united states Region HI
Environmental Protection
Agency
EPA 903-K94-001
May 1994
903K94001
PARTNERS IN A PARADISE:
MIGRATORY BIRDS
and
OUR HABITAT
A Secondary School Curriculum
Providing a Focused
Introduction to
ECOSYSTEM PROTECTION and BIODIVERSITY
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency"
Region C-.' ' • '"L-12J)
77 West juc-.oui Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, 1L 60604-3590
U.S. Environmental Protection A
Region 5,library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Rou!cvar:J 12th H& •/
Chicago, !L 60604-35^0
Written and compiled by:
Heather Cray Torres
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
841 Chestnut Building
Philadelphia, PA 19107
May 1994
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DEDICATION:
_Tot you, the educator who values
"•ecosystems • arid recognizes their worth,
and who cares enough to share this key
knowledg'-e 'with others.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
Special thanks are due to the many
people who educated me about the
value of natural ecosystems,
throughout my youth, especially my
parents.' Grateful acknowledgement
is given to my many colleagues at
EPA who have given me encouragement
dnd support throughout this
curriculum project, and to Peter W.
Stangel of the Partners in Flight
Program. Particular thanks are due
to my EPA colleagues Bonnie J.
Smith/'Susan McDowell, Joe Jackson
and Donna Bos tic, and also Eric
Peterson, all of whom greatly
assisted in the compilation of this
publication.
COPYING NOTE:
The text of this official
publication may be further copied
as appropriate for educational use
without permission from EPA. The
publication is copied double-sided
on 100% recycled, unbleached paper,
in the interest of conserving our
natural resources and preventing
pollution. You are encouraged to
make copying choices that will help
conserve our natural resources
also. Articles included with this
curriculum should be reprinted only
in accordance with the copyright
laws.
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Partners in Flight
PARTNERS IN A PARADISEt
Migratory Birds and Our Habitat curriculum
******
INDEX
Page
Introduction 1
Course Goals . 3
A Word About Birds and Biodiversity 5
Approach 7
Overview 9
A) The Wonder of Birds, Migration
and Survival in Natural Ecosystems 10
B) Flight to New World Habitats 11
C) Discovering Birds First-Hand ; 12
D) Problems and Partnership
in Biodiversity 13
E) Course Conclusion and Challenge 15
General Preparation, Materials
and Logistics 17
I) General Scheduling and Logistics 18
II) Field Trip Materials and Logistics 19
III) Maps 23
IV) Recorded Tapes"of Bird Songs 24
V) Resource Information on
Migratory Birds 25
Return Form for Comments and Suggestions 31
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CLASSES
Class #
Segment A) The Wonder of Birds, Migration and
Survival in Natural
Ecosystems
The Miracle of Migration and Survival
in Natural Ecosystems
There is a Lot to Think About
and Explore Concerning
Migratory Birds
Starting the Migratory Journey
Segment B) Flight to New World Habitats
4. The Tropical Rainforest Habitat
5. Migration Routes
6. Migration Routes (con't)
7. North American Habitats
8a. Why and How do Birds Migrate?
,8b. How Do You Know Migration Occurs?
9. How Do You Know Migration Occurs?
(con't)
Segment C) Discovering Birds and Biodiversity
First-Hand
10. How to Identify Birds
11. Discovering Diversity
12. Field Trip #1
13. Field Trip #2
14. Listening to, and Hearing, Biodiversity
15. Field Trip #3
16. Field Trip #4
Segment D) Problems and Partnership
in Biodiversity
17. Threats to Survival of Migratory Birds
18. Biodiversity and Natural Ecosystems
are Basic to Our Survival
19. How Can People Live With the Land
to Help Our Own Long-Term Survival?
20. Key Tools We Have to Protect
Migratory Birds and Biodiversity
21. Local Issues and Opportunities in
Ecosystem Protection and Biodiversity
22. Measuring a Journey
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INTRODUCTION
The in-depth study of migratory birds may well be a subject
you have never even considered teaching or learning before.
Whether you are a teacher of biology, geography, political
science or social studies, the topic of birds is clearly not an
ordinary curriculum component in schools today.
The study of migratory birds can be extraordinary, though,
because in addition to its novelty, it has the potential to:
1) provide an interesting and focused introduction to the
important topic of biodiversity and ecosystem protection; and
2) meaningfully interrelate a variety of school subjects that are
usually packaged separately and taught in isolation.
First, learning about migratory birds provides a focused
introduction to the crucially important planetary matters of
biodiversity and ecosystem protection, and of sustainable
survival for us all.
In addition, a focused examination of 'Neotropical' {meaning
New World tropical) migratory birds can link together the fields
of:
biology: including zoology, in studying the birds
themselves and their classifications, and techniques of
biological observation; and ecology, in learning about
the ecosystems in which the birds survive, and recent
serious problems in ecosystem protection;
geography, in exploring patterns of migration of the
birds throughout the Americas;
social studies, in focusing on how various cultures
impact the sustainability of bird populations and
natural habitats and ecosystems;
land use planning, and law, civics, economics and
political science, in examining how different nations
and' diverse cultures handle the increasingly important
issues of these international birds and of ecosystem
protection and biodiversity.
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In the timeless words of Aldo Leopold, "It is an irony of
history that the great powers should have discovered the unity of
nations at Cairo in 1943. The geese of the world have had that
notion for a longer time, and each March they stake their lives
on its essential truth."1
Each of these individual areas, and then the inter-
relationship among them that birds create, provides an out-of-the
ordinary vehicle for students to approach a meaningful topic in a
holistic, in-depth and integrated manner.
For both of these significant reasons, then, the study of
those 'ordinary' birds, waiting for you to discover them just
outside your window, has truly out-of-the ordinary potential, and
offers us all a truly extraordinary opportunity to see and
appreciate a paradise around us.
We all can become partners in helping to assure the survival
of this paradise around us. Understanding, appreciating and
valuing ecosystems and the miracles within them is a key first
step in this partnership.
1 Leopold, Aldo, A Sand County Almanac, copyright @ 1966 by
Oxford University Press, Inc. (page 24).
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COURSE GOALS
Next year, then ten years from now . . . twenty years and
fifty years into the future, will the students remember this
course? Will they have gained anything from it? Will they have
an awe, wonder and respect for migratory birds and for the
ecosystems that sustain us all? Will they value them, and
understand that protection of ecosystems is key to human
survival? Will they want to learn more about them?
This is the fundamental goal to think about when organizing
the class time.
Some students may not remember the difference between a
bluejay and a bluebird. Hopefully, all the students will keep
with them their chance to question, to explore and learn more
about, and to treasure birds, biodiversity, the natural world and
its sustaining ecosystems. But most of all, they will remember
you, the teacher. They will remember your interest in migratory
birds, in biodiversity, in the environment and humanity's
relationship to the natural planetary cycles. They will remember
the values you have placed on migratory birds and biodiversity,
and your sincere curiosity about, respect for, and valuing of
natural habitats and ecosystems.
So, most of all, your genuine appreciation for the beauty
and importance of the natural environment, your willingness to
question, wonder at, learn about, and value the natural cycles of
the world around us all, are fundamental to the success of this
course.
Don't shortchange the students and yourself, with dry,
predictable lectures. Instead, embark on a journey of wonder,
exploration and learning about the natural systems of this earth,
that every one of us can, and wants to, continue for the rest of
our lives.
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A WORD ABOUT BIRDS
AND BIODIVERSITY
We are losing 'our' Neotropical migratory birds - - many of
which are the colorful and familiar songbirds - - at an alarming
rate2. We are losing intact natural ecosystems and the present
era biodiversity of this planet at a rapid and escalating pace3.
Human activity is now causing this planet to lose its incredible
and fragile ability to sustain human life4.
Studying migratory birds, then, is not a narrow enterprise.
It is a wide opportunity to key into and learn about, and learn
from, the natural world around us, and eventually to help learn
how to sustain our human civilizations on this planet over the
long run.
The hallmark Baltimore oriole, so familiar to us all, but
who has actually seen one lately? One source reports that
numbers of Baltimore orioles have declined about thirty percent
between 1980 and 19905. Or who has recently seen a wood thrush
or a rose-breasted grosbeak? These birds are incredibly
beautiful, glittering in the spring sunlight and offering their
haunting melodies. Their recent steep population declines are
communicating something to us, also, if we listen.
What are they telling us?
According to another source, population densities of
migratory songbirds in the mid-Atlantic United States dropped 50%
from the 1940's to the 1980's, and "many species became locally
2 Partners in Flight. First International Migratory Bird Day
fact sheet, May 8, 1993.
3 Wilson, Edward O., The Diversity of Life. Selections from
Edward 0. Wilson, The Diversity of Life are reprinted with the
permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York. Copyright @
1992 by Edward 0. Wilson. All rights reserved. This material
may not be further reproduced without the written permission of
the publisher.
4 "Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for
Environmental Protection", U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Science Advisory Board Report, 1990.
5 "Silence of the Songbirds", copyright @ June 1993,
National Geographic Society (page 81).
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extinct."6 The recent disappearance of the migratory birds is
not keyed to a sole discrete culprit, such as pesticide use,
which was the cause of songbird declines several decades ago.
The songbirds are but one relatively easily seen and
understood example of the frightening,recent decline in the
biodiversity of the present era that is threatening, in the end,
the ability of people to survive on this planet. Like the
classic canary in a mine cage, the demise of the birds may be
telling people something we need to know about our own survival.
The birds, then, can be a colorful key to learning broader
concepts of biodiversity - - which can be described as the
present era variety of life and its processes. Studying
migratory birds also leads meaningfully into the broad area of
ecosystem protection and ecological sustainability for the human
population.
The experiences of the students in this class therefore may
be bittersweet. Bitter, because the truth is that some of the
species the students may see or learn about this year could well
be extinct by the time the students become adults. And the
learning may be bitter, as well, because unfortunately the truth
about the rapid decline of species can be harsh and frightening.
But the class experience can be very sweet, too, as the
students begin to see and hear first-hand the beautiful natural
habitats and ecosystems right around them, but which they
probably never really noticed before. And the students will be
learning key concepts about natural ecological systems, and how
humans relate to them, that will be their essential tools in a
fundamental enterprise: helping to sustain their own long-term
survival, and the survival of their own offspring, amid the
magnificent natural systems of this planet.
6 Wilson, Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, p. 256.
6
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APPROACH
This curriculum focuses on the students' own
experiences and ideas, and attempts to personalize the topic
of migratory birds in a way that will have long-term meaning
for each student. The in-depth and integrated study of
birds is important, but the overriding goal of the course is
to develop in each student a curiosity for, a delight and
intrigue in, and a respect for, the topics of migratory
birds, biodiversity, and human relationships to natural
systems that will last a life-time of independent pursuit.
As such, this course does not require an instructor who
is even trained in zoology. A teacher who is willing to
explore, listen to and learn along with the students is all
that is fundamental. Lectures on the taxonomy and
scientific classification of birds are simply not necessary
for this course, and frankly would be counter-productive to
the overall goal.
What is important is for the teacher to feel secure
enough in the essential areas of inquiry to be able to
recognize, link and reinforce the main concepts, and to help
the students carry on thoughtful and meaningful discussions.
Typically, an instructor can do this by becoming familiar
with this curriculum package, and by taking the initiative
to help obtain materials on particular areas of interest.
Of course, any specialized expertise of the instructor can
provide an individual enhancement to the course. But since
the basic approach is of personalized discovery, it is
simply not necessary for the leader to feel obliged to feed
a package of facts to the students.
When I led this course with a group of seventh and
eighth graders, I asked them in the beginning who would be
teaching the course. After they pointed at me, then they
suggested every member of the school faculty and still I
shook my head 'no', they had no more ideas. When I called
each one of their own names, and identified them as teachers
of each other, they weren't sure how to react; they looked
at each other in a new and unfamiliar light. But throughout
the course, each student was entitled to respect as a
teacher of the others, and each person's ideas were listened
to and accorded importance. It was a journey of teaching,
learning and respect, for all of us together.
It was the birds themselves, though, that taught us the
most. This is a key part of the educational experience.
Just as 'teachers' can learn from 'students', humans have a
great deal to learn by carefully listening to and valuing
the natural world around us.
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Thus, a key to one crucial awakening of the course
itself - - that humanity has an immense journey of learning
in front of us, if people would only open our eyes, ears and
minds to the natural world around us - - can be first
introduced by redefining traditional roles of the 'teacher'
and the 'students'.
Welcome, to a challenging and rewarding journey of
discovery and wonder, for all.
******************
"A March morning is only as drab as he who walks in it
without a glance skyward, ear cocked for geese. I once knew
an educated lady, banded by Phi Beta Kappa, who told me that
she had never heard or seen the geese that twice a year
proclaim the revolving seasons to her well-insulated roof.
Is education possibly a process of trading awareness for
things of lesser worth? The goose who trades his is soon a
pile of feathers".
Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac,
copyright @ 1966 Oxford University Press,
Inc.
"The edifice of civilization has become astonishingly
complex, but as it grows ever more elaborate, we feel
increasingly distant from our roots in the earth. In one
sense, civilization itself has been on a journey from its
foundations in the world of nature to an ever more
contrived, controlled, and manufactured world of our own
imitative and sometimes arrogant design. And in my view,
the price has been high. At some point during this journey
we lost our feeling of connectedness to the rest of nature.
. . . The ecological perspective begins with a view of the
whole, an understanding of how the various parts of nature
interact in patterns that tend toward balance and persist
over time. But this perspective cannot treat the earth as
something separate from human civilization; we are part of
the whole too, and looking at it ultimately means also
looking at ourselves ..."
excerpt from Earth in the Balance, by Al
Gore. Copyright @ 1992 by Senator Al Gore.
Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin
Company. All rights reserved.
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OVERVIEW
This curriculum is organized into several broad, sequenced
segment areas: A) The Wonder of Birds, Migration and Survival in
Natural Ecosystems; B) Flight to New World Habitats; C)
Discovering Birds First-Hand; and D) Problems and Partnership in
Biodiversity. Classes are provided in sequenced topics within
each of the segment areas.
The curriculum provides numerous focused classes on
migratory birds and our environment. Of course, given the
breadth of this subject, it is not possible for the students to
examine and consider every topic area in depth. Accordingly,
this curriculum provides a compass and a road map of the major
route to follow in getting to the destination. A number of the
rewarding side roads and key landmarks of this journey of
learning are not set out in depth in this curriculum, but are
identified for the students and teacher to explore more fully,
perhaps drawing upon traditional texts and source materials that
are already in use by the class for areas such as political
science and sociology. In those instances, this curriculum
identifies these related topics as a "Link" to the general topic
area, and the teacher is alerted that these classes and subjects
can be integrated with the otherwise available curriculum
materials on that specific topic.
The teacher can go up as many side trails as desired in this
journey of exploration, but keep in mind that it may not be a
complete and rewarding learning experience for the students if a
side trail is explored in such depth and length such that there
isn't enough time to reach the destination at the end of the main
trail, or if you have to hurry quickly up the rest of the trail
and won't get a chance to carefully explore the important
attractions on the latter half of the trail.
Nevertheless, in deciding whether to indulge a class's
interest in learning about a particular aspect in greater depth
than is scheduled for the classes of this curriculum, the teacher
should keep the basic Course Goals in mind. Reaching the end of
this curriculum and superficially "covering" the material and
information may not achieve the "Course Goals" for your group.
Thus, the teacher will need to use the "Course Goals",
specified above, as a guiding light in deciding whether to adjust
the schedule to accommodate the interests of a particular group
of students.
Because of the need to schedule field observations (Segment
C) according to the best time for your area, the course leader
will need to plan around this, and adjust the timing of the other
segments, as necessary. See "Field Trips: Logistics", below.
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Segment A) The Wonder of Birds, Migration and Survival in
Natural Ecosystems
(Classes #1 - 3)
Initially, the curriculum challenges the students to focus
on the life and journeys of the birds that are right outside
their window, that the students have likely not even thought much
about before. In this way, the students are awakened to look at
the world around them in a new and unexpected light. These are
things they have taken for granted, and probably have not really
noticed nor appreciated before.
The life of migratory birds is incredible and astonishing,
and all the more so when related to the students' own experiences
in travelling (Class #1). Bringing concepts down to a personal
level can be a way of thinking about how extraordinary the
survival of migratory birds is, that students will find hard to
forget. It can be a key eye-opener to the natural world around
us.
Bring out quarters, one for each student, and flip them to
feel the weight of one migratory bird, the blackpoll warbler,
which migrates thousands of miles, each way, without a suitcase.
Class #2 continues to focus on the students' own personal
view of birds, and begins to develop their individual
appreciation of the diversity and wonder of migratory birds. The
'Personal Survey' that is presented in this class can be repeated
near the end of the course (Class #22). A comparison between the
two surveys can show each student one individual measure of how
much their own general understanding of the topic has expanded
through the course.
Class #3 is designed to help focus students on some of the
mysteries and miracles of migration, and survival of birds
throughout their journeys.
10
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Segment B) Flight to New World Habitats
(Classes #4 - 9)
Class #4 is set up to be an immersion into the South
American rainforest. The lush rainforest is looked at as a total
habitat, of which birds are an important piece. The rich and
colorful beauty of the rainforest is a treasure to explore, even
in second-hand pictures. ' It leads into a mystery to which no-one
really knows the complete answer . . . why would birds ever leave
that warm paradise, to come to North America? These and similar
questions are posed and considered in Class #5.
These questions stand on their head conventional teaching
that the birds are really North American residents that just go
south temporarily in the cold winter to 'vacation'. If looked at
from another viewpoint, that the birds are really South American
habitants, we can begin to honor and appreciate the colorful and
melodious gifts the birds bring to North America every spring by
leaving behind their lush rainforest homes and making incredible
journeys to the United States and Canada.
Appreciating the magnitude, length and difference of these
journeys, and locating the islands, continents and political
countries along the way is the focus of Classes #5, 6 and 7.
This segment of the course can be expanded for an in-depth focus
and investigation of these countries, if the instructor desires.
In addition to opportunities to discuss and investigate the
political and social conditions in the various countries, it is
an excellent opportunity to focus on comparative land use and
sociological patterns, examining which types of land use and
culture provide habitat in which the birds, and other wildlife,
can survive and biodiversity can flourish.
The key work of ornithologist Frederick C. Lincoln provides
the important migratory charts which are fundamental to this
portion of the course.
The students' own interests can provide the basis for an in-
depth examination of particular habitats along the migratory
routes. A student who has been to the Gulf Coast or to Florida
can be invited to prepare and share personal observations about
these habitats, and the current challenges and opportunities
these habitats pose to survival of migratory birds. In addition,
students can research a particular geographic area and present
their own conclusions about how a migratory bird would fare
there.
During the spring, the birds' progress to their summer North
11
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American habitat and ecosystems can be anticipated and traced by
the students. Students can be introduced to the concept of
isochronal charts (Class #3). Local news and newspaper reports
can be monitored for the sighting of 'the first robin' and for
Neotropical migrants.
Classes #8 and 9 are designed to give students appreciation
and understanding about how scientists have figured out how and
when bird migration happens, and how the students themselves are
capable of doing basic scientific work.
Segment C) Discovering Birds First-Hand
(Classes #10 - 16)
Enhanced observation skills, featured in Classes #10 and 11,
will make the students' eventual field' observations more
meaningful. One classroom period, Class #11, is devoted to the
sheer discovery and exploration of an avian field guide. The
students are encouraged simply to discover for themselves the
astonishing diversity of birds. For the class I 'led', this
otherwise unstructured hour proved to be a fascinating journey of
personal discovery. The students had never before had the
opportunity to explore and examine page after page of pictures
and information about colorful, different and diverse birds. A
few questions can be prompted here, if necessary, but for the
most part the students will remember favorably this experience of
discovery far longer than they would any lecture on the taxonomy
of birds.
At some point, either in this class period, if there is
time, or at a resting spot during a field trip, it is very
helpful to focus the students into the organization of a field
guide for birds . . . the related avian families, the index and
the migratory charts. These are not for purposes of
memorization, but for aid in finding out about the particular
bird, and how it relates to the the'mes of the course.
Another important activity is to play pre-recorded tapes of
bird songs. I have found this best to schedule flexibly, among
the field trips, because with the unpredictable spring weather,
one trip at least, inevitably, will need to be postponed.
Listening to tapes of bird songs is some solace to students who
are disappointed at missing a refreshing spring walk. And
listening to tapes of bird songs is surprisingly uplifting and
12
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intriguing . . . bird songs can be charted on the blackboard and
help provide students with a new dimension and expertise in
natural observation. This activity is scheduled for Class #14,
among the field trips.
The 'field trips' to actually observe birds out of doors, in
natural habitats, should be scheduled for the most appropriate
times for your area. Although some birds can be found virtually
anywhere, it may be helpful to select nearby spots where a
variety of birds may be observed, to reward and challenge the
beginning observer. However, the behavior of even one common
pigeon, starling or crow can provide interesting material for the
beginning bird-watcher, and can help students to notice the
natural world around them that they have not looked at closely
before, even though the observations may not be of a migratory
bird.
Field trips are included in this curriculum as Classes #12,
13, 15 and 16. See "Field Trips: Materials and Logistics",
below, for comprehensive information on scheduling field trips.
Segment D) Problems and Partnership in Biodiversity
(Classes #17 - 21)
This segment provokes students to think about broader issues
concerning birds as important populations in the earth's natural
systems, and to realize that migratory birds raise crucial issues
at the local, national and international levels, particularly*
regarding ecosystem protection. The final classes of the course
are designed to be upbeat, focusing students on the existing
tools humans have to protect migratory birds and biodiversity,
and how the students can use these tools effectively.
Class #17 centers on discussion of two eye-opening articles
about the serious declines in migratory bird populations. The
articles will need to be assigned as homework reading previous to
this class.
In Class #18, the focus expands to the general and extensive
problem of loss of natural ecosystems and biodiversity. The
decline in bird populations is an indicator of this problem.
Some of the recommended reading material for this class contains
scientific terms with which the students may be unfamiliar. For
this reason, a number of these terms are assigned as a homework
13
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learning assignment during the earlier field trip classes.
Obviously, the ideal situation would be for the students to be
solidly familiar with these biological concepts. But such
instruction is beyond the scope of this course, and it is not
essential for understanding the key covered points from these
articles. Some familiarity with the terms, however, will enable
the students to read through the assigned passages without
becoming bewildered.
Conversely, the realization that learning what these terms
mean can be keys to an in-depth understanding of broader
biodiversity concepts and issues. The experience may reveal to
the students the importance of studying these otherwise remote
and foreign terms, as the students participate in more basic
biology courses as they continue their school careers.
Class #19 can be a continuation of discussion of
biodiversity issues, and it also introduces new reading materials
and concepts. "Land use" is the central theme.
Class #20 centers on an introduction of significant,
existing tools we have to protect birds and biodiversity,
including the Endangered Species Act. Students are encouraged to
actually examine provisions of this laws, and to read an
interpretive article on the Endangered Species Act, which
includes a detailed discussion of the survival of one songbird
species.
In Class #21, the focus shifts from the national and
international, down to the local level. Newspaper articles
dealing with issues in the students' own community are the source
materials here. The crucial message is to have students see how
broad national and international issues are played out at the
community level, and conversely, how community issues on
biodiversity are impacted by the umbrella national laws and
policies studied in Class #19.
Because it can vary so much from state to state, no specific
source materials have been identified in this curriculum for
state policies, laws and initiatives dealing with migratory birds
and biodiversity. However, this is an important area for the
leader or the class to look into, obtain materials on, and weave
into the discussions for either Class #19, #20 or #21. States
are important players in this area. Even the lack of any laws
and policies in your state dealing with protection of migratory
birds, biodiversity or encouraging preservation of natural
habitat areas is important to find out about. The Partners in
Flight newsletters (see Preparation, Section V, below) contain
helpful information identifying migratory bird conservation
contact people for many states. Be sure you write to them well
before the course begins to be placed on their mailing list.
14
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Depending on the group of students you have, the topics
covered in this Segment could be discussed and explored in
greater depth, and at greater length than provided in this
curriculum. You might consider this possibility when scheduling
your course.
Course Conclusion and Challenge
Finally, Class #22 is scheduled to be a repeat of the
'Personal Survey' given in Class #2. It can be a good concluding
class to remind students of the path they have taken in learning
about the importance of migratory birds and biodiversity.
Hopefully, students' interest in the subject of birds and
biodiversity, and ecosystem protection will continue beyond this
course. You might consider preparing suggestions for their
further reading, and appropriate periodicals to which they might
want to subscribe, or to look for in the library when they can.
A few are suggested in Resource Information, Section V, above.
Students are embarking on the journey of their lives. Be
sure the students leave the class with their bird-watching 'life
lists', which they may want to continue adding to, on their own,
throughout their life-journeys. Challenge students to notice the
birds, no matter where they may be.
Bring out a quarter, as was done in Class #1, and encourage
students to think about the amazing wonder of migratory bird
journeys and survival, and the survival of us all, because of the
richness of biodiversity and natural ecosystems, with every
quarter they use.
******************
15
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GENERAL PREPARATION,
MATERIALS AND LOGISTICS
Inspired by the prospect of teaching my first class on the
migratory birds of the Americas, one of my first organizing tasks
was to set off on a purposeful outing downtown, to the center of
a major North American city, to a major map makers store. I
wanted to get several copies of a tool I deemed essential for the
class ... a large map of just the Americas - - North, South,
Central and the Caribbean - - depicted in relationship and
connection with each other.
I could not find such a map.
My fascination with the chance to browse leisurely through
the map store and to explore the various maps of the world became
mingled with increasing embarrassment as I, a college major'in
Latin American studies, could not locate anything that even
resembled the Americas map that I wanted for the class. The
salesman then helpfully and carefully searched the store racks
for me. Finally, he said to me authoritatively that, given the
Earth's contours, it was impossible to make such a map of just
the Americas.
Failing in my very first attempt to organize a fundamental
piece of this course on American wildlife, I stared at the
salesman in astonished disbelief.
The lack of a map of the Americas could have been seen as a
serious obstacle to this course. Instead, it opened my eyes as
to the potential importance of a curriculum that focuses on the
natural links and connections between South, Central and North
America that sustain us all. In a world where global
understanding is becoming increasingly essential, the
unsuccessful map search incident starkly showed me that there is
a real need to focus on the basics of the relationships among the
Americas, our peoples, and the mutual ecosystems that help
sustain us. It is a challenge to us all.
Almost fifty years ago writer Aldo Leopold, observed in
Wisconsin that "... on cool August nights you can hear
whistled signals [of the upland plovers] as they set wing for the
pampas [of Argentina], to prove again the age-old unity of the
Americas. Hemisphere solidarity is new among statesmen, but not
among the feathered navies of the sky."1
1 Leopold, Aldo, A Sand County Almanac, Oxford University
Press, Inc., 1949.
17
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Let's not waste the next fifty years in discovering the
connection of these ecosystems.
Let's not waste the next fifty weeks.
This curriculum can help chart the territory of the Americas
and the common natural systems that have been sustaining us all
this time. But in making this journey, the teacher and the
students will need to be resourceful.
Don't be discouraged if you have to help map part of the
territory. The teacher should identify needed classroom
materials early on, ideally well before the course actually
starts, so there will be sufficient time to obtain all the needed
materials, and to improvise if important materials cannot be
located. An ample list of possible source items is presented in
the following sections, that can give a solid start to any course
of this topic. There is plenty to go on, and our perseverance
and creativity can lead us the rest of the way.
I finally did locate a connected map of just the Americas,
with an excellent depiction of migratory routes, published by
National Geographic. The map is still available for purchase
(see Maps, III, below).
I) General Course Scheduling and Logistics
This course is designed for the middle or high
school level.
The curriculum is designed for a spring semester
of once a week class meetings of approximately an
hour in length. It can easily be adapted,
however, for other structures such as more
frequent meetings, or longer class periods, either
covering several classes at once, or covering
material for a particular class in greater depth.
It could even be structured as a one-week
intensive course.
Or, it could be expanded as a once a week course
to meet over an entire school year. In that
event, field trips could be added and scheduled to
observe the interesting fall migrations of geese,
hawks and other birds of prey. Even teenagers are
awed by these impressive large birds.
Other curricula are available dealing with the
migratory bird topic in a different manner, such
as adding isolated topics on birds to already
18
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existing standard school subjects. If the
approach or structure set forth in this curriculum
doesn't work for your school, try something else,
but don't give up on this important topic.
When trying out this curriculum, I led a group, of
approximately ten students. This was an excellent
group number. You may not have the choice but to
work with a larger group. The in-school
activities should work fine, but organizing and
supervising the field trips will be more
complicated.
II) Field Trip Materials and Logistics
A) Materials
1) Field guides
Ideally, each student should have their own field
guide to birds. A reputable source, such as North
American Birds. (Peterson, 4th ed.), costs about
$16. Students and their families could be asked
to pay for this directly, or other funding sources
could be considered, such as community sponsors,
an allowance from a parent-teachers association,
or a fund-raiser.
The course will still work fine if students share
the field guides in pairs.
2) Binoculars
Binoculars or field glasses are very expensive,
well beyond modest course fees, fund raising or
stipends. If needed, an acceptable course can be
taught without them at all. So don't give up on
leading a migratory birds course because you or
your students don't have binoculars.
In one of the first classes, you can ask each of
the students if they or their family has
binoculars that they will be able to use for the
19
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field trips. Be sure students do not bring
expensive or special binoculars to school, unless
your school has the ability to assure the safety
of this expensive equipment.
With the several old or inexpensive pairs the
students are likely to have, along with your pair
or two, and an old extra that an assistant leader
or field trip guide may have, there will be enough
for everyone to have a chance to see the birds
close-up. The resourcefulness of the students and
other school personnel interested in bird-watching
should not be underestimated. In the class I led,
one of the students arranged to borrow a nice pair
of binoculars from the school janitor, who kindly
unlocked the glasses from his supply closet each
week before the field trips.
3) Life lists
The students will be intrigued by the idea that
they can begin recording a list of all the birds
that they see, a 'life list', their own personal
list of all the birds they see throughout their
life. And when they first start bird-watching is
the best time to start a life list. Call a local
nature center in your area for free copies of a
checklist of the birds students are likely to see
in the area, that can be used as a first life-list
record. Each student will need their own copy.
B) Logistics
1) Trip scheduling
Decide how many trips you want to include in your
course, and find out the time you will have
available for them. In my course, I planned for
four trips, each to take a double class period.
Even though the trip locations were all within a
mile of the school, there just wasn't enough time
in one standard 50-minute class period to get to
the trip destination, get oriented and organized,
to carefully explore the area for wildlife, and
then to return in time for the next class period.
The double-period solution worked well.
Four trips was a good number, because it allowed
flexibility in the event of bad weather, and it
20
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provided opportunity for important reinforcement
of identification of birds observed and ideas
learned, from one trip to the next.
2) Trip timing
Discuss with an experienced local bird-watcher the
best time during the spring to observe migratory
birds in your locality. In the Mid-Atlantic area,
for example, trips are best scheduled for after
the weather gets warm, but before the leaves come
out on the trees.
Trips are ideally scheduled for as early in the
morning as feasible, given your school schedule.
That is when the birds are actively feeding and
singing.
3) Trip locations
The destinations of your field trips will of
course be determined by your locality. But be
sure to look beyond the obvious. Birds can be
observed in urban areas, where there are nearby
natural areas that might be inhabited by an
interesting and rewarding array of birds. A small
park close by may offer opportunities to observe
in-depth the behavior of common crows, pigeons or
starlings in a new light. Also, don't overlook
the zoo as a field trip location. But, be sure
you focus on the birds. The zoo may even offer
speakers on birds or bird walk leaders.
In contrast, a rural or suburban area presents
different challenges to successful field trips.
The most well-known areas may have steep entrance
fees or leaders who, although bird experts, don't
relate well to the students. Aim for areas and
leaders that will relate to and interest your
students.
Be sure, if you are going to an area that is not a
public area, that you have made appropriate
arrangements with the property owners to visit
their property.
21
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Also, keep in mind that nearby areas may be best
to visit on your trips, because students will be
able to go back to them themselves, well after
your course is over. The field trips can serve as
an important introduction of students to nearby
natural area locations that they will be
interested in returning to, to observe wildlife,
and can easily go back to themselves or with their
families.
4) Trip preparation
Be sure your transportation is confirmed and the
directions to the destination are completely
clear. Know how long it will take to get there.
Signed standard school permission slips are
essential, of course. Confirm with the students
exactly when and where to meet.
Advise the students as to appropriate field
attire. In many areas, protection against ticks
and Lyme disease are very important. Advise
students to wear long pants, long-sleeved shirts
and head coverings, all of a light color. Follow
advisories issued for deer ticks and other local
problems, including staying away from areas that
deer go to, and keeping on established paths.
5) Trip leaders
You may want to ask experienced bird-watchers from
the community to help you lead a trip. Many
people have a wealth of bird-watching knowledge
and experience, gained over a life-time, that they
are very gracious to share. This is an invaluable
human resource, that is important for students to
recognize. The knowledge of experienced birders
is impressive, and it provides inspiration for the
beginning student that it is possible to become
expert in this subject.
It is your job as teacher/coordinator to screen
potential speakers and leaders to find those who
are genuinely interested in working with students,
and who relate well to them. A highly experienced
leader who is not interested in the students or
who does not relate well to them is not a good use
of anyone's time.
22
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Ill)
In any event, try to have enough adults to
accompany you so that you have a 1:4 or 1:5
students ratio. The assistants need not be
birding experts. If they are responsible, and
familiar with how to approach using binoculars and
field guides, and if they are enthusiastic, that
is all that is needed.
The best field trip my class had was on a cold,
misty day that indeed did deteriorate into
intermittent drizzle, and the nature center leader
was stuck out in the woods with another group.
Confined to the porch of a small log cabin, this
became our special observation deck, as the
students were encouraged to discover for
themselves, and themselves find in their field
guides about, the colorful variety of birds that
ventured, with songs that warmed us, into the
small natural area clearing.
6) Trip protocol
It should go without saying that in no event
should bird observers harrass or disturb the birds
that are being observed. Intentional malicious
acts are clearly inappropriate. Over and above
that, be aware that even well-meaning activities
are inappropriate, such as disturbing a nest, eggs
or young birds. In some cases, these activities
are even illegal. Demonstrate to the students
that they can learn a great deal by observing, and
by not interfering with the activities of the
birds.
In this course, the purpose of maps is not to tack
impressively on a wall and point at with a
distancing instrument.
Buy a few cheap world maps (they cost about $3
apiece in general bookstores or paper supply
stores) so they can be marked up, breathed over,
explored, and understood. Be sure to bring one or
more to each class. The world maps can be used to
show all the Americas in relationship to one
another.
23
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Additionally, a large map of the Americas, with
the reverse side featuring a superb depiction of
dozens of migratory routes, is still available
from National Geographic. The map can be ordered
for $2.65 by calling 1-800-638-4077. The purchase
includes the National Geographic volume associated
with the map. Ask for Vol. 156, No. 2, August
1979.
See Classes #5 - 9 for how the maps can be used.
Maps are indispensable. Use them as much as
possible.
IV) Recorded Tapes of Bird Songs
For Class #14 (Listening to, and Hearing,
Biodiversity), you will need a pre-recorded tape
of bird songs. These are generally available at
nature center stores and museum stores, or you may
find them or be able to order them from a local
bookstore. What you are looking for is a cassette
tape containing about twenty segments of recorded
songs and calls of individual, identified birds.
Look for a tape that features birds found in your
area. These tapes generally come in a package
that contains a booklet identifying the birds
featured on the tape. The booklet will be useful
for the teacher in preparing the class, and it is
not necessary to distribute to the students.
These tapes typically run in the $10 to $20 range.
If you are unable to find a source in your area,
the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology (address in
(V)(D), below) is one possible source from which
you could order a tape.
24
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V) Resource Information on Migratory Birds
There is ample information currently available on
migratory birds and their current plight for an
introductory course. Below is a list of helpful
possible sources, and sources of further
information. If you are considering obtaining any
of these, it is a good idea to try to get them
before the course begins. Or, if they are to be
used as specialized student research materials,
allow enough time for the students to obtain them.
This curriculum does not recommend or require use
or reading of any of the identified possible
sources. Rather, it is left up to the course
instructor to choose and decide on appropriate
source material. The sources identified below are
provided as possibilities solely for the
convenience of the instructor.
There are an increasing amount of publications on
ecosystem protection, biodiversity issues, and
about migratory birds, and it is simply not
possible to include them all in an introductory
course. The teacher is cautioned against trying
to include too much, and overwhelm the students.
