from Santa Monica, Calif., east to Redlands and north across the

San Bernardino Mountains.  It was shown that photochemical oxidant

formed in the marine layer is vented up the slopes and over the crest

of the San Bernardino Mountains during the day.  Layers of high oxidant
concentrations were detected above the inversion base, suggesting that

some pollution is vented up the slopes and subsequently advected back
to the south.  The diurnal changes in the temperature inversion also
contribute to the high concentration found above the inversion base.

These processes result in multi-layers of pollution.  The study suggests

that oxidant air pollution is transported up to 80 mi to forested

mountains, where severe damage to conifer species has been documented.
                                  45

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(12)     Control of Photochemical Oxidants—Technical Basis and Implications
         of Recent Findings (EPA. 1975)
         To insure the technical accuracy of the oxidant control strategy
and to refine that strategy where necessary, EPA has conducted a continuing
program of research studies and data analysis.  New findings based on
laboratory and field studies accomplished over the last several years
generally support the control measures currently being taken and further
indicate that additional measures may be necessary to meet the oxidant
standard nationwide.  These recent studies have documented frequent
violations of the oxidant standard in both urban and rural areas although,
in some urban areas, both the maximum concentrations of oxidants and the
frequency of violations have decreased over the past several years.  At
rural locations, the number of violations of the standard and the maximum
concentrations are sometimes as high and even higher than in nearby urban
areas.  It is thus apparent that oxidants are a rural as well as an urban
problem.
         The recent studies show that:  (1) man-made emissions are the
predominant source of high levels of oxidants, even in remote rural areas;
(2) the contribution of natural sources of oxidants is usually not more
than 0.05 ppm, compared with the oxidant standard of 0.08 ppm; and (3)
transport of oxidants and their precursor compounds has been demonstrated
to about 50 miles downwind of urban areas and it is likely that transport
over longer distances occurs.  It also has been shown that the highest
oxidant concentrations in the Midwest in both rural and urban areas occur
during periods of stagnant conditions associated with high pressure
weather systems.
         In both urban areas and in many nonurban areas, there appear to
be sufficient emissions of man-made precursors to account for the high
oxidant levels observed.  While transport of oxidants and their precursors
may occur, most urban areas probably are responsible for their own
                                   46

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oxidant problem.  The high oxidant levels in nonurban areas appear to be
the result of both locally produced precursors and precursors transported
from urban and other nonurban sources.  As a result, control strategies
for nonurban areas will need to be directed at measures which reduce

emissions from both nonurban sources as well as urban sources and which
meet the specific needs of each of these areas.

     The following implications of the new findings are suggested:

         •  Because of the high precursor emission densities and the
            large numbers of people exposed to oxidants, continued
            emphasis on intensive control measures within cities will
            be necessary to meet the oxidant standard in major urban
            areas.
         •  It may be necessary to extend some measures under present
            state implementation plans to include nonurban areas
            as well as cities.
         •  Although mobile source controls (including transportation
            control plans) will continue to be a major part of the
            oxidant control program, there is a need for more stringent
            control of precursor emissions from stationary sources.
         •  Both under conditions of transport and under persistence
            of stagnant air masses there can be sufficient time for
            less reactive hydrocarbons to contribute to oxidant
            formation.  This indicates the importance of controlling
            all organic compounds that can form oxidants.

         •  Nitrogen oxides emissions may be transported into rural
            areas and contribute to oxidant formation by reaction
            with locally emitted organic compounds.  It may eventually
            become necessary to consider control of nitrogen oxides,
            coordinated with the control of hydrocarbons,  as a part
            of the oxidant control strategy.
         •  Oxidant concentrations that can be attributed to natural
            sources are usually less than 0.55 parts per million
            compared with the oxidant standard of 0.08 parts per
            million.  Because of emissions from natural sources, more
            stringent reductions of man-made emissions may be necessary
            in some areas.
                                    47

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(13)   A Theoretical Investigation of Tropospheric Ozone and Stratospherlc-
       Tropospheric Exchange Processess (Fabian. 1973)
       Based on the global distribution of various surface types the mean
tropospheric residence time of ozone is estimated as a function of
latitude.  Due to the land-sea distribution t varies from 50 days in the
northern hemisphere to 190 days in the southern hemisphere.  For the
stratospheric-tropospheric exchange a sinusoidal variation with season
is assumed.  The annual variation of tropospheric ozone thus gets a
sine function from mean, amplitude* and phase from which the injection
function for the particular latitude can be determined.  Ozone and strontium-
90 fallout data show similar behavior between 25° south and 65° north
latitudes.
(14)   Qzone.spn.de Observations over North America, Vols. 1-4  (Hering and
       Borden. 1964a. 1964b. 1965b. 1967)
       An experimental program for the measurement of the vertical ozone
distribution was established by the Air Force Cambridge Research Labora-
tories (AFCRL) in Janyary 1963.  Observations from eleven network stations
spread throughout North America have been published in this series of four
reports.  Ozonagrams for individual ozonesonde ascents made during the
period January 1963 to January 1966 are included.
       The fourth volume also presents a statistical summary  of the ozone-
sonde data for the three-year period ending December 1965.  Seasonal mean
ozone profiles and the standard deviations from the average distributions
are given for each station.  Correlations of the ozone concentration at
specific levels with temperatrue, pressure, and total ozone are also
summarized.
                                   48

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(15)   Mean Distribution of Ozone Density over North America, 1963-1964
       (Bering and Borden. 1965)

       An interim summary of the ozone climate over North America was pre-
pared from AFCRL ozonesonde network observations made during 1963 and

1964.  Mean bimonthly distributions of ozone density computed for individual

network stations depict the average ozone structure as a function of

altitude and season for the first two years of network operation.  Data

are also presented on the standard deviation of ozone density and the

mean seasonal distributions along a meridional cross section extending

from the Canal Zone to Greenland.  A brief statistical analysis indicates

that approximately 35 to 50 percent of the variance in the total ozone

amount at middle and high latitudes is given by the fluctuations in ozone

density in the 11- to 13-km or 13- to 15-km layers.
                                   49

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(16)    Photochemical Oxldants in the New York-New Jersey Metropolitan
        Area (Jacobson and Salottola. 1975)

        Atmospheric oxidant concentrations measured at seven locations

during the years 1970-1972 were compared to explore the nature of the

photochemical oxidant problem in the New York-New Jersey metropolitan

area.  The results indicate that oxidants occurred in highest concentrations

during the months of May-September; a diurnal pattern existed during the

spring and summer seasons with concentrations usually rising to a maximum

between 12:00 and 17:00h Eastern Standard Time; the federal ambient air

quality standard of 0.08 ppm was exceeded each year with a frequency

varying with location; maximum hourly average concentrations for the region

were in the range of 0.2-0.3 ppm; sites located in heavily trafficked

areas generally reported lower oxidant concentrations than sites in sub-

urban areas.

        Comparisons between oxidants at Yonkers, a suburban location north

of the metropolitan area, and meteorological measurements indicated that

elevated concentrations occurred more frequently with wind directions

from the southeast through southwest sectors, wind speeds between 6 and

11 miles h  , solar radiation intensities above 400 Langleys, temperatures

greater than 75°F, and with early morning mixing depths less than 1000 m.

Concentrations of oxidants in Yonkers rarely exceeded 0.05 ppm during the

winter or on days with low solar radiation.

