600382040
METEOROLOGY AND AIR QUALITY MODELING IN COMPLEX TERRAIN:
A LITERATURE REVIEW
by
Gerard A. DeMarrais* and Terry L. Clark*
Atmospheric Sciences Modeling Division
Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
On assignment from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce
ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH AND EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA 27711
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and Develop-
ment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names of commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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ABSTRACT
Modeling air quality in complex terrain has been and remains to be a
difficult task simply because of the difficulty in parameterizing the complex
wind flow regimes. Due to the complex terrain, significant submesoscale
forces are established to perturb the mesoscale wind field. These forces
must first be better understood and the algorithms must be developed to
adequately simulate the effects of these forces before one can hope to
reasonably model air quality in complex terrain. This literature review
summarizes over 250 studies of meteorology and air quality modeling in
complex terrain for the benefit of those who wish to broaden their knowledge
of the subject.
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CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Tables vi
1. Introduction 1
2. Categorized Chronological Listing of Studies 2
3. Chronological Listing of References 50
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Meteorological Phenomena Observed in Complex Terrain 3
2 Theories on Flow in Complex Terrain 14
3 Long Range Transport in Complex Terrain 18
4 Windward Slope Phenomena 19
5 Leeward Slope Phenomena 20
6 Results of Field Studies—Meteorological Phenomena 24
7 Results of Field Studies—Transport and Dispersion 28
8 Models of Meteorological Phenomena 35
9 Models of Transport and Diffusion 37
10 Numerical, Statistical, and Computer Studies 42
11 Wind Tunnel, Water Channel, and Other Laboratory Studies. ... 45
12 Isolated Mountain Studies 46
13 Summary Reports 48
VI
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The concern for air quality in valleys and the effects of plume impaction
on mountain slopes in the Appalachian Mountains and in the western United
States created the need for accurate air quality simulation models applicable
to complex terrain to 1) assess environmental impacts of proposed plants
and 2) predict the likelihood of violating environmental regulations near
proposed or existing plants assuming various emission and meteorological
scenarios. The process of developing accurate air quality simulation models
for complex terrain has been slow because meteorological variables are
greatly influenced by complex factors that are difficult to model adequately.
One must understand the effects of terrain on the meteorological variables
before it is possible to accurately model the air quality.
As an aid to a better understanding of terrain effects on meteorological
variables in complex terrain, this literature review provides a historical
perspective, an extensive bibliography of over 250 studies with a brief
description of each study of meteorology and air quality modeling in complex
terrain. For the convenience of the user, brief descriptions of these
studies are categorized and listed chronologically in 13 tables according_.to
topic (Section 2). Some of these listings occur in more than one table since
they relate to more than one topic. In addition, an uncategorized, chrono-
logical listing of references accompanied by a short description of the study
is included (Section 3). This reference list is by no means complete. The
blank pages at the end of this section are provided for the user to add
references he considers pertinent.
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SECTION 2
CATEGORIZED CHRONOLOGICAL LISTING OF STUDIES
Studies relating to specific topics are chronologically listed in the
following tables. A brief summary is included in each listing, some of which
appear in more than one table. The topics considered are as follows:
Table Topic
1 Meteorological Phenomena Observed in Complex
Terrain
2 Theories on Flow in Complex Terrain
3 Long-Range Transport in Complex Terrain
4 Windward Slope Phenomena
5 Leeward Slope Phenomena
6 Results of Field Studies-Meteorological Phenomena
7 Results of Field Studies-Transport and Diffusion
8 Models of Meteorological Phenomena
9 Models of Transport and Diffusion
10 Numerical, Statistical, and Computer Studies
11 Wind Tunnel, Water Channel, and Other Laboratory
Experiments
12 . Isolated Mountain Studies
13 Summary Reports
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TABLE 1. METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA OBSERVED IN COMPLEX TERRAIN
Date
1826
1840
1914
1920
1923
Author(s)
Daniel!
Fornet
Hesselberg &
Sverdrup
Young
Cox
1924
1929
Pollak
Baldit
1931
1931
Ekhart
Althmanathan
Contribution
Described the typical nocturnal, fair-weather,
downslope movement of cold air in hilly
terrain.
Described the typical diurnal variation of
mountain and valley winds.
Discussed how mountains influenced streamline
flow and presented charts showing streamlines
and isobars across the Alps.
Showed that a long uniform slope rising at a
slight angle did not cause the same thermal
variation and associated drainage wind as a
steep slope.
Found that downslope winds originated below
the summit and that the size of the
valley, the angle of slope, and the proximity
of other slopes affected the downslope winds.
Observed that the mountain wind dissipated
from above as well as from below (see
Ayer, 1961, Whiteman and McKee, 1977).
Showed that airflow over mountain ranges had
five parts: 1) discontinuity surface;
2) ascending current zone; 3) descending
current zone; 4) abruptly changing atmos-
pheric turbulence; and 5) undulations.
Described in detail the time and space
variations of wind speeds and directions in
the vertical plane in an alpine valley.
Described how Poona, India, at the confluence
of two rivers, was alternately affected by
katabatic winds from the two river vallevs.
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Date
1932
1933
1934
1935
1941
1944
1945
1945
Author(s)
Lange
Heywood
Schell
Moll
1937a
1937b
1938
1940
Jelinek
Jelinek
Conford
Fons
Hayes
Hewson & Gill
US Army Air Force
Man!ey
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Described the variation of temperature gradients
and wind speeds in a valley.
Described katabatic flows in hilly terrain (see
Conford 1938).
Compared free-air temperatures (obtained via air-
craft) over a valley with those at identical
altitudes over the slopes of adjacent mountains.
Reported on the variation of depth of both the
upslope and downslope winds with distances
along the slope.
Described in detail the diurnal variation of
slope winds.
Correlated the vertical temperature gradients
over the slopes and slope winds.
Described katabatic flows on a 200-foot hill.
Discussed the effects exerted by a forest in
diverting winds and reducing their speeds.
Presented a comparison of temperatures and
winds for six pairs of stations at identical
elevations 50 m downslope on the north and
south sides of a ridge which gradually rose
in an eastward direction.
Reported on the first large-scale, field study
documenting the meteorological conditions and
transport and dispersion in a 50-mile long
valley.
Reported on the results of a large number of
slow-ascent pilot balloon observations over
the Los Angeles Basin and discussed the
interactions of land and sea breezes with
mountain and valley flows.
Documented and described the flow of strong
winds over a summit and the complicated flow
in the valley on the downwind side.
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Date
1945
1946
Author(s)
Hewson
Hewson
1948
1949
1949
Neuberger
White
Defant
1949
1949
Woelfe et al.
Hales
1949
1950
1950
1952
Shanks & Norris
Cross
Smalley
Col son
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Published a report on detailed meteorological
observations along the 50-mile length of a
valley (see Hewson & Gill 1943).
Described the meteorological considerations
involved in evaluating radioactive air
pollution problems at Hanford, Washington
and Clinton, Tennessee.
Reported that vegetation, acting as a filter,
effectively removed gaseous and particulate
matter (the green effect).
Discussed the very large-scale effects of
mountains on the transfer of momentum.
Presented depictions of air flow over complex
terrain which are often used as a basis
for discussions of flow in complex terrain
(a similar article entitled "Local Winds"
by the same author appeared in the Compendium
of Meteorology in 1951).
Reported that drainage winds did not move
air into low-lying crevices and grottoes
(sheltered areas have stagnant air).
Reported that temperature lapse rates within
a forest were typically the opposite of
those in a cleared area (i.e., there were
inversions in the area below the canopy in
the daytime and lapse conditions at night).
Found the bottom of the katabatic flow layer
bo be about one foot above the surface.
Reported that katabatic winds were seldom
detected at 40 feet above the surface of
the slope.
Described unusual vertical currents observed
over complex terrain south of San Francisco.
Presented description of lee waves based on
double theodolite observations made at
Bishop, CA.
(continued)
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Date
1953
1954
1954
1955
1955
1
1957
1957
1958
1959
1960
1960
Author(s)
Holland
Radock
Col son
Stapley
Meiklejohn
Yoshino
Dickson
Thompson &
Dickson
Buettner & Thyer
Thyer & Buettnes
Von Eschen
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Presented a detailed summary of the meteorolog-
ical parameters affecting dispersion in the
mountainous area in and around Oak Ridge, TN.
Described a procedure, using low-flying air-
craft, for studying mountain effects on
meteorological variables at low levels.
Described work underway to improve the fore-
casting of the stand-wave in complex terrain.
Showed through the use of streamline analyses
the marked spatial and temporal changes in
surface air flow for airflow for a 30-mile
by 30-mile area of a large valley.
Reported that strong winds in the pass area
were only 100 feet deep in an area where the
valley depth was 1000 feet.
Noted the different effects that the angle of
slope on the leeside had on eddies formed
in the lee of a summit.
Reported that katabatic winds were observed
on practically every night that the pressure
gradient was weak and the skies were clear.
Found that the depth of nocturnal inversions
slopes was generally above the top-most
recording instrument (16 m).
Concluded, in this first of a series of reports,
that the length, height, steepness of sides
of the valley, as well as well-defined distal
and proximal ends, determined how well-
developed a valley wind system could become.
Reported that the major area of air exchange
between the slopes and the valley was at
the ridge level area.
Described a nocturnal phenomenon whereby warm
pulses of air interrupt the continuous
cooling near the surface in the valley bottom.
(continued)
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Date
1961
Author(s)
Ayer
1961
1961
1961
1961
1962
Sterten
Cramer & Lynott
Koch
Schroeder
Thyer & Buettner
1962
1962
1963
1963
1963
Schultz
Baumgartner
Sterten
Davidson
Fun
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Reported that down-valley winds frequently
dissipated from above (see Pollak, 1924 and
Whiteman and McKee, 1977) and that inversions,
which are shallower over the ridge top area,
dissipate more rapidly than inversions
over the lower parts of a valley.
Described the relationship of cloud conditions
and mountain winds.
Presented a cross-sectional analysis of
potential temperature above a 50-mile stretch
of complex terrain.
Described the nocturnal thermal stratification
in the valley and along the adjacent slopes.
Described the anomalous phenomenon of downs!ope
winds occurring in the daytime.
Reported that the slope of the area between
the winds in the valley bottom and the anti-
winds aloft followed the slope of the valley
floor and presented many figures showing
the time and space variations of winds in the
valley.
Reported the character of katabatic winds
was pulsating with a depth of 40 to 50 feet.
Presented data on daily maximum and minimum
temperatures at various heights above ground,
at various altitudes and on various aspects
along a slope in the Bavarian Forest.
Illustrated the diurnal vertical variation
of winds in a valley.
Found that during stable conditions the area
of maximum turbulence was near the ridge!ine.
Discussed how the angle of the wind direction
relative to the orientation of the valley
affected wind speed.
(continued)
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TABLE 1 (continued)
Date
1963
1963
1963
1964
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1967
1967
1967
1968
Author(s)
Petrosiants &
Chanysheva
Davidson & Fau
Tanner
Buettner et al.
Buettner & Thyer
Cummings et al.
Ka-sai
Geiger
Smith
Martin & Barber
Lopez
Thompson
Tyson
Contribution
Discussed the effects of dimensions and
orientations of valleys on mountain-valley
circulations.
Described the variation of wind speed with
height over the valley center.
Presented the results of a statistical study
of the variations of temperature with respect
to "elevation iVa moist and a dry mountain regime,
Discovered that the depth of the katabatic flow
was usually less than 20 feet.
Illustrated the diurnal variations of mountain,
valley, and anti-winds and noted that valley
and upslope winds were initiated simultaneously.
Based on a three-year study in complex terrain
around a power plant, concluded that plume
impaction on nearby high terrain was not a
problem.
Used time-lapse photography to show that cloud
formation was associated with mountain waves.
Presented tables defining insolation as a
function of time of year, latitude, orienta-
tion of valley, and inclination of slope.
Discovered from tracer studies that plumes
impacted lee sides far below the summit.
Detected the plume from a 137-m stack at the
surface 1 km downwind.
Described daytime downs!ope winds on the
east side of the Andes Mountains.
Described the thermal circulation over a
small side of a major range.
Reported that the thermally-produced mountain-
valley wind was able to support eddy energy
in the range between convective and mechanical
turbulence.
(continued)
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Date
-1968
1968
1969
1972
1972
1971
1972
1972
1973
1973
Author(s)
MacHattie
DeMarrais et al
Burov
Miller
Schiermeier
Dames & Moore
et al .
Van der Hoven
et al.
Tyson & Preston-
White
Start et al.
Edinger
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Discovered that cross-valley components of
the wind showed a more pronounced diurnal
cycle than components along the valley.
Reported on vertical temperature profiles
observed along the main and several tributary
drainages of a large valley.
Described a technique for studying diffusion
around a 100-m hill by means of stereophotos.
Obtained vertical soundings of temperatures,
and oxidant pollution over complex terrain.
Described the downwash problem near a power
plant located downwind of a ridge.
Based on consideration of local winds, terrain
effects, and professional judgment, authors
concluded that the Colorado Plateau region
could be divided into separate air sheds and
that there be little significant meteorological
interaction between these air sheds during
stagnation conditions (see Van der Hoven et al.,
1972).
Discussed the potential for pollution problems
in the southwestern United States and concluded
that power plant plume impaction on terrain at
same altitude as plume could constitute a
problem (see Dames and Moore et al., 1971).
Demonstrated that large-scale topographically-
induced mountain-plain and plain-mountain winds
existed above the mountain, valley, and anti-
winds of the valley (that is, there were three
layers of winds in addition to winds at the
gradient level).
Discussed three mechanisms which appeared to
enhance mechanical turbulence in complex
terrain.
Explained how urban plumes eventually impacted
slopes in complex terrain.
(continued)
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Date
1973
Author(s)
Leahey & Halitsky
1973
1974
Hindman
Leahey & Rowe
1974
1974
1974
Kao et al.
Egami et al.
Hovind et al.
1974
1974
MacCready et al.
Start et al.
1974
Giroux et al.
1975
Air Monitoring
Center, Rockwell,
Int.
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Used a turbulence climatology and Pasquill
stability classes to make quantitative
estimates of diffusion at a Hudson River
Valley location.
Determined the flow of air currents in complex
terrain from observations of the breakup
of clouds.
Derived diffusion coefficients from wind data
over a mountain valley, a long two-dimensional
ridge, and a river bank and discovered that
the airflow was very different for each of the
topographic features.
Showed how wind streamline patterns (based
on data from 15 sites) changed throughout
the day in a large valley.
Showed that mountain-valley winds and anti-
winds aloft occurred in the area of the
Mohave Power Plant.
Reported results from field studies at three
separate sites in the southwestern United
States to illustrate the effect of terrain
roughness upon plume dispersion.
Discovered, contrary to normal assumption, that
with weak katabatic flows and thermal stability,
turbulence existed.
Discovered that dispersion estimates in accord
with Pasquill stability classifications
underestimated dilution by a factor of 4 to 15
in complex terrain.
Discovered, by observing power plant plume
dispersion, that there was no buildup in
concentrations due to the diurnal back-and-
forth movement of air.
Determined from extensive field investigations
in the area of the Navaho Generating Station
that the highest S02 concentrations impacted
on high terrain downwind of the source.
(continued)
10
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Date
1976
Author(s)
Start et al.
1976
1976
Williams & Cudney
Roffman et al.
1976
Clements & Barr
1976
1976
1976
1976
1977
1977
Paegle & Paegle
•Davis et al.
Weier et al.
Wilson et al.
Whaley & Lee
Chung
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Discovered that: 1) elevated plume center!ine
concentrations measured over rough terrain
averaged two to four times more dilution
than that predicted for smooth terrain and
2) the physical setting and topography of
a particular site had a considerable effect
on the dilution in complex terrain.
Concluded from aircraft observations that
there was direct plume impaction on high
terrain downwind of a power plant.
Reported that the results of a field study
showed that models used by regulatory agencies
(see Burt, 1977; Van der Hoven et al., 1972)
overpredicted concentrations by a factor of
8.7 on the average.
Discovered that slope wind speeds were
typically 1 to 2 mps and that a major part
of the air exchange in a valley occurs near
the ridgeline.
Determined the frequency spectra of atmospheric
motions in the vicinity of a mountain barrier.
Reported that the green effect (see Newberger,
1948) could reduce the concentrations of
small-sized aerosols by 50% in complex terrain.
Showed that plume opacity varied as much as
14 to 87% depending only on geographic
location of the source and time of day.
Discovered from dispersion studies that for
low speeds vertical mixing was enhanced to
almost the same degree as horizontal
dispersion was by the meander.
Discovered enhanced lateral mixing of plumes
in complex terrain.
Discussed the influence of large-scale
mountains on airflow and lee cyclogensis.
(continued)
11
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Date
1977
1977
Author(s)
Kao & Taylor
Nappo
1977
1977
1978
1978
Benjamin et al.
Whiteman & McKee
Lilly
Smith
1978
Barry
1979
Steffen et al.
1979
Banta & Cotton
TABLE 1 (continued)
Contribution
Discovered marked lateral spread aloft over
complex terrain despite the fact that
thermal stability was observed.
Discovered, after analyzing surface and winds-
aloft data, little horizontal variability
of winds on a scale of 100 km during unstable
conditions and great horizontal variability
during stable conditions.
Reported that high concentrations impacted
on elevated terrain during stable conditions.
Reported that the inversion top was observed
to lower with time on a clear morning (see
Pollak, 1924; Ayer, 1961).
Described the turbulence and vertical motions
associated with a major downslope windstorm.
Determined that the drag on the airflow
moving across the Blue Ridge Mountains near
Harpers Ferry, WV caused an average pressure
difference of 0.5 mb across the ridge.
Reviewed the contributions of Horace Benedict
de Saussure who late in the 18th century
determined that in the daytime, the air over
valleys was cooler than that at the same
altitude over the mountain slopes.
Concluded that the winds at the ridge top
appeared to be driven by meso- or synoptic-
scale forces, while the flow in the valleys
was influenced mostly by terrain discontinui-
ties and inhomogeneities in surface heating.
Observed that each, afternoon the emergence of
clean, dry air and gusty winds served to
flush pollutants out of a valley.
(continued)
12
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TABLE 1 (continued)
Date Author(s) Contribution
1979 Whaley & Gainer Discussed the behavior of buoyant, merging
plumes from two natural-gas sulfur extraction
plants in the foothills of the Canadian
Rocky Mountains.
1979 Norton & Roffman Studied data from two airports in the Pitts-
burgh area and concluded that the airport
winds represented mesoscale flow but not
the flow in the valleys in the area.
1980 Bradley Measured the turbulent wind structure for
neutral conditions using a 100-m tower at
the crest of a 170-m hill.
13
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TABLE 2. THEORIES ON FLOW IN COMPLEX TERRAIN
Date
1866
Author(s)
Hann
1870
1910
1918
1919
1923
1932
1938
1938
1943
Berger
Defant
Newnham
Mann
Wegner
Ekman
Wagner
Ekhart
Lyra
Contribution
Concluded that there was a release of latent
heat on the windward side and adiabatic
warming on the leeward side of the mountain
during descent.
Presented hypothesis on the causes of mountain
and valley flows.
Hypothesized that pressure gradients were
primarily responsible for fair weather
mountain-valley flows (see Defant, 1949).
Hypothesized that it was the difference of
temperature between the air near the ground
on the slopes and the free air that initially
caused a valley wind.
Concluded that the valley wind system resulted
from the inclination of constant pressure
surfaces.
Explained the mountain-valley flow using the
circulation theorem of Bjerknes.
Discussed the dynamics of wind flow in
mountainous terrain using ideas and data from
Hesselberg and Sverdrup (1914).
Presented a theory and compared his results to
field observations (see Defant, 1949).
Presented a comprehensive comparison of many
theories including those of Hann, 1919;
Wegner, 1923; Wagner, 1938; and Ekhart, 1938.
Derived an equation for the lee wave - this
work is considered the beginning of lee wave
theory (see Merbt, 1959).
(continued)
14
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TABLE 2 (continued)
Date Author(s) Contribution
1947 Queney Discussed the use of the perturbation theory
to explain the flow in mountainous terrain.
1947b Sutton Discussed the theoretical distribution of
airborne pollution from factory chimneys.
(The suggested method for calculating
downwind dispersion in this report was used
in complex terrain for many years.)
1949 Scorer Presented a lee wave theory valid for
streamline, dry, isentropic, inviscid flow
in which the disturbance is only a small
portion of the wind velocity.
1949 Defant Summarized the current knowledge of theories
of airflow in complex terrain.
1953 Gleeson Derived expressions for the horizontal
components of the valley wind as functions
of the slope of the floor, turbulent heat
conduction, and turbulent friction.
1953 Scorer Discussed the theory of lee waves and the
difficulties in developing a model of the
flow downstream of the ridge.
Presented a very detailed mathematical
explanation of the lee wave.
Discussed eddies on the windward as well as
leeward side of the mountains.
Discussed the perturbation theory with
reference to the flow around an isolated
hill.
1956 Corby & Wellington Discussed lee waves over the British Isles.
1956 Corby & Sawyer Discussed the effects of an upper boundary
and high level conditions on the airflow
over a ridge.
1955a
1955b
1956
Scorer
Scorer
Scorer
(continued)
15
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Date
1959
1960
1962
1962
1966
1966
1973
1975
1975
1976
1976
1979
Author(s)
Merbt
Doos
Thyer & Buettner
Musaelyan
Thyer
Khalkechev
Fraser et al.
Klemp & Lilly
Drazin & Su
Blumen & McGregor
Tang
Issacs et al.
TABLE 2 (continued)
Contribution
Discussed the solution of the two-dimensional
lee-wave equation for arbitrary mountain
profiles.
Discussed a mountain-wave theory which
included the effect of the vertical variation
of wind and stability.
Presented Thyer's theory of valley winds.
Presented a detailed theoretical discussion
of the vertical currents generated by a barrier.
Developed and evaluated a numerical.model
using extensive field data that featured
valley and slope winds, anti-winds, and
vertical currents.
Concluded that the Coriolis force had a
negligible effect on winds in a narrow
valley but had to be considered in a wide
valley.
Presented a model emphasizing the dynamic
effects of airflow moving over a barrier.
Derived a theory for the dynamics of
strong surface winds on the lee side of
a large mountain and compared the theoretical
results with observations.
Derived a method for calculating the flow
involved in a lee eddy.
Presented a theoretical study of lee
waves formed by an isolated hill.
Presented the results of a theoretical study
of cross-valley circulation.
Discussed an application of potential flow
theory to a Gaussian source diffusion
model in complex terrain.
(continued)
16
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TABLE 2 (continued)
Date Author(s) Contribution
1979 Mason & Sykes Compared the theoretical results in airflow
over a ridge with observations of airflow
over a 130-m hill.
17
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TABLE 3. LONG RANGE TRANSPORT IN COMPLEX TERRAIN
Date Author(s) Contribution
1943 Hewson & Gill Reported on the first large-scale study
documenting the meteorology, transport,
and dispersion in a 50-mile long valley.
1945 Hewson Reported on the transport of air pollution
out to a distance of 50 miles in the
Columbia River Valley (see Hewson & Gill, 1943)
1952 Braham et al. Tracked a plume 107 miles over mountainous
terrain in New Mexico.
1959 Kassander Described a tracer study of airflow 20 miles
over mountainous terrain.
1970 Edinger Described how urban plumes impacted on the
mountain sides downwind of the Los Angeles
basin.
1970 Brodine et al. Hypothesized how a toxic gas release in
complex terrain resulted in the killing of
sheep many km away from the release point.
1971 Stephens & McCaldin Determined the half-life of S02 and
pollutant concentrations in plumes from
power plants to a distance of 80 km.
1974 Giroux et al. Measured ground-level traces of a power
plant plume 40 km from the source in
a large valley; the plume's primary impact
occurred 25 km from the source.