This course curriculum schedule is designed to
focus on particular aspects of this large topic,
so that the issues are presented in an interesting
and integrated progression.
The teacher can always recommend other materials
for the supplementary reading of interested
students.
25
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A) General periodicals
American Birds magazine
American Birding Association (quarterly newsletter
aimed at middle school students; $5.00/year. Also
various other educational materials. Student
memberships are available at $18.00/year.)
Write to:
American Birding Association
P.O. Box 6599
Colorado Springs, CO 80934-6599
(tel. 719-578-9703)
Audubon magazine
Bioscience magazine
National Geographic magazine
Nature Conservancy magazine
Partners in Flight newsletter
(write to: Peter Stangel
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation
1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW
Suite 900 Bender Bldg.
Washington, B.C. 20036
- - in order to be put on the Partners in
Flight mailing list)
26
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B) Books
Griffin, Donald R., Bird Migration, Dover
Publications, Inc., New York, 1974.
Lincoln, Frederick C., The Migration of American
Birds. Doubleday, Doran & Co., NY, 1939 (ill.
Louis Agassiz Fuertes).
Mead, Chris, Bird Migration. Facts on File
Publications, 1983.
Wilson, Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, W.W.
Norton & Company, Inc., 1992.
This recent book also contains reference to
other source materials on birds and
biodiversity, including:
Forsyth, Adrian, Portraits of the Rainforest,
(Ontario: Camden House, Camden East, 1990);
"The Last American Parakeet", Doreen Buscami,
Natural History. 87(4):10-12 (1978);
"Where Have All the Birds Gone?" Essays on
the Biology and Conservation of Birds that
Migrate to the American Tropics. (Princeton
University Press, 1989);
David S. Wilcove and J.W. Terborgh, "Patterns
of Population Decline in Birds,"American
Birds. 38(1):10-13 (1984);
The Last Rain Forest: A World Conservation
Atlas. Oxford University Press, 1990.
(Described by Edward 0. Wilson as a
"beautifully illustrated book . . . the best
popular reference work of its kind");
Wilson, E.G. and P.M. Peter, eds.,
Biodiversity, National Academy Press, 1988;
Philip A. Fearnside, "Extractive Reserves in
Brazilian Amazonia," Bioscience, 39(6):387-
393 (1989);
Leonard Berry et al..Technologies to Sustain
Tropical Forest Resources, (Office of
Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, 1984).
27
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C) Other Written Sources
Birds in the Balance, Action Packet, National
Audubon Society, 666 Pennsylvania Ave, SE,
Washington DC 20003 (two dollars).
Boyle, Robert H., "The Killing Fields", Sports
Illustrated. March 22, 1993 (Reports that "toxic
drainwater from irrigated farmland in California
and other Western states has created an
environmental calamity")
Gulf of Mexico Program
Department of Interior
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Building 1103 - Room 202
Stennis Space Center, MS 39529
(various publications)
Lincoln, Frederick C., Migration of Birds.
circular 16, U.S. Dept . of Interior Fish &
Wildlife Service (original edition 1950; updated
edition 1979) .
Habitat Establishment, Enhancement and Management
for Forest and Grassland Birds in Illinois. J.R.
Herkert, R.E. Szafoni, V.M. Kleen, J.E. Schwegman.
A comprehensive guide for private landowners.
Free. (IL DOC, Division of Natural Heritage, 524
S. 2nd Street, Springfield, IL 62701, tel . 217-
785-8774) .
"Migratory Songbird Conservation" informational
brochure on Partners in Flight and how you can
help. Free. (Catrina Martin, USFWS, OMBM, 1849 C
Street, ms 634 ArlSq, Washington, DC 2(^40, tel.
703-358-1821) .
Schneider, K.J. and D.M. Pence, eds . , Migratory
Nongame Birds of Management Concern in the
Northeast, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish &
Wildlife Service,. 1992 (Region 5, Newton Corner,
Massachusetts 02158) .
Status and Management of Neotropical Migratory
Birds, eds. D.M. Finch and P.W. Stangel .
Symposium Proceedings from the Estes Park National
Training Workshop held September 1992. Free.
USFS Rocky Mt . Forest and Range Expt . Station,
Publication Division, Craddock Bldg., 3825
28
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Mulberry, Ft. Collins, CO 80524-8597.
"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Cooperative
Programs with Mexico", a 32-page report describing
cooperative efforts for conservation of migratory
birds, endangered species, wetlands, and law
enforcement and training. Compiled by Doug Ryan,
International Affairs- FWS. Free. USFWS
Publication Unit, 130 Webb Bldg., 4401 N. Fairfax
Drive, Arlington, VA 22203.
Wetlands: A Celebration of Life. Final report
for two-year study of the current status of
Canadian wetlands. Single copies of this 67-page
report are available free. ("Wetlands
Publication", North Aermican Wetlands Conservation
Council, Suite 200, 1750 Courtwood Crescent,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K2C 2B5, tel. 613-228-
2601).
"Will We Lose Our Songbirds" full-color brochure
providing general information on Partners in
Flight. Free. Contact: "Songbird Brochure,"
National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, 1120
Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC
20)240, tel. 202-857-0166.
D) Audio-Visual Materials
"Birds of Two Worlds - Tropical birds of the
Midwest" poster. Free. (Brad Jacobs, MO DOC, Box
180, Jefferson City, MO 65102, tel. 314-751-
4115).
"Out of the Blue" video. Ten and a half minutes
describing the annual spring migration of
songbirds along the upper Texas coast. $10.83 (TX
residents add 8.25% tax). Also available is the
45-minute "Birding Texas" video, which includes
the "Out of the Blue" segment. $15 (plus tax for
Texas). Contact: susie Gonzalez, TPWD, 4200
Smith School Road, Austin, TX 78744, tel. 512-
389-4994.
Partners in Flight Slide Show. 13 minutes, with
accompanying cassette tape and text depicting the
plight of neotropical migratory birds and what PIF
is doing to help. $53.95 (includes S&H).
Contact: Meg Ghallagher, Cornell Lab of
Ornithology, 159 Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca, NY
14850, tel. 607-254-2440.
29
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Note: the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology
is a valuable source for ordering books,
videos and other study aids on migratory
birds. Write or call them for a brochure.
"Songbirds of forest and field" full-color poster
featuring 11 neotropical migratory songbirds by
Louis Agassiz Fuertes, $6.50, Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402-9325, tel. 202-783-3238.
Please reference stock #024-010-00699-4.
E) Contacts for Further Current and Local Information
Your state may have local information on migratory
birds and resource protection issues. There are
sepcialized educational programs on migratory
birds in several states. For example, contact:
Wisconsin:
One Bird - Two Habitats
DNR Research Center
1350 Femrite Drive
Monona, WI 53716
New Jersey:
The New Jersey Conservation Foundation
300 Mendham Road
Morristown, NJ 07960
(tel. 201-539-7540)
The Partners in Flight newsletter also contains
information on migratory bird contacts in many
states.
F) Further General Reading for Interested Students
Gore, Al, Earth in the Balance. Penguin Group,
1992.
Leopold, Aldo, A Sand County Almanac. Oxford
University Press, Inc. 1949.
Wilson, Edward O., The Diversity of Life. W.W.
Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1992.
30
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RETURN FORM FOR COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS
Your comments, suggestions, ideas and experiences in helping
students learn about migratory birds and biodiversity are
important. Please take a few moments to share them. Your ideas
will be considered in revising and updating the curriculum.
Thank you.
Please return this comment sheet to:
Heather Gray Torres (3RC21)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
841 Chestnut Building
Philadelphia, PA 19107
*****************************************************************
COMMENTS:
Please use other side or attach additional sheets as needed. If
possible, include your comments on what were the most helpful
parts of this curriculum, and those parts that you found the
least useful. Thank you!
Your name:
Address:
Phone #:
31
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Partners in Flight
Migratory Birds and Our Habitat curriculum
SEGMENT A
THE WONDER OF BIRDS, MIGRATION
AND SURVIVAL IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS Class #1
The Miracle of Migration
and Survival in Natural
Ecosystems
******************
OBJECTIVE: Awaken curiosity about, and wonder at, the amazing
miracle of bird migration.
THEME: Long distance journeys pose difficult challenges
to meeting basic needs such as food, water,
clothing and shelter, and finding your way, for
people and the birds.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Identify how people obtain basic necessities while
travelling:
A. On a map, locate long-distance locations to which each
of the students in the class have travelled.
B. Ask the class members to identify what they took with
them on their trip in order to stay warm, protect
themselves from the weather, have a place to sleep,
have enough to eat and to drink. Record this list on
the blackboard, overhead projector, or a large flip-
chart pad (a permanent list may be advantageous for
future reference).
In addition to obvious items, encourage the students to
think about less obvious articles, such as:
- maps (to know where they were going)
- compass (to know direction they were going in)
1-1
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- water (they probably took this for granted)
- food (if they didn't carry it all, they needed
to bring money to buy it)
If a class member went hiking or on a camping trip,
this experience may warrant detailed discussion of how
difficult it was to obtain basic necessities for
survival and comforts that they may take for granted
around their home.
Encourage class members to identify other unique
complications or problems that they faced in travelling
away from their home.
C. Open up a pre-packed suitcase or backpack (see
"Preparation", below) and identify each item that you
have packed for a long trip, and the purpose of the
item. You can run quickly through items that the class
has already identified in (B), above, and dwell on
those they hadn't thought of.
Another approach, quite a bit more dramatic, is to
begin the class by making an entrance with the suitcase
or backpack, and go through the contents before doing
the exercise in (B), above.
D. Illustrate how heavy the suitcase it, and how it holds
only a small portion of the travel items the class
identified, and how it holds only enough food and
shelter materials for a very short journey.
II. Identify basic facts about migratory bird journeys:
A. Ask students to take out a quarter; hand out quarters
to each student who doesn't have one. (Expect the
students to toss and flip their quarters.)
B. Hand out a copy of the Blackpoll warbler page (see
"Handouts", below) to each student.
C. Focus attention on the over 2,000 mile journey of this
quarter-weight bird, which doesn't carry any suitcase
or backpack, but which finds ways to survive.
D. Ask the class to think about how the bird survives and
how the bird gets basic necessities such as water,
food, shelter and warmth, without bringing anything
with it, or carrying a suitcase. Explain that these
are the kind of questions we will try to explore in
this course.
1-2
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E. Suggest that, each time they handle a quarter, the
students think about the amazing journey of the
blackpoll warbler and other migratory birds.
III. Course introduction:
Explain to the students that this will be a course on
migratory birds, and they will learn about birds and
the environment. Explain other general course
information, including that this subject area can link
together a number of topics, including science,
sociology, geography and political science.
PREPARATION:
A. Pack suitcase;
B. Obtain quarters for each student;
C. Copy blackpoll warbler page for each student.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
A. Suitcase or backpack, packed with various items
representative of survival necessities while on travel,
such as the following:
LIST OF SUITCASE ITEMS
- sweater
- warm jacket
- hat
- gloves
- change of clothes
- shirts (warm, and warm-weather)
- shorts
- pants
- dress clothes (for dinner!)
- alarm clock
- toothbrush
- wash cloth
- pillow (if room for it)
- shoes
- boots
- sandals (for warm weather)
- sunscreen
- sunglasses
- pajamas
- socks
1-3
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- raincoat
- food
- water
- money
- maps (South America, North America, and local)
- compass
- alarm clock
- band-aids (for injuries)
- umbrella
- flashlight (to see at night)
- phone book and address book (to find your
friends)
Use your experiences to include additional useful
items from your own journeys.
B. A quarter for each student;
C. Copies of blackpoll warbler illustration (see
"Handouts", below);
D. Blackboard, or overhead projector and sheets, or large
flip-chart pad.
HANDOUTS:
Blackpoll warbler illustration, from "Birds Over
Troubled Forests", p. 16.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Have students write about:
1. What is a migratory bird? ( no research
needed, just identify the current state of
their understanding); and
2. If migratory birds don't carry suitcases, how
do they keep warm, stay cool, get enough to
eat and drink, and find places to rest and to
sleep? (Again, no research needed, just have
students write down their own thoughts).
FOLLOW-UP:
Put away suitcase items, or repack for another class.
LINKS: Science and ecology.
1-4
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Partners in flight
%**
******************
SEGMENT A
THE WONDER OF BIRDS, MIGRATION
AND SURVIVAL IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
Class #2
There is a Lot to Think
About and Explore
Concerning Migratory
Birds
OBJECTIVES:
1.
To help students refresh themselves on the various
bits of information they have learned about birds
so far in their lives;
For the instructor to gain an understanding of the
students' currents knowledge of birds, in order
that the instructor can more closely tailor the
remainder of the classes to the level of the
students;
For the students to tie concepts about birds
closer to their own personal experiences and frame
of reference;
To identify areas of inquiry that the students may
be interested in exploring.
THEME:
Every student is starting on a journey of
questioning and discovery about the natural world
and our relationship to it.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Give a brief refresher (1-2 minutes) of the last class.
II. Collect Homework assignment from Class #1. Explain that it
will be discussed during the next class period.
2-1
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III. Conduct the Personal Survey (attached, below)
IV. Discuss each students answers to the Personal Survey.
Encourage students to discuss and share their answers, and
their questions.
PREPARATION: Review survey questions; possibly add others that
are appropriate to stimulate the students'
interest. -
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Paper and pencils
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Have students think and write about what they
think birds do all day. This should include their
own personal observations, if any.
FOLLOW-UP:
1. Carefully review students' answers to the
Personal Survey;
2. Compare and adjust the activities planned for
future classes to the needs and learning
level of the students;
3. Weave the students questions (item #13 on the
survey) into the topics covered for the
course, if possible.
4. Save the students' individual answers to the
Personal Survey. They will be handed out
again in the last class, #22.
LINKS:
Science and ecology.
2-2
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PERSONAL SURVEY QUESTIONS
1. Write down the names of all the birds you know.
2. Go back to the list you wrote down for question #1, and
put a little star down next to the name of each bird
you listed that you have actually seen.
3. Put down an "x" next to the names of birds you know
about, but have never seen.
4. What is your favorite bird? (If you have more than
one, you can rank them, #1, #2, #3) .
5. Why is the bird you picked your favorite?
6. Are there any birds you don't like? (Name them).
7. Why don't you like them?
8. If you were a bird, which one would you like to be?
(this can be different than question #4).
9. Why?
10. If you were a bird, where would you like to live?
11. Do birds live by themselves?
12. Do they have groups of friends with other birds?
Explain.
13. What would you like to learn about birds, in this
course? (Write down as many things as you can think
of) .
14. A true/false question: All birds migrate, true or
false?
(May require some discussion of what migration
2-3
-------
basically is, and then some thinking. This question
may help the students focus on the idea that migration
may not be as clear a concept as they initially
thought).
15. Why do birds migrate?
16. When birds migrate, how do they know where to go?
17. Where do birds go when they migrate?
18. Why do they go there?
19. Have you ever been birdwatching?
20. Do you know any people who are birdwatchers?
21. If you wanted to watch birds, where would you go to
find them?
22. Do birds have jobs? (Explain your answer)
23. (If this is an elective course)
Why did you decide to take this course?
*******************************************i
2-4
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Partners in Flight
*****************
SEGMENT A
THE WONDER OF BIRDS, MIGRATION
AND SURVIVAL IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS Class #3
Starting the Migratory
Journey
OBJECTIVE: Organize and prepare the students for beginning to
learn specifics of migratory journeys.
THEME: There are many challenging questions about
migratory birds, that still remain to be explored.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Review of Homework from Class #1:
Redistribute Homework papers from Class #1. Ask
students to share their ideas and thoughts from
this Homework assignment. Remember, every thought
and idea is a useful one! Reassure students that,
although they may not have all the answers, this
course will give them the chance to help find the
answers to these questions.
Discuss the answers.
II. Review of Homework from Class #2:
Ask students to take out the Homework assigned
from Class #2. Ask students to share their
thoughts from the Homework assignment from Class
#2. Discuss them.
III. Discuss Course Logistics:
Provide the students with a clear overview of the
course, and an individual printed calendar
3-1
-------
schedule of the classes, and discuss with them the
dates for which the field trips are scheduled.
Identify and discuss logistical concerns related
to field trips.
IV. Introduce that Spring Bird Migration is Beginning:
Hand out copies of the isochronal map provided in
"Handouts", below, and lead the class in
discovering that it depicts the general times that
particular species of birds are found in certain
areas on their spring migratory journeys. Be sure
to identify where the birds are at this particular
time.
V. Introduce Research into Habitat Areas:
A. Introduce the students' Homework assignment.
Students will be choosing to focus on specific
habitat areas along the migratory paths for their
individual research:
- Tropical rainforest
- Gulf Coast
- Caribbean
- Your local area (ask the students to
explain, if they can, what kind of a
habitat they live in)
- Northern United States
- Canada (including Canadian forests)
- Other geographic areas the students may be
interested-in examining along the migratory
routes
B. Make assignments. Students working on the
rainforest will need to prepare their research for
next week.
C. The students will need to research several key
questions for each area, set out below in the
"Handouts" section.
You may want to copy the page identified in
"Handouts" and provide it to each student.
3-2
-------
PREPARATION: 1. Bring Homework papers from Class #1.
2. Organize a calendar schedule of the course,
and bring a copy for each student.
3. Make copies of the isochronal map identified
in "Handouts", below.
4. Make copies of the research questions for
each student.
5. Collect and bring information on the tropical
rainforest, for the students who will need to
make their presentation in the next class.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Any available information about the rainforest.
See possible sources in "Resource Information on
Migratory Birds" in General Preparation, Materials
and Logistics, above.
With the increased attention on the rainforest in
recent years, there is a wealth of information
available, right in your local and school
libraries. Consult natural history periodicals,
including National Geographic, other environmental
journals, and importantly, current world atlases.
Rainforest interest groups may have members in
your area who could serve as an information
resource; also community members may have
travelled to the rainforest, and could offer their
personal observations. Don't overlook the science
section of local video stores and libraries.
Local science museums in your area will also have
information on this topic.
One particular topic recommended to cover is the
rubber tappers who live in the rainforest. A
source for this information is identified in
"Resource Information on Migratory Birds", above,
in General Preparation. Another source is Wilson,
Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, pp. 322-329.
Along with other information presented, be sure to
provide a large map on which American rainforest
areas can be identified.
3-3
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HANDOUTS: Attached page on "Questions to Focus on For Each
Habitat Area".
Isochronal maps (for discussion during class).
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Students assigned the rainforest area will need to
complete their research and make their
presentations in the next class. Students with
other topic areas will have more time to prepare
their presentations, scheduled for Class #7, but
can be encouraged to get started.
FOLLOW-UP: Be available, ideally at identified times, to
assist the students who will be preparing their
rainforest presentations during this week.
LINKS; Science and ecology.
******************
3-4
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Partners in Flight
Our
QUESTIONS TO FOCUS ON FOR EACH HABITAT AREA
1. Where is the particular topic area located,
and what are special characteristics of the
climate?
2. Discuss types of plants in the specific area.
3. Discuss types of animals in the specific
area.
4. Find and discuss interesting information
about the people who live in the area,
particularly their relationship to the
habitat around them.
5. Explain the climate(s) of the area.
6. Describe the natural vegetation zones of the
area.
7. Which activities by people affect the natural
vegetation zones of the area?
8. What are the identified land uses of the
area, and how do they compare with the
natural vegetation zones? Contrast these
two, and identify conflicts and opportunities
for harmonizing both.
9. Identify the major economic and commercial
activities for the area.
10. Identify the relationship, if any, between
the land uses, economic and commercial
activities of the area, and if this could
affect the ability of the migratory birds to
survive in the area.
*****************
3-5
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Class #
HANDOUT
Excerpt from:
"Birds Over Troubled Forests", p. 16.
Copyright @ 1991 Smithsonian Migratory Bird
Program
-------
Copyright @1991 Smithsonian Migratory
Bird Program. Reprinted with permission
of the artist,
Julie Zickefoose.
Blackpoll Warbler
Weighing as much as a quarter, the Blackpoll Warbler can fly from New England to Venezuela in 60-80 hrs., the metabolic equivalent of
a person running 4 minute miles for 80 hrs straight. They accomplish this feat at the fngid and oxygen poor altitude of 5,000 meters.
-------
Class #3
HANDOUT
Questions to focus on for each Habitat Area
-------
Partners in Flight
Migratory Birds and Our Łnviroiuttnt
QUESTIONS TO FOCUS ON FOR EACH HABITAT AREA
1. Where is the particular topic area located,
and what are special characteristics of the
climate?
2. Discuss types of plants in the specific area.
3. Discuss types of animals in the specific
area.
4. Find and discuss interesting information
about the people who live in the area,
particularly their relationship to the
habitat around them.
5. Explain the climate(s) of the area.
6. Describe the natural vegetation zones of the
area.
7. Which activities by people affect the natural
vegetation zones of the area?
8. What are the identified land uses of the
area, and how do they compare with the
natural vegetation zones? Contrast these
two, and identify conflicts and opportunities
for harmonizing both.
9. Identify the major economic and commercial
activities for the area.
10. Identify the relationship, if any, between
the land uses, economic and commercial
activities of the area, and if this could
affect the ability of the migratory birds to
survive in the area.
-------
Class #3
HANDOUT
Isochronal Maps, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16, revised edition 1979,
pp. 19, 22, 23 and 29.
-------
Fiffure S. Isochronal migration lines of the black-and-white warbler, showing a very
flow and uniform migration. The solid lines connect places at which these birds arrive
at the tame time. Thete birds apparently advance only about 20 miles per day in
crowing the United States.
Isochronal Map, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish fc Wildlife Service, United States
Department of the Interior, revised edition 1979, p. 19.
-------
Isochronal Migration Lines
• • • • Migration Route
Fijrure 3. Migration of the blackpoll u-arbler. As the birds move northward, the iso-
chronal lines become farther apart, wh ich indicates that the warblers move faster with
the advance of spring. From April 30 to May 10 the average speed is about SO miles per
day, while from May 25 to May 30 it increases to more than SOO miles.
BLACKPOLL WARBLER
Isochronal Map, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & wildlife Service, United States
Department of the Interior, revised edition 1979, p. 22.
-------
i Figure 6. Isochronal migration lines of the gray-cheeked thrush, an example of rapid
i migration. The distance from Louisiana to Alaska is about 4,000 miles and is covered
I at an average speed of about 130 miles per day. The last part of the journey is covered
I at a speed several times what it is in the Mississippi Valley.
GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH
Isochronal Map, from:
of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, United States
of the interior, revised edition 1979, p. 29.
-------
4
Hochrorm Migration Unas
• • Miortton Route
T S Mpntwn ofOucliffmnUou,. A day mipran* that,
CanUn. Sw at doe, ti* UvkpoU worbUr
wlvr* food i* readtiv obtained.
of Central
CLIFF SWALLOW
Isochronal Map, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, United States
Department of the Interior, revised edition 1979, p. 23.
-------
Partners in Flight
Oar
******************
SEGMENT B
FLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #4
The Tropical Rainforest
Habitat
******************
OBJECTIVE:
Gain an appreciation of the habitat in which
Neotropical migratory birds spend the winter
months.
THEME:
All about the American tropical rainforest, where
many Neotropical migrants spend our winter months.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I.
'Travel' to the American tropical rainforest:
L. Present information about the rainforest and its
inhabitants, including native peoples, focusing on
the topic areas and issues identified for research
in Class #3.
I. Be sure to locate rainforest areas on a map.
PREPARATION:
The teacher will need to collect and organize
materials, unless the students fully take on this
responsibility. Keep in mind that the focus is not
necessarily the birds in the rainforest, but rather an
integrated view of the beauty and uniqueness of the
tropical rainforest environment and habitat.
4-1
-------
RESOURCES NEEDED:
See discussion in "Resources" section for Class #3.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Have each student write their own thoughts about: Why
would birds want to leave the rainforest and migrate to
North America? Why do birds leave the rainforest?
FOLLOW-UP:
Make note of good resources to use for next year's
class on this topic; return videos and other borrowed
materials.
LINKS: Science, ecology, sociology, economics, land use
planning, geography and anthropology.
******************
4-2
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT B
FLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #5
Migration Routes
******************
OBJECTIVE: Gain an appreciation of the long journeys made by
Neotropical migratory birds, and the vast ranges
throughout the Americas that they travel and live
in, when they leave the rainforest.
THEME: Examine migratory routes of a number of birds,
mostly Neotropical.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Ask students to share their thoughts from the Homework
assignment from Class #4. Discuss the important
questions raised in the Homework assignment.
II. Learn about migration routes through migration charts:
Examine a sequence of migration charts. For each of
them, discuss:
a. the countries and places each bird spends the
winter;
b. the time when the bird starts migrating
north;
c. how the birds of each species know when to
migrate north?
d. have birds started migrating north yet, this
spring? Which ones?
e. how far north have they reached yet?
5-1
-------
f. what are particular problems the birds face
in flying over specific land areas, or large
expanses of water? (ie. hunters, high
mountain ranges, exhaustion, lack of food,
predators)
g. relate the number of miles the birds are
shown to have travelled on the map to how far
each student has travelled, as discussed in
Class #1.
h. do the students have any ideas as to why
different birds would choose different
migration routes?
i. how do birds know how to find the same route,
year after year?
2. Ask the students to make observations about each
chart, and from comparing the charts (ie. some
routes are shorter than other, some go over land,
while other routes are over water), and take down
all the observations on the blackboard, flip-chart
or overhead projector. Remind the students that
all observations are important, and that is how
field biologists get new ideas and theories.
3. Introduce and explain fully the concept of "Neo-
tropical" migrant, ie. that the bird lives in the
American tropics for at least part of the year.
Contrast this with the Canada Goose (copy of
isochronal chart provided in."Handouts"), which
does migrate in the Americas, but not to the
tropics.
4. Ask the students where the information on the
migration charts comes from. (You may not want to
definitively answer this question, but it is a
useful question to raise, that will be dealt with
in detail in class #9).
PREPARATION:
Copy enough of each of the migratory charts to
allow one per student.
5-2
-------
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Copies of migratory charts are essential. Copies
of several charts, are provided in the "Handouts"
section.
Additionally, the National Geographic map
identified in General Preparation, above (Section
III, Maps) would be an excellent tool for this
class.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
No specific Homework for this class; students
should continue their research into individual
habitat areas for presentation in Class #7.
FOLLOW-UP:
At some point around this time, the students may break
for spring vacation. Challenge the students to find
and observe birds wherever they may go in their
travels, or even if the students remain right in the
area. Suggest that the vacationing students look to
observe migrating birds. Find out where students may
be going in their travels, and ask them, if they
possibly can, to bring back easily obtainable
information on habitat conditions, particularly those
that may be important to bird survival. Remind them
that this does not need to involve any real expense:
they can make their own observations, take their own
pictures, buy cheap postcards or get free travel
pamphlets. These can fit into the areas of research
for class #7, or students can report on their
observations when they return from vacation.
Remind the students of the first class, and the
difficulties in travel, as they set about on their
individual vacations. Encourage them to think about
the birds beginning to migrate north now, and the
travel challenges they face.
HANDOUTS: Migration charts
LINKS: Science, ecology and geography.
5-3
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUTS
Migration charts, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
Mo« Extenttw* UMd Routes
A»ntb COM Routes
Figure 18. Principal migration roulet uied by birdt in pasting from North America to
winter av
nm o merca to
muter quarters i*tke Wett Indies, Central America, and Soitih America. Route ^ it
tte one uttd mott extentwely while only a/ewtpecia make tketJOO mtitjtielitdwm
»»-- - - - -- ,_ A .,_
Route 1 from Nova. Scotia to South America.
MIGRATION ROUTES
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUT
RED-EYED VIREO
Migration chart, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
Breeding Range
Winter Range
Migration Limits
Figure SO. Distribution and migration o> thf red-eyed vireo. It is endent that the red-
eyed nreo has only recently invaded Washington by an extension of its breeding range
almost due west from th( upper Missouri I'atley. Like the bobolink (Fig. 191. huu'ei'er.
the western breeders do not take the short cut south or southeast from their nesting
grounds but migrate spring and fall alongthe route traveled in making the extension.
RED-EYED VIREO
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUT
BOBOLINK
Migration chart, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
Breeding Range
Winter Range
Migrator Routes
Owtribut iO)i atid m igrat ,rni «' of th< bobolink? itf( ruatt ,1 iFiy
flight fron, Jamaica across ati islandles* f
°f thest bird,- hai'f establisntd themsil'i
h' th( ancestral flyiraup a>iti sti"
a. .\>M- Menco. and Tejra-x
' • •„,>,,,' ,nk hi crossing to South America.
.' ' *'* m'mg wi 1; tfilt b( noted tha'coloi, if.-
* ' » f.< ni lO'-atii" tiiu
- n- tct'flotct/ to lakt thi shun Cu' acre*-
BOBOLINK
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUT
CANADA GOOSE
Migration chart, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
Figure 5. Migration of the Canada goose. The northward movement keeps poet with the
progress of spring, because the advance of the isotherm ofS5° Fagreesunth that of the
birds.
CANADA GOOSE
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUT
BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER
Migration chart, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
^•^^— .— .11 —, i ,_ — .^—•^—^•.^••••••^^•••^^•••-«
Figure 1. Summer and winter hornet- uf tht hi.irK-nnd-u'hite warbler. A very slow
migrant, these birds nesting m the »orr/;<•>->. par' »' the country take 50 days to crews
the breeding range. The speed of migrnt>i,r, ^ **,,,<•>• in Fig. 2.
BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUT
ROSE BREASTED GROSBEAK
Migration chart, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
ROSE BREASTED GROSBEAK
-------
Classes #5 and 6
HANDOUT
SCARLET TANAGER
Migration chart, from:
"Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the
Interior, circular #16 (original and revised
editions).
-------
Figure 15. .Distribution and migration of the scariet tanager. During the breedaefme.-
son individual scarlet tanager a -may bf 1 5fx> miles apart in
-------
Fig. a. Migrations of banded arctic term. Placet where young
tern* were bonded off the coast of North America an rfunra by
pint with white head*. Points where thete bird* wen recovered
a few mantht later are indicated by pins with matt black headt.
One view of a migration that encompasses much of the planet
Reprinted with permission from Griffin, Donald R., Bird
Migration. Dover Publications, Inc. Copyright ® 1964 by Donald
R. Griffin. Copyright ® 1974 Dover Publications, Inc.
Another depiction of this migration is on the reverse side
of the page.
-------
• Breeding Areas
• Winter Areas
• Recovery Points
Migration Points
Figure 11. Distribution and migration of arctic terns. The route indicated for this bird
it unique, because no other species is known to breed abundantly in North America
and to cross the Atlantic Ocean to and from the Old World. The extreme summer and
winter homes are 11,000 miles apart.
A view of a migration that encompasses much of the planet.
Reprinted from "Migration of Birds", U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, United States Department of the Interior, circular #16,
revised edition 1979, p. 45.
Another depiction of this migration is on the reverse side
of this page.
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT B
FLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #6
Migration Routes
******************
Class #6 can be a continuation of examination of the
migratory charts presented in Class #5. It is set apart
here as a separate class for schedule planning purposes.
******************
6-1
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Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT B
PLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #7
North American Habitats
******************
OBJECTIVE:
Gain appreciation of the diversity of habitats
occupied by the migratory birds (other than the
tropical rainforest habitat) including your local
habitat area, and the particular survival
challenges of each area.
THEME:
Each habitat and ecosystem poses its own different
opportunities and challenges for survival and
success. Habitat areas and ecosystems cross
political boundaries.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I.
Habitat investigations:
A. Present information on the various habitat areas
investigated by the students as the homework
assigned for Class #3. Have the students make
their own presentations, either individually or as
teams. Be sure, during each presentation, to
locate on a map where the area is on one or more
of the migratory bird charts introduced in Class
#5. Focus on the topic areas and issues
identified for research in Class #3.
B. Organize the presentations so they follow a
general northward migratory pattern: Caribbean,
Gulf Coast, Mississippi Basin, Northern United
States, Canada.
C. Discuss differences in the habitats for the birds,
and discuss advantages and disadvantages of each,
7-1
-------
for the birds, and for people. Discuss how birds
and people can accommodate their mutual interests.
Ask students for each habitat area: which of
people's activities there adversely affects the
birds ability to survive there?
D. Identify and discuss the various countries and
states in each habitat and ecosystem area. Focus
on that observation that, in many instances, the
habitat area (also could be called an "ecoregion")
is not confined to political boundaries. What are
the consequences of this to a migratory bird?
PREPARATION:
The teacher will need to collect and organize research
materials for each habitat area, unless the students
fully take on this responsibility.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
See discussion in "Resources" section for Class #3.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Ask students to choose, of all the habitat and
ecosystem areas they have learned about, which they
would prefer to live in. They should explain why.
Advise them that, as some birds do, they can choose to
move among areas. They should explain what their
choices are, and why.
Ask students to keep a continuing watch for in-depth
information about local habitat conditions, ecosystems
and land use patterns, such as that occasionally
printed in local newspapers.
FOLLOW-UP:
Monitor local newspapers for interesting articles about
local habitat conditions and land use. These will be
needed for Classes #19 and 21.
7-2
-------
LINKS: Ecology, geography, anthropology, sociology, political
science.
NOTE: Depending on the number of students in the class, and
their interest in examining and comparing each habitat
area in depth, this topic could take more than one
class. You could adjust the schedule to allow another
class for this purpose, and make scheduling adjustments
to later classes.
******************
7-3
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT B
FLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #8a
Why and How do Birds
Migrate?
******************
OBJECTIVE: Help students appreciate the importance and depth
of basic scientific questioning and research.
THEME: There is an immense amount that we don't know
about bird migration and the mysteries of natural
systems. First-hand observations by people form
the basis of what we do know.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Discuss students' preferences for habitat in the
Homework assigned for Class #7.
II. Conduct Group Survey #1:
Ask the class to think about what they have
learned in the class so far, and as a group to
think of answers to the following:
1. Why do birds migrate?
2. Why do birds leave the rainforest to come to
North America?
3. Given all the problems with the habitat areas
in North America that we have identified in
recent classes, why do migratory birds
continue to come here?
8-1
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4. Then, why do birds then leave North America
to go back to South America?
5. What do birds do during the time they spend
the summer in North America?
6. How do birds know when it is time to migrate?
7. How do birds find their way when they are
migrating?
8. What problems do birds have when they are
migrating?
9. How do you, personally, know that birds
migrate?
10. Have you ever seen a bird migrating and
ending up in South or Central America?
11. Where does the information on the migratory
charts examined in previous classes come
from?
12. How and when did bird migration begin?
13. What is the home of migratory birds?
14. What do these birds need to survive?
15. Describe your home.
16. Describe what you need to survive.
Record the various ideas of the students below the
questions. Remember, all sincere ideas are good ones.
When discussing some of these questions, you can
mention that people used to think that when birds
disappeared in the winter the birds had gone to the
moon! The philosopher Aristotle thought that the
birds hid in the local bushes all winter, and
reappeared in the spring. These historic items, as
well as much other interesting information about
migration, are set forth in Migration of Birds.
circular #16 of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
identified in "Resources", above.
PREPARATION:
Write out the questions ahead of time, either on
separate sheets of a large flip chart, on individual
8-2
-------
overhead projector sheets, or spaced out on the
blackboard. Leave enough space to write in students'
ideas below the questions.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Large flip chart pad, overhead projector and supplies,
or blackboard.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Ask students to write their own ideas about some of the
questions asked during this class, such as:
1) How do you, personally know that birds migrate?
2) How do birds find their way when they are
migrating?
FOLLOW-UP:
No specific follow-up needed.
LINKS;
Science, ecology.
NOTE: This exercise is not designed to take a full class
period. A good idea is to start Class #8b during this
class period as well.
******************
8-3
-------
Class #8
EXERCISE
Copy of Activity #2 ("Migratory Mapping"),
from Migratory Birds Issue Pac. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, United States Department of
the Interior, 1982.
-------
Migratory
Birds
Activity 2
Migratory Mapping
Purpose
Through this Activity,
students will learn the migra-
tion route of a common
migratory bird, the Canada
goose. This will be done by
compiling and mapping data
from actual band reports,
Learning Outcomes
After completing this Activ-
ity, students will be able to:
A. Map the migration route of
the Canada goose based on
band reports.
B. Define the terms wintering
and breeding grounds.
C. List tw.o uses of band
reports.
D. List the four major flyways
in North America.
