EPA-600/3-77-015
February 1977
AEROSOL SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS - PHOENIX, ARIZONA
by
Jean Graf, Richard H. Snow and Ronald G. Draftz
IIT Research Institute
Chicago, Illinois 60616
Grant No. R803078
Contract No. 68-01-3163, Task No. 5
Project Officers
Jack L. Durham
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Division
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Dallas Safriet
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA 27711
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Sciences Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publi-
cation. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
An atmospheric sampling program was carried out in the greater Phoenix,
Arizona metropolitan area in November, 1975. Objectives of the study were
to measure aerosol mass f]ux through Phoenix and to characterize the
aerosol according to particle type and size. The ultimate goal of the
study was to determine whether the high mass loadings of suspended particles
recorded for Phoenix are due to human activities within the Phoenix area or
to long range transport from the surrounding deserts.
The sampling program was designed to take advantage of normal wind flow
patterns of Phoenix. Typical "viighv: wind" (8 p.m. to noon) is a light —
1 to 2 m/sec — drainage wind from the east with inversion breaking up near
noon. Typical day wind (noon to 8 p.m.) is a light drainage wind from the
west, with well-mixed conditions due to solar heating. Six tower sampling
sites (three along the eastern rural edge of Phoenix and three along the
western rural edge) and nine existing Maricopa County ground-level sites
(located across the entire Phoenix valley) were employed to collect and
measure aerosols entering and exiting the Phoenix area. In addition, a
helicopter-borne sampler collected aerosols on the eastern and western edges
of the metropolitan area during flight runs perpendicular to the wind flow.
By choosing two sampling periods during "day wind" conditions (Nov. 17 and 18,
noon to 6 p.m.) and two sampling periods during "night wind" conditions
(Nov. 21 and 25, 6 a.m. to noon), it was possible to determine whether the
bulk of the suspended particulate mass originated within or outside of
Phoenix.
3
Particulate mass concentrations showed a mean value of 203 yg/m in
3
the area around Phoenix, except for Chandler which averaged 431 yg/m .
3
The Central Phoenix sites averaged 210 yg/m . The mass concentration up
to 20 m height was generally 50% higher downwind, although this trend was
i i i
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obscured by the consistently higher concentrations at Chandler. The mass
2
flux was generally in the range 0.1 to 0.2 mg/sec-m , except on one windy
2
day (18 Nov.) when it reached 0.93 to 1.11 mg/sec-m . At heights above
20 m, the mass flux was always greater downwind than upwind by amounts of
up to 50%. The mass concentrations measured spanned the size range from
<1 pm to >25 ym in diameter. These data varied extensively with time, height,
and location. Typical particle size mass distribution as determined by the
Andersen samplers at 3 m height were:
Mciss Distribution
Diameter Inu-rval, urn: OJ^.S 2_-_b» 8-\5_ 15^ >25
o
Concentration, yg/m : 15 40 30 30 30
During afternoon samplings, there was much greater vertical mixing than
in the morning, as shown by wind profiles and temperature profiles, as well as
higher particulate concentrations at heights of 200 to 500 m. Helicopter
3
samples taken on these afternoons showed concentrations of 50 and 100 ug/m up
to 500 m height. Dust plumes from farm tractors could sometimes be seen
mixing to heights of 100 to 200 m, and apparently they caused peaks in the
helicopter nephelometer readings. Coarse particles (>15 ym) decreased in con-
centration by a factor of 2-3 with height from 3 to 30 m; fine particles
showed considerable scatter, and apparently did not decrease in concentration
with height up to 30 m.
Microscopic and c k'i'irnl.) I analyses of collected aerosol samples determined
that minerals are the primary components of the Phoenix aerosol. Although
as many as eight different mineral types were identified, the bulk of the
mass was provided by three minerals — quartz (alpha silica), feldspars
(sodium, potassium and/or calcium — alumino silicates), and calcite (calcium
carbonate). These three mineral types are the primary soil components in
and around Phoenix and are also the primary components of the aggregate in
the asphalt streets in Phoenix.
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Automobile-related particles ranged from 5% of the sample mass in out-
lying areas to as much as 50% in the central city on some sampling dates.
These particles consisted of tailpipe emissions and rubber tire fragments
and correlated with the presence of lead and bromine in the samples. The highest
concentrations of automobile-related particles were found in periods of
inversion at night and in the morning. These periods were also characterized
by high carbon monoxide levels, reaching 5 to 10 ppm. The carbon monoxide
concentrations could be used to track the movement of an automobile-polluted
air mass from the morning rush hour traffic. A visible layer of polluted
air also correlated with the carbon monoxide readings and with helicopter
nephelometer and hi-vol samplings.
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CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Figures ix
Tables x
Acknowledgement xii
1. Introduction , 1
2. Conclusions 3
3. Recommendations ..... 5
4. Survey of Study Area 6
Phoenix Terrain and Sampling Locations 6
Description of Tower Sampling Sites 13
Description of County Sampling Sites 15
5. Sampling and Analysis Methods 17
Sampling Strategies 17
Sampler Types 17
Mass Concentration Determinations 20
Microscopic Particle Characterization 21
K K'liic'ii t a 1 An.i I vscs 22
Wind Measurements 22
6. First Sampling Period 24
Mass Flux Determinations 24
Microscopic Particle Characterizations .... 31
KliMiKMit.il Au.ilysu's 37
7. Second Sampling Period 40
Mass Flux Determinations 40
Microscopic Particle Characterizations 40
elemental Analyses 52
VII
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CONTENTS (continued)
8. Third Sampling Period 55
Mass Flux Determinations , 55
Microscopic Particle Characterizations . 61
K1 emi'n In 1 Analyses 70
9. Fourth Sampling Period 73
Mass Flux Determinations 73
Microscopic Particle Characterizations 80
10. Fifth Sampling Period . 81
Mass Flux Determinations 81
Microscopic Particle Characterizations 85
i'l 1 LMiirn I.
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Landsat Photo of South Central Arizona 7
2 Landsat Photo of Phoenix Area Showing Sampling Sites 9
3 Night Wind Trajectories 11
4 Day Wind Trajectories 12
5 Height vs. Temperature for 17 November 1975 27
6 Height vs. Temperature for 18 November 1975 43
7 Height vs. Temperature for 21 November 1975 58
8 Height vs. Temperature for 22 November 1975 76
9 Height vs. Temperature for 23-24 November 1975 84
10 Height vs. Temperature for 25 November 1975 100
11 Calcite Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters 120
12 Mica Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters 121
13 Other Minerals Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters 122
14 Clay Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters 123
15 Automobile-Related Particle Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol
Filters 124
IX
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TABLES
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Operational Samplers ...
Average Wind Profile for 17 November 1975
Wind Profiles ,-iL Pilot Balloon Sites for 17 November 1975 . . .
Helicopter Sampling Data for 17 November 1975
Mass Concentrations for 17 November 1975
Mass Flux for 17 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Dichotomous Samples for
17 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Andersen Final Filters for
17 November 1975
Average Wind Profile for 18 November 1975
Wind Profiles at Pilot Balloon Sites for 18 November 1975 . . .
Helicopter Sampling Data for 18 November 1975
Mass Concentrations for 18 November 1975
Mass Flux for 18 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Dichotomous Samples for
18 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Amilyses of Andersen Final Filters for
18 November 1975 ,
Wind Profiles at Pilot Balloon Sites for 21 November 1975 . . .
Helicopter Sampling Data for 21 November 1975
Mass Concentration for 21 November 1975
Mass Flux for 21 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Dichotomous Samples for
21 November 1975
X— ray Fluorescence Analyses of Andersen Final Filters for
21 November 1975
Page
19
25
26
28
29
30
38
39
41
42
44
45
46
53
54
56
57
59
60
62
63
71
72
X
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TABLES (continued)
Number
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Average Wind Profile for 22 November 1975
Wind Profiles at Pilot Balloon Sites for 22 November 1975 . . .
Helicopter Sampling Data for 22 November 1975
Mass Concentration for 22 November 1975
Mast; Flux for 22 November 1975
Average Wind Profile for 23-24 November 1975
Wind Profiles at Pilot Balloon Sites for 23-24 November 1975 . .
Carbon Monoxide Concentrations for 23-24 November 1975
Helicopter Sampling Data for 23-24 November 1975
Mass Concentration for 23-24 November 1975 .....
Mass Flux for 23-24 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Dichotomous Samples for
23-24 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Andersen Final Filters for
23-24 November 1975
Average Wind Profile for 25 November 1975
Wind Profiles at Pilot Balloon Sites for 25 November 1975 . . .
Carbon Monoxide Concentrations for 25 November 1975
Helicopter Sampling Data for 25 November 1975
Mass Concentration for 25 November 1975
Mass Flux for 25 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Dichotomous Samples for
25 November 1975
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses of Andersen Final Filters for
25 November 1975 ...
Summaries of Mass Concentration and Wind Data . ,
Summary of Hi-Vol Filter Mass Concentration Data
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses Summary for 17 November 1975 ....
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses Summary for 18 November 1975 ....
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses Summary for 21 November 1975 ....
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses Summary for 23-24 November 1975 . .
X-ray Fluorescence Analyses Summary for 25 November 1975 ....
Conversion Table to S.I. Units
Page
74
75
77
78
79
82
83
86
87
88
89
95
96
98
99
101
102
104
105
110
111
116
127
129
130
131
132
133
135
XI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Those who participated in the planning and execution of the program
include Dr. Jack L. Durham, ESRL, who was Project Officer; Dallas Safriet.
OAQPS, who was in charge of the overall effort; and the Maricopa County
Health DeparLir.ent, especially Robert Taylor, head of Bureau of Air
Pollution Control, and Gregory Witherspoon, Engineer.
In addition to the autnors, Carl Swanstrom, Larry Peckous, and Erdmann
Luehcke from 1ITKI worked on the project. Others who worked on the project
include Otis Durham, Calvin Hancock and Richard Richmond from Northrop
Corporation; Mary Lib Parrish from EPA, RTP, NC; Jeff Van Ee and Don Nail
from the EPA Las Vegar; RAPS j helicopter team; and Ken Scherer and Ralph
Seller, meteorologists from the NOAA group at EPA, RTP.
We also thank the following organizations and individuals who permitted
us to use their locations for sampling tower sites: American Graduate School
of International Management, Burger Erickson; Thomas Parker; M.L. Page;
city of Chandler, Charles Johnson; city of Mesa, Dean Sloan and James
Geatzens; and the Salt River Tribal Office, Frank Mertley, Irving Ludlow,
and Ray Carfee.
xli
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
During the period 17 to 25 November 1975, an experimental program was
carried out to measure the atmospheric particulate flux in Phoenix, Arizona.
The objective of this study was to measure the aerosol mass flux, according
to particle morphology, that enters and exits Phoenix during the period.
These data will he used by the EPA to deduce the significant sources for
total suspended participates (TSP) in Phoenix.
The sampling plan consisted of sampling particulate matter in and
around Phoenix using ground-, tower-, and helicopter-deployed samplers.
Sampling within Phoenix made use of the existing hi-vol network operated
by the Maricopa County Health Dept. Nine of these hi-vol sites were
selected for the installation of additional samplers to obtain information
about size and composition of atmospheric particulates. Additional samplers
included low-volume fractionating samplers of the Battelle CSS type, and
dichotomous samplers provided by the EPA.
Data on particulate mass flux were obtained from samples taken both
from a helicopter and from towers installed just outside the municipal area.
The tower locations and the helicopter flight paths were chosen to sampit-
the particulate matter carried by the wind flow through Phoenix. Previously
defined flight paths were selected for each sampling period according to
the weather reports and preliminary wind observations for each period.
Two tower sites used existing water towers, and the remaining four
sites used rented towers 30 m hi.gh. Each tower was provided with a hi-vol
sampler mounted at 3 m height, and three Andersen fractionating samplers
mounted at 3, 10, and 30 m height. Battelle rather than Andersen
fractionating samplers were employed at one tower site (Chandler).
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During each sampling period, the wind field was measured by means of
pilot balloons launched from as many as four sites. These wind data were
combined with the particulate concentrations determined by the various
samplers to calculate the mass flux.
This report presents all the available data from measurement of mass
concentrations at all of the sites and summarizes the microscopic and
elemental analyses. The average wind data are also presented in this
report.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Anthropogenic activity in the Phoenix area is the prime reason for the
high total suspended particulate values for this area. Mass concentrations
generally exceed 75 iig/m both upwind and downwind of the city of Phoenix.
Long-range transport of aerosols by winds from the surrounding deserts is
only a minor source for suspended particles.
Wind activities do account for suspension of some of the more rounded,
clay-coated minerals found in the samples. However, particle sizes and
morphologies of the majority of the mineral particles found in all the
Phoenix samples are not typical of wind-eroded materials. The wind
activity maintains particles in a suspended state. Winds are generally not
strong enough to blow the suspended particles clear of the Phoenix area;
rather wind serves to move particles back and forth across the city, as wind
direction reverses from day to night. Aerosol mass concentration flux data,
as well as microscopic characterization of collected particles, support
these conclusions.
At heights of 0 to 20 m, relatively local sources are responsible for
suspended particulate levels recorded at specific sites. At height above
20 m, general human activities within the entire Phoenix area, rather than
specific local sources, are primarily responsible for the suspended
particulates present.
Mineral particles (quartz, calcite, mica, feldspars, clays) comprise
60 to 90 percent of the aerosol mass in the Phoenix area. These minerals
arc the primary soil components in Phoenix. Microscopic data support this
conclusion.
Vehicular traffic (primarily automobiles), especially on unpaved roads
and shoulders, is the primary generator of suspended particles. The
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appearance of smooth-surf ne'ed, worm-shaped rubber tire particles, fine
carbonaceous particles (tailpipe emissions), and clean-surfaces, sharp,
angular mineral fragments indicate vehicle travel over paved roadways. This
combination of particle types and morphologies was most frequently seen in
samples from the central Phoenix area, as one might expect. Microscopic
particle characterizations, x-ray fluorescence elemental analyses, carbon
monoxide telemetry data, and mass concentration data support this conclusion.
Agriculture activity cannot be ruled out entirely as a source of sus-
pended particles. Plowing, harrowing, and tractor movement over bare fields
definitely generate suspendable particles. However, vehicular traffic is
considered to be the more important source of suspended particles due to
type and morphologies present in the samples. Agriculture related emissions •
biological particles, fertilizer and pollens - represent only trace compo-
nents on all samples, both on mass and number basis, while on the other hand,
vehicular emissions - carbonaceous particles (tailpipes), rubber tire parti-
cles, and the shape of the mineral particles appeared more frequently in the
samples. Combustion related emissions - flyash, charred paper and wood
fragments, oil soot, and coal fragments - from sources such as incinerators,
heating plants and power plants were found in only trace to minor components
in some samples.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are made for the analysis of the data in
this report and for future measurements:
1. A comparison of the particle mass flux and composition should be
made with the inventories of particulate sources in the area.
2. The sampling program should be repeated using a more consistent
layout of the samplers. One objective should be to have as many
of the same types of samplers as possible at all tower sites.
Andersen samplers should be deployed at 3 and 30 m heights only,
since the 10 m samplers gave little additional information.
Dichotomous samplers should also be deployed at the tower sites
to obtain samples for «j lemon tal analysis, and hi-vol samplers at
3 m as was done in this study to obtain most accurate mass con-
centrations. A larger vacuum hose should be used so that all
Andersen samplers have the same air flow rate. A non-crystalline
grease should be used on the Andersen sample foils.
The county sites within the city should also be provided with
Andersen samplers so that they can be compared with the tower sites.
It would be preferable to operate fewer sites, each more fully
instrumented with the same type of samplers.
The helicopter sampler should be redesigned to achieve a 10-fold
larger airflow for more accurate sample weights. Also, the sample
holder should be redesigned to eliminate metal fragments from the
holder and to eliminate damage to the filter in handling it under
adverse conditions in the helicopter. Perhaps the filters can be
premounted in holder rings.