        It is concluded that during the spring and summer in the metropolitan
area oxidant concentrations exceed  federal standards more frequently than

any other pollutant,  that oxidants are formed largely by photochemical

reactions as polluted air is transported from urban to suburban areas,

that elevated oxidant concentrations occur more frequently at less urbanized

locations downwind of major sources of emissions, and that concentrations

which reach or exceed the ambient air quality standard arise mainly from
                                    50

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pollutant emissions occurring in the heavily urbanized portion of the
metropolitan area while natural sources of oxidants and their precursors
make less significant contributions to the photochemical oxidant problem
in this region.
        The oxidant measurement methods employed either colorometric
(Beckman or Technicon) or coulometric (Mast) analyzers.  The standard
calibration method (neutral buffered KI) was used throughout.  At the
Yonkers station during the summer of 1973, chemiluminescent measurements
of ozone and coulometric oxidant measurements gave comparable results.
                                   51

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(17)   Surface Ozone in the Arctic Atmosphere  (Kelly. 1973)

       Near-surface atmospheric ozone measurements were carried out at
Barrow, Alaska  (71°  19'N,  156°W),  from  January 1965  to  September  1967.

Ozone was continuously monitored by microcoulombmetric analysis at a

level 2 m above the ground.  Daily ozone concentrations near the  ground

varied from 7 to less than 1 pphm by volume.   Highest concentrations

occurred in the spring and showed sharp increases lasting from several

hours to a few days.  These sudden rises in ozone concentration correlated

with storm front passages.  The concentration  of surface ozone from late

spring through the summer and fall showed less variability from day to day

than in the spring.  The lowest ozone concentrations occurred from late

May to early June.
(18)   The Vertical Distribution of Ozone Over the San Francisco
       Bay Area (Lovill and Miller. 1968)

       Observations of the vertical distribution of ozone were made during

February 1967 in the San Francisco Bay Area with the carbon-iodine (Komhyr)

ozonesonde.  Horizontal and vertical velocity components were obtained by

simultaneous tracking with an M33 radar.  In the lower troposphere, two
peaks of ozone were found near 1 and 1.5 km within the west coast sub-

sidence inversion; the lower maximum coincides in position with a wind

jet.  In the middle and upper troposphere there are significant time
variations of ozone, believed to be caused by intrusions of stratospheric

air.  Undulations in the ozone, temperature, and wind profiles in the

stratosphere suggest laminas of air masses.  The mean profile of ozone

suggests that there are several distinct zones that are related to ozone

production and vertical mixing.
                                   52

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 (19)    The  Use  of  Monitoring Network and  ERTS-1  Data to  Study Interregional
        Pollution Transport  of Ozone  in the  Gary-Chicago-Milwaukee  Corridor
        (Lyons and  Cole,  1974)

        Limited  ozone  monitoring conducted by EPA in Milwaukee during the
 summer  of 1971  revealed  surprisingly high values (5 episode  alert  levels

 in  99 days).  In the  summer of 1973,  the  Wisconsin Department of Natural

 Resources began installation of nine air  quality monitoring  stations in

 southeast Wisconsin,  and one in rural Poynette  (32 km north  of Madison).
 The southeastern sites again revealed high  values,  two or  more sites

 exceeding 8 pphm on 27 days  over a 47-day period,  with alert  levels  (40  pphm)
 being reached 9  times.   Peak values  between 20-30 pphm were recorded several
 times,  especially  at  Racine,  Wisconsin.   Poynette also frequently
 exceeded 8  pphm.
        An analysis of the data revealed several  interesting  facts.   The

 winds were  from the southwest  through east-southeast fully 92 percent

 of  the  days during which the primary  oxidant  standard was  exceeded.   The

 data show that  0«  levels  are  comparatively  low within 1 km of the  shore-

 line and reach  their  highest values  1-4 km  inland.   This is confirmed by

 extensive bioindicator monitoring conducted  in Milwaukee in 1972.  A

 mechanism is proposed that  illustrates how  the complex wind and thermal
 structures  in lake breezes  could lead to  continuous  fumigation of  stored
 oxidants to the  surface  in a narrow band  parallel  to  the shore.  Simply
 stated, oxidants are  conserved over the lake area  (in the  absence of  NO
 fluxes) and returned  to the shore during  the lake-breeze cycle in the
morning.
        In addition, the  unexpectedly  high values  found both along  the

 shoreline and at rural Poynette  suggest that oxidants can  be  subjected

 to  significant mesoscale  and even synoptic  scale  transport.   An ERTS

 image of the Lake Michigan  area  strongly  supports  a  theory that much  of

 the oxidants and/or its  predecessor HC and NO  originates  in  the Chicago-
                                             X
 Gary area and is funneled northwards  in the lake-breeze convergence  zone.

                                  53

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It even seems conceivable that the high Poynette readings are the result



of transport from such areas as St. Louis, Kansas City, Dallas, etc.



The low level nocturnal jet stream of the Great Plains is suggested as a



plausible mechanism.
                                   54

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 (20)   Temporal-Spatial Variations of Nonurban Ozone Concentrations and

       Related Meteorological Factors (Martinez, 1975)


       This paper provides a history of the nonurban ozone problem and

 summarizes the results of various studies that have been conducted since

 1970.  The primary information  for the paper came from EPA-sponsored

 studies the eastern U.S. in 1972-1973 (Figure 6) and the summer of 1974

 (Figure 7).  These studies have revealed considerable temporal and spatial

 variations in ozone concentrations, with levels sometimes exceeding the
                                                      3
 national one-hour average ambient standard of 160 M-g/m  (0.08 ppm).


       Both local and synoptic  scale meteorological factors, including

 the role of transport from urban areas, have been examined and apparent

 relationships with ozone concentrations are described.  A consistent

 statistical correlation was found between air temperatures in excess of

 60°F and ozone concentrations in excess of the NAAQS.  Trajectory analyses

were inconclusive and showed no direct urban/nonurban pathway pattern.

However, high 0  values were associated with slower air movement.

Further, synoptic weather features were found to correlate with ozone

variations.   Some high-pressure cells have maximum ozone concentrations

at the center of the high.   A slow-moving high pressure system is expected

to be particularly conducive to high ozone values.
                                  55

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                                   SCALE
                                                           7      •
                                                          (km X 100)
                      No.
                                   Town
                                 Me Henry
                                 Kane
                                 Coshocton
                                 Lmlsburg
  County
Gorrftt
McKean
Coshocton
                                                                          SA-4432-8
FIGURE 6   NONURBAN OZONE GROUND SAMPLING STATIONS. 1972-73 ERA-SPONSORED
           STUDIES (McHENRY ONLY 1972 SITE)
                                     56

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   0
 Indianapolis
                                Cleveland



                            (Wooster)
                      I
(DuBois)
                Dayton
            Cincinnati
            —'     .
       BSI     Canton  {'

                     I    -

Columbus            /  Pittsburgh




        (McConnelsville)	j	

                  s           I

(Wilmington)   <~ ^        (McHenry)

             t                      /
                                   x
          /
                                                 rJ
      Louisville
      \   Charleston
                                                 City  Stations

                                                      (6)

                                                 Rural Sites

                                                      (5)
                                                           SA-4432-9
FIGURE 7   OZONE GROUND SAMPLING STATIONS, 1974 EPA-SPONSORED STUDY
                                57

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(21)   Ozone Within and Below the West Coast Temperature Inversion
       (Miller and Ahrens. 1970)

       The oxidant concentration in the air over the San Francisco Bay

Area and the Pacific Ocean was measured up to an altitude of 2500 m and

the observed distribution in the vertical and horizontal has been related

to the characteristics and behavior of the west coast temperature inversion.

Vertical time sections at fixed points and vertical cross sections were
constructed of oxidant concentration, temperature, humidity, and winds

measured from aircraft and radar.