18
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TABLE 4. WINDWARD SLOPE PHENOMENA
Date
1866
1955b
1962
1968
1970
1970
1977
1977
Author(s)
Hann
Scorer
Myers
Orville
Edinger
Long
Kitabayaski
Furukawa
Contribution
Concluded there was a release of latent heat
as air ascended on the windward side of a
mountain.
Discussed eddies on the windward and lee
sides of mountains.
Developed a model of the two dimensional
laminar flow on the windward side of a
ridge.
Discussed the wave produced on the upwind
side of the mountain by the damming of the
airflow.
Described how urban plumes impacted on the
mountain side downwind of the Los Angeles
basin.
Used two different density fluids to show
the upstream effect of an obstacle (in a
water channel).
Conducted a wind tunnel and a field study
of airflow upstream of a ridge.
Used numerical experiments and showed
how mountain affected the airflow on the
windward side of the ridge.
19
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TABLE 5. LEEWARD SLOPE PHENOMENA
Date
1866
1943
1945
1949
1952
1953
1953
1954
1954
1955a
Author(s)
Hann
Lyra
Manley
Scorer
Col son
Long
Scorer
Corby
Col son
Scorer
Contribution
Concluded that there was adibatic warming
of air on the leeward side of the mountain
during descent.
Derived an equation for the lee wave (see
Merbt, 1959).
Documented and described the flow of strong
winds over a summit and the complicated
flow on the lee side.
Presented a theory on the waves in the lee
of mountains.
Presented several examples of standing-wave
patterns based on double-theodolite
observations made at Bishop, CA.
Described a water channel simulation of
the lee wave phenomenon observed at
Bishop, CA.
Discussed the theory of lee waves and listed
the difficulties involved in modeling lee
waves.
Reviewed most of the major works dealing
with flows over and downwind of mountain
ridges.
Described work being done to improve the
forecasting of the standing wave in mountainous
terrain.
Presented a very detailed mathematical explana-.
tion of the variation with height of the
wave and the amplitude of lee waves.
(continued)
20
-------
Date Author(s)
1955 Long
1955 Forchtgott
1955b Scorer &
Wallington
1956 Scorer &
Wilkinson
1957 Yoshino
1957 Wuertele
1958 Corby & Sawyer
1959 Merbt
1960 Queney et a!.
1960 Sinha
1962 Musaelyan
1963 Davidson
1964 Buettner et al.
TABLE 5 (continued)
Contribution
Presented a trilogy on the flow of stratified
fluids over and around an isolated object.
Discussed the results of extensive field
observations of the lee wave over mountains
of western Europe.
Discussed lee waves formed over the mountains
of the British Isles.
Discussed the lee pattern produced by an
isolated hill.
Noted the different effects that the angle
of slope on the lee side had on eddies
formed in the lee of a summit.
Presented a three-dimensional model of
the eddy formed downwind of an isolated
mountain.
Discussed the effects of an upper boundary
and high-level conditions on the airflow
over mountains.
Discussed the effect of the ridge shape
on the lee eddy.
Reviewed the literature on lee-wave phenomena
(see Nicholls, 1973).
Described the semi-permanent standing
waves observed over Kabul, Afghanistan.
Discussed the vortex developments downwind
of a ridgeline.
Described the airflow on the lee slopes of a
small valley.
Discovered that tracer material released
on the lee side of a summit showed that
particles with appreciable settling velocities
were pressed onto the slope while particles
of 10 microns or less were carried aloft.
(continued)
21
-------
Date
1965
1965
1967
1973
1974
1975
1975
1976
1976
1977
1977
1978
1979
Author(s)
Kusai
Smith
Lopez
Nicholls
Manabe & Terpstra
Klemp & Lilly
Drazin & Su
Smith
Blumen & McGregor
Chung
Furukawa
Lilly
Arya & Shipman
TABLE 5 (continued)
Contribution
Used time-lapse photography to show cloud
formations associated with mountain waves.
Discovered from tracer studies that plumes
impacted on lee sides far below the summit.
Described daytime downs!ope winds on the
east side of the Andes Mountains.
Updated the review of the literature on
lee-wave phenomena (see Queney et al.,
1960).
Concluded from a numerical experiment that
the probability of cyclogenesis increased
significantly on the lee side of major
mountain ranges where the core of the
westerly jet was located.
Derived a theory for the dynamics of strong
surface winds on the lee side of a mountain
range and compared the theoretical results
with observations.
Derived a method for calculating the flow
in a lee eddy.
Studied lee waves in the Slue Ridge Mountains,
Presented a theoretical study of lee waves
formed by an isolated hill.
Discussed the influence of large-scale
mountains on air flow and lee cyclogenesis.
Used numerical experiments to determine
the airflow on the lee side of a ridge.
Described the turbulence and vertical
motions associated with a major downslope
windstorm.
Studied via a wind tunnel the separate
bubble formed on the lee side of a ridge.
(continued)
22
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Date Author(s) Contribution
1979 Inoue Reported on the resonance of lee waves of
a stratified flow over two barriers.
23
-------
TABLE 6. RESULTS OF FIELD STUDIES-METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA
Date Author(s)
1923 Cox
1927
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1937a
1937b
1938
Koschmieder
Ekhart
Lange
Heywood
Schell
Moll
Jelinek
Jelinek
Conford
Contribution
Conducted studies in several valleys in
western North Carolina for several years
investigating temperature variations and
the fine structure of winds.
Used balloons, kites, and gliders to study
the three-dimensional flow around a hill.
Summarized the results of an investigation
of temporal and spatial variation of winds
in the vertical over an alpine valley.
Investigated the variation of temperature
gradients and wind speeds in complex terrain.
Reported on a detailed study of katabatic
winds in hilly terrain in England (see
Conford, 1938).
Compared free-air temperatures over a
valley with those at identical altitudes
over the slopes of adjacent mountains.
Reported on the variation along the slope
of upslope and downslope winds.
Reported on a study of the diurnal variation
of slope winds.
Described a study of the correlation of
vertical temperature gradients over the
slope and slope winds.
Described a study of katabatic winds on a
200-foot hill.
(continued)
24
-------
Date
1943
1945
1945
1945
1945
1946
1953
1955
1957
1958
Author(s)
Hewson & Gill
U.S. Army Air
Force
Johnstone et al.
Manley
Hewson
Hewson
Holland
Forchtgott
Dickson
Thompson &
Dickson
TABLE 6 (continued)
Contribution
Reported on the first large-scale study
to document the meteorological conditions
and transport and dispersion in a 50-mile
long valley.
Summarized the results of a large number
of slow-ascent pilot balloon observations
over the Los Angeles Basin.
Reported on the practical methods for
grounding aerosols to selected targets in
complex terrain.
Documented and described the flow of. strong
winds over a summit and the flow on the
lee side.
Published a report on the variation of
temperatures and winds along 50 miles of
the Columbia River Valley (see Hewson and
Gill, 1943).
Reported that investigators were unable to
detect katabatic winds at a height of
10 m above the slopes (i.e., katabatic
winds were shallow).
Presented a detailed summary of the
meteorological parameters affecting dis-
persion in the mountainous area in and around
Oak Ridge, TN.
Discussed results of extensive field obser-
vations of the lee wave over mountains
of western Europe.
Discussed climatology of diurnal inversions
in the Jordan Valley (Utah).
Discovered after studying the depths of
nocturnal inversions on slopes that their
tops were generally above the top-most
recording instrument (16 m).
(continued)
25
-------
Date
1959
1960
1960
1961
1962
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
Author(s)
Buettner & Thyer
Thyer & Buettner
Von Eschen
Sterten
Thyer & Buettner
Sterten
Fuh
Petrosiants &
Chanysheva
Davidson & Rao
Tanner
1967
Thompson
TABLE 6 (continued)
Contribution
Concluded, in this first of a series of
reports, that the length, height, steepness
of sides of the valley, as well as well-
developed distal and proximal ends determined
how well-developed a valley wind system could
become.
Presented detailed documentation of the
winds in the vertical for selected locations
across individual valleys (unique investiga-
tions.
Described pulses of warm air which temporarily
interrupt the continuous nocturnal cooling
in a valley bottom.
Described in detail the relationship between
cloud cover and mountain winds.
Presented numerous diagrams showing the time
and space variations of winds in a valley.
Presented detailed figures on the diurnal
variation of the wind profiles in a valley.
Discussed how the angle of the wind direction
relative to the orientation of the valley
affected wind speed.
Discussed the effects of dimensions and
orientations of valleys on mountain-valley
circulations.
Described the variation of wind speed with
height over the valley center.
Presented the results of a statistical study
of the temperature variations with height
along the slopes of a moist and a dry
mountain regime.
Described the thermal circulation of a small
side canyon of a major range.
26
-------
Date
1968
Author(s)
Tyson
1968
1968
1972
1974
1976
MacHattie
DeMarrais et al
Miller et al.
Egami et al.
Clements & Barr
1976
1976
1976
1979
Paegle & Paegle
Smith
Weir
Steffen
1979
Mason & Sykes
TABLE 6 (continued)
Contribution
Discovered that the thermally-produced
mountain valley wind was able to support
eddy energy in the range between convection
and mechanical turbulence.
Discovered that the cross-valley component
of the wind showed a more pronounced diurnal
cycle than the components along the valley.
Reported on vertical temperature profiles
observed along the main and several tributary
drainages of a large valley.
Obtained vertical soundings of temperatures,
winds, and oxidant pollution over complex
terrain.
Showed that mountain-valley winds and anti-
winds aloft occurred in the area of the
Mohave power plant.
Discovered that slope winds were typically
1 to 2 mps and that a major part of the
air exchange in a valley occurred near the
ridge line.
Determined the frequency spectra of atmos-
pheric motions in the vicinity of a mountain
barrier.
Studied lee waves in the Blue Ridge Mountains.
Showed that plume opacity varied as much as
14 to 87% depending only on geographic
location of the source and time of day.
Found that the winds at the ridge top
appeared to be driven by meso- or synoptic-
scale forces while the flow in the valleys
was mostly influenced by terrain discontinui-
ties and inhomogeneities in surface heating.
Compared theoretical results on airflow over
a ridge with observations of airflow over a
130-m hill.
27
-------
TABLE 7. RESULTS OF FIELD STUDIES-TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION
Date
1943
Author(s)
Hewson & Gill
1945
1945
Johnstons
Hewson
1947a
Sutton
1947b
1949
Sutton
Schrenk et al
1959
Kassander
1962
Lawrence
Contribution
Reported on the first large-scale study
documenting the meteorological conditions
and transport and dispersion in a 50-mile
long valley.
Reported on the practical methods for getting
aerosols to targets on the ground in complex
terrain.
Published a report on the transport and
dispersion of the emissions from a large
smelter in the Columbia River Valley in
southern Canada (see Hewson and Gill, 1943).
Discussed in detail the development of
approximate formulae for point and line
source derived by statistical analysis of large
amounts of field data. (Eventually these for-
mulae were used in complex terrain applications
for many years.)
Compared results from diffusion formulae to
pollution concentrations downwind of a large
point source in complex terrain.
Described in detail the wind flows typical
of the stagnation associated with the Donora,
Pennsylvania air pollution disaster which
occurred in complex terrain.
Discovered that a plume moving over mountain-
ous terrain for more than 20 miles spread
more in the horizontal than had been expected
based on cloud-seeding results.
Developed a formula for use in constructing
surface pollution profiles in a rural hilly
area surrounded by distant industrial sources.
(continued)
28
-------
Date
1964
1965
1965
1967
1969
1970
1970
1970
1970
1971
1971
Author(s)
Buettner et al.
Cummlngs et al.
Smith
Martin & Barber
Burov et al.
Edinger et al.
National Air Pol
lution Control
Administration
Hinds
Brodine et al.
Stephens &
McCaldin
Carpenter et al.
TABLE 7 (continued)
Contribution
Discovered that tracer material released
from the lee slope showed that particles
with appreciable settling velocities were
deposited onto the slope while particles
of 10 microns and smaller were carried
aloft.
Based on a three-year study in complex
terrain around a power plant concluded that
plume impaction on nearby high terrain was
not a problem.
Discovered from tracer studies that plumes
impacted on the lee slopes far below the
summit.
Detected a plume on the ground from a
137-m stack one km downwind.
Described a technique for studying diffusion
around a 100-m hill by means of sterophotos.
Explained how urban plumes impacted on the
mountain side downwind of the Los Angeles
basin.
Showed the spatial distribution of several
pollutants over an urban area in complex
terrain.
Reported that flat land diffusion calculations
typically overestimated the concentrations in
complex terrain by a factor of two.
Hypothesized how a toxic gas release in
complex terrain resulted in the killing of
sheep many km away from the release point.
Determined half-life of S02 and pollutant
concentrations in plumes from power plants
out to a distance of 80 km.
Summarized 20 years of detailed documentation
of dispersion in complex terrain.
(continued)
29
-------
Date
1971
1971
1972
1972
1972
1973
1973
1973
1973
Author(s)
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Dames & Moore
et al.
Schiermeier
Van der Hoven
et al.
Tyson & Preston-
Whyte
Start et al.
Edinger
Leahey & Halitsky
Leslie & Smith
TABLE 7 (continued)
Contribution
Discussed the results of investigations of
two air pollution problems in complex terrain.
Based on consideration of local winds,
terrain effects and professional judgment,
authors concluded that the Colorado Plateau
region could be divided into separate air
sheds and that there would be little signi-
ficant meteorological interaction between
these sheds during stagnation conditions (see
Van der Hoven et al., 1972).
Described the downwash problem created at a
power plant located downwind of a ridge.
Discussed the potential for pollution problems
in the southwestern United States and con-
cluded that power plant plume impaction on
high terrain at the same altitude as the
plume could constitute a problem (see Dames
and Moore et al., 1971).
Demonstrated that large-scale topographically-
induced mountain-plain and plain-mountain
winds existed above the mountain, valley,
and anti-winds of the valley (that is, there
were three layers of winds in addition to
winds at the gradient level).
Discussed the three mechanisms which appeared
to enhance mechanical turbulence in complex
terrain.
Explained how an urban plume eventually
impacted slopes in complex terrain.
Used a turbulence climatology and Pasquill
stability classes to make quantitative
estimates of diffusion at a Hudson River
Valley location.
Explored numerically the effectiveness of
katabatic winds in dispersing pollutants
and compared the results to field data.
(continued)
30
-------
Date
1974
1974
1974
Author(s)
Leahey & Rowe
Kao et al.
Egami et al.
1974
1974
1974
Hovind et al.
MacCready et al.
Start et al.
1974
Giroux et al.
1975
1976
Air Monitoring
Center, Rockwell
International
Start et al.
TABLE 7 (continued)
Contribution
Reported that the Pasquill classification
system yielded values that underestimated
dispersion in complex terrain.
Showed how streamline patterns based on the
data from 15 sites changed throughout the
day in a large valley.
Found that the polluted air over a valley
could have two peak concentrations: one for
recent releases and the other from aged
material.
Found that the method for estimating
dispersion in smooth terrain underestimated
dispersion at a canyon area by a factor of 10.
Discovered, contrary to the normal assumption,
that with weak, katabatic flows and thermal
stability, turbulence existed.
Found that dispersion estimates in accord
with Pasquill stability classifications
underestimated dilution by a factor of 4 to
15 in complex terrain.
Discovered, after tracking a power plant plume
across a large valley, there were no signi-
ficant differences between concentrations
measured in elevated terrain directly in
the plume path and the surrounding flatlands.
Determined from an extensive field investi-
gation in the area of the Navaho Generating
Station that the highest SC"2 concentrations
impacted high terrain downwind of the source.
Discovered that: 1) elevated plume centerline
concentrations measured over rough terrain
averaged two to four times more dilution
than that predicted for smooth terrain and
2) the physical setting and topography of a
particular site had a considerable effect
on the dilution in complex terrain.
(continued)
31
-------
Date
1976
Author(s)
Roffman et al
1976
Lanta et al.
1976
Wilson et al.
1977
1977
Whaley & Lee
Fabrick et al
1977
1977
Kao & Taylor
Nappo
1977
Hovind et al
TABLE 7 (continued)
Contribution
Reported that the results of a field study
showed models used by regulatory agencies
(see Burt, 1977; Van der Hoven et al., 1972)
overpredicted concentrations by a factor of
8.7 on average.
Reported that diffusion data from three areas
indicated that the INTERA model was more
accurate than the NOAA (see Van der Hoven
et al., 1972) and EPA (see Burt, 1977) models,
Discovered from dispersion studies that for
low wind speeds, vertical mixing was enhanced
to almost the same degree as horizontal
dispersion was by the meander.
Discovered enhanced lateral mixing of plumes
in complex terrain.
Compared Gaussian and grid-type models and
concluded, "After careful review of the
Gaussian evaluation tests, one reaches the
conclusion that almost any desired result
can be obtained given the range of options
for the dispersion parameters, plume
trajectory in complex terrain, etc. and the
range of uncertainty in the observed wind
speed, wind direction, and atmospheric
stability."
Discovered marked lateral plume spreading
over complex terrain in spite of the fact
that thermal stability was indicated.
Discovered, after analyzing surface and
winds-aloft data, minimal horizontal
variability of winds on a scale of 100 km
during unstable conditions and great
horizontal variability during stable con-
ditions.
Discovered that the highest surface con-
centrations in a 5-to-10-km wide valley
occurred with cross-valley flow and daytime
fumigation.
(continued)
32
-------
Date
1979
Author(s)
Graham et al.
1979
1979
1979
1979
Spang!er et al.
Ruff
Banta & Cotton
Minott & Shearer
1979
Wan
1979
1979
1979
Koch et al.
Whaley & Gainer
Norton. & Ruff man
1979
Chan
TABLE 7 (continued)
Contribution
Used field data and wind tunnel tests to
demonstrate that high terrain upwind of a
power plant stack restricted plume rise
while it increased vertical spreading.
Used four years of data from a network of
stations in the Huntington Canyon area to
conclude that S02 standards were not
violated.
Presented evidence of the small-scale
movement of air in a geothermal area in
complex terrain.
Described in detail the diurnal flow patterns
over a flat plateau surrounded by mountains.
Investigated diffusion in deep U-shaped
valleys and found that vertical dispersion
rates in the valleys were similar to those
over flat land with similar surface roughness.
Concluded from 571 observations collected
over two years in the Hudson River Valley
that thermal and topographic effects appear
to increase the diffusion rates over complex
terrain (compared to results over flat terrain)
Described a large-scale field study conducted
in Virginia.
Discussed the behavior of buoyant, merging
plumes from two natural gas, sulfur extraction
plants in the foothills of the Canadian
Rocky Mountains.
Studied data from two airports in the
Pittsburgh area and concluded that the airport
winds represented mesoscale flow but not the
flow of the valleys in the area.
Descovered that the plumes from a power
plant followed the contour of the ground
beneath it.
(continued)
33
-------
TABLE 7 (continued)
Date Author(s) Contribution
1980 Bradley Measured the turbulent wind structure for
neutral conditions using a 100-m tower at
the crest of a 170-m hill.
1980 Pickering et al. Provided a large data base from a field
study in complex terrain.
34
-------
TABLE 8. MODELS OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA
Date
1953
1953
1957
1962
1962
1966
1966
1966
1969
Author(s)
Gleeson
Scorer
Wurtele
Thyer & Buettner
Myers
Thyer
Hoi ton
Khal kechev
Goltsberg (editor)
Contribution
Derived a model for determining the horizontal
components of the valley wind in the mid-
valley.
Discussed the theory of lee waves and the
practical problems in developing a model
of the flow downstream of a ridge.
Presented a three-dimensional model of the
eddy produced downwind of an isolated
mountain.
Presented Thyer's valley wind theory.
Developed a model of the two-dimensional
laminar wind flow on the windward side of
a ridge.
Produced a numerical model that featured
valley and slope winds, anti-winds, and
vertical currents using extensive field data
for development and verification.
Derived equations for simulating the dynamics
involved in wind oscillations over sloping
terrain.
Discovered that the Coriolis force had a
negligible effect on the winds in a narrow
valley, but had to be considered in a
wide valley.
Described the use of morphometric indices
for graphically describing complex terrain
(not a model of meteorological phenomena,
but a description of the structure of the
terrain which, in turn, affects flow).
(continued)
35
-------
Date Author(s)
1971 Petkovsek &
Hocevar
1975 Mahrer &
Pielke
1977 Yocke & Liu
1979 Mason & Sykes
TABLE 8 (continued)
Contribution
Presented a simple model of nocturnal
drainage flow.
Presented results of the application of a
two-dimensional, numerical model of airflow
over a mountain.
Developed a three-dimensional model for
the prediction of wind fields over rugged
terrain.
Presented a simple Cartesian model of
boundary layer flow over topography.
36
-------
TABLE 9. MODELS OF TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
Date
1947a
Author(s)
Sutton
1947b
1957
1962
1970
1970
1971
1972
1973
1973
Sutton
Wurtele
Lawrence
Cramer et al.
Reiquam
Carpenter et al.
Van der Hoven
et al.
Fraser et al.
Kozhevnikov
Contribution
Discussed in detail the development of
approximate formulae for point and line
source derived by a statistical analysis of
field data.
Discussed the results of a comparison of
observed concentrations and calculated
concentrations based on diffusion formulae.
Presented a three-dimensional model of the
eddy produced downwind of an isolated
mountain.
Developed a formula for use in constructing
pollution profiles in a rural hilly area
surrounded by distant industrial sources.
Described a computerized multi-source
model for use in complex terrain.
Developed a mathematical model for a large
valley in complex terrain.
Discussed the plume dispersion models used
at the Tennessee Valley Authority power
plants.
Presented a model which called for power
plant plume impaction on downwind terrain
at the same elevation as the plume. (The
model became known as the NOAA model.)
Presented a theoretical model emphasizing
the dynamic effects of airflow over a
barrier.
Presented one linear and two non-linear
models to describe the flow around a
mountain.
(continued)
37
-------
Date
1973
1974
1975
1975
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1976
1977
Author(s)
Wai den Research
Ruffman & Grimble
Intercomp
Resources
Development
Seinfeld
Roffman et al.
Bowers et al.
Fox et al.
Lantz et al.
Egan & Bass
Kao
Koch et al.
TABLE 9 (continued)
Contribution
Presented the results of an application of
the EPA Valley Model in 51 Air Quality
Control Regions (see Burt, 1977).
Developed a model which accounted for
terrain features, variations in wind and
diffusivity profiles, and mixing depth.
Claimed the EPA (see Burt, 1979) and NOAA
(see Van der Hoven, 1972) models predicted
higher concentrations than those which
were observed, while the Intercomp model
was the most accurate.
Described two- and three-dimensional
dispersion equations for predicting plume
concentrations in complex terrain.
Reported that the results of a field study
showed the models used by regulatory
agencies (see Burt, 1977; Van der Hoven et al.,
1972) overpredicted concentrations by a
factor of 8.7 on the average.
Reported that the measurements of the
characteristics of power plant plumes indi-
cated that their group developed a good
short-term model.
Developed a geeralized predictive model for
air quality in complex terrain.
Reported that diffusion data from three areas
indicated that the INTERA model was more
accurate than the NOAA (see Van der Hoven
et al., 1972) and EPA (see Burt, 1977) models.
Reviewed air quality modeling in complex
terra i n.
Constructed a model for turbulent diffusion
over complex terrain.
Used the results from 16 independent field
investigations to evaluate complex terrain
models.
(continued)
38
-------
Date
1977
1977
Author(s)
Haussling
Fabrick et al
1977
1977
1977
Swolik et al.
Cabe et al.
Elliott et al
1977
Huffnag!e
1977
Mullen et al.
TABLE 9 (continued)
Contribution
Used a numerical technique and a model
to demonstrate the transition of a viscous
flow over an infinitely long barrier from
homogeneous to stably stratified conditions.
