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different localities, exposed to different laboratory con-
ditions are highly variable.
Temperature can be extremely critical in determining toler-
ance. It has been estimated that aquatic organisms at an
environmental temperature of 10°C can withstand a reduced
oxygen concentration about 2.4 times as low as at a temper-
ature of 15.6°C. Changes in flow are believed to have
similar effects on survival at different oxygen concentra-
tions. One study demonstrated that a gradual reduction in
oxygen with a water flow of 0.06 ft/sec produced a 50 per-
cent stonefly mortality, while similar conditions with a
water flow of 0.25 ft/sec produced no mortality (Gaufin,
1973).
Flow Effects: The physical aspects of the increase in
water volume and velocity are important considerations; how-
ever, these aspects are difficult to separate from the chem-
ical considerations. Flow and suspended solids are particu-
larly interrelated. An increase in flow can cause stream
bank scouring that results in an increase in suspended
solids concentrations without an external source of solids.
The effects of bank scour on the biota of a stream is essen-
tially the same as suspended solids entering from surface
runoff.
The increase in velocity alone also affects the biota.
Aquatic plants and animals are pulled off the substrate and
washed downstream. The type of substrate also affects the
degree of scouring. Small stones, gravel, or sand sub-
strates are easily disrupted, while large rocks are less apt
to be moved and may provide refuge for mobile aquatic organ-
isms. The time for recovery or recolonization following a
storm depends on the degree of scouring, the time of year
and type of organisms. During the active growing season
springmore rapid recovery would occur than in the fall.
Although it is impossible to precisely predict how long it
will take a stream to recover, an approximate recovery time
may be from 2 to 4 weeks under normal circumstances.
Suspended Solids; Suspended solids (SS) can have a
detrimental effect on aquatic communities. The turbidity
caused by SS can inhibit light penetration that is necessary
for photosynthesis, causing a decline in vegetation. The
abrasiveness of the particles can damage plant bodies, and
as the particles settle, attached vegetation is smothered.
A-68
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Settleable solids blanket animals, plants and their habi-
tats, either killing the organism or rendering the habitats
unsuitable for occupation. Suspended solids also serve as a
transport mechanism for pesticides, heavy metals, and other
toxic substances which are readily sorbed onto soil par-
ticles.
Macroinvertebrate and fish species can be directly and indi-
rectly affected by SS. Changes in habitat may occur because
of destruction of vegetation that eliminate species, or food
sources may be eliminated (Hynes, 1974). Suspended solids
may directly affect species due to abrasion on delicate mem-
branes and gill structures.
The specific biological effects depend on the nature of the
suspended solids. If the solids have a high organic con-
tent, a high BOD may be associated with the SS. In addi-
tion, different particle types have different settling
characteristics and these properties along with the flow
will determine the zone of influence of the entering solids.
It has also been demonstrated that subtle changes in sub-
strate type can affect aquatic organisms. Rocky substrates
characteristically support the most diverse communities.
One of the main reasons is apparently the availability of
interstitial habitats that are utilized by many species
(Brussen and Prather, 1974) . Even a small degree of sedi-
mentation can fill these spaces and eliminate or reduce
species populations. The extent of the change is dependent
primarily on the degree of sedimentation.
EPA has proposed a maximum limit of 80 mg/1 SS in fresh
water (EPA, 1973) . There is no evidence that concentrations
of suspended solids less than 25 mg/1 have any harmful ef-
fects on fisheries (EPA, 1973). Waters containing 25 to 80
mg/1 should be capable of supporting good to moderate fish-
eries, whereas concentrations greater than 80 mg/1 are
unlikely to do so.
Nutrient Enrichment: The main effect of nutrient en-
richment is to increase aquatic vegetation. To what extent
plant biomass will increase is difficult to determine be-
cause the question of what constitutes a limiting concentra-
tion of nitrogen, or phosphorus has never been adequately
answered. Sawyer (in Harms and Southerland, 1975) reported
that concentrations of 0.01 mg/1 of soluble phosphorus and
0.30 mg/1 of inorganic nitrogen were sufficent to support
A-69
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algal blooms in Wisconsin lakes when other environmental
factors were optimum. Sylvester (in Harms and Southerland,
1975) reported limiting concentrations of 0.01 mg/1 phos-
phorus and 0.2 mg/1 nitrogen for Green Lake in Seattle,
Washington.
For streams, Mackenthus (in Harms and Southerland, 1975)
recommended that total phosphorus concentrations not exceed
0.1 mg/1 (as P) in streams and should not exceed 0.05 mg/1 P
in streams entering a lake or reservoir. However, a study
by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration re-
ported that total phosphorus concentrations exceeded 0.05
mg/1 P in 48 percent of the U.S. rivers sampled. A Public
Health Service study reported that an average of 77 percent
of the stations sampled on U.S. rivers contained at least
0.1 mg/1 P04 (0.03 mg/1 as P) and 60 percent contained ni-
trate concentrations greater than 1.4 mg/1 NO^ (Harms and
Southerland, 1975).
It should also be pointed out that the 0.01 mg/1 of soluble
phosphorus limiting concentration reported by Sawyer (in
Harms and Southerland, 1975) and Sylvester is the detection
limit for the Standard Methods colorimetric analysis custom-
arily employed. There is little information on the effects
of concentrations below this limit in water quality analy-
ses. Perhaps the real answer lies in the following state-
ment: "At this time, no procedure for evaluating nutrient
supplies and detecting growth-limiting factors in lakes and
streams seems to have been developed to the point of general
reliability and usefulness" (Gerloff, 1969).
Established "threshold" concentrations are best used as a
point of reference to indicate whether a given nutrient con-
centration may present potential or existing problems. A
single parameter value is not sufficient to determine whether
excessive aquatic growth will occur.
The form the nutrients take is important in determining ef-
fects on water quality. Ryden et al (.1972) discussed the
effects of different forms of phosphorus. It was pointed
out that much of the phosphorus that is exported from water-
sheds may be in biologically unavailable forms, such as
apatite. The percentage of biologically unavailable forms
is often related to soil type or the soil horizon exposed to
erosion. Phosphorus in erosion from the lower soil horizon
is to a great extent apatite. The difference between dis-
solved and particulate forms of phosphorus is also impor-
tant. Measurements of total phosphorus concentration do not
A-70
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indicate how much phosphorus is readily available to aquatic
vegetation. For this reason, dissolved phosphorus measure-
ments are better indicators of immediately available phos-
phorus.
A large percentage of the nutrients associated with nonpoint
source are associated with soil particles. An immediate al-
gal response following runoff of this type would probably
not occur. Whether these nutrients would become available
at a later time depends on the chemical and biological
characteristics of the water (see discussion of suspended
solids). Nutrients entering in a dissolved state may be
more immediately available, although a lag phase of two
weeks was reported between the discharge of storm water into
a lake and a large increase in phytoplankton biomass. How-
ever, an almost immediate increase in metabolic activity was
noted (Knauer, 1975). This delay in biomass increase may be
due to two factors: (1) the growth rate of the organisms,
and (2) the time required for biotic recovery following high
flow or storm conditions.