3. Although the location of the samplers in the present study took
reasonable account of the complex sources in the Phoenix area,
it would be desirable to have a few samplers further upwind in
another study. This could be done by reducing the number of tower
sampling sites adjacent, to the city to two on the east and two on
the west. With more time available for preparation and setup, it
should be possible to have all the samplers working reliably
on all the sampling periods.
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SECTION 4
SURVEY OF STUDY AREA
PHOENIX TERRAIN AND SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Figures 1 and ? are Laudsat photos of the Phoenix area taken 29
November 3974 using infrared band 7. Figure 2 is an enlargement of the
outlined area in Figure 1. Vegetation appears white in this band; water is
black. The city of Phoenix can be seen in the center of Figure 2, with the
grid of main streets clearly visible. On the west is a large irrigated
agricultural area, and another such area is southeast and east. UTM grid
coordinates are marked on Figure 2. A picket fence of tower sampling sites
was installed around the city in the agricultural green belts. On the west,
tower sampling sites are at A, B, and C. (Detailed descriptions are given
below.) On the east, the tower sites are at D, E, and F.
Also shown in Figure 2 are the numbered Maricopa County air quality
sampling sites that were used on this project. Numbers 1 and 3 are in the
central city, 2 is in the southern part of the city, 8 is in the eastern
part in Srottsdale, 4 and 5 are in the western part, and 14 is in Paradise
ValJcy, north of Phoenix. Depending on wind direction, some of these sites
can be considered part of the picket fence, and others measure the air
quality within the city itself. The tracks followed by the EPA helicopter
during its air sampling flights are marked on Figure 2. Tracks upwind and
downwind of the city were flown at heights from 30 m to 600 m. Tracks on
the west are I, 2, and 3. On the east is Track 11, on the north is Track 10,
northeast is Track 14, and south is Track 4.
Figure 2 also shows the location of pilot balloon sites, at which wind
measurements were taken. Site 1 was at the center of the city, Site A was
on the northwest, Site x was at Goodyear on the southwest, and Sity y was on
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Figure 1. Landsat photo of South-Central Arizona.
(Phoenix area boxed in).
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KEY TO FIGURE 2
Pilot Balloon Sites
1 County Health Building
A American Graduate School
x Goodyear
y Mesa
Tower Sampling Sites
A American Graduate School
B Parker Residence
C Page Residence
D Indian Reservation
E Mesa
F Chandler
County Sampling Sites
1 Central Phoenix (County Health Building)
2 South Phoenix
3 Arizona State Capitol
4 Glendale Community College
5 West Phoenix
8 Scottsdale Fire Station
14 Paradise Valley Pump Station
E Mesa (County Site #9)
F Chandler (County Site #16)
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CN-
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the east, just southeast of Mesa. Also shown on the right-hand margin of
Figure 2 is a W for Williams Air Force Base, where some additional samplers
were installed. The contour lines for 1,000 ft, 1,200 ft, and 1,400 ft
elevations are outlined and marked with the respective altitudes.
This Landsat photo not only shows the municipal area and the agricultural
greenbelt, but it also shows the location of the mountains that hem in Phoenix
and affect the wind patterns. The whole area forms a large air drainage basin,
with a gentle slope following the rivers down from the east to the west. The
drainage funnels between the White Tank Mountains on the west edge of Figure 2
and the Sierra Estrella, which is the rugged mountain range just south of
Site C. Within Phoenix, the drainage is fan-shaped, flowing down the Salt
River bed from Mesa to Site C, and down from the Phoenix mountains in the
northeast toward Site C. On the west side, the drainage wind flows down the
bed of the Agua Fria. These drainage wind directions are shown in Figures 3
and 4 (taken from N. S. Berman and K. B. de Laney, "Atmospheric Modeling for
Phoenix, Arizona", Report ERC-R-75009, Arizona State Univ., Tempe, May 1975).
The night winds (east to west flow) become evident at about 8 p.m. and last
until early morning. The day winds (west to east flow) develop near noon
and last until after sunset.
Some landmarks can be identified in the photo for orientation. Cutting
diagonally through the city from Sites 4, 5, and 3 is Grand Ave., or Highway 60.
Just to the east of Site 3 is a city grid that is bisected by Central Ave.,
the main north-south street. At the north end of Central Ave. is North
Mountain; at its south end is South Mountain. Just south of Site 1 is
Van Buren St., the main east-west street. Just east of Site 5 is Freeway 17,
which runs north into the desert. Just west of Site 8 is Scottsdale Rd., which
also runs north into the desert. Barely visible south of Track 10 is Bell Rd.,
the northern corporate limit of Phoenix. Just west of Track 11 can be seen the
edge of the checkerboard pattern of irrigation in the Salt River Indian
Reservation and the gray residential area of Scottsdale. Site E is in Mesa,
1 Since the units of foot and mile (English System of Units) were used on the
standard charts used for this project, these units have been used throughout
this report for the sake of consistency. For conversion to the International
System of Units, see the conversion table (Table Number 52).
10
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a city of 100,000 population. Just south of Site E is Highway 60, which runs
through Tempe and Mesa to the east. Site x is just south of the town of
Goodyear on the west side of the photo. North of Site x can be seen the
trace of Highway 80 on the west, and the runway of Phoenix-Litchfield Airport
at Goodyear. Northeast of Track 3 can be seen the runways of Litchfield Air
Force Base. Several dry river beds can also be seen. Just east of Track 1
is the dry Agua Fria riverbed running north-south. It is tributary to the
Gila River, which enters from the south at Site C between two mountain ranges
and flows to the west, south of Goodyear. The Salt River enters from the
east side of the photo, just north of Mesa, flows across the southern part
of Phoenix between Sites 2 and 3, and joins the Gila River just south of
Site C. Just east of Site C can be seen the black track of water in the Salt
River. Also visible on the photo are some irrigation canals. The Arizona
Canal is a thin, black track that runs just north of Site D in the Indian
Reservation, curves in an arc around the southeast edge of the Phoenix
mountains, and runs off toward Site A in the northwest part of Phoenix.
DESCRIPTION OF TOWER SAMPLING SITES
The sampling towers were located in green areas outside the city.
Unpaved dirt roads were avoided. The following descriptions note any nearby
possible sources of dust.
American Graduate School
Greenway Road & 59th Avenue, Glendale
A 30 m sampling tower was installed on the grounds of the American Graduate
School for Foreign Management. The tower was located 100 ft from a yard to the
southeast which is unpaved and has occasional car and truck traffic, and 50 ft
from Greenway Road to the north which is paved but has a wide unpaved shoulder.
Sometimes dust was observed when cars drive on the shoulder. To the northeast
is a sparse residential area on the desert, and to the west are agricultural
fields. No agricultural activity was noted during the sampling period.
Parker Residence
83rd Avenue north of Bethany Home Road
A 30 m sampling tower was installed in a grassy field near the house,
150 ft east of 83rd Ave. An unpaved driveway was on the other side of the
house. 83rd Ave. has unpaved shoulders. To the west was a cotton field.
13
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There was no agricultural activity nearby during the period, except for a
few grazing cattle.
Page Residence
102nd Avenue & Southern Avenue
A 30 m sampling tower was installed in a grassy field 150 ft east of
the house, 100 ft north of Southern Ave. Southern Ave. has unpaved shoulders.
No nearby agricultural activity was noted during the period.
Indian Reservation
Alma School Road & Chapparal Avenue
This site is located about 2 miles east of the boundary of Scottsdale,
1/2 mile from the northeast edge of the irrigated farm region of the Salt
River Indian Tribe. A 30 m tower was installed inside a fenced storage area,
about 100 ft east of a water tank that is 8 m high. This fenced area was
surrounded by cotton fields, but there was minimal agricultural activity
during the period. The fenced area is unpaved, but we observed only occasional
traffic within the area. The nearby roads have unpaved shoulders. One mile
west of the site is a 1/2 mile section of Chapparal Rd. that is unpaved.
Large quantities of dust were observed to be generated by traffic on this
section of road, and they could have reached the tower when wind was from the
west.
Mesa Water Tower
3rd Place & Center Avenue, Mesa
A fenced area contains the existing County sampling equipment and a
large water tower that was used on which to mount samplers. The site is
unpaved, but had no internal traffic. To the southeast is a city park, and
the area to the west is grassy residential. To the north is a fenced area
containing municipal maintenance buildings and a recycling center with an
unpaved parking area. The site is near the center of a city of 100,000
population, close to the intersection of University and Center.
Chandler Water Tower
East Chicago Avenue & Delaware Street
A fenced area contains the municipal maintenance yard and two water
towers. Our samplers were mounted on one tower. The yard is unpaved and
had some truck traffic. The site is on the southeast edge of Chandler.
14
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The area to the north and west is residential. The area to the southeast is
agricultural, including a small feedlot 1/2 mile away. Adjacent to the tower
in this direction is a small railroad yard that had little observed activity,
although it is unpaved.
DESCRIPTION OF COUNTY SAMPLING SITES
Some of the sites used are existing sites of the Maricopa County Health
Dept. and were used with their kind cooperation.
Central Phoenix
1825 East Roosevelt, Phoenix
This site is on the roof of the County Health Building, height 10 m.
To the east is a city park, to the west a paved parking lot, and the surroundings
are residential. Streets are paved to the cui'b.
South Phoenix
4732 South Central Avenue, Phoenix
This site is on the roof of project LEAP building, height 10 m. The
surrounding area is commercial. It is at an elevation of 1,205 ft on the
slope leading to South Mountain.
Arizona State Cap ito1
1740 West Adams Street, Phoenix
The site is on the roof of a one-story building in the State Capitol
area, height about 7 m. Although the immediate surroundings are grassy, the
site is surrounded by an industrial or commercial area.
Glendale Community College
6000 West Olive Street, Glendale
This site is on the roof of a college building, height 8 m. It is on
the north edge of the City of Glendale in a residential area.
West Phoenix.
Grand Canyon College, 3300 West Camelback, Phoenix
The samplers are mounted above the ground on the college campus. The
samplers are completely surrounded by wooden buildings forming a small square.
The site is located east of the busy Grand Ave. and west of Freeway 17. It is
also east of a very large unpaved railroad yard that parallels Grand Ave.
15
-------
Scottsdale
2857 North Miller Road, Scottsdale
The site is on the roof of the fire station, height 8 m. It is surrounded
by a grassy residential area. It is about 2 miles west of the boundary of the
Indian Reservation agricultural area.
Mesa (E on Figure 2)
3rd Place and Center Avenue, Mesa
This is the same site previously described under Tower E. The County
samplers are mounted on legs at 1.5m height above a small cement pad in an
unpaved, fenced lot next to a small building.
Paradise Valley Pumping Station
3546 East Sweetwater Road, Phoenix
The pumping station is a fenced area containing a large water tank about
8 m high. The sampler is mounted at 2 m height. The lot is unpaved, as is
the surrounding terrain. It is 30 m west of an unpaved side road, and 1/4 mile
north of an unpaved main road. In the late afternoon of 19 November, a low-
lying inversion layer was seen to contain visible dust covering the whole
Paradise Valley area. The dust was observed to be generated by automobile
traffic on unpaved roads.
Chandler Police Building (F on Figure 2)
250 East Commonwealth Avenue
This site is located two blocks north of the Chandler tower Site F. The
sampler is on the roof at 10 m height. The area to the west is residential,
and to the east are agricultural fields. No nearby agricultural activity was
observed during the period.
16
-------
SECTION 5
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS METHODS
SAMPLING STRATEGIES
The four types of stationary (ground-based) particle samplers employed
in the study were operated for six hours on each of the five sampling days.
Sampling time periods were chosen to take advantage of the wind flow patterns
of Phoenix. Two sampling days were chosen to place sampling sites on the
western edge of Phoenix downwind of the city's activities — i.e., night wind
patterns (6 a.m. to noon). Two sampling days were chosen to place eastern
sampling sites downwind of Phoenix — i.e., daywind patterns (noon to 6 p.m.).
By comparing particle types at the individual sites from day to day, it was
possible to determine whether atmospheric particle concentrations were due
mainly to localized sources or wind transport of particles from long-range
sources. A fifth sampling period was chosen during late night hours
(10 p.m. to 6 a.m.) to determine if particle sources other than those seen
in day and early evening hours were contributing to the high TSP levels in
Phoenix.
A helicopter-borne particle sampler performed sampling during the same
time periods in which the ground-based samplers were operating. In addition,
the helicopter performed sampling on one day during which no ground-based
samplers were operating. Helicopter runs were made in tracks upwind and
downwind of the city, perpendicular to the wind direction.
Sections 6 through 11 of this report contain the sampling conditions
and analyses data for each of the six sampling periods.
SAMPLER TYPES
Due to the limited numbers of the various types of samplers available
for use in the study and occasional equipment failures, different stationary
17
-------
sampler types were operated at different sites during the five sampling days.
Table 1 indicates the types of samplers operated at each site for each date.
Descriptions of the four ground-based particle sampler types and the helicopter-
borne particle sampler are given below.
High Volume (Hi-Vol) Samplers
The standard EPA high volume samplers were deployed at most of the
sampling sites each day. A sampler consists of a tared, 8-inch by 10-inch
glass fiber filter through which ambient air is drawn by a vacuum pump. The
sampler is mounted in a protective housing. Flow rates through each sampler
were measured and reported in IITRI Report C6333C05-1.
Andersen Samplers
The standard seven stage (eight stages including the back-up filter)
Andersen size fractionating impactors deployed at the tower sampling sites
were slightly modified for this study. Three stages (numbers 1, 3, and 5
in most cases) were eliminated to permit collection of weighable masses of
particles during the relatively short sampling time periods.
Three types of collection substrates were used. Stages 0 and 2 used
90 mm diameter greased (Apiezon brand) aluminum foil discs. Stages 4 and 6
used ungreased aluminum foil discs. The final back-up filter was a cellulose
ester membrane filter (Mi.1.1 ipore brand). Air flow rates through the individual
Andersen samplers varied; thus, particle diameter cut-off size for each stage
varied from sampler to sampler. These cut-off sizes were determined for each
sampler and were reported in IITRI Report C6333C05-1.
Battelle Samplers
Low-volume, size fractionating, single jet impactors, developed by
Battelle Labs, were employed at some tower and county sampling sites on some
sampling days. In most instances, the samplers were used as designed —
five impaction stages with a final back-up filter as a sixth stage. However,
at some sites, two additional stages — 00 and 0 — were added to provide
further size separation of the larger particles.
Collection substrates again varied from stage to stage. Stages 00, 0, 1,
and 2 were grenst'd (Apic/.on brand) one—inch diameter glass discs. Stages 3,
18
-------
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19
-------
4 and 5 were ungreased, one-inch glass discs. A polycarbonate (Nuclepore
brand) membrane served as the final back-up filter.
Air flow through the samplers was restricted by a critical orifice to
1.05 fc/min. Cut-off sizes for each stage at this flow rate were 16, 8, 4,
2, 1, 0.5, and 0.25 pm for stages 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively.
Dichotomous Samplers
This sampler uses the principle of virtual impaction to fractionate
the aerosol. Particles with a mean diameter greater than 3.5 pm (coarse
fraction) and less than 3.5 urn (fine fraction) are collected on separate
37 mm diameter Teflon filters, and subsequently analyzed by X-ray
fluorescence spectromctry. Quartz fiber filters are used to collect
a total, unfractionated sample.
Six of these samplers were available for this study. Most of
these samplers were deployed at county sampling sites.
Helicopter-borne Samplers
A modified sampling head designed for attachment to a standard hi-vol
vacuum pump was developed by EPA personnel. The sampling head, which held
a tared, 4-inch diameter glass fiber filter disk, was mounted on a rack
on the side of the EPA helicopter. The rack pivoted so that it could
be swung outside the helicopter boundary layer during sampling.
MASS CONCENTRATION DETERMINATIONS
3
Mass concentration data for TSP, expressed as pg/m , are given in
tables in Sections 6 through 11 for the various types of samplers used.
Methods of determining the data are described below, according to sampler
type.