Compared Gaussian and grid-type models and
concluded, "After careful review of the
Gaussian evaluation tests, one reaches the
conclusion that almost any desired result
can be obtained given the range of options
for the dispersion parameters, plume tra-
jectory in complex terrain, etc., and the
range of uncertainty in the observed wind
speed, wind direction, and atmospheric
stability."
Proposed a complex terrain model based on
the data from Large Power Plant Effluent
Study (LAPPES) (see Schiermeier, 1972).
Reported success, particularly when concen-
trations were high, with a complex terrain
model that assumed impaction on high terrain.
Proposed changes for the Gaussian plume
dispersion models after examining the
results of 13 field tests and finding the
smooth terrain model overpredicted the
concentrations.
Concluded, after examining field data, that
a fundamentally-sound complex terrain model
should include 1) buoyancy entrainment to
provide initial spreading of the plume;
2) modification of the plume path to account
for lift created by a terrain obstacle; and
3) larger increased diffusion coefficients
to account for surface roughness and resultant
turbulent energy.
Presented the Aerovironment Multi-Source
Terrain Model (AVMSTM) and reported that
it was a useful tool for assessing the effect
of changing source configurations and in
identifying conditions which produce the
highest impacts.
(continued)
39
-------
Date
1977
1977
Author(s)
Sklarew et al.
Lange & Sherman
1977
Lavery & Schulman
1977
1977
1977
1977
Wilson et al.
Burt
Cramer et al.
Fabrick et al.
1977
1978
1978
1979
Fabrick
Klemp & Lilly
Miller
Howard & Fox
TABLE 9 (continued)
Contribution
Developed a model to calculate the reactive
point source emissions impact in complex
terrain.
Claimed that the three-dimensional, time-
dependent, particle-in-cell (PIC) model
calculations exhibited several advantages
over steady state Gaussian models for
assessment calculations.
Described a Gaussian plume, point source
diffusion model used to predict hourly,
3-hourly, and 24-hourly averages of S02
concentrations in the vicinity of four
electric generating plants in New York State.
Explained how a model should be validated
in order to be accepted as practical.
Presented the computer program for the EPA
Valley model.
Designed a model for a particular source
and obtained accurate estimates of short-
term ground-level concentrations.
Presented a detailed comparison of a number
of models with major emphasis on the Gaussian
type models and the Integrated Model for
Plumes and Atmospherics in Complex Terrain
(IMPACT), a finite difference model.
Presented the computer program for the IMPACT
model.
Developed a numerical model for simulating
the flow over a two-dimensional object.
Recommended how values for lateral and
vertical dispersion for flat, smooth terrain
could be modified for use in complex terrain.
Used a box model to show pollution distri-
tion resulting from residential wood burning.
(continued)
40
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Date Author(s)
1979 Isaacs et al.
1979 Sklarew &
Mirabel!a
1979 Smith & Ruch, Jr.
1979 Meroney
1979 Ellis & Liu
1979 Sklarew & Iran
TABLE 9 (continued)
Contribution
Discussed the application of potential flow
theory to a Gaussian source diffusion model in
complex terrain.
Described the successful application of the
IMPACT model on numerous occasions by a variety
of investigators.
Reported that the Valley model indicated
estimates of air pollution much higher than those
observed in the Penobscot Valley of Maine.
Performed a statistical correlation of
laboratory simulation model results and field
data.
Summarized the results of a comparison of
the data from numerous field investigations and
the estimates from 54 alternative models.
Claimed Gaussian models were not of much use
in complex terrain and recommended the use of the
IMPACT model.
41
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Date
1901
1947a
1955
1963
1964
1965
1965
1965
1965
1966
1966
TABLE 10. NUMERICAL, STATISTICAL, AND COMPUTER STUDIES
Author(s) Contribution
Pickels Presented the first mathematical description
of the flow over a mountain.
Sutton Discussed in detail the development of
approximate formulae for point and line
sources derived by the statistical analysis
of large amounts of field data.
Scorer Presented a very detailed mathematical
description of the variation with height
of the amplitude of lee waves.
Tanner Presented the results of a statistical study
of the temperature variations along the
slopes of a moist and a dry mountain range.
Orville Discussed a numerical study of upslope winds.
Shakina Presented the results of a numerical study
of the circulation above a nonuniformly-
heated isolated mountain whose temperature
was subject to irregular fluctuations.
Hi rota Developed a numerical model which produced
results in agreement with Long's (1955)
water channel experiments.
Konyakhina et al.
Blumen
Thyer
Hoi ton
Numerically analyzed the non-linearity of
slope winds.
Computed the vertical flux of horizontal
momentum resulting from an isolated circular
mountain.
Produced a numerical model that featured
valley and slope winds, anti-winds, and
vertical currents using extensive field
data for development and verification.
Derived equations for simulating the dynamics
of wind oscillations above sloping terrain.
(continued)
42
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Date
1966
1967
1968
1969
1974
1974
1975
1975
1976
1977
Author(s)
Khalkechev
TABLE 10 (continued)
Contribution
Discovered that the Coriolis force had
negligible effects on winds in a narrow
valley, but had to be considered in a wide
valley.
Foldvik & Wurtele
Hi no
Burov
Manabe & Terpstra
Leslie & Smith
Lin et al.
1977
Mahrer & Pielke
Riley et a!.
Haussling
Clark & Peltier
Presented a pioneering work on the numerical
solution of non-linear waves.
Described a computer experiment on smoke
diffusion over complex terrain.
Described a technique for studying diffusion
around a 100-m hill by means of stereo-
photos and a computer.
Used numerical experiments to identify the
effects of mountains on the general
circulation.
Explored numerically the effectiveness of
katabatic winds in dispersing pollutants
and compared the results to field observations.
Presented numerical simulations of plume
dispersion in complex terrain and compared the
results to simulations of flow in towing tank
experiments.
Presented the results of the application of a
two-dimensional, numerical model of airflow
over a mountain.
Developed a computer program to calculate
the three-dimensional stratified flow
around complex terrain for the case of very
strong stratification.
Used a numerical technique and a model to
demonstrate the transition of a viscous flow
over an infinitely-long barrier from homogene-
ous to stably stratified conditions.
Described a numerical simulation of flow
over an isolated obstacle.
(continued)
43
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Date
1977
Author(s)
Fabrick et al.
1977
1978
1978
1978
1979
1979
Furukawa
Klemp & Lilly
Wooldridge &
Orgill
Ookouchi et al
Hunt & Snyder
Smith
1979b
Mason & Sykes
TABLE 10 (continued)
Contribution
Compared Gaussian and grid-type models and
concluded, "After careful review of the
Gaussian evaluation tests, one reaches the
conclusion that almost any desired result can
be obtained given the range of options for
the dispersion parameters, plume trajectory
in complex terrain, etc., and the range of
uncertainty in the observed wind speed,
wind direction, and atmospheric stability."
Used numerical experiments to determine
the effect of mountains on airflow.
Developed a numerical model for simulating
the flow over a two-dimensional object.
Revealed from numerical research a steady
increase of diffusivity coefficients and
momentum fluxes with height up to the level
of the ridges.
Conducted a numerical study of the effect of
a coastal mountain on the land and sea
breeze.
Solved the advective diffusive equation
around a three-dimensional hill using
an eddy-diffusivity formulation.
Reported that as progressively wider mountains
were considered in a computer study, the
wave drag of the flow over a mountain
decreased and the flow became more nearly
geostrophic.
Used the three-dimensional numerical inte-
gration of the Navier-Stokes equations to
approximate the flow over obstacles (see
Mason and Sykes, 1979a).
44
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TABLE 11. WIND TUNNEL, WATER CHANNEL, AND OTHER LABORATORY STUDIES
Date Author(s)
1953 Long
1955
1970
1974
1977
1979
1979
1979
Long
Long
Lin et al
Kitabayashi
Graham et al
Arya & Shipman
Thompson
Contribution
Described a three-layer, water channel
simulation of the lee wave phenomenon
observed at Bishop, CA.
Presented a trilogy on the flow of strati-
fied fluids over and around an isolated
object.
Used two fluids of different density to
show the upstream effect of an obstacle.
Reported on towing tank observations of
flow over and around an isolated mountain.
Conducted a wind tunnel and field study
of the wind flow upstream of a ridge.
Used field data and wind tunnel tests to
demonstrate that, high terrain upwind of
a power plant stack restricted plume
rise while it increased vertical spreading.
Described a detailed study of the separation
bubble formed on the lee side of a ridge.
Successfully duplicated field results with
a wind tunnel experiment.
45
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TABLE 12. ISOLATED MOUNTAIN STUDIES
Date Author(s)
1927 Koschmieder
1955 Long
1956 Scorer
1956 Scorer &
Wilkinson
1957 Wurtele
1962 Frenkiel
1965 Shankina
1965 Hirota
1965 Blumen
1969 Burov et al
1970 Long
Contribution
Used balloons, kites, and gliders to study
air flow around an isolated hill.
Presented a trilogy on flows of stratified
fluids over and around isolated objects
in the fluids.
Used the perturbation theory to compute the
vertical displacement of a uniform airstream
passing over a solitary hill.
Discussed the lee pattern produced by an
isolated hill.
Presented a three-dimensional model of the
eddy produced downwind of an isolated
mountain.
Discussed wind profiles over an isolated
hill and a ridge line perpendicular to
the prevailing flow.
Presented the results of a numerical study
of circulation above an irregularly heated
isolated mountain.
Developed a numerical model which produced
results in agreement with Long's (1955)
water channel experiments.
Computed the vertical flux of horizontal momen-
tum resulting from an isolated circular mountain.
Described a technique for studying diffusion
around a 100-m hill by means of stereophotos.
Used two fluids of different density to
show the upstream effect of an obstacle.
(continued)
46
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Date Author(s)
1973 Kozhevnikov
1974 Lin et al.
1976 Merkine &
Kalnay-Rivas
1976 Blumen &
McGregor
1977 Clark & Peltier
1978 Klemp & Lilly
1979 Hunt & Snyder
1979a Mason & Sykes
1980 Brad!ey
TABLE 12 (continued)
Contribution
Presented one linear and two non-linear
models to describe flow around a mountain.
Reported on towing tank observations of
the flow over a small hill.
Presented the results of a study (based
on theory) of flow over an isolated topo-
graphic feature.
Presented a theoretical study of lee waves
formed by an isolated hill.
Described a numerical simulation of flow
over an isolated obstacle.
Developed a numerical model for simulating
the flow over a two-dimensional object.
Solved the advective diffusive equation
around a three-dimensional hill using an
eddy diffusivity formulation.
Compared the theoretical results on airflow
over a ridge with observations of airflow
over a 130-m hill (see Mason and Sykes, 1979b),
Measured the turbulent wind structure for
neutral conditions using a 100-m tower
at the crest of a 170-m hill.
47
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TABLE 13. SUMMARY REPORTS
Date
1929
Author(s)
Baldit
1931
1938
1945
1949
1954
1960
1965
1966
1967
Morgan
Ekhart
Army Service
Services
Defant
Cor by
Queney et al.
Geiger
Smyth
Schroeder et al
Contribution
Presented a detailed summary of knowledge
on the airflow approaching, passing
over, and continuing downwind of a mountain
range.
Presented a comprehensive review of the
German literature on the airflow over
mountains.
Presented a comprehensive review of many
theories on the flow over complex terrain.
Summarized the literature on mountain
and valley winds.
Summarized the theories and field data of
many investigators of airflow in complex
terrain.
Reviewed most of the major works dealing
with flows over and downwind of mountain
ridges.
Summarized the literature on lee-wave
phenomena (see Nicholls, 1973).
Presented tables showing the variation of
insolation with time of year, latitude,
orientation of the valley, and inclination
of the slope.
Reviewed the knowledge of diffusion in complex
terrain.
Reviewed the literature on airflow over
coastal mountains.
(continued)
48
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Date
1968
1969
1973
1973
1976
1977
1977
Author(s)
The Energy
Policy Staff
GoItsberg
Wai den Research
Nicholls
Egan & Bass
Koch et al.
Fabrick et al.
1978
Barry
1979
Ellis & Lin
TABLE 13 (continued)
Contribution
Reviewed the site-selection requirements
for locating steam power plants, but did
not mention that complex terrain locations
required special consideration.
Summarized much of the Russian literature
on the variation of wind regimes in hilly
terrain.
Presented the results of an application
of the EPA Valley Model in 51 Air Quality
Control Regions (see Burt, 1977).
Updated the review of the literature on
lee-wave phenomena (see Queney et al., 1960).
Reviewed air quality modeling in complex
terrain.
Used the results from 16 independent field
investigations to evaluate complex terrain
models.
Compared Gaussian and grid-type models and
concluded, "After careful review of the
Gaussian evaluation tests, one reaches the
conclusion that almost any desired result
can be obtained given the range of options
for the dispersion parameters, plume tra-
jectory in complex terrain, etc., and the
range of uncertainty in the observed wind
speed, wind direction, and atmospheric
stability."
Reviewed the contributions of Horace Benedict
de Saussure who late in the 18th century
determined that the air over the valley was
cooler in the daytime, than that at the
same altitude over the mountain slopes.
Summarized the results of a comparison of
the data from numerous field investigations
and the estimates from 54 alternative models.
49
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SECTION 3
CHRONOLOGICAL LISTING OF REFERENCES
Each of the references in this section contains one or more of the
following abbreviations:
AMS American Meteorological Society
AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion Conf. Preprints of Second Symposium
on Atmospheric Diffusion and Pollution, Santa Barbara, CA,
Sept. 9-13, 1974.
AMS - Third Atmos. Diffusion Conf. Preprints of Third Symposium on
Atmospheric Turbulence, Duffusion and Air Quality, Raleigh, NC,
Oct. 19-22, 1976.
AMS - Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. Preprints of Fourth Symposium on
Turbulence, Diffusion and Air Pollution, Reno, NV Jan. 15-18, 1979.
AMS-APCA - Joint Conf. Preprints Joint Conference on Applications
of Air Pollution Meteorology, Salt Lake City, UT, Nov. 29-Dec. 2,
1977.
Ann. Chim. Phy. Annales de Chimie et de Physique
Ann. d. Phy. Annales de Physique
APCA Air Pollution Control Association
Arc. M. Geophy. Biokli. Archiv fur Meteorologie, Geophysik uni
Bioklimatologie
Atmos. En. Atmospheric Environment
BAMS Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
Beit. Geophy. Beitrage zur Geophysik
Beit. Phy, Atmos. Beitraqe zur Physik der Atmosphaere
Beit. Phy. f. Atmos. Beitraqe zur Physik der frien Atmosphaere
ENV Environment
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ESSA Environmental Science Services Administration
ESRL .. Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Pro-
Protection Agency
ES&T Environmental Science and Technology
Geophy. JRAS Geophysical JourneTTof the Royal Astronomical Society
Ger Beit. Geophy. Gerlands Beitrage zur Geophysik
Hort. Soc. Trans. Horticulture Society Transactions
Int. J. Air & Wat. Poll. International Journal of Air and Hater Pollution
Iz., Atmos. & Oc. Phy. Izvestia. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics
JAPCA 'Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
JAM Journal of Applied Meteorology
JAS Journal of Atmospheric Sciences
J. C. Phy.Journal of Computational Physics
J. Fl. Mech. Journal of Fluid Mechanics
J. For. Journal of Forestry
50
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JGR Journal of Geophysical Research
JIF Journal of the Institute of Fuel
J. of M. Journal of Meteorology
JMSJ Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan
Mech. Eng.Mechanical Engineering
M. i. G. Meteorologiia 1 Gidrologiia
M.Z. Meteorologische Zeitschrift
MRW Monthly Weather Review
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Naturw Naturwi ssenschaften
NAWC North American Weather Consultants
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Ohio Biol. Surv. Bull. Ohio Biological Survey Bulletin
QJRMS Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
Trans. AGU Transactions of the American Geophysical Union
WMO World Meteorological Organization
ZAMM Zeitschrift fur Anqewandte Mathematik und Mecham'k
Z. M. Zeitschrift fur Meteorologie
ZOGM Zeitschrift Qesterriechiche Geschichte Meteorologische
ZOM Zeitschrift Oesterriechiche Meteorologische
51
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1826 Daniel!, J. R. On Climate Considered with Regard to Horticulture.
Soc. Trans. 6:1-29. 1826.
First description of cold air moving down the slopes of hills
and filling valley locations at night. Author noted that
valley locations in fair weather at night were generally
colder than the surrounding slopes and ridges.
1840 Fournet, M. J. Des Brises de Jour et de Nuit Autour des Montages.
Chim. Phys. 74:337-401. 1840.
First published report describing typical daytime upvalley and
nocturnal downvalley flows during fair weather in mountainous
terrain.
1866 Hann, J. V. Zur Frage Uber den Urspring des Fdhn. ZOGM 1:257-263.
1866.
First report on detailed observations of airflow in a
mountain valley. He described the strong downs!ope wind
(foehn) and explained the warming as the release of latent
heat on the windward side and adiabatic warming on the
leeward side of the mountain during descent.
1870 Berger. Theorie der Berg-Und Talwinde. ZOM 5:481-490. 1870.
First hypothesis on the causes of mountain and valley flows.
1879 Hann, J. V. Zur Theorie der Berg-Und Talwinde. ZOGM 14:444-448.
1879.
Early hypothesis on the cause of the mountain and valley
flows. Author concluded that winds resulted from expansion
and contraction of layers of air in various parts of the
valley system.
1901 Pockels. Zur Theorie der Niedershlagsbildung an Gebrige.
Ann. d. Phy. IV:459-480. 1901.
A very early mathematical treatment of the flow of air
over a mountain. Assumed simple conditions of flow and
a periodic surface profile.
1910 Defant, A. Zur Theorie der Hangwinde, Nebst Bemerkungen Zur
Theorie der Berg-Und Talwinde. M. Z. 27:161-168. 1910.
Hypothesized that pressure gradients were primarily
responsible for the fair weather mountain-valley flows.
1914 Hesselberg, T. and H. V. Siverdrup. Uber den Einfluss der
Geirge Auf Die Luftbewegung Lands der Erdoberflache Geophysika-
lisches Institut (Leipzig Universitat), Veroffentlichungen,
2nd Ser. 1:101-116. 1914..
Reported there was a close relationship between isobars
and streamlines even in mountains. The mountains
influenced streamlines 1) by causing local divergence
and convergence points (in such a way that during winter
52
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morning, divergence points are always over the mountains,
and convergence points over the plains) and 2) by altering
the course of streamlines. Their findings were illustrated
by charts of streamlines and isobars across the Alps.
1920 Young, F. D. Effect of Topography on Temperature Distribution
in Southern California. MWR 48:462-463. 1920.
Showed that a long uniform slope rising at a slight angle
did not cause the same thermal variation and associated
drainage as a steep slope. The author noted that the warmest
location on a clear night was often displaced a short
distance down from the summit.
1923 Cox H. J. Thermal Belts and Fruit Growing in North Carolina.
MWR Supplement 19. U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, DC. 107p.
1923.
Noted that 1) a plateau-like area near a summit was necessary
for the development of a downslope wind, 2) coves, shelves,
and benches temporarily stopped downslope flows until enough
cold, dense air accumulated, and 3) the size of the valley,
angle of slope, and the proximity of slopes affected the
downslope winds. Further noted that maximum temperatures
were much higher in the winter on a southerly than on a
northerly slope and in all seasons of the year higher on a
westerly than on an easterly slope.
1923 Werner, R. Zur Theorie der Berg-Und Talwind. M. Z. 40:193-204.
1923.
Explained the mountain-valley flow by applying the circula-
tion theorem of V. Bjerknes to a triangular path along a
plane leading up a slope, then along an isobaric surface,
and vertically down to the plain.
1924 Pollak, L. W. Berg-Und Talwind in Bergen von Trient. M.Z. 41:18-21
1924.
Observed that the mountain wind dissipated from above in a
rather deep valley near Trento, Italy. Mountain wind
heights decreased as much as 700 m during a period of
several hours after sunrise (see Ayer, 1961 and Whiteman
and McKee, 1977).
1927 Koschmieder, H. Die Luftstromungen am Berghindernisse in der
Frien Atmosphare. Beit. Geoph. 15:285-303. 1927.
Described the field of flow about a hill and about a mountain.
Used observations from balloons, kites, and gliders.
1929 Baldit. A. Meteorologie du Relief Terrestre. Vents et Nuages.
Paris, Gauthier-Villars. 328 pp. 1929
Wrote one of the first textbooks describing wind flows over
mountains and chains of mountains. Showed the eddy created
53
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on the upwind side of a mountain, the complex flow which
evolves when wind flows across an intermountain valley,
plane and elevation views of winds flowing through mountain
passes and the eddy created on the downwind side of the
mountains. In a composite picture he showed that the flow
over a mountain had five parts moving in a downwind
direction: 1) discontinuity surface; 2) ascending current
zone; 3) descending current zone; 4) abruptly changing
atmospheric turbulence; and 5) undulations.
1931 Ekhart, E. Zur Aerologie der Berg-Und Talwindes. Beit. Phy.
f. Atmos. 18:1-26. 1931.
Used pibal data from Alpine stations to show the diurnal
vertical variations of mountain and valley winds.
Upvalley winds generally prevailed from an hour or two
after sunrise to an hour or two after sunset. The wind
speed of the upvalley flow generally increased from its
onset until the middle of the afternoon and then slowly
decreased. Maximum speeds at the surface during the
afternoon ranged from 3 to 8 mps. The maximum speed in
the vertical was several hundred meters above the surface
and usually averaged about 10 mps. The nocturnal flows
were downvalley with speeds of 2 to 3 mps at the surface
and 3 to 4 mps aloft. Within the valley there was
frequently a reverse flow of anti-winds above the winds
in the valley bottom. The upvalley flow usually attained
its maximum depth within an hour or two of its onset.
1931 Athmanathan, S. The Katabatic Winds at Poona. Sci. Notes,
India Meteorol. Dep. 4:101-115. 1931.
Showed that downvalley winds at Poona, India, which is at
the confluence of two river valleys, alternated from the
southwest and north-northwest. Each wind occurred with
various speeds up to 10 mph on clear, calm nights in the
cold season. When cloudy skies prevailed there were no
downslope winds.
1931 Morgan, W. F. A memorandum giving a summary of present knowledge
on the relationship between ground contours, atmospheric
turbulence, wind speed and direction. Aeronautical Research
Commission Technical Report for 1932. Memo #1456. 39 pp.
1931.
Reviewed the literature, primarily contributed by German
investigators, and summarized knowledge as of 1931.
Discussed 1) the height and horizontal distance of the
influence of obstacles; 2) the depth (down from summit)
of the influence of a mountain; 3) the flow over an
isolated mountain; 4) the theoretical treatment of the
flow of air over a mountain; 5) the comparison of the
theory with the field results; 6) the eddies in the
neighborhood of obstacles; 7) the effects of coasts; and
8) the vertical velocities.
54
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1932 Ekman, V. A. Uber die Beeinflussung der Windbahen Durch Gebirge.
Beit. Phy. f. Atmos. 19:272-275. 1932.
Discussed the dynamics of wind flow in mountainous areas
based on the theory of Hesselberg and Sverdrup (1914) and
observations in Alpine areas.
1932 Lange, K. L. Uber Vertikalbewegungen der Luft in der Atmosphare.
Rhon-Rossitten Gesellschaft e.V., Forchungsinstitut, Veroffent-
lichungen 5:25-43.
Released no-lift balloons from aircraft at various heights
above nilly country near Wasserkuppe (950 m) and tracked
with two theodolites. Tracks are shown in plane and elevation
views. Results are summarized under temperature gradient
and wind speed. With winds of 0.5 mps and large temperature
gradients, flow was independent of contours. With stable
stratification and light winds, flow was laminar; with
stronger winds (8+mps) only the main features were followed.
With gradients and differential heating of the slopes there
was a combination of contour and thermal winds.