Toxic Substances: The toxicity of any substance is de-
pendent on several factors:
Concentration of the metal
Type of organism
Type of metal compound
Synergistic and antagonistic effects
Physical and chemical characteristics of the water body
Because of the complexities involved, no single value can be
used as an absolute to predict the effects of a toxic sub-
stance in a water system. The concentrations and quantities
entering the system are frequently difficult to quantify,
particularly where nonpoint sources are concerned. It is
also difficult to determine the mixing characteristics and
transport mechanics in the water body. Assuming these as-
pects can be dealt with, the toxicity of most substances to
aquatic life is not clearly defined.
The majority of the information available on the effects of
toxicity on aquatic organisms is based on bioassay tests
which are carried out under controlled conditions that sel-
dom occur in nature. This type of information is useful
A-71
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only as long as the limitations are considered. To use the
results of bioassay tests as absolutes in determining
whether a given concentration will be harmful in a natural
environment is inappropriate. Typical bioassay tests do not
measure behavioral modifications that may affect productivi-
ty or the possibility of lowering an organism's resistance
to other adverse impacts, such as disease and/or parasites.
Bioassay information is, however, useful for indicating po-
tential problem areas.
Table A-ll gives an indication of the range of concentra-
tions that have been reported as harmful or non-harmful to
specific aquatic organisms. The problems involved in mea-
suring toxicity are illustrated by the conflicting results
that have been reported (Table A-16). The discrepancies do
not necessarily reflect "right" or "wrong" answers, or even
good or bad testing techniques, but rather the existence of
unmeasured variables in testing procedures. In addition,
threshold values recommended by EPA are given in the text.
In most cases, these values are well below recorded acute
lethal concentrations and are designed to prevent possible
chronic effects and behavioral modifications.
Although most of the available toxicity information is for
individual rather than combinations of substances, pre-
liminary studies indicate acute toxicities for mixed solu-
tions may be predictable if the TL5Q (50% toxicity level) is
known for the individual substances. In order to obtain a
predictive three-day Tl^g for mixed effluents the concentra-
tion of each toxic substance found in the effluent was ex-
pressed as the proportion of the expected three-day TL5Q and
these values were then summed to give a predicted Toxicity
Index. Agreement was found to be good between predicted and
measured results (Lloyd in Biological Problems in Water
Pollution, 1962) . However, synergistic or antagonistic
effects could greatly affect the accuracy of this procedure.
Table A-17 summarizes synergistic and antagonistic effects
of selected toxicants.
1. Aluminum
There is little information on the abundance or toxici-
ty of aluminum. Aluminum may have greater toxicity
than has been assumed (EPA Water Quality Criteria,
1972, March 1973). Its presence in streams may be a
result of industrial wastes, but a more likely source
A-72
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TABLE A-16
REPORTED TOXIC AND NON-TOXIC CONCENTRATIONS
OF SELECTED SUBSTANCES
Substance
Concentrations
(mg/1) Exposure
Organism
Water Type
Ammonia
oxic
Non-toxic
0.3-0.4
0.3-1.0
2.0-2.5
3.4
1.5
4.3
trout fry
fish
1-4 days goldfish
96 hr TL bluegill sunfish soft water
m" rainbow trout 20 C.
1 hr
roost varieties
of fish
minnows
Aluminum
Toxic
Non-toxic
CadmiTjm
Toxic
0.10 1 week stickleback
5.0 5 min. trout
5.0 48 hrs fingerling rain- pH9
bow trout
0.05 - fish pH7
1.0 5 min. trout
Chronically
safe 0.03-0.06
Reduced re-
production 0.0005
Chromium
Toxic
Non-toxic
0.01-10 7 days rainbow trout
0.01-10 2-6 days fathead minnows
0.01-10 96 hrs bluegill sunfish
fathead minnows hard water
bluegill sun- (.200 mg/1 as
fish Ca COj)
3 weeks crustaceans
(daphnia)
17 to 118 96 hrs fish
0.05 - invertebrates
0.032-6.4 - algae
7.1 - carp
35.3 - goldfish
Copper
Tox
Non-toxic
0.015.3.0
0.1-1.0
O.OQ6
fish, crusta- soft
ceans, mollusks,
insects, phyto-
plankton, and
zooplankton
most fish
fish, crusta-
ceans (Daphnia)
hardness (45
mg/1 as
Ca Co3)
Dxic
2.5
0.05-1.0
120-136 hr brook trout
fish
Non-toxic
0.02
0.25
0.40
27 days
96 hr
trout
bluegi.lls
bluegills
A-73
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TABLE A-16
(continued)
REPORTED TOXIC AND NON-TOXIC CONCENTRATIONS
OF SELECTED SUBSTANCES
Concentrations
Substance
Lead
Toxic
Non- toxic
Mercury
Toxic
Non- toxic
(mg/1)
0.2
0.34
0.5-7.0 and
0.4-0.5
482 and 442
0.62
0.7
0.004-0.02
0.01
0.05-0.1
1.0
10-20
0.2
Exposure
-
48 hr TL
in
96 hrs
LC50
96 hrs
LC50
48 hr
3 weeks
-
80-92 days
6-12 days
96 hrs
>10 days
_
Organism
fish
stickleback,
Coho salmon
fathead minnow,
and brook trout
fathead minnow.
and brook trout
trout
minnows ,
sticklebacks
freshwater fish
minnows
fish
fish
fish
tench, carp.
rainbow trout,
Water Type
soft
1000-3000 mg/1
dissolved
solids
soft (20-45
mg/1 CaCo3-
hard
_
soft
-
-
-
_
char, fish, food
Nickel
Toxic
Non-toxic
Reduced re-
production
Zinc
Toxic
Non- toxic
reduced re-
production
5
26-43
0.030
0.095
0.01-0.4
0.5
1.0
3.0
4.0
0.87
33.0
0.13
3.0
0.10
96 hr
LC50
96 hr
LC50
3 weeks
3 weeks
-
3 days
24 hr
8 hr
3 days
96 hr
LC50
96 hr
LC50
20 days
10 days
organisms
fathead minnows
fathead minnows
crustaceans,
(daphnia)
crustaceans,
(daphnia)
young rainbow
trout
fingerling rain-
bow trout
sticklebacks
fingerling rain-
bow trout
rainbow trout
fathead minnows
fathead minnows
brown trout
fingerlings
fingerling rain-
bow, trout
crustaceans
(daphnia)
soft (20 mg/1
as CaCo,)
hard (200-360
as CaCo,)
soft (45Jtng/l
as CaCo )
soft (45Jmg/l
as CaCo,)
-
soft
soft
soft
hard
soft (20 mg/1
as CaCo,)
hard (360 mg/1
as CaCOj)
hard
hard
soft (45 mg/1
as CaCo3)
Source: McKee and Wolfe, 1963; EPA, Water Quality Criteria,
1972, March 1973
A-74
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TABLE A-17
DETERMINED SYNERGISTIC AND ANTAGONISTIC EFFECTS
OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Constituent
Ammonia
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
Synergistic
Effects
High pH, low DO,
cyanide
Zinc, cyanide
Low DO
Chromium, mercury,
zinc, cadmium,
low DO
Low pH, high tem-
perature, low DO,
ammonia, zinc,
cadmium
Low DO
Copper
Copper, low DO,
cyanide
Antagonistic Effects
CO,
Hardness
Hardness (alkalinity),
temperature, dissolved
oxygen, turbidity,
carbon dioxide, magne-
sium salts, phosphates,
sodium
Copper, nickel, hard-
ness
Hardness
Hardness
Calcium
Source: McKee and Wolf, 1963; EPA Water Quality Criteria,
1972, March 1973
A-75
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is wash water from water treatment plants. Many of the
aluminum salts are insoluble and therefore likely to
settle out rapidly (McKee & Wolf, 1963). The suspended
precipitate of ionized aluminum is toxic and concen-
trations in this form greater than 0.1 mg/1 would be
deleterious to growth and survival of fish (EPA Water
Quality Criteria, 1972, March 1973).