Hi-Volume Samplers
Although sampling time periods were short, weighable masses of
particles were collected on the glass fiber filters. From the weighed
mass and known sampling rate and period of time, mass concentration
was calculated.
Andersen Samplers
In, most instances, weighable masses of particles were collected on each
stage; therefore, mass concentrations in each particle size fraction were
20
-------
calculated. Minimum ni.iss loadings ontlie final hark-up filters were determined
by X-ray fluorescence analysis.
Battelle Samplers
Sufficient masses of particles were not collected on any of the sampler
stages for gravimetric determination. Therefore, no mass concentration data
was available for samples collected by this type of impactor.
Dichotomous Samplers
Mass determinations on the coarse and fine stage samples were made by
gravimetric- analysis.
Helicopter-borne Samplers
Although weighable particle masses were collected on many of the filter
samples, the appearance of torn filter edges, metal fragments, and negative
masses for some filters rendered many of the gravimetric determinations
unreliable. All samples were examined by optical microscopy; estimates of
mass loading on samples with unreliable gravimetric mass determinations were
made by microscopic observation of numbers of particles present and particle
size. If microscopic mass estimates had not been performed, there would have
been insufficient data to calculate mass flux at heights above 30 m.
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATION
1 f
The majority of the particle samples collected in the study were sub-
mitted for microscopical analysis. The purpose of the microscopical analysis
was to identify the particles and, where possible, relate particles to sources.
Both optical and scanning electron microscopy were employed for identification.
Particle samples collected on glass fiber filters (hi-vol and helicopter
samples) were prepared for optical microscopic analysis by immersing small,
wedge-shaped sections cut from the filters in an organic liquid with a
refractive index which matched the refractive index of the glass fibers (1.546),
The glass fibers were thus rendered invisible, and the deposited particles
were easily viewed by polarized light microscopy. A cover glass was placed
on the immersed section to complete the mounting.
The first four stages (00, 0, 1, and 2) of the Battelle impactor samples
were coated with (Apiezon brand) grease. The grease is crystalline, which
21
-------
interferes with particle analysis by polarized light microscopy. These
samples were warmed on a hot plate to melt the grease and eliminate the
interference. Final stages 3, 4, and 5 were not coated with grease and
could be examined without warming. The final polycarbonate membrane
(Nuclepore brand) filter was analyzed only by scanning electron microscopy.
Hi-vol sections were prepared for scanning electron microscopy by
carbon coating the specimens to minimize charging effects.
Each of these sample preparation techniques preserves the samples as
collected and minimizes alterations in morphology and particle size.
Aerosols collected by the Andersen impactors were submitted for microscopic
analysis but could not be examined microscopically because they were col-
lected on greased, aluminum foil. Attempts to remove the particles from
the foil substrate were unsuccessful. Results of the microscopic analyses
are described in Sections 6 through 11.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES
Samples not submitted for microscopic analysis — Andersen final filters
and the samples collected by the dichotomous samplers — were analyzed by
x-ray fluorescence techniques. These analyses were performed by EPA personnel
at the U.S. EPA Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory. Results of these
analyses are included in the following sections of this report.
WIND MEASUREMENTS
The wind vs. height was measured at up to four locations during each
sampling period by observing the ascent of pilot balloons. The locations are
shown in Figure 2. The resulting speeds and directions at each height were
shown in Report C6333C05-1 (Data Report). Averages for each day are given
in this report. These wind data were used to compute the mass flux during
each sampling period.
The method of wind measurement was as follows. Each 30 minutes during
the sampling period, a pilot balloon was released and tracked by a theodolite.
The balloon was filled with helium until it would just lift a 30 g weight,
and the weight was removed before release. At night, the balloon was fitted
with a battery-operated light. The rate of ascent was known from previous
22
-------
calibrations, and so measurement at only one ground location was needed to
determine the wind direction and speed. Azimuth and inclination angles were
recorded each 30 sec, and the wind data were input to a computer program that
calculates the wind speed and direction. Each data point represents the
average within a 200 m range of elevation centered on the height given;
e.g., the values at 50 m represent the average from 0 to 100 m.
In the following sections, tables are given showing the average wind
profile at each site, and also the average over all the sites for each day.
The averaging was done by computer. A vector average speed and direction
was computed by resolving each wind profile into speed components in the x-
and y-directions, and summing these algebraically. The resultant direction
was then computed from tan (y/x), and the vector average speed (root-mean-square)
was computed. The arithmetic average speed was also computed. It was not
used in the mass flux calculations. It is generally higher than the vector
average because it does not take into account the effect of varying wind
direction, both at different times and different sites. It shows the largest
difference from the vector average on days when the wind direction was variable,
such as 25 November.
On days when the sampling period did not coincide exactly with the
duration of the drainage wind, a few wind measurements toward the end of the
sampling period were excluded from the average. This was done so that the
average wind profile would not be influenced by a brief period when the
drainage wind had turned around. The actual time period included in the
average is denoted on the wind profile tables.
Since the particulate concentration varies rapidly within the first 100 m,
it is desirable to have additional data on winds at ground level. Available
cup-anemometer readings from the Maricopa County Health Dept. monitoring
stations are accurate to + 1 m/sec only during winds greater than 2 m/sec.
Since these ground wind measurements did not help during periods of light
winds, they were not included in this report.
At one site (Goodyear), surface winds were measured by taking an initial
sighting of the balloon. These surface winds are recorded on the tables in
Report C6333C05-1, and the average is given in this report.
23
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SECTION 6
FIRST SAMPLING PERIOD - MONDAY, 17 NOV. 1975, NOON TO 6:00 P.M.
MASS FLUX DETERMINATIONS
The wind profiles in Tables 2 and 3 are averages for the afternoon after
1300 hrs. Drainage wind is usually from east in the morning and west in the
afternoon. Sampling began at noon, but the drainage wind did not turn around
until 1300 hrs; in the first 100 m the drainage wind was 1 m/sec from 90°
until 1300 hrs. At heights above 800 m there was a steady synoptic wind of
3 m/sec from 240° (SW). This penetrated to the surface after 1330 hrs, since
it was in the same direction as the afternoon drainage wind.
Temperature data in Figure 5 show isothermal (mixed) conditions to
heights of 250 m at 1220 hrs. At 1512 hrs the first 80 m showed surface
heating.
The helicopter data are presented in Table 4. These data also indicate
well-mixed conditions upwind, to 300 m height. The nephelometer trace shows
peaks that can be associated with agricultural dust plumes. Downwind, the
average concentration is higher, and decreases with height. The nephelometer
shows the opposite trend with height. The nephelometer is sensitive to
particles of size near the wavelength of light, and apparently it shows that
a plume of these fine particles mixes to at least 300 m height downwind of the
city. The coarser particles measured by the filter mass decrease with height
because of settling.
Table 5 summarizes the mass concentrations measured by both ground and
tower samplers and the helicopters. The concentrations for each height
measured by each method are averaged in Table 6 and multiplied by the wind
2
speed to compute the mass flux per m of air flow entering and leaving the
city. The data in the last column show that there is no measurable change
24
-------
TABLE 2. AVERAGE WIND PROFILE FOR 17 NOVEMBER, 1975
1300 to 1730 Hrs
Vector Average
Height
m
50
100
ISO
200
250
500
350
400
150
500
5§8
600
650
700
750
800
650
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
itoo
1250
1100
1350
uoo
U50
1500
1550
uoo
1650
1700
1750
1SOO
1S50
1000
mo
2000
Speed
m/sec
Ul
1.4
.2
.2
.£
.4
,5
.9
2.0
2.4
1.7
3.1
3. tt
J.7
3,9
4.2
4.9
4,8
1.2
5.5
5,8
6,1
6,4
6.8
7.0
7.3
7,«
7.6
7.7
T.
.
•
•
«
.2
.5
.7
10.1
10.9
10.9
Direction
Degrees
243.4
240.4
233.9
230,6
230.5
22«,4
228.6
?29,3
230.4
229,5
228.6
229.4
230,7
231.3
231.0
232.0
233.2
231.1
229,1
227.5
226,2
221.5
225.0
224.5
222.6
2iO.
218.
216.
215.
214.
212.1
211.2
212.0
211.3
210.1
209.3
209.7
209,6
211.4
210.2
Arithmetic
Average
Speed
m/sec
1.5
U9
1.6
1.7
i.a
1.9
1.9
2.1
2.4
2.7
3.1
3.4
3.6
3.6
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.3
5.5
s.s
6.2
6.5
6.9
7.1
7.4
7.6
7.7
7.9
8.1
8,6
8.7
8,7
9,0
9,4
9.7
9,9
10,2
11.1
11.2
25
-------
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26
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700
c
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500
300
100
26 28
TEMPERATURE, °C
Figure 5. Height vs. Temperature, 17 November, 1975.
27
-------
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-------
TABLE 6. MASS FLUX FOR 17 NOVEMBER, 1975
Height,
m
Upwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-500
Downwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-500
Central
10
199.
175.
75.
100.
105.
318.
320.
13A.
112.
102.
176.
Wind,
m/sec
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.8
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.8
Mass Flux
mg/sec-m2
20
18
09
,12
19
32
,32
,15
,13
,18
30
-------
in mass flux in the layer 200-500 m, but at lower heights the mass
flux is greater leaving the city than entering it.
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Upwind Helicopter Samples
Upwind (Track 1) samples contained primarily large, angular mineral
particles, typical of the area west of Phoenix. Clays, humus, and minerals
less than 5 ym were also present but did not constitute the bulk of the
sample mass. Trace to minor concentrations or rubber tire dust and fine
carbonaceous particles (typical of tailpipe emissions) were present. In
addition, recrystallized (ammonium) sulfate needles were present in minor
to major concentrations.
Particle sizes and type concentrations varied with altitude. As expected,
rubber tire particles decreased in numbers with increasing altitude, while the
smaller clay particles and fine carbonaceous material increased. At 30 m, the
bulk of the sample mass rested in 15-25 ym particles while at 150 m and 305 m,
the bulk of the mass was in the 5-10 ym particles.
Downwind Helicopter Samples
Downwind (Track 11) samples also contained primarily mineral particles.
As with most of the ground sites east of Phoenix, the helicopter sampler
showed lower concentrations of calcite and biotite mica and higher concen-
trations of iron oxides and iron-rich clays compared to samples taken west
of Phoenix. In addition to the mineral differences, downwind samples showed
higher concentrations of rubber tire particles, fine carbonaceous material
(tailpipe emissions), and recrystallized sulfate needles. Total mass loadings
were only slightly higher at the downwind sites. Particle sizes tended to
be small. At 30 m, the bulk of the sample mass rested in the 5-15 ym particles;
at 150 m and 305 m, the sample mass shifted to the 5-10 ym particles.
Particle size was the major difference between upwind and downwind
samples. The downwind particles tended to be smaller and did not follow the
upwind trend of decreasing particle size with increasing altitude.
31
-------
Upwind (West) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site A. American Graduate School, 216 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of large mineral particles (quartz,
feldspars, mica, calcite), many of which were coated with clays and clay
aggregates. Humus clumps (black soil) constituted a trace to minor con-
stituent. Biological materials — mostly trichomes and spores — also
represented a very trace component. Automobile emissions, including rubber
tire dust,were present as a minor sample component.
Particle size on a number basis was small — 4 ym. On a mass basis,
however, approximately 40% of the sample mass was greater than 15 ym, and
50% in the 5-15 ym range.
The majority of the mineral particles were not sharp, angular, and clean-
surfaced. While clean, angular quartz particles were present, they represented
only a small portion of the mineral particles present. Rather, the minerals
tended to have rounded edges and irregular surfaces. Most of the large
minerals had clays adhering in clumps to the surface.
3
Site B. Parker Residence, 214 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of large mineral particles (quartz,
feldspars, mica, calcite), some of which were coated with clays. Clay
aggregates and humus together represented a major portion of the sample.
Pollens, spores, trichomes, and a few cotton fibers were present in very
trace concentrations. Rubber tire dust and tailpipe emissions were present
in minor to major concentrations.
Modal particle size was approximately 4 ym. Approximately 50% of the
sample mass was in the greater than 15 ym particles and 40% in the 5-15 ym
particles.
Parker showed a stronger automobile influence than American Graduate
School — more and larger rubber tire particles, a higher percentage of
clean, sharp, angular quartz particles, and fewer clay aggregates.
3
Site 5. West Phoenix, 239 yg/m
The large minerals were again the primary sample components, with clay
and humus aggregates contributing a major portion of the sample mass. The
32
-------
biological particles were present in trace concentrations. Rubber tire dust
and tailpipe emissions together were a minor to major component. In addition,
some type of incinerator was operating nearby, as evidenced by charred paper
fragments, iron oxide aggregates, and partially fused glassy fly ash material.
The incinerator contribution to the mass loading was very small.
Modal particle size was larger than both of the other west sites for
this date — V5 um. The higher mass loading at West Phoenix can be attributed
to a higher number (and therefore mass) percent of the larger diameter parti-
cles. Approximately 55% of the sample mass was in the greater than 15 ym
particles.
Compared to the two other west sites sampled on the 17th, West Phoenix
showed a much stronger automobile influence. Many of the minerals and rubber
tire particles appear to have been re-entrained several times, as evidenced
by the gouged surfaces of the tire particles and the rough surface texture
of the minerals.
Downwind (East) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site D. Indian Reservation, 407 ug/m
The sample was primarily minerals (quartz, feldspars) and clay aggregates.
The clays coating other mineral particles and the clay aggregates were quite
red in color, indicating a high iron content. Biological particles were mostly
trichomes and moth scales. A few large pieces of shredded plant tissue and
cotton fibers were present. These biological particles, together with the
few small fertilizer particles seen, constituted a trace component of the
sample. Tailpipe emissions and rubber tire particles were a minor sample
component.
Particle size was fairly large. Approximately 45% of the sample mass
was in the greater than 15 um particles with 45% in the 5-15 um range.
Overall, the majority of the mineral particles showed rounded edges with
irregular, clay-coated surfaces. Very few clean, sharp, angular quartz
particles were present. The amount of rubber tire dust (especially the
large fragments) seemed high for the few numbers of sharp, angular, quartz
particles.
33
-------
Compared to the west sites, the Indian Reservation showed higher con-
centrations of clay aggregates. The iron content of these clays also appeared
high. The mineral fragments were more heavily coated with clays. Mica con-
centrations were lower. Rubber tire particles were considerably larger than
any seen at the west sites.
3
Site 8. Scottsdale, 221 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of large mineral particles — quartz,
feldspars, micas. Clay aggregates were a major component. Together, tri-
chomes, shredded plant tissue, and cotton fibers represented a very trace
component. Automobile emissions were a major sample component. Rubber tire
particles were quite large and numerous; however, the amount of the fine,
black tailpipe emissions seen was relatively small compared to the rubber
tire concentration. All types of particles were very large. Approximately
55% by mass were greater than 15 ym with 40% in the 5-15 ym range.
Compared to the Indian Reservation, the clay concentration was much
lower while the rubber tire concentration was higher. A higher percentage
of the quartz particles were clean and angular. Clay coatings were less
frequent and less thick on the Scottsdale minerals. These findings suggest
that there are fewer unpaved roads for autos to travel over in the Scottsdale
area compared to the Indian Reservation.
Compared to the west sites, Scottsdale showed the higher iron content
clays and minerals as did the Indian Reservation. Total clay concentrations
were lower at Scottsdale than they were at Parker and American Graduate
School, while rubber tire concentration was higher.
3
Site 9. Mesa, 157 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of large mineral particles — quartz,
calcite, feldspars, mica. Clay was only a minor sample component. Very
few biological particles, representing a very trace component, were present.
Rubber tire dust was a major sample component; tailpipe emissions were low
however, compared to the numbers and size of the rubber tire dust.
Particle size was large: approximately 60% of the particles by mass
were greater than 15 ym.
34
-------
The Mesa sample was more similar in composition to Scottsdale than the
Indian Reservation. Clay concentrations were lower, rubber tire dust con-
centrations were higher, and the percentage of clean, angular quartz, calcite,
and other mineral particles vs. the clay— coated, rounded ones was higher than
at the Indian Reservation. Iron concentration should be even lower at Mesa
compared to Scottsdale, due to fewer clay aggregates.