Organization
Who: Groups of four
Where: Inside
When: Any time of year
Time: One to two hours
Materials: For the Class
• Poster—Side 2
• Data Sheet—Page 1 (five
copies)
• Paper bag or hat
Materials: For Each Student
• Data Sheet—Page 2
• Colored pencils or crayons
Directions
1. Data Sheet—Page 1 con-
tains 50 banding results. Make
five copies of these band
reports. Cut Data Sheets into
250 strips and put these into a
hat or paper bag. Note: These
band reports are simplified ver-
sions of rea1 data that have
been turned in to the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service.
2. Lead students in a discu:
sion of bird banding. Bandir
is done to provide informatn
regarding migratory birds'
routes. Through recovery of
bird bands, data on directio
and duration of migration i?
tained. Introduce students t
the idea of flyways, which i
generalized migratory cornc
Although species' actual mi
tions do not strictly conforr
with these flyways, they are
useful way of generalizing
migration routes. Band
recoveries help to indicate
along which flyways birds
migrate. (For instance, the
Canada goose migrates alo
all four flyways.) Use the
Poster-Side 2 and the pock
map to illustrate the idea a
locations of flyways.
,\
-------
3. Hand out copies of Data
Sheet—Page 2 to each student.
Have students first label their
maps with the Canadian pro-
vinces and major bodies of
water. They may use reference
materials.
4. Tell students they are
wildlife biologists compiling
banding returns. Data are being
sent to them regarding the
locations of banded Canada
geese. Their job is to map
Canada goose migration-
spring and fall—based on the
reports. Tell students they will
each receive data from seven
or eight bands. While bands
are recovered year round, the
information students receive
will be mainly from summer
and from fall migration periods.
(Have the students suggest
why more bands might be re-
covered at these times of the
year.) Students can tell the dif-
ference by the dates: spring
migrations generally occur be-
tween February and April and
fall migrations between
September and December.
Reports from January, May,
June. July, and August indicate
non-migrating times of the
year. During the summer
months geese are at their
breeding grounds; during
January they are wintering in
more southern areas. Tell
students they will plot reports
on the maps they have been
given. They should use dif-
ferent colors for migration
dates, and for dates indicating
presence on wintering and
breeding grounds.
Completed student map
5. Pass the hat around the
classroom. Each student should
take one strip (band result) and
mark the date on the map in the
correct location. Pass the band-
ing reports around again, and
continue this until each student
has received at least seven
reports. If students receive two
of the same result, they should
plot both.
6. Have students form groups
of four to compare data. Stu-
dents should map the banding
reports of the other group
members. Based on the addi-
tional information, have stu-
dents plot spring and fall
migration routes based on the
U.S. flyways and indicate
generalized wintering and
breeding grounds. Their data
will indicate that the Canada
geese used in this Activity
breed mostly in Canada. They
migrate along either the Missis-
sippi Flyway or the Atlantic
Flyway. Therefore, the routes
mapped can cover most of the
States north of South Carolina
and east of Wyoming.
-------
7. If possible, make an enlarge-
ment of the Data Sheet map
and plot all the band reports.
Ask students where band
report #1 was from and if the
bird was recovered during the
spring or fall migration. Plot
each migration period in a dif-
ferent color. Continue collect-
ing information from the class
and plotting it until all reports
have been shown.
8. Have students pick one of
the flyways and research its
geography. Generate a class
list of possible problem areas
and favorable habitats (refuges.
rivers) which Canada geese
might encounter on that route.
Followup
Through research and
observations made throughout
the school year, students can
note the varying numbers,
types, and varieties of birds in
the area and determine which
species migrate and which do
not. They can then study one
migratory species they have
identified in the neighborhood
and use a map and bird guides
to examine where the species
migrates. Research should in-
clude the route and timing of
migration, obstacles en-
countered, and traditional
habitats used during migration.
If possible, have a local
conservation officer or Fish
and Wildlife Service employee
bring in samples of actual bird
bands and mounted birds with
bands to discuss banding in
greater detail. Have the
speaker tell students what they
should do if they see a band on
a bird (either live or dead).
Some wildlife refuges allow
students to observe banding
operations and on occasion
will allow upper-level students
to participate.
Activity Review Answers
1. The Canada geese deplete
in this Activity breed mostly i
Canada and migrate along
either the Mississippi or Atla
tic Flyway.
2. a—Atlantic Flyway; b—Ce
tral Flyway; c—Pacific Flywa
d—Mississippi Flyway.
3. True. While bands are four
by many different individuals
different ways, the majority <
sent in by hunters
4. Wintering grounds—Arger
tina, South America. Breedin
grounds —Alberta and
Saskatchewan, Canada.
5. Band reports give informa
tion regarding bird migration
routes, wintering and breedii
grounds, life expectancy,
causes of death, etc.
-------
Migratory
Birds
Activity 2
Activity Review
z
0)
i
C
Where do the Canada geese
a\ vou studied in this Activity
ee3 and what flyways do they
3. Wildlife biologists rely on in-
formation from bands returned
by hunters to learn about
migratory birds. True or False?
5. List two examples of
information obtained from
band reports.
a.
2. The map below shows the
four major flyways of the
United States. Based on the
banding results below, which
fiyway would the migrating
birds be using?
a. Birds banded in northern
Queoec and recovered in
Mane. Delaware. North
Ca-cima Rhode Island.
Maryland
b. Birds banded in the North-
west Territories and recovered
in Wyoming. New Mexico,
Texas. Montana.
c. Birds banded in Alaska and
recovered in Oregon, Nevada.
California. Idaho.
d. Birds banded in Alaska and
recovered in Alaska, North
Dakota. Great Lakes, Ten-
nessee. Louisiana. Missouri.
4. The Swainson's hawk
breeds around the beginning of
May. Based on the following
banding results, where do you
think this bird winters?
b.
C
Breeds?
• Shot in Mexico. October
1980.
• Banded in Alberta. July 1977,
and found dead in Kansas,
August 20, 1978.
• Banded in Saskatchewan,
July 13. 1974 and found dead in
Argentina. March 4. 1976.
Depa-tmeni of tne Intenor/u S Fish and Wildlife Service 1982
Pacific Fiyway
Central Fiyway
Mississippi Fiyway
Atlantic Fiyway
C
-------
Migratory
Birds
Canada Goose Migration
Activity 2
Data Sheet
0
D
Canada geese migrate in a V-formation at
about 50 mph. Their movement is steady and
unhurried and closely follows the movement of
the seasons.
Canada geese are often banded by scientists to
obtain information about their migrations.
Canada geese make their spring migrations
(south to north) from about February to April.
Fall migrations (north to south) occur from
about September to December.
8 8
Canada geese in flight
DeDartmen: o( the mierior'U S
Bird Bands
airi Wjidhte Service 1982
Page 2
-------
Migratory
Birds
Banding Reports
Activity 2
1. Goose caught by hand in Maine, 8/16/81.
2. Neck-collared goose observed by person in
New Jersey, 11/28/81.
3. Goose found dead by hunter in Maine, 10/16/81.
4. Band number of goose read from a distance
by observer in Quebec, 7/9/81.
5. Hunter reports band from Pennsylvania,
11/12/81.
6. Goose caught after being forced down and
weakened by bad weather in Pennsylvania,
12/30/77.
7. Goose shot by hunter in Missouri, 11/11/78.
8. Goose band sent in from Ontario with
no information about recovery or cause of
death, 8/4/81.
9. Hunter reports goose that was taken by his
party in Iowa hunt, 10/13/81.
10.Goose banded in Iowa was identified by neck
collar and reported from Wisconsin by resi-
dent, 9/19/81.
11.Skeleton of banded goose found and reported
from Ohio, 9/8/81.
12.Goose recaptured almost a year later
in the same place where banded in Wiscon-
sin, 10/8/81.
13.Goose banded in Colorado killed by a hunter
in Wyoming, 10/31/81.
14.Goose inadvertently caught by fur trapper in
Manitoba, 10/10/81.
15.Goose banded in Oklahoma shot by hunter in
Saskatchewan, 10/26/81.
16.lnjured goose caught in Iowa, 11/28/81.
17.Goose banded 1/2/63 in Maryland and shot by
hunter approximately 18 years later in
Maryland, 11/12/81.
18.Goose banded in Manitoba shot three months
later in Missouri, 11/8/81.
19.Goose banded in Manitoba 7/19/68 and recap-
tured near place of banding, 7/30/81.
20.Goose caught in Illinois after being hit by a
vehicle, 7/29/81.
21 .Goose banded in the Northwest Territories,
Canada shot in Ohio three months later,
10/21/81.
22.Goose found dead in Massachusetts,
10/27/81.
23.Goose killed, in Wisconsin by hunter,
10/29/81.
24.Goose banded in Ohio found injured in
Michigan, 8/4/81.
25.Goose first banded 10/11/67, accidentally
killed when recaptured in banding operation
in Minnesota, 10/26/81.
Datasheet
26.Goose banded in Texas shot almost 13
years later in Manitoba, 10/2/81. *fl
27.Goose banded in Utah identified by neck __
collar in California, 2/5/81.
28.Goose found dead on highway in Ontario,
9/1/81.
29.Goose collected for scientific specimen in -
Ohio, 4/27/81. «-
30.Goose found dead in South Dakota, 11/17/81.
31.Goose banded in Arkansas shot almost 17
years later in South Dakota, 10/20/78.
32.Goose found entangled in fishing gear in
Michigan, 1/5/79.
33.Goose recaptured at the place of banding
one year and one day later in Ontario,
6/22/81.
34.Goose captured after it joined a flock of
domestic birds in Quebec, 6/23/81.
35.Goose shot by hunter in Ontario 40 days
after it was banded, 8/3/81.
36. Band reported from North Dakota with no
information regarding bird or circumstances
of encounter, 6/15/81.
37.Goose found dead in Minnesota, 10/30/81.
38.Goose caught as a result of an unknown
animal in Minnesota, 11/23/81.
39.Goose banded in Kansas 2/14/80 shot in
Saskatchewan, 11/9/81.
40.Goose found injured in North Carolina,
6/28/80.
41.Goose found dead in New Jersey almost
seven years after banding, 5/27/80.
42.Two geese banded on same day found dead
almost a year later near a highway in
Virginia, 1/5/72.
43.Goose banded in Kentucky 7/1/76 recaptured
in Tennessee by another bander, 1/28/80.
44.Goose caught by a dog in Minnesota,
5/28/79.
45.Goose in Missouri found dead after striking
a high tension wire, 3/8/79.
46.Ohio resident with binoculars reported a
goose with a band number, 3/20/75.
47.Goose banded in Tennessee later recaptured
by a bander in the Northwest Territories of
Canada, 1/7/76.
48.Goose in British Columbia killed by a mov-
ing aircraft, 3/27/80.
49.Goose found dead due to parasite infesta-
tion in Minnesota, 7/22/80.
50.Goose found dead due to lead poisoning in
South Dakota, 12/17/80.
Pag«1
-------
Partners in Flight
*****************
SEGMENT B
FLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #8b
How Do You Know
Migration Occurs?
OBJECTIVE: Help students appreciate the importance and depth
of basic scientific questioning and research.
THEME: There is an immense amount that we don't know
about bird migration, and first-hand observations
by people form the basis of what we do know.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Mapping Migration Patterns:
Use the referenced group exercise in "Resources
Needed", below, to have students learn 'first hand' how
we find out about bird migration, and about the
problems birds face along the way.
More than one class period will be needed for this
complete exercise. It can be started during this class
period, and completed during the next class. It works
well to get it organized and started during one class,
and then students will be ready to begin right in on it
and complete it in the next class.
PREPARATION:
For the mapping exercise, a large map of North America
is needed. The migration information (provided in
"Resources Needed", below) should be cut into strips
ahead of time, and the teacher should bring a hat or
8-4
-------
another container to the class into which the slips can
be placed.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
The needed excerpts from Migratory Birds Issue Pac.
Activity #2, Migratory Mapping (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 1992) are included with the Course Handouts.
This packet contains an interesting exercise of mapping
of the migration of Canada Geese. This exercise is
only part of a larger comprehensive packet, that could
be ordered in its entirety. See "Course Logistics",
above, for ordering information.
The teacher will need to bring a large map (preferably
mounted, for ease of working), marking pens, and a hat
or other container.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
One creative assignment could be for students to
brainstorm and identify other possible ways that people
could find out specific facts about bird migrations.
For example, the New York Times reports in "New
Technique May Clear Up Mystery of Vanishing Songbird"
that chemicals in feathers may help trace birds to
winter grounds (New York Times, May 31, 1994, p. C4) .
Students could come up with a variety of other ideas,
too.
FOLLOW-UP:
No specific follow-up is needed.
LINKS: Science, ecology.
*****************
8-5
-------
Partners in Flight
*****************
SEGMENT B
FLIGHT TO NEW WORLD HABITATS
Class #9
How Do You Know Migration
Occurs?
******************
This Class period is a continuation of the exercise in Class
#8b. It is set apart here as a separate class for schedule
planning purposes.
******************
9-1
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #10
How to Identify Birds
******************
OBJECTIVE: Learn the basics of how to recognize birds, in
preparation for interesting and rewarding trips of
field observation.
THEME: Identify basics of bird observation.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES:
I. Depict the basic features of birds that will be helpful
for students to know in the field:
1. Ask the students to draw an outline of a bird on a
clean sheet of paper, and to mark on it the
identification features that they already could
recognize (ie. beak, tail, etc.) Spend only about
five minutes on this.
2. Using the blackboard, overhead projector or large
drawing pad, sketch out the outline of a bird, and
mark the key features of the bird, particularly
those that are helpful to field observation.
For reference, use a standard chart depicted in
the front of a bird identification book. See
"Field Guides", in General Preparation, above).
Have the students copy the chart and the
identification names and markings as you go along.
3. Collect the students papers, hand them a blank
paper, and challenge them to write from memory a
bird outline and as many of the markings as they
10-1
-------
can remember.
4. After #3 is attempted, hand the students back
their original notes, and ask them to complete
those things on their second sheet that they could
not remember.
Note: this is not meant to be a graded exercise,
but rather a little short-term memory reinforcing
trick for trying to remember as much as possible.
Explain this to the students. They won't remember
all the markings anyway, but they will remember
some of them when you get out into the field, and
at least they will be familiar with the standard
marking names, such as 'crown' or 'wing-bar', that
otherwise they have never heard before.
II. Finalize field trip logistics:
The bird identification activity should be
completed in enough time to discuss the final
plans for the field trips: exact logistics of
where and when to meet, contingency plans related
to the weather or other individual student
activities (such as school orchestra, play
rehearsals, tests, etc.), appropriate field gear,
including pants, boots and hats, and arranging for
bird identification books and binoculars.
If enough time is available, the students can be
asked to find the location of the field trips on a
local map.
PREPARATION:
Obtain a diagram of bird identification features
from the introductory sections of your bird
identification field guide. Review the diagram
so that you will be familiar with it.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
1. Reference for bird identification marks, for
the teacher to copy from;
2. Paper for each student, pencils, blackboard,
overhead projector or large marker board;
10-2
-------
3. Printed information sheets concerning the
logistics and details of the field trips;
4. Local area map for pinpointing field trip
locations.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
No specific Homework for this class.
FOLLOW-UP:
Make adjustments and final preparations for the
field trips.
LINKS: Science and geography.
******************
10-3
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #11
Discovering Diversity
******************
OBJECTIVE: Have students begin to discover for themselves the
incredible diversity of life, as reflected in the
many different types of birds.
THEME: The rich variety of bird life is fascinating for
those who explore it .
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
This class period is designed to consist primarily of
unstructured individual exploration of a major bird
field guide. The students, either individually or in
teams of two, should be handed a bird field guide, and
told they will have the class period to explore it.
This can be a very successful and fascinating exercise,
because the diverse depictions of birds, and
comparisons among them, are probably something that the
students have never taken the time to explore before.
The variety of bird life is itself amazing and
extraordinary.
At first, the students may be a little sheepish about
exploring the guides, but allow them enough time to
really get started.
If necessary, the class can be prompted by challenges
to find their favorite bird, or to try to locate birds
that they have seen before, and read about them.
Additionally, they can be challenged to find different
types of features about birds, particularly their
bills, and obviously their plumage. As the class to
start thinking about why do birds have so many
11-1
-------
different color feathers and types of bills?
Challenge the students also to find important features
about the books, such as: how the index works; how the
guide is organized; and the migratory mapping feature,
and how to find the right map.
Be careful not to overwhelm the students with too much
lecture at this time. They should be given enough time
to explore the book productively themselves, without
rushing. Features of the book that aren't covered
during this class can be discussed during a field trip.
Discovering the diversity of bird life can be a good
introduction to prompt the class the think about the
importance and beauty of diversity in all forms of
life.
Note: be sure to confirm the final details of a field
trip, if it is planned for the next class. Remind the
students to bring their field guides, if they have
their own individual copies.
PREPARATION:
Obtain bird field guides.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Obtain as many field guides as possible. (See
discussion in Course Logistics, above, concerning
selection of field guides). Ideally, there will be one
identical field guide per student. However, this is
not necessary, and students can be asked to share. If
field guides are not identical, be sure to observe this
and be prepared to help students in the field to locate
birds in their particular guide.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Ask the students to think and write about:
1. Why do birds have so many different color
feathers?
2. Why do birds have different shapes and types of
11-2
-------
bills?
3. What would the world be like if all the birds
looked the same?
If the students have individual copies of the books,
they can be asked to look through the books again, as
much as possible, at their leisure.
FOLLOW-UP:
Collect field guides, unless they belong to the
students, and bring them to next weeks' field trip.
LINKS: Science
******************
11-3
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #12
Field Trip
******************
OBJECTIVE:
Have students observe and begin to appreciate
natural ecosystems and biodiversity first-
hand, through direct observations of birds in
their natural surroundings.
THEME:
Explore a local area to discover the
diversity of birds there, and find out about
the types of ecosystems in which birds live.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I.
Field trip to local area to observe birds and our
habitat. See in-depth discussion in Course Logistics,
above.
In the field, help students learn field identification
and observation techniques, including focusing on where
particular birds are found (forest, field, wetland,
suburban yard); behavior of the birds, and field
markings (using identification techniques introduced in
Class #10). Lead students to appreciate the wonderful
variety of colors in the different birds they are
seeing.
Also, it is important to focus on other components of
the particular ecosystem visited. This can be done,
for example, by finding out about the type of food
eaten by the various birds, by observing their type of
bill. Field identification of different types of bills
is introduced in standard field guides, such as Birds.
(Peterson, 4th ed), at p. 34. Focusing on the bills
and the type of food eaten by each bird in the wild is
12-1
-------
a key concept in helping to understand the importance
of each bird in the natural cycles, and in observing
other life forms of the particular ecosystem. Lead
students to appreciate the rich variety of life and
color throughout the ecosystem, using the birds as a
focal point.
II. Record any birds observed on the students' individual
life list.
III. Find out and discuss other areas in the Americas where
the birds you have observed live. For example, for
each bird observed, find out where it spends the winter
months, and find out whether the bird is migrating
through your area to a certain more northern territory,
or is establishing itself in your locality for the
summer. The bird field guides can be a start to this.
The National Geographic map referenced in General
Preparation. Maps (III), can be a very valuable tool
for referencing migratory routes of birds observed.
Students may have to do more research on this, which
can be their homework for each field trip class. For
each field trip class, locate on a map of the Americas
the winter home of each type of bird observed, and its
summer location. You can do this as each bird is
observed, if you have the information available, or as
a focused segment of each field trip class, using the
homework research that the students have done.
When identifying the various areas, be sure to remember
and discuss highlights of the individual habitat
explorations from Classes #4 and #7.
PREPARATION:
See in-depth discussion under "Course Logistics",
above.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Field guides and binoculars. See in-depth discussion
under "Course Logistics", above.
Map(s) to mark on.
12-2
-------
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
1. For each field trip, ask students to record their
key first-hand observations about birds and
habitat areas in a note-book. Encourage them to
write about the things that they personally find
interesting on the field trip. Explain that
scientists need to record observations directly in
the field as they are occurring, but that a daily
journal can be useful as well.
2. As necessary, research the locations of the winter
and summer territories of the birds observed in
that class. Each student can be assigned to find
out about one bird that was observed, and the
findings can be shared with the class and plotted
on a map during the next class.
3. Read and become familiar with a Glossary of Words
the students will need to at least recognize in
order to read the Homework to be assigned in Class
#14.
FOLLOW-UP:
Write thank-you notes to any guest field leaders, or
owners of the natural areas you have visited.
HANDOUTS:
Glossary of. scientific terms
LINKS: Science, ecology, geography.
******************
12-3
-------
Class #12
HOMEWORK
This is a Glossary of Terms that it is useful to
be familiar with in order to read the Homework
text to be assigned in Class # 17. The Glossary
can be introduced to students as Homework for this
class, or for one of the several other field trip
classes.
Note: Official permission to copy excerpts from Edward 0.
Wilson, The Diversity of Life, should be directed to:
Frederick T. Courtright
Permissions Department
W.W. Norton & Company
500 Fifth Avenue
New York 10110-0017
fax: 212-869-0856
W.W. Norton anticipates that such educational requests will be
processed very promptly.
-------
GLOSSARY OF TERMS from THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE, copyright @ Edward
O. Wilson, 1992.
Selections from Edward O. Wilson, The Diversity of Life, are reprinted with the
permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. New York. Copyright 1992 by Edward O.
Wilson. All rights reserved. This material may not be further reproduced
without the written permission of the publisher.
biodiversity The variety of organisms considered at all levels,
from genetic variants belonging to the same species through
arrays of species to arrays of genera, families, and still higher
taxonomic levels; includes the variety of ecosystems, which
comprise both the communities of organisms within particular
habitats and the physical conditions under which they live.
biological diversity See biodiversity
biomass The total weight (usually, dry weight) of a designated
group of organisms in a particular area, as of all the birds
living in a woodlot or all the algae in a pond or all the
organisms in the world.
bioxne A major category of habitat in a particular region of the
world, such as the tundra of northern Canada or the rain forest
of the Amazon basin.
bioregion A continuous natural area, such as a river system or
mountain range, large enough to extend beyond political
boundaries.
biota The combined flora, fauna, and microorganisms of a given
region.
diversity See Modi varsity
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid. The fundamental hereditary material
of all living organisms; the polymer composing the genes.
ecosystem The organisms living in a particular environment, such
as a lake or a forest (or, in increasing scale, an ocean or the
whole planet), and the physical part of the environment that
impinges on them. The organisms alone are called the community.
endangered Near extinction. Referring to a species or ecosystem
-------
so reduced or fragile that it is doomed or at least fatally
vulnerable.
endemic A species or race native to a particular place and found
only there.
environment The surroundings of an organism or a species: the
ecosystem in which it lives, including both the physical
environment and the other organisms with which it comes in
contact.
equilibrium See species equilibrium.
extinction The termination of a ny lineage of organisms, from
subspecies to species and higher taxonomic categories from genera
to phyla. Extinction can be local, in which one or more
populations of a species or other unit vanish but others survive
elsewhere, or total (global), in which all the populations
vanish. When biologists speak of the extinction of a particular
species without further qualification, they mean total
extinction.
extractive reserve A wild habitat from which timber, latex, and
other natural products are taken on a sustained yield basis with
minimal environmental damage and, ideally, without the extinction
of native species.
fauna All the animals found in a particular place.
flora All the plants found in a particular place.
habitat An environment of a particular kind, such as lake shores
or tall-grass prairie; also a particular environment in one
place, such as the mountain forest of Tahiti.
keystone species A species, such as the sea otter, that affects
the survival and abundance of many other species in the community
in which it lives. Its removal or addition results in a
relatively significant shift in the composition of the community
and sometimes even in the physical structure of the environment.
species The basic unit of classification, consisting of a
population or series of populations of closely related and
similar organisms. In sexually reproducing organisms, the
species is more narrowly defined by the biological-species
concept: a population or series of populations of organisms that
freely interbreed with one another in natural conditions but not
with members of other species.
species equilibrium The steady-state number of species, or
biodiversity, found on an island or isolated patch of habitat due
to a balance between the immigration of new species and the
extinction of old residents.
-------
symbiosis The living together of two or more species in a
prolonged and intimate ecological relationship, such as the
incorporation of algae and cyanobacteria within fungi to create
lichens.
systematics The scientific study of the diversity of life.
Sometimes used synonymously with taxonomy to mean the procedures
of pure classification and reconstruction of phylogeny
(relationship among species); on other occasions it is used more
broadly to cover all aspects of the origins and content of
biodiversity.
taxonomy The science (and art) of the classification of
organisms. See also systematics.
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Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #13
Field Trip
******************
This class is scheduled for another field trip to a local
natural area. It is set out separately here for schedule
planning purposes.
13-1
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Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #14
Listening to, and
Hearing, Biodiversity
******************
OBJECTIVE: Have students appreciate that biodiversity
and the natural world is reflected in, and
can be discovered by, listening to it.
THEME: Bird songs can be appreciated and learned by
comparing their differences.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I. Listen to, and diagram, bird songs:
Play a pre-recorded tape of a variety of bird songs.
"Chart" the bird songs on the blackboard, and ask the
students to make their own charts, to help them see the
differences among the songs, and to help them learn to
recognize them. Play the songs one at a time, chart
each one and discuss it, and then go on to the next
one.
PREPARATION:
Obtain and review a pre-recorded tape of bird songs.
See "Course Logistics", above for a discussion of the
type of tape to obtain. Be sure to consult any
instructions accompanying the pre-recorded tape for
assistance in learning how to chart the songs. The
introduction to standard bird field guides also may
contain this information.
14-1
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RESOURCES NEEDED:
A pre-recorded bird song tape is needed, and a portable
tape player is necessary to play the tape. See "Course
Logistics", above for a discussion of the type of tape
to obtain.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
At this point in the course, either for this class or
at the end of one of the field trips, assign the
students to read:
1. The booklet, "Birds over Troubled Forests", which
is contained in the Migratory Bird Information Kit
identified in "Course Logistics", above;
2. "Silence of the Songbirds", National Geographic.
June 1993;
3. Wilson, Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, pp. 228-
231 (excerpts concerning endangered birds); and
4. The Diversity of Life, p. 265.
These articles will be discussed in Class #17.
FOLLOW-UP:
Continue keeping an eye out for interesting articles
about local habitat conditions, or about the spring
migration, in your local area.
LINKS: S c i ence
******************
14-2
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Cla»« * 14
HOMEWORK
Excerpt from Wilson, Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, pp. 311 -
351. Selections from Edward 0. Wilson, The Diversity of Life are
reprinted with the permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New
York. Copyright @ 1992 by Edward O. Wilson. All rights
reserved. This material may not be further reproduced without
the written permission of the publisher.
-------
Note: Official permission to copy excerpts from Edward O.
Wilson, The Diversity of Life, should be directed to:
Frederick T. Courtright
Permissions Department
W.W. Norton & Company
500 Fifth Avenue
New York 10110-0017
fax: 212-869-0856
W.W. Norton anticipates that such educational requests will be
processed very promptly.
-------
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Resolution
EVERY COUNTRY has three forms of wealth: material, cul-
tural, and biological. The first two we understand well
because they are the substance of our everyday lives. The es-
sence of the biodiversity problem is that biological wealth is
taken much less seriously. This is a major strategic error, one
that will be increasingly regretted as time passes. Diversity is a
potential source for immense untapped material wealth in the
form of food, medicine, and amenities. The fauna and flora are
also parf of a country's heritage, the product of millions of years
of evolution centered on that rime and place and hence as much
a reason for national concern as the particularities of language
and culture.
The biological wealth of the world is passing through a bot-
tleneck destined to last another fifty yean or more. The human
population has moved past 5.4 billion, is projected to reach 8.5
billion by 2025, and may level off at 10 to 15 billion by midcen-
tury. With such a phenomenal increase in human biomass, with
material and energy demands of the developing countries ac-
celerating at an even faster pace, far less room will be left for
most of the species of plants and animals in a short period of
time.
The human juggernaut creates a problem of epic dimensions:
how to pass through the bottleneck and reach midcenrury with
the least possible loss of biodiversity and the least possible cost
to humanity. In theory at least, the minimization of extinction
rates and the minimization of economic costs are compatible:
3JI
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the more that other forms of life are used and saved, the more
productive and secure will our own species be. Future generations
will reap the benefit of wise decisions taken on behalf of biological
diversity by our generation.
What is urgently needed is knowledge and a practical ethic based
on a time scale longer than we are accustomed to apply. An ideal
ethic is a set of rules invented to address problems so complex or
stretching so far into the future as to place their solution beyond
ordinary discourse. Environmental problems are innately ethical.
They require vision reaching simultaneously into the short and long
reaches of time. What is good for individuals and societies at this
moment might easily sour ten years hence, and what seems ideal
over the next several decades could ruin future generations. To
choose what is best for both the near and distant futures is a hard
task, often seemingly contradictory and requiring knowledge and
ethical codes which for the most part are still unwritten.
If it is granted that biodiversity is at high risk, what is to be done?
Even now, with the problem only beginning to come into focus, there
is little doubt about what needs to be done. The solution will require
cooperation among professions long separated by academic and prac-
tical tradition. Biology, anthropology, economics, agriculture, gov-
ernment, and law will have to find a common voice. Their conjunc-
tion has already given rise to a new discipline, biodiversity studies,
defined as the systematic study of the full array of organic diversity
and the origin of that diversity, together with the methods by which
it can be maintained and used for the benefit of humanity. The
enterprise of biodiversity studies is thus both scientific, a branch of
pure biology, and applied, a branch of biotechnology and the social
sciences. It draws from biology at the level of whole organisms and
populations in the same way that biomedical studies draw from
biology at the level of the cell and molecule. Where biomedical stud-
ies are concerned with the health of the individual person, biodiver-
sity studies are concerned with the health of the living part of the
planet and its suitability for the human species. What follows, then,
is an agenda on which I believe most of those who have focused on
biodiversity might agree. All the enterprises I will list are directed at
the same goal: to save and use in perpetuity as much of earth's
diversity as possible.
1. Survey the world's fauna and flora. In approaching diversity, biol-
ogists are close to traveling blind. They have only the faintest idea
332 The Human Impact
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of how many species there are on earth or where most occur; the
biology of more than 99 percent remain unknown. Systematists are
aware of the urgency of the problem but far from agreed on the best
way to solve it. Some have recommended the initiation of a global
survey, aimed at the discovery and classification of all species. Oth-
ers, sensibly noting the shortage of personnel, funds, and time, think
the only realistic hope lies in the rapid recognition of the threatened
habitats that contain the largest number of endangered endemic
species (the hot spots).
In order to move systematics into the larger role demanded by the
extinction crisis, its practitioners have to agree on an explicit mission
with a timetable and cost estimates. The strategy most likely to work
is mixed, aiming at a complete inventory of the world's species, but
across fifty years and at several levels, or scales in time and space,
from hot-spot identification to global survey, audited and readjusted
at ten-year intervals. As each decade comes to a close, progress to
that point could be assessed and new directions identified. Emphasis
from the outset would be placed on the hottest spots known or
suspected.
Three levels can be envisioned. The first is the RAP approach, from
the prototypic Rapid Assessment Program created by Conservation
International, a Washington-based group devoted to the preservation
of global biodiversity. The purpose is to investigate quickly, within
several years, poorly known ecosystems that might be local hot spots,
in order to make emergency recommendations for further study and
action. The area targeted is limited in extent, such as a single valley
or isolated mountain. Because so little is known of classification of
the vast majority of organisms and so few specialists are available to
conduct further studies, it is nearly impossible to catalog the entire
fauna and flora of even a small endangered habitat. Instead a RAP
team is formed of experts on what can be called the elite focal
groups—organisms, such as flowering plants, reptiles, mammals,
birds, fishes, and butterflies, that are well enough known to be
inventoried immediately and can thereby serve as proxies for the
whole biota around them.
The next level of inventory is the BIOTROP approach, from the
Neotropical Biological Diversity Program of the University of Kansas
and a consortium of other North American universities formed in
the late 1980s. Instead of pinpointing brushfires of extinction at se-
lected localities in the RAP manner, BIOTROP explores more system-
atically across broad areas believed to be major hot spots or at least
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to contain multiple hot spots. Examples of such regions include the
eastern slopes of the Andes and the scattered forests of Guatemala
and southern Mexico. Beyond identifying critical localities, the larger
goal is to set up research stations across the area that embrace dif-
ferent latitudes and elevations. The work begins with a few focal
organisms. It expands to less familiar groups, such as ants, beetles,
and fungi, as enough specimens are collected and experts in the
groups are recruited to study them. In time, close studies of rainfall,
temperature, and other properties of the environment are added to
the species inventory. The most important and best equipped of the
stations are likely then to evolve into centers of long-term biological
research, with leadership roles taken by scientists from the host
countries. They can also be used to train scientists from different
parts of the world.
We now come to the third and highest stage of the biodiversity
survey. From inventories at the RAP and BIOTROP levels in different
parts of the world, accompanied by monographic studies of one
group of organisms after another, the description of the living world
will gradually coalesce to create a fine-grained image of global bio-
diversity. The growth of knowledge will inevitably accelerate, even
given a constant level of effort, by producing its own economies of
scale. Costs per species logged into the inventory fall as new methods
of collecting and distributing specimens are devised and procedures
for accessing information are improved. Costs are not simply additive
when nonelite groups of organisms are included, but instead decline
on a per-species basis. Botanists, for example, can collect insects
living on the plants they study, while identifying these hosts for the
entomologists, and entomologists can run the procedure in reverse,
gathering plant specimens in company with the insects they collect.
Groups such as reptiles, beetles, and spiders can be sampled across
entire habitats, then distributed to specialists on each group in turn.
As biodiversity surveys proceed at the several levels, the knowl-
edge gathered becomes an ever more powerful magnet for other
kinds of science. Field guides and illustrated treatises open doors to
the imagination, and networks of technical information draw geolo-
gists, geneticists, biochemists, and others into the enterprise. It will
be logical to gather much of the activity into biodiversity centers,
where data are gathered and new inquiries planned. The prototype
is Costa Rica's National Institute of Biodiversity (Instituto Nacional
de Biodiversidad), INBio for short, established on the outskirts of the
capital city of San JosŁ in 1989 The aim of INBio is nothing less than
314 The Human Impact
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to account for all the plants and animals of this small Central Amer-
ican country, over half a million species in number, and to use the
information to improve Costa Rica's environment and economy. It is
perhaps odd that a developing nation should lead the way in such
a concerted scientific enterprise, but others will follow. Detailed dis-
tribution maps of plants and many kinds of animals have been drawn
up in Great Britain, Sweden, Germany, and other European countries
under governmental and private auspices. As I write, plans for a
national biodiversity center in the United States have been advanced
by the Smithsonian Institution and are under wide discussion. En-
abling legislation has been placed before Congress but is not yet
passed.
The national center of the United States will not have to start from
scratch. Many kinds of organisms have been already carefully studied
and mapped. Several of the states, including Massachusetts and
Minnesota, have undertaken programs to locate endangered species
of plants and vertebrate animals within their borders. For fifteen
years the Nature Conservancy, one of the premier private American
foundations, has conducted a similar effort across all the states. The
operation, setting up Natural Heritage Data Centers, has recently
been extended to fourteen Latin American and Caribbean countries.
Another key element of biodiversity studies at all levels will be
microgeography, the mapping of the structure of the ecosystem in
sufficiently fine detail to estimate the populations of individual spe-
cies and the conditions under which they grow and reproduce. A
working technology already exists in the form of Geographic Infor-
mation Systems, a collection of layers of data on topography, vege-
tation, soils, hydrology, and species distributions that are registered
electronically to a common coordinate system. When applied to bio-
diversity and endangered species, the cartography is called gap anal-
ysis. Even though incomplete, gap analysis can reveal the effective-
ness of existing parks and reserves. It can be used to help answer
the larger questions of conservation practice. Do protected areas in
fact embrace the largest possible number of endemic species? Are
the surviving habitat fragments large enough to sustain the popula-
tions indefinitely? And what is the most cost-effective plan for further
land acquisition?
The same information can be used to zone large regions. Parcels
of land will have to be set aside as inviolate preserves. Others will
be identified as the best sites for extractive reserves, for buffer zones
used in part-time agriculture and restricted hunting, and for land
Resolution 315
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Geographic Information Systems
Fauna and
Flora
Soils
Geology
Topography
Hydrology
Geographic Information Systems combine information on physical and
biological environments by joining layered data set*. These can be used
to manage the landscape in a way that protects endangered species and
ecosystems, including the designation of natural reserves.