2. Cadmium
Although many forms of cadmium are highly soluble, the
carbonate and hydroxide forms are insoluble. There-
fore, at high pH, cadmium will tend to precipitate.
High concentrations of cadmium has been found to occur
in areas of high population density (Andelman, 1974 -
in Singis, 1974). Available data indicate the lethal
concentration varies from about 0.01 to 10 mg/1, de-
pending on the test animal, type of water, temperature
and time of exposure. Indications are that cadmium
reacts synergistically with other substances, such as
cyanide (McKee & Wolf, 1963). This metal is considered
an extremely dangerous cumulative poison. EPA (Water
Quality Criteria, 1972, March, 1973) recommends that
aquatic life be protected where cadmium concentrations
exceed 0.03 mg/1 in water with a total hardness above
100 mg/1 as CaCo3 or 0.0004 mg/1 in waters with a
hardness of 100 mg/1 or less.
3. Chromium
The toxicity of chromium is highly dependent on the or-
ganism, temperature, pH and synergistic or antagonistic
effects. Although fish are relatively tolerant of
chromium salt, many invertebrates are extremely sensi-
tive. There is no conclusive evidence that the hexa-
valent form is more toxic to fish than the trivalent
form (McKee & Wolf, 1963). However, the evidence tends
to be conflicting and it may depend to a great extent
on the organism and the compound. The apparent "safe"
level for fish (less than 17 mg/1) is moderately high,
and the recommended EPA (Water Quality Criteria, 1972,
March, 1973) upper limit of 0.05 mg/1 was selected in
order to protect mixed aquatic populations.
A-76
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4. Copper
Copper salts occur in surface water only in trace
amounts and their presence in concentration above 0.05
mg/1 is generally considered a result of pollution
(McKee & Wolf, 1963). Although the chloride, nitrate
and sulfate of the cuprous ion are soluble in water,
the carbonate, hydroxide, oxide and sulfide are not.
Therefore, at a pH of 7 or above, the cupric ions will
rapidly precipitate (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
In hard water, copper toxicity is reduced by the pre-
cipitation of copper carbonate or other insoluble com-
pounds. Synergistic reactions are believed to occur
between copper and chlorine, zinc, cadmium and mercury.
In contrast, evidence suggests copper decreases the
toxicity of cyanide (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
The factors influencing the lethal toxicity of copper
to fish include hardness, dissolved oxygen, tempera-
ture, turbidity, carbon dioxide, magnesium salts and
phosphates (EPA Water Quality Criteria, 1972, March
1973). The implications that copper is particularly
toxic to algae and mollusks should be considered for
any given body of water; however, the criteria (safe-
to-lethal ratios 0.1 to 0.2) that apply to fish will
protect these organisms as well. The safe-to-lethal
ratio of 0.1 should be multiplied by the 96-hour LC5Q
of the most sensitive important species in the locality
to determine a recommended safe concentration of cop-
per to protect aquatic life (EPA Water Quality Cri-
teria, 1972, March 1973).
Cyanide
The toxicity of cyanide is highly dependent on pH. As
the pH decreases, toxicity increases; however, it has
been reported that in the pH range of 6.0 to 8.5, there
is little effect on toxicity. In natural water, cyan-
ides deteriorate or are decomposed by bacterial action.
Degradation is unaffected by temperatures in the range
from 10° to 35°C but is greatly reduced at lower or
higher temperatures (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
The toxicity of cyanide is increased by elevated tem-
peratures (a 10°C increase produces two- to three-fold
A-77
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increases in toxicity), low dissolved oxygen, zinc and
cadmium. The toxicity of cyanide is lower for in-
vertebrates than for fish (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
6. Iron
Iron is less toxic than most other heavy metals. Ex-
tremely high concentrations in unbuffered water can
lower the pH to toxic levels, but the deposition of
iron hydroxide precipitate is more likely to harm fish
by coating gills or smothering fish eggs. Ninety-five
percent of U.S. water supporting good fish life have
iron concentrations of 0.7 mg/1 or less (McKee & Wolf,
1963).
7. Lead
The carbonate, hydroxide and sulfate salts are rela-
tively insoluble; therefore, lead generally settles out
fairly rapidly except in soft waters. Lead toxicity
increases with a reduction in dissolved oxygen. EPA
(Water Quality Criteria, 1972, March, 1973) recommends
that the concentration of lead should not exceed 0.03
mg/1 at any time or place in order to protect aquatic
life.
8. Mercury
Although elemental mercury is insoluble in water, many
of the salts are quite soluble. Mercuric ions are con-
sidered highly toxic to aquatic life (Table A-16). The
toxicity of mercuric salts is increased by the presence
of trace amounts of copper (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
There is not sufficient data available to determine the
levels of mercury that are safe for aquatic organisms
under chronic exposure. Since experiments on sublethal
effects are lacking, the next most useful information
available is on the lethal effects following moderately
long exposures of weeks or months. As exposure time
increases, lower concentrations of mercury become
lethal. Data are not available on the residue levels
that are safe for aquatic organisms (EPA Water Quality
Criteria, 1972, March 1973). According to the Food and
Drug Administration, mercury residues should not exceed
0.5 micrograms per gram of total mercury in edible
A-78
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portions of fresh water fish. EPA (Water Quality Cri-
teria, 1972, March, 1973) suggests that this level be
the guideline to protect predators in aquatic food
chains.
9. Nickel
Although nickel as a pure metal is insoluble in water,
many nickel salts are highly soluble. Nickel is one of
the least toxic metals. Although 0.8 mg/1 has been
reported as lethal to sticklebacks, fish have been
found living in water with concentrations of 13-18 mg/1
of nickel (McKee & Wolf, 1963). The safe-to-lethal
ratio for nickel is 0.01 for the protection of fish.