       The oxidant concentration in polluted air is strongly dependent

on the destruction rate.  The mean destruction rate within the surface

layer depends directly on the intensity of eddy mixing and inversely on

the square of the depth of the vertical mixing.  Thus, the existence of

a temperature inversion does not necessarily lead to a high concentration

of oxidants, since the destruction rate may be high in a shallow mixing

layer.  The highest oxidant concentration was observed almost invariably

at the edges of the west coast marine inversion, where pollutants are

available for ozone production and the mixing layer is deep.  Explanations

are offered for the maxima of ozone that often occur above the inversion
base.  Distribution patterns of oxidants clearly depict the waving of

the inversion layer.
                                   58

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(22)   Oxidant Air Pollution in the Central Valley, Sierra Nevada Foothills,
       and Mineral King Valley of California (Miller et al.. 1972)

       Total oxidant air pollution, temperature, and winds were measured

in the Central Valley, the Sierra Nevada foothills, and Mineral King

Valley from 17-28 August 1970.  Vertical profiles of total oxidant and

temperature were determined by aircraft (at Fresno, Visalia, Three Rivers

and Mineral King) several times daily during a 2-day period.  Evidence

was recorded of the transport of photochemical smog from the Central

Valley to Mineral King.  In situ formation of oxidant and diurnal changes

in the temperature profile in Mineral King Valley were observed.
                                   59

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(23)   The Average Tropospheric Ozone Content and Its Variation with
       Season and Latitude as a Result of the Global Ozone Circulation
       (Pruchniewicz. 1973)

       Evaluations of radiosonde soundings over North America and Europe,

measurements aboard commercial airlines, and permanent ozone registrations

at nineteen ground-based stations between Tromso, Norway, and Hermanus,

South Africa, yield three belts of higher ozone intrusion from the strato-

sphere and maximum values of the annual means at about 30 N, and between

40°-45°N and at about 60°N.  A marked decrease of the annual mean values

of the tropospheric ozone is detected towards the equator and the pole,

respectively.

       In the northern hemisphere the maximum of the annual cycle of the

tropospheric ozone concentration occurs in spring at high latitudes and

in summer at mid-latitudes.

       For the tropical region from 30 S to 30 N a strong asymmetry of

the northern and southern hemisphere occurs.  This fact  is discussed in

detail.  The higher troposphere of the tropics seems to  be a well-mixed

reservoir and mainly supplied with ozone from the tropopause gap region

in the northern hemisphere.  The ozone distribution in the lower tropo-

sphere of the whole tropics seems to be controlled by the up and down move-
ments of the Hadley cell.  The features of large-scale and seasonal
variation of tropospheric ozone are discussed in connection with the

ozone circulation in the stratosphere, the dynamic processes near the

tropopause and the destruction rate at the earth's surface.
                                   60

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 (24)   The Role of Trace Atmospheric Constituents in a Surface Ozone Model
       (Rasmussen and Robinson, 1975)

       The authors present a description of a qualitative model of ground
 level ozone concentrations obtained by the chemiluminescent methods during

 several field studies conducted during 1973 and 1974.  The model considers
 a typical rural site upwind and downwind of an urban site.  The following
 features characterize model:

       •  Stratospheric ozone transport contributes about 30 to 50 ppb to
          the ozone concentration at ground level.

       •  Natural photochemical reactions  (between terpenes and biogenic
          NO) contribute about 20 ppb to the natural background.

       •  Out of this total of 50 to 70 ppb of natural ozone, at least
          10 ppb is lost due to reactions involving surface 0  background
          level is about 40 to 60 ppb.

       •  As this air enters an urban location, the 0  value quickly
          approaches zero because of reactions with urban NO and aerosols.
          The urban precursors (HC and NOX) can photolyze to produce as
          much as 50 ppb  of photochemical ozone.

       •  Urban ozone is then advected to downwind rural sites, while
          slow dispersive and destructive processes reduce this ozone
          level to near background concentrations.

 The authors believe that the high rural ozone levels are primarily due to

 the transport of pollutants from a number of closely located urban sources,

which cannot always be clearly identified.
                                   61

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(25)   Stratospheric-Tropospheric Exchange Processes (Reiter. 1975a)





       Qualitative descriptions and quantitative estimates are presented



of various transport processes between stratosphere and troposphere.  The



seasonal changes of tropopause heights account for a flux of about 10



percent of the mass of the stratosphere in one hemisphere during the



course of 1 year.  This flux is balanced approximately by the seasonal



shift of stratospheric air masses between the northern and southern



hemispheres.  Vertical transport through the Hadley cell transfers



approximately 38 percent of the mass equivalent to one hemispheric



stratosphere through the tropopause per year.  This appears to be the



most effective of all transport mechanisms.  Large-scale eddies of the



scale of cyclones and anticyclones transfer about 20 percent of strato-



spheric air through the tropopause per year.  Small-scale and mesoscale



diffusion processes at tropopause level probably account for the transfer



of only 1 percent of stratospheric air.  These mass flux estimates are in



reasonable agreement with observed residence times of stratospheric



pollutants.
                                   62

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 (26)   High Ozone Concentrations  in Nonurban Atmospheres  (Ripperton  et  al..
       1974)
        In  the  summer of  1973, ozone concentrations were measured  at  several
rural locations in West  Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.  Chemiluminescent
techniques were used and calibrations were performed using  the  standard
method  (neutral buffered KI) .  A C-45 aircraft was used to  make 0., measure-
ments aloft, between and over the fixed  field stations.  Mean wind data

at 900 mb  from NOAA were used for trajectory analysis.  Some of the
results  from the  field program are as follows (see Figure 6 for station

locations):

Station        No. of Hours       Percentage of Hours       Highest  One-Hour
Location          of Data        Exceeding 0  Standard      0   Concentration  (ppm;

McHenry, Md.       1652                   37                      0.16

Kane, Pa.          2131                   30                      0.14
Coshocton, Ohio    1785                   20                      0.17

Lewisburgh, W.V.   1663                   15                      0.13

       The aircraft data, some of which  show lower concentrations aloft
than at ground level, are used to exclude the possibility of significant

stratospheric  air intrusions.  Collection of air samples in outdoor  smog

chambers indicates that  local air is sufficiently contaminated to permit

significant local ozone  synthesis.  It is contended that ozone in nonurban
areas is not due  to any  given urban source but is a result of area-wide
mixing.  The interdispersed urban sources add to an air mix that  already
has natural as well as anthropogenic precursors, thereby making it

impossible to  identify precursor sources by trajectory analysis.  The
authors agree with the now well-accepted notion that ozone can be generated

in a "spent photochemical system."  They conclude that rural ozone is of

surface origin.
                                   63

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(27)   Investigation of Rural Oxidant Levels as Related to Urban Hydrocarbon
       Control Strategies (RTI, 1975)

       A network of ground stations was established to document the occur-

rence of high ozone values in the rural areas of the eastern United States

and their interrelationships with urban contaminants.  A total of 11

stations (6 urban and 5 rural) were operational during the study period

of 14 June to 31 August, 1974.  Aircraft measurements were taken to obtain

vertical ozone profiles and to determine the extent of urban plumes.  In

addition to meteorological parameters, THC, CHi , 0,, N02, and selected

hydrocarbons were measured.

       It was found that the NAAQS for photochemical oxidants was exceeded

twice as frequently at rural as at urban stations.  Area-wide contamination

of air masses was observed.  It was not possible to track an urban plume

for more than 30-50 miles downwind of Columbus, Ohio.  High ozone concen-

trations were observed when a synoptic high pressure system moved over a

given station, and high ozone levels persisted as long as the high pressure

system remained in the vicinity.

       Although no specific air trajectory terminating at the nonurban

stations could be consistently associated with either high or low ozone

concentrations, the results of the field measurement program still provide
support for transport of ozone precursors from urban areas to rural stations
under appropriate meteorological conditions.  These results also imply
that the control of hydrocarbon in any individual city will not necessarily

prevent the occurrence of high rural ozone concentrations in excess of the

NAAQS at any given nonurban site.  The implication is that the release

of hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen from anthropogenic or biogenic

sources, located in either an urbanor rural area, all combine to generate

appreciable quantities of ozone over wide areas.
                                    64

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 (28)   Rural and Urban Ozone Relationships in New York State  (Stasiuk
       and Coffey. 1974)

       Ozone data from a number of air monitoring stations in New York
 State were analyzed.  The  rural monitoring  stations were set  up in  Delaware

 (Mt. Utsayantha--elevation 3200 ft) and in the Northern Adirondacks

 (White Face Mountain--elevation 4980 ft).  The urban sites were at Welfare
 Island (New York City); Kingston, Renesslaer> and Glen Falls  in the

Hudson River Valley; Syracuse in mid-state; and Buffalo in western New York.