316 The Human Impact
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convertible totally to human use. In the expanded enterprise, land-
scape design will play a decisive role. Where environments have
been mostly humanized, biological diversity can still be sustained at
high levels by the ingenious placement of woodlots, hedgerows,
watersheds, reservoirs, and artificial ponds and lakes. Master plans
will meld not just economic efficiency and beauty but also the pres-
ervation of species and races.
The layered data can further aid in defining "bioregions," areas
such as watersheds and forest tracts that unite common ecosystems
but often extend across the borders of municipalities, states, or even
countries. A river may make economic or military sense in dividing
two political units, but it makes no sense at all in organizing land-
use management. Bioregionalism has had a long but inconclusive
history within the United States. It dates back at least as far as John
Muir's successful championing of national parks and the establish-
ment of the national forest system in 1891. Since the 1930s it has
received increasing governmental sanctions with variable specific
agendas, from the Tennessee Valley Authority, which managed land
and created hydroelectric power through a large part of the south-
east, to the establishment of the Appalachian National Scenic Trail,
federal and state management of the south Florida water system and
the Everglades, and the multiple regulatory and promotional activi-
ties of the New England River Basins Commission during its tenure
from 1967 to 1981.
Other examples of bioregionalism abound in the United Sates, but
it cannot be said that the movement has coalesced around any single
philosophy of land management. Nor has the preservation of biodi-
versity ranked as more than an auxiliary goal. In fact the great dams
built by the Tennessee Valley Authority, while providing cheap elec-
tric power to an impoverished part of the nation, inadvertently wiped
out a substantial part of the native river fauna. The lower priority
given diversity has not been by deliberation but from incomplete
knowledge of the faunas and floras of the affected regions.
Systematics, having emerged as a prerequisite for effective long-
term zoning and bioregionalism, is a labor-intensive enterprise. Sci-
entists who study the classification of particular organisms, such as
centipedes and ferns, are often by default the only authorities on the
general biology of those organisms. About 4,000 such specialists in
the United States and Canada attempt to manage the classification
of the many thousand species of animals, plants, and microorganisms
living on the continent. To varying degree they are also responsible
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for the millions of species occurring elsewhere in the world, since
even fewer systematists are active in other countries. Probably a
maximum of 1,500 trained professional systematists are competent
to deal with tropical organisms, or more than half of the world's
biodiversity. A typical case is the shortage of experts on termites,
which are premier decomposers of wood, rivals of earthworms as
turners of the soil, owners of 10 percent of the animal biomass in the
tropics, and among the most destructive of all insect pests. There are
exactly three people qualified to deal with termite classification on a
worldwide basis. A second revealing case: the oribatid mites, tiny
creatures resembling a cross between a spider and a tortoise, are
among the most abundant animals of the soil. They are major con-
sumers of humus and fungus spores, and therefore key elements of
land ecosystems almost everywhere. In North America only one
expert attends to their classification on a full-time basis.
With so few people prepared to launch it, a complete survey of
earth's vast reserves of biological diversity may seem beyond reach.
But compared with what has been dared and achieved in high-energy
physics, molecular genetics, and other branches of big science, the
magnitude of its challenge is not all that great. The processing of 10
million species is achievable within fifty years, even with the least
efficient, old-fashioned methods. If one systematist proceeded at the
cautious pace of ten species per year, including field trips for col-
lecting, analysis of specimens in the laboratory, and publication,
taking time out for vacations and family, about one million person-
years of work would be required. Given forty years of productive
life per scientist, the effort would consume 25,000 professional life-
times. The number of systematists would still represent less than 10
percent of the current population of scientists active in the United
States alone, and it falls well short of the number of enlisted men in
the standing armed forces of Mongolia, not to mention the trade and
retail personnel of Hinds County, Mississippi. The volumes of pub-
lished work, one page per species, would fill 12 percent of the shelves
of the library of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology, one of
the larger institutions devoted to systernatics.
I have based these estimates on what is the least efficient procedure
imaginable, in order to establish the plausibility of a total inventory
of global biodiversity. Systematic work can be speeded up many
times over by new techniques now coming into general use. The
Statistical Analysis System (SAS), a set of computer programs already
running in several thousand institutions worldwide, records taxo-
318 The Human Impact
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nomic identifications and localities of individual specimens and au-
tomatically integrates data in catalogs and maps Other computer-
aided techniques compare species automatically across large numbers
of traits, applying unbiased measures of similarity, the procedure
called phenetics. Still others assist in deducing the most likely family
trees of species, the method called cladistics. Scanning-electron micros-
copy has accelerated the illustration of insects and other small or-
ganisms. Computer technology will in time include image scanning
that can identity species instantly while flagging specimens that be-
long to new species. Biologists are also close to electronic publication,
which will allow retrieval of descriptions and analyses of particular
groups of organisms by desktop personal computers.
Every other form of biological information on species—ecology,
physiology, economic uses, status as vectors, parasites, agricultural
pests—can be layered in the databases. DNA and RNA sequences and
gene maps can be added. GenBank, the genetic-sequence bank, has
been chartered to provide a computer database for all known DNA
and RNA sequences and related biological information. By 1990 it
had accumulated 35 million sequences distributed through 1,200 spe-
cies of plants, animals, and microorganisms. The rate of data acces-
sion is ascending swiftly with the advent of improved sequencing
methods.
2. Create biological wealth. As species inventories expand, they open
the way n> bioeconomic analysis, the broad assessment of the eco-
nomic potential of entire ecosystems. Every community of organisms
contains species with potential commodity value—timber and wild-
plant products to be harvested on a sustained basis, seeds and
cuttings that can be transplanted to grow crops and ornamentals
elsewhere, fungi and microorganisms to be cultured as sources of
medicinals, organisms of all kinds offering new scientific knowledge
that points to still more practical applications. And the wild habitats
have recreational value, which will grow as a larger sector of the
public travels and learns to enjoy natural history.
The decision to make bioeconomic analysis a routine part of land-
management policy will protect ecosystems by assigning them future
value. It can buy time against the removal of entire communities of
organisms ignorantly assumed to lack such value. When local faunas
and floras are better known, the decision can be taken on how to
use them optimally—whether to protect them, to extract products
from them on a sustainable yield basis, or to destroy their habitat for
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full human occupation. Destruction is anathema to conservationists,
but the fact remains that most people, lacking knowledge, regard it
as perfectly acceptable. Somehow knowledge and reason must be
made to intrude. 1 am willing to gamble that familiarity will save
ecosystems, because bioeconomic and aesthetic values grow as each
constituent species is examined in turn—and so will sentiment in
favor of preservation. The wise procedure is for law to delay, science
to evaluate, and familiarity to preserve. There is an implicit principle
of human behavior important to conservation: the better an ecosystem
is known, the less likely it will be destroyed. As the Senegalese conser-
vationist Baba Dioum has said, "In the end, we will conserve only
what we love, we will love only what we understand, we will un-
derstand only what we are taught."
A key enterprise in bioeconomic analysis is what Thomas Eisner
has called chemical prospecting, the search among wild species for new
medicines and other useful chemical products. The logic of pros-
pecting is supported by everything we have learned about organic
evolution. Each species has evolved to become a unique chemical
factory, producing substances that allow it to survive in an unforgiv-
ing world. A newly discovered species of roundworm might produce
an antibiotic of extraordinary power, an unnamed moth a substance
that blocks viruses in a manner never guessed by molecular biolo-
gists. A symbiotic fungus cultured from the rootlets of a nearly extinct
tree might yield a novel class of growth promoters for plants. An
obscure herb could be the source of a sure-fire blackfly repellent—at
last. Millions of years of testing by natural selection have made
organisms chemists of superhuman skill, champions at defeating
most of the kinds of biological problems that undermine human
health.
Because chemical prospecting depends so heavily on classification,
it is best conducted in tandem with biodiversity surveys. In order to
succeed, investigators must also work in laboratories equipped with
advanced facilities, which are usually available only in industrialized
countries. In 1991 Merck and Company, the world's largest phar-
maceutical firm, agreed to pay Costa Rica's National Institute of
Biodiversity $1 million to assist in such a screening effort. The insti-
tute will collect and identify the organisms, sending chemical samples
from the most promising species to the Merck laboratories for me-
dicinal assay. If natural substances are marketed, the company is
committed to pay the Costa Rican government a share of the royal-
ties, which will then be earmarked for conservation programs. Merck
has previously marketed four drugs from soil organisms originating
320 The Human Impact
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from other countries. One, derived from a fungus, is Mevacor, an
effective agent for lowering cholesterol levels. In 1990 Merck sold
$735 million worth of this substance alone. It follows that a single
success in Costa Rica—a commercial product from, say, any one
species among the 12,000 plants and 300,000 insects estimated to live
in the country—could handsomely repay Merck's entire investment.
There are historical reasons why Merck and other research and
commercial organizations are increasingly inclined to take on chem-
ical prospecting. The search for naturally occurring drugs and other
chemical products has been cyclical through the years. In the 1960s
and 1970s pharmaceutical companies phased out the screening of
plants on the grounds that it was too complicated and expensive.
With only one in 10,000 species yielding a promising substance (by
procedures then in use) and millions of dollars needed to bring a
product fully on line, the eventual payoff seemed marginal. The
companies turned to new technologies in microbiology and synthetic
chemistry, hoping to design the magic bullets of the new medical
age with chemicals taken from the shelf. To rely on human ingenuity
rather than evolved natural chemistry in distant jungles seemed
much more "scientific" and direct, and perhaps less expensive. Yet
natural products remained a potential shortcut, a Columbus-like jour-
ney west, for those willing to acquire the essential skills. Now the
pendulum has begun to swing back, again from advances in tech-
nology, because high-volume, robot-controlled biological assays al-
low larger companies to screen up to 50,000 samples a year using
only bits of fresh tissue or extract flown to them from any part of
the world.
The path from wild organism to commercial production can some-
times be shortened further by taking clues from the lore and tradi-
tional medicine of indigenous peoples. It is a remarkable fact that of
the 119 known pure pharmaceutical compounds used somewhere in
the world, 88 were discovered through leads from traditional medi-
cine. The knowledge of all the world's indigenous cultures, if gath-
ered and catalogued, would constitute a library of Alexandrian pro-
portions. The Chinese, for example, employ materials from about
6,000 of the 30,000 plant species in their country for medicinal pur-
poses. Among them is artemisinin, a terpene derived from the annual
wormwood (Artemisia annua), which shows promise as an alternative
to quinine in the treatment of malaria. Because the molecular struc-
tures of the two substances are entirely different, artemisinin would
have been discovered much less quickly if not for its folkloric repu-
tation.
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Because the lives of people and the reputations of shamans have
depended on it for generations, much of the traditional pharmaco-
poeia is reliable. Extraction procedures and dosage have been tested
by trial and error countless times. But this preliterate knowledge,
like so many of the plant and animal species to which it pertains, is
disappearing rapidly as tribes move from their homelands onto farms
and into cities and villages. When they take up new trades, their
languages fall into disuse and the old ways are forgotten. During the
1980s, all but 500 of the 10,000 Penans of Borneo abandoned their
centuries-old seminomadic life in the forests and settled in villages.
Today their memories are fading quickly. Eugene Linden notes, "Vil-
lagers know that their elders used to watch for the appearance of a
certain butterfly, which always seemed to herald the arrival of a
herd of boar and the promise of good hunting. These days, most of
the Penans cannot remember which butterfly to look for." On the
other side of the world, 90 of Brazil's 270 Indian tribes have vanished
since 1900, and two thirds of those remaining contain populations of
less than a thousand. Many have lost their lands and are forgetting
their cultures.
Small farms around the world are giving way to the monocultures
of agrotechnology. The raised garden squares of the Incas have all
but vanished; the densely variegated gardens of Mesoamerica and
West Africa are threatened. The revitalization of local farming is
another aim of biodiversity studies. The goal is to make the practice
more economically practical, while conserving the genetic reserves
that will contribute to crops of the future. Species and strains of high
economic efficiency, from perennial com to amaranth and iguanas,
can be fed through research centers into the local regions best suited
to use them. A successful prototype of such enterprises is the Tropical
Agricultural Research and Training Center (CAT1E) at Turrialba, Costa
Rica. Created by the Organization of American States in 1942, CATIE
maintains large samples of plant species, including disease-resistant
strains of cacao and other tropical crops Its staff members experiment
with propagation methods for crops and timber, design wildland
preservation programs, search for new crop species and varieties,
and train students in the new methods of agriculture and conserva-
tion. Institutions of the future can be profitably built to include not
only these activities but also chemical prospecting and molecular
techniques of gene transfer from wild to domestic species.
3. Promote sustainable development. The rural poor of the Third World
are locked onto a downward spiral of poverty and the destruction of
322 The Human Impact
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diversity. To break free they need work that provides the basic food,
housing, and health care taken for granted by a great majority of
people in the industrialized countries. Without it, lacking access to
markets, hammered by exploding populations, they turn increasingly
to the last of the wild biological resources. They hunt out the animals
within walking distance, cut forests that cannot be regrown, put their
herds on any land from which they cannot be driven by force. They
use domestic crops ill suited to their environment, for too many
years, because they know no alternative. Their governments, lacking
an adequate tax base and saddled with huge foreign debts, collabo-
rate in the devastation of the environment. Using an accountant's
trick, they record the sale of forests and other irreplaceable natural
resources as national income without computing the permanent en-
vironmental losses as expense.
The poor are denied an adequate education. They cannot all move
into the cities; in most countries, and especially those in the tropics,
industrialization will be too slow to absorb more than a small fraction
into the labor force. Their striving billions will, for the next century
at least, have to be accommodated in rural areas. So the issue comes
down to this: how can people in developing countries achieve a
decent living from the land without destroying it?
The proving ground of sustainable development will be the tropical
rain forests. If the forests can be saved in a manner that improves
local economies, the biodiversity crisis will be dramatically eased.
Within that "if" are folded technical and social difficulties of the most
vexing kind. But many paths to the goal have been suggested, and
some have successfully tested.
One of the most encouraging advances to date is the demonstra-
tion, cited in the last chapter, that the extraction of nonrimber prod-
ucts from Peruvian rain forests can yield similar levels of income as
logging and farming, even with the limited outlets available in exist-
ing local markets. The practice has been regularized by the rubber
tappers of Brazil without a bit of theory or cost-benefit analysis. The
tappers, or seringueiros as they are locally called, are the descendants
of immigrants from northeastern Brazil who colonized portions of
the Amazon during the late nineteenth century and found a steady
living in latex harvesting. Half a million strong, they draw their
principal income today not only from rubber but also from Brazil
nuts, palm hearts, tonka beans, and other wild products. Each family
owns a house in the midst of harvesting pathways shaped like clover
leaves. In addition to harvesting natural products, rubber tappers
also hunt, fish, and practice small-scale agriculture in forest clearings.
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Because they depend on biological diversity, the tappers are devoted
to the preservation of the forests as stable and productive ecosystems.
They are in fact full members of the ecosystems. In 1987 the Brazilian
government authorized the establishment of sermgueiro extractive
reserves on state land, with thirty-year renewable leases and a pro-
hibition on the clear-cutting of timber.
Extractive reserves represent a major conceptual advance, but they _
are not enough to save more than a small portion of the rain forests.
In 1980 rubber-tapper households occupied 2.7 percent of the area
of the North Region of Brazilian Amazonia, including the states of
Amazonas and Acre, while farms and ranches occupied 24 percent.
Only a small fraction of the flood of new immigrants now pouring
into the region can become extractivists. The rest will seek income
wherever they find it, primarily by advancing the agricultural fron-
tier. The key to the future of Amazonia and other forested tropical
regions is whether employment made available to them saves or
destroys the environment. "The real challenge," John Browder
writes, "is not where to designate extractive reserves, but rather,
how to integrate sustainable extraction and other natural forest man-
agement practices into the production strategies of those existing
rural properties, small farms and large ranches alike, that are re-
sponsible for most of the devastation being visited upon Amazonian
rainforests. Fundamentally, the problem is not where to sequester
forests, but how to turn people into better forest managers."
It is possible to harvest timber from the Amazonian wilderness
and other great remaining rain forests extensively and profitably with
little loss of biodiversity. The method of choice, first suggested by
Gary Hartshorn in 1979 and extended by other foresters, is strip
logging. While lowland forested basins are not rugged in terrain,
most are moderately rolling with well-defined slopes and dense sys-
tems of drainage streams. Strip logging imitates the natural fall of
trees that create linear gaps through the forest, with the artificial
gaps being aligned along the contours. The technique is described
by Carl Jordan:
In this scheme, a strip is harvested on the contour of a slope, parallel
to the stream. Along the upper edge of the stnp is a road used for
hauling out the logs. After harvesting, the area is left for a few years
until saplings begin to grow in the cut areas. Then the loggers clear-cut
another strip, this time above the road. The advantages of this system
are that the nutrients from the freshly cut second strip wash downslope
324 The Human Impact
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into the rapidly regenerating first strip, where the trees can quickly use
the nutrients, and that seeds from the mature forest above the cut area
will roll down into the recently cut strip. In contrast, in dear-cutting
there are no saplings with well-developed roots capable of retaining
nutrients in the system, nor is there a source of seed for regeneration
of the forest.
So far so good, but how can governments and local peoples be
persuaded to adopt such innovations as extractive reserves and strip
logging? The shift to sustainable development will depend as much
on education and social change as on science. Around the world
modest projects are being advanced with one common result: if
procedures tailored to the special case are used, economic develop-
ment and conservation can both be served. People can be persuaded;
they understand their own long-term interest and they can adapt.
Here are three successful programs from Latin America.
• By Panama law, the Kuna Indians hold sovereign rights over the
San Bias Islands and 300,000 hectares of adjacent mainland forest.
The Kuna maintain "spirit sanctuaries," areas of primary forest in
which only certain kinds of trees may be cut and no fanning is
allowed. Local communities depend on the sea for most of their
protein, on the forests for wood, game, and medicine, and on limited
patches of cleared land for domestic crops. When a spur of the Pan-
American Highway was brought to the edge of their land, the Kuna
established a forest reserve and guarded it with their own people.
Well aware of the outside world, welcoming to visitors, the tribes
have nevertheless chosen to discourage immigration and to preserve
their own culture within the bountiful natural environment that has
sustained them for centuries.
• Most of Central America, unlike the land of the Kuna, is plagued
by soil erosion and nutrient loss owing to the excessive cultivation
of maize and other crops, leading to the cutting of forests on ever
steeper slopes, all driven in turn by overpopulation. As production
declines, fanners invade the remaining natural areas in search of
more arable land. The process is especially acute in the Guinope
region of Honduras. In 1981 two private foundations, one interna-
tional and one Honduran, commenced a pilot program in some of
the Guinope villages under government auspices to raise productivity
and restore the land. They introduced drainage ditches, contour
furrows, grassy barriers, and intercropping with nitrogen-restoring
legumes. The field labor and implementation costs were provided
entirely by the farmers. Within several years, yields tripled and em-
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igration nearly ceased. The new agricultural methods began to spread
to surrounding areas.
• When a highway, the Carretera Marginal de la Selva, was cut into
Peru's Palcazu Valley, 85 percent of the land was still clothed by rain
forest. Like most of the eastern tropical slopes of the Andes, the
valley is biologically rich, containing for example more than a thou-
sand species of trees. The region also supported about 3,000
Amuesha Indians and an equal number of settlers who had estab-
lished small landholdings over the previous fifty years. Once opened
to outside commerce, the typical fate of a western Amazonian valley
is to be clear-cut by new immigrants and logging companies, then
used for cattle ranches and small farms. The thin, acidic soil soon
loses most of its free phosphates and other nutrients, launching the
next phase: erosion, poverty, partial abandonment. For this valley,
however, an alternative plan was proposed by the U.S. Agency for
International Development and approved by the Peruvian govern-
ment. It is to extract timber by strip cutting, regulated to allow
perpetual regeneration of the forest through thirty- to forty-year
rotations. The plan permits limited permanent conversion of the most
arable land to agriculture and livestock production. But it also calls
for the establishment of a watershed reserve in the adjacent San
Marias mountain range and the designation of the neighboring Yana-
chaga range as the Yanachaga-Chemillen National Park. With luck,
the Palcazu will support a healthy human population and a slice of
Peru's biodiversity into the next century.
Wildlands and biological diversity are legally the properties of
nations, but they are ethically part of the global commons. The loss
of species anywhere d'>"iinishes wealth everywhere. Today the poor-
est countries are rapidly decapitahzing their natural resources and
unintentionally wiping out much of their biodiversity in a scramble
to meet foreign debts and raise the standard of living. By perceived
necessity they follow environmentally destructive policies that yield
the largest short-term profits. The rich debt-holding nations aggra-
vate the practice by encouraging a free market in poor countries
while providing subsidies to farmers at home.
Consider the infamous "hamburger connection" between the
United States and Central America. By 1983, in response to the
excellent U.S. market for beef, Costa Rican landowners had acceler-
ated the creation of new pastures until only 17 percent of the coun-
try's original forest cover was left. For a time it was the world's
leading exporter of beef to the United States. When northern tastes
326 The Human Impact
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Strip logging allow* a sustainable timber yield from forests, including the
relatively fragile rain forests. A corridor is cleared along the contours of the
land, narrow enough to allow natural regeneration within a few years. Another
corridor is then cut above the first, and so on, through a cycle lasting many
decades.
changed somewhat and the market fell, Costa Rica was left with a
denuded landscape and widespread soil erosion. It had also lost part
of its biological diversity.
Developing countries competing in an international free market
have a strong incentive to transfer capital into single-money crops
such as bananas, sugar cane, and cotton. To that end governments
often subsidize the clearing of wildlands and the overuse of pesticides
and fertilizers. The rush to maximize export income also concentrates
ever more acreage in the hands of a relatively few, politically favored
landowners. Small farmers are then forced to seek new land of mar-
ginal productivity, including natural habitats. Faced with ruin, they
have no choice but to press into nutrient-poor tropical forests, steep
hillside watersheds, coastal wetlands, and other final refuges of ter-
restrial diversity.
This journey to the precipice is hastened by the agricultural support
Resolution 327
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systems of the richest nations. At the present time subsidies to de-
veloped-world farmers total $300 billion a year, six times the official
foreign aid to Third World countries. When European Community
countries recently underwrote a large program of feedlot cattle rais-
ing, they created a huge artificial market for cassava. Landowners in
Thailand responded by clearing more tropical forest to grow cassava,
and in the process displaced large numbers of subsistence farmers
into the deep forest and up the eroding hillsides. When the United
States tightened import quotas of cane sugar to aid domestic growers,
U.S. imports from the Caribbean countries dropped 73 percent in ten
years, forcing many of the rural poor out of jobs in the plantations
and into marginal habitats for subsistence farming. Japan's extrava-
gant subsidy to its own rice farmers, intended to continue an ancient
agricultural tradition (the Japanese written character for rice means
"root of life"), has a depressing effect on the rice-growing populations
of tropical Asia. Once again, the impact on natural environments is
increased.
The richest countries set the rules for international trade. They
provide the bulk of loans and direct aid and control technology
transfer to the poor nations. It is their responsibility to use this power
wisely, in a manner that both strengthens these trading partners and
protects the global environment. They themselves will suffer if the
wildlands and biological diversity are not entered into the calculus
of trade agreements and international aid.
The raging monster upon the land is population growth. In its
presence, sustainability is but a fragile theoretical construct. To say,
as many do, that the difficulties of nations are not due to people but
to poor ideology or land-use management is sophistic. If Bangladesh
had 10 million inhabitants instead of 115 million, its impoverished
people could live on prosperous farms away from the dangerous
floodplains midst a natural and stable upland environment. It is also
sophistic to point to the Netherlands and Japan, as many commen-
tators incredibly still do, as models of densely populated but pros-
perous societies. Both are highly specialized industrial nations de-
pendent on massive imports of natural resources from the rest of the
world. If all nations held the same number of people per square
kilometer, they would converge in quality of life to Bangladesh rather
than to the Netherlands and Japan, and their irreplaceable natural
resources would soon join the seven wonders of the world as scat-
tered vestiges of an ancient history.
Every nation has an economic policy and a foreign policy. The time
328 The Human impact
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has come to speak more openly of a population policy. By this 1 mean
not just the capping of growth when the population hits the wall, as
in China and India, but a policy based on a rational solution of this
problem: what, in the judgment of its informed citizenry, is the
optimal population, taken for each country in turn, placed against the
backdrop of global demography? The answer will follow from an
assessment of the society's self-image, its natural resources, its ge-
ography, and the specialized long-term role it can most effectively
play in the international community. It can be implemented by en-
couragement or relaxation of birth control and the regulation of im-
migration, aimed at a target density and age distribution of the
national population. The goal of an optimal population will require
addressing, for the first time, the full range of processes that lock
together the economy and the environment, the national interest and
the global commons, the welfare of the present generation with that
of future generations. The matter should be aired not only in think
tanks but in public debate. If humanity then chooses to breed itself
and the rest of life into impoverishment, at least it will have done so
with open eyes.
4. Save what remains. Biodiversity can be saved by a mixture of
programs, but not all the programs proposed can work. Consider
one often raised in discussions by futurists. Suppose that we lost the
race to save the environment, that all natural ecosystems were al-
lowed to vanish. Could new species be created in the laboratory,
after generic engineers have learned how to assemble life from raw
organic compounds? It is doubtful. There is no assurance that organ-
isms can be generated artificially, at least not any as complex as
flowers or butterflies—or amoebae for that matter. Even this godlike
power would solve only half the problem, and the easy one at that.
The technicians would be working in ignorance of the history of the
extinct life they presumed to simulate. No knowledge exists of the
endless mutations and episodes of natural selection that inserted
billions of nucleotides into the now-vanished genomes, nor can it be
deduced in more than tiny fragments. The neospecies would be
creations of the human mind—plastic, neither historical nor adaptive,
and unfit for existence apart from man. Ecosystems built from them,
like zoos and botanical gardens, would require intensive care. But
this is not the time for science-fiction dreams.
On then to the next technical remedy that springs up in scientific
conferences and corridor arguments. Can extinct speaes be resur-
Resolutum 329
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rected from the DNA still preserved in museum specimens and fos-
sils? Again the answer is no. Fractions of genetic codes have been
sequenced from a 2400-year-old Egyptian mummy and magnolia
leaves preserved as rock fossils 18 million years ago, but they con-
stitute only the smallest portion of the genetic codes. Even that part
is hopelessly scrambled. To clone these organisms or a mammoth or
a dodo or any other extinct organism would be, as the molecular
biologist Russell Higuchi recently said, like taking a large encyclo-
pedia in an unknown language previously ripped into shreds and
trying to reassemble it without the use of your hands.
Consider the next possibility raised with regularity: why not just
forget the problem and let natural evolution replace the species that
are disappearing? It can be done if our descendants are willing to
wait several million years. Following the five great extinction epi-
sodes of geological history, full recovery of biodiversity required
between 10 and 100 million years. Even if Homo sapiens lasts that
long, the recovery would require returning a large part of the land
to its natural state. By appropriating or otherwise disturbing 90 per-
cent of the land surface, humanity has already closed most of the
theaters of natural evolution. And even if we did that much and
waited that long, the new biota would be very different from the one
we destroyed.
Then why not scoop up tissue samples of all living species and
freeze them in liquid nitrogen? They could be cloned later to produce
whole organisms. The method works for some microorganisms, in-
cluding viruses, bacteria, and yeasts, as well as the spores of fungi.
The American Type Culture Collection, located at Rockville, Mary-
land, contains over 50,000 species suspended in the deep sleep of
absolute biochemical inactivity, ready for warming and reactivation
as needed. The cultures are used in research, primarily in molecular
biology and medicine. It is possible that many larger organisms could
be similarly preserved in nitrogen sleep, at least as fertilized eggs, to
be reared later into mature individuals. Even scraps of undifferen-
tiated tissue might be stimulated into normal growth and develop-
ment. It has been done for organisms as complex as carrots and
frogs.
So let us suppose for argument that all kinds of plants and animals
are salvageable by such means, that biologists will perfect the tech-
niques of total inactivation and total recovery. The cryotorium in
which they would rest, the new Noah's ark, must house tens of
millions of species. The preservation of the content of even one
330 The Human Impact
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endangered habitat (say a mountain-ridge forest in Ecuador) would
be an immense operation enveloping thousands of species, most of
which are still unknown to science. Even if completed at the species
level, only a small fraction of the genetic variability of each species
could be practicably included. Unless the samples numbered into the
millions, great arrays of naturally occurring genetic strains would be
lost. And when the time comes to return the species to the wild, the
physical base of the ecosystem, including its soil, its unique nutrient
mix, and its patterns of precipitation, will have been altered so as to
make restoration doubtful. Cryopreservation is at best a last-ditch
operation that might rescue a few select species and strains certain
to die otherwise. It is far from the best way to save ecosystems and
could easily fail. The need to put an entire community of organisms
in liquid nitrogen would be tragic. Its enactment would be, in a
particularly piercing sense of the word, obscene.
I have spoken so far of the maintenance of species and genetic
stocks away from their natural habitats. Not all such methods are
fantastic or repugnant. One that works for many plants is the main-
tenance of seed banks: seeds are dried and kept in repositories over
long periods. The banks are kept in cool temperatures (about -20°C
is typical) but not in the suspended animation of liquid nitrogen.
Botanists have proved the technique effective for preserving most
strains of crop species. About a hundred countries maintain seed
banks and are adding to them steadily by exchanges and new col-
lecting expeditions. Their efforts are aided by the "Green Board," the
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), an autono-
mous scientific organization located in Rome that composes part of
the network of the International Agricultural Research Centers. In
1990 over 2 million sets of seeds were on deposit, representing more
than 90 percent of the known local geographic varieties—landraces,
as they are called—of many of the basic food crops. Especially well
represented are wheat, maize, oats, potatoes, rice, and millet. An
effort has begun to include the wild relatives of existing crop species,
such as the richly promising perennial maize of Mexico. The method
can be extended to wild, noncrop floras of the world.
But there are serious problems with seed banks. Up to 20 percent
of plant species, some 50,000 in all, possess "recalcitrant" seeds that
cannot be stored by conventional means. Even if seed storage were
perfected for all kinds of plants, an unlikely prospect for the imme-
diate future, the task of collecting and maintaining many thousands
of endangered species and races would be stupendous All the efforts
Resolution 333
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of the existing seed banks to date have been barely enough to cover
a hundii'J species, and even those are in many cases poorly recorded
and of uncertain survival ability. Another difficulty: if reliance were
placed entirely on seed banks, and the species then disappeared in
the wild, the bank survivors would be stripped of their insect polli-
nators, root fungi, and other symbiotic partners, which cannot be
put in cold storage. Most of the symbionts would go extinct, pre-
venting the salvaged plant species from being replanted in the wild.
Other ex situ methods rely more realistically on captive populations
that grow and reproduce. There are about 1,300 botanical gardens
and arborerums in the world, many harboring plant species that are
endangered or extinct in the wild. As of June 1991, twenty such
institutions in the United States that subscribe to the registry of the
National Collection of Endangered Plants contained seeds, plants,
and cuttings of 372 species native to the United States. Some of the
gardens in North America and Europe are more global in their reach.
Harvard's Arnold Arboretum, for one, is famous for its collection of
Asiatic trees and shrubs. England's magnificent Kew Gardens is
engaged in a bold attempt to preserve and cultivate the last remnants
of the nearly vanished tree flora of St. Helena.
Animals are vastly more difficult than plants and microorganisms
to maintain ex situ. Zoos and other animal facilities have attempted
the task in heroic fashion. By the late 1980s, those around the world
whose stocks are known had gathered breeding populations of
540,000 individuals belonging to more than 3,000 species of mam-
mals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. The collections include roughly
13 percent of the known land-dwelling species of vertebrate animals.
The better-financed zoos, including those in London, Frankfurt, Chi-
cago, New York, San Diego, and Washington, D.C., conduct basic
and veterinarian research with results that are applied to both captive
and wild populations. The rosters of 223 zoos in Europe and North
America are tracked by the International Species Inventory System
(ISIS), which uses the data to coordinate preservation and cross-
breeding. The ISIS zoos and research institutions aim not only to save
endangered animals but to reintroduce species into their native hab-
itats when land is made available. They have been successful with
three species, the Arabian oryx, the black-footed ferret, and the
golden lion tamarin. Attempts are underway or planned for at least
four other species, the California condor, the Bali starling, the Guam
rail, and the Przewalski horse, the ancestor of all domestic horses.
The ISIS facilities are trying to get ready if the giant panda, the
332 The Human Impact
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Sumatran rhinoceros, and the Siberian tiger, now on the brink,
should go extinct in the wild.
The best efforts by zoos, zooparks, aquariums, and research facil-
ities, however, slow the tide of extinction by a barely perceptible
amount. Even the groups of animals most favored by the public
cannot be completely served. Conservation biologists estimate that
as many as 2,000 species of mammals, birds, and reptiles can only
be salvaged if they are bred in captivity, a task beyond reach with
the means at hand. William Conway, director of the comprehensive
zoo maintained by the New York Zoological Society, believes that
existing facilities worldwide can sustain viable populations of no
more than 900 species. At best these survivors would contain only a
small fraction of their species' original genes. And far worse: no
provision at all has been made for the many thousands of species of
insects and other invertebrates that are equally at risk.
The dreams of scientists come to this: ex situ conservation is not
enough and will never be enough. Some of the methods are inval-
uable as safety nets for the fraction of endangered species that biology
best understands and the lay public is willing to support. But even
if countries everywhere chose to finance greatly enlarged cryobio-
logical vaults, seed banks, botanical gardens, and zoos, the facilities
could not be assembled quickly enough to save a majority of species
close to extinction from habitat destruction alone. Biologists are ham-
pered by lack of knowledge of more than 90 percent of the species
of fungi, insects, and smaller organisms on earth. They have no way
to ensure a reasonable sampling of genetic variation even in the
species rescued. They have only the faintest idea of how to reassem-
ble ecosystems from salvaged species, if indeed such a feat is possi-
ble. Not least, the entire process would be enormously expensive.
All these considerations converge to the same conclusion: ex situ
methods will save a few species otherwise beyond hope, but the
light and the way for the world's biodiversity is the preservation of
natural ecosystems. If that is accepted, we must face two realities
squarely. The first is that the habitats are disappearing at an accel-
erating rate and with them a quarter of the world's biodiversity. The
second is that the habitats cannot be saved unless the effort is of
Overleaf: The fauna and flora of New England are being recorded and ana-
lyzed with the aid of increasingly sophisticated computer programs.
Resolution 333
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// if fs granted that biodiversity is at high risk\
what is to be done? The solution will require
cooperation among professions long separated
by academic and practical tradition.
-------
immediate economic advantage to the poor people who live in and
around them. Eventually idealism and high purpose may prevail
around the world. Eventually an economically secure populace will
treasure their native biodiversity for its own sake. But at this moment
they are not secure and they, and we, have run out of time.
The rescue of biological diversity can only be achieved by a skillful
blend of science, capital investment, and government: science to
blaze the path by research and development; capital investment to
create sustainable markets; and government to promote the marriage
of economic growth and conservation.
The primary tactic in conservation must be to locate the world's
hot spots and to protect the entire environment they contain. Whole
ecosystems are the targets of choice because even the most charis-
matic species are but the representatives of thousands of lesser-
known species that live with them and are also threatened. The most
inclusive federal legislation in the United States is the Endangered
Species Act of 1973, which throws a protective shield around species
of "fish, wildlife, and plants" that are "endangered and threatened"
by human activities; as amended in 1978, the act also includes sub-
species. A bold and creative advance, the legislation is nevertheless
destined to be an arena of rising litigation. As any natural environ-
ment is reduced in area, the number of species that can live in it
indefinitely is also reduced. In other words, some species are doomed
to extinction even if all of the remaining habitat were to be preserved
from that time on. One of the principles of ecology, as I have stressed,
is that the number of species eventually declines by an amount
roughly equal to the sixth to third root of the area already lost.
Because the great majority of species of microorganisms, fungi, and
insects are not well known, it follows that they have been slipping
unnoticed through the cracks in the Endangered Species Act. Con-
flicts between developers and conservationists over birds, mammals,
and fishes are already commonplace. As ecosystems are better ex-
plored, less-conspicuous endangered species will come to light and
the number of clashes will grow.