Site F. Chandler, 552
The sample was primarily minerals and clay. Biological particles,
though present in larger numbers and larger sizes than at any other site,
still represented only a trace sample component. Trichomes were the main
type of biological particle present with plant tissue, spores and pollens,
and cotton fibers in decreasing order of abundance. No fertilizer particles
were noted. Iron oxides, including magnetite species, were present in minor
concentrations; particle morphology indicated that soil was their primary
source. Automobile emissions were a very minor component of the sample.
A local incinerator was also contributing trace quantities of burnt paper
fibers, carbonaceous flakes, soot balls, and glassy fly ash aggregates to
the sample.
Particle size and type of this Chandler sample were more similar to
the Indian Reservation than to any of the other west sites. Clay concen-
trations were high, and the majority of the mineral particles were irregular-
surfaced, round-edged with clay coatings, again suggesting more bare,
undeveloped ground present compared to Scottsdale.
Site 16. Chandler, 485 Mg/m3
Quartz, feldspars, mica, and calcite were the primary components of
this sample. Clay was a major sample component. Biological particles were
present in trace concentrations. Iron oxides represented a minor portion
of the sample. Automobile emissions were a minor to major sample component.
Compared to the tower Chandler site (F) , the automobile emissions were
higher. Higher percentages of quartz, clean, angular mineral particles,
and lower percentages of clay aggregates were the major 'differences between
the two Chandler sites. While Site 16 contained approximately 30% fewer
35
-------
particles than the F site, the larger particle sizes at 16 kept the mass
loading high.
Central Hi-vol Filter Samples
3
Site 1. Central Phoenix, 112 yg/m
The sample contained primarily quartz, feldspars, and mica particles.
Clay was a minor to major component. Very few biological particles (mostly
trichomes) were present. Automobile emissions were a minor to major component.
Unlike most central city sites, the Central Phoenix site was not heavily
loaded with fine carbonaceous material indicative of heavy automobile traffic.
Many of the quartz particles were sharp, clean, and angular. Most of
the other minerals, however, had more rounded edges but highly broken,
roughened surfaces. Some of the minerals were seen to have carbonaceous
material and clays embedded in surface gouges, suggesting re-entrainment.
Particle size was smaller than at most of the other sites. Approximately
45% of the particles by mass were greater than 15 urn with 15% less than 5 ym.
The mineral and clay types were more similar to the west sites than the
east sites. Large flakes of mica, seen in abundance at the west sites and
less frequently at the east sites, were present in abundance at Central Phoenix.
The clay aggregates present were identical to those seen at the west sites.
Possibly some transport of materials indigenous to the western Phoenix soil
was occurring.
3
Site 2. South Phoenix, 206 yg/m
The sample was primarily quartz and feldspars. Mica and calcite were
each major components. Clay aggregates were a minor to major sample com-
ponent. Trichomes and paper fibers together represented a trace concentration
of biological materials in the sample. Automobile emissions were present in
major concentrations.
Particle size was the smallest at this site compared to the other
sampling sites. Approximately 40% of the particles by mass were greater than
15 ym while 20% were less than 5 pm.
As with Central Phoenix, a. high percentage of the mineral particles showed
sharp, angular edges, and extremely mangled surfaces. Particle size was smaller
36
-------
than at Central Phoenix. More clay aggregates were present. While the
mineral composition was more similar to the west sites vs. the east sites
(as was the case for Central Phoenix), fewer and smaller mica particles were
present.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES
Tables 7 and 8 present elemental concentrations, as determined by x-ray
fluorescence, for the dichotomous samples and Andersen final filters,
respectively. It should be emphasized that the Andersen final filters con-
tain only those particles smaller than 0.8 ym.
37
-------
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TABLE 8. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES OF ANDERSEN I
(Concentration, ug/n
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39
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SECTION 7
SECOND SAMPLING PERIOD - TUESDAY, 18 NOV. 1975, 11:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M.
MASS FLUX DETERMINATIONS
A storm center was passing by with winds from the west. At 1100 hrs,
the surface wind was light from the southwest. At 1130 hrs, the wind increased
suddenly to 3 m/sec from the west (230°) at the County Building, 9 m/sec at
Goodyear, and 11 m/sec at Glendale. This synoptic wind was in the same
direction as the expected drainage wind, and in any case was strong enough
to obscure any normal drainage wind.
Tables 9 and 10 show average wind profiles for the afternoon. Figure 6
shows that there was a normal lapse rate for these wind conditions.
Helicopter data presented in Table 11 show considerable variation between
^runs. Nephelometer data show peaks indicating local dust sources for the 30 m
run. Downwind nephelometer concentrations are the same as upwind, suggesting
that with these wind conditions the city was not the major source of fines.
Table 12 summarizes the mass concentrations from all types of samplers.
Table 13 presents calculated mass flux for each height increment. The mass
flux up to 50 m is greater downwind than upwind. Above 50 m there is no
difference in flux upwind and downwind of the city.
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Upwind Helicopter Samples
The Track 1 upwind samples varied in composition at the various altitudes
and sampling times. In all samples, minerals typical of the west Phoenix
area were the primary component. Trace to minor concentrations of rubber tire
dust and tailpipe emissions together constituted a minor sample component.
These components did tend to decrease with increasing sampling altitude, and
40
-------
TABLE 9. AVERAGE WIND PROFILE FOR 18 NOVEMBER, 1975
1100 to 1700 Hrs
Vector Average
Height
m
50
too
150
200
250
300
350
aoo
aso
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
1*00
1650
1900
1950
2000
Speed
in/sec
6. 4
7.9
7.5
7.3
7,6
7.8
7.*
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.6
7,7
7,7
7,9
*.o
8.1
8.7
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.1
9.3
9.3
9. a
9.4
9.6
9.8
9,9
10,0
10.2
10. a
10,6
8.7
8.7
Direction
Degrees
247.6
2«7. a
246.0
245.9
246.5
246, 5
246.2
245,4
244.4
244.6
244.9
244.4
243.5
242.9
242.4
242.0
241,7
240.5
239.0
236.9
235. 5
235.7
234.9
233.2
231.6
230.0
228.9
227.9
226,6
225.7
224.3
?23.7
223.6
223.1
222,1
220.8
219.7
219.3
223.5
224.3
Arithmetic
Average
Speed
m/sec
6.9
8.5
8.0
7,8
8.1
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
6.4
8.3
8.2
6.0
8.1
8.3
8.4
8.5
9.1
9.6
9.5
9.5
9. a
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.5
9.7
9.6
9.9
9.9
10.0
10.1
10.4
10. b
10,5
10.8
11.0
11.1
9.4
9.3
41
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16 18 20
TEMPERATURE, °C
22
24
Figure 6. Height vs. Temperature, 18 November, 1975
43
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TABLE 13. MASS FLUX FOR 18 NOVEMBER, 1975
Height ,
m
Upwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-500
Downwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-500
Central
10
Cone.
ug/m3
186.
138.
80.
59.
60.
222.
310.
112.
53.
-
294.
Wind,
at/sec
5.
5.
6.
7.
7.9
5.
5.
6.
7.
7.9
Mass Flux,
mg/sec-m^
.93
.69
.48
.41
.47
1.11
1.55
.67
.37
-
46
-------
as the day progressed. Clay, humus, and recrystallized sulfate needle
concentrations appeared to vary the most. These materials generally tended
to increase at the lower sampling altitudes as the day progressed.
Particle size did not show the typical trend of decreasing particle size
with increasing altitudes. The early afternoon samples showed similar parti-
cle sizes at 30 m and 244 m; sample mass was mainly in the 15-25 ym particles.
The late afternoon samples showed significantly larger particles with
increasing altitude. At 30 m, the bulk of the sample mass was in the
10-15 ym particles while at 150 m, the 15-25 ym particles predominated.
The Track 3 upwind samples showed slightly different particle types and
significantly smaller particles from the Track 1 upwind samples. Particle
types and size did not vary significantly in this group with increasing
altitude. Sulfate crystals and combusted fragments were higher in concen-
tration in all the Track 3 samples compared to the Track 1 samples. Sample
mass tended to concentrate in the 5-15 ym particles at all altitudes.
Downwind Helicopter Samples
Both Track 11 samples contained primarily large mineral particles, with
smaller amounts of clays and humus. Rubber tire dust, tailpipe emissions,
combustion fragments and fly ash particles together constituted a minor
portion of the sample; however, all these materials were present at higher
concentrations than the late afternoon Track 1 samples at the same altitudes.
Particle size did not tend to decrease with increasing altitude; at both
30 and 150 m, the bulk of the sample mass was in the 20-25 ym particles. The
downwind samples also showed larger particle sizes than the late afternoon
upwind samples.
Upwind (West) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site A. American Graduate School, 211 yg/m
The sample was primarily large mineral particles (quartz, feldspars,
mica, and calcite). Clay aggregates were a major sample component. Pollens,
spores, and trichomes together were a trace sample component. Automobile
emissions (mostly rubber tire particles) were a minor sample component.
47
-------
Particle size was quite large. Approximately 60% of the particles were
greater than 15 ym, while 35% were in the 5-15 ym range.
The major differences between this sample and the one collected on the
17th were related to particle size. The fine, discrete clay particles and
fine carbonaceous material seen on the 17th were practically absent on the
}8th. Overall, the particle sizes were much larger than on the 17th. More
biological material was also seen.
3
Site B. Parker, 164 yg/m
Quartz, feldspars, mica, and calcite were the primary sample components.
Clay aggregates were a major sample component. The biological particles —
pollen, spores, and trichomes — were a minor sample component. Automobile
emissions were present in minor concentrations.
The particle size was large; approximately 55% of the particles by mass
were greater than 15 ym with 40% in the 5-15 ym range.
As with the American Graduate School site, the particle size increased
significantly from the 17th to the 18th. Most of the fine clays and carbon-
aceous materials seen on the 17th were absent on the 18th. Biological parti-
cles were larger and more numerous.
Site 5. West Phoenix. 384 yg/m
The sample was primarily minerals and clay aggregates. Biological
materials accounted for less than 0.1% of the sample mass. Automobile emis-
sions (mostly rubber tire dust) were minor to major sample components.
The higher mass in this sample compared to the previous day was due
mainly to higher loadings of the larger particles. By mass, approximately
70% of the particles were greater than 15 ym. Less than 10% of the sample
mass was accounted for by particles below 5 ym.
The mineral particles in general were cleaner and smoother on the surface
compared to the 17th. Heavily gouged minerals coated with carbonaceous parti-
cles were fewer in number. As with the other west sites, concentrations of
fine carbonaceous (tailpipe) material and discrete clay particles were
significantly lower than on the 17th.
48
-------
Downwind (East) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site 8. Scottsdale, 441 yg/m
The sample was primarily large minerals — quartz, feldspars, mica,
and calcite. Clay aggregates were a major component. Biological particles —
trichomes, plant tissues, and cotton fibers — though greater in number than
on the 17th, still represented only a trace sample component. Automobile
emissions — mainly rubber tire dust — represented a minor to major portion
of the sample.
Particle size was large; approximately 70% of the sample by mass was
represented by particles greater than 15 pm.
Compared to the 17th, the sample from the 18th showed higher concentrations
of mica and calcite and lower concentrations of fine carbonaceous material.
The mica and calcite possibly were transported from the western Phoenix area.
Although rubber tire particles were larger and more numerous than on the 17th,
the increased mineral loadings decreased the tire dust's percentage of the
sample mass. The mineral particles were cleaner and more angular than on
the 17th.
As with the upwind sites, the fine materials decreased in concentration
from the 17th. Particle size increases were more dramatic at the downwind
sites compared to the upwind sites.
Site 9. Mesa, 209 yg/m3
The sample was primarily very large minerals — quartz, feldspars,
calcite, and mica. Clay aggregates were a major component. Biological
particles were present in trace concentrations. Rubber tire fragments were
large, numerous, and therefore still constituted a major sample component.
The fine carbonaceous material (tailpipe) was present in trace levels.
Particle size was extremely large. Approximately 80% of the sample
mass was contained in particles greater than 15 ym. In fact, at least half
of that mass was represented by particles greater than 40 ym. Less than 20%
of the mass was accounted for by particles less than 5 ym.
The sample was significantly different from the one collected on the
17th. While the 18th sample contained less than 30% of the number of
49
-------
particles seen on the 17th sample, it contained 30% more mass. The fine
carbonaceous material and discrete clay particles were all but absent on
the 18th. Mica and calcite concentrations were higher on the 18th, again
suggesting transport of these materials from the west Phoenix area.
3
Site F. Chandler, 474 yg/m
Minerals and clay aggregates were the primary materials in the sample.
Biological particles (mostly trichomes and cotton fibers) were present in
very large sizes, but were not numerous enough to constitute more than a
trace component. A local incinerator contributed trace quantities of
carbonaceous flakes and glassy fly ash material. Automobiles contributed
only minor quantities of particles to the sample.
By mass, approximately 65% of the particles were greater than 15 ym with
only 10% of the sample mass in particles less than 5 ym.
As with the other downwind sites, the differences between the 17th and
18th samples were much more dramatic at the downwind (east) than the upwind
(west) sites. At the F Chandler site, in addition to the increase in
particle size (mostly due to the decrease in numbers of fine carbonaceous
material and discrete clay particles), the clay aggregate concentrations
decreased. The mineral particles tended to be more sharp and angular than
on the 17th.
3
Site 16. Chandler, 439 yg/in
This sample was primarily minerals — quartz, feldspars, calcite, and
mica. Clay aggregates were present at minor to major concentrations.
Biological particles were a trace component. Automobile emissions (mostly
rubber tire dust) represented a minor sample portion.
By mass, approximately 70% of the particles were greater than 15 ym
with only 10% of the sample mass in particles below 5 ym in size.
The Site F and Site 16 Chandler samples were closer in composition to each
other on the 18th than they were on the 17th. The Chandler 16 site was the
only downwind (west) site which did not show drastic changes from the 17th.
Fine carbonaceous material and clays were present at very low concentrations
on the 17th and therefore could not decrease drastically on the 18th.
50
-------
Central Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site 1. Central Phoenix, 287 yg/m
The sample was primarily large mineral particles — quartz, feldspars,
and mica. Clay aggregates were present as a major component. Biological
particles (trichomes and cotton fibers), though larger and more numerous than
on the 17th, still constituted only a trace sample component. Automobile
emissions (mostly rubber tire dust) were present as a minor sample component.
Particle sizes were larger than on the 17th. By mass, approximately
60% of the particles were greater than 15 ym and only 5% were less than 5 ym.
Besides the difference in particle size from the 17th, the sample showed
lower clay aggregate and rubber tire particle concentrations. As with all
other samples of the 18th, the concentrations of fine clay particles and fine
carbonaceous materials were tremendously lower on a number basis compared to
the 17th. This decrease in carbonaceous particle concentration did not
represent a decrease in traffic, as the numbers of rubber tire particles and
freshly cleaved quartz particles were similar to the 17th. As with the upwind
sites, sample differences between the 17th and 18th were not as great as those
for the downwind sites.
3
Site 2. South Phoenix, 257 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of large mineral particles and clay
aggregates. Biological particles, though larger and more numerous than on
the 17th, were only a trace component. Automobile emissions contributed only
a minor portion of the sample mass.
Particles were quite large. By mass, 65% of the particles were greater
than 15 ym with less than 5% below 5 ym in size.
Compared to the 17th, more mica and quartz particles were present.
Unlike the 17th, the quartz was the only mineral type to appear as clean,
freshly broken material; most of the other minerals were damaged (some
apparently by chemical attack) and had many other fine particles attached.
The sample did show the decreased fine carbonaceous and clay particle
concentrations. However, unlike Central Phoenix, the South Phoenix site
51
-------
showed the same drastic sample change from the 17th to the 18th as the east
sites showed.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES
Tables 14 and 15 present elemental concentrations, as determined by
x-ray fluorescence, for the dichotomous samples and Andersen final filters,
respectively.