This application factor should be applied to the 96-
hour LC5Q °f *-he most sensitive important species in
the locality to determine the recommended concentration
of nickel safe to aquatic life (EPA Water Quality Cri-
teria, 1972, March 1973).
10. Zinc
Zinc salts such as zinc chloride and zinc sulfate are
highly soluble in water; however, salts such as zinc
carbonate, zinc oxide and zinc sulfide are insoluble in
water. Therefore, the compound present is important in
determining whether zinc will settle out or remain in
solution.
Zinc is toxic to aquatic organisms. The acute lethal
toxicity of zinc is greatly affected by water hardness.
The sensitivity of fish to zinc varies with species,
age and condition of the fish, as well as with the
physical and chemical characteristics of the water.
Acclimatization to zinc has been reported for some
fish. Calcium is especially antagonistic to zinc
toxicity. In soft water, zinc and copper react syner-
gistically, but this does not hold in hard water.
Toxicity is also thought to increase in the presence of
cyanide and as dissolved oxygen concentrations de-
crease. The safe-to-lethal ratio for zinc (0.005), if
multipled by the 96-hour LC,-Q of the most sensitive
important species in the locality, will determine the
recommended concentration of zinc safe to aquatic life
(EPA Water Quality Criteria, 1972, March 1973).
A-79
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Sublethal Effects; In addition to direct toxicity,
sublethal effects must also be considered. If a substance
causes avoidance, interference with sensory mechanisms, or
prohibits reproduction, aquatic organisms gradually will be
eliminated, even though dramatic die-offs do not occur.
Young Atlantic salmon are reported to avoid copper and zinc
at concentrations one-fiftieth the incipient lethal level.
Low levels of copper have also been reported to interfere
with odor cues necessary for salmon to return to home
streams for spawning (Sutterlin, 1974).
Avoidance behavior may be beneficial if a substance is tem-
porary and localized and can prevent sudden die-offs of
mobile organisms. However, where chemical senses are inter-
fered with, organisms may be restricted in feeding and re-
productive processes which may cause gradual reduction or
total elimination of species.
Road Salts: The biological effects of road salts on
aquatic organisms have received little attention. One study
reported direct and indirect effects on lake benthic or-
ganisms. The increase in salinity directly eliminated
dipteran larvae, and the decrease in oxygen concentration
that occurred because of the density changes eliminated
several oligochaete species (Judd, n.d.).
The effects of adding salts to freshwater can be predicted
to a great extent on the basis of reactions of freshwater
organisms to marine and estuarine environments. Freshwater
organisms cannot survive in salt water environments because
of the change in osmotic pressure that affects fluid bal-
ance. Although specialized species that can tolerate wide
ranges of salinity exist, adaptation to the intermittent
input of salt associated with nonpoint source runoff would
be unlikely. Chloride concentrations in freshwater support-
ing good fish life are below 9 mg/1 in 50 percent, and below
170 mg/1 in 95 percent, of the waters (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
Concentrations reported as harmful to fish are presented in
Table A-18.
A-80
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TABLE A-18
CONCENTRATIONS OF CHLORIDE HARMFUL TO FISH
Cl Concentrations (mg/1) Type of Fish
400 Trout
2000 Some fish
4000 Bass, Pike, Perch
4500-6000 Carp eggs
8100-10,500 Small Bluegills
Source: McKee & Wolf, 1963
Analysis of Water Quality Data to Determine Nonpoint Problems
In many areas, the extent and severity of nonpoint problems
is often unknown. This is usually due to past concentration
on point sources and inadequate water quality data. This
obviously makes it extremely difficult to set priorities and
develop a coherent strategy for analyzing nonpoint problems
and establishing controls.
It is often possible to use existing water quality data to
help focus on specific pollutants and certain watersheds and
stream segments where nonpoint problems appear most severe.
The remainder of the 208 nonpoint program can then concen-
trate on the major problems that have been identified. Un-
doubtedly, additional data collection will also be required
to better define existing nonpoint problems. This section
covers these two crucial areas of nonpoint analysis; analy-
sis of existing data and collection of additional data. The
presentation is organized by the following topics:
Analysis of Existing Data: An Example
Use of Steady-State Models in Nonpoint Source Analysis
Analysis of Biological Data for Nonpoint Analysis
Development of a Nonpoint Source Sampling Program
A-81
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Analysis of Existing Data: An Example; In areas where
a good water quality network has been in existence for
several years, a surprisingly large amount of information on
the location and severity of nonpoint problems can be ob-
tained by proper analysis of the data. The objective of
this subsection is not to detail the techniques for nonpoint
analysis but merely to indicate the types of analyses which
may be used to shed light on major nonpoint problems. A
recent study on the Passaic River in New Jersey (Berger/Betz,
1975) is used as an example of what innovative evaluation of
existing data might yield.
1. The Setting
The example used was taken from a recent water quality
management study of the Northeast New Jersey metropoli-
tan area (Berger/Betz, 1975). The major stream in the
study area is the Passaic River, a slow moving stream
which is heavily used for water supply and waste as-
similation throughout its length. The analysis which
follows was for the free flowing portion of the stream;
the estuary portion was not included in the analysis
because of the magnitude of combined sewer overflows
into the estuary, insufficient data, and the complica-
tions of data interpretation caused by tidal fluctua-
tions.
The Freshwater Passaic covers a drainage area of 806
square miles and is the third largest drainage area in
the State of New Jersey. Average annual rainfall over
the area is about 47 inches. The majority of the
Freshwater Passaic is geographically located in the New
England Upland Province. Topography is generally flat.
Population in the basin is over 600,000 (population
density over 700 people per sq mi). Land uses in the
basin are:
1970 Land Use % of Total Area
Single Family Residential 23.5
Multi Family Residential 1
Industrial 3.5
Commercial 1.5
Public and Quasi Public 5
Conservation, Recreation
and Vacant 65.5
A-82
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The analysis was structured to gain information on
three broad types of nonpoint sources. The following
quotation (Berger/Betz, 1975) defines the three cate-
gories :
"An important distinction of nonpoint sources
exists among storm-activated sources, continuous
sources and erratic sources. Storm-activated
sources involve contaminant loads derived from the
land surface and delivered to the stream system by
surface runoff. These pollutant loadings can
result in transient water quality problems during
storm periods, and also can contribute to long-
term problems due to the settling out of material
in benthic deposits. Annual nonpoint source pol-
lutant yields tend to be dominated by loadings
derived during storm periodsalthough these
loadings are not necessarily most important in
terms of problems created.
"Continuous nonpoint sources generally involve
contamination of the groundwater reservoir which
feeds the stream system more or less continuously
over time and space. Continuous sources tend to
have relatively less impact on water quality dur-
ing storms than during nonstorm periods, due to
the much greater dilution of effluents during
storms; thus, continuous nonpoint sources are
analyzed primarily as a low-flow problem.
"Erratic sources, such as unauthorized dumping and
accidental spills, are difficult to evaluate
without direct monitoring of individual source
area. Their impact is usually established only on
an average long-term basis, usually in combination
with other types of sources."