All 0, data were measured using gas phase chemiluminescent analyzers and

the federal calibration method.

       High 03 concentrations, often in excess of the NAAQS, were measured

both at urban and nonurban locations.  Average daily 0- concentrations in

rural areas--typically 30 to 100 ppb--were found to correlate well with

the daily maximum ozone concentrations in the urban locations.  The authors

state that because of the high correlation between 0^ levels at widely

separated urban and rural sites a common source for 0  is suggested.

Additionally, rough calculations of atmospheric 0- overburden within the

mixing layer show that the flux of 0^ into New York state can be an

order of magnitude greater than that which might be generated by complete

photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons emissions from New York state.
On the basis of these rough estimates the authors question the likely

effectiveness of oxidant abatement strategies.
                                    65

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        IV  SUMMARY OF AVAILABLE SOURCES OF OXIDANT/OZONE DATA

     In this section descriptions are presented of sources of oxidant
(or ozone) data believed to be suitable for studying the relation of
oxidant levels to meteorological features.  In searching for these data,
we have carefully surveyed the EPA National Aerometric Data Bank (NADB),
and have obtained information and data from various EPA central and
regional offices, various state agencies, and a number of private organi-
zations who have conducted or sponsored routine oxidant monitoring or
special research studies.
     Since the nonurban oxidant problem and its relation to meteorological
processes is currently of considerable interest,  we have excluded all
urban and near-urban data.  Hence this listing includes only those data
that are believed to be relatively free from short-range urban contam-
ination.
     Particular efforts have been made to identify and include here
sources of nonurban data in the eastern United States  since this is a
geographical region of much interest at the present time.  Accordingly,
data from the  far western states have not been included in this compila-
tion.
     The two-year period 1973-1974 has been selected as optimum for the
purposes of our  later data analysis, and thus our review of the data has
been restricted  to this period.  Any stations reporting less than 300
hours of data  during this period have been excluded from this compilation.
     The locations of the selected stations are shown  in Figure 8.
Following this,  the data source descriptions are presented in alpha-
betical order  by station name.
                                   67

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                     68

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:   Ancora	(SAROAD Code 310740Q01F01)	


Location:        Camden County,  New Jersey (39   41'  N.  74° 51'  45" W)


Responsible Organization:   New Jersey Bureau of Air  Pollution Control


Cognizant Individual/Organization:   EPA Region  II	
Telephone:   212-264-2525	


Type of Site:   Rural-Agricultural
                              0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	£
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:     1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Cards, tape, or printout
Remarks:    3,368 observations reported during 1973-1974
                                       69

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:   Badger   (SAROAD Code 513160999F05)
Location:          Sauk County, Wisconsin
Responsible Organization: Wis. Dept. of Nat. Resources, Air Pollution Control Section


Cognizant Individual/Organization:    EPA Region V	
Telephone:   302-353-5250	


Type of Site:      Rural - Agricultural
                              0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:    1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Cards, tape, or printout



Remarks:    827 observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                       70

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Data  Source Number:
 Station  Name:     Berlin  (SAROAD Code 300040007FQ1)
 Location:         Coos County, New Hampshire  (44  27'  N. 71° 11'  05" W)	




 Responsible  Organization:    New Hampshire Air Poll.  Control Agency	




 Cognizant  Individual/Organization:     New Hampshire  Air Poll.  Control Agency
Telephone:
Type of  Site:     Suburban - industrial
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:          Chemiluminsescence
Period of Record Examined:      1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:      Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Cards,  tape,  or printout
Remarks:     4,547 observations reported during this  period.
                                      71

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:    Beulah
Location:        7 miles north of Beulah. North Dakota (47° 22'  N, 101° 49'  W)

Responsible Organization:   American Natural Gas Service Company,  Detroit, Michigan

Cognizant Individual/Organization:  Albert Browning	
Telephone:   313-965-1616

Type of Site:  Rural-nonurban
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:       Chemiluminescence (Bendix 8002)
                             (Bendix Model 8002 Ozone Monitor)
Period of Record Examined:   15 June - 31 July 1974	
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Printout
Remarks:   Approximately 237, of all 1-hour average concentrations  exceeded 0.08 ppm.

 Values  as high as 0.12 ppm were measured.  The ozone  values  could not be  attributed

 to transport from urban sources.   Lack of foliage, which would  otherwise  destroy

 0 ,  was postulated as one reason for the high 0^  values.
                                       72

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:     Bondurant   (SAROAD Code 163120024G02)	


Location:         Polk County, Iowa   (41° 41' 59" N, 93° 28' 00" W)


Responsible Organization:      Des Moines-Polk Co. Health Dept.


Cognizant Individual/Organization;     EPA Region VII	
Telephone:   816-374-5493	


Type of Site:     Rural - Agricultural
                               0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:         Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:     1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:     Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Cards,  tape,  or  printout



Remarks:    2,324 observations  reported  during 1973-1974.
                                       73

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Data Source Number:  	6
Station Name:      Colstrip
Location:       Rosebud County, Montana    (45  55'N. 106° 38' W)	

Responsible Organization:     Department of Natural Resources & Conservations,
                              Helena, Montana
Cognizant Individual/Organization: 	James Gelhaus	
Telephone:   406-449-3454

Type of Site:   Remote
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:    December  1973  - May  1975
Frequency  of Observations:   Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Printout
Remarks:   Data  are missing  for August and  September 1974.  Excellent remote  location

   with very  low  ^3 values  (< 0.06  ppm) and a virtual absence of diurnal variations.

   At no  time did the ^3  level exceed 0.08 ppm, although a number of observations

   were above 0.06 ppm.
                                       74

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:    Coschocton
Location:        Coschocton, Ohio (40° 15'  N, 81° 54'  W)	


Responsible Organization:   Research Triangle Institute	


Cognizant Individual/Organization:   J.J. Bufalini (EPA/ESRL)
Telephone:   919-549-8411


Type of Site:  Rural	
                              0,
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	£_
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence (Bendix #8002)



Period of Record Examined:    26 June - 30 September 1973



Frequency of Observations:    Hourly	
Physical Form of Data Record:  Printout
Remarks:   High 0  concentrations were recorded.   Limited 0  data aloft were


 also obtained.
                                      75

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:   Darien  (SARQAD Code 513680099F05)
Location:       Walworth County, Wisconsin (42° 38'  N,  88° 40'  W)
Responsible Organization:  Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources





Cognizant Individual/Organization:   Ronald W.  Becker	
Telephone:   608-266-7588	




Type of Site:   Rural - Agricultural
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence (REM)   and/or ultraviolet






Period of Record Examined:    June-September 1974	
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Cards,  tape,  or printout	






Remarks:     1,545 observations  reported  during this  period.  Monitoring  in this




area  is  continuing in 1975.	 	  	 	     	     	
                                       76

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:   Douglas
Loc at ion:       Converse County, near Douglas. Wyoming (42° 55* N, 105  18* W)


Responsible Organization:   Panhandle Eastern Pipeline Company	


Cognizant Individual/Organization:   Kenneth L. Ancell	
Telephone:
Type of Site:  Rural-remote
                              0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:       Chemiluminescence (Bendix 8002)



Period of Record Examined:   January - June 1974
Frequency of Observations:   Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:     All  0  data recorded during  this  period were  generally  below 0.06  ppm.