32
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SECTION 8
THIRD SAMPLING PERIOD - FRIDAY, 21 NOV. 1975, 6:00 A.M. TO NOON
MASS FLUX DETERMINATIONS
The normal morning drainage wind was from an easterly direction. Average
profiles are shown in Tables 16 and 17. At Goodyear, the surface wind averaged
1 ra/sec at 90° (E).
The temperature profile, Figure 7, showed a strong inversion to 80 m. A
weaker inversion extended to 280 m at 0715 hr, and to 430 m at 1100 hr. Light
winds of 2 to 4 m/sec were variable easterly from 80 m to about 400 m. A light
synoptic wind from 330° (NW) occurred above 700 m and sometimes penetrated to
300 m, with an occasional layer of 30° wind inside this zone. Turnaround of
the drainage wind occurred early, 1100 to 1130 hr, because of the drag of this
synoptic NW wind. The samplers were set to shut off at noon, however.
Visual observations from South Mountain at 0730 hrs showed a blanket of
brown polluted air over the Phoenix area up to the level of South Mountain,
400 m above the valley (2,300 ft MSL).
Visual observation from the County Building at 0900 hrs showed the brown
polluted air mass being blown out of city to the west; the east and center
side appeared more clear. Carbon monoxide measurements in Table 18 from
County telemetry data also showed the same trend, suggesting a correlation
with automobile traffic.
The helicopter data in Table 19 show moderate mass concentrations
3
(21 to 45 yg/m ) in the early morning, while the nephelometer shows peak
indicating local sources. By noon, the mass concentration had increased
3
to 90 yg/m upwind, and to 137 downwind at 30 m height. The nephelomete
did not increase downwind, however.
55
-------
TABLE 16. AVERAGE WIND PROFILE FOR 21 NOVEMBER, 1975
0600 to 1030 Hrs
Vector Average
Height
m
50
100
550
200
253
300
550
#00
<*50
500
550
feOO
650
700
7*0
see
a§o
900
9ǤS
1000
lose
HOC
1150
1500
1250
tlOO
1350
I iiQG
1450
isoo
1550
IfeOO
1650
1700
17SO
1BOO
1650
1900
1^50
2000
Speed
m/sec
ies
1.2
1,9
Ie9
2.0
3.2
2,3 •
2a4
2*6
1,7
8,7
1.0
1.1
2B2
1.5
Se®
3,9
4,4
«»§
a ,ft
ae 7
4,7
a , 7
4 afe
a, 7
<4 ,6
4 . T
4 6 0
5,1
9*3
5.6
5. a
5,9
6,1
6.2
6,1
6,0
Ss*
6.1
6,0
Direction
Degrees
109.1
105.4
9e.4
87,5
79.4
70.7
58.5
40,6
22,2
11. M
9,5
6.0
2.5
359,5
151.7
152,1
352,1
353, S
151,4
350."
346.0
347.1
344,8
340,4
310,9
319,2
340,6
340,8
317,7
314,0
332.5
129,9
326.2
3i4,
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TEMPERATURE, ° C
Figure 7. Height vs. Temperature, 21 November, 1975.
58
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60
-------
Table 20 summarizes the mass concentrations. Table 21 presents the mass
flux results. In the first 50 m of height, the flux was the same downwind
and upwind. For reasons which have not been determined, the high concentrations
at Chandler contributed to the high upwind values. The flux was greater down-
wind from 50 to 350 m.
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Upwind Helicopter Samples
Most of the Track 11 upwind samples contained primarily small mineral
particles, typical of the east Phoenix area. Calcite concentrations were high
while the clay concentrations were low at the 30 m altitude compared to what
is normally seen in this area. Rubber tire particles and tailpipe emissions
constituted a minor but significant portion of the 30 to 150 m samples;
these materials showed increased concentrations again at 610 m. Recrystallized
sulfate needles also constituted a minor (up to major with increasing altitudes)
portion of the samples. Observation of recrystallized sulfate, rubber tire,
and tailpipe particles suggested that these samples were not truly upwind
samples; an urban air mass was being sampled.
Particle size decreased as the altitude increased from 30 m (5-1-5 urn range)
to 150 m (4-8 ym range). At 305-.m, slightly larger particles were again seen —
5-12 ym range. At 610 m, the particle size decreased slightly, placing the
bulk of the sample in the 5-10 ym range.
Downwind Helicopter Samples
The Track 1 downwind samples contained primarily large mineral particles
and clay aggregates. Rubber tire particles and tailpipe emissions also con-
t
stituted a minor portion of the samples. Except for lower sulfate concentra-
tions, the downwind samples were not significantly different from the upwind
samples, according to particle types.
The particle sizes of the downwind (Track 1) samples were significantly
larger than those of the upwind samples. Particle size increased at 150 m
i
(15-25 ym) compared to 30 m (10-20 ym). At 610 m, the particle -size decreased
again, placing the bulk of the sample mass in the 10-20 ym size range.
-------
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-------
TABLE 21. MASS FLUX FOR 21 NOVEMBER, 1975
Height
m
Upwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-350*
600.
Downwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-350*
Central
10.
Cone.
Mg/m3
242.
175.
91.
43.
36.
27.
228.
133.
94.
87.
58.
243.
Wind
m/sec
1.
1.
1.6
1.9
2.3
1.
1.
1.6
1.9
2.3
Mass Flux
mg/sec-m^
.24
.18
.15
.08
.08
.23
.13
.15
.17
.13
* Inversion height.
63
-------
The Track 11 downwind samples, collected 1.5 to 2 hours after the wind
reversed direction, were more similar in composition to the early morning
Track 11 samples than they were to the later morning downwind Track 1 samples.
Recrystallized sulfate needles were higher in concentration than the Track 1
downwind samples. Particle sizes were also closer to those of the early
morning Track 11 samples. At 30 tn the bulk of the sample mass was in
8-16 ym particles; at 150 m the 5-15 ym size range contained most of the
sample.
Upwind (East) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site 14. Paradise Valley Pumping Station, 433 yg/m
The sample consisted of primarily minerals (mostly feldspars) and clay
aggregates. Mica and calcite were major sample components. Very few biolo-
gical particles of any type were present. Automobile emissions were a major
sample component. Both rubber tire particles and tailpipe emissions were
present.
Approximately 45% of the sample by mass was contained in particles
greater than 15 ym; 40% of the sample mass was in the 5-15 ym particles.
Very few clean-surfaced, highly angular, quartz particles were seen.
The majority of the mineral particles had rounded edges, but were badly
gouged and coated with other particles on the surfaces. Many of the carbonate
particles showed signs of chemical attack.
Particle types were similar to those seen at the east sites, parti-
cularly the Indian Reservation. The clays and many of the minerals showed
high iron content.
3
Site D. Indian Reservation, 182 yg/m
The sample was primarily small minerals (quartz, feldspars) and clay
aggregates. Mica and calcite were present as major sample components.
A few cotton fibers and spores represented a trace biological sample
component. Automobile emissions were a minor sample component.
Overall, particle size was small. By mass, approximately 40% of the
sample mass was present in particles greater than 15 ym. Approximately 50%
of the sample mass was in the 5-15 ym range.
64
-------
Large particles were rounded and were clay-coated. Very few clean,
sharp particles were present.
Compared to the 17th, fewer particles in all size ranges accounted for
the lower mass. The 21st sample was only slightly larger in particle size.
Although the rubber tire dust particles were larger on the 21st, they were
fewer in number. The fine carbonaceous particle concentration was higher
in the sample of the 21st.
3
Site 8. Scottsdale, 179 yg/m
The sample was primarily large minerals (quartz, feldspars, mica) and
clay aggregates. Biological particles were present in trace concentrations.
Automobile emissions were a minor portion of the sample.
Particle size was fairly large. Approximately 65% of the sample mass
was in the particles greater than 15 ym (most of that mass contained in
particles greater than 30 ym) . Approximately 25% of the sample mass was
5-15 ym particles.
Compared to the 17th, mica, clay aggregates, and the fine carbonaceous
particles were present in higher concentrations. Rubber tire particles were
larger but fewer in number compared to the 17th.
Particle size was larger compared to the Indian Reservation. Mineral
type differences were the same between these two sites on the 21st as they
were on the 17th.
Site 9. Mesa, 156 yg/m
The sample was primarily large minerals (quartz, feldspars, mica) and
clay aggregates. Biological particles (mostly trichomes) were few in number.
Automobile emissions — mostly very large rubber tire particles — were a
major sample component.
Particle size was quite large. Approximately 70% of the sample mass was
contained in the particles greater than 15 ym. Less than 5% of the sample
mass was in the particles below 5 ym.
Most of the quartz and feldspar particles were clean and quite angular,
as if they had been freshly cleaved.
65
-------
Particle types were slightly different compared to the 17th. The fine
carbonaceous material was much lower in concentration, while the clay
aggregates were higher in concentration. Particle size was the major dif-
ference. All particle types showed much larger number (and therefore mass)
mean diameters on the 21st compared to the 17th.
3
Site E. Mesa, 178 yg/m
Fine mineral particles (quartz, feldspars, calcite) were the primary
sample components. Clay aggregates and discrete clay particles accounted
for a minor portion of the sample. Few biological particles were seen.
Rubber tire dust and fine carbonaceous material (tailpipe emissions)
together were a major sample component.
Particle sizes were quite small. Approximately 40% of the sample mass
was in particles greater than 15 ym with 50% of the mass in the 5-15 ym
particle size range.
Few clean-surfaced, angular quartz or feldspar particles were seen.
Most of the mineral particles had rounded edges and were coated with clay
particles and fine carbonaceous debris.
The tower sample was quite different from the Mesa county (9) sample
for this date. Both particle types and sizes made this sample more similar
to the 17th Mesa tower sample.
jSite_F_. Chandler., 433 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of mineral particles and clay aggregates.
Although biological particles were large and numerous (especially cornstarch
particles), they represented only a trace of the sample mass. Automobile
emissions were a minor component. A low efficiency incinerator contributed
trace concentrations of partially burned paper fibers, carbonaceous flakes
and balls, and glassy fly ash material.
Approximately 40% of the particles by mass were greater than 15 ym with
15% of the particles below 5 urn.
Except for a few quartz particles, the majority of the mineral particles
showed rounded edges and were coated with clay and carbonaceous material.
66
-------
This sample, except for the appearance of larger numbers of cornstarch
particles, was identical in composition to the sample of the 17th.
Site 16. Chandler, 490 yg/m3
The sample consisted primarily of quartz, feldspars, mica, and calcite.
Clay aggregates were a major component as were automobile emissions.
Particle sizes were slightly larger than on the 17th. Except for this
minor difference (and the presence of several cornstarch grains), the sample
was identical to that of the 17th. As with the 17th samples, Chandler
Site 16 showed larger particles and more automobile emissions than the
Chandler F site.
Downwind (West) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site A. American Graduate School, 373 yg/m
The sample contained primarily minerals and clay aggregates. Biological
particles were present in trace concentrations. Automobile emissions
were a minor sample component.
The particle size was fairly large; approximately 45% of the sample by
mass was contained in particles greater than 15 ym, with approximately 15%
of the sample mass in the less than 5 ym particles.
While a few clean, angular quartz and feldspar particles were present,
the bulk of the mineral particles showed rounded edges and highly gouged
surfaces.
Compared to the 17th, the 21st sample showed slightly higher clay, ircn,
and total particle contents. Otherwise, the samples were quite similar in
composition.
3
Site 4. Glendale Community College, 245 yg/m
The primary sample components were minerals — feldspars, quartz,
calcite, and mica. Small clay aggregates and clay particles were a major
component. Biological particles were nearly absent. Automobile emissions
were a major portion of the sample. The entire filter was coated with
fine carbonaceous material. Recrystallized sulfate needles were a trace
to minor component.
67
-------
Particle sizes were quite small. Approximately 30% of the sample mass
was in particles greater than 15 ym. The 5-15 }im size ranges contained 50%
of the sample mass.
Few clean, angular, mineral particles were seen. Most of the particles
were badly mangled.
The sample was quite different from the American Graduate School sample
due to the high carbonaceous particle concentrations.
Site B. Parker, 3.82 yg/m
Small mineral particles and clay aggregates were the primary particle
types. Few biological particles were present. The combined automobile
emissions were a major component of the sample.
Particle sizes were quite small. Approximately 35% of the sample mass
was in particles greater than 15 ym with the 5-15 ym range containing 50%
of the sample mass.
Unlike the sample of the 17th, few clean, angular, quartz particles
were present. Automobile emissions were also slightly higher in concentration
than on the 17th. The smaller particle sizes accounted for the lower mass
loadings seen on the 21st.
Site 5. West Phoenix, 263 yg/m
Approximately 40% of the sample mass was carbonaceous material almost
exclusively due to automobile emissions. Quartz, feldspars, and clay
aggregates together were the other primary sample component.
Mineral particle sizes were quite large. Approximately 40% of the
sample mass was in particles greater than 15 ym and 25% in particles below
5 ym.
Many of the quartz particles were quite smooth and angular, indicating
that they were freshly broken.
Carbonaceous particle concentrations increased significantly over the
17 November sample.
68
-------
3
Site C. Page, 305 yg/m
The sample consisted primarily of small mineral particles — feldspars,
quartz, calcite, and mica. Clay aggregates were a major sample component.
Biological particles (mostly trichomes) were a trace component. Automobile
emissions were a minor component.
Particles were fairly small. By mass, 35% of the sample was represented
by the particles greater than 15 ym. 50% of the mass was in the 5-15 ym
particles.
Minerals tended to be rounded and clay-coated. Mica concentrations
were lower and clay aggregate concentrations were slightly higher than those
seen at American Graduate School on the 17th. This sample was much "cleaner" -
i.e., lower carbonaceous particle content — than any other west sample for
this date.
Central Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site 1. Central Phoenix, 108 yg/m
The sample was composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and mica particles.
Clay aggregates were a minor component. Biological particles were a trace
component. Automobile emissions were a major component.
Particle size was fairly small. Approximately 35% of the sample mass
was in particles greater than 15 ym; 50% of the mass was contained in the
5-15 ym particles.
The sample was quite similar in composition to that of the 17th.
Although particles were smaller on the 21st, many still tended to be clean
and angular, as if freshly cleaved.
3
Site 3. Arizona State Capitol., 394 yg/m
Small quartz, feldspar, and calcite particles were the primary sample
components. Clay aggregates were a major component. A few trichomes were
the only biological particles present. Automobile emissions were a major
sample component.
Approximately 40% of the sample mass was in the particles greater than
15 ym. 40% of the sample mass was distributed in the 5-15 ym particles.
69
-------
Most of the quartz particles were clean and angular, indicating they
had been freshly broken.
The sample showed much greater automobile influence than the Central
Phoenix site. Sample composition was more comparable to most of the west
sites for that date.
3
Site 2. South Phoenix, 315 yg/m
The sample was composed primarily of small quartz, feldspar, mica, and
calcite particles. Clay aggregates were a minor sample component. Automobile
emissions were a major sample component.
Approximately 40% of the sample by mass was distributed in the particles
greater than 15 ym. The 5-15 ym particles constituted 50% of the sample mass.
Compared to the 17th, this sample showed a marked increase in urban air
exposure. Carbonaceous material due to automobiles increased dramatically
in concentration. Particle size was also smaller than on the 17th.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES
Tables 22 and 23 present elemental concentrations, as determined by
x-ray fluorescence, for the dichotomous samplers and Andersen final filters,
respectively.
70
-------
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SECTION 9
FOURTH SAMPLING PERIOD - SATURDAY, 22 NOV. 1975, NOON TO 5:00 P.M.
MASS FLUX DETERMINATIONS
Sampling was done only by helicopter. Only two pibal teams were in
operation.
Another front was passing through. A strong wind from the east came up
at 1030 or 1100 hrs, noticeably stirring up local dust at this time. However,
visibility was good, and this was the clearest day we have seen. Pibal teams
were in operation only at the Goodyear and Grad School sites. At Central
Phoenix and Mesa, the County telemetry system recorded surface winds at
5 m/sec at 30° at 1030 hr, gradually decreasing to 1.5 m/sec at 1630 hr.