There is a way out of the dilemma, other than abandoning legal
protection of America's fauna and flora altogether. As biodiversity
surveys are improved, the hot spots will come more sharply into
focus. Well-documented examples already include the embattled
coral reef of the Florida Keys and the rain forests of Hawaii and
Puerto Rico. As other local habitats are pinpointed, they can be
assigned the highest priority for conservation. This means, in most
336 The Human Impact
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cases, that they will be set aside as inviolate reserves. Warm spots,
areas less threatened or containing fewer species not found else-
where, can be zoned for partial development, with core preserves
centered on endemic species and races and buffer strips around the
preserves kept partly wild. Agricultural landscapes and harvested
forest tracts can be better designed to harbor rare species and races.
All these actions together, wisely administered, will be effective.
But the Endangered Species Act or an equivalent is also needed to
serve as a safety net for threatened forms of life in all environments,
whether harbored in reserves or not. Finally, in those rare cases
where the costs are perceived as intolerable by the electorate, a
compromise can be sought by means of population management.
This means transplantation of the species to suitable habitats nearby,
or restoring its environment in places where it was previously extin-
guished outside the zone of conflict, or—when all else fails—exile to
botanical gardens, zoos, or other ex situ preserves.
The area-species relation governing biodiversity shows that main-
tenance of existing parks and reserves will not be enough to save all
the species living within them. Only 4.3 percent of the earth's land
surface is currently under legal protection, divided among national
parks, scientific stations, and other classes of reserves. These frag-
ments represent recently shrunken habitat islands, whose faunas and
floras will continue to dwindle until a new, often lower equilibrium
is reached. Over 90 percent of the remaining land surface, including
most of the surviving high-diversity habitats, has been altered. If the
disturbance continues until most of the natural outside reserves are
swept away, a majority of the world's terrestrial species will be either
extinguished or put at extreme risk. And more: even the existing
reserves are in harm's way. Poachers and illegal miners invade them,
timber thieves work their margins, developers find ways to convert
them in part. During recent civil wars in Ethiopia, Sudan, Angola,
Uganda, and other African countries, many of the national parks
were left to ruin.
So we should try to expand reserves from 4.3 percent to 10 percent
of the land surface, to include as many of the undisturbed habitats
as possible with priority given to the world's hot spots. One of the
more promising means to attain this goal is by debt-for-nature swaps.
As currently practiced, conservation organizations such as Conser-
vation International, the Nature Conservancy, and the World Wildlife
Fund (U.S.) raise funds to purchase a portion of a country's com-
mercial debt at a discount, or else they persuade creditor banks to
Resolution 337
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donate some of it. This first step is easier than it sounds because so
many developing countries are close to default. The debts are then
exchanged in local currency or bonds set at favorable rates. The
enlarged equity is used to promote conservation, especially by the
purchase of land, environmental education, and the improvement of
land management. By early 1992 a total of twenty such agreements
totaling $110 million had been arranged in nine countries, including
Bolivia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Mada-
gascar, Zambia, the Philippines, and Poland.
In February 1991, to take one example, Conservation International
was authorized to buy $4 million in debt from Mexico's creditors
After discounting on secondary markets, the actual cost is expected
to be as little as $1.8 million. The conservation organization -has
agreed to forgive the full amount in return for the expenditure of
$2.6 million by the Mexican government on a broad range of conser-
vation projects. The most important initiative will be to preserve the
Lacandan tract in the extreme south of Mexico, the largest rain forest
in North America.
The debt of Third World countries has been reduced so far by only
one part in 10,000 through debt-for-nature swaps. Nor are the ar-
rangements without risk for the receiving country, notably in the
crowding out of domestic expenditures and a sparking of local infla-
tion. But these temporary effects are offset by the immense gain,
dollar for dollar, in the stabilization of the environment.
More potent still are unencumbered contributions from wealthier
nations channeled and carefully targeted through international assis-
tance organizations. The most important enterprise of this kind is
the Global Environment Facility (GEF), established in 1990 by the
World Bank, the United Nations Environmental Program, and the
United Nations Development Program At this writing, $450 million
has been committed to set up national parks, promote sustainable
forestry, and establish conservation trust funds in developing coun-
tries. Under consideration or already approved are proposals from
Bhutan, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Vietnam,
and the Central African Republic Two principal difficulties have
appeared within the GEF agenda. One is the limited absorptive power
of the recipient nations. With limited trained personnel and expert
knowledge, national leaders find it difficult to select the best projects
and initiate them effectively. Of much greater significance, the brief
terms of funding leave little prospect for the proper management
and protection of reserves when the money runs out. Fearing loss of
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employment, the brightest professionals are likely to look to other
activities to ensure their futures. The solution to both problems may
he in the establishment of national trust funds, producing income
that can be fed into the conservation programs gradually and over a
period of many years. One such fund has recently been established
for Bhutan with the help of the World Wildlife Fund.
We come then to the design of the reserves themselves. As land
is set aside, the primary goal is to place the reserves in the regions
of highest diversity and to make them as large as possible. Another •
goal is to design their shape and spacing for retaining efficiency. In
approaching that secondary end, d debate has arisen in conservation
circles on the so-called SLOSS problem: whether to invest allotted
land into a Single Large reserve Or into Several Small reserves. A single
large reserve, to put the matter as simply as possible, possesses larger
populations of each species, but they all fit into one basket. A single
catastrophic fire or flood could extinguish a large part of the diversity
of the region. Breaking the reserve into several pieces reduces that
problem, but it also diminishes the size of the constituent populations
and hence threatens each with extinction. All might easily decline in
the face of widespread stress, such as drought or unseasonable cold.
Some biologists have suggested a compromise solution to the
SLOSS problem, which is to create small reserves connected by cor-
ridors of natural habitat. For example, several forest patches (say 10
kilometers square each) might be joined by strips of forest 100 meters
across. Then if a species vanishes from one of the patches, it can be
replaced by colonists immigrating along the forest corridor from an-
other patch. The disadvantage that critics of the compromise have
been quick to identify is that disease, predators, arid exotic compet-
itors can also use corridors to move through the network. Since
populations in the patches are small and vulnerable, all might fall
like a row of dominoes. I doubt that any general principle of popu-
lation dynamics exists that can resolve the SLOSS controversy, at least
not in the clean manner suggested by its simple geometric imagery.
Instead each ecosystem must be studied in turn to decide the best
design, which will depend on the species the system contains and
the year-by-year fluctuation of its physical environment. For the time
being, conservation biologists will agree on the cardinal rule: to save
the most biodiversity, make the reserves as large as possible.
5. Restore the wildlands. The grim signature of our time has been
the reduction of natural habitats until a substantial portion of the
Resolution 339
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kinds of plants and animals, certainly more than 10 percent, have
already vanished or else are consigned to early extinction. The toll
of genetic races has never been estimated, but it is almost certainly
much higher than that of species. Yet there is still time to save many
of the "living dead"—those so close to the brink that they will dis-
appear soon even if merely left alone. The rescue can be accom-
plished if natural habitats are not only preserved but enlarged, sliding
the numbers of survivable species back up the logarithmic curve that
connects quantity of biodiversity to amount of area. Here is the
means to end the great extinction spasm The" next century will, 1
believe, be the era of restoration in ecology.
In haphazard manner, largely through the abandonment of small
farms, the area of coniferous and hardwood forests in the eastern
United States has increased during the past hundred years. Delib-
erate efforts to enlarge wild areas are also underway. In 1935 a
pioneering effort resulted in the planting of 24 hectares of tall-grass
prairie at the University of Wisconsin Arboretum. The arboretum has
also served as the headquarters of the Center for Restoration Ecology,
devoted to research and the collation of information from projects in
other parts of the country. Elsewhere in the United States, small
restoration projects by the hundreds have been initiated, all devoted
to the increase in area of natural habitats and the return of degraded
ecosystems to full health. They range broadly in ecosystem types,
from the ironwood groves of Santa Catalina Island to the Tobosa
grassland of Arizona, the Oakland understory of California's Santa
Monica Mountains, the magnificent open mountain woodlands of
Colorado, and last savanna remnants of Illinois. They include frag-
ments of salt and freshwater wetlands from California to Florida and
Massachusetts.
In Costa Rica an audacious effort by the American ecologist Daniel
Janzen and local conservation leaders has led to the establishment of
Guanacaste National Park, a 50,000-hectare reserve in the north-
western corner of the country. The park will be created—literally
created—by the regrowth of dry tropical forest planted on cattle
ranches. The Guanacaste dream was bom of recognition that in
Central America dry forest is even more threatened than rain forest,
down to only 2 percent of its original cover The plan is to use existing
patches of the original forest to seed a steadily growing area of
ranchland. The conversion will be made easier by the low density of
the human population in the area The regenerating woodland will
provide a protected watershed, an income from tourism expected to
340 The Human Impact
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reach $1 million or more annually, and a net increase in employment
of the area's residents. Most important in the long run, it will save
a significant part of Costa Rica's natural heritage.
I have spoken of the salvage and regeneration of existing ecosys-
tems. There will come a time when even more is possible with the
aid of scientific knowledge. The return to biology's Eden might also
include the creation of synthetic faunas and floras, assemblages of
species carefully selected from different parts of the world and intro-
duced into impoverished habitats. The idea struck home for me one
late afternoon as I sat at the edge of the artificial lake near the center
of the University of Miami campus, surrounded by the densely ur-
banized community of Coral Gables. At least six species of fishes
swarmed in the clear brackish water within 2 meters of shore, some
as solitary foragers, others in schools. Most were exotics Their un-
usual diversity and beauty reminded me of a newly created coral
reef. As the sun set and the water darkened, a large predator fish,
probably a gar, broke the surface in the middle of the lake. A small
alligator glided out from reeds across the way and cruised into open
water. Well beyond the far shore, a flock of parrots returned noisily
to their palm-top evening roost. They belonged to one of more than
twenty exotic species that breed or occur in the Miami area, all
originating from individuals that escaped or were deliberately re-
leased from captivity. Thus has the parrot family, the Psittacidae,
returned to Florida with a vengeance, only decades after the exter-
mination of the Carolina parakeet, last of the endemic North Amer-
ican species. With flashing wings they salute the vanished native.
It is dangerous, I must quickly add, to think too freely of intro-
' ducing exotics anywhere. They might or might not take to the new
environment—between 10 and 50 percent of bird species have suc-
ceeded, depending on the part of the world and the number of
attempts made to introduce them. Exotics might become economic
pests or force out native species. A few, like rabbits, goats, pigs, and
the notorious Nile perch are capable not only of extinguishing indi-
vidual species but of degrading entire habitats Ecology is still too
primitive a science to predict the outcome of the synthesis of prede-
signed biotas. No responsible person will risk dumping destroyers
into the midst of already diminished communities. Nor should we
delude ourselves into thinking that synthetic biotas increase global
diversity. They only increase local diversity by expanding the ranges
and population sizes of selected species.
Yet the search for the safe rules of biohc synthesis is an enterprise
Resolution 341
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of high intellectual danng. If the effort is successful, regions already
stripped of their native biotas can be restored to places of diversity
and environmental stability. A wilderness of sorts can be reborn in
the wasteland. Species already extinct in the wild, those now main-
tained in zoos and gardens, deserve high priority. Transplanted into
impoverished or synthetic biotas, they can endure as orphan species
in foster ecosystems. Even though their original home has been
closed to them, they will regain security and independence. They
will repay us by attaining one criterion of wilderness—that we are
allowed to lay down the burden of their care and visit them as equal
partners, on our own time. A few species will be prosthetic. As
keystone elements, such as a tree able to grow rapidly and shelter
many other plant and animal species, they will play a disproportion-
ate role in holding the new communities together.
Finally, the question of central interest is how much of the world's
biodiversity we can expect to carry with us out of the bottleneck fifty
or a hundred years hence. Let me venture a guess. If the biodiversity
crisis remains largely ignored and natural habitats continue to de-
cline, we will lose at least one quarter of the earth's species. If we
respond with the knowledge and technology already possessed, we
may hold the loss to 10 percent. At first glance the difference may
seem bearable. It is not; it amounts to millions of species.
I feel no hesitance in urging the strong hand of protective law and
international protocols in the preservation of biological wealth, as
opposed to tax incentives and marketable pollution permits. In dem-
ocratic societies people may think that their government is bound by
an ecological version of the Hippocratic oath, to take no action that
knowingly endangers biodiversity. But that is not enough. The com-
mitment must be much deeper—to let no species knowingly die, to
take all reasonable action to protect every species and race in per-
petuity. The government's moral responsibility in the conservation
of biodiversity is similar to that in public health and military defense.
The preservation of species across generations is beyond the capacity
of individuals or even powerful private institutions. Insofar as bio-
diversity is deemed an irreplaceable public resource, its protection
should be bound into the legal canon
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN
The Environmental Ethic
THE SIXTH GREAT extinction spasm of geological time is
upon us, grace of mankind. Earth has at last acquired a
force that can break the crucible of biodiversity. 1 sensed it with
special poignancy that stormy night at Fazenda Dimona, when
lightning flashes revealed the rain forest cut open like a cat's
eye for laboratory investigation. An undisturbed forest rarely
discloses its internal anatomy with such clarity. Its edge is
shielded by thick secondary growth or else, along the river
bank, the canopy spills down to ground level The nighttime
vision was a dying artifact, a last glimpse of savage beauty.
A few days later I got ready to leave Fazenda Dimona: gath-
ered my muddied clothes in a bundle, gave my imitation Swiss
army knife to the cook as a farewell gift, watched an overflight
of Amazonian green parrots one more time, labeled and stored
my specimen vials in reinforced boxes, and packed my field
notebook next to a dog-eared copy of Ed McBam's police novel
Ice, which, because I had neglected to bring any other reading
matter, was now burned into my memory
Grinding gears announced the approach of the truck sent to
take me and two of the forest workers back to Manaus. In bright
sunlight we watched it cross the pastureland, a terrain strewn
with fire-blackened stumps and logs, the battlefield my forest
had finally lost. On the ride back I tried not to look at the bare
fields. Then, abandoning my tourist Portuguese, I turned in-
ward and daydreamed. Four splendid lines of Virgil came to
mind, the only ones I ever memorized, where the Sibyl warns
343
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Aeneas of the Underworld:
The way downward is easy from Avemus.
Black Dis's door stands open night and day.
But to retrace your steps to heaven's air,
There is the trouble, there is the toil . .
For the green prehuman earth is the mystery we were chosen to
solve, a guide to the birthplace of our spirit, but it is slipping away.
The way back seems harder every year. If there is danger in the
human trajectory, it is not so much in the survival of our own species
as in the fulfillment of the ultimate irony of organic evolution: that
in the instant of achieving self-understanding through the mind of
man, life has doomed its most beautiful creations. And thus human-
ity closes the door to its past.
The creation of that diversity came slow and hard: 3 billion years
of evolution to start the profusion of animals that occupy the seas,
another 350 million years to assemble the rain forests in which half
or more of the species on earth now live. There was a succession of
dynasties. Some species split into two or several daughter species,
and their daughters split yet again to create swarms of descendants
that deployed as plant feeders, carnivores, free swimmers, gliders,
sprinters, and burrowers, in countless motley combinations. These
ensembles then gave way by partial or total extinction to newer
dynasties, and so on to form a gentle upward swell that carried
biodiversity to a peak—just before the arrival of humans. Life had
stalled on plateaus along the way, and on five occasions it suffered
extinction spasms that took 10 million years to repair. But the thrust
was upward. Today the diversity of life is greater than it was a 100
million years ago—and far greater than 500 million years before that.
Most dynasties contained a few species that expanded dispropor-
tionately to create satrapies of lesser rank. Each species and its de-
scendants, a sliver of the whole, lived an average of hundreds of
thousands to millions of years. Longevity varied according to taxo-
nomic group. Echinoderm lineages, for example, persisted longer
than those of flowering plants, and both endured longer than those
of mammals.
Ninety-nine percent of all the species that ever lived are now
extinct. The modern fauna and flora are composed of survivors that
somehow managed to dodge and weave through all the radiations
and extinctions of geological history. Many contemporary world-
344 The Human Impact
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dominant groups, such as rats, ranid frogs, nymphalid butterflies,
and plants of the aster family Compositae, attained their status not
long before the Age of Man. Young or old, all living species are direct
descendants of the organisms that lived 3.8 billion years ago. They
are living genetic libraries, composed of nucleotide sequences, the
equivalent of words and sentences, which record evolutionary events
all across that immense span of time. Organisms more complex than
bacteria—protists, fungi, plants, animals—contain between 1 and 10
billion nucleotide letters, more than enough in pure information to
compose an equivalent of the Encyclopaedia Britannia. Each species
is the product of mutations and recombinations too complex to be
grasped by unaided intuition. It was sculpted and burnished by an
astronomical number of events in natural selection, which killed off
or otherwise blocked from reproduction the vast majority of its mem-
ber organisms before they completed their lifespans. Viewed from
the perspective of evolutionary time, all other species are our distant
kin because we share a remote ancestry. We still use a common
vocabulary, the nucleic-acid code, even though it has been sorted
into radically different hereditary languages.
Such is the ultimate and cryptic truth of every kind of organism,
large and small, every bug and weed. The flower in the crannied
wall—it is a miracle. If not in the way Tennyson, the Victorian ro-
mantic, bespoke the portent of full knowledge (by which "I should
know what,God and man is"), then certainly a consequence of all
we understand from modern biology. Every kind of organism has
reached this moment in time by threading one needle after another,
throwing up brilliant artifices to survive and reproduce against nearly
impossible odds.
Organisms are all the more remarkable in combination. Pull out
the flower from its crannied retreat, shake the soil from the roots
into the cupped hand, magnify it for close examination. The black
earth is alive with a riot of algae, fungi, nematodes, mites, springtails,
enchytraeid worms, thousands of species of bacteria. The handful
may be only a tiny fragment of one ecosystem, but because of the
genetic codes of its residents it holds more order than can be found
on the surfaces of all the planets combined. It is a sample of the
living force that runs the earth—and will continue to do so with or
without us.
We may think that the world has been completely explored. Almost
all the mountains and rivers, it is true, have been named, the coast
and geodetic surveys completed, the ocean floor mapped to the
The Environmental Ethic 345
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deepest trenches, the atmosphere transected and chemically ana-
lyzed. The planet is now continuously monitored from space by
satellites; and, not least, Antarctica, the last virgin continent, has
become a research station and expensive tourist stop. The biosphere,
however, remains obscure. Even though some 1.4 million species of
organisms have been discovered (in the minimal sense of having
specimens collected and formal scientific names attached), the total
number alive on earth is somewhere between 10 and 100 million. No
one can say with confidence which of these figures is the closer. Of
the species given scientific names, fewer than 10 percent have been
studied at a level deeper than gross anatomy The revolution in
molecular biology and medicine was achieved with a still smaller
fraction, including colon bacteria, corn, fruit flies, Norway rats, rhe-
sus monkeys, and human beings, altogether comprising no more
than a hundred species.
Enchanted by the continuous emergence of new technologies and
supported by generous funding for medical research, biologists have
probed deeply along a narrow sector of the front. Now it is time to
expand laterally, to get on with the great Linnean enterprise and
finish mapping the biosphere. The most compelling reason for the
broadening of goals is that, unlike the rest of science, the study of
biodiversity has a time limit. Species are disappearing at an acceler-
ating rate through human action, primarily habitat destruction but
also pollution and the introduction of exotic species into residual
natural environments. I have said that a fifth or more of the species
of plants and animals could vanish or be doomed to early extinction
by the year 2020 unless better efforts are made to save them. This
estimate comes from the known quantitative relation between the
area of habitats and the diversity that habitats can sustain. These
area-biodiversity curves are supported by the general but not uni-
versal principle that when certain groups of organisms are studied
closely, such as snails and fishes and flowering plants, extinction is
determined to be widespread. And the corollary: among plant and
animal remains in archaeological deposits, we usually find extinct
species and races. As the last forests are felled in forest strongholds
like the Philippines and Ecuador, the decline of species will accelerate
even more. In the world as a whole, extinction rates are already
hundreds or thousands of times higher than before the coming of
man. They cannot be balanced by new evolution in any period of
time that has meaning for the human race.
Why should we care? What difference does it make if some species
346 The Human Impact
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are extinguished, if even half of all the species on earth disappear?
Let me count the ways. New sources of scientific information will be
lost. Vast potential biological wealth will be destroyed. Still unde-
veloped medicines, crops, pharmaceuticals, timber, fibers, pulp, soil-
restonng vegetation, petroleum substitutes, and other products and
amenities will never come to light. It is fashionable in some quarters
to wave aside the small and obscure, the bugs and weeds, forgetting
that an obscure moth from Latin America saved Australia's pasture-
land from overgrowth by cactus, that the rosy periwinkle provided
the cure for Hodgkin's disease and childhood lymphocytic leukemia,
that the bark of the Pacific yew offers hope for victims of ovarian
and breast cancer, that a chemical from the saliva of leeches dissolves
blood clots during surgery, and so on down a roster already grown
long and illustrious despite the limited research addressed to it.
In amnesiac revery it is also easy to overlook the services that
ecosystems provide humanity. They enrich the soil and create the
very air we breathe. Without these amenities, the remaining tenure
of the human race would be nasty and brief. The life-sustaining
matrix is built of green plants with legions of microorganisms and
mostly small, obscure animals—in other words, weeds and bugs.
Such organisms support the world with efficiency because they are
so diverse, allowing them to divide labor and swarm over every
square meter of the earth's surface. They run the world precisely as
we would wish it to be run, because humanity evolved within living
communities and our bodily functions are finely adjusted to the
idiosyncratic environment already created. Mother Earth, lately
called Gaia, is no more than the commonality of organisms and the
physical environment they maintain with each passing moment, an
environment that will destabilize and turn lethal if the organisms are
disturbed too much. A near infinity of other mother planets can be
envisioned, each with its own fauna and flora, all producing physical
environments uncongenial to human life. To disregard the diversity
of life is to risk catapulting ourselves into an alien environment. We
will have become like the pilot whales that inexplicably beach them-
selves on New England shores.
Humanity coevolved with the rest of life on this particular planet;
other worlds are not in our genes. Because scientists have yet to put
names on most kinds of organisms, and because they entertain only
a vague idea of how ecosystems work, it is reckless to suppose that
biodiversity can be diminished indefinitely without threatening hu-
manity itself. Field studies show that as biodiversity is reduced, so
The Environmental Ethic 347
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is the quality of the services provided by ecosystems. Records of
stressed ecosystems also demonstrate that the descent can be unpre-
dictably abrupt. As extinction spreads, some of the lost forms prove
to be keystone species, whose disappearance brings down other
species and triggers a ripple effect through the demographies of the
survivors. The loss of a keystone species is like a drill accidentally
striking a powerline. It causes lights to go out all over.
These services are important to human welfare. But they cannot
form the whole foundation of an enduring environmental ethic. If a
price can be put on something, that something can be devalued,
sold, and discarded. It is also possible for some to dream that people
will go on living comfortably in a biologically impoverished world.
They suppose that a prosthetic environment is within the power of
technology, that human life can still flourish in a completely human-
ized world, where medicines would all be synthesized from chemi-
cals off the shelf, food grown from a few dozen domestic crop spe-
cies, the atmosphere and climate regulated by computer-driven
fusion energy, and the earth made over until it becomes a literal
spaceship rather than a metaphorical one, with people reading dis-
plays and touching buttons on the bridge. Such is the terminus of
the philosophy of exemptionalism: do not weep for the past, hu-
manity is a new order of life, let species die if they block progress,
scientific and technological genius will find another way. Look up
and see the stars awaiting us.
But consider: human advance is determined not by reason alone
but by emotions peculiar to our species, aided and tempered by
reason. What makes us people and not computers is emotion. We
have little grasp of our true nature, of what it is to be human and
therefore where our descendants might someday wish we had di-
rected Spaceship Earth. Our troubles, as Vercors said in You Shall
Know Them, arise from the fact that we do not know what we are
and cannot agree on what we want to be. The primary cause of this
intellectual failure is ignorance of our origins. We did not arrive on
this planet as aliens. Humanity is part of nature, a species that
evolved among other species The more closely we identify ourselves
with the rest of life, the more quickly we will be able to discover the
sources of human sensibility and acquire the knowledge on which
an enduring ethic, a sense of preferred direction, can be built.
The human heritage does not go back only for the conventionally
recognized 8,000 years or so of recorded history, but for at least 2
million years, to the appearance of the first "true" human beings.
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the earliest species composing the genus Homo. Across thousands of
generations, the emergence of culture must have been profoundly
influenced by simultaneous events in generic evolution, especially
those occurring in the anatomy and physiology of the brain. Con-
versely, genetic evolution must have been guided forcefully by the
kinds of selection rising within culture.
Only in the last moment of human history has the delusion arisen
that people can flourish apart from the rest of the living world.
Preliterate societies were in intimate contact with a bewildering array
of life forms. Their minds could only partly adapt to that challenge.
But they struggled to understand the most relevant parts, aware that
the right responses gave life and fulfillment, the wrong ones sickness,
hunger, and death. The imprint of that effort cannot have been erased
in a few generations of urban existence. I suggest that it is to be
found among the particularities of human nature, among which are
these:
• People acquire phobias, abrupt and intractable aversions, to the
objects and circumstances that threaten humanity in natural environ-
ments: heights, closed spaces, open spaces, running water, wolves,
spiders, snakes. They rarely form phobias to the recently invented
contrivances that are far more dangerous, such as guns, knives,
automobiles, and electric sockets.
• People are both repelled and fascinated by snakes, even when
they have never seen one in nature. In most cultures the serpent is
the dominant wild animal of mythical and religious symbolism. Man-
hattanites dream of them with the same frequency as Zulus. This
response appears to be Darwinian in origin. Poisonous snakes have
been an important cause of mortality almost everywhere, from Fin-
land to Tasmania, Canada to Patagonia; an untutored alertness in
their presence saves lives. We note a kindred response in many
primates, including Old World monkeys and chimpanzees: the ani-
mals pull back, alert others, watch closely, and follow each potentially
dangerous snake until it moves away. For human beings, in a larger
metaphorical sense, the mythic, transformed serpent has come to
possess both constructive and destructive powers: Ashtoreth of the
Canaanites, the demons Fu-Hsi and Nu-kua of the Han Chinese,
Mudamma and Manasa of Hindu India, the triple-headed giant Ne-
hebkau of the ancient Egyptians, the serpent of Genesis conferring
knowledge and death, and, among the Aztecs, Cihuacoatl, goddess
of childbirth and mother of the human race, the rain god Tlaloc, and
Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent with a human head who reigned
The Environmental Ethic 349
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as lord of the morning and evening star. Ophidian power spills over
into modern life: two serpents entwine the caduceus, first the winged
staff of Mercury as messenger of the gods, then the safe-conduct
pass of ambassadors and heralds, and today the universal emblem
of the medical profession.
• The favored living place of most peoples is a prominence near
water from which parkland can be viewed. On such heights are
found the abodes of the powerful and rich, tombs of the great,
temples, parliaments, and monuments commemorating tribal glory.
The location is today an aesthetic choice and, by the implied freedom
to settle there, a symbol of status. In ancient, more practical rimes
the topography provided a place to retreat and a sweeping prospect
from which to spot the distant approach of storms and enemy forces.
Every animal species selects a habitat in which its members gain a
favorable mix of security and food. For most of deep history, human
beings lived in tropical and subtropical savanna in East Africa, open
country sprinkled with streams and lakes, trees and copses. In similar
topography modern peoples choose their residences and design their
parks and gardens, if given a free choice. They simulate neither dense
jungles, toward which gibbons are drawn, nor dry grasslands, pre-
ferred by hamadryas baboons In their gardens they plant trees that
resemble the acacias, sterculias, and other native trees of the African
savannas. The ideal tree crown sought is consistently wider than tall,
with spreading lowermost branches close enough to the ground to
touch and climb, clothed with compound or needle-shaped leaves.
• Given the means and sufficient leisure, a large portion of the
populace backpacks, hunts, fishes, birdwatches, and gardens. In the
United States and Canada more people visit zoos and aquariums
than attend all professional athletic events combined. They crowd
the national parks to view natural landscapes, looking from the tops
of prominences out across rugged terrain for a glimpse of tumbling
water and animals living free. They travel long distances to stroll
along the seashore, for reasons they can't put into words.
These are examples of what I have called biophilia, the connections
that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life. To
biophilia can be added the idea of wilderness, all the land and com-
munities of plants and animals still unsullied by human occupation.
Into wilderness people travel in search of new life and wonder, and
from wilderness they return to the parts of the earth that have been
humanized and made physically secure. Wilderness settles peace on
the soul because it needs no help; it is beyond human contrivance.
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Wilderness is a metaphor of unlimited opportunity, rising from the
tribal memory of a rime when humanity spread across the world,
valley to valley, island to island, godstruck, firm in the belief that
virgin land went on forever past the horizon.
I cite these common preferences of mind not as proof of an innate
human nature but rather to suggest that we think more carefully and
rum philosophy to the central questions of human origins in the wild
environment. We do not understand ourselves yet and descend far-
ther from heaven's air if we forget how much the natural world
means to us. Signals abound that the loss of life's diversity endangers
not just the body but the spirit. If that much is true, the changes
occurring now will visit harm on all generations to come.
The ethical imperative should therefore be, first of all, prudence.
We should judge every scrap of biodiversity as priceless while we
learn to use it and come to understand what it means to humanity.
We should not knowingly allow any species or race to go extinct.
And let us go beyond mere salvage to begin the restoration of natural
environments, in order to enlarge wild populations and stanch the
hemorrhaging of biological wealth. There can be no purpose more
enspiriting than to begin the age of restoration, reweaving the won-
drous diversity of life that still surrounds us.
The evidence of swift environmental change calls for an ethic un-
coupled from other systems of belief. Those committed by religion
to believe that life was put on earth in one divine stroke will recognize
that we are destroying the Creation, and those who perceive biodi-
versity to be the product of blind evolution will agree. Across the
other great philosophical divide, it does not matter whether species
have independent rights or, conversely, that moral reasoning is
uniquely a human concern. Defenders of both premises seem des-
tined to gravitate toward the same position on conservation.
The stewardship of environment is a domain on the near side of
metaphysics where all reflective persons can surely find common
ground. For what, in the final analysis, is morality but the command
of conscience seasoned by a rational examination of consequences?
And what is a fundamental precept but one that serves all genera-
tions? An enduring environmental ethic will aim to preserve not only
the health and freedom of our species, but access to the world in
which the human spirit was born.
The Environmental Ethtc 351
-------
Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #15
Field Trip
******************
This class is scheduled for another field trip to a local
natural area. It is set out separately here for schedule
planning purposes.
******************
15-1
-------
Partners in Flight
lifeittt
******************
SEGMENT C
DISCOVERING BIRDS AND BIODIVERSITY
FIRST-HAND
Class #16
Field Trip
******************
This class is scheduled for another field trip to a local
natural area. It: is set out separately here for schedule
planning purposes.
******************
16-1
-------
Partners in Flight
tttttfet «**
ittfeittt
******************
SEGMENT D
PROBLEMS AND PARTNERSHIP
IN BIODIVERSITY
Class #17
Threats to Survival of
Migratory Birds
OBJECTIVE:
Challenge students to begin thinking about
some of the problems faced by migratory
birds, and the reasons behind those problems,
THEME:
Neotropical migratory birds currently face
serious problems to their survival.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I.
Discuss reasons for recent declines in Neotropical
migratory bird populations, using the articles assigned
as Homework reading in Class #14:
1. "Birds Over Troubled Forests", focusing on
discussion on the concepts in pages 24-32;
2. "Silence of the Songbirds"; National Geographic.
June 1993;
3. Wilson, Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, pp. 228-
231 (excerpts concerning endangered birds); and
4. The Diversity of Life, p. 265 (forest diagram).
17-1
-------
II.
Focus on the key concept of forest fragmentation.
Illustrate this by drawing two areas, classified as 50%
forest, but with different patterns of use, as follows:
Q = home
m = forest
"Checkerboard" pattern
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each
pattern, for survival of birds, biodiversity and forest
ecosystems. Discuss common patterns of human land use,
such as that depicted in "Birds Over Troubled Forests",
p. 28, and 'Silence of the Songbirds", pp. 70, 82-90.
Discuss which pattern has more forest edge, which poses
threats to survival of forest birds, and which area
contains more deep forest. Explain key research into
biodiversity, such as Edward 0. Wilson, who reports in
The Diversity of Life, that "[a]s a rule of thumb, a
tenfold increase in area results in a doubling of the
number of species" (p. 205).
PREPARATION:
Carefully review the articles to be discussed, in
preparation for coordinating the discussion.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Blackboard, projector or flip-chart pad to illustrate
the forest fragmentation concept.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Read excerpts from the Environmental Protection
Agency's 1990 Science Advisory Board report, provided
in "Handouts", below.
Read chapter 14 in The Diversity of Life, pp. 311 -
351. (See "Course Logistics", above)
FOLLOW-UP:
Make note of discussion themes that need to be picked
up in the several remaining classes.
-------
HANDOUTS:
"Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for
Environmental Protection", U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Science Advisory Board, September
1990. (excerpts)
LINKS: Biology, sociology, geography, land use and political
science.
******************
17-3
-------
Class #17
HANDOUT
Excerpt from:
National Geographic magazine, Vol. 183, No.
6, June 1993, "Silence of the Songbirds", by
Les Line. Copyright 1993 National Geographic
Society. Reprinted with permission.
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er- Drive, stop, count birds. Drive,
s stop, count birds. Four hours of
r- driving, stopping, counting birds.
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lys crave the challenge of identifying
hundreds of species from snippets
ic of song or a flash of color.
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from year to year, and destruction of
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70 percent in a summer
The implication is this- In land-
scapes where habitat has been severe
ly altered by human activities, it is
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songbirds fledges a complement of
nestlings under relentless pressure
from predators— and the intrusions
of parasitic cowbirds.
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i ' they were called long ago, fol-
; i lowed those immense herds of
' wild bovines over plain and
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ing bison. Ever on the move, feastin
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woodlands. "Nice cuddly
chipmunks can be aggres
sive raiders," notes
ornithologist Richard
Holmes, who has placed
decoy nests in New
Hampshire forests to
study predators such as
the mink-like fisher
(above). His work shows
that nesting losses for
one migratory songbird,
the American redstart,
can reach 70 percent.
Resident birds lifee
woodpecfeers or chicka-
dees fare better against
nest piracy — they fight
off attackers more often,
and they lodge in safer
tree holes.
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wise unblemished sky, and for the
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pouring on us and nowhere else al
this reach of Caribbean coastline.
The deluge ends as unexpected]
it began, and a trogon celebrates t
•o
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sun's return with a prettily whistl
song. We are on the bank of Cano
r-
Palma, a canal whose flow is so
imperceptible that its surface is ai
tn aj
QJ Ł
uncracked black mirror Buttress
of silk-cotton trees and the massii
C
fronds of yolillo palms, real and
reflected, merge in perfect symmi
I am reminded of a cypress and
tupelo swamp in South Carolina,
x
and to complete the picture there
is a flash of gold as a prothonotar
„-
warbler, a summer resident of
those more northerly watercourse
flits from one green wall of the
canal to the other.
The trail beyond is submerged
and we retreat to a corridor cut
warblers whose courtship songs are
rarely heard in winter. Jamaicans call
them, collectively, "chip-chips " Or
simply "Christmas birds," to distin-
guish the winter visitors from their
familiar resident species
Tom Sherry, whom I last saw at
Hubbard Brook in New Hampshire,
sloshes from the swamp with a male
redstart in hand Using a stuffed red-
start and taped songs of the species, it
had taken him only minutes to lure
the bird— outraged at the idea of a
competitor for its turf— into a "mist"
net virtually invisible to birds. As in
previous years, Sherry and colleague
Richard Holmes aim to capture and
band every redstart and mark its ter-
ritory on this 13-acre study plot at the
edge of one of the few large stands of
mangroves left on the island
"Many Neotropical migrants are
aggressive in defending their winter
living space," Sherry explains, "and
individuals will occupy the same ter-
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-------
Class # 17
CLASS DISCUSSION
ITEMS
Excerpts from Wilson, Edward 0., The Diversity of Life, pp. 228 -
231 and 265. Selections from Edward 0. Wilson, The Diversity of
Life are reprinted with the permission of W.W. Norton & Company,
Inc., New York. Copyright @ 1992 by Edward O. Wilson. All
rights reserved. This material may not be further reproduced
without the written permission of the publisher.
-------
Wbte: Official permission to copy excerpts from Edward 0.
Wilson, The Diversity of Life, should be directed to:
Frederick T. Courtright
Permissions Department
W.W. Norton & Company
500 Fifth Avenue
New York 10110-0017
. fax: 212-869-0856
W.W. Norton anticipates that such educational requests will be
processed very promptly.