 A maximum of 0.076 ppm was measured  on  21 June  1974
                                       77

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Data Source Number:       10
Station Name:    DuBois
Location:        DuBois. Pennsylvania (41 ...10.'  N. 78  44'  W>



Responsible Organization:  Research Triangle Institute
Cognizant Individual/Organization:   J.J.  Bufalini (EPA/EBRD
Telephone:   919-549-8411


Type of Site:  Rural	
                              0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:         Chemiluminescence  (Bendix 8002)



Period of Record  Examined:    14 June - 31 August 1974	
Frequency  of Observations:     Hourly
Physical Form of Data  Record:   Printout
Remarks:     In addition to 00,  other species  such  as hydrocarbons, NO  . etc.. were
                            -*                                        x.

measured.   Some  aircraft data  on vertical  0   distributions were  also  obtained.
                                       78

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Data Source Number:      11
Station Name:   Ft. Lauderdale (SAROAD Code 101260100G03)




Location-       Ft> Lauderdale, Florida (26° 07'N, 80° 09'  W)





Responsible Organization:   EPA Region IV	
Cognizant Individual/Organization:  Louis Nagler
Telephone:  3Q5-621-p561
Type of Site:  Nonurban
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence (Bendix 8002)






Period of Record Examined:    January - June 1973	
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Printout






Remarks:
                                      79

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Data Source Number:  	12
Station Name:    Glendale (SAROAD Code  030320Q01G01)
Location:        Glendale,  Arizona   (33°  33' 45".  112°  11'  15" W)



Responsible Organization:  Maricopa County Health Dept.	



Cognizant Individual/Organization:   EPA Region IX	
Telephone:    415-556-2320	



Type of Site:  Rural - near urban
                              0,
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	£_
Measurement Technique:        Dasibi Ultraviolet
Period of Record Examined:    1973-1974
Frequency  of Observations:    Hourly
Physical  Form  of Data Record:  Cards, Tape, or Printout
Remarks:    1,808 observations reported during 1973-1974
                                      80

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Data Source Number:  	13	




Station Name:   Greenwich  (SAROAD Code 070330004F01)
Location:       Greenwich, Connecticut  (41° 4' 37" N, 73° 41' 56  W





Responsible Organization:   Conn. Dept. Envir. Protection	





Cognizant Individual/Organization:   EPA Region I	
Telephone:   617-223-7210





Type of Site:   Remote
Type of Pollutant Measured:    3
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:    1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Cards, tape, or printout
Remarks:    5315 observations reported during 1973-1974
                                      81

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Data Source Number:  	




Station Name:      Kane





Location:
       14
Kane, Pennsylvania (41° 40' N, 78° 47' W)
Responsible Organization:      Research Triangle Institute
Cognizant Individual/Organization:      J.J. Bufalini (EPA/ESRL)
Telephone:     919-549-8411





Type of Site:      Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:
             Chemiluminescence (Bendix #8002)
Period of Record Examined:     26 June - 30 October 1973
Frequency of Observations:     Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Printout
Remarks:     High 0-j concentrations were recorded.  Limited 03 data aloft were




 also obtained.
                                       82

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Data Source Number:  	15
Station Name:     Lake Kabetogema
Location:          Lake Kabetogema, Minnesota  (48° 27* N,  93° 02' W)
Responsible Organization:
Cognizant Individual/Organization:   Ned Meyers   (EPA/OAQPS)
Telephone:    919-688-8146	




Type of Site:     Rural-Near Urban
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:         Chemiluminescence  (MEG 1100)






Period of Record Examined:     18 July - 21 August 1974






Frequency of Observations:     Hourly	
Physical Form of Data Record:  Printout
Remarks:    The measurements yielded low ozone values, with an hourly maximum




 of 0.055 ppm.	  -	
                                       83

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Data Source Number:  	16
Station Name:     Las Cruces	(SAROAD Code 320340010F01)	





Location:        Dona Ana County, New Mexico (32° 20' 20" N. 106° 49' 00" W)





Responsible Organization:   State of New Mexico Envir. Improvement Agency





Cognizant  Individual/Organization:  EPA Region VI	
Telephone:  214-749-1962
Type of  Site:  Rural-agricultural
Type of  Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:         Chemiluminescence
Period of  Record Examined:      1973-1974
 Frequency  of  Observations:       Hourly
Physical  Form of Data Record:    Cards, tape, or printout





Remarks:    3,755 observations reported during 1973-1974
                                       84

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Data Source Number:        17	


Station Name:   La Union	(SAROAD Code 320340008F02)	


Location:      Dona Ana County, New Mexico (31° 55' 50" N. 106° 37' 50" W)


Responsible Organization:  State of New Mexico Envir. Improvement Agency


Cognizant Individual/Organization:   EPA Region VI	
Telephone:   214-749-1962	


Type of Site:   Rural-agricultural
                              0,
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	f
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:    1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:     Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Cards, tape, or printout
Remarks:  7,616 observations reported during 1973-1974
                                      85

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Data Source Number:  	18
Station Name:       Lewisburg
Location:           Lewisburg,   West  Virginia   (37   50'  N.  80°  22'  W\




Responsible Organization:    Research  Triangle  Institute	





Cognizant Individual/Organization:     J.J.  Bufalinl  (EPA/ESRL)	
Telephone:    919-549-8411





Type of Site:      Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:       Chemiluminescence  (Bendix #8002)






Period of Record Examined:   26 June - 30 September 1973	






Frequency of Observations:   Hourly	
Physical Form of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:   High near-ground °3 concentrations were recorded.  Limited




 data aloft were also obtained.
                                       86

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Data Source Number:       19
Station Name:    MacKenzie Environmental  Center   (SAROAD Code  510600001F03)	


Location:        Columbia  County,  Wisconsin	



Responsible Organization:  Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Air Pollution

                           Control Section

Cognizant Individual/Organization:  EPA Region V	
Telephone:   302-353-5250


Type of Site:   Rural-industrial
                              0.
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	f_
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:    1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:     Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Cards, tape,  or printout
Remarks:     12,665 observations reported during 1973-1974
                                      87

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Data Source Number:
                           20
Station Name:    Manitowish Waters

Location:
Vilas County. Wisconsin (46° N. 89° 54' w)
                  (6 miles south of Manitowish Waters on County K)
Responsible Organization:   Wisconsin Dept.  of Natural Resources
Cognizant  Individual/Organization:     Ronald W.  Becker
Telephone:    608-266-7588

Type of  Site:     Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:  	3_
Measurement Technique:
             Chemiluminescence (REM) and/or Dasibi Ultraviolet
Period  of Record  Examined:     June  -  September  1974
Frequency  of  Observations:     Hourly
Physical  Form of  Data  Record:   Cards,  tape,  or  printout
Remarks:     Monitoring in this  area  is  continuing in  1975.
                                       88

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:      McConnelsville
Location:          McConnelsville. Ohj.o (39° 57' M, Rl° p?' u)




Responsible Organization:    Research Triangle Institute




Cognizant  Individual/Organization:      J.J. Bufalini  (EPA/ESRL)
Telephone:     919-549-8411




Type of Site:      Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:        Chemiluminescence (Bendix 8002)






Period of Record Examined:    14 June - 31 August  1974	
Frequency  of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form  of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:     In addition to  3,  other species  such as  hydrocarbons,  NOX,  etc.




  were  also  measured.   Some aircraft data  on  vertical ^3   distributions  were




  also  obtained.
                                       89

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Data Source Number:  	





Station Name:    McHenry





Location:
        22
McHenry, Maryland  (39° 36'N. 79° 16' W)
Responsible Organization:
              Research Triangle Institute
Cognizant  Individual/Organization:    J. J. Bufaline  (EPA/ESRL)
Telephone:   919-549-8411




Type of Site:    Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:
              Chemiluminescence (Bendix 8002)
Period  of  Record  Examined:     26 June - 30 September 1973
Frequency  of  Observations:     Hourly
Physical  Form of  Data  Record:     Printout
Remarks:    High near-ground °3 concentrations were recorded.   Limitec^




     data aloft were also obtained.
                                       90

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Data Source Number:  	



Station Name:     McHenry



Location:
        23
McHenry, Maryland  (39° 36' N. 79° 16' W)
Responsible Organization:
              Research Triangle Institute
Cognizant Individual/Organization:   J.J. Bufalini  (EPA/ESRL)
Telephone:    919-549-841,1