2. The Analysis
BOD, dissolved oxygen and sediment data were deemed
adequate for analysis; heavy metal and nutrient data
were extremely sparse and not appropriate for rigorous
analysis. Monthly parameter values were available on
several stations located along the freshwater Passaic
and its tributaries. A continuous recording station
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existed at the most downstream station, yielding daily
data on DO, temperature, pH and conductivity.* Data
from a summer survey conducted to calibrate a low flow
model were also available.
The analysis consisted of mass balance techniques,
annual load computations and plotting of data. The
analysis was divided into four separate techniques,
each used for defining different portions of the non-
point source problem:
Low Flow Mass Balance
Annual BOD Loads
DO Response to Storm Loadings
Annual Sediment Loads
The purpose of each technique, parameters analyzed,
etc., are summarized in Table A-19.
3. The Results
Details of the analysis techniques can be found in the
original report (Berger/Betz, 1975). The results of
the analysis yielded the following conclusions:
a. Based on the low flow mass balance, nonpoint
problems occurring during low flow conditions
(benthic deposits, polluted groundwater inflow,
unreported point sources) were prioritized.
Various sections of the river and its tributaries
were identified as having especially severe prob-
lems. The results were used to better define a
nonpoint source sampling program.
b. The annual BOD load calculations, which tend to be
dominated by storm period loads, were used to
locate areas having significant storm-activated
* Hourly data was not utilized in the analysis, but it was
available through USGS.
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TABLE A-19
EXAMPLE TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYZING EXISTING DATA
FOR NONPOINT SOURCE PROBLEMS
Technique
Low Flow Mass
Balance
Condition
Low Flow
Data Analyzed Purpose
Annual BOD
Loadte
Dissolved
Oxygen
Response
to Storm
Loadings
Annual
Sediment
Loads
All flow con-
ditions used
to calculate
annual load
Storm Condi-
tions
All flow con-
ditions used
to calculate
annual loads
CBOD & NBOD*
values from
summer survey
data collected
for low flow
model calibra-
tion
CBOD values
published for
several sta-
tions in USGS1
annual "Water
Quality Re-
cords"
To identify areas
with significant
steady-state or
continuous non-
point source
problems.
To identify areas
with abnormally
high nonpoint BOP
loads. This is
strongly related
to storm runoff
loads as opposed
to steady-state
nonpoint sources.
Daily DO values To determine tran-
published for
the most down-
stream station
in the network
sient impact of non-
point sources on DO
and make preliminary
determination of
what causes DO depres-
sion after storm.
Sediment values To test hypothesis
for several of significant
stations in benthic deposition.
USGS' annual
"Water Quality
Records"
* CBOD B carbonaceous BOD; NBOD B nitrogeneous BOD
Source: Berger/Betz, 1975
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sources. Two stream segments were identified with
extremely high nonpoint loads, it was suspected that
discrete sources, such as spills, material storage
yards, bypasses from sanitary sewers, pump stations and
treatment plants, may be the cause of some of the high
readings. A sampling program was designed to collect
additional data on the significant problem segments.
It is hoped that future sampling will identify discrete
sources, which are usually easier to control than
distributed runoff sources.
c. Analysis of daily dissolved oxygen values at the
last downstream station revealed that DO levels
increased shortly after the start of a storm but
declined over a period of several days to below
the level which prevailed at the beginning of the
storm (plots of this phenomena have already been
presented in Figure A-10). The DO response
appeared to be explained by assuming that the DO
was depressed by organic material which was washed
into the stream by runoff and by the scouring of
benthic deposits. Because of the characteristics
of the Passaic (extremely slow velocities) it is
unlikely that benthic deposits can be sufficiently
controlled by runoff control measures to signifi-
cantly alleviate the post-storm DO depression.
d. The sediment mass balances were computed to gain
perspective on the benthic deposit accumulations.
Analysis indicated that nearly half of the annual
sediment input to the main river segment settles
out rather than leaves the basin.
Use of Steady-State Models in Nonpoint Source Analysis:
Steady-state water quality models cannot adequately handle
transient events associated with some nonpoint sources.
However, use of steady-state models can aid in the assess-
ment of several nonpoint sources. As indicated in the
previous section, the actual data collected for model cali-
bration can be used for mass balances (in the example given
in the previous section, this technique located areas of
significant steady-state loads).
Nonpoint sources which may be handled by steady-state model-
ing include:
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Source
Landfill leachate
Marshes
Pervious lagoons
Salt water intrusion
Areas of septic tank
malfunctioning
Acid mine drainage
Typical Parameters
BOD/DO, nutrients, heavy
metals
BOD/DO, nutrients
BOD/DO, nutrients
Chlorides
BOD/CO, nutrients
Heavy metals
These pollutant sources can be handled in steady-state
modeling by adjusting certain modeling parameters to reflect
loads from nonpoint sources. Benthic loads are generally
handled specifically in the benthic demand components of the
model. Distributed sources, such as septic tank areas,
marshes, etc., can be handled by adjusting the incremental
runoff loads in the model. Sources such as lagoons and
landfills may be addressed either as a point source or a
distributed source, depending on the characteristics of the
groundwater flow system and the length of the model reaches.
Considerable skill and experience is needed in adapting and
calibrating steady-state models to accurately reflect actual
conditions. It is possible to miscalibrate a model and
develop water quality predictions which are grossly in
error. The only safeguard to prevent this from happening is
to collect adequate calibration data and perform model
calibration with experienced modelers.
Analysis of Biological Data: The assessment of bio-
logical data offers a tool for the investigation of nonpoint
sources which is often neglected or under-utilized. Reli-
ance on only chemical and physical data does not yield a
complete picture of water quality. Because of the general
lack of sufficient chemical data and the complexity of
interpreting physical and chemical data as they relate to
the health or quality of a stream, it may be cost effective
to place greater emphasis on biological parameters.
Aquatic organisms and communities can be used as natural
pollution monitors. When an aquatic community undergoes a
stress, such as pollution, the community structure can be
affected. This change can be monitored and the long-term
effects can be measured and analyzed. Because aquatic or-
ganisms respond to their total environment and reflect long-
term conditions, they can often provide a better assessment
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of stream quality and environmental damage than can other
monitoring methods. Some organisms tend to accumulate or
magnify toxic substances, pesticides, radionuclides and a
variety of other pollutants. Organisms also can reflect the
synergistic and antagonistic interactions of point and
nonpoint source pollutants occurring within a specific re-
ceiving water system.
Chemical analyses can only indicate the water quality at the
time the sample is collected, and unless extensive sampling
is done, variation in different areas of the water will not
be determined. Even if adequate chemical data were avail-
able, the problem would still remain: interpret its signi-
ficance to aquatic ecology. For example, suppose a stream
which demonstrates a sharp DO decline to 3 mg/1 after storm
periods (rainfall greater than 0.5 inches). This level is
generally maintained for 6 hours; DO then recovers to 5.5
mg/1. Apparently, storm runoff is causing the DO drop, but
is this drop causing a problem? If a biological survey
indicates that the fish and other aquatic species desired
for the stream are relatively unaffected then the answer may
be negative.* At least the problem could not be termed
critical and the remaining nonpoint program could be modi-
fied accordingly.