1933 Heywood, G.S.P., Jr. Katabatic Winds in a Valley. QJRMS 59:47-
.58. 1933
Described characteristics of downs!ope winds. Katabatic
flows usually had speeds of 1 mps or less, began in the
evening, terminated a few hours later, were very shallow at
first, and then expanded to a depth of 40 feet with the
strongest flow 15 to 20 feet above the surface. Katabatic
winds accompanied only weak to moderate inversions on the
upper slopes (the source of the cold air that drains down-
slope). When the inversion between 4 and 100 feet exceeded
5°F, there seldom were downs!ope flows. Though the use of
smoke in the early evening showed that while there were
downslope winds immediately above the surface, there was
upslope flow above the downslope flow. While there was a
katabatic wind flowing in the valley, winds in the open
(away from the valley) never exceeded 5 mps.
1934 Schell, I. I. Differences Between Temperatures, Humidities,
and Winds on the White Mountains and in the Free Air. Trans. AGU
Reports and Papers, Meteorology—I934:118-!33. 1934.
Documented the temperatures in the free air and simultaneous
observations along the slopes on clear days. Flying an
aircraft in the vicinity of the Presidential Range and the
White Mountains in New Hampshire, the author recorded
temperatures at numerous heights over the valley while
temperatures were continuously recorded at 10 stations along
the slopes. The temperatures along the slopes (about 1 m
above the surface) were higher than those in the free air
and showed lapse rates less than adiabatic. Over the
valley, the lowest 360 m showed a superadiabatic lapse rate
55
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while above that layer the lapse rate was less than adiabatic.
On clear nights, the mountain tops and slopes cooled more
rapidly than the air in the free atmosphere at the same
level. Soon after the air on the slopes became cooler than
the air over the valley, cooling on the slopes was retarded
due to the sinking of the cold air and its replacement by
the adjacent warmer air at the same level.
1935 Moll. E. Aerologische Utersuchung Periodischer Gebirgswinde
in V-Formingen Alpentulern. Beit. Phy. f. Atmos. 22:177-199.
1935.
Presented profile views of 1) the wind flow in a V-shaped,
25-km long, lateral valley and 2) the upslope flow on a
south-facing slope with a 45% inclination. In the lateral
valley on a clear day the upvalley flow practically filled
two-thirds of the valley depth and there was an antiwind or
downvalley flow. On the 700-m long slope, the upslope flow
was 10 m deep 150 m up the slope, about 50 m deep 200 m up
the slope and 100 m deep at the top of the slope. The
author cautioned that the layer thickness was dependent on
the valley size and slope inclination.
1937(a) Jelinek, A. Beitrage Zur Mechanik der Periodischen Hangwinde.
Beit. Phy. f. Atmos. 24:60-84. 1937(a).
Presented a detailed description of slope winds. His points
were:
1) Thermal slope winds with definite diurnal periods
developed on all of the slopes investigated. As expected, the
best developed thermal slope winds occurred along south-
facing slopes at the time when solar isolation was the
strongest. North-facing slopes, on the other hand, showed
the most unfavorable conditions for slope flow, being
unsteady and much less influenced by other disturbances.
East- and west-facing slopes ranged approximately in the
middle of these effects.
2) As measured by the strength of the surface winds during
the day, the upslope winds were arranged in the following
order according to the direction the slope faced: south,
west, east, and north. Usually, the surface wind speed
along the south-facing slope was almost three times that
along the north-facing slope. At night (downslope wind) the
north facing slopes shifted to second place. The wind speed
maxima behave in similar fashion along the different slopes.
3) On all slopes, the slope wind followed the solar angle
but with a small phase delay. The wind reversal occurred
about from one-fourth to three-fourths of an hour after
56
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sunrise and sunset, respectively, occurring earlier on
the south- and west-facing slopes than on the north and
east. The south-facing slope had the longest duration
of upslope winds.
4) At the time of the wind reversal, the valley wind
frequently penetrated up to the slope.
5) In general, the daytime upslope wind presented the
best developed component of the slope wind system (analogous
to the valley wind).
6) Both the strength of the upslope winds and also the
thickness of the layer grew with increasing solar angle.
7) The thickness of the layer of upslope winds was
measured to a maximum of 260 meters on the south-facing
slope.
8) The vertical component of the slope wind system
reached a magnitude of about 4 mps and was greatest in the
middle of the layer during all daytime hours. The region
of maximum vertical wind speeds shifted in parallel with the
upper limit of the slope wind in the course of the day.
9) Frequently a portion of the upslope wind changed because
of the presence of cumulus clouds. Often a considerable
vertical displacement of air was measured under a cloud
formation, measuring 13 mps in one case.
10) Surface irregularities such as draws and prominences
and the like, often influenced the slope flow markedly.
In general, it can be said, in agreement with Riedel,
that at exposed locations, counter flows, such as valley
winds and gradient winds, could easily penetrate. Depressions
along the slope presented excellent channels for the slope
winds.
1937(b) Jelinek, A. Uber den Thermischen Aufbau der Periodischen
Hangwinde. Beit. Phy. f. Atmos. 24:85-97. 1937(b).
Reported that the slope winds in Alpine areas were least
pronounced because the vertical temperature gradients
were smallest. He further noted that downs!ope winds
developed primarily in the layer of air from the ground
up to 20 feet; at a height of 40 feet, the speed dropped
to one-third the speed observed near the surface.
57
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1938 Wagner, A. Theorie und Beobacktung der Periodischen Gebirgs-
windes. Ger. Beit. Beophy. 52:408-449. 1938.
Discussed the theory and observations of slope winds.
Showed both upslope and downs!ope winds increasing in
depth with distance. In the upper reaches on steep slopes
in the Inn Valley, the depth of the upslope winds was
as great as 300 m (normal to the slope).
1938 Conford, C. E. Katabatic Winds and the Prevention of Frost
Damage. QJRMS 64:553-589. 1938.
Summarized a two-year investigation of katabatic flows
on a 200-foot hill with a one-in-three slope. Reported
that katabatic winds were usually only 15 feet deep and
seldom had a speed exceeding 1 mps. On clear nights
when the hilltop wind direption was opposite that of the katabatic
wind, the upper slope had upslope winds. Frequently, the
upslope wind was separated from the katabatic flow by a
12-foot wide area with calm conditions. Short hedges
would temporarily stop a katabatic flow but eventually
the flow would move up over the hedges. Katabatic
flows moving downslope varied over a wide range.
1938 Ekhart, E. Die Tageszeitenwinde der Alpen. Naturw. 26:21-27.
1938.
Presented a comprehensive review of theory. He agreed
with parts of Von Hann's theory, and held that the true
mountain wind is a circulating current as Wegner, Wagner,
Ekhart and others contended.
1940 Fons, W. L. Influence of Forest Cover on Wind Velocity.
J. For. 38:481-486. 1940.
Presented wind speed profiles obtained in and over (to
142 feet above ground) a Ponderosa Pine Forest. The
upper canopy was approximately 70 feet high. In the
canopy area, speeds were generally 20 percent of the
speeds at 100 feet and higher; the forest retarded and
diverted the flow.
1941 Hayes G. L. Influence of Altitude and Aspect on Daily Variations
in Factors of Forest-Fire Danger. U.S. Dept. Agri. Circ. No.
591. 38 p. 1941.
Compared temperature and wind data gathered each August
from 1935 through 1938 from six pairs of stations at
matched elevations on slopes with north and south aspects.
Each site was in the west to 5800 feet in the east. At
the lower elevations, temperatures were warmer on the
southside of the ridge. At higher elevations at night,
there were minimal differences in temperature, while in
the remainder of the day, temperatures were slightly
higher on the north aspect. Temperature inversions formed
58
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earlier and dissipated later on the south-facing slope. The
report contains several detailed summaries on the diurnal
variation of temperatures and wind speeds.
1943 Lyra, G. Theorie der Station Aren Leewellenstromung in Freier
Atmosphare. ZAMM 32:1-28. 1943.
Derived a lee wave eouation and presented the mathematical
formulation. Many who described lee waves in later years
(e.g., Merbt, 1959) based their analyses on the Lyra formu-
tion.
1944 Hewson, E. W. and G. C. Gill (In Report Submitted to the
Trail Smelter Arbitral Tribunal by R. S. Dean and R. E. Swain).
Meteorological Investigations in Columbia River Valley Near
Trail. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. pp. 23-
228. 1944.
Documented to the satisfaction of the international tribunal
that the air pollution problem in the 50-mile long Columbia
River Valley from Trail, British Columbia into the U.S. was
caused by fumigation that occurred early in the morning.
Shewed daytime upvalley and nocturnal downvalley winds were
accompanied by opposing flows or anti-winds at upper levels.
Indicated low-level winds frequently had a cross-valley
component. Showed the effect of side valleys on the flow in
the main valley, which was 0.5 to 3.0 miles wide and summarized
the effect of turbulence. Suggested "meteorological control"
for the source operation: emit during favorable meteorol-
.ogical conditions and do not emit during unfavorable con-
ditions.
1945 U.S. Army Air Forces. The Structure of the Local Winds in the
Los Angeles Basin, California. Tech Report 105-1. Asheville, NC.
11 pp. 1945.
Summarized the results of a large number of slow-ascent
pilot balloon observations over Los Angeles. Discussed
the interaction of land and sea breezes with mountain and
valley winds.
1945 Army Service Forces. Local Winds. Dugway Proving Ground,
Tooele, UT. Report No. 982. 45 pp. 1945.
Summarized the literature (much of which was in German)
on mountain and valley winds and presented a three-dimensional
view on how these winds varied diurnally.
1945 Johnstone, H. F., W. E. Winsche, R. L. LeTourneau, and W. L.
Smith. Some Theoretical Aspects of the Behavior of DDT Aerosols
Dispersed from Aircraft. Office of Scientific Research and
Development, University of Illinois. 35 pp. 1945.
One of a series of reports from teams of experts from
universities, industry, and government (U.S. and British)
who studied the dispersal of aerosols. Wind tunnel and
59
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field investigations were conducted. Although these
investigations dealt with diffusion and turbulence
theory, they made the results relevant to the practical
problem of getting the aerosol to the ground in all kinds
of terrain.
1945 Manley, G. The Helm Wind of Crossfell, 1937-1939. QJRMS 71:197-
219. 1945.
Documented and described the flow of strong winds over
a summit and the complicated flow in the valley on the
downwind side.
1945 Hewson, E. W. The Meteorological Control of Atmospheric Pollution
by Heavy Industry. QJRMS 71:266-282. 1945.
Described a comprehensive field investigation of a major
air pollution problem in complex terrain. He documented
that the problem involved longrange transport to at least
50 miles; and concluded that the worst problem occurred
with fumigation in' the morning. This work contained
excellent documentation on the air movement and concentration
of a pollutant in three dimensions.
1946 Hewson, E. W. Discussion of the Meteorological Control of
Atmospheric Pollution by Heavy Industry. QJRMS 72:51-54. 1946.
Discussed the details of the field study in Canada.
Reference was made to the meteorological considerations
involved with radioactive air pollution at Hanford, WA and
Clinton, TN. Discussed the idea of meteorological control
of industry in Great Britain. Was unable to detect
katabatic winds at a height of 10 m.
1947a Sutton, 0. G. The Problem of Diffusion in the Lower Atmosphere.
QJRMS 73:257-281. 1947a.
Discussed in detail the development of approximate formulae
derived by the "statistical method" for point and line
sources. Showed the relation between "statistical" and
"mixing length" theories. Although reported by Sutton,
author acknowledged that major contributions were made by
E. Davies, A. C. Best, P. A. Sheppard, K. L. Calder,
H. Garnett, F. Pasquill, and C.H.B. Priestly. For lack of
other formulae, the Sutton formulae were used in computing
diffusion in complex terrain during the late 1940's and 1950's.
1947 Quency, P. Theory of Perturbations in Stratified Currents
with Applications to Airflow over Mountain Barriers. Univ. Chicago
Misc. Rep. Met. Dept. No 23.
Discussed the perturbation theory which many investigators
(Scorer, 1949 and Curby, 1954) applied to flow over ridges and
ranges.
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1947b Sutton, 0. G. The Theoretical Distribution of Airborne Pollution
from Factory Chimneys. QJRMS 73:426-436. 1947b.
Presented a method for computing downwind ground concentra-
tions from a large point source. Compared calculated
results to results obtained at a large point source in
complex terrain. This method of calculating downwind
concentrations was used for many years in operational
programs at pollution sources in complex terrain.
1948 Neuberger, H. Condensation Nuclei. Mech Eng. 70:221-225. 1948.
Indicated that vegetation effectively removed both gaseous
and particulate matter.
1949 Schrenk, H. H., H. Heimann, G. D. Clayton, W. M. Gafafer, and
H. Wexler. Air Pollution in Donora, PA. Public Health Bulletin
No. 306. Washington, DC. 173 pp. 1949.
Described in detail the wind flows typical of the air
stagnation associated with the air pollution disaster.
On the mornings with stagnation, there was generally a
flow from the north near the surface averaging about
2.5 mph. Higher above the mid-valley floor the flow was
from the south, averaging about 1.5 mph. In the shear
area between the opposing flows there was an air exchange.
1949 Defant, F. Zur Theorie der Hangwinde, Negst Bemerkungen Zur
Theorie der Berg-Und Talwinde. Arc. M. Geophy. Biokli.
Compared theories on valley flow with field observations
and described slope winds in detail. Included an eight-
part diagram showing the diurnal variation of valley and
slope winds. (This diagram was based on the verbal
description of Wagner, 1938). Through the use of
double-theodolite pilot-balloon ascents, determined that the
downs!ope wind layer was between 50 and 100 m deep with a
maximum speed at about 30 m. The upslope wind layer was
100 or more meters deep with a maximum speed at about
30 m. The average speeds of the upslope winds were
markedly greater than those of the downs!ope winds. (See
also a similar article, Local Winds, in the Compendium of
Meteorology, Defant, 1951.)
1949 Woelfe, 0. N., R. T. Wareham, and H. T. Scofield. Microclimates
and Macroclimate of Nedtoma, A Small Valley in Central Ohio.
Ohio Biol. Surv. Bull. 41. Ohio State Univ., Columbus. 267 pp.
1949.
Discovered that drainage winds did not move cold air into
crevices and grottoes in low-lying parts of the valley.
These areas were shielded and did not radiate directly
to the atmosphere.
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1949 Scorer, R. S. Theory of Waves in the Lee of Mountains.
QJRMS 75:41-56. 1959.
Presented a theory valid for streamline, dry, isentropic,
invisid flow in which the disturbance is only a small
proportion of the wind velocity.
1949 Hales, W. B. Micrometeorology in the Tropics. BAMS 30:124-137.
1949.
Reported that lapse conditions prevailed above and inver-
sions below a dense forest canopy during the daytime,
while radiational cooling of the canopy produced the
opposite effect at night.
1949 White, R. M. The Role of the Mountains in the Angular Balance
of the Atmosphere. J. of M. 6:353-355. 1949.
Documented the pressure difference across a mountain
range using snyoptic pressure patterns. Discovered
that mountains normally acted to abstract angular
momentum from the atmosphere in mid-latitudes and to
supply such momentum to the atmosphere in low latitudes.
1950 Shanks, R. E. and F. H. Morris. Microclimate Variation in
a Small Valley in Eastern Tennessee. Ecology 31:532-539. 1950.
Documented the time variation of temperature at several
heights along a slope. Presented an example of a breeze
(parcel of warm air) moving slowly downslope. Found the
bottom of the katabatic flow to be about one foot above
the surface.
1951 Cross, C. M. Slope and Valley Winds in the Columbia River
Valley. BAMS 31:79-84. 1950.
Noted that in the Columbia River Valley, where it was
0.5 to 3 miles wide and 2000 to 4000 feet, katabatic
winds were seldom detected at 40 feet above the slopes.
1952 Smalley, C. L. Unusual Vertical Air Currents in the Vicinity
of Warm Springs, California, October 29, 1950. BAMS 33:299-302.
1952.
Described unusual vertical currents observed over complex
terrain south of San Francisco Bay.
1952 Braham, R. R., B. K. Seely, and W. D. Crozier. A Technique
for Tagging and Tracing Air Parcels. Trans. AGU 33:825-833.
1952.
Described an experiment in which an aerosol plume was
tracked out to a distance of 107 miles over mountainous
terrain in New Mexico. Showed particle concentrations
in the horizontal and vertical.
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1952 Colson, D. Discussed Results of DoubleTheodolite Observations
at Bishop, Cal. in Connection with the "Bishop-Wave" Phenomenon.
BAMS 33:107-116. 1952.
Presented several examples of the standing (Bishop or
Sierra)-wave pattern. In some cases, the location of the
up and downdrafts, as well as the horizontal wavelength,
were determined.
1953 Gleeson, T. A. Effects of Various Factors on Winds. J. of M.
10:262-269. 1953.
Derived an expression for the horizontal components of
the valley wind as functions of the slope of the floor,
turbulent heat conduction, and turbulent friction. The
theory applied only to the mid-valley.
1953 Holland, J. Z. A Meteorological Survey of the Oak Ridge Area:
Final Report Covering the Period 1948-1952. ORO-99, Technical
Information Service, AEC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 584 pp.. 1953.
Presented a detailed summary of the meteorological
parameters affecting dispersion in the mountainous area
in and around Oak Ridge, TN.
1953 Long, R. R. A Laboratory Model Resembling the "Bishop-Wave"
Phenomenon. BAMS 34:205-211. 1953.
Described the results of a water channel simulation of
the flow of a three-layer system of immiscible fluids
over an obstacle immersed in the lowest layer. Suggested
that some features of the observed motion may be similar
to the flow of air over the Sierra Range near Bishop, CA.
1953 Scorer, R. S. Theory of Airflow over Mountains: II-The
Flow over a Ridge. QJRMS 79:70-83. 1953.
Defined three kinds of flow over unlevel ground according
to their scale-aerodynamic, barostromatic, and geostrophic;
showed the difficulties in obtaining the correct value of
the non-dimensional numbers in model experiments were
almost prohibitive; reported that the disappearance of the
adiabatic layer at the ground at the end of the day
maximized the orographic effects around sunset on sunny
days; and related the diurnal variations in the wavelength
of lee waves to the development and disappearance of this
adiabatic layer at the ground.
1954 Corby, G. A. The Airflow over Mountains: A review of the
State of Current Knowledge. QJRMS 80:491-251. 1954.
Reviewed most of the major works dealing with flows
over and downwind of mountain ridges.
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1954 Radock, U. A Procedure for Studying Mountain Effects at Low
Levels. BAMS 35:412-416. 1954.
Obtained a representative picture of vertical currents above
mountainous terrain by letting these currents act on an
aircraft set to fly horizontally in still air. Two sets of
results were shown. One showed low-level waves which were
caused presumably by a temperature inversion; the other was a
case of strong turbulence side-by-side with a smooth wave in
which downdrafts reached 1600 ft/min in an 18-knot wind.
1954 Col son, D. Meteorological Problems in Forecasting Mountain
Waves. BAMS 35:363-371. 1954.
Described work being done to improve forecasting of standing
waves in complex terrain. Indicated the meteorological
phenomena typically associated with standing wave.
1955 Stapley, C. E. Summary of Mean Streamline Patterns for Dugway
Proving Ground, 1952-1954. Meteorology Division, Technical
Services. Dugway Proving Ground, Toole, UT. 179 pp. T955.
Presented streamline flow charts for a 30 by 30-mile part of
the valley around Dugway for all odd-numbered hours for each
month. Excellent display of the wind variations on a small
scale.
1953 Long R. Some Aspects of the Flow of Stratified Fluids. Part I.
Tellus 5:42-58; Part II. Tellus 6:97-115; Part III. Tellus
7:341-357.
Studied the effect of a solitary obstacle on gravity waves
and presented experimental results (see Hirota, 1965).
1955a Scorer, R. S. Theory of Airflow over Mountains. Part III-Airstream
Characteristics. QJRMS 80:417-428. 1955a.
Presented a very detailed mathematical explanation of the
variation with height of the wave amplitude of lee waves.
1955b Scorer, R. S. Theory of Airflow over Mountains: Part IV-Separation
of Flow from Surface. QJRMS 81:340-350. 1955b.
Reported that the separation of flow at ridges may be two-
dimensional when the wake of an eddy was closed, or three-
dimensional when the air was continuously replaced. Showed
that eddies may be formed on both the windward and leeward-
side of a mountain range as the winds flowed perpendicular to
the range and noted that the air near the summit on the lee
side could be stagnant as a result of the lee wave.
1955 Forchgott, J. The Measurement of Airflow Deformation Behind
Mountains. QJRMS 81:488-493. 1955.
Documented the thermal structure of lee waves with glider and
radiosonde observations and reported that the temperature was
less in the wave crest and greater in the wave trough than in
between, where it was equal to that of the undisturbed stream.
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1955 Meikeljohn J. The Local Wind at Milfield, North Umber-land.
QJRMS 81:468-474. 1955.
Noted that the strong surface winds in the valley at
Milfield frequently were only 100 feet in depth even
though the valley depth was 1000 feet.
1956 Scorer, R. S. Airflow over an Isolated Hill. QJRMS 82:75-81.
1956.
Used the perturbation theory to compute the vertical
displacement of a uniform airstream passing over a solitary
hill for a circular hill; for a hill of an oval section
lying across the wind;, obliquely to it; and along it.
1956 Corby, G. A. and C. E. Wellington. Airflow over Mountains:
The Lee-Wave Amplitude QJRMS 82:266-274. 1956.
Discussed the theory of lee-waves over the British Isles.
1956 Scorer, R. S. and M. Wilkinson. Waves in the Lee of an.
Isolated Hill. QJRMS 82:419-427. 1956.
Discussed the lee patern produced by an isolated hill.
1957 Yoshino. Y. The Structure of Surface Winds Crossing a Small
Valley. JMSJ 35:184-185. 1957.
Noted that with light winds crossing a ridge, a lee eddy
was formed at certain intervals. The one immediately
downwind of the ridge caused a backward or upslope current
on a steep slopes near the summit. As a result, the
upper part of the slope experienced the minimum wind
speed. This was not the case where the slope was gentle.
On the exposed slope, the winds were weakest at the
valley bottom and strongest at the summit; there was no
reversal flow on the windward side.
1957 Dickson, C. R. A Synoptic Climatology of Diurnal Inversions
in the Jordon Valley. Dept. of Meteorol., Univ. of Utah,
Salt Lake City, 82 pp. 1957. Noted that the Jordan Va
Noted that the Jordan Valley, which is 16 miles wide and
20 miles long and has an average depth of 1500 feet, had
inversions which averaged 770 feet in depth. Noted that
katabatic winds were observed on practically every night
that the regional pressure gradient was weak and the
skies were clear.
1957 Wurtele, M. G. The Three-Dimensional Lee Wave. Beit. Phy.
Atmos. 29:242-252. 1957.
Presented a model assuming an isothermal atmosphere with
no shear in the basic current. With small perturbations,
it was possible to compute vertical velocities resulting
from an isolated mountain at distances from the mountain
greater than stationary wave length (about 5 kilometers).
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1958 Corby, G. A. and J. S. Sawyer. The Airflow over a Ridge. The
Effects of the Upper Boundary and High-level Conditions. WJRMS
84:25-37. 1958.
Discussed the effects on the flow downwind of a ridge when
the high-level condition was treated as a rigid lid.
1958 Thompson, A. H. and C. R. Dickson. Ground Layer Temperature
Inversions in an Interior Valley and Canyon. Dept. of Meteorol.,
Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City. 136 pp. 1958.
Used data from five towers, each 16 m or taller, on various
slopes to discover that temperature inversions generally
extended to the top of each tower. Slopes were seldom
without a katabatic flow.
1959 Buettner, K.J.L. and H. Thyer. On Valley and Mountain Winds.
Dept. of Meteorology and Climatology, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle. Final Report of Contract 19(604)-2289. 1959.