Type of Site.:     Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:     03
Measurement Technique:
Period of Record Examined:
              Chemiluminescence (Bendix 8002)
              14 June - 31 August 1974
Frequency of Observations:      Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:   In  addition  to   3,  other  species  such as hydrocarbons. NO.  etc, were
                                                                   x


 measured.  Some aircraft  data on vertical  °3 distributions were also  obtained.
                                       91

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Data Source Number:           24
Station Name:    McRae           (SARQAD Code 271360028F03)
Location:         Rosebud County, Montana (45° 45'  47" N,  106° 23'  09" W)




Responsible Organization:    Montana State Air Quality Bureau	




Cognizant Individual/Organization:    EPA Region VIII	
Telephone:   303-837-3895	




Type of Site:     Rural - Agricultural
Type of Pollutant Measured:   3
Measurement Technique:       Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:   1973-1974
Frequency  of Observations:   Hourly
Physical  Form  of Data Record: _j	Cards, tape, or printout





Remarks:   	3570 observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                      92

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:    Miami Jetport  (SAROAD Code 100860008P02)	


Location:       Pade  County,  Florida  (25° 51  50" N, 80° 52' 10" W)


Responsible Organization:  EPA Region IV	
Cognizant Individual/Organization:  EPA Region IV
Telephone:   A04-526-5727


                Remote
Type of Site:
                             0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:       Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:   1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:   Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Cards,  tape,  or printout
Remarks:   4,187 observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                      93

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Data Source Number:      26
Station Name:    Miami West  (SAROAD Code 10270009P05)	



Location:         Miami. FlorjLda (25° 50' 06/' Nr 80° 14' Q?" W>	

                  (AT&T transmission station Hwy. 27 east of Tamiami Trial)

Responsible Organization: 	EPA Region IV	
Cognizant Individual/Organization:   Louis Naeler/EPA Region IV
Telephone:   305-621-0561	



Type of Site:     Rural - Near Urban
                                0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:          Chemiluminescence  (Bendix 8002)



Period of Record Examined:      1973-1974	
Frequency of Observations:      Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Cards, tape, or ptintout



Remarks:    3,176 Observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                       94

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Data Source Number:
        27
Station Name:     Mt.  Utsayantha




Location:
Mt. Utsayantha, New York (74° 37' W, 42° 24' N)
Responsible Organization:    N.Y.  State  Dept.  of Env.  Conservation




Cognizant Individual/Organization:    William N.  Stasiuk	
Telephone:    518-457-5276




Type of Site: 	Remote
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:
Period of Record Examined:
Frequency  of Observations:
                Chemiluminescence
                                  1 August  -  17 August  1973
                Hourly
Physical Form  of Data Record:     Printout
Remarks:   High  altitude  location  (3200  ft MSL)
                                      95

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Data Source Number:  	28
Station Name:     Naples  (SAROAD Code 102880001PQ5)
Location:         Naples. Florida  (26° 01' 31"N, 81° 43' 50" W)  (on Rookery Bay)
Responsible Organization:      EPA Region IV
Cognizant Individual/Organization:   Louis Nagler
Telephone:   305-621-0561	




Type of Site:     Rural - Near Urban
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3
Measurement Technique:         Chemiluminescence  (Bendix 8002)






Period of Record Examined:     1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:     Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:  Cards, tape, or printout
Remarks:     3342 observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                       96

-------
Data Source Number:  	29	

Station Name:      Old Hickory     (SAROAD Code 443320007F01)	

Location:           Sumner County,  Tennessee   (36°  17*  53"  N,  86°  39*  ll"W)	
                   (10 miles northeast of Nashville)
Responsible Organization:      Tenn. Dept.  of  Public Health, Div.  of Air  Pollution
                               Control
Cognizant Individual/Organization:  	EPA Region  IV
Telephone:    404-526-5727	

Type of Site:       Rural-Industrial
Type of Pollutant Measured:     3
Measurement Technique:         Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:     1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Cards, tape, or printout


Remarks:      13,104 observations  reported during 1973-1974.
                                       97

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Data Source Number:       30




Station Name:      Poynette




Location:
Columbia County. Wisconsin (43° 24'  N. 89° 28'  W)
Responsible Organization:
             Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources
Cognizant Individual/Organization:  Ronald W. Becker
Telephone:   608-266-7588




Type of Site:      Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:     3
Measurement Technique;
            Chemiluminescence (REM) and/or Dasibi Ultraviolet
Period of Record Examined:     June - September 1974
Frequency  of Observations:      Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Cards, tape, or printout
Remarks:   Monitoring in this area is continuing in 1975.
                                       98

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Data Source Number:  	 31


Station Name:      Prairie View
Location:          Prairie View, Texas  (30° 18' N, 95° 26' W)


Responsible Organization:    Texas Air Quality Control Board


Cognizant  Individual/Organization:   Duane J. Johnson	
Telephone:    512-451-5711


Type of Site:      Suburban - Rural
                                0
Type of Pollutant Measured:      3
Measurement Technique:          Chemiluminexcence (MEG #1100)



Period of Record  Examined:      1 May - 1 September 1974



Frequency of Observations:      Hourly
Physical  Form  of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:   This site is located 40 miles north of Houston, Texas.  Transport


	from Houston was believed responsible for the high ozone values observed


     at Prairie View.  These measurements were part of the Goober III Study.
                                       99

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Data Source Number:        32
Station Name:     Queeny  (Oxidant)  (SARQAD Code 264300006G01)	


Location:          St. Louis County, Missouri (38° 59' 58" N, 91° 45'  46" W)


Responsible Organization:     St. louis Co. Health Dept., Air Pollution Control Div.


Cognizant Individual/Organization:     EPA Region VII	
Telephone:     816-374-5493	


Type of Site:      Rural - Near Urban
                               0
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	
Measurement Technique:        Neutral KI
Period of Record Examined:    1973-1974
Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Cards, tape, or printout



Remarks:       14,683 observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                       100

-------
Data Source Number:
Station Name:       Queeny  (Ozone)    (SARQAD Code 2643QOQ06GQ1>	





Location:           St. Louis  County. Missouri   (38°  59'  ,58" Hr  91° 4S'  46" w)




Responsible Organization:     St. Louis Co. Health Dept. APCD	




Cognizant  Individual/Organization:     EPA Region VII	
Telephone:     816-374-549?	




Type of  Site: 	Rural - Near Urban
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:           Chemiluminescence
Period of Record Examined:       1973-1974
Frequency  of Observations:      Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Cards, tape, or printout






Remarks:    1,823 observations reported during 1973-1974.
                                      101

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Data Source Number:
                         34
Station Name:     White Face Mountain
Location:         White Face Mountain, New York   (44° 20' N, 74° 05' W)




Responsible Organization;      N.Y. State Dept. of Env. Conservation




Cognizant Individual/Organization:     William N. Stasiuk	
Telephone:     518-457-5276





Type of Site:     Remote
Type of Pollutant Measured:    3
Measurement Technique:        Chemilumineacence
Period of Record Examined:    1 August - 17 August 1973






Frequency of Observations:    Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:    Additional data have been obtained and will be made available shortly.