In evaluating the condition of an aquatic system, many
factors must be considered. The available information must
be evaluated on the basis of habitats surveyed, season, and
flow regime. The guidelines discussed in the following
paragraphs must be used with the above point in mind.
Biological sampling programs for the detection of nonpoint
problems are presented in a later section of this appendix.
The following discussion assumes that the data has already
been collected and must be evaluated.
The concept of indicator, or sensitive organisms is fre-
quently employed in evaluating water quality. While this
concept, in conjunction with community structure, is the
* The storm runoff could be causing deleterious loads of
nutrients or heavy metals which cause problems down-
stream. This is neglected in the above example.
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basis for biological surveys, a number of limitations must
be acknowledged when evaluating water quality on the basis
of the presence or absence of certain organisms.
First, many factors besides water quality affect the distri-
bution of organisms. In streams, velocity and substrate are
two important factors. Although the presence of certain
organisms usually indicates good water quality, their ab-
sence may be due to factors other than poor water quality
(Hawkes, 1974). An English study, Report of the River Pol-
lution Survey, found that 98% of the length of a fast-moving
stream was classified as first class quality, biologically
and chemically. Only 6% of the length of a slow-moving
stream was first class biologically and chemically, while
65% was ranked as third class biologically but first class
chemically (Hawkes, 1974). The difference in biological
condition was due to unsuitable habitats, not chemical or
physical water quality.
A second limitation of indicator systems is that they have
been developed on the basis of organic pollution, which may
not always be the main consideration for nonpoint source
analysis. Organisms differ in their respective tolerances
to different forms of pollution. For example, stoneflies
which are considered the most intolerant of organic pollu-
tion were found to be among the most tolerant organisms in
heavy metal-polluted Welsh rivers (Hawkes, 1974). However,
suspended solids and BOD, two parameters associated with
organic pollution, are also concerns in nonpoint source
pollution. Therefore, existing information on organisms
tolerant of organic pollution can be applicable to nonpoint
source pollution.
As long as the limitations of the information are realized,
the concept of indicator organisms can be very useful in
assessing the effects of nonpoint source pollution. Al-
though the presence or absence of a single species does not
define water quality, the presence of large numbers of cer-
tain species, or absence of whole groups of organisms, can
be indicative of water quality conditions.
Palmer (1969) lists 80 algae species tolerant of organic
pollution. The list was part of a compilation based on 269
reports from 165 authors. Rankings were determined by
assigning a score of 1 or 2 for each species reported as
tolerant to organic pollution. A 2 was assigned if the
species was reported to tolerate large amounts of organic
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pollution. Hart and Fuller (1974) listed invertebrate
species found at pH values less than 4.5 and greater than
8.5 and adverse oxygen and BOD conditions (DO less than 4
mg/1 and BOD greater than 5.9 mg/1). Use of the species
lists contained in the cited publications can aid in assess-
ing water quality conditions.
In addition to the concept of indicator organisms, community
structure is also considered in evaluating aquatic systems.
Characteristically, aquatic systems with good water quality
have a greater number of species than systems with poorer
quality water. There are some exceptions to this pattern,
but it generally holds true. Species distribution is also
important. Polluted waters are usually dominated by a few
species with numerous individuals while other species present
have very few individuals. Good quality waters usually have
a more equal distribution of individuals per species.
Numerous methods have been devised for analyzing biological
data. The following is a classification for streams that
provides a means for general and specific evaluation. The
classification is based upon combining aspects of community
structure with the indicator organism concept. Although
there are exceptions to this pattern, it provides a general
overview of expected conditions.
The biological organisms are divided into the following
seven categories:
Category
1
2
3
4
Description
Blue-green algae and the green algae
genera Stigeoclonium, and Tribonema; the
bdelloid rotifers plus Cephalodella
megalocephala and Proales decipiens
Oligochaetes, leeches and pulmonate snails
Protozoa
Diatoms, red algae, and most of the
green algae
All rotifers not included in column one,
plus clams, prosobranch snails, and tri-
cladid worms
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6 All insects and Crustacea
7 All fish
After the data have been categorized, the sampling stations
thought to be affected by nonpoint source pollution are com-
pared to an unaffected station or the control; or compared
to a standard that has been set up for a geographical region.
The number of species in each category for the control sta-
tion or standard is set as equal to 100%. The percentage of
species for each of the categories is then computed for the
affected stations. For example, if the control station had
10 species in Category 1 and the impact station had 5 spe-
cies in Category 1, the value for the impact station would
be 50%. The resulting patterns are defined as follows:
Healthy: The algae are mostly diatoms and green algae,
such as Cladophora crespata and glomerata, and the
insects and fish are represented by a great variety of
species. There are numerous protozoa, but they do not
fall into a set pattern.
Categories 1 and 2 tend to vary greatly, depending on
ecological conditions in the area. Categories 4, 6 and
7 are all above the 50% level.
Semi-healthy: The pattern is irregular, indicating the
balance found in a healthy station has been disrupted
but not destroyed. Often a single species will be
represented by a disproportionately large number of
individuals. This condition may be defined as follows:
1. Either or both categories 6 or 7 below 50%, and
categories 1 or 2 under 100%.
2. Either category 6 or 7 below 50%, and categories
1, 2 and 4 100% or over: or categories 1 and 2
100% or over and category 4 having large numbers
of some species.
Polluted: The overall balance of the community is up-
set. However, conditions are favorable for some spe-
cies in categories 1 and 2. This conditions is defined
as follows:
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1. Either or both of categories 6 and 7 are absent,
and categories 1 and 2 are 50% or better.. .
2. Categories 6 and 7 are both present, but below
50%; then categories 1 and 2 must be 100% or more.
Very Polluted: Conditions are definitely toxic to
plant and animal life, with many groups absent. This
condition is defined as follows:
1. Categories 6 and 7 are absent, and category 4 is
below 50%.
2. Category 6 or 7 is present, then 1 or 2 is less
than 50%.
Although this level of information is not available in many
cases, this classification provides an overall picture of
the types of organisms and general community structure
characteristic of different ecological conditions (Patrick
1949).
Development of a Nonpoint Source Sampling Program;
Additional data will be required in almost all 208 areas to
further define nonpoint source problems. The data may be
used for problem assessment, model calibration, etc., and
thus is critical to adequate nonpoint source evaluation.
Since the time span of initial 208 work is relatively short,
it is unlikely that all, or even most, of the questions con-
cerning nonpoint pollution can be answered by additional
data; a long-term sampling program based upon "best guess"
priorities is probably the best strategy for sampling.
The following paragraphs do not present the methodology for
developing a nonpoint sampling program. Rather, important
considerations are reviewed and an overview is presented
which may help in establishing study area specific programs.