Noted shortcomings in the widely publicized Defant-Wagner
depiction. These errors were 1) the upslope winds were
separate from the valley winds and the downs!ope winds were
separate from mountain winds; 2) the double cell required
downward motion in the middle of the valley in the daytime
and the reverse at night (neither was observed); and 3) insula-
tion on valley sides in steeper valleys was not symmetrical
(so cross-valley winds readily developed).
1) Discovered that daytime valley and nocturnal mountain winds
occurred regularly and generally filled the valley to near
the ridge level; 2) observed compensating currents or aflti-
valley and anti-mountain winds were about 300 m above the
ridge level; 3) discovered that currents in the valley and
their respective anti-winds were separated by a highly
irregular mixing layer 200-300 m in thickness; and 4) con-
cluded that length, height, steepness of sides of the valley,
as well as well-defined distal and proximal ends, determined
how well-developed a valley wind system could become.
1959 Kassander, A. R., Jr. A Study of the Trajectories and Diffusion
Patterns of Ground-Generated Airborne Particulates Under Oro-
graphic Wind-Flow Conditions. J. of M. 16:617-625. 1959.
Performed a series of experiments in the Rincon Valley near
Tucson, AR to determine the wind structure over an orographic
barrier. Zinc sulfide particles dispersed in an oil fog
were used as a tracer and airborne impactors were used
as collectors. Particles were found at elevations of
14,000 feet at distances to at least 20 miles. However,
plumes were found to be considerably broader than had
been anticipated based on assumptions used in cloud-seeding
operations.
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1959 Merbt. H. Solution of the Two-Dimensional Lee-Wave Equation
for Arbitrary Mountain Profiles, and Some Remarks on the Hori-
zontal Wind Component in Mountain Flow. Beit. Phy. Atmos. 31:152-
161. 1959.
Transformed the two-dimensional lee-wave equation to ellip-
tical coordinates and solved it in terms of Mathieu functions
for arbitrary forms of the mountain profile. In the case of
a plateau, the solution reduced to Lyra's (1943) solution.
1960 Queney, P., G. A. Corby, N. Gerbier, H. Koschmieder, and
J. Zierep. The Airflow over Mountains. WMO Tech. Note 34. Geneva,
Switzerland. 135 pp. 1960.
Presented a thorough review of the literature on lee-wave
phenomena.
1960 Thyer, N. and K.J.K. Buettner. On Valley and Mountain Winds II,
Univ. of Washington, Seattle. Dept. of Meteorol. and Climatol.
AFCRL-250. 20 pp. 1960.
Presented a detailed documentation of wind profiles for three
or more locations across individual valleys. No-lift and
very slow ascension rate balloons were used to determine that
vertical currents were strong and localized vertical currents
were concentrated near the summits of the sides forming
the valley. The main area of exchange between the
slope flows and the valley winds was the ridge level area.
1960 Doos, B. R. A Mountain Wave Theory Including the Effect of the
Vertical Variation of Wind and Stability. Interntl. Meteorol.
Inst., Univ. of Stockholm, Sweden, Tech. Note No. 2. pp. 305-319.
1970.
Reported on the study of motion over an infinitely long
mountain ridge and related results to theory.
1960 Sinha, M. C. Upper-Air Standing Waves over Kabul Valley.
Beit. Phy. Atmos. 32:215-236. 1960.
Discovered from a detailed two-week study in November 1958,
that sets of well-formed air standing waves superposed upon
each other were actually over the valley on most occasions.
These waves generally existed during fair weather, but with
the approach of disturbances broke down into a turbulent
flow. The waves reappeared when the disturbances moved away.
1960 Von Eschen, G. F. Nighttime Temperature Rises in Mountain
Canyons. MWS 88:70-71. 1960.
Studied a nocturnal temperature anomaly in Cedro Canyon in
the Manzano Mountains, 25 km east of Albuquerque, NM.
Temperatures were known to rise rather abruptly around mid-
night, so an investigation was conducted through 1959.
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It was found that on 42 percent of the nights, there were
rises and falls varying from several degrees to as
much as 12%C. The rises were attributed to drainage
winds which for varying periods of time dissipated
the nocturnal inversions. The author speculated that the
phenomenon was not unique and probably occurred in many
other canyons in the West.
1961 Ayer, H. S. On the Dissipation of Drainage Wind Systems in
Valleys in Morning Hours. J. of M. 18:560-563. 1961.
Observed that well-developed downvalley winds frequently
dissipated from above as instability developed at the
ridgetop level. Concluded that the inversion, which is
shallower over the ridgetop area, burns off more readily
than that over lower parts of the valley. (See Pollak,
1924; Whiteman and McKee, 1977.)
1961 Sterten, A. K. Local and Synoptic Meteorological Investigations
of the Mountain and Valley Wind System. Part I: Local
Meteorological Investigations of the Mountain and Valley Wind
System in Southeastern Norway. Intern. Rep. K-242. Forsvarets
Forskningsinstitutt. Norwegian Defense Res. Establ., Kjeller-
Lillestrom, Norway. 139 pp. 1961.
Reported that as long as there was some clear sky between
sunset and sunrise, the mountain wind appeared; the
clearer the sky, the stronger and more stable was the
mountain wind. Observed, through the use of smoke, that
when mountain and valley winds converged in a valley, the
head of the valley wind was diverted vertically and
joined the remainder of the mountain wind which dominated
the upper area to a height above the crest. Discovered
that when the sky became overcast during a night with a
mountain wind blowing, the wind became weaker or disappeared.
Overall, the results demonstrated close relationship between
the mountain and valley wind system and the interdiurnal
variation in atmospheric pressure.
1961 Cramer, 0. P. and R. E. Lynott. Cross-Section Analysis in
the Study of Windflow over Mountainous Terrain. BAMS 42:693-702.
1961.
Used cross-section analyses of a 50-mile length over
mountainous terrain to show changes in stability and
stratification in the lowest 1000 m. Evidence indicated
that vertical patterns of potential temperature should
be considered in the detailed analysis of wind structure
in mountain areas.
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1961 Koch, H. G. Die Warme Hangzone. Z. M. 15:151-171. 1961.
Discovered a nocturnal threefold stratification across
a valley and concluded that this stratification was not
in accord with the temperature stratification of the
slope. He further indicated that the accumulation of
cold air in the valley bottom did not come from within
the slope atmosphere or from lateral valley wind entrain-
ment.
1961 Schroeder, M. J. Down-Canyon Afternoon Winds. BAMS 42:527-542.
1961.
Discovered that under certain conditions the typical
daytime upslope wind would disappear and that transport
opposite to that expected would occur.
1962 Thyer, N. and K.J.K. Buettner. Part A: On Valley and Mountain
Winds III. Dept. of Atmos. Sci., University of Washington,
Seattle. AF Contract 19(604)-7201. 203pp. 1962.
Presented diagrams depicting the temporal and spatial
variations of the wind. Concluded, after discussions
with A. Defant and H. Hoinkes at Innsbruck, Austria*
that the Alps Mountains obviously had an overall anti-
wind system of their own which generally negated local
Innsbruck anti-winds. When the demarcation between winds
and anti-winds was well-defined, the demarcation usually
sloped the same way as the valley bottom, but not
as steeply. Consequently, the layers increased in thickness
from the proximal towards the distal end of valley.
Over wet surfaces on a sunny afternoon, the valley wind
was only weakly developed probably because of evaporational
cooling at the ground. The presence of convective clouds
over the valley also caused local currents, which at times
overwhelmed the valley wind circulation.
1962 Schultz, H. B. The Interaction of the Macro- and Microclimatic
Factors Contributing to the Success of Wind Machines for
Frost Protection in Southern California. Biometeorology, S. W.
Tromp, ed., p 614-629. Pergamon Press, New York. pp. 614-629.
1962.
Discovered that katabatic winds pulsated and that the
katabatic wind layer was about 40 to 50 feet deep.
1962 Frenkiel, J. Wind Profiles over Hills. QJRMS 88:156-169. 1962.
Investigated wind profiles over an isolated hill and a
ridge line perpendicular to the prevailing flow. Discovered
that there was no close relationship between mean wind
profile and the mean temperature profile over hills. While
the directional wind profiles were practically uninfluenced
by wind speed, they were determined mostly by 1) the hill
profile in the immediate neighborhood of the site of measure-
ments; and 2) the hill profile further upwind than the one
near the measurement site.
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1962 Lawrence, E. N. Atmospheric Pollution (Sulphur Dioxide) in
Hilly Terrain. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll. 6:5-26. 1962.
Developed a formula for use in constructing pollution
profiles in a rural hilly area surrounded by distant
industrial sources. Maximum concentration was frequently
found at an intermediate level between the valley bottom
and the surrounding hill tops. He suggested that thermal
stability had a pronounced effect on observed concentrations,
because the wind dispersal effects were reduced.
1962 Baumgartner, A. Die Lufttemperatur als Standortfaktor Am Gr.
Falkenstein. Sonderdruck Aus. Forstw. 81:17-47. 1962.
Presented data on daily maximum and minimum temperatures
at various heights above ground, at various altitudes,
and on various aspects along a slope in the Bavarian
Forest.
1962 Myers, V. A. Airflow on the Windward Side of a Large Ridge.
JGR 11:4267-4291. 1962.
Developed a model of two-dimensional, laminar flow
over a barrier. The model simulated the outflow profile
of wind over the crest of the barrier for any given
inflow at the foot of the ridge, as well as above the
windward slope.
1962 Musaelyan, S. A. Barrier Waves in the Atmosphere. Israel Program
for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. 112 pp. 1964. (Original
in Russian was published in 1962.)
Showed vortex tlevelopments downwind of the ridge!ine and
presented a detailed, theoretical discussion of the
vertical currents generated by barriers.
1963 Sterten, A. K. A Further Investigation of the Mountain and
Valley Wind System in Southeastern Norway. Intern. Rep. K-254.
Fursvarets Forsknings-institutt. Norwegian Defense Res. Estab.,
Kjeller, Norway. 51 pp. 1963.
Investigated the valley wind in the Dokka area of Norway
(61%N) in an open-U valley, its depth being 400 m as
compared to a width of 3500 m between valley ridges.
He reported that the gradient wind (the wind at the level
which is not affected by ground friction, usually 3,000
to 5,000 feet above the surface) generally affected the
flow at the ridge before affecting the flow at the valley
bottom. When the gradient wind was across the valley, only
a moderate-to-strong wind was able to have an effect on the
valley floor flow, but when the direction was along the valley,
the gradient had almost the same influence at both locations.
Using 80 detailed soundings it was concluded that:
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1) The mountain wind first appeared in the evening, in
a shallow layer near the surface, but increased during the
night to dominate the entire valley atmosphere by sunrise.
2) Thereafter, the mountain wind disappeared near the
surface, where the conditions became calm, but there
still remained a mountain wind above.
3) Shortly afterwards, the valley wind appeared in the
calm layer near the ground and thereafter the remaining
part of the mountain wind gradually dwindled.
4) In the afternoon, when the mountain wind completely
disappeared, the valley wind dominated the entire valley
atmosphere.
1963 Davidson, B. Some Turbulence and Wind Variability Observations
in the Lea of Mountain Ridges. JAM 2:463:472. 1963.
Investigated the airflow above the lee slopes of a valley
in Vermont and reported that the regime showed two phases.
Phase I was the wind shadow area just above the lee slope,
which had a vertical thickness varying from 50 to 500 m.
With strong insolation and weak winds aloft, this area
was characterized by upslope winds, particularly near the
ground. With stronger winds and strong insolation, the
surface winds were directed toward the ridge!ine as often
as they were directed toward mid-valley. With still stronger
overhead winds and cloud!y conditions, the wind direction
in the Phase I region was mostly toward mid-valley; but
the speeds were relatively light compared to speeds in
mid-valley at a similar height. Phase II was the connecting
area between the wind shadow area and the general flow.
This area was characterized by downward vertical velocities
and intense horizontal shear. In general, the lower
portion of this region was the most turbulent in the valley.
The maximum turbulence was generally found to be at
200 to 300 meters above the valley floor or at half the
ridgeline height. Under near-inversion conditions the
turbulence was much weaker and the area of maximum turbulence
was closer to the ridgeline height.
1963 Fuh, Baw-Puf. The Wind Speed in a Valley. Acta Meteorologica
Sinica (Peking) 4:518-526. 1963.
Used observations from various countries to conclude
that the relative speed of the wind in a valley was
dependent upon Angle B, between the wind and the valley,
as well as the ratio of the width, L, of the valley to
the height, H, of the ridgeline on both sides. The
surface wind speed in a valley was greater than that in
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open country when Angle B was less than 15° and smaller
when the angle was greater than 35%. Under the former
condition, the smaller the angle and the larger the ratio L/H,
the more the surface wind speed was strengthened, while
under the latter condition, the larger the angle B and the
smaller the L/H, the more the wind was diminished. Generally,
the minimum speed was found in the morning and evening and
the maximum in the afternoon and at night.
1963 Petrosiants, M. A. and Chanysheva, S. G. Some Features of
Mountain-Valley Circulation. M. i. G., 9:3-10. 1963.
Examined wind data from a number of valleys in central
Asia to determine the effects of dimensions and
orientation of the valley on mountain-valley circulations.
The time of the onset of mountain and valley winds was
related to the length of the valley in the main valleys.
In tributary valleys the onset of the winds occurred
later. Indicated there was an optimum value of the ratio
of the length to width of the valley, favorable for the
information of the mountain-valley circulation. Found
that the ratio of speed of the valley wind over the
length of the valley increased with increasing slope of
the valley. Similarly, the ratio of the speed of the
mountain wind over the product of the width and length
of the valley was found to increase with increasing slope.
1963 Davidson, B. and P. K. Rao. Experimental Studies of the
Valley-Plain Wind. Int. J. Air & Wat. Poll. 7:907-923. 1963.
Concluded that nocturnal valley-plain winds were usually
downvalley, showed a maximum speed about half way to the
ridgeline, increased in intensity with distance downvalley,
and frequently dissipated from above.
1963 Tanner, J. T. Mountain Temperatures in the Southeastern and
Southwestern United States During Late Spring and Early Summer.
JAM 2:473-483. 1963.
Presented a statistical study of the variation of temperature
with height along the slopes of two different mountain
regions. The regions were relatively moist valleys in
the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and the Chiricahua
Mountains in a semi-arid region of Arizona. Confirmed
the findings of Schell (1934) that the temperature
changes at one elevation in the free air were not accom-
panied by equal changes at the same elevation on the
mountainside.
In the valleys of the Smoky Mountains at Sugar-Lands and
Oconaluftee (about 108 m in depth), the nocturnal inversions
averaged about 350 m in depth while at Le Conte Creek
(1475 m in depth), the inversions were 530 m deep. In the
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Chiricahua Mountains the inversions were generally about
550 m deep in the 900 m deep valley. In the daytime a
capping stable layer usually had a base at about 350 m in
Le. Conte Creek Valley and 550 meters in the Chiricahua
Mountain Valley.
1964 Buettner, K. J. K., G. Maykut, J. Turner, and J. Zimmerman.
Orographic Deformation of Windflow. Washington Univ., Dept.
Atmos. Sci. (Contract DA-36-039-SC-89118). 70 pp. 1964.
Discovered that: 1) Particles released on a ridge with a
moderate cross-wind tended to travel in a horizontal
vortex sheet flow; 2) Most particles with an appreciable
settling velocity released on the leeside of the ridge
were deposited onto the slop; 3) Particles of a 10-micron
size were readily lifted over the ridge; 4) Thermal winds
(valley and mountain winds) frequently coexisted with
gradient winds. They essentially flowed below the
gradient system. With a katabatic thermal wind parallel
to the gradient wind, particles released on the ridge split
into an upper vortex sheet component and a near surface kata-
batic component; 5) Lee eddies were rare except for strong
wind cases; and 6) The depth of the downslope flow was less
than 20 feet in one special study of katabatic flow.
1964 Orville, H. D. On Mountain Upslope Winds. JAS 21:622-633. 1964.
Conducted a numerical study of mountain upslope winds and
compared the results of two case studies with each other,
with previous studies on an isolated barrier, and with a
few observational studies on upslope winds.
1964 Hogstrom, U. An Experimental Study of Atmospherid Diffusion.
Tell us 16:205-251. 1964.
Conducted diffusion experiments at two locations in Sweden
and developed formulae to calculate downwind ground
concentrations. To deal with Studsvik, a site located in
complex terrain, a large section of the report examined the
influence of topographical discontinuity on diffusion.
1965 Shakina, N. P. A Model of the Development of a Mountain Breeze.
Iz. Atmos. & Oc. Phy. 1:262-265. (English Translation).
Presented the results of a numerical simulation of the
circulation above an irregularly-heated isolated mountain.
Concluded that 1) mountain breezes developed more tempestously
than simpler types of local circulation (a slope wind) and
2) the velocity field of a mountain breeze was subject to
great variation within the first few minutes of commencement
of motion.
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1965 Hi rota, I. Drag Force Caused by Gravity Waves over a Mountain
Barrier. JMSJ 43:116-123. 1965.
Studied internal gravity waves caused by a fluid with a
vertical density gradient passing over another fluid.
The patterns of gravity waves simulated for the cases of
internal Froude Numbers of 0.25, 0.20, and 0.125 compared
well with the experimental results obtained by R. Long (1955)
1965 Konyakhina, A. A., M. I. Shaposhnikova, and L. N. Gutman.
Effect of Non-Linearity in a Problem of Slope Winds. Iz. Atmos.
& Oc. Phy. 1:391-395. (English translation). 1965.
The problem of plane, stationary, non-linear slope winds was
reduced by a system of finite-difference equations, which
were solved by the M-20 electronic computer using matrix
and simple factorization methods together with an interation
method.
1965 Buettner, K.J.K. and N. Thyer. Valley Winds in the Mount
Rainer Area. Arc. M. Geophy. Biokli. (B) 14:125-147. 1965.
Conducted one of the most extensive studies of mountain-
valley flow during four summer seasons. Most of the
observations were obtained in the Carbon River Valley which
is V-shaped with forested walls sloping at about a 45°
angle to a height of 1000 m above the river. There is
a glacier at the upper end of the valley (1000 m msl and
higher). The authors had insufficient data for a statistical
analysis, so they selected examples of phenomena that were
frequently observed.
The major effort involved documenting the mountain and
valley winds and the anti-winds at higher levels. They
showed the diurnal variation of these winds. Generally,
there was mountain wind at night, a valley wind in the
daytime, and reverse flows at higher levels throughout
the day. The mountain and valley wind generally
filled the valley to ridge height and the reverse flow
had a similar depth. The maximum speed was usually a
little below the center of each layer. Overall comparisons
of flows showed that well-developed or poorly-developed
systems tended to occur simultaneously in all valleys of
the area, regardless of their orientation.
1965 Cummings, W. G., M. H. Redfearn and W. R. Jones. Air Pollution
by Sulphur Dioxide. Part 1: The Effect of Land Configuration
on Pollution by Sulphur Gases. JIF 38:391-405. 1965.
Based on a three-year survey of sulfur dioxide pollution
in the complex terrain surrounding the Llynfi Power
Station it was concluded that siting a power station
in a valley does not necessarily cause increased sulfur
dioxide pollution of the nearby high ground.
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1965 Blumen, W. Momentum Flux by Mountain Waves in a Stratified
Rotating Atmosphere. JAS 22:529-534. 1965.
Computed the vertical flux of horizontal momentum due to
an isolated circular mountain in a rotating atmosphere
using Queney's Model and compared results with estimates
of frictional stress.
1965 Kasai, T. Studies of Clouds Produced by Low-Level Jets and
Mountain Waves. JMSJ 43:196-205. 1965.
Presented results of time-lapse study of mountain wave
formation downwind of Hidaka Range on Hokkaido Island, Japan.
1965 Geiger, R. The Climate Near the Ground. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge. 611 pp. 1965.
Presented an excellent summary of many investigations of
the variation of insolation with time of year, latitude,
orientation, and angle of inclination of slopes. Discussed
cold air flows at night, and slope and valley winds.
1965 Smith T. B. Diffusion Study in Complex Mountainous Terrain.
Meteorology Research Inc. Report to Dugway Proving Ground,
U.S. Army Chemical Corps. AD484087. p 106-110. 1965.
Discovered that tracers released high above and upwind
of a ridgetop were carried to the lee slope far below
the summit under certain stability conditions.
1966 Thyer, N. H. A Theoretical Explanation of Mountain and.VaLley
Winds by a Numerical Method. Arc. M. Geophy. Biokli.,
Al5(3-4):318-348. 1966.
Presented a theoretical model of the local circulation in
a V-shaped valley and solved the equations of motion
numerically to yield a circulation featuring valley and
slope winds, anti-winds, and vertical currents.
1966 Hoi ton, J. R. The Diurnal Boundary Layer Wind Oscillation above
Sloping Terrain. Tellus 19:199-205. 1966.
Derived a set of three second-order differential equations
which approximately defines the dynamics of the boundary
layer and obtained diurnally periodic solutions. Showed
that the thermal forcing mechanism accounted for the
amplitude of the nocturnal low-level jet observed over
the sloping Great Plains region of the United States.
However, it appeared that time and height variations
in the eddy viscosity and eddy heat diffusion coefficients
had to be included to duplicate in detail the vertical
structure and phase of the observed jet.
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1966 Khalkechev. V. A. On the Motion of Cold Air Masses in Valleys.
Iz. Atmos. & Oc. Phy. 2:199-204. (English translation). 1966.
Investigated the motion of cold air masses in valleys
having a complex configuration. Considered the cases of
a narrow valley where the influence of the Coriolois
force could be neglected and a wide valley where it had
to be taken into account.
1966 Smith, M. R. Reduction of Ambient Air Concentrations of
Pollutants by Dispersion from High Stacks. In Proc. of the
Third National Conf. on Air Pollution, Washington, DC,
Dec. 12-14. pp. 151-160. 1966.
Discussed diffusion in complex terrain in general and
gave examples at specific sites.
1967 Martin, A. and F. R. Barber. Sulphur Dioxide Concentrations
Measured at Various Distances from a Modern Power Station.
Atmos. En. 1:655-677. 1967.
Discussed pollutant concentrations observed around a
power plant in hilly terrain. Pollution from the 137 m
stacks was, on occasion, detected as close as 1 km.
1967 Schroeder, M., M. A. Fosbert, 0. P. Cramer, and C. A. O'Dell.
Marine Air Invasion of the Pacific Coast: A Problem Analysis.
BAMS 11:802-808. 1967.
Presented an extensive review of the literature on airflow
over coastal mountains.
1967 Neuberger, H. Vegetation as an Aerosol Filter in Biometeor-
ology II. Proc. Third Intern. Congress. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
pp. 639-672. 1967.
Showed that vegetation effectively removed aerosols.
(This became known as the "green area" effect.)
1967 Lopez, M. E. and W. E. Howell. Katabatic Winds in the
Equatorial Andes. JAS 24:29-35. 1967.
Explained the regular occurrence of a tidal flow of relatively
cool air from the Pacific that created a heated katabatic
flow down the eastern slopes of the western Andes Mountains
and a hydraulic jump.
1967 Thompson, A. H. Surface Temperature Inversions in a Canyon.
JAM 6:287-296. 1967.
Reported on the thermal circulations in a small side canyon
in the Wasatch Range in northern Utah. The "major events of
a typical night of radiational cooling were as follows:
1) formation of a thin film of cold air on the floor or the
canyon and a short distance up the canyon slopes; 2) rapid
shift from up-canyon to down-canyon wind; 3) rapidly increas-
ing wind speed accompanying the continued cooling followed
by steady wind the remainder of the night; 4) persistence of
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the cold core in the canyon as morning heating progressed;
and 5) rapid wind shift from down-canyon to up-canyon in
the morning.