Winds at Goodyear were higher, reaching 9 m/sec at 1230 hr, but decreasing
to 1 m/sec at 1730 hr. Average wind profiles are shown in Tables 24 and 25.
Temperature profiles in Figure 8 show a strongly mixed isothermal zone
up to 600 m at 1225 hr, with a more usual lapse rate at 1810 hr when the
wind was less.
Helicopter data in Tables 26 and 27 show mass concentrations of 25 to
3
40 yg/m at 30 m, and a few local peaks in the nephelometer traces upwind.
Downwind values were similar. Nephelometer readings were low, indicating
that most of the mass was in particles greater than 1 \im in size.
Mass concentrations are summarized in Table 27 and mass flux in Table 28.
The values were not significantly different upwind and downwind of the city.
By late afternoon, the wind had died down. At 5:00 p.m., sampling was
stopped. From the helicopter, we observed a dust plume from an auto on a
dirt road, in very stagnant air due to inversion about 3-5 m deep, just as
the sun was setting. The nephelometer registered 3.0 in a low pass.
73
-------
TABLE 24. AVERAGE WIND PROFILE FOR 22 NOVEMBER, 1975
1200 to 1700 Hrs.
Vector Average
Height
m
surface
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
TOO
750
BOO
850
too
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1150
1300
1350
1400
H50
1500
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
IflOO
1850
1^00
1950
2000
Speed
m/sec
4.0
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900
700
o
500
300
100
14
16 18 20
TEMPERATURE, ° C
22
Figure 8. Height vs. Temperature, 22 November, 1975.
76
-------
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77
-------
TABLE 27. MASS CONCENTRATIONS FOR 22 NOVEMBER, 1975
Upwind
Helicopter, 1300 hrs
Downwind
Helicopter, 1400 hrs
1630 hrs
30 m
90 m
305 m
30 m
90 m
30 m
30 m
1,000 m
Hi-vol
25.8
(9.)
(18.)
(40.)
(5.)
(19.)
(35.)
15.1
( )Numbers in parentheses are microscopical estimates of mass
78
-------
TABLE 28. MASS FLUX FOR 22 NOVEMBER, 1975
Height, Cone. Wind, Mass Flux.
m yg/m3 m/sec mg/sec-m^
Upwind
20-50 26. 4. .10
50-500 (14.) 5. (.07)
Downwind
20-50 (31.) 4. (012)
50-500 (10.) 5. (.05)
79
-------
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Upwind Helicopter Samples
The upwind Track 11 samples were lightly loaded, primarily with small
mineral particles and clays. The 30 and 90 m samples showed very low con-
centrations of rubber tire dust and tailpipe emissions; these materials
increased in concentration in the 305 m sample, but still constituted only
a minor component. Recrystallized sulfate needles increased from a minor
to a major component with increasing altitude.
Particle size decreased slightly with increasing altitude. The bulk of
the sample mass at 30 m was in 10-25 i_rai particles, and at 90 m and 305 m in
the 5-15 ym particles.
Downwind Helicopter Samples
The downwind Track 1 samples showed increased concentrations of calcite,
rubber tire dust, and clay compared to upwind samples taken at the same
altitude. Recrystallized sulfate concentrations were lower than the upwind
samples, but showed increasing concentration with increasing altitude, as did
the upwind samples.
Particle size was a major difference between upwind and downwind samples,
especially at the higher altitudes. At 305 m the bulk of the downwind sample
mass was in the 10-20 ^m particle size range.
80
-------
SECTION 10
FIFTH SAMPLING PERIOD - SUNDAY NIGHT, 23 NOV. 1975 to MONDAY, 24 NOV. 1975
MASS FLUX DETERMINATIONS
The purpose of this sampling period was to determine whether measurements
made at night would reveal any new features of particle origin and transport.
Very strong inversion was expected. The helicopter was above the inversion
measuring the background of particles brought from greater distance or
remaining in the higher air mass from the previous day's emissions.
The upper winds were rather strong from the northeast, much higher than
usual for Phoenix. Average wind data are shown in Tables 29 and 30. At some
sites, a layer of NW winds prevailed from 100 to 300 m, but this was averaged
out in the tables.
The temperature profile in Figure 9 showed a strong inversion up to 120 m;
then it was isothermal to 220 m. Above 300 m, the prevailing wind was NE. By
midnight, the wind was mostly 2 m/sec from 30° (NE) at all heights, and there
was some mixing of the inversion up to 300 m as shown in Figure 9.
At the County Building the balloon rose straight up for the first 7 m
above the roof (10 m roof height), suggesting a strong but shallow inversion,
with northeast wind direction above this. Alternatively, this behavior could
represent a slower ground wind speed in the city due to the roughness effect
of buildings.
These wind patterns are not typical of Phoenix nights. The usual drainage
winds were only sporadically observed in some Pibal measurements. Synoptic
wind from the northeast is unusual, and it accounts for the very clear night
that was observed. In spite of this, the hi-vols at the central sites were
very black with particulates from auto emissions caught in the low inversion
81
-------
TABLE 29. AVERAGE WIND PROFILE FOR 23-24 NOVEMBER, 1975
2200 to 0600 Hrs
Arithmetic
Vector Average .Average
Height
m
50
too
150
200
250
500
550
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
1050
1100
1150
1200
1250
1500
1350
1400
1450
1500
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
1600
1*50
1900
1950
2000
Speed
m/sec
5.5
4.9
4g9
5.0
5.7
6.S
6,6
6.9
7,1
7,5
7,6
7,6
7,4
7.3
7.0
7.0
7.1
6.9
6.8
6,5
6.6
7.2
7,fe
8,3
8.2
7.9
7,8
7.9
7,9
7.8
9.0
6,2
8.3
8.1
7.8
7.5
7.2
7.2
7.1
8.2
Direction
Degrees
47.6
46.2
44,3
44,2
<*5.7
46.5
47,7
49,5
51.9
54.0
55.9
56.8
57,3
57,6
57.7
58.3
59,0
59,3
59,2
57. J
55.4
56.8
57.5
57.9
57.3
55.9
55.8
5S.4
51.4
50,0
49,2
47,8
45.0
42.1
39.7
36,4
33.1
29,9
26,9
25.3
Speed
m/sec
3,9
5.4
5.4
5,6
6,4
6.6
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.4
7.7
7.7
7.6
7.4
7,1
7.1
7.2
7.1
7,0
7.1
7.3
7.3
7.7
8.4
8. a
8.1
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.1
8.4
8.6
8.6
8.4
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7.8
7.5
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8.4
82
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83
-------
14
16
18 20
TEMPERATURE, °C
22
Figure 9. Height vs. Temperature, 23-24 November, 1975.
84
-------
layer. Table 31 shows that carbon monoxide levels were also highest at these
sites (last 3 columns of the table).
Helicopter mass data are shown in Table 32. Mass measurements were
unreliable due to difficulties of operating at night and resulting damage
to the filters, etc. However, it was possible to estimate the mass loadings
on the filters during the microscopic examination by comparing the number of
particles of various size ranges to those on other helicopter filters that
appeared to be in good condition and had reasonable weights. These estimates
are shown in parentheses an the tables. In Table 32, the nephelometer showed
low values, which is reasonable since it was flying above the inversion height,
being limited to flying above 500 ft at night.
Mass concentrations are summarized in Table 33. Mass flux data are
presented in Table 34. Below 50 m, the. mass flux was higher downwind than
3 3
upwind (e.g., 149 yg/m compared to 81 yg/m at 3 m height). The values
above 50 m were also higher downwind, but the difference is probably not
significant.
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Upwind Helicopter Samples
The two Track 10A (north) samples contained primarily fine mineral parti-
cles and recrystallized sulfate needles. Tailpipe emissions constituted a
minor portion of each sample. Tailpipe emissions and sulfate concentrations
increased with increasing altitude. Particle size decreased slightly with
increasing altitude. The bulk of mass on each sample was in the 5-10 ym
particle size range.
The two Track 9 (northeast) samples were slightly different in composition
from the Track 10A samples. More calcite and clay particles were present in
the Track 9 samples. The tailpipe emissions were also present in greater con-
centration, although they were still a minor sample component. Sulfate con-
centrations, which constituted a major sample component, were present in
lower concentrations. Component composition did not vary with increasing
altitude as it did in the Track 10A samples. Particle sizes were comparable
to the IDA samples, showing decreasing particle size with increasing altitude.
85
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TABLE 34. MASS FLUX FOR 23-24 NOVEMBER, 1975
Height
m
Upwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-200
200-1000
Downwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
* 50-200
200-1000
Central
0-6
6-20
Cone .
yg/m3
81.
82.
44.
13.
(18.)
149.
140.
(62.)
(22.)
(27.)
(105.)
132
Wind
m/sec
1.
2.
3.
4.9
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.9
7.
Mass Flux
mg/sec-m2
.08
.16
.13
.06
(.13)
.15
.28
(.19)
(.11)
(.19)
^Inversion Height
89
-------
Downwind Helicopter Samples
The two Track 4 (south) samples were compared to the Track 10A (upwind)
samples. As with the upwind samples, very fine minerals constituted the
bulk of the sample. While recryfitallised sulfate needles and tailpipe emis-
sions represented the next most abundant species, the concentrations of
these materials were lower than at the corresponding upwind altitudes and
did not tend to change with altitude. Particle size was slightly smaller
than the upwind samples and also did not change with altitude.
The two Track 3 (southwest) samples were different from the Track 4
downwind samples and tne Track 9 upwind samples to which they corresponded.
Carbonaceous particle (tailpipe emissions) and recrystallized sulfate needle
concentrations were higher in the southwest than in the south downwind samples.
Compared to the northeast upwind samples, the southwest downwind samples
showed higher sulfate needle and lov,er carbonaceous particle (tailpipe
emissions) concentrations, especially with increasing altitude. Particle
sizes were slightly smaller for the southwest downwind sample compared to
the northeast upwind sample.
Upwind (North) Hi-Vol Filter Samples-
3
Site A. American Graduate School, 109 yg/m
The sample was composed primarily of small quartz and feldspar particles.
Clay aggregates were a major sample, component. Biological particles were few
in number. Automobile emissions were a minor to major component.
Particle size was small: approximately 25% of the sample mass was in
particles greater than 15 jam. Over 60% of the sample mass was contained in
the 5-15 um range.
The large quartz particles tended to be clean and angular, as if freshly
broken. Smaller mineral particles also tended to be fairly angular.
The carbonaceous particle content of the sample was surprisingly low. The
sample was similar in composition to the 17 November sample, with lower loadings
of all materials.
90
-------
Site 4. Glendale Community College, 111 |ig/m
The sample was composed primarily of large quartz, feldspar, calcite,
and mica particles. Clay aggregates were a major component. Automobile
emissions were a minor sample component. Particle size was large. Approxi-
mately 40% of the particles by mass were greater than 15 ym with 50% of the
particles in the 5-15 ym range.
Less than 20% of the mineral particles were clean and angular. The
majority showed rounded edges and were coated with clays.
While carbonaceous particles were present in large numbers, the large
mineral size reduced the effective carbonaceous particle loadings to minor
levels. Compared to the sample collected on the 21st, the night sample showed
a lower percentage of carbonaceous material.
3
Site 14. Paradise Valley Pumping Station, 128 yg/m
The sample was nearly identical in composition to the sample collected on
the 21st. The 23rd sample showed slightly lower loadings of carbonaceous
material (i.e., rubber tire dust and tailpipe emissions). Particle size was
not significantly smaller than on the 21st.
3
Site D. Indian Reservation, 129 Ug/m
The sample was composed primarily of large clay aggregates and slightly
smaller mineral particles. Biological particles (trichomes and cotton fibers)
were trace components. Automobile emissions were trace to minor sample
components.
Particle size was quite large, especially for the clay aggregates.
Approximately 50% of the particles by mass were greater than 15 urn.
Except for slightly higher concentrations of fine carbonaceous material,
the sample was identical to the sample collected on the 25th. Mineral and
clay concentrations were higher than on the 21st.
Downwind (South) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
Site C. Page Residence, 151 "g/m_
The sample was quite similar in composition to the sample collected on
the 21st, except for higher concentrations of fine carbonaceous materials
91
-------
(tailpipe emissions). The particles were slightly smaller than on the 21st.
Approximately 50% of the sample mass was in the 5-15 ym particles, with 30%
larger than 15 ym.
Site 2. South Phoenix, 116 yg/m
The sample was nearly identical to the sample collected on the 21st;
lower loadings of all materials resulted in the lower mass concentration for
the 23rd.
Particle size was larger on the 23rd compared to the 21st due to the
presence of more particles greater than 15 ym. Approximately 45% of the
sample by mass was in particles greater than 15 ym. Particles below 5 ym
accounted for approximately 15% of the sample mass.
Site F. Chandler, 234 yg/m3
The fine carbonaceous material (tailpipe emissions) concentration was
elevated and overall particle size was decreased compared to other samples
for this site. The smaller particle size, along with lower loadings of all
materials, accounted for the lower mass concentration for the sample.
Approximately 30% of the sample mass was contained by particles greater than
15 ym with 50% of the mass in the 5-15 ym range.
3
Site 16. Chandler, 263 yg/m
Compared to the tower site, the county sample showed fewer clay aggregates,
slightly lower concentrations of fine carbonaceous material, high numbers of
clean, angular quartz, and an overall larger particle size. Approximately 45%
of the sample mass was contained in particles greater than 15 ym. The very
large rubber tire particles and freshly-fractured quartz particles suggested
a local traffic influence.
Central Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site B. Parker Residence, 156 yg/m
The sample was composed primarily of fine quartz, feldspar, and calcite
particles. Small clay aggregates were a major sample component. Automobile
emissions were also a major portion of the sample.
92
-------
Particle size was quite small. By mass, approximately 30% of the sample
particles were greater than 15 ytn and 50% were in the 5-15 ym range.
The sample was fairly similar in composition to the one collected on the
21st. Fine carbonaceous particle concentrations were higher and overall
particle sizes were smaller on the sample collected on the 23rd.
3
Site 5. West Phoenix, 134 yg/m
Approximately 20% of the sample mass was carbonaceous material, most of
which was due to automobile emissions. The remainder of the sample was
primarily small mineral particles — quartz, feldspars, calcite — and some
clay aggregates. Approximately 30% of the sample by mass was in particles
greater than 15 ym.
3
Site 1. Central Phoenix,, 162 yg/ra
Approximately 25% of the sample mass was carbonaceous material from
automobile emissions. Quartz and feldspar particles were the primary sample
components, with clay aggregates (more similar in composition to those seen
at the west vs. the east sites) a major component.
Particle sizes were quite small. Approximately 30% of the sample mass
was contained in particles greater than 15 ym while particles less than 5 ym
represented 20% of the sample mass.
The sample was most similar to the sample of the 21st for this site.
As with the 21st sample, automobile emission concentrations were high. On
the 23rd, there was a higher percentage of fine carbonaceous material and
a much smaller particle size.
3
Site 3. Arizona State Capitol, 194 yg/m
Approximately 35% of the sample mass was carbonaceous material from
automobile emissions. Quartz, feldspars, and clay aggregates were the other
major sample components. Larger particle sizes for both the minerals and
rubber tire particles were seen compared to the previous two central sites
described. By mass, 40% of the sample mass was contained in particles greater
than 15 ym. Compared to the sample collected at this site on the 21st,
overall particle size was smaller and the fine carbonaceous particle concen-
tration was higher on the 23rd.
93
-------
Site 8. Scottsdale, 142 yg/m
The sample was slightly different than any of the other samples collected
at this site. Fine carbonaceous material was present in slightly higher con-
centrations and particle sizes were smaller. The sample was still primarily
quartz, feldspar, and mica particles with major concentrations of clay
aggregates and automobile emissions.
By mass, approximately 30% of the sample was contained in particles
greater than 15 ym. 55% of the particles were in the 5-15 ym range.