-------
Bfdman's warbler. A species is endangered if it occur* over awide
area but is scarce throughout its range. Such is the case of Badunan'i
warbier (Vermroon bachmanii), whkh is the rarest bird in Nor* Affle**
fca in numbers of individuals per square kilometer of its geographic*
range. Small, yellow-breasted, olive-green^ on the back, and btadr
throated in the male, the warbler once bred in thicfcet-grow* tw«!
swamps from Arkansas to South Carolina. Its present breeding rangffi
and population size are unknown, and it appears to be dose. M|
extinction if not already lost.
Kirtlmd's warbler. A species is rare if it is densely concentrated bat
limited to a few small populations restricted to tiny range*. Kirtland s.
warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii), with lemon-yellow breast, bluish-gray
back streaked with black, and dark mask in the male, is such a case.
It is loosely colonial, with a breeding range restricted to jack-pine
country in the north-central part of the lower peninsula of Michigan.
Between 1961 and 1971 the known population plunged from 1,000
to 400 birds. The decline was apparently due to increased nest par-
asitism by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater), which place their
eggs in the warbler's nest. Kirtland's warblers are as dense as ever
in the localities where they occur, but the progressive restriction of
their range has brought them close to extinction.
Red-cockaded woodpecker. A species can be rare even if it has a broad
range and is locally numerous, but is specialized to occupy a scarce
niche. The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis), with zebra
back, white breast speckled with black, and each white cheek touched
by a carmine speck, is the outstanding example. It ranges across most
of the southeastern United States but requires pine forests at least
eighty years old. The birds live in small societies composed of a
breeding pair and up to several offspring, with the latter helping
their parents to protect and rear the younger siblings. Each group
requires an average of 86 hectares of woodland to produce an ade-
quate harvest of insect prey. To nest, red-cockaded woodpeckers
hollow out cavities in living, mature longleaf pines eighty to one
hundred and twenty years old, in which the heartwood has already
been destroyed by fungus. These exacting conditions are no longer
easy to find in the piney woods of the south. The total size of the
woodpecker breeding population was estimated in 1986 to be only
6,000. It was falling steadily, by as much as 10 percent a year in Texas
and probably just as fast elsewhere. The species appears doomed
unless the cutting of the oldest pine forests is stopped immediately.
Species trapped by specialization and pressed by shrinking habitat
form the largest endangered class. The scarcity of Bachman's warbler
across the southern United States is no mystery, despite the abun-
dance of riverine swampland in which it can breed. It winters (or
wintered) exclusively in the forests of western Cuba and the nearby
Isle of Pines, where virtually all the forests have been cleared to grow
sugar cane. The bottleneck is the loss of wintering ground and star.
vation for even the remnant of warblers produced in the lusher
summer environment of the United States.
John Terborgh has given a poignant account of his own experience
with one of the last Bachman's warblers. In May 1954, asan eighteen-
year-old birder (now a foremost onuttologBt),
Pages 228 - 231 from
Wilson, Edward 0.,.
the Diversity of
Life. Selections
from Edward O.
Wilson, The
Diversity of Life
are reprinted with
the permission of
W.W. Norton &
Company, Inc., New
York. Copyright @
1992 by Edward 0.
Wilson. All rights
reserved. This
material may not be
further reproduced
without the written
permission of the
publisher.
-------
sighting of a male Bachman's on Pohick Creek in Virginia not far
from his home. The song of the Bachman's had been described to
him as resembling that of a black-throated green warbler with a
downward sweep at the end: zee-zee-zee-zee-tsew.
To my astonishment I walked up to the place that had been described
to me and heard it! I had no trouble seeing the bird. A full-plumaged
male, it sat on an open branch about 20 feet up and gave me a perfect
view while it sang. It hardly stopped singing during the two hours I
spent there. Reluctantly, I pulled myself away, wondering whether this
was an experience 1 would ever repeat. It was not.
As other birders were to testify, the male returned to the same spot
the next two springs. No female ever joined him. The extraordinary
exertions of the Bachman's male were a sign that he was in prime
breeding condition, but he was destined to go undiscovered by any
female of the same speaes.
I imagine that each spnng a tiny remnant of birds crossed the Gulf of
Mexico and fanned out into a huge area in the Southeast, where they
became, so to speak, needles in a haystack. Toward the end, it is likely
that most of the males in the population, like the one at Pohick Creek,
were never discovered by females. Once this situation developed, there
could have been no possible salvation for the species in the wild.
In parallel manner, Kirtland's warbler winters in the pine wood-
land of two islands in the northern Bahamas, Grand Bahama and
Abaco. Terborgh has written that, however zealously the Kirtland's
warbler and its habitat may be protected in Michigan, its fate prob-
ably lies at the mercy of commercial interests in the Bahamas. Mi-
gratory birds as a whole are declining across the United States from
the same environmental malady that afflicts the warblers: wintering
grounds are being demolished by logging and burning. The prospects
are. especially gnm for species that depend on the rapidly shrinking
forests of Mexico, Central America and the West Indies.
The rarest songbird: Bachouu?* warbler of the southeastern United
States is on the brink of extinction, if not already gone. This drawing of
a singing male is based on on* of the last photographs taken.
"3s
-------
Forests of
Western Ecuador
1938-1988
Forest Cover 19W
More than 90 percent of the forests of western Ecuador have been
dssuojud during the past four decades. The loss is estimated to hat*
rrtmguished or doomed over half of the species of the area's plants and
animals. Many other biologically diverse areas of the world are
similar assault
Page 265 from Wilson, Edward O., the Diversity of Life.
Selections from Edward 0. Wilson, The Diversity of Life are
reprinted with the permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., New
York. Copyright @ 1992 by Edward 0. Wilson. All rights
reserved. This material may not be further reproduced without
the written permission of the publisher.
-------
Partners in Flight
tt*bit»t
******************
SEGMENT D
PROBLEMS AND PARTNERSHIP
IN BIODIVERSITY
Class #18
Biodiversity and Natural
Ecosystems Are Basic to
Our Survival
OBJECTIVE:
******************
Encourage students to realize that natural
ecosystems and the present era biodiversity
of this planet, of which migratory birds are
a key part, are fundamental requirements for
the long-term survival of people.
THEME:
People rely on the natural systems of the
present era for all our human enterprises.
Protecting and maintaining the existing
biodiversity of such ecosystems helps ensure
a future and opportunity for us all.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I.
II
Discuss the EPA Science Advisory Board report excerpts
assigned as Homework from Class #17, focusing on the
recognition that maintaining the present era
biodiversity of this planet helps to preserve the
ecosystems on which our own survival depends.
Discuss the opportunities for helping to preserve the
present era biodiversity of this planet that The
Diversity of Life chapter 14 recommends.
III.
Discuss how Neotropical migratory birds are one
component of the larger world-wide issue, problem and
challenge of maintaining the biodiversity of the
18-1
-------
present era, and how the decline in their numbers
reflects a general decline in the extent of present era
biodiversity and destruction of ecosystems.
PREPARATION:
Read and become familiar with the materials assigned as
Homework reading from Class #17.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Blackboard, overhead projector or flip-chart pad for
writing down students ideas.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Read:
"Carving Up Tomorrow's Planet", Interview with
John G. Robinson, International Wildlife, Vol. 24,
No. 1 (Jan./Feb. 1994), pp. 29 - 37 (published by
National Wildlife Federation).
FOLLOW-UP:
HANDOUTS:
Make note of discussion themes that may need to be
picked up in the remaining classes.
Article identified in Homework, above.
LINKS: Biology, sociology, geography, land use and political
science.
******************
18-2
-------
Class #18
HANDOUT
(for discussion
in Class #19)
Article: "Carving Up Tomorrow's Planet
Interview with John G. Robinson",
International Wildlife, published by National
Wildlife Federation, Jan./Feb. 1994, vol. 24,
no. 1. Reprinted with permission.
-------
•?3«*l
ISS
TTs.
*'
«•"•»!
1!
^^•W;
One expert's strategy
for saving species: fashion a
"sustainable landscape "
(on/ing Up
tomorrow's
PI01Kt
Interview with John G. Robinson
WITH EACH NEW HUMAN IMPACT on wilderness,
survival prospects for Earth's other species de-
cline. In recent years scientists, conservation-
ists, ethicists and others have wrestled with a
lew set of ideas—a kind of big-picture strate-
gy—for deciding how to respond. One of the most
promising is called sustainable use: using today's re-
sources in ways that assure they will be around to
benefit future generations. How to protect plants and
wildlife while exploiting them for human needs is a
particularly thorny aspect of this idea, especially since
the "rules" of biology are different for each kind of
ecosystem.
For a fresh perspective on what's involved, Inter-
national Wildlife turned to conservation strategist
John G. Robinson, who oversees 160 conservation
projects in 44 countries for a newly named entity call-
ed NYZS The Wildlife Conservation Society (formerly
the New York Zoological Society and its conservation
division, Wildlife Conservation International). Here
are some of his views; as presented in a conversation
with International Wildlife Editor Jonathan Fisher:
International Wildlife: Our planet is losing species
faster than at any time since the extinction of the di-
nosaurs. As you look ahead—say, to the year 2020—
For conservation strategist Robinson, our world is
a mosaic of four vastly different land uses (left and
right). Not all four preserve natural systems, but
together they may form a sustainable whole, saving
wild species while meeting human needs. How much
land we set aside for wildlife depends on our resolve.
Published by National Wildlife
Federation, Reprinted with permission.
-------
Extractive
Reserves
•»ome natural areas;
:an stay virtually*
ntact and still
irovide products
'or human use. One
example: buffalo
neat from South
\frican savann
-------
MEETING PEOPLES' NEEDS
"We're trying to raise the quality of life of all people. Simple
mathematics will tell you that there is not enough biological potential
to support that kind of aspiration."
what kind of world do you
think we will be living in?
John Robinson: The world
I would like to see out there is
what might be called a sustain-
able landscape. It has wilder-
ness. It has areas where people
extract natural resources. It
has areas with intensive agri-
culture. And it has urban and
industrial areas. Overall, it is a
mosaic of different land uses,
but taken as a whole, it would
protect natural systems and it
would allow people to live sus-
tainably.
IW: Can our world really be
sustainable? Will it be here to-
morrow in the same form—for
use by our children and our
children's children?
Robinson: Every day peo-
ple take a larger chunk of re-
sources at the expense of other
species. Some of Earth's land-
scapes will have to be used ex-
clusively to meet peoples'
needs. Some can be used to
perpetuate other species.
Some can do both. How we allocate
those uses is our biggest challenge. Will
the world look the same? No. But we can
fashion a sustainable planet.
IW: Some parts of your landscape
don't seem very sustainable.
Robinson: Think of a jigsaw puzzle.
Each piece has different activities with
differing levels of sustainability. But all
the pieces relate together to work as one
sustainable whole. If those pieces don't
fit together, the whole thing doesn't
work.
IW: How do the pieces fit together?
Robinson: Wilderness areas would be
sanctuaries for wildlife. Agricultural and
industrial areas would be productive for
people, driving the engines of national
economies. Extractive areas would allow
natural resources—timber, wildlife, non-
timber products—to be harvested.
Wilderness and extractive areas would
not be as productive as agricultural or in-
, dustrial areas, but they would subsidize
those areas with raw materials and genet-
Used and cast aside, autos in a Swedish
junkyard (above) illustrate profligate
consumption in the developed world. In
the main market of Dhaka, Bangladesh
(right), people jam together, their sheer
numbers a strain on resources. Both
overconsumption and overpopulation
pose threats to Earth's other species.
ic resources. They would provide the es-
sential ecosystem functions—cleaning
the air and water, buffering local cli-
mates—that would keep the whole sys-
tem working. So even if the agricultural
and urban centers, by themselves, would
not be sustainable, the landscape as a
whole would be.
IW: Does this mean our future world
will have room for only swatches of wild
land?
Robinson: That's right. To save
species, we need to preserve reservoirs of
wild land, from cloud forests in the
Andes to coral reefs off Australia. To
feed growing numbers of pec
pie, we will need areas of in
tense agriculture—which wi
never be sustainable per se
What we've got to think abou
is how to integrate the differ
ent swatches.
IW: What about those ex
tractive areas you mentioned'
Robinson: These parts o
the sustainable landscapi
would still be recognizable a
natural systems. They, too
would help preserve specie?
and they would maintain eco
logical integrity and serve eco
logical functions like protect
ing watersheds. But extractivi
areas—which might includi
sections of rain forest when
indigenous people gather nut
and other forest products, fo
instance—might be degradec
and they wouldn't be as pro
ductive for humans as areas o
intensive agriculture.
IW: If we don't come t<
terms with your carved-u
world, what will that mean fo
wildlife? What are we going to lose b;
the year 2020?
Robinson: We are losing species at j
very fast rate at the present time, but th(
average person probably couldn't nami
many of them. Most of those species ten<
to be relatively small with limited geo
graphic ranges and restricted to very spe
cific types of habitat. Within the next 2(
or 30 years, many species which peoph
are more familiar with will be gone o;
very close to extinction. My guess is tha
many of the big charismatic animals-
elephants and grizzly bears—will still b<
around, but their role in their ecosysten
will have long since gone.
IW: And tigers? Would they be anoth
er example?
Robinson: Exactly. With large carni
vores—tigers, jaguars—you are dealing
with species which naturally tend to live
at relatively low densities. To survive
they need big areas. They also compete
with human beings, and probably the;
will be restricted to only a few preserves
32 International Wildlife
-------
USING WILD RESOURCES
"Sustainable use doesn 't work for all species
or in all habitats.... We need to focus our activity on those systems
which people can best harness for their needs."
IW: What about pandas?
Robinson: Pandas are habitat
specialists. They require forest
habitats with a lot of bamboo,
and it is very very difficult to
maintain such forests in China,
where they live.
IW: And rhinos? The same sit-
uation?
Robinson: Every species has
different pressures on it. In the
case of rhinos, you're dealing
with hunting for their horns.
Probably within 20 to 30 years,
the only rhinos left will be in
highly protected sanctuaries. For
all intents and purposes, their role
in natural habitats will no longer
exist.
IW: How about people by the
year 2020? There are likely to be
eight and a half billion of us, or
more. Shouldn't our species be
the beneficiary of whatever we
decide about the wilderness?
Robinson: We do have an
obligation to our fellow human
beings. We also have an obliga-
tion to our fellow species. What
we are striving for is to reach a
balance between human resource
consumption and the need to pre-
serve our world's biodiversity. We're not
just concerned with supporting the great-
est number of human beings at the great-
est quality of life; we're seeking to pre-
serve the rest of the biota for its own
sake and for the sake of future genera-
tions of people.
IW: When we're making trade-offs
and balancing off different uses, are we
limited in our choices by what natural
systems are capable of producing?
Robinson: Areas of high biological di-
versity—tropical forests, for instance—
are generally not very productive for peo-
ple. If you look at savannas, you're
talking about habitats which are much
more productive and can be more easily
exploited. But there are also global lim-
its. At the minute, we are already seques-
tering 40 percent of the world's net pri-
mary productivity—the total production
of all forests, all cropland, all pasture, all
Cowboys lasso a capybara, the world's
largest rodent, in Venezuela (above).
Harvesting animals is more feasible in
simple ecosystems than complex ones.
At Tokyo's Tsukiji Market (left), fish
inspectors check frozen tuna. Using the
sea's resources makes sense, but people
have overexploited most fish species.
plants—to support human beings. At the
same time, we're trying to raise, not just
maintain, the quality of life of all people.
Simple mathematics will tell you that
there is not enough biological potential to
support that kind of aspiration. There are
not enough resources to go around.
IW: What happens when people in-
crease their use of a biological system?
Robinson: You lose some of the diver-
sity of plants and animals. Look at tropi-
cal forests. People tend to cut down the
trees in them to create pasture or
cropland. The forest then be-
comes a system which is much
less biologically diverse but much
more productive for human be
ings. But many ecosystems, even
if altered by people, still have lim-
ited productivity. Tropical forests,
for example, exist on very thin
soils, and most of the biomass is
tied up in the forest itself. Yes,
you can convert a tropical forest
to pasture, but it is a pretty poor
pasture.
IW: If systems like tropical
forests are biologically diverse
and also less productive for peo-
ple, doesn't that suggest that we
ought to protect them rather than
exploit them?
Robinson: First, let me sa>
that we should aim to protect rep-
resentative pieces of all ecosys-
tems. But then I would also argue
that highly diverse systems with
many species—like tropical
forests and coral reefs—should
get the greatest protection. Pro-
tection will tend to be the be
use of those systems.
IW: So some systems—gras
lands, for example—can be ex-
ploited more economically and are there-
fore better suited for human use?
Robinson: Yes. We need to focus our
developmental activity on those systems
which people can best harness for thei;
needs.
IW: Are you arguing that the popular
idea of sustainable use of wildlife—using
excess animals to benefit people—doesn''.
always work?
Robinson: It doesn't work for "all
species or in all habitats. Sustainable use
is more likely where you have a high bio-
logical potential. Many marine system<
for instance, support highly productive
fisheries. Ocean currents form great cer,
ters of nutrients, which support great
concentrations of fish. Those can be ex-
ploited by people.
IW: Can you provide other examples /
Robinson: In many of the African sa
vannas and deciduous forest areas in
January/February 1994 35
-------
RESCUING SPECIES
"We 're not just concerned with supporting the greatest number of
human beings at the greatest quality of life; we're seeking to preserve
the rest of the biota for its own sake...."
southern Africa, people
have developed a system to
crop wildlife. They're ex-
ploiting those wildlife sys-
tems, and they're doing it
in a way which has the po-
tential to be sustainable.
IW: You're talking
about harvesting meat for
local people?
Robinson: I'm talking
about harvesting meat for
local people, about safari
hunting, about commercial
harvesting of certain spe-
cies. In theory, elephant
populations could be har-
vested sustainably for,
meat, hides and ivory.
IW: What about outside
Africa?
Robinson: The Russian
steppes are highly produc-
tive. The saiga antelope has
been sustainably harvested
there for a thousand years,
all the way back to Genghis
Khan. Here is a system
where much of the bio-
mass, or total living matter, is tied up in a
high-density species. If properly managed
and regulated, this is a species that can
be managed sustainably.
IW: What about capybara, the big ro-
dents of Venezuela?
Robinson: A number of species can
be harvested sustainably in the llanos of
Colombia and Venezuela. Small croco-
diles called caiman, which exist in very
high density there, have been exploited
for hundreds of years. In addition, the
productivity of these systems is sufficient
to maintain both subsistence and com-
mercial harvests of anaconda, tegu
lizards and the capybara you mentioned.
IW: So using wildlife may work in
some areas but not in others?
Robinson: Right. Developing sustain-
able-use systems in Asia, for example,
has proven to be extremely difficult.
Wildlife densities in many Asian tropical
forest areas are very, very low, and sus-
, tainable-use systems have not tended to
work well in that part of the world.
Mirrors of their vibrant backdrops,
a longnose hawkfish (above) flits past
a gorgonian coral on a reef in Fiji,
and a poison-dart frog rests in a Costa
Rican rain forest (right). Coral reefs
and rain forests warrant protection
because both are biologically diverse
and of limited economic use to people.
IW: And certain kinds of species lend
themselves more to human use?
Robinson: If you are interested in har-
vesting animals, you are more likely to
succeed if you are working with grass-
eaters, which occur at much higher den-
sities than do meat-eating animals and in
less diverse systems. Harvesting an-
telopes on an African savanna may be
very sustainable. But exploitation of spot-
ted cat skins from tropical forests is
going to be very difficult.
IW: If you're right that our future will
include a fragmented landscape that pro-
vides a balance between resource protec-
tion and resource use, the
aren't we really definir
that balance right now?
Robinson: That's righ
We would all like to i
crease the standard of li
ing and quality of life of i
the peoples in the wor
while at the same tirr
maintaining our natural r
sources for future gener,
tions. The question is:'
what extent will we have
sacrifice some of our eci
nomic aspirations to su
port some of our ecologic
aspirations? What we nee
to strive for is neither con
plete utilization nor prese
vation. What we need
the mosaic.
IW: And how do we d
cide precisely how t?
pieces in your mosaic ai
best split up?
Robinson: The answi
to that question depenc
on how much we vali
wilderness areas, and ho
much future generations will depend c
those areas. Do we value them enough
actually pay to preserve them? If peop
are willing, then we will have a landsca
which will contain significant wildernes
If we are content to lose our lions ar
tigers and bears, we will lose them.
John G. Robinson, vice president for L
ternational Conservation of NYZS 77
Wildlife Conservation Society, is also c
the steering committee of the Species Si,
vival Commission for the IUCN—77
World Conservation Union. A zoologi,
he received a doctorate from the Unive
sity of North Carolina and has worki
extensively with primates.
For a complete text of Robinson's ii
ten'iew—which includes thoughts abo,
how the big decisions of conservatic
should be made and how individuals cc
make a difference—send a self-addresst
business envelope to: Interview, Intern
tional Wildlife. 8925 Leesburg Pike, \
enna, Virginia 22184.
36 International Wildlife
-------
BY BRUCE BABBITT
Arizona Democrat Bruce Babbitt is
Secretary of the Interior. He has served as
Attorney'General and Governor of his
native state, and President of the League
of Conservation Voters.
How can we best protect this nation's treasure of
biodiversity—forested mountains, mineral-rich
lands of the West, tumbling rivers and the crea-
tures that inhabit these varied landscapes? Perhaps the
answer is best revealed in our mistakes.
Remember the conflict over the endangered snail
darter in the 1970s? In 1973, opponents of the Tellico
Dam on the Little Tennessee River saw this 3-inch fish
as a cudgel to bring down the dam. After snail darters
were discovered near the dam site, opponents persuad-
ed the United States Supreme Court in 1978 that finish-
ing the project would spell doom for the fish. The court
ordered work stopped on the nearly complete, $137-
million project—angering supporters of the dam and
providing ammunition to opponents of the Endangered
Species Act.
Two years later, determined Tennessee legislators con-
vinced Congress to exempt the dam from the Endangered
Species Act, and thousands of acres were flooded. In an
ironic twist to this bitter drama, the snail darter was not
obliterated, and was taken off die endangered-species list
in 1984.
The snail darter battle left a bitter taste in everyone's
mouth and a lingering impression in the public con-
sciousness that protecting endangered species means con-
flict and disruption. What we learned from this experi-
ence is that, ultimately, nobody wins in "us-versus-them,
Copyright @1994 Nature Conservancy Reprinted
from Vol. 44, No. 1, with
permission.
-------
all-or-nothing" environmental confrontations.
If we truly want to protect biological diversity, we need
to avoid crisis and confrontation. We can't afford to drag
our feet until a species is at the brink of extinction and
then argue about protecting its last small corner of habi-
tat. We need a new approach: one that encourages us to
think ahead and plan for the future; one that encourages
us to look at whole ecosystems and not just tiny parcels of
land; one that stresses compromise and balance between
people and nature.
We don't need new laws to do this. Congress has
passed impressive environmental legislation. We've got to
start using these laws to resolve conflicts.
The protracted slugfest in the Pacific Northwest over
timber production and the northern spotted owl is anoth-
er example of futile confrontation and lack of foresight.
Many believe that this fight is about one creature in trou-
ble. But it is really about a crisis in forest management
that foreshadowed a much broader breakdown in the
region's ecological balance and economy. It took a federal
judge's injunction to get everyone to sit down together
and talk about the issue.
That's what the Clinton administration's forest confer-
ence last spring was all about. During three days of hear-
ings in April, timber industry representatives testified that
restrictions on logging in the Pacific Northwest forest
would cost tens of thousands of jobs. Environmentalists
stated that the 3 million acres of old-growth trees not yet
cut should be preserved as one of the last remnants of this
country's ancient forests.
In an effort to reach a balance, the administration
issued a plan last summer to permit timber harvesting in
old-growth forests while protecting the ecosystem. This
plan should have been hammered out 20 years ago.
Instead, the players waited until the crisis was white-hot.
The Endangered Species Act often has been at the cen-
ter of these maelstroms. Critics charge the act is an eco-
weapon out of control, but 1 consider this legislation an
extraordinary achievement, probably the most revolution-
ary environmental law of this century. It explicitly says
that when a species begins the downward slide toward
extinction, the response will be a habitat protection plan
that will make it a criminal offense to take that species or
its habitat.
Eco-showdowns get most of the publicity, but we've
had some great successes with this law: the bald eagle, the
peregrine falcon, the American alligator and more. My
take on the Endangered Species Act is that we haven't
even come close to working with the authority, the con-
cepts and the flexibility contained in the Act to avoid
environmental cnses.
One place where we're trying to do better is southern
California. There, a small blue-gray songbird, the gnat-
catcher, is struggling to keep a foothold. Developers view
the 250,000 acres of coastal sage scrub where the bird
lives as some of the best unbuilt real estate left in south-
ern California. But the gnatcatcher prizes it, too. The bird
rarely ventures more than a few acres away from its nest-
ing site, and when it's threatened, it hides deep in the
brush. It will stay in its habitat even if it means getting
bulldozed.
To avoid a "people-versus-songbird" conflict, the state
of California is working with developers and conserva-
tionists in a novel approach called the Natural
Communities Conservation Planning Program. Since
1991, government officials have been meeting with all
sides to identify and preserve enough of the coastal sage
habitat to support the gnatcatcher and other rare species.
While the planning effort is under way, the state pro-
gram allows developers to build on a small part of the
land as long as they agree to set aside preserves or restore
portions of habitat when they're identified. An added ben-
efit to this approach is that it can help species such as the
cactus wren that share gnatcatcher habitat—before they,
too, start sliding towards extinction.
To assist California's effort, the federal government last
March listed the gnatcatcher as threatened, rather than
endangered. In that way, strict federal regulations for
endangered species do not overwhelm the planning
process. If the California groups fail to reach scientifically
sound agreements or lag behind timetables to complete
their work, the federal government will take over the
process.
This is the first time in the history of the Endangerec
Species Act that we have listed a species and then steppec
back to defer to the state's planning process. The outcome
is by no means clear, but we want to make it work.
There is another example where cooperation can pro
mote both biodiversity and jobs. The federal governmen
and Georgia-Pacific Corporation—the nation's bigges
forest products company—have reached a precedent-set
ting agreement to help the endangered red-cockade(
woodpecker. Georgia-Pacific has devised plans to protec
the 300 to 400 woodpeckers that reside and forage 01
about 56,000 of the 4.2 million acres of company-owne<
pine forests in the South.
The company will halt logging on land that contain
colonies of woodpeckers, which live in cavities hammere
into old living pine trees. In addition, Georgia-Pacific wi
establish buffer zones around each colony where timbe
will be selectively harvested, and will prevent road-buik
ing near the birds' colonies.
l« HATUfl CONSfftVANCr • J.A,\ L'ARl /FEBRl'AR > 1 9 9 •»
-------
In return for taking steps to protect the woodpecker,
the company can continue logging without restrictions
imposed by the Endangered Species Act. The agreement is
a demonstration that it's possible to find a balance
between the imperative to create jobs in forest production
and the imperative to protect the environment.
If we're going to protect whole ecosystems, rather than
just single species or pieces of habitat, we need a base of
rigorous, comprehensive science. Strong research will
help us see more clearly what the problems are and give
us flexibility to act before a cusis. To help accomplish
this, we are establishing a new bureau at the Interior
Department: The National Biological Survey.
Modeled after the century-old U.S. Geological Survey,
the biological survey will draw scientists from the depart-
ment's different bureaus to coordinate ongoing studies
and to avoid duplicate or fragmented research projects.
The survey's emphasis will be basic research and will
focus on areas already found in existing Department of
Interior programs.
For example, the survey will oversee studies on the
loss of wetlands in coastal Louisiana, how to manage
streams and riparian habitats in the Pacific Northwest and
the impact of offshore oil drilling. In addition, the survey
will examine how to save declining species from extinc-
tion, and how to curtail the destructive impacts of non-
native organisms that have invaded an ecosystem.
A new mission for the survey and one of its most
important tasks will be to examine the status and trends
for all U.S. wildlife habitats. The survey then could report
regularly on the abundance, distribution and health of the
nation's ecosystems.
Besides bolstering our scientific base, we need to
reform our specific missions in resource management at
the Department of Interior. For instance, the Bureau of
Reclamation, responsible for much of the dam construc-
tion in the West, should look at how to allocate water
without turning to big new construction projects.
We also need to institute more realistic market pric-
ing of our resources. Those who graze cattle on grass-
lands, or extract hard rock minerals, or use water from
a federal reservoir, or cut timber in a national forest
should pay their fair share to use those resources and
restore the land. Market pricing encourages conserva-
tion and wise use of limited resources.
The American conservation movement has been
through two important eras. The first was in the time of
Teddy Roosevelt, who helped create the land management
ethic. Roosevelt summed up this ethic by saying, "The
nation behaves well if it treats the natural resources as
assets which it must turn over to the next generation
increased and not impaired in value."
The second era was in the 1960s and 1970s—a penod
of heightened concern about the unchecked use of toxic
chemicals and industrial pollution. Stimulated in part by
Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring, a clarion call about
the dangers of pesticides such as DDT, the government
assumed a greater role in regulating and limiting pollu-
tants in our soil and water.
Now, on the eve of the millennium, we are entering a
third era that is infinitely more complex because it
demands that we strike a balance, that we make peace
with the natural environment.
As the one species dial dominates the world, we must
make space for the rest of creation to play its assigned role
on this planet. It can't be "us versus them." Ultimately,
we'll all lose. But if we learn to live more lightly on the
land, we'll all win. Q
-------
Reducing Risk:
Setting Priorities And
Strategies For
Environmental Protection
Class #18
HANDOUT
Excerpt from:
EPA's 1990 Science Advisory Board report:
"Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and
Strategies for Environmental Protection"
-------
— '-*. *f. . _-._V
It
NOTICE
Thfc nport KM b*«n written as a put erf the activities of the
Soon Advisory Bond, a pubtk adviMcy group providing
gMlramuial idtnBflc tntemabon and advict to m
ih of the
Pvotactton A^ncy. TIM Boud is structured to
Miumd cxpixt MMmmt of JCWHIIBC mattm nwflBd to
pfOQHBH ttflnaj tftc A^tDCfi iwncv tno OORBBIQI ov BUB report
do not nooHsufly tvpmcnt ow vitws and poooM of tna*
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nd addrtMtt a braKkr wMt of ilium
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Caver Photo by Steve Deli
-------
REDUCING RISK:
SETTING PRIORITTES
AND STRATEGIES FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
The Report of The Science Advisory Board:
Relative Risk Reduction Strategies Committee
to
William K. Reilly
Administrator
United States Environmental Protection Agency
September 1990
-------
Science Advisory Board
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
September 25, 1990
Mr. William K. Reilly
Administrator
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20640
Dear Mr. Reilly:
Over a year and a half ago, you asked the Science Advisory Board to review
1987 report. Unfinished Business: A Comparative Assessment of fnvironmenta
/ems, and then assess and compare different environmental risks m light of th
recent scientific data. You also asked us to examine strategies for reducing maj<
and to recommend improved methodologies for assessing and comparing n
risk reduction options in the future. This report and its three appendices hav
prepared in response to your request.
To undertake this project, the Science Advisory Board created a special R
Risk Reduction Strategies Committee composed of 39 distinguished scientn
other experts from academia, state government, industry, and pubfic interest i
The Committee carefully considered the reports written by each of its thre
committees, and the findings and recommendations contained in Reducing Ri
from the work of the Subcommittees and reflect study, discussion, and synthesi;
Committee as a whole. This report has been reviewed by the SAB Executivi
mittee and has been formally approved as an SAB document.
As you are aware, the Science Advisory Board normally reviews scientific rep
the Agency and evaluates them on the basis of scientific and engineenn
However, in this case our review of Unfinished Business and our analysis
reduction options have led us to make findings and recommendations that ar
policy-oriented than is usually the case. We have done this at your request
This report, together with its three appendices, suggests steps that the Environ
Protection Agency should take to improve its own efforts'— and to involve C
and the rest of the country in a collective effort — to reduce environmental r
strongly believe that the Agency should take steps to ensure that this nation use
tools at its disposal in an integrated, targeted approach to protecting human
welfare, and the ecosystem.
This report is only a step along.a long road. We encourage you to lead the \
taking the necessary further steps as soon as possible.
Sincerely,
Raymond Loehr
Chair, Science Advisory
Board, and Co-Chair, Relative
Risk Reduction Strategies
Committee
Jonathan Lash
Co-Chair, Relative Risk
Reduction Strategies Committee
-------
J?
Contents
Mcmbcn of the Relative Risk Reduction
Strategies Committee iv
Chapter One: Executive Summary 1
The Concept of Risk i
The Traditional Role of the Environmental
Protection Agency 3
Unfinished Business 4
The Relative Risk Reduction Strategies Committee.. 5
The Ten Recommendations 6
Chapter Two: Findings 7
1. The Importance of Unfinished Business 7
2. Problems in Ranking Risks 8
3. The Extraordinary Value of Natural Ecosystems.. 9
4. Time, Space, and Risk 10
5. The Links Between Risk and Choice 11
6. Public Perceptions of Risk 12
7. Relatively High-Risk Environmental Problems ... 13
8. Strategy Options for Reducing
Environmental Risk 15
Chapter Three: The Ten Recommendations 16
Recommendation 1 16
Recommendation 2 17
Recommendation 3 18
Recommendation 4 19
Recommendation 5 20
Recommendation 6 21
Recommendation 7 22
Recommendation 8 23
Recommendation 9 24
Recommendation 10 25
iii
-------
401M Street, s.*».
Washington, DC 20H* ~ ....
Relative Risk Reduction »»teg»es
Committee
Steering Committee
Co-chairmen
Dr. Raymond Loehr
Professor of Civil Engineering
University of" .-xas
Austin, TX
Dr. Jonathan Lash
Secretary of Natural Resources
for the State of Vermont
Waterbury, VT
Members
Mr. Alvin Aim
Vice President
Science Applications International
Corporation
McLean, VA
Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson
Vice President of the
Environmental Activities Staff
General Motors Corporation
Warren, MI
Mr. Richard Conway
Senior Corporate Fellow
Union Carbide Corporation
South Charleston. WV
Dr. William Cooper
Chairman of the Zoology Department
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI
Dr ..Anthony Cortese
Dean of Environmental Programs
Tufts University
Medford. MA
Dr. Paul Deisler
Visiting Executive Professor
University of Houston
Houston, TX
Dr. Roger McQellan
President
The Chemical Industry Institute
of Toxicology
Research Triangle Park, NC
•Dr. Norton Nelson
Director Emeritus of the Institute of
Environmental Medicine
New York University
New York, NY
Dr. Arthur Upton
Director of the Institute of
Environmental Mediane
New York University
New York. NY
Designated Federal Official
Dr. Donald Barnes
Staff Director, Science Advisory Board
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
Project Staff Coordinator
Mr. Frederick Allen
Science Advisory Board (On loan)
. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
Editors
Mr. Tom Super
Science Advisory Board (On loan)
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
Mr. Steve Young
Science Advisory Board (On loan)
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
Support Staff
Ms. Joanna Foellmer
Science Advisory Board
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
•Deceased
tment of Environments!
Mr. Fred Hanseu
Director of the Depwrrneiu 01 un
Quality for the State of Cretan
Portland, OR
Dr. Morton Uppmann
ProtCMor of Envwomi
New York University
Tuxedo. NY
Ecology and Welfare
Subcommittee
Chairman
Dr. William Cooper
Chairman of the Zoology Department
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI
Members
Dr. Yorum Cohen
Associate Professor of Chemical Engu
University of California
at Los Angeles
Los Angeles, CA
Dr. Steve Eisenreich
Professor of Environmental Engmeen
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN
Dr. Mark Harwell
Director of Global Environmental Pro
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY
Dr. Dean Haynes
Professor of Entomology
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI
Dr. Robert Huggett
Director of the Virginia Institute
of Marine Studies
College of William and Mary
Seaford, VA
Dr. Ronald Olsen
Professor of Microbiology and Assoc
Vice President for Research
University of Michigan Medical Schc
Ann Arbor, Ml
Dr. Dave Rekhte
Associate Director of Biomedical
and Environmental Sciences
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge. TN
Dr. June Lindstedt-Siva
Manager of Environmental Science
Atlantic Rkhneld Company
Los Angeles, CA
IV
-------
Designated Federal Official
rfr. Robert Flaak
icience Advisory Board
. S. Environmental ProtectionAfenqr
Aashington, D. C.