The major difference between these conditions and those
in larger canyons was that the inversion and nocturnal
flow regime began earlier and developed more rapidly
in the small canyon.
1967 Foldvik, A. and M. G. Wurtele. The Computation of the
Transient Gravity Wave. Geophy. JRAS 13:167-185. 1967.
Presented a pioneering work on the numerical solution of
non-linear waves.
1968 Hino, M. Computer Experiment on Smoke Diffusion over a
Complicated Topography. Atmos. En. 2:541:558. 1968.
Determined the wind field from the Fickian equation of
diffusion to obtain the distribution of smoke concentra-
tion. Discovered the computed results were at least as
good as wind tunnel results.
1968 Tyson, P. E. Velocity Fluctuations in the Mountain Wind.
JAS 25:381-385. 1968.
Concluded that the mountain wind represented a topographi-
cally-induced thermodynamic wind of purely local origin
able to support eddy energy in the range of frequencies
between convective and mechanical turbulence on the one
hand, and diurnal and larger-scale circulations on the
other.
1968 MacHattie, L. B. Kananaskis Valley Winds in Summer. JAM 7::348-
352. 1968.
Discovered,, in the north-south Kanaskis Valley that on clear
days with weak pressure gradient that surface wind compon-
ents across the direction of the main valley showed
a more pronounced diurnal cycle than components along the
valley. The effects of subvalleys on surface winds were
less susceptible of being overridden by synoptic scale
influences than the flow along the main valley.
1968 Orville, H. D. Ambient Wind Effects on the Initiation and
Development of Cumulus Clouds over Mountains. JAS 25:385-403.
1968.
Stated that a mountain dammed the airflow on the upstream
side and that heating on the upwind slope created a wave
in the airflow upwind. Small perturbations in the potential
temperature and water vapor formed at the upwind boundary
propagated downwind and became superimposed on the wave.
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1968 The Energy Policy Staff, Office of Science and Technology.
Considerations Affecting Steam Power Plant Site Selection.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 133 pp. 1968.
This report is exceptionally significant because it
represented the most advanced knowledge of the subject
by six major governmental agencies. The report did not
mention that complex terrain had to be considered in
an evaluation.
1968 DeMarrais, G. A., G. L. Downing, and H. E. Meyer. Transport
and Dispersion of an Aerosolized Insecticide in Mountainous
Terrain. ESSA Research Laboratories Tech. Memo.-ARL-6.
Silver Spring, MD. 46 pp. 1968.
Reported on the vertical temperature profiles observed
over several tributary valleys and the main drainage
valley of the Boise River Valley north of Fairfield, ID.
Detected a low-level movement in one direction and anti-
wind aloft by observing smoke and low stratus clouds.
1969 Burov, M. I., V. A. Eliseev, and B. A. Novakovsky. Stereo-
photogrammetric Method of Studying Atmospheric Diffusion. Tr.
GGO, No. 238. 1969.
(Quoted in WMO Technical Note 121, Dispersion and Forecasting
of Air Pollution, Geneva, Switzerland, 1972.)
Described a technique for studying diffusion around a
100-m hill by means of stereophotos. The stereophotos
were used in pairs and analyzed automatically by
means of an accurage stekometre, made by the K. Zeiss
firm or by means of a computer.
1969 Goltsberg, I. A. (editor). Microclimate of the USSR.
(Translated from Russian for the U.S. Dept. of Commerce by
the Israeli Program for Scientific Translations.) Jerusalem.
240 pp. 1969.
Described the use of morphometric indices for graphically
describing complex terrain. These indices are an aid in
solving applied problems. Also summarized much of the
Russian literature on the variation of wind regimes in
hilly terrain.
1970 Cramer, H. E., R. K. Dumbauld, and R. N. Swanson. A Com-
puterized Multi-source Diffusion Model for Air Quality
Regions with Complex Terrain. GCA Corporation, Salt Lake
City, UT. 59 pp. 1970.
Described a computerized multi-source model for use in
air quality control regions with complex terrain.
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1970 Edinger, J. G., M. H. McCutchan, P. R. Miller, B. C. Ryan,
M. J. Schroeder, and J. V. Behar. The Relationship of
Meteorological Variables to the Penetration and Duration of
Oxidant Air Pollution in the Eastern South Coast Basin.
Project Clean Air Research Report #4. Univ. Calif.
64 pp. 1970.
Showed oxidant pollutants were transported beneath
the subsidence inversion of the South Coastal Basin
to the Conifer Forests of the San Bernardino and San
Gabriel Mountains.
1970 National Air Pollution Control Administration and West
Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission. Kanawha Valley
Air Pollution Study, APTD-41. U.S. Dept. of N.E.W., Raleigh,
NC. 367 pp. 1970.
Presented the results of a detailed two-year study of
the variation of air pollution in the vicinity of an
urban area in a valley bottom. Showed the spatial
distribution of a number of pollutants.
1970 Hinds, W. T. Diffusion over Coastal Mountains of Southern
California. Atmos. En. 4:107-124. 1970.
Discovered that estimates of vertical diffusion from
center!ine exposures, crosswind standard deviations and
conventional representations of vertical plume growth
were not accurate in the mountainous terrain. Diffusion
over a system of ridges and canyons usually resulted in
lower exposures on the canyon floor than would occur at
the same distance over flat terrain, with the average
reduction being about 50 percent. ,Uns table thermal
conditions decreased the significance of the terrain
while local terrain effects became very significant
with stable conditions.
1970 Reiquam, H. An Atmospheric Transport and Accumulation Model
for Airsheds. Atmos. En. 4:233-247. 1970.
Developed a mathematical model of the atmosphere in an
airshed (large valley). Related pollutant concentrations
to pollutant source distributions and intensities and
to the volume of air available for dispersion in the
Williamette Valley of western Oregon.
1970 Brodine, V., P. P. Caspar, and A. J. Pallman. The Wind from
Dugway. Env. 11:2-9. 1970.
Hypothesized how the release of a poisonous gas at 400
to 500 m above the ground reached a mountainside and
killed the sheep grazing in the area (the hypothesis
indicated how the plume aloft might readily impinge on
slopes downwind from the release point).
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1970 Long R. R. Blocking Effects in Flow over Obstacles.
Tellus, 22:471-480. 1970.
Investigated the characteristics of the flow over an obstacle
with emphasis on the upstream disturbance which occurred when
the obstacle was accelerated in a long water channel.
1970 Rao, P. K. Theoretical Investigations of the Change of Wind
Speed along the Axis of a Valley. Arc. M. Geophy. Biokli., Ser.
A 19:59-70. 1970.
Investigated the down-valley acceleration of the valley-
plain wind under steady-state conditions for short distances
along the axis of the valley. Showed that there was a
linear relationship between the square of the mean velocity
of the valley-plain wind and the distance along the axis.
1971 Stephens, N. T. and R. 0. McCaldin. Attenuation of Power
Station Plumes as Determined by Instrumented Aircraft.
ES&T 5:615-621. 1971.
Examined data from three power plants, two of which were
located in complex terrain. Determined pollutant concen-
tration profiles and the half-life of SO2 in very stable air
at distances up to 80 km downwind of a source. (See corres-
pondence in ES&T 6:172-173).
1971 Carpenter, S. B., T. L. Montgomery, J. M. Leavitt, W. C.
Colbaugh, and F. W. Thomas. Principal Plume Dispersion Models:
TVA Power Plants. JAPCA 21:491-495. 1971.
Summarized 20 years of comprehensive field surveillance and
documentation of the dispersion of power plant emissions in
complex terrain. Concluded that new formulations were
needed for tall stacks because trapping became extremely
important.with the high level plumes. While the frequency
of episodes of high concentrations decreased, the concen-
trations during the episodes were appreciably greater than
those that were predicted by models designed to simulate
emissions from short stacks.
1971 Petkovsek, Z. and A. Hocevar. Night Drainage Winds. Arc.
M. Geophy. Biokli, Ser. A. 20:353-360. 1971.
Presented a very simple model of drainage winds capable of
calculating wind velocities in a cooled layer as a function
of the following parameters: net radiation loss, friction
coefficient, the angle of the slope, and the lapse rate in
the environment above the treated layer. Concluded that the
calculated drainage winds matched those observed.
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1971 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mount Storm, West
Virginia; Gorman, Maryland; Luke, Maryland; Keyser, West Virginia
Air Pollution Abatement Activity. APTD-0656. Air Pollution
Control Office, Research Triangle Park, NC. 146 pp. 1971.
Described the results of the investigations of two air
pollution problems in complex terrain. One dealt with air
pollution damage to commercial tree-growing operations in
the mountains and the other dealt with particulate matter
and sulfur gases released from industrial plants.
1971 Dames and Moore, North American Weather Consultants, Loren W.
81 Crow, R. G. Larsen, and C. Hill. Joint Meteorological Report
Prepared for the Navajo Project, Mohave Project, San Juan Project,
Four Corners Project, and Huntington Canyon Project. (Dames &
Moore, Atlanta, GA). 87 pp. 1971.
Assembled a unified report concerning the total impact on
the environment of the United States by the large coal-
fired power plants in the regions. Concluded that 1) based
on the consideration of local winds, terrain effects and pro-
fessional judgment, the Colorado Plateau Region can be divided
into specific "air sheds"; 2) evidence indicated little
significant meteorological interaction between these air
sheds during stagnation; 3) because each major source was
located within a different air shed, contaminants from each
major source will not interact under stagnation; 4) even
when extended periods of stagnation occur, the natural
pollutant removal processes of the atmosphere limit the
buildup of contaminants; 5) stagnation could last as long as
13 days in the area; and 6) the consequences of the stag-
nation vary among the different air sheds and plant sites.
(See Van der Hoven et al., 1972.)
1972 Miller, P. R., M. H. McCutchan, and H. P. Milligan. Oxidant
Air Pollution in the Central Valley, Sierra Nevada Foothills, and
Mineral King Valley of California. Atmos. En. 6:623-633. 1972.
Defined oxidant air pollution, temperature, and wind profiles
from aircraft measurements conducted several times daily
during a two-day period. Evidence of the transport of
photochemical smog from the Central Valley to the Mineral
King Valley was documented.
1972 Schiermeier, F. A. Large Power Plant Effluent Study (LAPPES).
Volume 4 - Instrumentation, Procedures and Data Tabulations
(1971) and Project Summary. EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC.
286 pp. 1972.
Described the downwash problem near the Conemaugh Power
Plant, located downwind of a ridge near Johnston, PA.
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1972 Van der Hoven, I., G. J. Ferber, P. A. Humphrey, G. C.
Holzworth, J. L. Heffter, and R. F. Quiring. Southwest Energy
Study—Report of the Meteorology Work, Appendix E, NOAA,
Washington, DC. 175 pp. 1972.
Described what is now referred to as the NOAA Gaussian
Model and the diffusion calculations based on the model
for five power plants located in complex terrain (Mohave,
Navajo, Four Corners, San Juan and Huntington Canyon).
A major difference between this and earlier models was
the treatment of plumes during stable conditions. This
model assumed that during E and F stable stability conditions,
a plume remained at a constant elevation above mean sea
level and impacted upon surrounding terrain of equal or
greater elevations. The report was prepared in response to a
report by power plant consultants. (See Dames & Moore et a!.,
1971.)
1972 Tyson, P. D., and R. A. Preston-Whyte. Observations of Regional
Topographically-Induced Wind Systems in Natal. JAM 11:643-650.
1972.
Presented observation to show the occurrence of boundary
layer oscillations in the form of widespread and large-
scale topographically-induced mountain-plain and plain-
mountain winds over the deeply dissected Eastern Plateau
slopes of Natal. By night, advection of cool air from the
northwest occurred between the Drakensberg Escarpment Zone
and the coast; by day, the flow was reversed and advection
from the southeast was characteristic of clear sky con-
ditions. The distinctive temporal and spatial characteristics
of the regional winds corresponded in a nearly ideal manner
to those expected in a thermodynamically-direct circulation
caused by the diurnal cycle of insolation. The mountain-
plain wind was fully developed 2 hours before sunrise and
was as deep as 1000 m.
1973 Start, G. E., C. R. Dickson, and L. L. Wendell. Diffusion in a
Canyon Within Rough Mountainous Terrain. NOAA Technical Memo-
randum ERL ARL-38. Idaho Falls, ID. 47 pp. 1973.
Discussed three mechanisms which appeared to enhance
mechanical turbulence in complex terrain. The first
mechanism was the downward transfer of momentum from the
turbulence generated around the ridges. The second
mechanism occurred during strong temperature inversions
when the first mechanism was at a minimum and was a
downslope density flow from side of feeder canyons draining
into the main canyon with enough momentum to reach the
other side of the main canyon. Helical circulations
occurred when this flow combined with the downvalley flow
in the main canyon. The third mechanism, wake turbulence,
occurred where flow over high rough areas caused a cavity
in the downwind area. In this cavity there were reduced
wind speeds, but increased eddy motion.
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1973 Edinger, J. G. Certical Distribution of Photochemical Smog in
the Los Angeles Basin. ES&T 7:247-252. 1973.
Explained how pollutants moved up mountain slopes and
became embedded in the inversion aloft. On occasion,
mixing brought pollution back to the surface.
1973 Fraser, A. B., R. C. Easter, and P. V. Hobbs. A Theoretical
Study of the Flow of Air and Fallout of Solid Precipitation
over Mountainous Terrain: Part I. Airflow Model. JAS 30 801-812.
1973.
Presented a model for airflow over mountainous terrain.
The model indicated that the dynamical effects of latent
heat were significant in some cases, but were generally
secondary to the barrier effect of the terrain.
1973 Leahey, D. M. and J. Halitsky. Low-Hind Turbulence Statistics
and Related Diffusion Estimates from a Site Located in the
Hudson River Valley. Atmos. En. 7:49-61. 1973. ,
Compiled a turbulence climatology for winds speeds <_ 2 ms"
from bivane measurements at a location in the Hudson River
Valley. The method of Hay and Pasquill was employed to
quantitate estimates of diffusion.
1973 Hindman, E. E., II. Air Current in a Mountain Valley Deduced
from the Breakup of a Stratus Deck. MWR 101:195-200. 1973.
Observed the breakup of a stratus deck in the Redwood
Creek Valley in northern California and reported the
following: 1) air ascended along the heated slopes;
2) air descended over the center of the valleys; 3) air
moved diagonally from the descending air in the mid-valley
to the ascending air on the slopes; and 4) the air aloft
moved from the ascending flow out to the descending flow
in the mid-valley. The magnitude of the upslope flow was
0.14 mps.
1973 Kozhevnikov, V. N. Linerization of the Problem of Flow around
a Mountain. Iz. Atmos. & Oc. Phy. 9:320-325. 1973. (English
Translation).
Analyzed and compared the flows around the same mountain
generated by one linearized and two nonlinear models.
Concluded that, in the case of constant temperature and
incident-flow velocity gradients, the linearized model
of the stationary two-dimensional problem could be
used successfully in practical calculations in place of
non-1 inear models.
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1973 Walden Research Division of Abcor - Summary Report on Modeling
Analysis of Power Plants for Compliance Extensions in 51
Air Quality Control Regions. Cambridge, MA (Prepared for EPA
Contract No. 68-02-0049). 74 pp. 1973.
Presented dispersion calculations for many air quality
control regions in the eastern United States. Used EPA's
Valley Model for power plants in complex terrain.
1973 Nicholls, J. M. The Airflow over Mountains Research 1958-1972.
WMO Tech. Note No. 127. Geneva, Switzerland. 74 pp. 1973.
Updated WMO Technical Note No. 34 (see Queney et a!., 1960)
and emphasized large-scale and le'e wave phenomena.
1974 Manabe, S. and T. B. Terpstra. The Effects of Mountains
on the General Circulation of the Atmosphere as Identified by
Numerical Experiments. JAS 31:3-42. 1974.
Presented model results indicating that 1) mountains markedly
increased the kinetic energy of stationary disturbances by
increasing the stationary component of the eddy conversion
of potential energy, while they decreased the kinetic energy
of transient disturbances and 2) the probability of cyclo-
genesis increased significantly on the lee side of major
mountain ranges where the core of the westerly jet was
located.
1974 Leslie, L. M. and R. K. Smith. A Numerical Simulation of
Katabatic Winds and Their Effect on Pollution Dispersal in Urban
Areas. Proc. 5th Australian Conf. Hydraulic Fluid Mechanics,
Univ. of-Cantaberra, Christchurch, N,Z. Vol. 2, pp. 553-560. 1974.
Investigated numerically the effectiveness of katabatic
circulations in dispersing an atmospheric pollutant, but did
not compare results with field observations.
1974 Leahey, D. M. and R. D. Rowe. Observational Studies of Atmospheric
Diffusion Processes over Irregular Terrain. Paper #74-67 presented
at APCA Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, June 9-13. 22 pp. 1974.
Collected wind data with tetroons, helicopters,' and bivanes
in order to study the airflow over a mountain valley, over a
long two-dimensional ridge, and over a river bank. The
airflow behavior was very different for each of the topo-
graphic features. Diffusion coefficients were derived for each
feature and found to be appreciably larger than what the
the Pasquill classification technique indicated.
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1974 Kao, S. K., H. N. Lee, and I. I. Smidy. A Preliminary Analysis
of the Effect of Mountain-Valley Terrains of Turbulence and
Diffusion. AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 59-63.
1974.
Presented analyses of the wind data recorded at 15 surface
stations in the Salt Lake Valley. Showed the streamline
patterns and the distribution patterns of the kinetic energy
of the mean and turbulent motion for different times of the
day and seasonal differences in eddy diffusivity.
1974 Egami, R. T., V. Sharma, R. L. Steele, and P. E. Testerman.
Diffusion Study in the Vicinity of Mohave Generating Plant.
AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 209-213. 1974.
Presented a few case studies of the vertical variation of
winds and temperatures in the Colorado River Valley in the
vicinity of the Mohave Plant. The wind directional pattern
did appear complex, but there was evidence of flow in the
valley and anti-winds aloft both during the day and night.
Concluded 1) the continuous Aitken particle counter was a
practical tool for defining the mixing layer and was superior
to the temperature sounding; 2) the use of a chemiluminescent-
type ozone monitor showed promise for plume tracking; and
3) the analysis of wind fields in rough terrain demonstrated
that constructing a dispersion model for complex terrain was
difficult. Presented evidence of two widely-separated peaks
(the upper peak may have been aged pollution and the lower
peak new pollution.
1974 Hovind, E. L., T. C. Spangler, and A. J. Anderson. The
Influence of Rough Mountainous Terrain on Plume Dispersion from
an Elevated Source. AMS - Second Atmos Diffusion Conf. pp. 214-
217. 1974.
Reported results from field studies at three separate sites
in the southwestern United States to illustrate the effect
of terrain roughness upon plume dispersion from an elevated
source. One site was relatively smooth, but did include
some low bluffs and cliffs in the direction of rising
terrain. The second site was relatively open with considerable
ground roughness. The third site was a canyon with a gradually
rising floor and steep canyon walls. Quantitative assess-
ments of plume dispersion were based either on aerial
measurements of oil fog plume centerline measurements or on
the quantitative impact of a tracer upon the sampling net-
work in the surrounding elevated terrain. Comparing calculated
concentrations to observed concentrations it was found that
1) at the smooth site, there was good agreement; 2) at the
rough site the calculated concentrations were generally too
high by a factor of six; and 3) at the canyon site the
calculated concentrations were too high by a factor of 10.
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1974 MacCready, P. B., Jr., L. B. Baboolal, and P.B.S. Lissaman.
Diffusion and Turbulence Aloft over Complex Terrain.
AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 218-225.. 1974.
Reported on the results of a field experiment of plume
dispersion during stable conditions with a weak katabatic
flow. Concluded that the categorization schemes of
turbulence and diffusion of the Pasquill-Gifford-Turner
type and NRC Safety Guide 23 show less dispersion during
stable conditions in complex terrain. Stated, "In the
weak, katabatic drainage flows, a stable temperature
gradient is associated with turbulence, just opposite to
the normal assumption."
1974 Start, G. E., C. R. Dickson, and R. R. Ricks. Effluent
Dilutions over Mountainous Terrain and Within Mountain
Canyons. AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 226-232.
1974.
Investigated effluent dilution within a canyon and.impaction
on the canyon walls. Found that during weak lapse con-
ditions, effluent dilution in the canyon was almost 4 times
greater than that predicted using Pasquill stability
categories. With neutral conditions, the dilution was
5 times greater and during very stable conditions 15
times greater than that indicated by the Pasquill technique.
Enhanced mechanical turbulence was believed to be the
cause of greater dilution in the canyon area. The authors
indicated that the plume impacted on canyon walls during
lapse conditions, but said nothing about impaction during
stable conditions.
1974 Giroux, H. D., L. E. Hauser, L. H. Teuscher, and P. E. Testerman.
Power Plant Plume Tracing in the Southern California Marine
Layer. AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 238-245. 1974.
Studied plume movement by injecting sulfur hexafluoride
(SFS) into the flue gases and detecting the tracer using
portable gas chromatographs with electron capture detectors.
Four-hour bag samples were collected at each of 27 fixed
monitoring stations on the Oxnard Plain (Ventura County, CA)
and its periphery. The major conclusions were 1) the
vertical structure of the plume was clearly defined and
the plume generally remained between ground level and
the inversion base; 2) the plume trajectory changed in
concert with changes in wind direction; 3) ground level
tracers of the plume were found as far as 40 km with
primary impact occurring within 25 km of the source;
4) there were no significant differences between concentra-
tions measured over elevated terrain directly in the plume
path and those measured over the surrounding flatlands; and
5) there was no observed buildup of background concentrations
due to the back-and-forth motion associated with the
alternative land and sea breezes.
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1974 Roffman, A. and R. Grimble. A Time-Dependent Air Quality
Model with Terrain Corrections. AMS - Second Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 311-316. 1974.
Developed a three-dimensional, time-dependent model to
predict concentration distribution of various pollutants
emitted from fossil-fueled electric generating power plants.
The model accounted for terrain features, variations in wind
and diffusivity profiles, and mixing depths. No model
validation was included.
1974 Lin, J., H. Liu, V. Pao, D. K. Lilly, M. Israezi, and
S. A. Orzag. Laboratory and Numerical Simulation of Plume
Dispersion. EPA-650/4-74-044, USEPA, Research Triangle Park, NC.
76 pp. 1974.
Concluded that stably stratified flow upstream of the
"mountain ridge" was blocked and that the plume rise and
spread increased. In one experiment a significant amount of
pollutant was trapped in the semi-stagnant region just
upstream of and below the mountain ridge. The flow more
frequently was around rather than over the obstacle; the
lateral spread increased considerably; and the vertical
spread was reduced. With higher Froude numbers, pollutants
downstream of the obstacle were carried closer to the
surface by the downslope flow.
1975 Klemp, J. B. and D. K. Lilly. The Dynamics of Wave-Induced
Downslope Winds. JAS 32:320-339. 1975.
Derived a theory for the dynamics of strong surface winds on
the lee side of a large mountain range and compared the
theory with observations. The observed strong winds were
found to be surface manifestations of standing resonant lee
wavelengths. Comparisons of the model simulations with
observations were favorable.
1975 Drazin, P. G. and C. H. Su. A Note on Long-Wave Theory of
Airflow over a Mountain. JAS 32:437-439. 1975.
Proved that the effects of the atmospheric structure and the
mountain profile on lee waves can be determined separately
assuming small perturbations, long wavelengths, and two
dimensionality. The flow was described by a composite
formula.
1975 Mahrer, Y. and R. A. Pielke. A Numerical Study of the
Airflow over Mountains Using the Two-Dimensional Version of the
University of Virginia Mesoscale Model. JAS 32:2144-2155. 1975.
Adopted the University of Virginia mesoscale model to study
airflow over a mountain. Included improvements suggested by
Deardorff. The results of two sets of experiments were
studied and compared to the results of other other models
and to field observations.