    This is a high altitude location  (4980 ft MSL).
                                      102

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Data Source Number:      35
Station Name:     Wilmington
Location:         Wilmington Industrial Air Park, Ohio (39° 20' N, 83° 48' W)




Responsible Organization:      Research Triangle Institute	




Cognizant Individual/Organization:      J. J. Bufalini  (EPA/ESRL)	
Telephone:    919-549-8411




Type of Site:     Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:         3
Measurement Technique:       Chemiluminescence (Bendix8002)






Period of Record Examined:   14 June - 31 August 1974	
Frequency of Observations:   Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:     Printout
Remarks:      In addition to  3. other specj.es such as hydrocarbons. N0x. etc.




    were measured.  Some aircraft data on vertical ^3 distributions were also




    obtained.	
                                      103

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Data Source Number:
Station Name:   	Wooster
Location:          Wooster, Ohio   (40 ° 50' N. 81° 56' W)	




Responsible Organization:    Research Triangle Institute	




Cognizant Individual/Organization:     J. J. Bufalini   (EPA/ESRL)
Telephone:    919-549-8411




Type of Site: 	Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured: 	3_
Measurement Technique:          Chemiluminescence  (Bendix 8p02)





Period of Record Examined:      14 June - 31 August 1974	






Frequency of Observations:      Hourly	     _
Physical Form of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:     In addition to  3, other species such as hydrocarbons. ^°x. etc. ,




	were measured.  Some aircraft data on vertical °3 distributions were also




     obtained. 	
                                       104

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Data Source Number:  	37




Station Name:  	Yellow Pine
Location:      	Sabine National Forest.  Texas  (31  20'  N,  94° 00'  w)




Responsible Organization:      Texas Air Quality Control Board	




Cognizant  Individual/Organization:      Duane J. Johnson
Telephone:    512-451-5711	__




Type of Site:        Rural  -  Remote
Type of Pollutant Measured:  	3_
Measurement Technique:           Chemiluminescence  (MEG #1100)





Period of Record Examined:       April - June  1974	
Frequency  of Observations:      Hourly
Physical Form  of Data Record:   Printout
Remarks:   This location is 85 miles north of Beaumont and 135 miles northeast




	of Houston.  "3 values exceeded 0.08 ppm only twice during this period.




	Transport from urban sources was not responsible for high ^3 values.	




      Local synthesis was predominant.
                                      105

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Data Source Number:  	3J5	




Station Name:       Yellowstone Lake (SAROAD Code 511720001F05)	




Location:           Lafayette County, Wisconsin   (42° 46' N, 89° 54' W)




Responsible Organization:     Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources	




Cognizant Individual/Organization:     Ronald W. Becker	
Telephone:    608-266-7588
Type of Site:
                   Rural
Type of Pollutant Measured:
Measurement Technique:
Period of Record Examined:
Frequency of Observations:
Chemiluminescence (REM) and/or Dasibi Ultraviolet
June - September 1974
Hourly
Physical Form of Data Record:    Cards, tapes, or printout	






Remarks:   3,205 observations were reported during this period.   Monitoring in




 this area  is continuing in 1975.
                                      106

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                                  113

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                                  114

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                                  115

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Lonneman, W.A., 1976:   Ozone and Hydrocarbon Measurements in Recent
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Lonneman, W.A., J.J. Bufalini, and R.L.  Seila, 1976:  PAN and oxidant
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Loville, J. E., 1972:   The global distribution of total ozone as deter-
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Ludwig, F.L., et al, 1977:  The relation of oxidant levels to precursor
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Ludwig, F.L., W.B. Johnson, R.E. Ruff, and H.B. Singh, 1976:  Important
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                                  116

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Ludwig, F.L. and E. Shelar,  1977:  Ozone  in  the northeastern United  States.
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Lusis, M.A., et al.,  1976:   Aircraft 63 measurements  in the vicinity of
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Lyons, W.A. and H.S.  Cole, 1976:  Photochemical oxidant transport:
     mesoscale lake breeze and  synoptic-scale aspects.   J. of App. Met.
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Machta, L., K. Telegadas,  and R. J. List, 1970:   The  slope of surfaces
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Martinez, E. L., 1975:  Temporal-spatial variations of  nonurban ozone
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Mendonca, B. G., 1969:  Local wind circulation on  the slopes of Mauna
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Miller, A., and D. Ahrens, 1970:  Ozone within and below the west coast
     temperature inversion.  Tellus, 22,  (3), 328.

Miller, P. R., M. H.  McCutchan, and H. P. Milligan, 1972:  Oxidant air
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Meyer,  E. L., 1977:   Establishing organic emission control strategies
     as a function of geographic location.  EPA Draft Internal Memorandum.

Mohnen, V.A., A. Hogan, R. Whitby, and P. Coffey,  1976:  Ozone measure-
     ments in rural areas.   Proc. The Non-Urban Tropospheric Composition
     Symposium, Hollywood, Florida, Nov. 10-12,  pp. 20.1-20.8.
                                  117

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Mosher, J. C. , W. G. MacBeth, M. J. Leonard, T. P. Mullins, and M. F.
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Munn, R. E., and B. Bolin, 1971:  Review paper—global air pollution--
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NAS, 1976:  Vapor-phase organic pollutants-volatile hydrocarbons and
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Neiburger, M. N. , N. A. Renzetti, L. H. Rogers, and R. Tice, 1955:  An
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Niebor, H. and J. Van Ham, 1976:  Peroxyacteyl nitrate (PAN) in relation
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Paskind, J., and J. R. Kinosian, 1974:  Hydrocarbon, oxides of nitrogen,
     and oxidant pollution relationships in the atmosphere over California
     cities.  Paper presented at 67th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution
     Control Association, Denver, Colorado.

Pitts, J.N. , et al, 1976:  Corrected south coast air basin oxidant data:
     some conclusions and implications.  Env. Sci. and Tech, 10, 794-801.

Polgar, L.G. , and R.J. Londergan, 1976:  Surface and airborne ozone and
     precursor concentrations from a medium sized city.  Presented as
     Paper 76-14.2 at the 69th Annual APCA Meeting at Portland, Oregon,
     June 27-July 1.

                                  118

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Pruchniewicz, P. G., 1973:  The average tropospheric ozone content and
     its variation with season and latitude as a result of the global
     ozone circulation.  Pure and Appl. Geophys., 106-108, 1058-1073.

RTI, 1975:  Investigation of rural levels as related to urban hydrocarbon
     control strategies.  Final Report, Research Triangle Institute
     prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
     Park, N.C., EPA Report 450/3-75-036 Task 4.

Rasmussen, R. A., 1972:  What do the hydrocarbons from trees contribute
     to air pollution?  J. Air Poll. Contr. Assoc., 22, 537-543.

Rasmussen, R. A., et al., 1974:  Measurement of light hydrocarbons in
     the field and studies of transport of oxidant beyond an urban area.
     Final Report, Contract 68-02-1232, Washington State University,
     College of Engineering Research Division, Air Pollution Section
     (in preparation for EPA).

Rasmussen, R. A., and F. W. Went, 1965:  Volatile organic material of
     plant origins in the atmosphere.  Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 53, 215.

Rasmussen, R. A., and E. Robinson, 1975:  The role of trace atmospheric
     constituents in a surface ozone model.  Presented at the Annual
     Meeting, American Meteorological Society, Denver, Colorado.

Rasmussen, R. A., 1975:  Recent field studies as regards the role of NO
     in the oxidant and N02 problem.  Paper presented at Scientific
     Seminar on Automotive Pollution, Washington, D.C.

Rasmussen, R. A., R. B. Chatfield, and M. W. Holden, 1977:  Hydrocarbon
     species in rural Missouri air (unpublished manuscript).

Reed, R. J., and K. E. German, 1964:  A contribution to the problem of
     stratospheric diffusion by large-scale mixing.  Mon. Wea. Rev.,
     93 (5), 313-321.

Regener, V. H., and L. Aldaz, 1969:  Turbulent transport near the
     ground as determined from measurements of the ozone flux and the
     ozone gradient.  J. Geophys. Res., 74 (28), 6935-6942.

Regener, V. H., 1974:  Destruction of atmospheric ozone at the ocean
     surface.  Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl.. 23 (ser. A), 131-135.

Reynolds, S. D., and J. H. Seinfeld, 1975:  Interim evaluation of strat-
     egies for meeting ambient air quality standards for photochemical
     oxidant.  Env. Sci. and Tech. £, (5), 435-447.