A local source for the automobile emissions was indicated by the presence
of very large rubber tire particles.
Site 9. Mesa, 56 yg/m
This sample was typical of all samples collected at this site — primarily
very large, sharp, clean mineral particles with large rubber tire particles as
a major component. Fine carbonaceous particle concentrations were slightly
higher than on the other sampling days. By mass, approximately 60% of the
sample was in particles greater than 15 ym, and 30% was in the 5-15 ym range.
Again, a local automobile emissions source was indicated by the very
large particles present.
3
Site E. Mesa, 70 yg/m
As with previous sampling days, this sample contained smaller, less
angular particles than the Mesa 9 site. However, the concentration of
fine carbonaceous material was lower at E compared to 9, which was not
normally the case. The higher mass concentration at E compared to 9 was due
to the presence of many more particles in the 5-15 ym range. Approximately
50% of the sample mass was contained in the 5-15 ym particles.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES
Tables 35 and 36 present elemental concentrations, as determined by
x-ray fluorescence, for the dichotomous samples and Andersen final filters,
respectively.
94
-------
K DICHOTOMOUS SAMPLES FOR 23-24 NOVEMBER, 1975
Percent
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C=Coarse Filter (>3.5 um particles)
-------
5ES OF ANDERSEN FINAL FILTERS FOR 23-24 NOVEMBER, 1975
mcentration, ug/m3)
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SECTION 11
SIXTH SAMPLING PERIOD - TUESDAY, 25 NOV. 1975, 6:00 A.M. TO NOON
MASS FLUX DETERMINATIONS
This was a normal Phoenix morning except that a light high cloud layer
reduced the normal insulation and resulted in a slightly reduced ground
heating.
Average wind data are given in Tables 37 and 38. At 0730 hr, the
drainage wind was weak at the surface (1 m/sec from 65 to 90°) but strong
3-5 m/sec) from E above 50 m. The temperature profile (Figure 10) showed
a strong inversion up to 130 m. From this height to 350 m, the winds were
still in the drainage direction, 2-4 m/sec from 100-160° (SE), and the
isothermal temperature profile showed strong mixing. Above 350 m, the
synoptic wind ranged from 2 to 10 m/sec from 220 to 300° (W).
Visual observation from South Mountain showed a strong inversion
with brown pollution below a sharp layer at about the level of the foothills
of South Mountain, or 150 m above the valley floor. At 0900 hrs, there
appeared to be some mixing of haze above this, but the demarcation line was
still sharp. Carbon monoxide concentrations are shown in Table 39.
Helicopter sampling data given in Table 40 showed moderate concentrations
3
at 0800 hr (25-45 yg/m at 30 in). The nephelometer registered sharp peaks at
some locations where a brown cloud of urban pollution was seen.
Later in the morning, at 1000 to 1100 hrs, the temperature profile
(Figure 10) was warmer up to 150 m, with the weak inversion persisting to
500 m. The wind direction showed a gradual shift from 90° at the surface
to 330° above 500 m, as shown in Table 9.
Some of the helicopter runs over Track 1 were done at high elevations to
measure any particles that might be carried in with the synoptic wind from the
97
-------
TABLE 37. AVERAGE WIND PROFILE FOR 25 NOVEMBER, 1975
0700 to 1130 Hrs.
Vector Average
Height
m
50
too
150
200
?§o
50 0
350
400
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500
550
600
650
700
750
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650
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1150
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1300
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1
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west. There were reports of large forest fires in the Los Angeles region,
3
for example. These runs resulted in low concentrations of 1 to 4 yg/m
based on microscopy estimates.
The last helicopter run was made over Glendale (Track 2) rather than
Goodyear (Track 1) in case the polluted urban air mass was draining to the
west so slowly that it might not have time to reach Track 1. This run measured
3
a concentration of 128 yg/m at 150 m height, and the nephelometer showed a
hump of 3.0. Carbon monoxide levels from the County sampling network (Table 34)
were also higher near Glendale in late morning than in early morning, indicating
a drift of automobile-related pollutants.
Table 41 summarizes mass concentrations. Table 42 presents the mass flux
results. The mass flux is higher upwind than downwind in the first 20 m, due to
the influence of the high values recorded at Chandler. Above 20 m, the values
are higher downwind.
MICROSCOPIC PARTICLE CHARACTERIZATIONS
Upwind Helicopter Samples
The Track 11 upwind samples contained primarily minerals and clay
aggregates. Quartz, calcite, and mica together comprised half of the mineral
populations. The clay aggregates were typical of those seen at the ground
level sampling sites east of Phoenix. Fine carbonaceous material, most of
which was tailpipe emissions, and recrystallized sulfate needles together
comprised a major portion of most of the upwind samples. These latter two
components were found to decrease with increasing altitude during the early
morning samples. The later morning 30 m sample showed lower loadings of both
materials, while the 305 m sample showed increased sulfate and decreased
carbonaceous particle concentrations.
Particle size tended to decrease with increasing altitude. At the lower
altitudes, the bulk of the sample mass was in the 15-25 ym particles. By
305 m, the 5-15 ym particles represented the bulk of the sample mass.
Downwind Helicopter Samples
The Track 1 downwind samples were composed of slightly different minerals
than the upwind samples. In most samples, calcite concentrations were higher
103
-------
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TABLE 42. MASS FLUX FOR 25 NOVEMBER, 1975
Height
m
Upwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-350
Downwind
0-6
6-20
20-50
50-350
**
500
Central
10
Cone.
yg/m3
279.
204.
56.
3.7
180.
164.
75.
55.
2.5
191.
Wind,
m/sec
1.
1.5
1.7
2.0
1.
1.5
1.7
2.0
Mass Flux.
mg/sec-m2
.28*
.31*
.10
.01
.18
.25
.13
.11
* High concentration at Chandler raises the average
** Inversion height
105
-------
and mica concentrations were lower. Clay aggregates were of different com-
position than in the upwind samples (lower iron content) and were lower in
concentration. Recrystallized sulfate needle concentrations were higher at
all altitudes than comparable upwind samples. The relative sulfate concen-
tration also increased with increasing altitude, but was generally lower in the
later morning samples.
Concentrations of fine carbonaceous material (tailpipe emissions) and
rubber tire dust tended to be lower in the early morning samples than the
later morning. Concentrations of both materials decreased with increasing
altitudes.
Overall, particle sizes were larger than the upwind samples.
Upwind (East) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
o
Site 14. Paradise Valley Pumping Station, 494 pig/m
This sample was identical in particle type composition to the sample of
the 21st. The sample showed minerals and clays as the primary components,
with a major contribution from automobiles.
The major difference between the 21st and 25th samples was particle
size. The sample from the 25th showed smaller particle sizes due to fewer
numbers of particles greater than 15 ym in size.
Site D. Indian Reservation, 238 yig/m
Small mineral particles and large clay aggregates were the primary
sample components. Biological materials were present only in trace concen-
trations. Automobile emissions represented trace to minor sample components.
Particle size was fairly large. Approximately 50% of the sample mass
was in particles greater than 15 pm. This larger particle size accounted
for the increased mass concentration compared to the sample collected on
the 21st.
In addition to the difference in particle size on the 25th, particle
types were also different. Carbonaceous particle concentrations were lower
while clay aggregate concentrations were significantly higher on the 25th
vs. the 21st.
106
-------
3
Sice 8. Scottsdale, 258 yg/m
The sample was slightly different in particle type composition compared
to the 21st. Higher concentrations of small clay aggregates were seen on the
25th. The particle size, therefore, was slightly smaller than on the 21st.
The bulk of the sample mass was in the 5-15 ym particles. As with the 21st
sample, automobile emissions were a major sample component.
Site E. Mesa, 228 yg/ra3
The sample was essentially identical in composition and particle size
to the one collected on the 21st — i.e., minerals were the primary materials
with major contribution from automobiles. Increased loadings of all materials
resulted in the higher mass concentration.
3
Site F.Chandler, 510_yg/
m
The sample was slightly different than the sample collected on the 21st.
Slightly higher concentrations of automobile emissions (mostly rubber tire)
were seen. The primary components were still the minerals and clay aggregates.
The large numbers of biological particles — especially the trichomes and
cornstarch grains — were again present.
3
Site 16. Chandler, 436 yg/m
Except for particle size and slightly higher clay concentrations, the
sample from the 25th was identical in composition to the 21st sample. The
particles still tended to be larger than those seen at the F Chandler site.
Downwind (West) Hi-Vol Filter Samples
3
Site A. American Graduate School, 278 yg/m
The sample was identical to the sample collected on the 21st as to parti-
cle types and their concentrations. The sample was primarily minerals and
clay aggregates with minor contributions to the sample mass by automobile
emissions. Fewer particles of all types, especially in the greater than 15 ym
range, resulted in the lower mass loading compared to the 21st.
Site 4. Glendale Community College, 283 yg/m
The sample was composed primarily of small mineral particles. Clay
aggregates were a major sample component. Automobile emissions were a minor
to major sample component.
107
-------
In addition to the lower concentration of automobile emissions, mineral
particle sizes were larger compared to the sample collected on the 21st. The
increased numbers and sizes of the mineral particles accounted for the
increased mass concentration for the 25th.
Site B. Parker, 192 yg/m3
The sample was identical to the one collected on the 21st. Small mineral
particles were the primary components with clay aggregates and automobile emis-
sions each contributing major portions of the sample mass.
3
Site 5. West Phoenix, 278 yg/m
This was the only downwind sample to show a change in composition from
the sample collected on the 21st. Although mass loadings for the two days
were equivalent, the 25th sample contained approximately 20% by mass of car-
bonaceous material (from automobile emissions) vs. the 40% seen on the 21st
sample.
Quartz, feldspars, and mica particles were the primary components.
Particle sizes were quite large, as was the case on the 21st. Approximately
60% of the sample mass was contained in particles greater than 25 ym.
3
Site C. Page Residence, 228 yg/m
The sample was identical in composition to that of the 21st. Minerals
and clay aggregates were the primary particle types. Automobile emissions
made minor contributions to the sample mass. Fewer particles of all types
resulted in the lower mass concentration for this sample compared to the 21st.
Central Hi-Vol Filter Samples
Site 1. Central Phoenix, 133 yg/m3
This sample was also identical in composition to the sample collected on
the 21st. Feldspars and quartz were the primary sample components. Automobile
emissions were major contributors to the sample mass.
3
Site 3. Arizona State Capitol, 279 yg/m
The sample was composed primarily of large quartz, feldspar, and mica parti-
cles. Automobile emissions (mostly huge rubber tire particles) were major
sample components.
108
-------
Compared to the 21st, tailpipe emissions were lower in concentration,
while rubber tire dust concentrations were higher due to larger particle
sizes.
3
Site 2. South Phoenix, 157 yg/m
Except for slightly larger particle sizes on the 25th, the sample was
identical in composition to the sample collected on the 21st. Mineral
particles were the primary components with automobile emissions making a major
contribution to the sample mass.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSES
Tables 43 and 44 present elemental concentrations, as determined by
x-ray fluorescence, for the dichotomous samples and Andersen final filters,
respectively.
109
-------
UORESCENCE ANALYSES OF DICHOTOMOUS SAMPLES FOR 25 NOVEMBER, 1975
Mass Percent
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111
-------
SECTION 12
DISCUSSION OF MASS DATA
Before examining the trends in the mass data, it will be helpful to
examine the data for internal consistency. There was some redundancy in the
sampling, which allows internal comparisons.
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS SAMPLERS
Three different types of samplers were used at the 3 m sampling height;
the mean concentration values determined by each type can be compared. The
Chandler and Central sites were excluded from the following comparison
because they are compared later.
Hi-Vol Andersen Dichotomous
Mean, yg/m3 203 122 172
Number of Samples 24 19 5
In general, the Andersen samplers gave lower mass concentration values
than the hi-vol sampler. This result is partly due to the fact that the
Andersen final filter weight was not determined. The mass concentrations
measured with the Andersen samplers do not include aerosols with diameters
less than 0.9 urn. The dichotomous sampler values agreed quite well with
the hi-vol data.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATION OF CHANDLER SAMPLINGS
The mean concentration values obtained from hi-vol samplers at Chandler
and at all other sites were significantly different:
112
-------
Chandler All Other Sites
3 and 10 m 3 m
3
Concentration, yg/m 431 203
Number of Samples 10 24
The results which follow indicate that this represents a real difference and
not an artifact of the sampling conditions. There were actually two sites at
Chandler. One was a tower site, located in an unpaved maintenance yard,
having a hi-vol at 3 m as well as Battelle samplers at 3, 10, and 30 m. The
other site was the County site, located at 10 m on top of the police station,
2 blocks north of the tower site. The roads surrounding the police station
were paved, and the surrounding ground was grassy. The County site had a
hi-vol sampler; a dichotomous sampler was also installed there. The hi-vol
data at the two sites are as follows:
Hi-Vol, County Hi-Vol, Tower
10 m 3 m
3
Concentration, yg/m 423 441
Number of Samples 5 5
The difference in mean values is slight, and could have been due to the differ-
ence in height. Therefore, it appears that the high values at the tower site
were not due to dust stirred up by occasional maintenance trucks in the unpaved
yard. Furthermore, if the yard were the source of the dust, the County site
would have shown high values only when the wind was from the South, and this was
not the case. Instead, it appears that the atmospheric particulate concentra-
tions were generally high in the area near the two sampling sites, and the
source must cover an area that is large compared to the two blocks distance
between the sites.
Comparison of the hi-vol and dichotomous sampler data at Chandler results
in only fair agreement; regardless, the dichotomous sampler mass concentration
values are higher at Chandler than at all other sites.
113
-------
Hi-Vol Dichotomous
3 m and 10 m 10 m
3
Concentration, yg/m 431 256
Number of Samples 10 6
Microscopic analyses have determined that the Chandler samples do not
contain any new contaminants, but simply contain higher concentrations of the
mineral matter which makes up the bulk of most samples from all sites. Clearly,
there is something special about Chandler, but it is special in amount, not
in kind.
Chandler represents a small city that is less developed than the cities
of Mesa and Phoenix; fewer roads are paved, and more of the yards have bare
ground. The higher dust levels may result from the concentration of activity
on these areas of bare ground, such as driving on unpaved shoulders. The
dust could be of agricultural origin, since Chandler is surrounded by a large
irrigated agricultural area. Helicopter nephelometer traces frequently showed
strong peaks when passing over the region near Chandler, although these peaks
were not necessarily associated with the city of Chandler itself. However,
microscopic analyses of Chandler samples did not reveal unusually large con-
centrations of biological materials or fertilizer particles, which would be
associated with heavy agricultural activity. Undoubtedly, both types of
activities — automobile traffic and agriculture — are responsible for the
high TSP levels around Chandler.
CENTRAL PHOENIX SITES
The central city average mass concentration values at the 10 m sampling
height are as follows:
Hi-Vol Dichotomous
3
Concentration, jag/m 210 222
114
-------
These values are only slightly higher than the concentrations outside the
city (excepting Chandler). However, the Central samples had a composition
that reflected more automobile-related pollutants compared to mineral matter.
COMPARISON OF SAMPLING DAYS
Table 45 summarizes the mass loadings in relation to wind speed and
direction on each sampling day. Generally, the mass concentration decreases
with height and is greater downwind than upwind of the city, except on days
when wind was from the east (21 Nov. and 25 Nov.). On these days, Chandler
was upwind of the city of Phoenix, and the Chandler data raised the upwind
average (starred values in the table).
Comparison of 17 Nov. with 18 Nov. shows that the mass concentrations
are similar, even though the wind speed was higher on 18 Nov. than 17 Nov.
(5 compared to 1 m/sec). As a result, the mass flux was higher on 18 Nov.
Wind conditions were similar on the two days when sampling was done in
the morning (21 and 25 Nov.). The only difference was a somewhat higher
inversion level on 25 Nov. The measured mass concentrations and fluxes on
these two days were also similar at the lower two heights. The concentration
3
was higher (greater than 60 yg/m ) in the afternoon samplings at heights
above 50 m. The mass flux at the higher altitude samplings showed more effect
of wind speed, reflecting the influence of wind mixing to carry the particles
2
to greater heights. The mass flux was 0.09 to 0.15 mg/sec-m at 20-50 m on
2
all days except 18 Nov., when it was 0.48 to 0.67 mg/sec-m .