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1975 Air Monitoring Center, Rockwell International. Vol. 1.
Final Program Report. Navajo Generating Station Sulfur Dioxide
Field Monitoring Program. 602 pp. 1975.
Reported on a cooperative investigation involving six
governmental and private utility organizations. The
major purpose of the investigation was to evaluate the
need for S02 removal at the Navajo generating station.
The principal conclusion of the study was that in the
course of the life of the Navajo generating station, the
frequency of exceeding a three-hour average S02 concentra-
tion of 1300 yg/m3 was less than twice per year. Dispersion
conditions surrounding the plant were evaluated in terms
of observed quantities. The highest concentrations
occurred in the sector which included leche-e-Rock and
the Vermillion Cliffs and were attributed to ground-level
impact at the sides and tops of these two high terrain
locations.
1975 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Intercomp Resources
Development and Engineering, Inc. Evaluation of Selected Air
Pollution Dispersion Models Applicable to Complex Terrain.
EPA-450/3-75-059. USEPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC. 96 pp. 1975.
Compared the result of the Intercomp, EPA and NOAA complex
terrain models. Concluded that the Intercomp model
was most accurate and that the EPA and NOAA models over-
predicted.
1975 Seinfeld, J. H. Air Pollution - Physical and Chemical
Fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.pp. 2bO-264. 1975.
Presented two- and three-dimensional dispersion equations
for predicting plume concentratons in complex terrain.
1976 Riley J. J., H. T. Liu, and E. W. Geller. A Numerical and
Experimental Study of Stably Stratified Flow Around Complex
Terrain. EPA-600/4-76-021. USEPA, Research Triangle Park, NC.
31 pp. 1976.
Developed a computer program to compute three-dimensional,
stratified flow around complex terrain for the case of very
strong stratification. Performed laboratory experiments
for stratified flow past three different terrain models.
Preliminary comparisons indicated that the computed results
were in fair agreement with the experiment.
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1975 Jackson, P. S. and J.C.R. Hunt. Turbulent Flow over a Low
Hill. QJRMS 101:929-955. 1975.
Presented an analytical solution for the flow of an adiabatic
turbulent boundary layer on a uniformily rough surface over
a two dimensional hump with small curvature (a low hill).
Some comparisons of actual winds and wind tunnel flows
were made. These suggested that the theory may be
useful in approximating.the effect of hills on the wind.
1976 Start, G. E.t N. R. Ricks, and C. R. Dickson. Effluent
Dilutions over Mountainous Terrain. AMS - Third Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 407-414. 1976.
Investigated atmospheric dispersion to the north and over
the Oquirrh Mountains near Garfield, Utah. Concluded that
1) elevated plume-centerline concentrations appeared to
be suitably predicted by the Pasquill-Gifford dispersion
parameters when the airborne effluents did not flow across
the mountainous terrain; 2) elevated plume-centerline
concentrations measured over the rough terrain averaged two
to four times more dilution than that predicted for smooth
terrain (much of this was due to plumes being deflected
laterally when attempting to flow out and around the blocking
obstacles and the rest was due to the vertical shearing of
wind direction with height): 3) the locations of maximum
ground-level plume concentrations were predicted best by
pibal observations near the effective plume height; and
4) the physical setting and topography of a particular
size appeared to have a considerable effect on the observed
atmospheric dilution.
1976 Williams, M. D. and R. Cudney. Predictions and Measurements of
Power Plant Plume Visibility Reductions and Terrain Interactions.
AMS - Third Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 415-420. 1976.
Determined a relationship using concentrations determined
through samplers mounted on aircraft, between pollutants
and visibility enabling one to calculate plume opacities
and visual range reductions. Concluded, with no ground
observations, that power plant plumes readily and directly
impacted on distant high terrain at the effective stack
height of the plume.
1976 Roffman, A., T. P. Kapsha, P. E. Kueser, G. L. Bethune, and
M. P. Sullivan. A Field Study on the Behavior of a S02 Plume
from a Power Plant Near Complex Terrain and Under Stable
Atmospheric Conditions. AMS - Third Atmos. Diffusion Conf.
pp. 421-429. 1976.
Conducted via aircraft a plume tracking study in the
vicinity of the Tracy Station Power Plant in complex
terrain 20 km east of Reno, Nevada. Concluded that
1) the models, generally used by regulatory agencies to
determine the potential impact of the power plant plume
89
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fpr stable atmospheric conditions and elevated terrain,
yielded concentrations that were too high by a factor
ranging from 6.2 to 11.2 (average of 8.7); 2) the increase
in plume dilution under stable conditions and near elevated
terrain was most likely due to increased spreading in
, both the horizontal and vertical; and 3) under stable
conditions and very light winds speeds (<0.5 mps), plume
meander, which exceeded 180° on many occasions, was not
considered by the regulatory agencies.
1976 Clements, W. E. and S. Barr. Atmospheric Transport and
Dispersal at a Site Dominated by Complex Terrain. AMS - Third
Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 430-435. 1976.
Studied the temporal and spatial variation of the nocturnal
drainage wind in a canyon-mesa area at Los Alamos, NM.
On the mesa top, the slope wind was typically 1-2 mps and
subject to transient wind interruptions. Within the
canyon the mean flow was weaker (0.5-1.0 mps), but was
extremely steady and readily identifiable. Drainage was
more pronounced in winter than in summer. Using tracers,
it was found that the canyon flow responded to a separate
but similar set of driving forces from the mesa-top
drainage; the response to a change in heat was sooner in
the canyons. A mesa-top cross-canyon component of 2 mps
or more produced separated flow and a major roll eddy
within the canyon in stable conditions. The consequence
of this phenomenon was vigorous mixing of the air within
the canyon and extensive canyon-mesa air exchange.
1976 Bowers, J. F., Jr. and H. E. Cramer. Comparison of Calculated
and Observed Characteristics of Plumes from Two Coal-Fired
Power Plants Located in Complex Terrain. AMS - Third Atmos.
Diffusion Conf. pp. 463-469. 1976.
Presented a short-term diffusion model and concluded that
aircraft measurements of the characteristics of the stack
plumes of two power plants in complex terrain in West
Virginia confirmed accuracy of the model, which considered
entrainment effects prior to plume stabilization.
Results generally showed that the horizontal and vertical
spreading of plumes was in good agreement with model pre-
dictions.
1976 Fox, D. A., M. A. Fosberg, W. E. Marlatt, and W. Reeser.
Analysis of Mountain Air Quality. AMS - Third Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. PD. 470-475. 1976.
Outlined a procedure for calculating temperature, winds,
and dispersion in mountainous terrain. The procedure was
designed to provide a qualitative estimate of the meteorol-
ogical factors involved in land management decisions.
The authors stated that the procedures required a minimum
of expense and data yet provided what appeared to be a
90
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reasonably accurate assessment of the air quality impact of
activities in mountainous terrain.
1976 Lantz, R. B., G. F. Hoffnagle, and S. B. Pahwa. Diffusion
Model Comparisons to Measured Data in Complex Terrain. AMS -
Third Atmos. Diffusion,Conf. pp. 476-483. 1976.
Used diffusion data from three areas in mountainous
terrain to compare models developed by NOAA, EPA, and
INTERA. Concluded it was necessary to consider the
expected wind flow in order to make reasonable predictions
of ground-level concentrations in complex terrain environ-
ment. Found that the NOAA model underestimated concen-
trations in unstable cases and overestimated them in stable
cases. The EPA model was slightly better in stable con-
ditions, but poorer in unstable cases. The INTERA model,
according to the authors, produced the best results.
1976 • Egan, B. A. and A. Bass. Air Quality Modeling of Effluent
Plumes in Rough Terrain. AMS - Third Atmos. Diffusion Conf.
pp. 484-487. 1976.
Concluded that more field studies were needed and that
emphasis should be placed on plume geometry, rather than
assuming homogeneity of the flow field.
1976 Kao, S. K. A Model for Turbulent Diffusion over Complex Terrain.
JAS 33:157-158. 1976.
Constructed a model, which considered the half-life of a
pollutant, for turbulent diffusion over complex terrain.
Did not compare results with field observations.
1976 Paeqle, J. M. and J. Paeqle. Frequency Spectra of Atmospheric
Motions in the Vicinity of a Mountain Barrier. JAS 33:499-506.
1976.
Computed frequency spectra of heights and geostophic
vorticities for several points over the western continental
United States and Eastern Pacific. These spectra exhibited
variations which appeared to be at least partially attri-
butable to the underlying topography.
1976 Smith, R. B. The Generation of Lee Waves by the Blue Ridge.
JAS 33:507-519. 1976.
Described a study of the flow over a low, straight section
of the Blue Ridge Mountains in the central Appalachians.
Compared field observations with laboratory experiments to
improve an existing model.
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1976 Davis, B. L., D. N. Blair, L. R. Johnson, and S. J. Haggard.
A Study of the Green Area Effect in the Black Hills of South
Dakota. Atmos. En. 10:363-370. 1976.
Used bimonthly sampling of Aitken and larger particles for
a twelve-month period in the Black Hills of South Dakota
and showed several possible particle removal mechanisms.
Concluded that the "green area" effect might reduce ambient
Aitken particle concentrations by as much as 50%,
1976 Weir, A., Jr., D. G. Jones, L. T. Papay, S. Calvert, and C. Yung.
Factors Influencing Plume Opacity. ES&T 10:539-544. 1976.
Conducted parametric investigations of the effects of
independent variables on plume opacity using light scatter-
ing theory at the Mohave Power Plant at South Point, Nevada.
Showed that plume opacity varied as much as 14 to 87%
depending only on the geographic location of the source
and the time of day.
1976 Wilson, R. B., G. E. Start, C. R. Dickson, and N. R. Ricks.
Diffusion under Low Windspeed Conditions near Oak Ridge,
Tennessee. NOAA Technical Memorandum ERT ARL-61. Idaho Falls, ID.
83 pp. 1976.
Studied dispersion when the winds were light and meandered
considerably. Discovered that vertical mixing was enhanced
to almost the same degree as horizontal dispersion by the
meander. Although Pasquill never recommended the use of
his technique when routine measurements indicated calm
conditions, the investigators reported that 1) the standard
deviation of the lateral plume spread, a , averaged 5.7 times
greater than predicted values. Ground reflection may have
contributed to the enhanced vertical diffusion.
1976 Merkine, L. and E. Kalnay-Rivas. Rotating Stratified Flow
over Finite Isolated Topography. JAS 33:908-922. 1976.
Analyzed inviscid, steady, stratified rotating flow over a
finite, isolated topographic feature. The formulation
was based on approximating the horizontal momentum by the
the geostrophic momentum.
1976 Blumen, W. and C. D. McGregor. Wave Drag by Three-Dimensional
Mountain Lee Waves in Nonplanar Shear Flow. Gellus 28:287-298.
1976.
Considered the effect of both cross-wind and vertical
shear of the basic flow in a linear, hydrostatic model of
stationary, mountain lee waves on a stably stratified
airstream near an isolated hill. Determined analytical
solution for a constant lapse rate basic-state.
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1976 Tang, W. Theoretical Study of Cross-Valley Wind Circulation.
Arc. M. Geoph. Biokli., Ser. A 25:1-18. 1976.
Developed an analytical model to investigate the inter-
v action between the large-scale air flow and thermally-
induced wind circulation. The Boussinesq approximation
was assumed. The lower order successive solutions were
obtained in spectral representation for both typical daytime
and nighttime cases. The results produced circulation
features often observed in mountainous terrain.
1977 Koch, R. C., W. G. Biggs, P. H. Hwang, I. Leichter, K. E.
Pickering, E. R. Sawdy, and J. L. Swift. Power Plant Stack
Plumes in Complex Terrain. EPA-660/7-77-020. ESRL, Research
Triangle Park NC. 236 pp. 1977.
Presented a fairly extensive review of 16 field investigations
of dispersion in complex terrain. Discussed contrary and
consensus views on airflow, turbulence, and diffusion
phenomena. General conclusion was that all state-of-the-art
models of transport and diffusion of continuous elevated
plumes in complex terrain were in their initial stages of
development; much more validation data were needed.
1977 Whaley, H. and G. K. Lee. Plume Dispersion in a Mountainous
River Valley During Spring. JAPCA 27:1001-1005. 1977.
Found that the plume axis elevations were generally lower
during stable and neutral conditions than those predicted
by Briggs1 plume-rise formulae. In contrast, plume dis-
persion, although confined in the horizontal by the steep
valley walls during both stability regimes, was significantly
enhanced by vigorous lateral mixing, particularly close to
the source.
1977 Haussling, H. J. Viscous Flows of Stably Stratified Fluids
over Barriers. JAS 34:589-602. 1977.
Used a numerical technique and a model to demonstrate the
transition of a viscous flow over an infinitely long barrier
from homogeneous to stably stratified conditions. Even at
low Reynolds numbers the transition was similar to that
predicted by inviscid models. However in the homogeneous
case, the potential flow of the invisid flow was replaced
by a flow with separation and recirculatory regions adjacent
to the ridge.
1977 Clark, T. L. and W. R. Peltier. On the Evolution and Stability
of Finite-Amplitude Mountain Waves. JAS 34:1715-1730. 1977.
Described a series of fixed Froude number numerical simu-
lations of the generation of internal gravity waves by the
flow of stably stratified fluid over an isolated obstable.
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1977 Chung, Y. S. An Observational Study of the Influence of
Large-Scale Mountains on Airflow and Lee Cyclogenesis. Arc.
M. Geoph. Biokli., Ser. A 26:109-126. 1977.
Observed significant large-scale topography-induced
orographic modifications in upper airflows. Only 14 to 26%
of upper cold lows crossed major mountain systems, while
the remainder passed major mountain systems as cold troughts.
In the course of prolonged upslope motions over a chain of
mountains, upper-level contours fanned out laterally due
to the generation of orographic mass-divergence, increased
friction, etc.
The upper-level flows over the Massifs, the Andes, the
Rockies, and the East Asian Mountains tended to be weaker
than those observed upstream and downstream, which is
contrary ,to many numerical/physical models. Examination
indicated that the decrease of wind flows was associated
with orographic vertical motions, horizontal divergence
and deflection, vertical shrinking, increased friction,
and blocking and splitting flows in the large-scale
mountains.
1977 Fabrick, A., R. Sklarew, and J. Wilson. Point Source Model
Evaluation and Development Study. Radian Corporation, Austin,
TX. 197 pp. (no date; .probably 1977-)
Presented the results of a study of the comparative
attributes of air pollution point source submodels, which
were tested against four data bases and analytic solutions.
Concluded that the grid-type model was superior to the
Gaussian model in terms of precision, realism, and generality.
Noted that the Gaussian model was not applicable to complex
terrain situations where high wind shear and strong
inversions can result in plume channeling and other effects
that produce non-Gaussian concentration profiles. Stated,
"After careful review of the Gaussian evaluation tests, one
reaches the conclusion that almost any desired result can
be obtained, given the range of options for the dispersion
parameters, plume trajectory in complex terrain, etc., and
the range of uncertainty in the observed wind speed, wind
direction, and atmospheric stability."
1977 Swolik, A. A., J. M. Austin, and G. N. Pica. Plume Dispersion
Modeling in Complex Terrain under Stable Atmospheric Conditions.
Presented at APCA Annual Meeting, June 20-24, 1977, Toronto,
Canada. 16 pp. 1977.
Summarized data from a large field program involving a
power plant effluent study (LAPPES) and compared observed
S02 concentrations with those predicted by two commonly-
used models. Proposed a new model (see Schiermeier, 1972).
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1977 Cabe, D. B., B. R. Eppright, Jr., and J. D. Stuart. Applica-
tion of the Gaussian Dispersion Model to Predicting Maximum
Plume Concentrations in Abruptly Rising Terrain. Presented
at APCA Annual Meeting, June 20-24, 1977, Toronto, Canada. 15 pp.
1977.
Demonstrated that the steady-state Gaussian model, modified
to ignore contributions from ground-based reflections, was
a useful tool in prediction of maximum ground-level concentra-
tions resulting from plume impaction on abruptly rising
terrain. Discovered that the model performed well when
the concentrations were high, but poorly when the concentrations
were very low.
1977 Kao, S. K. and G. H. Taylor. Effect of Mountain Terrain on
Diffusion in the Planetary Boundary Layer. AMS-APCA Joint
Conf. pp. 119-125. 1977.
Investigated the effect of mountains on dispersion using
a major S02 source (smelter) located at the north end of
the Oquirrh Mountains, approximately 15 miles west of Salt
Lake City, UT. The S02 sampling was limited to observations
by aircraft. They found that the a 's calculated from
experimental results exceeded those^predicted by the model
for diffusion over a flat surface for extremely unstable
(Class A) situations, despite the fact that actual conditions
were quite stable. The vertical dispersion parameter, a ,
however, was approximated fairly well by the predictive
equations. They further concluded that there was a con-
siderable amount of turbulence downwind of an obstacle.
(Turbulence can readily occur over smooth terrain many km
downwind of an obstacle.)
1977 Nappo, C. J., Jr. Horizontal Variability of Mesoscale Winds
over Complex Terrain. AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 140-145. 1977.
Examined wind data to determine the horizontal variability
of the mesoscale flow over complex terrain in eastern
Tennessee. Found that horizontal variability on a scale of
100 km was minimal during unstable conditions and great
during stable conditions.
1977 Elliott, R. D., E. L. Hovind, and M. W. Edelstein. Observations
and Model Calculations of Plume Impaction on Rising Terrain.
AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 182-187. 1977.
Proposed changes for the Gaussian plume dispersion models
for complex terrain. The basis for the recommended
changes was that plume movements over complex terrain
were different than those over smooth ground. The authors
reported that air accelerated while passing over a ridge and
that the embedded plume underwent vertical shrinking and
downwind stretching. The authors further claimed that pre-
servation of mass continuity in the vertical required the
plume center!ine to follow a streamline that did not touch the
ground. In the absence of a change in turbulence, the ground
95
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level concentration remained essentially the same in the
plume that was disturbed by flowing over a ridge as in
one not as disturbed. The NAWC mixing model was proposed
as an improvement over the smooth terrain model. A table
summarizing data from 13 field experiments showed that the
smooth terrain model always overpredicted (3 to 50 times).
1977 Huffnagle, G. F., B. A. hgan, and B. R. Greene. Application of
Models in Complex Terrain. AMS-APCA Joint Conf. 196-203. 1977.
Reviewed the requirements for a model in complex terrain.
Analyzed data from western Pennsylvania and concluded that
models perform well when they include 1) buoyancy entrainment
to provide initial spreading of the plume; 2) modification
of the plume path to account for lift created by the
obstacle; and 3) greater diffusion coefficients to account
for the surface roughness and the resultant turbulent
energy.
1977 Mullen, J. B., M. W. Chan, and I. H. Tombach. Development and
Valiation of a Model for Diffusion in Complex Terrain. AMS-APCA
Joint Conf. pp. 188-191. 1977.
Presented the Aerovironment Multi-Source Terrain Model
(AVMSTM), a steady-state model which assumed uniform
meteorology and was subject to the limitations of
over-response under conditions of rapidly changing meteorology.
In spite of these limitations, AVMSTM was a useful tool
for assessing the effect of changing source configurations
and for identifying conditions which produce the highest
impacts. The model proved to be valid even with data
averaged over an hour.
1977 Burt, E. S. and H. H. Slater. Evaluation of the Valley Model.
AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 192-195. 1977.
Reported that at four of six sites on mountainous terrain
near the height at which plumes from major facilities stabilize,
the valley model calculated maximum 24-hour S02 concentrations
within a factor of 2 of the second-highest observed concen-
trations. (At the other sites there were overpredictions of
concentrations by factors of 5 to 10.)
1977 Yocke, M. A. and M. Liu. The Development of a Three-Dimensional
Wind Model for Complex Terrain. AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 209-214.
1977.
Developed a three-dimensional model for the simulation of
wind fields over rugged terrain. The model, based upon mass
continuity, was composed of several horizontal layers of
varying thicknesses. The model results compared favorably
with observational data.
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1977 Sklarew, R. C.t J. C. Wilson, and A. J. Fabrick. Depict/
Impact Grid Models of Reactive Point Source Emissions in
Complex Terrain. AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 215-220. 1977.
Developed a model to calculate the total problem of
impaction of reactive source emissions in complex terrain.
Concluded, after applying data from a brief sampling
period, that the model was very useful and versatile. A
plea was made for representative field data and for assess-
ing accuracy of the field data when disagreement occurred
between the model and the data.
1977 Lange, R. and C. A. Sherman. Particle-In-Cell vs. Straight
Line Gaussian Calculations For an Area of Complex Topography.
AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 225-231.
Analyzed the differences between calculations of time-
integrated air concentrations and ground depositions for
the standard straight-line Gaussian plume model and the
three-dimensional time-dependent PIC model (Atmospheric
Diffusion Particle-In-Cell) for the Hudson River Valley.
Discovered 1) the calculations differed greatly, 2) the
Gaussian methods calculated higher concentrations under
stable conditions, and 3) the PIC method calculated
concentrations over larger areas, because of its consideration
of meandering and secondary exposure from the returning
plume after flow reversal.
1977 Lavery, T. F. and L. L. Schulman. The Validity of a Gaussian
Plume Point Source Diffusion Model for Predicting Short-Term
S02 Levels in the Vicinity of Electric Generating Plants in
New York State. AMS-APCA Joint Conf. pp. 291-298. 1977.
Described a Gaussian point source diffusion model which
was used to predict hourly, 3-hourly, and 24-hourly averaged
S02 concentrations in the vicinity of four electric
generating plants in New York State. The ratios of the
predicted to maximum observed concentrations exhibited a
large variance for all stability regimes.
1977 Wilson, D. A., H. E. Cramer, J. F. Bowers, Jr., and H. V.
Geary, Jr. Detailed Diffusion Modeling as a Method for
Interpreting and Supplementing Air Quality Data. AMS-APCA
Joint Conf. pp. 315-320. 1977.
Performed a detailed and systematic analysis using
concurrent emissions, meteorological and air quality
data in complex terrain. Demonstrated the capability
of the modeling techniques to yield both short-term
and long-term concentration estimates in close agreement
with air quality observations.
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1977 Burt, E. Valley Model User's Guide EPA-450/2-77-018. USEPA,
Research Triangle Park, NC. 122 pp. 1977.
Presented the Valley Model, which estimates the upper
limits of 24-hour pollutant concentrations due to sources
in rural, complex terrain. The options allow multiple sources,
flat terrain, urban areas, and long-term averages to be
considered.
1977 Hovind, E. L., T. C. Spangler, N. E. Graham, and P. G. Sagert.
Valley Circulation Influence on Tall Stack Dispersion from a
Ridge Location. Presented at NATO/CCMS meeting on Air Pollu-
tion Modeling and Its Application. August 28-31, 1977,
Toronto, Canada. 10 pp.
Studied SF6 oil fog dispersion in the north-south
oriented valley in the Upper Hat Creek. (The valley was
about 5-10 km wide with a northward drainage and the valley
ridges were 600 to 1000 m above the valley floor.) There
were 14 tracer releases during the winter, spring, and summer
of 1976. The major conclusion was that a very complicated
valley-slope circulation existed. The highest concentrations
tended to occur on the western slopes and were attributed to
fumigation accompanying cross-valley flows.
1977 Benjamin, S. F., J. J. Havlena, and R. D. Rowe. Observational
Studies of Air Quality and Air Flow Over a Ridge Downwind of
a Stack. Presented at APCA Annual Meeting, June 20-24, 1977,
Toronto, Canada. 16 pp.
Analyzed observations of wind and SOa concentrations at
two sites along the top of a ridge downwind of a sour
gas plant. At the site nearest the plant, the highest
concentrations were associated with high winds and neutral
thermal stability, whereas, at the more remote site, light
winds during stable conditions produced the worst pollution.