Strategic Options Subcommittee
rhairaun
AT Alvin Aim
ice President
oence Applications
International Corporation
-IcLean, VA
Members
)r Betsy Ancker-Johnson
>'ice President of Environmental
Activities Staff
General Motors Corp.
•Varren, Ml
>. Richard Andrews
'rofessor of Environmental Studies
JDiversity of North Carolina
Zhapel Hill, NC
At. Richard Conway
«ntor Corporate Fellow
.'nion Carbide Corporation
iouth Charleston, VW
)r. Anthony Cortese
)ean of Environmental Programs
'ufts University
ledford, MA
T. Roger Kaspenon
rofessor of Geography
lark University
Dorchester, MA
*. Henry Kelly
«mor Associate
)fhce of Technology Assessment
J.S. Congress
Vashington, D.C.
>r. Paul R. Portney
'ice President
esources for the Future
Washington, D.C.
\T. William Ryan
'olicy Director
National Environmental Law Center
oston, MS
4s. Nancy Seidman
Executive Director ^^
Jortheast States for CoordinafliC
Air Use Management ^.
oston, MA
Dr. Robert Stavins
Assistant Professor of Public Policy
John F. Kennedy School of Government
Harvard University
Cambridge, MA
Ms. Maraa Williams
Divisional Vice President
Environmental Policy and Planning
Browning-Ferns Industries
Washington, D.C.
Designated Federal Officials
Dr. C. Richard Cothem and
Mrs. Kathleen Conway
Science Advisory Board
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
Support Staff
Ms. Dartene Sewell
Science Advisory Board
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
Human Health Subcommittee
Chairman
Dr. Arthur Upton
Director of the Institute of
Environmental Medicine
New York University
New York, NY
ivleniDers
Dr. Julian B. Andelman
Professor of Water Chemistry
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA
Dr. Patricia Buffler
Director of Epidemiological
University of Texas
Houston, TX
Dr. Paul Deisler
Visiting Executive Professor
University of Houston
Houston, Texas
Dr. Howard Hu
Assistant Professor of
Occupational Medicine
Brigham at Women's Hospital
Harvard University Medical Center
Boston, MA
Dr. Nancy Kim
Director of the Division of
Environmental Health Assessment
New York Department of Health
Albany, NY
Research Unit
Dr. Morton Unpmann
Professor of Environmental Median*
New York University
Tuxedo, NY
Dr. Roger Mcdellan
President
The Chemical Industry Institute
of Toxicology
Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Amo Motulsky
Professor of Medicine and Genetics
University of Washington School of Medicine
Seattle, WA
Dr. Fredenca Perera
Associate Professor of Public Health
Columbia University
New York, NY
Dr. Jonathan Samet
Professor of Medicine
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, NM
Dr. Ellen Silbergeld
Senior Scientist
Environmental Defense Fund
Washington, D.C.
Dr. Bernard Weiss
Professor of Toxicology
University of Rochester Medical Center
Rochester. NY
Dr. Hanspeter Witschi
Associate Director of the Toxics Program
University of California
Davis, CA
Designated Federal Official
Mr. Samuel Rondberg
Science Advisory Board
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C.
-------
.
xecutive
The Concept of Risk
Over tilt past 20 years this countrv has put in place
extensive and detailed government policies to control
a number of environmental problems Smog in
heavily populated areas, the eutropmcanon of lakes,
elevated levels of lead in the blooc ot millions of
children, the threat of cancer from exposure to
pesticide residues in food, and abanaonec drums of
hazardous wastes are a few of the prooiems that
have driven the enactment of more f.an a dozen
major Federal laws and the current pursue and
private expenditure of about S100 billion a vear to
protect the environment.
Those efforts have led to very real nanonal
benefits. The staggering human heairr and ecological
problems apparent throughout eastern Europe
suggest the pnce this country wouu rn- pa vine now
had it not invested heavily m polluter ..ontrots.
Yet despite the demonstrable succe^- or past
nanonal efforts to protect the environment many
national environmental goals sni! have not been
attained. Factors like the growth in automobile use
and common agricultural practices nave caused
nanonal efforts to protect the environment to be less
effective than intended.
Furthermore, with hindsight it is clear that in
many cases those efforts have been inconsistent,
uncoordinated, and thus less effective than they
could have been. The fragmentary nature of U.S.
environmental policy has been evident in three ways:
• In laws. As different environmental problems were
identified, usually because the adverse ettects —
smog in major aties, lack of aquatic life in stream
segments, declining numbers of bald eagles — were
readily apparent, new laws were passed to address
each new problem. However, the tactics and goals of
the different laws were neither consistent nor
coordinated, even if the pollutants to be controlled
were the same. Many laws not passed primarily for
environmental purposes also had ma|or effects on
the environment.
• In Programs. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) was established as the primary Federal agency
responsible for implementing the nation's
environmental Laws. EPA then evolved an
administrative structure wherein each program was
primarily responsible for implementing specific laws.
Consequently, the efforts of the different programs
rarely were coordinated, even if they were "-"*
attempting to control different aspects of the
environmental problem. This problem is
compounded by the fact that EPA is not the'c
agency whose activities affect the environmer
• In Tools. The primary tools used to protect
environment have been controls designed to <
pollutants before they escape from smokestac
tailpipes, or sewer outfalls, and technologies
designed to clean up or destroy pollutants af
have been discharged into the environment. -
so-called "end-of-pipe" controls and remedia
technologies almost always have been apphei
because of Federal, State, or local legal requii
For a number of reasons, this kind of fragr
approach to protecting the environment will
as successful in the future as it has been in t
In this country the most obvious controls aln
have been applied to the most obvious probl
complex and less obvious environmental pro
remain, and the aggregate cost of controlling
problems one-by-one is nsing.
Moreover, this country — and the rest of
world — are facing emerging environmental
problems of unprecedented scope. Populatio
growth and industrial expansion worldwide
straining global ecosystems. Never before in
have human activities threatened to change
atmospheric chemistry to such an extent tha
climate patterns were altered.
Given the diversity, complexity, and scop*
environmental problems of concern today, it
critically important that U.S. environmental
evolves in several fundamental ways. Essen
national policy affecting the environment mi
become more integrated and more focused c
opportunities for environmental improvemei
has been in the past.
The environment is an interrelated whole,
society's environmental protection efforts sh
integrated as well. Integration in this case rr
government agencies should assess the ran[
environmental problems of concern and the
protective efforts at the problems that seem
most serious. It means that soaety should i
tools — regulatory and non-regulatory alike
are available to protect the environment. It
that controlling the end of the pipe where p
enter the environment, or remediating prob
caused by pollutants after they have enterei
environment, is not sufficient. Rather,
-------
_^ ...^ have to be modified to
waste-generating artvittes hf ve o ^
minjm&i the waste or to prevem Qn {s
^8 If^^ntScJSe secant Purees of
critica^ ^rtanLSS a« embedded in typical
environmtntal d*F?°a*°::'fesslonal activities, the
day-to-day P^^S^ Some senous
cumulaove effectt of wtucn « t
eP^vmefy^th7^^11 requ.re a more broadly
CtŁe7v3 strategic approach, ™ *"ŁŁ*» the
cooperative efforts of all segments of society.
^STe tool that can help foster the evolution of an
integrated and targeted national environmenta.
Pofccyis the concept of environmental nsk Each
environmental problem poses some possibility of
nanrVto human health, the ecology, the economic
system, or the quality of human Sfe. That*.each
problem poses some environmental nsk Risk
assessment is the process by which the form,
dimension, and characteristics of that nsk are
estimated, and risk management is the process by
which the risk is reduced. .... t. ..
The concept of environmental nsk, together with
its related terminology and analytical methodologies,
helps people discuss disparate environmental
problems with a common language. It allows many
environmental problems to be measured and
compared in common terms, and it allows different
risk reduction options to be evaluated from a
common basis. Thus the concept of environmental
risk can help the nation develop environmental
policies in a consistent and systematic way.
Scientists have made some progress in developing
quantitative measures for use in comparing different
nsks to human health. Given sufficient data, such
comparisons are now possible within limits.
Although current ability to assess and quantify
ecological risks is not as well developed, an increased
capacity for comparing different kinds of risks more
systematically would help determine which problems
are most serious and deserving of the most urgent
attention. That capacity would be even more valuable
as the number and senousness of environmental
problems competing for attention and resources
increase.
An improved ability to compare nsks in common
terms would have another value as well: it would
help society choose more wisely among the range of
policy options available for reducing nsks. There are
a number of ways to reduce the automobile
emissions that contnbute to urban smog; there are a
number of ways to decrease human exposure to lead.
The evaluation of relative nsks can help identify the
relative efficiency and effectiveness of different nsk
reduction options.
There are heavy costs involved if society fails to set
environmental prionties based on nsk. If finite
resources are expended on lower-pnonty problems at
the expense of higher-priority nsks, then societv will
face needlessly high risks. If prionties are established
based on the greatest opportunities to reduce nsk,
total risk will be reduced in a more efficient wav,
lessening threats to both public health and local and
global ecosystems.
-------
>*,
TheTeii
Recommen
1. EPA should target its environmental protection
efforts on the basis of opportunities for the greatest
risk reduction. Since this country already has taken
the most obvious actions to address the most obvious
environmental problems, EPA needs to set priorities
for future actions so the Agency takes advantage of
the best opportunities for reducing the most serious
remaining risks.
2. EPA should attach as much importance to
reducing ecological risk as it does to reducing
human health risk. Because productive natural
ecosystems are essential to human health and to
sustainable, long-term economic growth, and because
they are intrinsically valuable in their own right, EPA
should be as concerned about protecting ecosystems
as it is about protecting human health.
3. EPA should improve the data and analytical
methodologies that support the assessment,
comparison, and reduction of different
environmental risks. Although setting priorities for
national environmental protection efforts always will
involve subjective judgments and uncertainty, EPA
should work continually to improve the saennfc data
and analytical methodologies mat underpin those
judgments and heip reduce their uncertainty.
4. EPA should reflect risk-baaed priorities in its
strategic planning processes, The Agency's
long-range plans should be driven not so much by
past risk reduction efforts or by existing
programmatic structures, but by ongoing
assessments of remaining environmental risks, the
explicit comparison of mow risks, and the analysis of
opportunities available for reducing risks.
ik-ba*ed priorities in Hs
5. EPA should refie
budget procese. Although EPA's budget priorities are
determined to a Ing* extent by the different
environmental taws that the" Agency implements, it
should UM whatever discretion it has to focus budget
i at thOM environmental problems that pose
risk*
6. EPA — art the MAta**** whote— *ho
greater us* of all tie toob available to red»
Although the nation has haeV substantial sue
reducing environmental risks through the
government-mandated end-of-pipe-controis*
extent and complexity of future, rtsto will ne
the use of a much broader array of toob, inc
market incentives and information.
7. EPA should emphasize pollution prevent
the preferred option for reducing risk By
encouraging actions that prevent pollution f
being generated in the first place, EPA will t
reduce the costs, intermedia transfers of pol
and residual risks so often associated with
end-of-pipe controls.
8. EPA should increase its efforts to Integra
environmental considerations into broader
public policy in as fundamental a manner a
economic concerns. Other Federal agencies <
affect the quality of the environment, e.g., t
the implementation of tax, energy, agricultu
international policy, and EPA should work t
that environmental considerations are integr
where appropriate, into the policy deli^eratii
such agencies.
9. EPA should work to improve public
understanding of environmental risk* and t
professional workforce to help reduce them
improved environmental literacy of the gem
public, together with an expanded and betti
technical workforce, will be essential to the
success at reducing environmental risks in t
10. EPA should develop improved analytic
methods to value natural resources and to i
for long-term environmental effects in its e
analyse*. Because traditional methods of ec<
analysis tend to undervalue ecological resot
fail to treat adequately questions of intergei
equity, EPA should develop and implemen
innovative approac
address these short
to economic analysis
-------
Chapter Two—Findings
1. The Importance of
Unfinished Business
With the publication of Unfinished Business early in
H-34; H-6d 1987, EPA took a bold and much-needed step: it
E-3.Q; E-&0 compared the relative residual risks posed by a range
S-4J of different environmental problems, and thus
suggested an important shirt in national
environmental policy. With that report EPA took the
first step toward relative risk reduction; that is, a
policy that attempts to match Agency and societal
resources to risk.
To produce Unfinished Business EPA brought
together staff from all its program offices for the
explicit purpose of comparing the relative risks of
different environmental problems, regardless of
individual programmatic priorities or responsibilities.
To do that, the EPA staff had to assess
environmental risk in a context broader than
programmatic structure or legislated activities. In
short, they had to put aside considerations of
bureaucratic "turf" in order to rank the problems
they believed most needed society's attention. EPA
should be applauded for the courage and foresight to
undertake a project like Unfinished Business.
Unfinished Business presents useful, preliminary
information for comparing environmental problems,
although in some cases its rankings are a matter of
judgment and cannot be supported fully by existing
data. The Ecology and Welfare Subcommittee
questioned the welfare rankings, because it disagreed
with some of the economic assumptions underlying
those rankings and because of a general lack of
relevant economic data. The Human Health
Subcommittee questioned the accuracy of any
ranking of human health risks at this tune, given the
limited human exposure and chronic toxicity data
currently available. Both Subcommittees observed . ''
that the 31 problems assessed were not derived from
a systematic classification of all environmental
problems, and both suggested alternative and more
comprehensive approaches to classification that
would facilitate a more coherent ranking.
Most of the 31 environmental problems assessed in
Unfinished Business are so broad, and include so mam
toxic and non-toxic agents, that its ranking of
problems cannot be evaluated with rigor or
confidence. Additionally, the authors of Unfinished
Business intentionally defined environmental
problems to correspond to legislation and
programmatic organization. As a result, they
attempted to compare heterogenous mixtures of
pollutants (like air pollutants and drinking water
pollutants) to pollutant sources (like oil spills and
mining waste) to receptors (like consumers and
workers). Yet without a consistent basis for
comparison, such comparisons are tenuous at best
Moreover, because the authors chose to limit the
environmental problems they compared. Unfnn^h\i
Business does not address problems like the loss or
habitat and the decline in genetic diversity, even
though such problems pose very senous risks, and
EPA and other agencies may be able to take actions
to mitigate them. A meaningful ranking of relutitf
environmental risks must include all such nskb,
whether or not laws have been passed or program*.
set up to control them.
A final shortcoming for the authors of Untnu^n-tt
Business was the availability of data. Good data u>
evaluate risks simply did not — and in manv ui-v-
still do not — exist. The EPA staff understanJahK
used their professional judgment to fill the djt.i
gaps. The Subcommittee reports appended u> tm-
overview report document in more detail thv
members' judgments as to the relative strength .mJ
weakness of the data used to support the nsk
rankings in Unfinished Business.
The findings and recommendations described in this overview report have been derived mainly from the reports prepared
by the three Subcommittees of the Relative Risk Reduction Strategies Committee. Those reports, which are included as
appendices to mis report contain detailed information that support and more fully explain the findings and
recommendations. Such information can be found by referring to the sections of the different appendices that arc luted at
the beginning of each finding and recommendation. In the listed crossiefe
• "E" refers to the Report of the Ecology and Welfare Subcommittee;
• "H" refers to the Apart of the Human Health Subcommittee; and
• "S" refers to th* •sport of the Strategic Options Subcommittee.
-------
2. Problems in
Ranking Risks
As long as there are large gaps in key data sets,
E-3&, E-i2 efforts to evaluate nsk on a consistent, ngorous basis
H-3.0; H-&0 or to define optimum risk reduction strategies
necessarily wUl be incomplete, and the results will be
uncertain. For example, data on human exposure
and on the toxitity of many pollutants are seriously
deficient. In particular, the lack of pertinent exposure
data makes it extremely difficult to assess human
health risks.
Moreover, great uncertainty often is associated
with the data that do exist. Exposure and toxic
response models, the numbers used to quantify
nsks, and variations in individual susceptibility to
risks are often highly uncertain. Without more and
better data, conclusions about relative nsk will be
tenuous and will depend in large measure on
professional judgment.
In addition to the lack of data, methodological
inadequacies also impede the assessment and
comparison of nsk. At this time EPA does not have
an effective, consistent way of identifying
environmental problems in a manner that neither
fragments nor aggregates sources of risk to an extent
that renders comparisons untenable. EPA's current
framework of statutory mandates and program
structure helps to maintain artificial distinctions
among environmental problems, and those
distinctions are conducive neither to sound
evaluation of relative risk nor to selection of the most
effective actions to reduce risk.
In particular, the methodologies currently used to
estimate the benefits of risk reduction activities are
inadequate and inappropriate. For example, a
methodology that presumes the future value of an
ecological resource necessarily must be less than its
present value will not be a useful analytical t
sustaining economic development over the Ic
term. The standard practice of discounting ft
resource values is inappropriate, and it resul
policies that lead to the depletion of irreplace
natural resources.
Reliance on "willingness to pay" and simil.
techniques commonly used in economic anal;
distorted current understanding of the value
natural resources. While some people may n<
about wetlands and assign no value to their
existence, such areas still provide valuable ec
services to this and future generations. Whilt
people are likely to care about and be willing
for plankton and fungi, such organisms play
role in sustaining economically valuable ecos
An additional difficulty entailed in any att<
compare and rank environmental nsks is the
inevitable value judgments that must be mac
example, are health nsks posed to the aged r
less serious than health nsks posed to infant;
risks of cancer more or less serious than thre
reproductive processes? Comparing the nsks
to human populations with the risks posed t
ecosystems may be even more difficult. It se<
that subjective values always will — and sho
influence the ranking of relative environmen
no matter how sophisticated the technical an
analytical tools become.
-------
3. The Extraordinary
Value of Natural
Ecosystems
Natural ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and
E-SJt oceans are extraordinarily valuable. Those
ecosystems contain economically valuable natural
resources that feed, clothe, and house the human
race. They act as sinks that, to a certain extent,
absorb and neutralize the pollutants generated by
human activity. Although natural ecosystems — and
the linkages among them — are not completely
understood, there is no doubt that over time the
quality of human life declines as the quality of
natural ecosystems declines.
The value of natural ecosystems is not limited to
their immediate utility to humans. They have an
intrinsic, moral value that must be measured in its
own terms and protected for its own sake.
However, over the past 20 years and especially
over the past decade, EPA has paid too little
attention to natural ecosystems. The Agency has
considered the protection of public health to be its
primary mission, and it has been less concerned
about risks posed to ecosystems. The Agency's
relative lack of concern reflects society's views as
expressed in environmental legislation; ecological
degradation probably is seen as a less senous
problem because it is often subtle, long-term, and
cumulative. But for whatever reason, this imbalance
is a manifest, if inadvertent, part of current national
environmental policy.
EPA's response to human health risks as comt
to ecological risks is inappropriate, because, in th
real world, there is little distinction between the u
Over the long term, ecological degradation either
directly or indirectly degrades human health and
economy. For example, as the extent and quality ^,
saltwater estuanes decline, both human health and
local economies can suffer. As soils erode, forests.
farmlands, and waterways can become less
productive. And while the loss of species may not tx
noticed immediately, over time the decline in genetu
diversity has implications for the future health of th«
human race.
In short, human health and welfare ultimately reis
upon the life support systems and natural resources
provided by healthy ecosystems. Moreover, human
beings are part of an interconnected and
interdependent global ecosystem, and past
expenence has shown that change in one part of the
system often affects other parts in unexpected wavs
National efforts to evaluate relative environmental
risks should recognize the vital links between huma
life and natural ecosystems. Up to this point, thev
have not.
-------
4. Time, Space,
and Risk
E-13; E-7JO
S-12
While the data needed to support firm rankings of
nsk were found to be limited, the RRRSC identified a
number of important factors that must be considered
in any assessment or ranking of the hsk associated
with a particular environmental problem. Those
factors include the number of people and other
organisms exposed to the risk, the likelihood of the
environmental problem actually occurring among
those exposed, and the severity of the effects,
including the economic losses and other damages
involved, if it does occur.
In addition, two other aspects of potential
environmental problems — i.e., their temporal and
spatial dimensions — also must be given
considerable weight in any analysis of relative
environmental risk. Consideration of time and space
can help guide judgments about relative risks in the
absence of complete data.
The temporal dimension of an environmental
problem is the length of time over which the
problem is caused, recognized, and mitigated. For
some environmental problems the temporal
dimension can be very long. For example, the
chronic human health effects of air or water pollution
may become apparent only after many yean of
exposure. It may take decades of human activity to
begin to change the global climate, and more decades
may pass before the effects of human activity on the
global climate are dearly understood. Some
pollutants can persist in the environment — and thus
pose environmental risks — indefinitely. And it may
take decades or even centuries before depleted
species of wildlife recover from the loss of habitat, if
recovery is possible at all.
The spatial dimension of an environmental
problem is the extent of the geographical area that is
affected by it. Some environmental problems, like
elevated levels of radon, may be limited to the
basements of some homes, while problems like
stratospheric ozone depletion can affect the entire
globe. And some global problems, like the loss of
genetic diversity, can be caused by human activities
in reiattvrijr limited geographical areas.
The time and space dimensions of environirx
problems should weigh heavily in any compari
relative environmental risks. For example, if
long-lived pollutants like DDT and PCBs can h
concentrated in the food chain and pose a thre
future as well as present human and ecological
health, those future risks should be taken into
account when relative risks are compared. Simi
if global climate change or stratospheric ozone
depletion has the potential to affect the health .
economic well-being of virtually everyone on ft
now and in the future, the extent and duration
risk should suggest a relatively high-risk rankir
Ecosystems are generally resilient to short-te
insults. For example, oil spills and water pollut
usually cause only temporary ecological changi
nature has a substantial capacity for healing itsi
However, some changes are either permanent (
semipermanent. Destroying wetlands, altering
natural water flows (as in the Everglades), glob
warming, and stratospheric ozone depletion cai
cause irreversible and, in some cases, widespre
problems.
In fact, some long-term and widespread
environmental problems should be considered
relatively high-risk even if the data on which t
assessment is based are somewhat incomplete
uncertain. Some risks are potentially so senou
the time for recovery so long, that risk reductic
actions should be viewed as a kind of insuranc
premium and initiated in the face of incpmplet
uncertain data. The risks entailed in postponin
action can be greater than the risks entailed in
inefficient or unnecessary action. Moreover,
preemptive actions are especially justifiable if -
the energy conservation efforts that would slo\
accumulation of greenhouse gases — they leac
unrelated but immediate and substantial benef
such as improved ambient air quality and redu
U.S. dependence on imported oil.
10
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5. The Links Between
Risk and Choice
It is sometimes tempting to think simplistically about
S-12 the sources of environmental risk as being a
particular industry, a particular product, or a
particular pollutant. Conceptually, smokestacks can
be controlled, products modified', and pollutants
banned with relative ease.
But the sources of environmental risk are much
more diverse and complicated than that. In fact, the
sources of risk often are to be found in the
day-to-day choices made by individuals,
communities, and businesses. And many kinds of
environmental risk will not be reduced substantially,
especially over the long term, if past patterns of
individual, community, and business choices do not
change in light of the relative risks posed by those
choices.
In a sense, the very existence of the human race
inevitably poses some level of environmental nsk.
People necessarily generate wastes, both as
individuals and through aggregate economic
activities. People necessarily destroy or infringe upon
some natural Habitats when they construct their own.
Individuals either increase or lessen environmental
risk depending on which consumer products they
buy, how they design their homes, and whether they
walk or drive to work. Society affects environmental
risk at the local level through building codes and
zoning laws and at the national level through tax,
energy, and agricultural policies.
But all these activities involve choice, and the
environmental risks posed by many human activities
can be reduced sharply if different choices are made.
So one of the most important questions facing society
is how to influence and shape individual,
community, and business choices so that
environmental risks are reduced.
Choice is influenced by a number of factory,
including education and ethics. Some people may
choose to purchase certain consumer products
because of a genuine concern about the
environmental effects of their personal buying
patterns. Similarly, some businesses may redesign
production processes to eliminate pollution because
of a desire to be perceived as corporate "good
citizens."
Economic incentives are also important tools for
inducing particular kinds of choices. When the price
of energy rises, consumers are likely to buy more
fuel-efficient vehicles and weatherize their'homes,
while plant managers have an added incentive to
purchase more energy-efficient equipment. Full
pricing of municipal services can give people an
incentive to recycle their household wastes and
conserve water.
Laws and regulations, of course, are very effective
at shaping individual and social choices. Local
zoning laws can change the pattern of economic
development in a community and limit where homes
can be built. Local, State, and Federal procurement
regulations can have a substantial effect on the
development of markets for recycled products.
Projected future growth in population and
economic activity could add enormously to the
environmental risks faced in this country and around
the world. But growth and reductions in
environmental risk are not necessarily incompatible,
if past patterns of individual, community, and
business choice can change. In national efforts to
assess, compare, and control relative risks, the
importance of those choices — and the policy options
available to influence those choices — should not be
overlooked.
11
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6. Public Perceptions
of Risk
S-B.4
Public opinion polls taken over the past several years
confirm that people are more worried about
environmental problems now than they were 20
years ago when the first wave of environmental
concern led to major changes in national policy. But
the areas of greatest concern to the public today are
not necessarily those problems identified in
Unfinished Business. In other words, the remaining
and emerging environmental risks considered most
serious by the general public today are different from
those considered most serious by the technical
professionals charged with reducing environmental
risk.
This dichotomy between public perceptions and
professional understanding of environmental risk
presents an enormous challenge to a pluralistic,
democratic country. A Federal agency like EPA must
be sensitive to public concerns about environmental
problems. In fact, since public concerns tend to drive
national legislation. Federal environmental laws are
more reflective of public perceptions of risk than of
scientific understanding of risk. Consequently, EPA's
budget and staff resources tend to be directed at
those environmental problems perceived to be most
serious by the general public.
Yet if national resources are to be used most
effectively to promote environmental quality, then
such resources must be aimed at those
environmental problems that pose the greatest risks.
The ability to match resources to risks will mi
the success of national policies to protect the
environment.
One obvious way to bridge this dichotomy
be to improve the public's understanding of t
scientific and technical aspects of environmer
while improving scientists' understanding of
basis of public concern. Public perceptions of
environmental risk tend to incorporate deeph
subjective values, like justice and equity, that
although difficult to quantify, reflect importa
elements of the quality of life that govemmer
bound to protect. Moreover, since the saenh
understanding of any environmental problem
likely to evolve as the science improves, and
environmental policy necessarily embodies SL
values, scientific understanding should not fcx
sole determinant of environmental policy.
Therefore, EPA must be prepared to listen
carefully to the public's perceptions of nsk.
Moreover, EPA should balance those percept
with current scientific understanding as the f
develops long-term risk reduction strategies.
12
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7. Relatively High-Risk
Environmental Problems
E4&, E-6A-
H-5&, H-7.0
The RRRSC not only reviewed the risk rankings
contained in Unfinished Business, but it also identified
several environmental problems as relatively
high-risk, based on available scientific data and
technical understanding. This effort was challenging
for a number of reasons. Ecological, health, and
welfare risks can be manifested in a number of
different endpoints; it is difficult to compare risks
with widely different time scales and spatial
dimensions; because of data gaps and methodological
inadequacies, it is rarely feasible to quantify total
risk. In other words, the RRRSC faced mariv of the
same hurdles that faced the authors of i
Business when they developed their risk ranking
Consequently, the RRRSC did not rank risks i
same manner a's Unfinished Business did. The Eci
and Welfare Subcommittee grouped environment
problems into high-, medium-, and low-risk areas;,
the Human Health Subcommittee identified
environmental problem areas where existing data
indicated that risks could be relatively high.
Additional data might identify additional high-risk
problems. Both Subcommittees developed their
assessments in light of the latest scientific and
technical knowledge and using their best profession
judgment, and both caution that their assessments
are Based on incomplete and often inadequate
knowledge about 1) the extent of human and
ecological exposures to pollutants and 2)
exposure-response relationships.
Risks To The Natural Ecology And Human Welfare
The Ecology and Welfare Subcommittee identified areas
of relatively high, medium, and low risk, despite gaps
in the relevant data. The four environmental problems
that it considered to be relatively high-risk are likeJy to
be considered nigh-risk even after data and analytical
methodologies are improved, because the geographic
scale of all four is very large (regional to global), and
because the time that could be required to mitigate all
four is very long, and some effects are irreversible.
The Ecology and Welfare Subcommittee did not limit
their assessment to the environmental problems listed
in Unfinished Business. The order of problems listed
within each of the three different risk groups shown
below is not meant to imply a ranking.
Relatively High-Ruk Problem*
• Habitat Alteration and Destruction
Humans are altering and destroying natural
habitats in many puces worldwide, e.g., by the
draining and degradation of wetlands, soft
erosion, and the deforestation of tropical and
tempciaic rain forests.
• Species Extinction and Overall Loss of Biological
Diversity
Many human activttfesiare causing species
extinction and depiction and the overall loss of
biological diverstavinchidang the genetic diversity
of surviving
• Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Because releases of chlorofluorocarfaons and other
ozone-depleting gases are thinning the earth's
stratospheric ozone layer, more ultraviolet
radiation is reaching the earth's surface, thus
stressing many kinds of organisms.
• Global Climate Change
Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and other
greenhouse gases are altering the chemistry of the
atmosphere, threatening to change the global climate.
Relatively Me4aa*-Ri*k Problem*
• Herbicides/Pesticides
• Toxics, Nutrients, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, and
Turbidity in Surface Waters
• Acid Deposition
• Airborne Toxics
Relatively Low-Risk Problem*
• Oil Spills
• Groundwater Pollution
• Radionudides
• Acid Runoff to Surface Waters
• Thermal PoOuoon
13
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#
Chapter Three—Recommendations
1. EPA Should Taiwt Its Environmental Protection
Efforts On The Iwis Of Opportunities For The
Greatest Risk Reduction
Seen in its historical context, the ad hoc development
of U.S. national environmental policy is
understandable. Yet 20 years of experience in
developing and implementing environmental policy
has demonstrated that not all environmental
problems are equally serious, and not all remediation
efforts are equally urgent. The nation cannot do
everything at once. In national efforts to protect the
environment, the most obvious steps have been
taken to reduce the most obvious risks. Now
environmental priorities must be set.
In order to set priorities for reducing
environmental risks, EPA must weigh the relative
risks posed by different environmental problems,
determine if there are cost-effective opportunities for
reducing those risks, and then identify the most
cost-effective risk reduction options. This effort
should build on the analytical process begun in
Unfinished Business and in this report and its
appendices.
However, the SAB recognizes that risk analyses
always will be imperfect tools. No matter how much
the data and methodologies are improved. EPA's
decisions to direct specific actions at specific risks
will entail a large measure of subjective judgment.
Yet the SAB believes that relative risk data and risk
assessment techniques should inform that judgment
as much as possible. In short, EPA programs should
be shaped and guided by the principle of relative risk
reduction, and all available risk data and the most
advanced risk assessment and comparison
methodologies should be incorporated explici
the Agency's decisionmaking process.
In order to implement a risk-based action a
EPA must take several essential steps. It mus
articulate to its own employees and to the gei
public the fact that it intends to set priorities
action based on opportunities for relative nsk
reduction. Next the Agency must establish an
process for incorporating those consideration:
long-term planning and budget processes. Fir
the Agency must act on those priorities.
In practice, of course, EPA's activities are d
by the laws that it is required to administer. I
also has a responsibility to respond to public
concerns about an environmental problem, nc
how limited the risk may seem to be. Howevi
should not limit its risk comparison efforts to
environmental problems it is required bv law
mitigate. The risks posed by other problems a
potential problems — like the loss of biologic
diversity — must be compared and ranked as
Simply stated, EPA is responsible for prote<
the environment, not just for implementing
environmental law. Thus the Agency should
and compare the universe of environmental r
then take the initiative to address the most s<
risks, whether or not Agency action is requiri
specifically by law.
16
-------
2. EPA Should Attach As Much Importance To
Reducing Ecological Risk As It Does To Reducing
Human Health Risk
E-LO
Largely because of the requirements of the laws it
administers, EPA has tended to pay far more
attention to protecting human health and welfare
than to protecting the ecology. Indeed, during the
1980s EPA's agenda was dominated by concerns
about the effects of toxic chemicals on human health.
Yet from the perspective of risk there are strong
linkages between human health and the health of
wetlands, forests, oceans, and estuaries. Most
human activities that pose significant ecological risks
— for example, the effects of agricultural activities on
wetlands — pose direct or indirect human health
risks as well. Likewise, actions taken to reduce
pollution and thus improve human health usually
improve various aspects of ecological quality.
These very close linkages between human health
and ecological health should be reflected in national
environmental policy. When EPA compares the risks
posed by different environmental problems in order
to set priorities for Agency action, the risks posed to
ecological systems must be an important part of the
equation.
This recommendation is not meant to imply the
relative value of human life vis a vis plant or animal
life. Rather, it is meant to reflect in national
environmental policy the very strong ties between alt -
forms of life on this planet. Ecological systems like
the atmosphere, oceans, and wetlands have a limite.
capacity for absorbing the environmental degradation
caused'by human activities. After that capacity is
exceeded", it is only a matter of time before those 3
ecosystems begin to deteriorate and human health
and welfare begin to suffer.
In short, beyond their importance for protecting
plant and animal life and preserving biodiversity,
healthy ecosystems are a prerequisite to healthy
humans and prosperous economies. Although
ecological damage may not become apparent for
years, society should not be blind to the fact that
damage is occurring and the losses will be felt, sooner
or later, by humans. Moreover, when species and
habitat are depleted, ecological health may recover
only with great difficulty, if recovery is possible at
all.
Thus EPA's risk-based priorities for action should
reflect an appropriate balance between ecological.
human health, and welfare concerns. Furthermore.
the Agency should communicate to the general
public a clear message that it considers ecological
risks to be just as serious as human health and
welfare risks, because of the inherent value of
ecological systems and their strong links to human
healt"
17
-------
10. EPA Should Develop Improved Methods To
Value Natural Resources And To Account For
Long-Term Environmental Effects In Its
Economic Analyses
Traditional forms of economic analysis, as applied to
the costs and benefits of economic development and
environmental protection, have systematically
undervalued natural resources. This practice
threatens the world's natural resources — like
estuaries and rainforests — without which the lives
of future generations will be impoverished. The
failure of current analytic techniques to estimate
properly either the full benefits of natural ecosystems
or tne full costs of activities that degrade them too
often has allowed the justification of long-term
ecological degradation for the sake of present gam.
A private company invests its profits to maintain
and increase its capital value. When a company
invests to maintain facilities, expand production, buy
new equipment, and improve tne quality of services'
provided, it protects its long-term health.
In a similar manner, this planet requires certain
investments in order to maintain itself as a healthy
ecosystem and to ensure sustainable, long-term
economic growth. Future generations depend on
those investments, and if they are not made, then
civilization will put itself out of business.
It is necessary and appropriate to conduct
economic analyses of human activities that affect the
environment. But it is essential that such analyses
properly value the long-term, sustained productivity
of natural ecosystems, for that reason, EPA should
undertake a broad national effort to develop
analytical techniques that more adequately assess the
real long-term value of ecosystems, and that support
the identification of the most cost-effective wavs to
reduce risks that threaten long-term, sustained
productivity.
There are a variety of problems with pn.
methods. Many of the problems stem fron
that public goods, such as dean air, are ur
markets and thus are easily — and often—
undervalued in economic analyses. Nation
accounting schemes typically characterize n
generated by activities that deplete or degn
environmental resources as "income" while
consider the resulting depletion of society's
environmental capital assets.
When economists do try to value ecosysti
are hobbled by the limitations of the availat
For instance, the "willingness to pay" methi
significantly undervalue aspects of ecosyste
which people are not familiar. Some of the
assumptions underlying discounting proced
not hold when environmental effects occur c
time periods; thus they assign little value to
very important long-term effects. Multipliers
applied differently to environmental values t
are to more traditionally measured economic
(e.g., employment) may further distort the n
economic analyses.
As a first step EPA should commission a s
that surveys the ideas of ecologists, economu
social scientists, and other experts from insid
outside the Agency. The study should attem
develop a way of incorporating ecological
investments into a concept of sustainable gn>
Environmental economics is a controversial
complex, and rapidly-evolving field. EPA sho
the lead in developing methods of analysis th
give fair consideration to investments that wil
protect the natural resource base for future
generations.
25
-------
This overview report has been derived mainly
from three detailed reports prepared by the
three Subcommittees of the Relative Risk
Reduction Strategies Committee. Those
reports are:
• Appendix A: Report of the Ecology and Welfare
Sufcommitt«(EPA-SAB-EC-90-021A).