Reiter, E. R., and J. D. Mahlman, 1962:  Heavy radioactive fallout over
     the southern United States, November 1962.   J. Geophys. Res., ^70
     (18), 4501-4520.
                                  119

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Reiter, E. R., M. E. Glasser, and J. D. Mahlman, 1969:  The role of the
     tropopause in stratospheric-tropospheric exchange processes.  Pure
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Reiter, E. R., 1975:  Stratospheric-tropospheric exchange processes.
     Rev of Geophys. and Space Phys., 13, 459-474.

Richter, H. G., 1970:  Special ozone and oxidant measurements in vicinity
     of Mount Storm, West Virginia.  Research Triangle Institute, prepared
     for Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.

Ripperton, L. A., K. Kornreich, and J.J.B. Worth, 1970:  Nitrogen dioxide
     and nitric oxide in non-urban air.  J. Air Poll. Contr. Assoc., 24,
     (9), 589-592.

Ripperton, L. A., and F. M. Vukovich, 1971:  Gas phase destruction of
     tropospheric ozone.  J. Geophys. Res., 76, 7328-7333.

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     of ozone in the troposphere.  Env. Sci. and Tech. 5_, 246-248.

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     aerosols by reaction of ozone with selected hydrocarbons.  Adv. in
     Chem., 113, 219-231.

Ripperton, L. A., J.J.B. Worth, C. E. Becker, and D. R. Johnston, 1974:
     High ozone concentrations in non-urban atmospheres.  Presented at
     167th ACS Meeting, Los Angeles, California.

Ripperton, L. A., C. E. Decker, W. C. Eaton, and J. E. Sickles, 1974:
     The origin of non-urban ozone.  Presented at 1974 Annual ACS
     Meeting, Atlantic City, New Jersey.

Ripperton, L. A., J. B. Tommerdahl, and J.J.B. Worth, 1974:  Airborne
     ozone measurement.  Paper 74-42, Annual Meeting, Air Pollution
     Control Association.

Robinson, E., and R. C. Robbins, 1970:  Gaseous nitrogen compound
     pollutants from urban and natural sources.  J. Air Poll. Contr.
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     Poll. Contr. Assoc., 26, 972-975.

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     between certain meteorological factors and photochemical smog.
     Int. J. Air Wat. Poll.. 10, 689-711.


                                  120

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Schuck, E. L., A. P. Altshuller, D. S. Earth, and G. B. Morgan, 1970:
     Relationship of hydrocarbons to oxidents in ambient atmospheres.
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     ments under thunder clouds.  J. Geophys. Res., 77, 4500-4510.

Spicer, Chester W., 1976:  Ozone and hydrocarbon measurements by Batelle.
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Stasiuk, N. W., and P. E. Coffey, 1974:  Rural and urban ozone relation-
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     tropopause and the related vertical motions, vertical advection of
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Staley, D. 0., 1962:  On the mechanism of mass and radioactivity trans-
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Stephens, N. T.,  and R. 0. McCaldin, 1971:  Attenuation of power station
     plumes as determined by instrumented aircraft.  Env. Sci. and Tech.,
     5_, 617-621.

Stephens, E. R.,  1975:  Chemistry and Meteorology in an Air Pollution
     Episode.  J. Air Poll. Contr.  Assoc., 25_, (5), 521-524.

Sticksel, P. R.,  1976:  Occurrence and movement of tropospheric ozone
     maxima.  Proc. Ozone/Oxidant Interactions with the Total Environment
     Speciality Conference, APCA Southwest Section March, pp. 252-267.

Stinson, J. R., D. L. Blumenthal, D. S. Gemmill, G. S. Jackson,  1972:
     Ventilation in the vicinity of Valdez Bay, Alaska.  MRI Final Report,
     FR-1028 to Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, Houston, Texas.

Stinson, J. R., and J. P. LeBeau, 1972:  Hydrocarbon and Ozone Measure-
     ments at Valdez, Alaska, between 27 October and 4 November 1972.
     MRI Special Report R-1058,  Alyeska Pipeline Service Company,
     Houston, Texas.

Svensson, B. H.,  and R. Soderlind,  eds., 1975:  Nitrogen, phosphorus
     and sulphur - global cycles.  Ecological Bulletins/NFR 22,  1-192.

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     Angeles photochemical smog data:   a statistical overview.  J. Air
     Poll. Contr. Assoc., 25, 260-268.


                                  121

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Thompson, C. Ray, et al., 1976:  Effect of photochemical air pollution
     on two varieties of alfalfa.  Env. Sci. and Tech.. 10, 1257-1241.

Vukovich, F. M., 1973:  Some observations of ozone concentrations at
     night in the North Carolina piedmont boundary layer.  J. Geophys.
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     ozone:  an air pollution problem arising in the Washington, B.C.
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     Angeles Control District Technical Program Report, Los Angeles.

Weinstock, B., and T. Y. Chang, 1976:  Methane and nonurban ozone.
     Presented at the APCA Meeting in Portland, Oregon, June 29.

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     for Hamilton, Ontario.  Atm. Env., 3_, 11-23.

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     relation to petroleum formations.  Proc. N.A.S., Vol. 46, 212.

Westberg, H., and R. Rasmussen, 1975:  Measurement of light hydrocarbons
     in the field and studies of transport of oxidant beyond an urban
     area.  Progress Report, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1232.

Westberg, H., K. J. Allwine, and D. Elias, 1976:  Vertical Ozone Distri-
     bution Above Several Urban and Adjacent Rural Areas Across the
     United States.  Proc. Ozone/Oxidant Interactions with the Total
     Environment Specialtity Conference, APCA Southwest Section March.

Westberg, H., 1976:  Ozone and hydrocarbon measurements by W.S.U.
     Proceedings of the Northeast Oxidant Transport Symposium held at
     Research Triangle Park, North Carolina on January 20-21.

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     pollutants:  ozone and aerosols in the St. Louis urban plume.
     Science, 194, 187-189.

Williams, J. D., J. R. Farmer, R. B. Stephenson, G. G. Evans, and R. B.
     Dalton, 1968:  Air pollutant emissions related to land area—a
     basis for a preventive air pollution control program.  NAPCA Publi-
     cation APTD-68-11.

Wolff, G. T., 1974:  Implications of photochemical oxidants in the New
     Jersey-New York-Connecticut AQCR.  APCA Paper 74-35.3, Air Pollution
     Control Association Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado.

                                  122

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Wolff, G. T., et al. , 1976:  Aerial investigation of  the ozone  plume  phe-
     nomenon, J. of Air Poll. Control Assoc.  (in press).

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     in mountain terrain.  J. Geophys. Res.,  72, 2063-2068.
                                  123

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                                    TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
 EPA-450/3-77-022b
                              2.
                                                             3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
 The  Relation of Oxidant  Levels to Precursor Emissions
 and  Meteorological Features.  Volume  II:   Review of
 Available Research Results and Monitoring Data (as of
 November 1975).                        	
              5. REPORT DATE
                September 1977
              6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
 H.B.  Singh, W.B. Johnson and E. Reiter
                                                             8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  SRI  International
 Menlo Park, CA  94025
                                                             10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
              11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.

                68-02-2084
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
 Environmental Protection  Agency
 Office of Air Quality  Planning and  Standards
 Research Triangle Park, N.C.  27711
              13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                Final
              14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT

       This  report was originally published as  an Interim Report  in November 1975.
  Literature available at  that time was reviewed and a summary was prepared describing
  the processes affecting  ozone concentrations  in remote areas.   The topics discussed
  include ozone of stratospheric origin, natural tropospheric sources and sinks,  and
  long range transport in  the  troposphere.  Selected research studies are abstracted
  and 38 sources of ozone  or oxidant data taken at remote locations are discussed.   A
  bibliography is included.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS  C.  COSATI Field/Group
  Tropospheric Ozone
  Data  Sources
  Bibliography
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
   Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
 Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
   128
                                               20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
                                                Unclassified
                           22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R«v. 4-77)   PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
                                            125

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