1. The Nonpoint Source Sampling Framework
A partial listing of major nonpoint sources is pre-
sented in Table A-20. This list includes storm-acti-
vated sources and sources which operate more or less
independently of hydrologic conditions. The analysis
of these sources involved two elements:
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TABLE A-20
MAJOR NONPOINT POLLUTANT SOURCES
Surface Runoff (including intermittent point sources)
Combined sewer overflows
Other urban runoff (including storm sewers and sanitary
sewer bypasses)
Suburban runoff (including storm sewers and sanitary
sewer bypasses)
Runoff from other developed lande.g., highways
Agricultural runoff: cropland
Pastureland, feedlots, other ag. land
Runoff from construction sites
Silviculture and surface mining operations
Sources Involving Groundwater Contamination
On-site waste disposal systems
Leachate from landfills and other residual waste
disposal activities
Agriculture, including agricultural specialities
Acid mine drainage
Lagoons (municipal and industrial)
Spray irrigation
Factors Affecting Water Quantity
Salt water intrusion
Hydrographic modifications:
Impoundment s
Channelization
Impervious surface
Miscellaneous Sources
Unauthorized discharges, dumping
Accidental spills, overflows, leakages (e.g., lagoons,
pipelines)
Port operations
Recreational water use
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a. Pollutant generation
b. Receiving water response
Generally, neither the nature nor extent of water
quality problems resulting from storm-period pollutant
loadings is well defined. The sampling program must
therefore carefully balance the needs of pollutant
generation and receiving water response.
Pollutant generation refers to the quantity of pollu-
tants yielded to the surface water system, including
the timing of pollutant loads and their relationship to
hydrologic conditions. Receiving water response refers
to the actual problems created by nonpoint source
loadings in surface waters. Analysis of receiving
water response must consider:
a. Pollutant routing under various flow conditions
b. In-stream processes such as:
decomposition
photosynthetic activity
reaeration
precipitation of materials into the benthos
c. Characteristics of all water bodies being affected
by a given nonpoint source.
It appears that a cost-effective approach to nonpoint
source impacts focus upon the limiting conditions for
design of control measures. That is, although a given
pollutant source in a given basin may contribute to
several different types of problems, detailed quanti-
tative analysis need be provided only for those sources
causing the problems. These sources will require the
most stringent control measures. An extremely impor-
tant goal of the sampling program and initial analysis
will be to identify these conditions, and thus to nar-
row the focus of subsequent activities.
2. The Type Problem Approach to Nonpoint Source Questions
The "Type Problem Approach" is suggested as an orderly
and logical method of investigating nonpoint source
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effects. The major nonpoint pollutant sources in Table
A-20 can be conveniently organized into four major
classes of problems:
a. General non-storm quality factors
b. Site-specific nonpoint sources
c. Transient storm problems
d. Long-term storm effects
The four separate types of problems can be attached by
four supplementary measurement programs which, taken
together, provide a unified overview of the major pos-
sible categories of problems.
a. General Non-storm Quality; General non-storm
quality factors include geochemically-related
natural background changes and changes attribut-
able to man's activities. Quality problems may be
related to dissolved oxygen, nutrients or toxic
materials. A low flow sampling program for
steady-state model calibration (a usual component
in many 208 studies) will provide the basic input
to the definition of regionalized incremental
runoff quality factors. Major deviations in
quality not attributable to point sources will
serve to flag that area as a nonpoint source
special interest area.
The role of benthic demands on water quality is
generally not well established. The low flow
sampling should include a general characterization
of the nature and depth of sediments at each loca-
tion. The objective is to produce a benthic map.
Benthic demands appearing in the modeling analysis
will be of special concern. Such areas should be
subsequently investigated in detail through field
surveys to verify their existence, extent, depth,
uptake rate and other characteristics.
b. Site-Specific Sources: Site specific nonpoint
sources are those which have clearly defined
source areas such as:
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Landfills
Spray irrigation fields
Lagoons of various types
On-site disposal areas, i.e., septic tank con-
centrations
To a significant degree such locations are amen-
able to a regulatory action. Their actual impact
on the receiving water quality is often not well
known, especially for sites installed before the
current complex environmental monitoring require-
ments were adopted. A major requirement of the
nonpoint work element is the establishment of
nonpoint source priority lists. The case of land-
fills is illustrative of the priority dilemma.
Landfills are generally too numerous in the study
area to be considered individually in any data
effort. There is usually little information as to
whether specific landfills have a significant
impact on surface water quality. The magnitude of
the problem should be determined, as suggested
below, along with its hydrogeologic and seasonal
variations. The same types of questions apply to
other site-specific sources.
Assuming that monitoring all site-specific sources
is not possible, it is proposed that a sampling
approach involving the monitoring of the seasonal
performance of a number of representative and
critical site-specific sources be adopted. Ques-
tions concerning the seasonal variation of loads
as they directly affect surface water quality can
be answered by sampling from high water spring
conditions through dry summer conditions.
This approach would provide assistance in develop-
ing pollutant generation relationships and in
identifying current and potential surface and
groundwater quality problem areas. It would also
be an important aid in establishing priorities for
the extent of the particular problem and the
allocation of the 208 project resources to be
devoted to their solution.
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c. Transient Storm Problems: Transient storm prob-
lems may be investigated in terms of three broad
effects:
dissolved oxygen variations
nutrient, toxics and heavy metals washoff
the integrated effects on the major downstream
water bodies (e.g., estuaries)
Dissolved oxygen levels are of concern because
they exert an intermediate effect on a stream's
fishery resources. During a storm, two oxygen
forces are activated. The first is the effect of
cloud cover in reducing photosynthesis. This may
be especially important when clouds persist for
several days with slow moving storm systems. A
high initial biomass to flow ratio would aid in
the oxygen depression. The second effect is the
elevation of dissolved oxygen levels due to in-
creased reaeration from raindrop impact and in-
creased turbulence due to higher flows.
The relative magnitude of these two forces deter-
mines whether the net effect is an elevation or
depression of dissolved oxygen levels. The rela-
tionship of these effects to critical levels is
not well documented for most streams. It is pro-
posed that a sampling program involving a recon-
naissance level study of dissolved oxygen levels
during storm events on area tributaries be adop-
ted. This is an important part of problem assess-
ment because, generally, it is not even known
whether there is indeed a problem that must be
addressed by 208 planning.
The establishment of pollutant-generation rela-
tionships is generally a central aspect of the 208
approach. Washoff rates for nutrients, toxics and
heavy metals must generally be established for
various land uses. The storm sampling should in-
clude sampling for important parameters; this will
permit a limited verification of the SWMM/STORM
pollutant-generation methodology.
The assessment of tributary storm effects on estu-
aries or other major downstream water bodies is an
extremely complicated task because it must bridge
A-97
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the gap between the process of pollutant genera-
tion and the actual amount of pollutants being
delivered by the tributaries into their receiving
waters.
Two approaches to this problem may be appropriate.