The high concentrations during stable conditions were
associated with the horizontal deflection of the streamlines
as they approached the ridge.
1977 Cramer, H. E., J. F. Bowers, and H. V. Geary. Comparison of
Calculated Observed Ground-Level SO2 Concentrations for the
ASARCO-Tacoma Copper Smelter. Presented at APCA Annual Meeting,
1977, Toronto, Canada. 14 pp.
Demonstrated that existing diffusion-modeling techniques
were capable of providing accurate estimates of short-
term ground-level S02 concentrations produced by emissions
from a tall stack located in complex terrain.
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1977 Whiteman, C. D. and T. B. McKee. Observations of Vertical
Structure in a Deep Mountain Valley. Arc. M. Geophy. Biokli.,
Ser. A 26;39-50. 1977.
Showed from observations using a tethered balloon sounder
in the Gore River Valley of western Colorado that on a
clear morning, an inversion top descended at a steady rate
of 120 m h \ Weak down-valley winds were present within
the inversion layer while stronger up-valley winds prevailed
above (see Pollak, 1924 and Ayer, 1961).
1977 Kitabayashi, K. Wind Tunnel and Field Studies of Stagnant Flow
Upstream of a Ridge. JMSJ 55:193-203. 1977.
Studied stagnant flow appearing upstream of a ridge under
stable regimes by observing winds and by a wind tunnel
experiment. Stagnant flow formed with the nocturnal
inversion and disappeared when the inversion disappeared.
The critical Froude number above which the stagnant flow
disappears, was estimated to be about 2.3.
1977 Furukawa, T. Part 1. Numerical Experiments of Air Flow Over
Mountains. Part 2. Some Comparisons of Linear and Nonlinear
Treatment of the Equation System and Lower Boundary Condition.
JMSJ 55:325-330. 1977.
Discussed the physical relations among four cases, i.e.,
combinations of two equation systems (linear and nonlinear
forms) and two boundary conditions (linear and nonlinear).
The nonlinear interactions between the disturbances and
the 1) weakening of the approaching flow in the lowest
layer ahead of the mountain; 2) generation of the stronq
wind zone near the level of the mountain crest; 3) intensi-
fication of the downslope winds; and 4) extension of the
strong winds far downstream in the lowest layer.
1977 Fabrick, A., R. Sklarew, and J. Wilson. Point Source Model
Evaluation and Development Study. Science Applications, Inc.,
Westlake Village, CA. 197 pp. 1977.
Presented the results of an investigation of the attributes
of air pollution point source submodels. The submodels
were tested against field data bases as well as analytic
solutions. The submodels were divided into two classes:
a generalized Gaussian model, Gaussian Evaluation Model (GEM)
and a finite difference model, Integrated Model for Plumes
and Atmospherics in Complex Terrain (IMPACT). GEM permits
the user to specify options for each of the major parameters
(i.e., horizontal and vertical dispersion, standard deviations,
plume rise, terrain characteristics, and mixing height).
An extension of GEM was developed to automatically calculate
concentrations over an array of receptors and was called
GEMGAR (GEM with Gridded Array of Receptors).
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1978 Fabrick, A. User Guide to IMPACT: An Integrated Model for
Plumes and Atmospheric Chemistry in Complex Terrain. Environ-
mental Research Associates, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA. 71 pp.
1978.
Presented the Integrated Model for Plumes and Atmospheric
Chemistry in Complex Terrain (IMPACT), a three-dimensional
grid model for calculating the impact of pollutants,
either inert or active, in simple or complex terrain,
emitted from either point or area sources. Claimed
considerable success and wide acceptance of the model.
(see Sklarew & Tran, 1979).
1978 Lilly, D. K. A Severe Downslope Windstorm and Aircraft
Turbulence Event Induced, by a Mountain Wave. JAS 35:59-77.
1978.
Presented a detailed analysis of the large-scale, mesoscale,
and turbulent-scale features of a major downslope windstorm.
The effects of blocking caused lateral separation of
different layers and net descent of air crossing the
Colorado Rocky Mountains.
1978 Klemp, J. B. and D. K. Lilly. Numerical Simulation of Hydro-
static Mountain Waves. JAS 35:78-107. 1978.
Developed a numerical model for simulating the flow of
stably-stratified, nonrotating air over finite-amplitude,
two-dimensional mountain ranges. Special attention was
paid to the accurate modeling of internal dissipation and
lateral propagation of wave energy out of the model. The
model was effective in simulating the structure of two
observed cases of strong mountain waves with very different
characteristics.
1978 Smith, R. B. A Measurement of Mountain Drag. JAS 35:1644-1654.
1978.
Determined the pressure drag on the Blue Ridge Mountains
near Harpers Ferry, WV by measuring the pressure on each
side of the ridge. During the first two weeks of January
1974, pressure differences were typically 0.5 mb across
the ridge. The measured drag seemed to be associated with
the blocking of the surface flow upstream, a condition
which occurs most frequently in stable nighttime conditions.
1978 Barry, R. G. and H. B. de Saussure: The First Mountain Meteorol-
ogist. BAMS 59:702-705. 1978.
Reviewed the contribution of Horace Benedict de Saussure,
who late in the 1870s, determined that in the daytime, the
air over valleys was cooler than over the mountain slopes
at the same altitude.
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1978 Mason, P. J. and R. I. Sykes. A simple Cartesian Model of
Boundary Layer Flow Over Topography. J.C. Phy. 28:198-210.
1979.
Presented a simple method for including no-slip, irregular
boundaries into a Cartesian numerical model. The method
was a simplification of existing methods for dealing with
irregular boundaries and was shown to be effective when
the resolution requirements were satisfied.
1978 Miller, C. W. An Examination of Gaussian Plume Dispersion
Parameters for Rough Terrain. Atmos. En. 12:1359-1364. 1978.
Discussed how values of lateral and vertical dispersion
parameters, a (x) and az(x)> for relatively flat, smooth
terrain could^be revised for use in complex terrain.
Compared results to field measurements.
1978 Wooldridge, G. L. and M. M. Orgill. Airflow, Diffusion, and
Momentum Flux Patterns in a High Mountain Valley. Atmos. En.
12:803-808. 1978.
Performed a statistical evaluation of circulation features
and turbulence in relative Lagrangian coordinates, using a
series of pairs of super-pressured balloons released in a
high mountain valley of central Colorado. Results revealed
a monotonic increase of diffusivity coefficients and
momentum fluxes with height to the level of the surrounding
peaks and ridges.
1978 Ookouchi, Y., M. Urgy, and R. Sawada. A Numerical Study of
the Effects of a Mountain on the Land and Sea Breezes. JMSJ
56:368-385. 1978.
Studied the thermal and dynamical effects of a mountain on
land and sea breezes with emphasis on the growth, decay,
and extent of the circulations. A two-dimensional model
was applied in three situations: 1) no mountain; 2) an
insulated mountain; and 3) a heating mountain.
1979 Graham, N. E., G. H. Taylor, R. L. Peterson, P. C. Sinclair,
J. W. Frey, and T. C. Koss. An Analysis of Terrain-Induced
Aerodynamic Effects Near the Kingston Steam Plant, Kingston,
Tennessee. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 113-116.
1979.
Examined local terra in-induced flow disturbances on
pollutant concentrations from the former (76- and 91-m)
and present (305-m) stacks. Supplemented investigation
with a wind tunnel study. The modeling results indicated
that during periods of strong northwest winds the terrain
upwind of the generating station induced an increase in
both horizontal and vertical turbulence in the downstream
flow field. The effect extended to a height of at least
600-m above ground. The disturbances acted to restrict
plume rise and increase the vertical spreading.
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1979 Spangler, T. C., G. R. MacRae, and E. L. Hovind. Impact
of Coal-Fired Plant Emissions on the Air Quality in
Huntington Canyon, Utah. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf.
pp. 117-121. 1979.
Found, using five air quality monitors in the vicinity
of Huntington Canyon on a continuous basis for four
years that the highest three-hourly S02 concentration
was 444 yg m"3 and the highest twenty-four hour
concentration was 183 ug m~3 . Even when these values
were scaled for full-load conditions, the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for S02 were not violated.
1979 Ruff. R. E. The Influence of Rough Terrain on Pollutant
Dispersion and Transport from a Geothermal Power Complex.
AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp.. 122-127. 1979.
Made a preliminary charterization of the near-surface
transport and dispersion in a geothermal area in complex
terrain 80 miles north of San Francisco.
1979 Steffen, D. E., G. M. Hidy, L. K. Wang, and E. A. Berman.
The Geysers Geothermal Area Emissions and Aerometric Data
Base and Air Quality Analysis. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 128-134. 1979.
Discovered that the winds at the top of a ridqe appeared to
be driven by meso- or synoptic-scale influences, while
the flow in the valleys was influenced largely by
terrain discontinuities and inhomogeneities in the
surface heating. Summarized the weather conditions
typically associated with high H2S concentrations.
Demonstrated the marked temporal and spatial changes
which occur over complex terrain by presenting plots
of the wind direction during a two-hour period.
1979 Howard, E. A. and D. G. Fox. Modeling Mountain-Valley
Airsheds. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 182-188. 1979.
Described a simple box model which is being developed to
evaluate the particulate matter pollution due to wood
burning in valleys.
1979 Issacs, R. G., A. Bass, and B. A. Egan. Application of
Potential Flow Theory to a Gaussian Source Diffusion Model in
Complex Terrain. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 189-196,
1979.
Incorporated theory on plumes imbedded within potential
flow fields in a Gaussian point source model to calculate
maximum ground-level concentrations under neutral
conditions. Indicated results were preliminary and that
the investigation was being expanded.
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1979 Sklarew, R. C. and V. A. Mirabella. Experience in Impact
Modeling of Complex Terrain. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf.
pp. 205-212. 1979.
The model, IMPACT (Integrated Model of Plumes and Atmos-
pherics in Complex Terrain), was applied over thirty data
sets from over a dozen locales for six regions in California.
Summarized the results describing the successes and listed
caveats of the model.
1979 Banta, R. and W. R. Cotton. Horizontal and Vertical Structure
of Diurnal Boundary Layer Flow Patterns Over Mountainous Terrain.
AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 217-224. 1979.
Conducted detailed three-dimensional boundary layer flow
studies over a flat plateau surrounded by mountains in the
Colorado Rockies. Encountered a nocturnal drainage wind, a
morning upslope wind, and an afternoon surfacing of the
gradient winds aloft. The surfacing of the afternoon wind
flushed pollutants out of the valley on a daily basis.
1979 Smith, D. B. and R. B. Ruch, Jr. Comparative Performance in
in Complex Terrain of Several Air Quality Impact Assessment Models
Based on Aerometric Program Data. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 225-228. 1979.
Discovered that the EPA Valley Model calculated pollution
concentrations much higher than those observed in the Penobscot
River Valley of Maine. Reported that calculations made by a
modified EPA algorithm gave more accurate results than the
Valley Model.
1979 Minott, D. H. and D. L. Shearer. Measurements of Vertical
Dispersion Rate in Deep-Valley Terrain. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 229-236. 1979.
Conducted experiments in three deep U-shaped valleys and a
fjord in Norway. A total of 53 experiments were conducted
using oil-fog and FP tracers. Following standard procedures,
vertical dispersion coefficients (
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6) the vertical dispersion rate in the fjord during neutral
conditions was one-quarter of that observed over land and much
less than the P-G F rate.
1979 Wan, P. K. Calibration Program for Complex Terrain Diffusion
Model. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion Conf. pp. 237-240. 1979.
Analyzed 571 observations collected over a two-year period
in the vicinity of a fossil fuel power plant in the Hudson
River Valley. Concluded that 1) the flow characteristics of
regions with complex terrain differ significantly as a
function of topographic details and meteorological conditions
and 2) thermal and topographic effects appeared to increase
diffusion rates in regions of complex terrain over those
which might be expected over level terrain.
1979 Arya, S.P.S. and M. S. Shipman. A Model of Boundary Layer
Flow and Diffusion over a Ridge. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 584-591. 1979.
Conducted an investigation in a wind tunnel on the influence
of a two-dimensional ridge on the flow and diffusion in a
neutral boundary layer. The separation bubble behind the
ridge was found to extend to a distance of 13h (h = ridge
height) in the longitudinal direction and up to about 2.5h
in the vertical. The cavity was characterized by a greatly
reduced, but circulating mean flow and high intensities of
turbulence.
1979 Meroney, R. N. Field Verification and Laboratory Simulation
of Airflow Patterns in Complex Terrain. AMS-Fourth Atmos. Diffusion
Conf. pp. 592-595. 1979.
Compared laboratory simulation results to available field
data by means of statistical correlation and scatter diagrams
and concluded laboratory simulations compared very well with
field data.
1979 Koch, R. C., W. G. Biggs, D. Cover, H. Rector, P. F. Stenberg,
and K. E. Pickering. Power Plant Stack Plumes in Complex Terrain -
Description of an Aerometric Field Study. EPA-600/7-79-010a.
. ESRL,. Research Trianqje Park, NC. pp.. 168. 1979.
Described the monitoring network established and operated in
the vicinity of the 712-megawatt, coal-fired, Clinch River,
Virginia Steam Power Plant as part of an investigation of
transport and dispersion in complex terrain.
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1979 Thompson, R. S. Dispersion of Sulfur Dioxide from the Clinch
River Power Plant - A Wind Tunnel Study. EPA-600/4-79-052,
ESRL, Research Triangle Park, NC 1979.
Simulated the topographic features of an area in which a
diffusion investigation was conducted. The most
significant influences of terrain on the plume, in
this wind tunnel study, were found to be frequent down-
washing and an angle of about 30° to the mean wind
direction for the plume's initial release. These
phenomena were produced by the hills just upwind and
downwind of the stacks. Ground-level concentrations
measured at positions corresponding to field sampling
sites compared well with field-measured values. Compari-
sons of concentrations measured above the model surface
with helicopter field measurements did not show good
agreement.
1979 Ellis, H. W. and P. C. Liu. Comparison of Predicted and
Measured Concentrations for 54 Alternative Models of
Plume Transport in Complex Terrain. Presented at APCA Annual
Meeting, June 24-29, 1979. Cincinnati, OH. 16 pp.
Compared measured and predicted maximum short-term
S02 concentrations for 54 alternative models and identified
several models that accurately predicted the highest 24-
hour S02 concentrations. Each model required an adjustment
in the plume center!ine location as the plume was transported
downwind in rising terrain. These same models over-
predicted by substantial margins the highest measured
three-hourly S02 concentrations. Limitations in the
emissions data were the suspected cause of the over-
predictions.
1979 Whaley, H., 6. K. Lee, and J. G. Gainer. The Behavior of
Buoyant Merging Plumes in the Rocky Mountain Foothills.
Presented at APCA Annual Meeting, June 24-29, 1979.
Cincinnati, OH. 16 pp.
The behavior of highly-buoyant, low-momentum plumes
from two natural gas sulfur extraction plants located
in the foothills of the Canadian Rockies was strongly
influenced by geographic factors including regional
topography and chinook winds. In addition,
1) The plume axis elevations did not exhibit the usual
leveling-off tendency in neutral conditions. Derived
plume rise values were generally lower than estimated
by the Briggs1 neutral formula but agreement with
the two-thirds power law dependence with downwind
distance was observed. This conclusion reinforces
findings made elsewhere in Canada in different climatic
regions.
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2) The derived standard deviations of plume spread
showed significant differences from those indicated
by Pasquill. Local channeling of airflow resulted
in reduced plume width at the plant situated closest
to the mountains with horizontal standard deviation
values, in general, less than Pasquill Class F. For
the smaller plant, located farther from the mountains,
the horizontal standard deviation data were in excess
of Pasquill Class A and agreed with studies made in
flatter terrain. Vertical turbulence induced by the
mountains persisted over the entire dispersion zone
and resulted in enhanced vertical mixing with vertical
standard deviations corresponding to Pasquill Class B
rather than Class D; and
3) Application of the standard methods of predicting in
the Rocky Mountain foothills which are subjected to
frequent chinook winds, resulted in gross errors in
estimated ground-level impact concentrations.
1979 Norton, C. and A. Roffman. Wind Flow Patterns in Complex
Terrain of Allegheny County, Western Pennsylvania. Presented
at APCA Annual Meeting, June 24-29, 1979. Cincinnati, OH.
13 pp.
Compared wind directions at the two major airports Situated
on plateaus in the Pittsburgh area with those at nine
locations in the three river valleys which transect the
area. Concluded that the airport winds represented the
mesoscale flow but not the flow in the valleys. Flows in
the valleys were generally in accord with the orientation
of the valley in the immediate area.
1979 Chan, M. W. A Tracer Experiment to Determine the Transport and
Dispersion of an Elevated Plume in Complex Terrain. Presented
at APCA Annual Meeting, June 24-29, 1979. Cincinnati, OH.
13 pp.
In a detailed two-day study discovered that
1) Local forces were responsible for the transport
and diffusion of pollutants during nighttime and
early morning hours when the synoptic pressure
gradient was weak (the synoptic wind flow was not
established in the valley until after mid-day);
2) When the plume was released within a layer of very
stable air in complex terrain, the plume followed
constant potential temperature surfaces, which
followed the contour of the ground (it did not just
fan out and stay at the same elevation above mean
sea level);
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3) Fumigation of the plume did not result in high
concentrations when measurements were averaged over
a period of one-hour or more;
4) When the surface-based inversion was shallow, the
plume lofted above the inversion and pollutant
concentrations at the surface were miniscule; and
5) When the plume was released in a neutral layer, the
plume centerline followed the contour of ground
surface as it traveled downwind.
1979 Sklarew, R. C. and K. T. Iran. Air Pollution Modeling in
Mountainous Terrain. Paper presented at APCA Annual Meeting,
June 24-29, 1979. Cincinnati, OH. 14 pp.
Discussed air pollution models based on a simplified
analytical solution (Gaussian model) and those based on
•a partial differential equation describing conservation
of pollutant mass (grid model). The Gaussian model,
while used extensively, was found to be limited in its
direct applicability. Thus, for application in mountainous
terrain the Gaussian model must be modified to account
for wind channeling, increased dispersion, and elevated
receptors. Grid models, such as the Integrated Model
Plumes and Atmospherics in Complex Terrain (IMPACT) model,
can readily account for mountainous terrain effects.
IMPACT achieved the preferred generality and flexibility
since it is a collection of models to calculate wind
fields, diffusion, and pollutant transport.
1979 Hunt, J.C.R., J. S. Puttock, and W. H. Snyder. Turbulent
Diffusion from a Point Source in Stratified and Neutral Flows
Around a Three-Dimensional Hill-Part 1. Diffusion Equation
Analysis. Atmos. En. 13:1227-1240. 1979.
Solved the advective diffusive equation for flow around a
three-dimensional hill using an eddy diffusivity formulation,
Showed how source positions on and off the centerline
affect the trajectories and splitting of impinging plumes
and the value and position of the maximum surface concentra-
tion on a hill.
1979 Inoue, 0. Resonance of Lee Waves of a Stratified Flow Over
Two Barriers. JMSJ 57:21-28. 1979.
Studied resonance of lee waves produced by two barriers
in a two-dimensional channel with special regard to
therelationship between the amplitude and the distance
between the two barriers. The study dealt with a two-
dimensional, steady flow in a stably stratified, incompress-
ible, and inviscid fluid. The governing equation was
solved analytically.
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1979a Mason, P. J. and R. I. Sykes. Flow Over an Isolated Hill of
Moderate Slope. QJRMS 105:383-395. 1979.
Extended the two-dimensional theory of Jackson and Hunt
for turbulent flow over a shallow ridge to three-dimensional
topography. Compared the results to the theory of flow
over a ridge and wind observations from a nearly-circular
130-m hill (see Mason and Sykes, 1979b).
1979 Smith, R. The Influence of the Earth's Rotation on Mountain
Wave Drag. JAS 36:177-180. 1979.
Considered the two-dimensional flow of a stratified
rotating fluid over a ridge using the linear theory model
of Queney (1979). A general expression for the wave drag
was derived. As progressively wider mountains were
considered, the wave drag decreased and the flow became
more nearly geostrophic.
1979 Mainin, P. C. and B. L. Sawford. A Model of Katabatic Winds.
JAS 36:619-639. 1979.
Employed a hydraulic approach in which the detailed
vertical structure of the flow was replaced by a quiescent
stably-stratified environment and an equivalent flowing
layer which was subject to sustained layer cooling,
surface stress, and interfacial entrainment. A scaling
which contained much of the parametric behavior was found.
Results showed that interfacial entrainment was the dominating
retardation mechanism of the flow and that surface stress
might be relatively unimportant. The model gave satisfactory
quantitative agreement with the limited field data available.
1979b Mason, P. J. and R. I. Sykes. Three-Dimensional Numerical
Integrations of the Navier-Stokes Equations for Flow Over
Surface-Mounted Obstacles. J. Fl. Mech. 91:433-450. 1979.
Numerical integrations of the Navier-Stokes eouations for
flow past a smooth, three-dimensional, surface-mounted
obstacle were presented. The variation of the flow with
Reynolds Number and with geometric ratios such as the
maximum slope of the obstacle were investigated. The
separated flow was investigated using visualizations of
the surface-stress patterns and particle trajectories
through the flow (see Mason and Sykes, 1979a).
1980 Williams, W. T. Air Pollution Disease in California Forests.
A Base Line for Smog Disease on Ponderosa and Jeffrey Pines
in Sequora and Los Padres National Forests, California.
ES&T 14:179-182. 1980.
Concluded that there was air pollution damage to lower
elevation yellow pine forests in the mountainous area
downwind of the Central Valley. The damage was reported
to be widespread. The results offer support to the con-
tention that impaction occurs in a valley
108
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1980 Bradley, E. F. An Experimental Study of the Profiles of Wind
Speed, Shearing Stress and Turbulence at the Crest of a Large
Hill. QJRMS 106:101-123. 1980.
Measured, under neutral conditions, the turbulent wind
structure on a 100-m tower at the crest of a hill of
height h = 170 m. A local velocity maximum, or "jet",
was observed at about h/5 m. Below the jet, the ratio
of the increase in wind speed to the upwind value at
the same height was 1.07 and almost independent of the
height near the surface.
The r.m.s. turbulence components a , a and o were
also approximately doubled near the surface, out whereas
a and a both decreased with height, the surface increase
in a extended over the height of the entire measurements.
w
1980 Pickering, K. E., R. H. Woodward, and R. C. Koch. Power Plant
Stack Plumes in Complex Terrain. Data Analysis and Characteri-
zation of Plume Behavior. EPA-600/7-80-008, USEPA, Research
Triangle Park, NC. 333 pp. 1980.
Analyzed data collected during a 16-month field program
conducted near the Clinch River Power Plant in western
Virginia. The purpose was to characterize the behavior
of a plume in complex terrain. The study provided an
adequate data base for the evaluation of plume behavior
in complex terrain.
109
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read fnarucnom on the reverse before completing/
1. REPORT NO.
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSlOf»NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
METEOROLOGY AND AIR QUALITY MODELING IN COMPLEX
TERRAIN
A Literature Review
5. REPORT DATE
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
G. DeMarrais and T. Clark
s. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
(Same as Block 12)
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
CABN1D/01-0625 (FY-82)
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory—RTF,NC
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
In-house
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/09
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Modeling air quality in complex terrain has been and remains to be a difficult
task simply because of the difficulty in parameterizing the complex wind flow
regimes. Due to the complex terrain, significant submesoscale forces are estab-
lished to perturb the mesoscale wind field. These forces must first be better
understood and the alaorithms must be developed to adequately simulate the effects
of these forces before one can hope to reasonably model air quality in complex
terrain. This literature review summarizes over 250 studies of meteorology and
air quality modeling in complex terrain for the benefit of those who wish to
broaden their knowledge of the subject.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COS AT I Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
116
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
110
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