The measurements made at night on 23-24 Nov. average somewhat lower
3
(80 to 149 yg/m up to 20 m height) compared to day samplings which average
3
around 200 yg/m . Concentrations at greater heights were even lower (44 to
3 3
62 yg/m at 20-50 m, and 20 yg/m above the inversion height of 150 m). The
lower particulate concentrations at night are probably due to decreased human
activities at night. The samples from the central city also show a higher
proportion of carbonaceous materials and lead from automobiles, compared to
the mineral content.
115
-------
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OVERALL RESULTS
3
Mass concentrations generally exceed 75 yg/m both upwind and downwind of
the city of Phoenix. The downwind data tend to be higher, but this is obscured
by the generally higher readings at Chandler, which may be either upwind or
downwind of Phoenix.
117
-------
SECTION 13
DISCUSSION OF MICROSCOPIC ANALYSES
For every sample analyzed by optical microscopy, a data sheet detailing
estimated mass concentrations and size of individual particle types was
prepared. These original data sheets have been compiled as an appendix to
IITRI Report No. C6333C05-2. Concentration data for key sample components
have been abstracted and are graphically displayed in Figures 11-15.
Soil components — minerals, clays, and humus — comprised at least 65%
of the mass on all aerosol samples collected, except for one sample — the
21 November West Phoenix sample. Automobile emissions — fine carbonaceous
tailpipe emissions and rubber tire dust — were the next most massive sample
component. Agriculture related emissions — cotton fibers, cornstarch grains,
shredded plant tissue, and fertilizer particles — together with other
biological particles related to general ground cover vegetation such as trees
and grass — spores, spore cages, pollens, trichomes — represented only
trace components on all samples both on mass and number bases. Combustion
related emissions — fly ash, charred paper and wood fragments, oil soot, and
coal fragments — from such sources as incinerators, heating plants, and
power plants represented trace to minor components in some samples.
To aid in tracing mineral particle types seen on the filter samples to
specific sources, soil samples from the western and eastern Phoenix sampling
areas and bits of street pavement from the central Phoenix area were
collected for optical microscopy analysis. The western Phoenix soil samples
showed increased concentration of calcite and mica compared to the eaptern
soil samples. The clays and feldspars in the eastern soil were richer in
iron compared to the western soil samples. More discrete iron oxide particles
(hematite and magnetite) were also present in the eastern soil compared to
118
-------
KEY TO FIGURES 11-15
Sampling Sites
West (Upwind of Phoenix on 17 and 18 Nov.)
A. American Graduate School
B. Parker Residence
C. Page Residence
4. West Phoenix
5. Glendale Community College
Central Sites
1. Central Phoenix
2. South Phoenix
3. Arizona State Capitol
East (Upwind of Phoenix on 21 and 25 Nov.)
D. Indian Reservation
E. Mesa (Tower)
9. Mesa (County)
8. Scottsdale Fire Station
F. Chandler (Tower)
16. Chandler (County)
14. Paradise Valley
Concentrations
P = >25% by mass
M = 5-25% by mass
m = 0.5-5% by mass
119
-------
p
25 November, 1975
21 November, 1975
18 November, 1975
17 November, 1975
m
SAMPLING SITES
Figure 11 . Calcite Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters.
120
-------
M _
P _
M -J
m
o "' —
p-
H
25
W
u
E3
O
m
P —
M -
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25 November, 1975
21 November, 1975
18 November, 1975
17 November, 1975
oo
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m —
SAMPLING SITES
Figure 13. Other Minerals Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters.
122
-------
25 November, 1975
21 November, 1975
18 November, 1975
17 November, 1975
m —
SAMPLING SITES
Figure 14. Clay Mass Concentrations on Hi-Vol Filters.
123
-------
p -
m —
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C/3
o m
M
w
o
o
M
3
p —
M.
P-i
M_J
25 November, 1975
21 November, 1975
18 November, 1975
17 November, 1975
SAMPLING SITES
Figure 15- Automobile-Related Particle Mass Concentrations on
Hi-Vol Filters.
124
-------
the western soil. The minerals in the street pavement aggregate were three
of the primary minerals found in the Phoenix area soil — calcite, quartz,
and orthoclase (a feldspar).
In general, particles collected at each sampling site were representative
of the terrain surrounding the sampling site. Each sampling site showed
influences of relatively localized sources, particularly nearby highways,
streets, roads, and driveways. For the most part, western site filter
samples contained mineral particle types found in the western soil samples,
while eastern site filter samples contained minerals indigenous to the
eastern soil, regardless of wind direction during the sampling period. The
central Phoenix sites tended to contain particle types more common to the
western Phoenix area, even when the wind was from an easterly direction. The
only date on which significant increases of particle types common to one side
of the Phoenix area occurred in samples collected on the opposite side of
Phoenix was 18 November, when the wind speed increased to 5 m/sec. On this
date, the eastern Phoenix samples showed increases in calcite and mica, which
are more common to the western Phoenix area.
The particle types and morphologies present in the samples do point to
specific sources for the suspended particles in Phoenix and also give some
indication of the relative contributions of the various sources.
Vehicular traffic (other than agricultural vehicles) has to be considered
as the prime generator of suspended particulate matter. The appearance of
smooth-surfaced, worm-shaped rubber tire particles, fine carbonaceous
particles (tailpipe emissions), and clean-surfaced, sharp, angular mineral
fragments indicate vehicle travel over paved roadways. This combination of
particle types and morphologies was most frequently seen in samples from the
central Phoenix area, as one might expect. Torn, rough-surfaced rubber tire
particles and the fine carbonaceous particles, together with the more rounded,
clay-coated minerals, indicate vehicle travel over unpaved roads and shoulders.
Obviously, wind activities do account for suspension of some of the more
rounded, clay-coated minerals found in the Phoenix samples. However, particle
sizes and morphologies of the majority of mineral particles found in all the
Phoenix samples were not typical of wind-eroded materials. Particle surfaces
125
-------
should have been more frosted, indicating tumbling and collision with finer
particles; rather, particle surfaces tended to be gouged, scratched, with fine
particles embedded, suggesting mechanical wear. Another indication that wind
is not the primary source for suspension of particles is the fact that mass
concentrations at most sampling sites were not significantly elevated on
18 Nov. when the wind speed increased to 5 m/sec, compared to the other
sampling days when wind speeds averaged 1 m/sec (Table 46). The wind's
primary role in the TSP problem of Phoenix is probably to maintain particles
in suspension over the city by moving them back and forth, rather than blowing
them completely out of the area.
Agricultural activity cannot be ruled out as a major generator of
suspended particles. It is rather difficult to determine if all clay-coated,
round-edged minerals were suspended by automobile tires or tractor plows. The
presence of cotton fibers, and especially fertilizer particles, in some
samples definitely indicate contributions to mass loadings by agricultural
activity. However, the few numbers of cotton fibers and shredded plant stems,
and the occasional appearance of few fertilizer particles suggest that
agricultural activity is not as an important generator of suspended particles
as vehicular traffic.
126
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SECTION 14
DISCUSSION OF ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS DATA
The x-ray fluorescence analysis data of the dichotomous and Andersen
final filter samples were presented in tables in Sections 7-12 of this report.
Concentration data of selected elements obtained from both types of samplers
have been regrouped for comparison purposes and appear in Tables 47-51. It is
not surprising that the individual elemental concentrations do not correlate
well between the two types of samplers. Particle size differences between
the two types of samplers account for the poor correlation. However, the
important observation to be made from these tables is that both types of
samplers tend to show increased concentrations of urban related pollutants —
specifically lead and bromine — in the downwind vs. upwind samples. The
values are generally about twice as high downwind as upwind, pointing to a
source in the metropolitan area such as automobiles. The highest values of
3 3
bromine (1 to 2 yg/m ) and of lead (4 to 8 yg/m ) were observed on 21 and
5 Nov., when sampling was done in the morning, and on 23 and 24 Nov., when
sampling was done at night. This is believed to be related to the inversion
at night and morning, trapping automobile pollutants. These trends can be
correlated with the measurements of carbon monoxide concentrations shown in
tables in Sections 8, 10, and 11. Carbon monoxide is also an indicator of
automobile emissions.
Copper, zinc, and arsenic were present on each sampling day in slightly
higher concentrations downwind of Phoenix compared to upwind. The differences
in concentration were not sufficient to determine if Phoenix was the source
of these elements. Although the wind was not from the direction of the copper
smelters (located south of Phoenix) on any of the sampling days, it is
suspected that mixing of air masses introduced smelter emissions into the
Phoenix area. Micro x-ray elemental analyses performed on individual particles
128
-------
TABLE 47. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES SUMMARY FOR 17 NOVEMBER, 1975
(Wind 1 m/sec, 245°)
Concentration, yg/m3
Andersen Final Filters
Element
Fe
Cu
Zn
As
Br
Pb
Upwind
.2
.1
.05
.03
.15
.7
Downwind
.2
.1
.1
.1
.3
1.0
Dichotomous Samplers*
Upwind
.8/4
/.I
.06/. 2
.1/.05
-6/.1
21.2
Central
.8/4
/.03
.l/.l
.2/.05
.4/.1
I/. 05
Downwind
1/3
.1/.2
.1/.2
.4/.05
.8/.1
3/.3
*Fine 'filter (<3.5 ym particles)/Coarse filter (>3.5 urn particles)
129
-------
TABLE 48. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES SUMMARY FOR 18 NOVEMBER, 1975
(Wind 6 m/sec, 245°)
Concentration, yg/m3
Andersen Final Filters
Element
Fe
Cu
Zn
As
Br
Pb
Upwind
.3
.05
.03
.02
.15
Downwind
.3
.05
.05
.05
.25
Dichotomous Samplers*
Upwind
1/5
/.05
.1/.01
.6/.1
I/. 04
Central
2/3
/.03
.1/.01
.3/.03
.8/
Downwind
2/3
/.05
.03/.01
.1/.05
.27.1
*Fine filter (<3.5 ym particles)/Coarse filter (>3.5 ym particles)
130
-------
TABLE 49. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES SUMMARY FOR 21 NOVEMBER, 1975
(Wind 1 m/sec, 90°; 3 m/sec, 350° above 700 m)
Concentration, yg/m3
Andersen Final Filters
Element
Fe
Cu
Zn
As
Br
Pb
Upwind
.3
.05
.05
.05
.3
.4
Downwind
.3
.03
.05
.05
.3
.8
Dichotomous Samplers*
Upwind
2/3
.1/.05
.1/.05
.2/.03
.5/. 05
2/.1
Central
2/4
/.03
.3/.02
.05/.04
I/. 2
4/.3
*Fine filter (<3.5 ym particles)/Coarse filter (>3.5 ym particles)
131
-------
TABLE 50. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES SUMMARY FOR 23-24 NOVEMBER, 1975
(Wind 1 m/sec, 70°; 4 m/sec, 45° above 50 m)
Concentration, yg/m3
Element
Fe
Cu
Zn
As
Br
Pb
Andersen Final Filters
Upwind Downwind
.15 .3
.04 .04
.04
.02
.05 .3
.25 .8
Dichotomous Samplers*
Upwind
1/3
.1/.02
l/.l
2/.3
Central
.8/.3
.057. 2
.2/.03
2/.2
6/.7
Downwind
1/3
.05/.05
.2/.04
21.2
5/.3
*Fine filter (<3.5 ym particles)/Coarse filter (>3.5 ym particles)
132
-------
TABLE 51. X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSES SUMMARY FOR 25 NOVEMBER, 1975
(Wind 1 m/sec, 85°; 2 m/sec, 300° above 450 m)
Concentration, yg/m3
Andersen Final Filters
Element
Fe
Cu
Zn
As
Br
Pb
Upwind
.2
.06
.03
.04
.03
.3
Downwind
.1
.03
.03
.3
.9
Dichotomous Samplers*
Upwind
1.5/2.5
.15/. 05
.1/.03
.25/.03
1.5/.1
4/.2
Central
2/3.5
.137
.8/.1
.2/.03
l/.l
3/.2
Downwind
1/3.6
7.06
.3/.1
.3/.06
.2/.3
6/.7
*Fine filter (<3.5 ym particles)/Coarse filter (>3.5 ym particles)
133
-------
through the scanning electron microscope revealed discrete lead-sulfur,
bismuth-sulfur, and copper-sulfur containing particles. These particles
were of a size and morphology typical of smelter emissions.
For both the Andersen and dichotomous samples, iron concentrations were
very similar at the downwind compared to the upwind sites on all sampling
days. Although the minerals and clays of the eastern Phoenix area soils are
richer in iron, compared to the soils of western Phoenix, major differences
in upwind/downwind iron concentrations probably did not appear due to the
many other sources of iron in the Phoenix urban area.
The detailed data for x-ray measurements from Andersen final filters
were given in Tables 8, 15, 23, 36, and 44. These tables show that there is
a slight decrease in lead and bromine concentrations with height, which may
be expected since only the finest fraction is being analyzed in this case.
Perhaps of more significance is to notice the difference between the Indian
Reservation site and Mesa when both are upwind as on 21 Nov. and 25 Nov.
The Mesa site has five times more bromine and three times more lead. This
should not be surprising since Mesa is a city of 100,000 people, with heavy
automobile traffic, while the Indian Reservation site was close to the north-
east edge of the irrigated agricultural area, bordering on unsettled desert.
In other words, the Indian reservation is more truly an upwind site than
Mesa. During the night sampling of 23-24 Nov., both Mesa and the Indian
3
Reservation sites were low (0.05 and 0.25 jjg/m ) in bromine and lead,
respectively, indicating that either that night automobile traffic is slight
in the Mesa area, or that the different wind direction (NE instead of E)
caused the Mesa site to be truly upwind on 23-24 Nov.
134
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TABLE 52. CONVERSION TABLE TO S.I. UNITS
To Convert From
mile
foot
hour
minute
gram
degree
liter
To
meter
meter
second
second
kilogram
radian
3
meter
Multiply By
1.609 344*E+03
3.048 000*E-01
3.600 000*E+03
6.000 000*E+01
1.000 000*E-03
1.745 329 E-02
1.000 000*E-03
135
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1 REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-77-015
2.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
AEROSOL SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
- PHOENIX, ARIZONA
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOf»NO.
5. REPORT DATE
February 1977
7, AUTHOR(S)
Jean Graf, Richard H. Snow, and Ronald G. Draftz
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
IIT Research Institute
10 West 35th Street
Chicago, Illinois 60616
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1AA008 and 28C129
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Grant R803078
Contract 68-01-3163
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final 11/75 - 6/76
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
An atmospheric sampling program was carried out in the greater Phoenix,
Arizona metropolitan area in November, 1975. Objectives of the study were to
measure aerosol mass flux through Phoenix and to characterize the aerosol according
to particle type and size. The ultimate goal of the study was to determine whether
the high mass loadings of suspended particles recorded for Phoenix are due to
human activities within the Phoenix area or to long range transport from the
surrounding deserts.
Microscopic and chemical analyses of collected aerosol samples determined that
minerals are the primary components of the Phoenix aerosol. The three mineral types
that compose the bulk of the mass are the primary soil components in and around
Phoenix and are also the primary components of the aggregate in the asphalt streets
in Phoenix. Automobile-related particles ranged from 5% of the sample mass in
outlying areas to as much as 50% in the central city on some sampling dates. These
particles consisted of tailpipe emissions and rubber tire fragments and correlated
with the presence of lead and bromine in the samples. The highest concentrations
of automobile-related particles were found in periods of inversion at night and in
the morning.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
* Air pollution
Field tests
* Aerosols
Transport properties
Optical microscopy
X-ray spectroscopy
Phoenix, Arizona
c. COSATI l;ield/Group
13B
14B
07D
17H
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF
148
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
136
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