Within the framework of the reconnaissance samp-
ling network, stations should be chosen to repre-
sent segments upstream and downstream from rela-
tively flat uniform reaches having no tributary
inputs. The net difference in the stream load
across the reach would represent the effect of
possible sediment resuspension, sediment depo-
sition, or bank and channel scouring. The second
approach would involve an analysis of the dif-
ferences between the SWMM/STORM-generated pollu-
tant loads and those that were actually measured
in the course of the sampling program.
A major potential problem in the verification of
the modeling results is that the inherent errors
in the pollutant generation algorithms have the
potential of being of the same or greater magni-
tude than the effect that the modeling process is
trying to detect. This means that interpretation
of the modeling results will have to be made
judiciously. A major accomplishment would be the
development of reliable relationships between pol-
lutant generation and pollutant delivery. This
would permit modifications of SWMM/STORM outputs
to reflect more accurate water impacts.
Long-Term Storm Effects - Dissolved Oxygen: Long-
term residual effects of storms may have a signi-
ficant effect on steady-state water quality con-
ditions through the mechanism of benthic demand.
The exact role of benthic demand in controlling
water quality is not well defined on most of the
study area streams.
Benthic deposits may be particularly troublesome
behind river impoundments or slow, flat portions
of the river. If benthic problems are suspected,
the sampling program should investigate in detail
the oxygen relationships in impoundments. This
involves systematic measurement of dissolved
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oxygen and the use of light and dark respirometers
to measure the benthic oxygen uptake rate. Mea-
surements should be made before and after storms.
This will help determine long-term stream re-
sponses to nonpoint pollutants washed in from
tributary streams. Data should also be collected
during relatively stable streamflow sequences to
determine possible changes in benthic demand due
to steady-state accumulations. This program
should help resolve questions concerning the
relative effects of storm washoff, bottom resus-
pension and steady-state accumulation.
Another sampling program may be necessary to de-
termine the relative importance of diurnal dis-
solved oxygen variations. Many times, steady-
state modeling without accounting for diurnal
effects may be a gross misstatement of the on-
going stream processes. If diurnal problems are
suspected, there is a need to establish the rela-
tive importance of the periphyta, rooted aquatics,
in controlling the phyotosynthesis/respiration
balance in local streams.
3. Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring provides an effective means by
which to evaluate water quality because biological data
are generally the best indicators of the overall con-
ditions of a water body. This type of monitoring seems
especially appropriate when one considers that water
quality standards are partially designed to protect
biological organisms.
For purposes of biological monitoring, a station will
normally encompass areas, rather than points, within a
reach of river or area of lake, reservoir or estuary
that adequately represent a variety of habitats typ-
ically present in the body of water being monitored.
Unless there is a specific need to evaluate the effects
of a physical structure, it will normally be advisable
to avoid areas which have been altered by a bridge or
weir, are located within a discharge plume, etc. Thus,
biological sampling stations may not always coincide
with chemical or sediment stations.
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Several types of biological monitoring programs can be
used, depending on the suspected problem and the needed
information. Three examples that might be used are
listed below.
a. Short-term Survey: Site examinations made once or
only a few times to determine quickly the bio-
logical quality of the area and the possible
causes for the condition.
b. Long-term monitoring: Sampling is conducted at
regular intervals over a period of time. This
method offers the opportunity to measure seasonal
variations and fluctuations caused by random
events.
c. Specific Parameter Monitoring: Selected organisms
or groups (such as plankton, fish or inverte-
brates) are monitored for changes in numbers,
size, condition, etc., and extrapolations are made
about water quality.
If transient pollution problems following a storm are
suspected, the following biological sampling may yield
valuable information on the extent and severity of the
problem:
Conduct three surveys, one during a dry period, a
second directly after a period of heavy rainfall,
and the third approximately a month after a heavy
rainfall. The first set of samples provide base-
line information on the quality of the stream or
lake. The second set will indicate the immediate
effects of scouring and runoff materials. The
third set will provide information on the extent
of recovery following storm conditions and whether
the effects are long-term. For each survey, a
comparable area relatively unaffected by runoff
would also have to be sampled to provide a control,
Ideally, permanent biological collections are made and
identification to species level are established where
possible. Constraints of time and money often make
this level of study impossible. Although modifications
of this program are possible, it must be emphasized
that the information obtained will also be reduced
accordingly.
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More superficial surveys can be conducted that provide
an overview of the condition of the system. A general
idea of biological quality can be gained by an experi-
enced biologist making on-site field observations. The
latter, in spite of limitations, would probably provide
sufficient information for determining whether there
was an existing nonpoint source pollution problem. A
major disadvantage of a superficial survey is the lack
of a permanent or quantitative record for future com-
parison.
Comparable lakes or streams unaffected by point or non-
point sources should be studied for purposes of com-
parison. In actuality, these conditions are difficult
to find. Frequently, reaches of the stream or parts of
the lake under study can be found which are not in-
fluenced by pollution; they can be used as comparative
controls. It must be emphasized that similarity be-
tween habitats is essential in making any comparisons
between different areas.
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ADDENDUM 1
The regression analyses relating chemical concentrations to
precipitation variables utilized the following functional
form:
b-L b~ b
Y = bX X - -X n
or, ln(Y +1) = In bo + b^lnX.^ + . . . + b (In XR)
where: Y is a chemical concentration;
X-,,. . . ,Xn are precipitation variables; and
bo, bj,. . ., bn are coefficients to be
estimated.
The objective was to control for effects of basin charac-
teristics on Y by allowing the "constant term" (In b )
to assume different values for different basins. This was
done by inserting dummy variables into the logarithmic form
of the regression. Each was simply a variable with a value
of unity for all observations pertaining to a given basin,
and zero for all other observations. There was thus one
dummy variable corresponding to each basin. These could be
entered into the regression as ordinary independent vari-
ables; the regression coefficient obtained for each would
be, in effect, an estimate of (In bQ) for the given basin.
A minor complication was that the full set of dummy vari-
ables could not be entered along with a conventional con-
stant term since these would be redundant (resulting in
singularity of the covariance matrix). For convenience, the
ordinary constant term was retained, and the first dummy
variable was deleted. The regression equation was therefore
the following:
A-1Q2
-------
In(Y + 1) = Inb0 + a2D2 + ' ' 'amDm
+ b^lnX-^ + . . . + bn(lnXn)
where: D_ , . . . , Dm are dummy variables; and
a~ / . . ./ am are additional parameters
to be estimated.
The appropriate constant term for a given basin could then
be obtained as the sum of In b , as estimated in the regres-
sion, and the regression coefficient for the dummy variable
pertaining to that basin. The predictive equation for
basin "i" was thus the following:
Y = -
(b0 exp(ai))
bn
In all regressions cited here, the set of dummy variables
as a whole made a statistically significant contribution
(at the 1% level) to the explanation of the dependent
variable. The regression coefficients and significance
tests for individual dummy variables are not of major in-
terest and therefore are not reproduced here.
A-103
-------
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