Includes a critique of the ecological and
welfare rankings in Unfinished Business.
Suggests an alternative approach to defining
environmental problems, ranking them from
an ecological perspective. Identifies a need to
more accurately reflect ecological concerns in
economic/welfare considerations.
• Appendix B: Report of the Human Health
Sufccommitt«(EPA-SAB-EC-90-021B).
Includes a critique of the cancer and
non-cancer rankings in Unfinished Business.
Provides specific suggestions for
methodological improvements for analyzing
and evaluating relative nsks of environmental
problems, including a possible approach for
merging cancer and non-cancer concerns.
• Appendix G Report of the Strategic Options
Sufcommitt«(EPA-SAB-EC-90-021C).
Describes the wide range of "tools"
available for addressing environmental
problems. Includes 60 examples of such
strategic options applied to 13 different
environmental problems. Provides a set of
criteria for selecting from among the options
in any given case.
Copies of the three appendices to this
report can be obtained by writing:
The Science Advisory Board (A-101)
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S. W.
Washington, D. C. 20460
26
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Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT D
PROBLEMS AND PARTNERSHIP
IN BIODIVERSITY
Class #19
How Can People Live With
the Land to Help Our Own
Long-Term Survival?
******************
OBJECTIVE: For students to understand that the concept
and subject of "land use" is an important
area that bears upon the interrelationship
between biodiversity and human enterprise.
THEME: Our land use decisions are important factors
in the ability of migratory birds to survive,
upon biodiversity, and in the ability of
humans to survive in the long-run.
CLASS
ACTIVITIES;
I. Review the concept of "forest fragmentation" discussed
in Class #17. Explain that it centers on the concept
of "land use".
II. Discuss the article assigned as Homework reading from
Class #18, "Carving Up Tomorrow's Planet". Encourage
students to discuss whether they agree or not that the
planet should be "carved up" as set forth in the
article. Encourage students to suggest alternatives.
Note the suggested alternatives on the blackboard, flip
chart or overhead projector. Discuss the students
suggestions.
Possibly, organize students into debate teams to
advocate different positions on these issues, ie.
taking the side of the Robinson interview, and taking
19-1
-------
the position of different alternatives offered by the
students.
III.
If there is enough time, discuss articles from the
local newspaper centering on land use issues. Discuss
the how they may relate to protection of migratory
birds, local ecosystems and biodiversity.
PREPARATION:
Read and become familiar with the articles assigned as
Homework reading from Class #18.
Select local newspaper articles on land use, from the
articles you have been collecting this spring.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Blackboard, flip-chart pad or overhead projector.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Read:
Weissman, Arthur, "Why Save Neotropical Migratory
Birds?", Partners in Flight newsletter, Vol. 3,
No. 2, pp. 10-11; and
Babbitt, Bruce, "Protecting Biodiversity", Nature
Conservancy, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jan./Feb. 1994); pp.
16-21.
FOLLOW-UP:
HANDOUTS:
Make note of discussion themes that may need to be
picked up in the remaining classes.
Articles from local newspaper on land use issues
LINKS:
Sociology and geography.
******************
19-2
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Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT D
PROBLEMS AND PARTNERSHIP
IN BIODIVERSITY
Class #20
Key Tools We Have to
Protect Migratory Birds
and Biodiversity
OBJECTIVE:
Introduce students to key tools we have to
protect Neotropical migratory birds and
biodiversity: the Endangered Species Act and
the 1993 Biodiversity Convention.
THEME:
II.
Ill
We have important legal tools that can be
used to help protect migratory birds,
biodiversity, and ensure our own long-term
survival.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I.
Introduce the Endangered Species Act, pointing out the
specified purpose, and the framework of the law. This
law involves some complicated provisions. It is not
necessary to delve into the details of the law. It may
be one of the first times, however, that students have
examined the actual text of a law, and so it is a
useful activity to even see what is there, and how it
is organized. Similarly, the 1993 Biodiversity
Convention can be examined and considered by the class.
Discuss the article assigned as Homework reading from
Class #19, "Protecting Biodiversity", which can be used
as an illustration of current issues under the
Endangered Species Act.
Hand out copies of the "Pan American Day and Pan
American Week, 1993", proclamation by the President
(copy in "Handouts", below). Discuss this type of
20-1
-------
document, as contrasted with the laws examined earlier.
Discuss how the recognition of the linkage of the
Americas affects the issue of migratory birds.
PREPARATION:
Read and become familiar with the article assigned as
Homework for Class #19.
Review the excerpts provided in "Handouts" on the
Endangered Species Act and the Biodiversity Convention,
and select points you wish to bring up during the class
discussion.
Copy the "Proclamation" identified in "Handouts",
below.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Copies of: the Endangered Species Act (excerpts)
the "Pan American Day Proclamation"
the Biodiversity Convention
identified-in "Handouts", below.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Articles to be discussed during the next class can be
handed out to the students as homework reading.
Alternatively, the teacher may decide to hand them out
during the next class, for reading during the class.
FOLLOW-UP:
Identify any discussion items that need to be covered
in the next class.
HANDOUTS:
Proclamation, "Pan American Day and Pan American Week"
Endangered Species Act (excerpts)
Biodiversity Convention
LINKS: Law, political science, civics and geography.
t******i
20-2
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Class #20
HANDOUT
excerpts from the federal
ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT
-------
excerpts from
the federal
ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT
16 U.S.C. § 1531
See.
1531.
1532.
1533.
1534.
1535.
1536.
CHAPTER 35—ENDANGERED SPECIES
Congressional findings and declaration of
purposes and policy.
(a) Findings.
(b) Purposes.
(c) Policy.
Definitions.
Determination of endangered species and
threatened species.
(a) Generally.
(b) Baste for determinations.
(c) Lists.
-------
§ 1531. Congressional findings and declaration of pur-
poses and policy
(a) Findings
The Congress finds and declares that—
(1) various species of fish, wildlife, and
plants in the United States have been ren-
dered extinct as a consequence of economic
growth and development untempered by ade-
quate concern and conservation;
(2) other species of fish, wildlife, and plants
have been so depleted in numbers that they
are in danger of or threatened with extinc-
tion;
(3) these species of fish, wildlife, and plants
are of esthetic, ecological, educational, his-
torical, recreational, and scientific value to
the Nation and its people;
(4) the United States has pledged itself as a
sovereign state in the international communi-
ty to conserve to the extent practicable the
various species of fish or wildlife and plants
facing extinction, pursuant to—
(A) migratory bird treaties with Canada
and Mexico;
(B) the Migratory and Endangered Bird
Treaty with Japan;
(C) the Convention on Nature Protection
and Wildlife Preservation in the Western
Hemisphere;
(D) the International Convention for the
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries;
(E) the International Convention for the
High Seas Fisheries of the North Pacific
Ocean;
(F) the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora; and
(G) other international agreements.
(5) encouraging the States and other inter-
ested parties, through Federal financial as-
sistance and a system of incentives, to develop
and maintain conservation programs which
meet national and international standards is
a key to meeting the Nation's international
commitments and to better safeguarding, for
the benefit of all citizens, the Nation's herit-
age in fish, wildlife, and plants.
(b) Purposes
The purposes of this chapter are to provide a
means whereby the ecosystems upon which en-
dangered species and threatened species depend
may be conserved, to provide a program for the
conservation of such endangered species and
threatened species, and to take such steps as
may be appropriate to achieve the purposes of
the treaties and conventions set forth in subsec-
tion (a) of this section.
(c) Policy
(1) It is further declared to be the policy of
Congress that all Federal departments and
agencies shall seek to conserve endangered spe-
cies and threatened species and shall utilize
their authorities in furtherance of the purposes
of this chapter.
(2) It is further declared to be the policy of
Congress that Federal agencies shall cooperate
with State and local agencies to resolve water
resource issues in concert with conservation of
endangered species.
(Pub. L. 93-205, § 2, Dec. 28. 1973, 87 Stat. 884;
Pub. L. 90-159. S 1. Dec. 28, 1979. 93 Stat. 1225;
Pub. L. 97-304, §9(a), Oct. 13, 1982, 96 Stat.
1426.)
-------
____ „_ __ _. tt* chapte*-
(WTh«4enfcM«H«native course* of actkm"
means aUalternatrn* and thus is not limited
to original project objectives and agency Ju-
risdiction.
(2) The term "commercial activity" means
all activities of industry and trade, including,
but not limited to, the buying or selling of
commodities and activities conducted for the
purpose of farititatmg such buying and sell-
ing: Provided, however, That it does not in-
clude exhibition of commodities by museums
or similar cultural or historical organizations.
(3) The terms "conserve", "conserving", and
"conservation" mean to use and the use of all
methods and procedures which are necessary
to bring any endangered species or threat-
ened species to the point at which the meas-
ures provided pursuant to this chapter are no
longer necessary. Such methods and proce-
dures include, but are not limited to, all activ-
ities associated with scientific resources man-
agement such as research, census, law en-
forcement, habitat acquisition and mainte-
nance, propagation, live trapping, and trans-
plantation, and, in the extraordinary case
where population pressures within a given
ecosystem cannot be otherwise relieved, may
include regulated taking.
(4) The term "Convention" means the Con-
vention on International Trade in Endan-
gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
signed on March 3, 1973, and the appendices
thereto.
(SKA) The term "critical habitat" for a
threatened or endangered species means-
CD the specific areas within the geographi-
cal area occupied by the species, at the time
it is listed in accordance with the provisions
of section 1533 of this title, on which are
found those physical or biological features
(I) essential to the conservation of the spe-
cies and (II) which may require special
management considerations or protection;
and
(ii) specific areas outside the geographical
area occupied by the species at the time it is
listed in accordance with the provisions of
section 1533 of this title, upon a determina-
tion by the Secretary that such areas are
essential for the conservation of the species.
(B) Critical habitat may be established for
those species now listed as threatened or en-
dangered species for which no critical habitat
has heretofore been established as set forth
in subparagraph (A) of this paragraph.
(C) Except in those circumstances deter-
mined by the Secretary, critical habitat shall
not include the entire geographical area
which can be occupied by the threatened or
endangered spades.
(6) The ten* "endangered species" means
any species which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of its
range other than a species of the Clan In-
sect* determined by the Secretary to consti-
tute a pest whose protection under the provi-
sions of this chapter would present an over-
whelming and overriding risk to man.
(7) The term "Federal agency" means any
department, agency, or instrumentality of the
United States.
(8) The term "fish or wildlife" means any
member of the animal kingdom, including
without limitation any 1*1^"""^'. fish, bird
(including any migratory, nonmlgratory. or
endangered bird for which protection Is also
afforded by treaty or other ational
(A) between petrorwithto on* few' ^
country; ^:.
(B) between persons In two or more for- f
eign countries; >
(C) between a person within the Unite*
States and a person in a foreign country; or
(D) between persona within the Unite*
States, where the fish and wildlife in Ques-
tion are moving in any country or countrie*
outside the United States. __
(10) The term "import" means to land on,
bring into, or introduce into, or attempt to
land on, bring into, or introduce into, any
place subject to the jurisdiction of the United
States, whether or not such landing, bringing.
or introduction constitutes an importation
within the meaning of the customs laws of
the United States.
(11) Repealed. Pub. L. 97-304, S4(b). Oct.
13.1982. 96 Stat. 1420.
(12) The term "permit or license applicant"
means, when used with respect to an action of
a Federal agency for which exemption is
sought under section 1536 of this title, any
person whose application to such agency for a
permit or license has been denied primarily
because of the application of section 1536
-------
81537. International cooperation
(•) Financial assistance
As a demonstration of the commitment of the
United States to the worldwide protection of
endangered species and threatened species, the
President may, subject to the provisions of sec-
tion 1306 of title 31. use foreign currencies ac-
cruing to the United States Government under
the Agricultural Trade Development and As-
sistance Act of 1954 t7 U.S.C. 1691 et seq.l or
any other law to provide to any foreign country
(with its consent) assistance in the development
and management of programs in that country
which the Secretary determines to be necessary
or useful for the conservation of any endan-
gered species or threatened species listed by the
Secretary pursuant to section 1533 of this title.
The President shall provide assistance (which
includes, but is not limited to, the acquisition,
by lease or otherwise, of lands, waters, or inter-
ests therein) to foreign countries under this
section under such terms and conditions as he
deems appropriate. Whenever foreign curren-
cies are available for the provision of assistance
under this section, such currencies shall be
used in preference to funds appropriated under
the authority of section 1542 of this title.
(b) Encouragement of foreign programs
In order to carry out further the provisions of
this chapter, the Secretary, through the Secre-
tary of State, shall encourage—
(1) foreign countries to provide for the con-
servation of fish or wildlife and plants includ-
ing endangered species and threatened spe-
cies listed pursuant to section 1533 of this
title;
(2) the entering into of bilateral or multilat-
eral agreements with foreign countries to pro-
vide for such conservation; and
(3) foreign persons who directly or indirect-
ly take fish or wildlife or plants in foreign
countries or on the high seas for importation
into the United States for commercial or
other purposes to develop and carry out with
such assistance as he may provide, conserva-
tion practices designed to enhance such fish
or wildlife or plants and their habitat
(c) Personnel
After consultation with the Secretary of
State, the Secretary may-
CD assign or otherwise make available any
officer or employee of his department for the
purpose of cooperating with foreign countries
and international organizations in developing
personnel resources and programs which pro-
mote the conservation of fish or wildlife or
plants; and
(2) conduct or provide financial assistance
for the educational training of foreign per-
sonnel, in this country or abroad, in fish,
wildlife, or plant management, research and
law enforcement and to render professional
assistance abroad in such matters.
(d) Investigations
After consultation with the Secretary of
State and the Secretary of the Treasury, as ap-
propriate, the Secretary may conduct or cause
to be conducted such law enforcement investi-
gations and research abroad as he deems neces-
sary to carry out the purposes of this chapter.
(Pub. L. 93-205. 18, Dec. 28, 1973, 87 Stat. 892;
Pub. L. 96-159. § 5. Dec. 28, 1979, 93 Stat. 1228.)
-------
§ 1537&. Convention implementation
(a) Management Authority and Scientific Authority
The Secretary of the Interior (hereinafter in
this section referred to as the "Secretary") is
designated as the Management Authority and
the Scientific Authority for purposes of the
Convention and the respective functions of
each such Authority shall be carried out
through the United States Pish and Wildlife
Service.
(b) Management Authority function!
The Secretary shall do all things necessary
and appropriate to carry out the functions of
the Management Authority under the Conven-
tion.
(c) Scientific Authority functions; determinations
(1) The Secretary shall do all things neces-
sary and appropriate to carry out the functions
of the Scientific Authority under the Conven-
tion.
(2) The Secretary shall base the determina-
tions and advice given by him under Article IV
of the Convention with respect to wildlife upon
the best available biological information de-
rived from professionally accepted wildlife
management practices; but is not required to
make, or require any State to make, estimates
of population size in making such determina-
tions or giving such advice.
(d) Reservations by the United States under Conven-
tion
If the United States votes against including
any species in Appendix I or II of the Conven-
tion and does not enter a reservation pursuant
to paragraph (3) of Article XV of the Conven-
tion with respect to that species, the Secretary
of State, before the 90th day after the last day
on which such a reservation could be entered,
shall submit to the Committee on Merchant
Marine and Fisheries of the House of Repre-
sentatives, and to the Committee on the Envi-
ronment and Public Works of the Senate, a
written report setting forth the reasons why
such a reservation was not entered.
(e) Wildlife preservation in Western Hemisphere
(1) The Secretary of the Interior (hereinafter
in this subsection referred to as the "Secre-
tary"), in cooperation with the Secretary of
State, shall act on behalf of, and represent, the
United States in all regards as required by the
Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (56
Stat. 1354, T.S. 982. hereinafter in this subsec-
tion referred to as the "Western Convention").
In the discharge of these responsibilities, the
Secretary and the Secretary of State shall con-
sult with the Secretary of Agriculture, the Sec-
retary of Commerce, and the heads of other
agencies with respect to matters relating to or
affecting their areas of responsibility.
(2) The Secretary and the Secretary of State
shall, in cooperation with the contracting par-
ties to the Western Convention and, to the
extent feasible and appropriate, with the par-
ticipation of State agencies, take such steps as
are necessary to implement the Western Con-
vention. Such steps shall include, but not be
limited to—
(A) cooperation with contracting parties
and International organizations for the pur-
pose of developing personnel resources and
programs that will facilitate implementation
of the Western Convention;
(B) identification of those species of birds
that migrate between the United States and
other contracting parties, and the habitats
upon which those species depend, and the im-
plementation of cooperative measures to
ensure that such species will not become en-
dangered or threatened; and
(C) identification of measures that are nec-
essary and appropriate to implement those
provisions of the Western Convention which
address the protection of wild plants.
(3) No later than September 30,1985, the Sec-
retary and the Secretary of State shall submit a
report to Congress describing those steps taken
in accordance with the requirements of this
subsection and identifying the principal re-
maining actions yet necessary for comprehen-
sive and effective implementation of the West-
ern Convention.
-------
Class #20
HANDOUT
Article:
"Why Save Neotropical Migratory Birds?"
by Arthur Weissman
-------
Part 2
by: Arthur Weissman
(This co/u/raMxptores some of the reasons behind all the activities described in the rest of toe Partners
in Flight nem&etter. The reasons for saving neotropical migratory birds are, of course, multifarious-
biological, ecological, aesthetic, economic, philosophical, and even spiritual. As the Partners in Flight
Program broadens its base and begins to have real effects, the question will inevitably be asked: why
save the birds? You don't have to be an avid birder or ornithologist to appreciate the answers.)
With all the irony and
surprise found in the natu-
ral world, we can truly say
that we need to save nature to
save ourselves, and to care
for other animals to become
better human beings. —
becomes a speculative matter,
hypothetical but not proved,
that certain ecosystems may
become impaired or de-
stroyed without birds. With a
few exceptions, such as the
That we depend physi-
cally and biologically
on the world around us
is at once obvious to the
point of tautology and
also frustratingly elusive.
Nature provides the basic
materials and energy neces-
sary for all life to survive and
reproduce. Birds play an
important role in the so-
called life-support systems by
keeping in balance the growth
of insects and other prey, by
spreading seeds and in some
cases causing them to germi-
nate, and by providing food
to their predators.
But would removal of the
avian class—much less the
subset of neotropical migra-
tory birds—in itself under-
mine these .
systemsjtfThe
very qug&ton
makes wwhift
uncomfortably*
both because it
evokes a horrible
As human beings we strive to
save birds... because we have
learned to care
oilbirds of Venezuela, we
lack the definitive connection
demonstrating not only that
birds are part of the web of
life, which is self-evident, but
that their absence would tear
the web asunder. (As a result,
we often fall back on the
equally compelling notion
that birds are indicators of
ecosystem health: if they go,
the rest is going too.)
And so it is throughout
nature. It is difficult enough
to obtain an accurate baseline
along one ecosystem dimen-
sion (witness the continuing
Birds play an important role in life-support
systems by controlling the growth of
insects and by spreading seeds
thought and because it is so controversy about the real
becomes a formidable task
that often eludes us in all but
the most egregious (or el-
egant) cases. A still further
connection then needs to be
made between ecosystem
structure and function
and the presence of
any particular species,
and then between
ecosystem health and
the health of our
species; a connection
which, in view of society's
indifference to the loss of
species and to global warm-
ing, does not appear to be
transparent or automatically
compelling.
So we can't with certainty
assert that loss of birds or any
subset of bird species neces-
sarily undermines ecosystems
and endangers our existence.
Many of us remain convinced,
however, that major ecologi-
cal processes cannot be
destroyed or grievously
altered without threatening
our very survival. In the spirit
of Leopold, we
are also inclined
to believe that
major compo-
nents of an
ecosystem are
vital to its sur-
difficult to answer affirma-
tively. We can tally up the
tons of insects removed by
feeding birds, the number of
seeds ingested and dispersed,
the larvae that might other-
wise smother a forest. It
population trends of neotropi-
cal migrants; see Hagan and
Johnston, eds., Ecology and
Conservation of Neotropical
Migrant Landbirds). Trying""
to correlate two or more
variables in an ecosystem >?
vival, and that removal of a
number of bird species, for
example, could damage the
ecosystem irreparably.
As human-beings we are
also concerned about our
moral state. If we were truly
Copyright ® Partners in Flight newsletter, 1993.
Reprinted with permission.
-------
children of nature, we would
not consciously consider the
welfare of other species,
except perhaps as it might
affect our own survival. But
we are endowed with the
potential of a moral con-
science—both a curse
and a blessing, but
most of all an
underused faculty. The
development of a
moral conscience is
directly correlated
with the extent to
which one is truly concerned
for the welfare of "others"—
outside the self (the first
step), outside the family,
outside the nation... and
ultimately outside our own
species. The vanguard of
humanity has just reached this
final moral frontier; the vast
majority scarcely realizes it
exists, or is more likely to
belittle the notion of caring
intrinsically for other species,
especially if it compromises
its own immediate desires or
needs.
This is why it is essential for
us as human beings
to care
about the
welfare of
the rest of
nature. Yes,
there are many
unmet needs in
our own species:
people are starv-
ing, living in
substandard
conditions, or
not getting
opportunities
to produce or
be fulfilled. While these expanding our love to rela-
social needs must be ad- lives or friends; there s notn-
dressed even more than they ing wrong with it, but it is a
are today, we must reserve an limited and somewhat sell-
important portion of our serving love. Caring about tne
efforts to benefit other species small and unglamorous (even
as well. The other species we ugly) species reflects not only
a fuller appreciation
of the web of life but
also a greater love for
Caring about the small and
unglamorous species reflects a
greater love for the whole of life
help tend at first to be the
glamor species or those with
whom we can best identify or
empathize: large mammals of
land or sea, birds, big trees,
and fish. This is equivalent to
Indigo Buntings
winter in southern
Florida, Central
America, the
Bahamas, and the
Greater Antilles.
the whole of life.
Neotropical migratory
landbirds probably fit
in both categories.
Many are colorful and aes-
thetically appealing, stars of
the nature-appreciation
sweepstakes. But as a group
they suffer from being out of
sight for over half the year, as
well as from having an
uncatchy name. Even birders
are not apt to think about
what happens to them outside
breeding season. It takes a
moral leap to appreciate their
special existence and the
vicissitudes involved.
As ecologists, then,
we seek to save birds
because we have
reason to believe they
are important to the
ecosystems
upon which
we and all
living things
depend. As human beings, we
strive to save birds, including
neotropical migratory birds,
because we have learned to
care.
Contact: Arthur Weissman.
Green Seal, 1250 23rd Street
NW, Washington, DC 20037
(Phone: 202-331-7337; FAX:
202-331-7533).
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Class #20
HANDOUT
copy of a Presidential Proclamation:
Pan American Day and Pan American Week, 1993
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Presidential Documents
Vol. 58. No. 73
•Uonday. Apfii 19, 1993
Title 3— Proclamation 6545 of April 14, 1999
The President Pan American Day and Pan American Week, 1993
r
By the President of the United States of America
A Proclamation
Five hundred years after the first Europeans began exploring tho Americas.
it is appropriate to reflect on our hemisphere's unique role in this rapidly
changing world and to rediscover the peoples of the Americas. On Pan
American Day, the people of the Americas pledge to renew the ties that
make our relationship unique. We cherish our hemisphere's proud history
as we look forward to a new era of cooperation between our countries
and cultures.
We have seen remarkable changes around the globe. The defeat of totalitarian-
ism and the sweep of democratic and free market reforms have brought
new opportunities and new challenges to the world. Progress toward political.
economic, and social change has been dramatic in our own hemisphere.
From North to South, more and more citizens of the Americas are enjoying
the benefits of liberty. Fundamental principles of democracy, including re-
spect for human rights, continue to be embraced. It is our hope that all
nations of the Americas will join in this democratic revolution and at
last realize the dream of a hemisphere of democratic nations.
The need for international cooperation is greater than ever, because we
face many difficult issues in this era: drug trafficking, weapons proliferation,
and environmental degradation. Through a renewed partnership between
nations of this hemisphere, we can develop innovative means to combat
such problems, thus ensuring lasting security for future generations.
A century ago, representatives of the nations of this hemisphere met in
Washington to establish the International Union of the American Republics.
Accepting the principles of democracy, peace, security, and prosperity, these
member nations made a firm commitment to mutual cooperation throughout
the hemisphere. Its successor, the Organization of American States, has
furthered this commitment. In the words of the Charter of the Organization
of American States, "[the] historic mission of America is to offer to man
a land of liberty." I applaud and encourage the activity of the Organization
of American States in this pursuit to ensure that worldwide changes create
a hemisphere of peace and prosperity.
We can take great pnde in what the Americas have already achieved. But
there is much work to be done. Ail Americans from North to South should
renew their commitment to fulfilling our forefathers' vision of an inter-
America system. The hemisphere of George Washington and Thomas Jeffer-
son, of Simon Bolivar and Jos6 da San Martin, establishes an example
of freedom for the rest of the world. With democracy as the cornerstone
of a new working partnership, we can achieve a revolutionary level of
cooperation among the countries of America.
NOW. THEREFORE. I. WILLIAM J. CLINTON. President of the United States
of America, by the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the
laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim Wednesday, April 14, 1993.
as "Pan American Day" and the week of April 11 through April 17. 1993,
as "Pan American Week." I urge the Governors of the 50 States, the Governor
of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and officials of other areas under
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f
21094 Fwltfal R«gi**r / VoL M. No. 73 / Monday. April 19, 1993 / Presidential Documents
the flag of the United States of America to honor these observances with
appropriate ceremonies and activities.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF. I have hereunto set my hand this fourteenth day
of April, in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and ninety-three, and
of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred
and seventeenth.
IFR Doc. 9J-92SS
Filed 4-15-93: 4:20 pml
Billing cod* 319S-01-P
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EARTH SUJVIJVIIT
United Nations
Conference on
Environment and
Development
Rio de Janeiro
Brazil
3-14 June 1992
CONVENTION ON
DIVERSITY
UNITIO NATIONS
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INTRODUCTION
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity is intended to ensure effe
international action to curt) the destniction of biological species, habitats and ecosystems. It
opened for signature at the UN Conference on Environment and Development — the E
Summit — in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 5 June 1992. At the Conference, 157 countries signec
Convention, including the European Community. In order for the Convention to become la1
must be ratified by at least 30 countries, usually by the national legislature.
, The most important provisions of the Convention include:
» The requirement thai countries adopt regulations to conserve their biological resource
» The legal responsibility of Governments for the environmental impact in other coun
of activities by their private corporations;
» Funding to assist developing countries in implementing the Convention, to be administt
through the Global Environment Facility, pending the establishment of a new institute
structure;
* The transfer of technology to developing countries on preferential and concessional ter
where such transfer does not prejudice intellectual property rights or patents;
» Regulation of biotechnology firms;
» Access to and ownership of genetic material;
» Compensation to developing countries for extraction of their genetic materials.
BACKGROUND
*
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) first called on Governments to consider
international legal instrument for the conservation and rational use of biological diversity in 19
The following year UNEP established an Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biologi
Diversity, which held three sessions between November 1988 and July 1990. On the basis of
group's final report, UNEP established a Working Group of Legal and Technical Experts
negotiate a convention. This group held two sessions and was then renamed the Intergovemmer
Negotiating Committee for a Convention on Biological Diversity (INC). The INC comple
negotiations for the Convention in five sessions between June 1991 and May 1992.
ISSUES
During the negotiations, contentious issues included: financial aid to enable developing countri
to implement the terms of the Convention; the terms under which industrialized countries woi
have access to genetic materials found mostly in tropical forests in developing countries; the ten
under which developing countries would have access to environmentally sound technology
to new biotechnologies developed from materials found in their tropical forests: and the questi
of ownership and use of patent rights of the biotechnology produced from such materials.
After negotiations were complete, a number of countries expressed reservations on vario
aspects of the Convention but later agreed to sign. The United States did not sign on the grounc
that provisions in the Convention would unduly restrict the biotechnology industry in that countr
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UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Preamble
The Contracting Parties,
Conscious of the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic, social,
economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity
and its components,
Conscious also of the importance of biological diversity for evolution and for maintaining
life sustaining systems of the biosphere,
Affirming that the conservation of biological diversity is a common concern of humankind,
Reaffirming that States have sovereign rights over their own biological resources,
Reaffirming also that States are responsible for conserving their biological diversity and for
using their biological resources in a sustainable manner,
Concerned that biological diversity is being significantly reduced by certain human
activities,
Aware of the general lack of information and knowledge regarding biological diversity and
of the urgent need to develop scientific, technical and institutional capacities to provide the basic
understanding upon which to plan and implement appropriate measures,
Noting that it is vital to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of significant reduction
or loss of biological diversity at source,
Noting also that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological
diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures
to avoid or minimize such a threat.
Noting further that the fundamental requirement for the conservation of biological diversity
is the in-situ conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery
of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings.
Noting further that a-situ measures, preferably in the country of origin, also have an
important role to play.
Recognizing the close and traditional dependence of many indigenous and local
communities embodying traditional lifestyles on biological resources, and the desirability of
sharing equitably benefits arising from the use of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices
relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components,
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Recognizing also the vital role that women play in the conservation and sustain
biological diversity and affirming the need for the full participation of women at all level
making and implementation for biological diversity conservation,
Stressing the importance of. and the need to promote, international, regional and global
among States and intergovernmental organizations and the non-governmental sector for the o
of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components,
Acknowledging that the provision of new and additional financial resources and approp
to relevant technologies can be expected to make a substantial difference in the world's ability
the loss of biological diversity,
Acknowledging further that special provision is required to meet the needs of developin'
including the provision of new and additional financial resources and appropriate access
technologies.
Noting in this regard the special conditions of the least developed countries and small isl
Acknowledging that substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversit;
there is the expectation of a broad range of environmental, economic and social benefits f
investments,
Recognizing that economic and social development and poverty eradication are the
overriding priorities of developing countries,
Aware that conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical impor
meeting the food, health and other needs of the growing world population, for which purpose
and sharing of both genetic resources and technologies are essential,
Noting that, ultimately, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity will st
friendly relations among States and contribute to peace for humankind,
Desiring to enhance and complement existing international arrangements for the conserv
biological diversity and sustainable use of its components, and
Determined to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for the benefit of present ar
generations,
Have agreed as follows:
The objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in accordance with its relevant provisions,
conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and ec
sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate
to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rigf
those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding.
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Artlcl«2. UM of Terms
For the purposes of this Convention:
"Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are pan; this
includes'diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
"Biological resources" includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other
biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity.
"Biotechnology" means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.
"Country of origin of genetic resources" means the country which possesses those genetic resources in
in-situ conditions.
"Country providing genetic resources" means the country supplying genetic resources collected from in-
situ sources, including populations of both wild and domesticated species, or taken from ex-situ sources.
which may or may not have originated in that country.
"Domesticated or cultivated species" means species in which the evolutionary process has been influenced
by humans to meet their needs.
"Ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-
living environment interacting as a functional unit.
"Ex-situ conservation" means the conservation of components 0f biological diversity outside their natural
habitats. .
e
"Genetic material means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional
units of heredity.
"Genetic resources" means genetic material of actual or potential value.
"Habitat" means the place or type of site where an organism or population naturally occurs.
"In-situ conditions" means conditions where genetic resources exist within ecosystems and natural habitats,
and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their
distinctive properties.
"In-situ conservation" means the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and
recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated
or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.
"Protected area" means a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to
achieve specific conservation objectives.
-------
"Regional economic integration organization" means an organization constituted by sovereign St.
a given region, to which its member States have transferred competence in respect of matters go*
by this Convention and which has been duly authorized, in accordance with its internal procedures, tc
ratify, accept, approve or accede to it.
"Sustainable use" means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate tha
not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the
and aspirations of present and future generations.
"Technology" includes biotechnology.
Articles. Principle
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of intema
law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policie
the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage t
environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Article* Jurlsdfctlonal Scop*
Subject to the rights of other States, and except as otherwise expressly provided in this Conver
the provisions of this Convention apply, in relation to each Contracting Party:
*
(a) In the case of components of biological diversity, in areas within the limits of its nat
jurisdiction; and
(b) In the case of processes and activities, regardless of where their effects occur, carriec
under its jurisdiction or control, within the area of its national jurisdiction or beyond the limits of nat
jurisdiction.
f
Articles. Cooperation
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, cooperate with other Contrac
Parties, directly or, where appropriate, through competent international organizations, in respect of
beyond national jurisdiction and on other matters of mutual interest, for the conservation and sustain
use of biological diversity.
Article 6. Central Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use
Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities:
(a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable
of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which s
reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned;
(b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use
biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.
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Articf* 7. ktentlfteatJon and Monitoring
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, in particular for the purposes
of Articles 8 to 10:
(a) Identify components of biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use
having regard to the indicative list of categories set down in Annex I;
(b) Monitor, through sampling and other techniques, the components of biological diversity
identified pursuant to subparagraph (a) above, paying particular attention to those requiring urgent
conservation measures and those which offer the greatest potential for sustainable use;
(c) Identify processes and categories of activities which have or are likely to have significant
adverse impacts on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and monitor their effects
through sampling and other techniques; and
(d) Maintain and organize, by any mechanism data, derived from identification and monitoring
activities pursuant to subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) above.
Articles. In-altuConservation
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:
(a) Establish a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to
conserve biological diversity;
(b) Develop, where necessary, guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of
protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;
(c) Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of biological diversity
whether within or outside protected iareas, with a view to ensuring their conservation and sustainable use;
(d) Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable
populations of species in natural surroundings;
(e) Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to protected
areas with a view to furthering protection of these areas;
(0 Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery of threatened species,
inter alia, through the development and implementation of plans or other management strategies;
(g) Establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control the risks associated with the use
and release of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse
environmental impacts that could affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking
also into account the risks to human health;
(h) Prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten
ecosystems, habitats or species;
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(i) Endeavour to provide the conditions needed for compatibility between present uses an
conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components;
(j) Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovation
practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application witt
approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourag
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and pract
(k) Develop or maintain necessary legislation and/or other regulatory provisions for
protection of threatened species and populations;
(1) Where a significant adverse effect on biological diversity has been determined pursua
Article 7, regulate or manage the relevant processes and categories of activities; and
(m) Cooperate in providing financial and other support for in-situ conservation outline
subparagraphs (a) to (1) above, particularly to developing countries.
Artlclo9. Ex-s/ru Conservation
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, and predominantly for
purpose of complementing in-situ measures:
, *
(a) Adopt measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity, prefer
in the country of origin of such components;
(b) Establish and maintain facilities, for ex-situ conservation of and research on plants, anii
and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources;
(c) Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and for t
reintroduction into their natural habitats under appropriate conditions;
r
(d) Regulate and manage collection of biological resources from natural habitats for ex-
conservation purposes so as not to threaten ecosystems and in-situ populations of species, except wt
special temporary ex-situ measures are required under subparagraph (c) above; and
(e) Cooperate in providing financial and other support for ex-situ conservation outlinec
subparagraphs (a) to (d) above and in the establishment and maintenance of ex-situ conservation facili
in developing countries.
Article 10. Sustainable UM of Components of Biological Diversity
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:
(a) Integrate consideration of the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources i
national decision-making;
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(b) Adopt measures relating to the use of biological resources to avoid or minimize adverse
impacts on biological diversity;
(c) Protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional
cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements;
(d) Support local populations to develop and implement remedial action in degraded areas where
biological diversity has been reduced; and
(e) Encourage cooperation between its governmental authorities and its private sector in
developing methods for sustainable use of biological resources.
Article 11. Incentive Measure*
* '
Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, adopt economically and socially
sound measures that act as incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of components of biological
diversity.
Article 12. Research and Training
The Contracting Parties, taking into account the special needs of developing countries, shall:
(a) Establish and maintain programmes for scientific and technical education and training*in
measures for the identification, conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and its components
and provide support for such education and training for the specific needs of developing countries;
(b) Promote and encourage research which contributes to the conservation and sustainable use
of biological diversity, particularly in developing countries, inter alia, in accordance with decisions of the
Conference of the Panics taken in consequence of recommendations of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific,
Technical and Technological Advice; and
•»
(c) In keeping with the provisions of Articles 16, 18 and 20, promote and cooperate in the use
of scientific advances in biological diversity research in developing methods for conservation and
sustainable use of biological resources.
Article 13. Public Education and Awareness
The Contracting Parties shall:
(a) Promote and encourage understanding of the importance of, and the measures required for,
the conservation of biological diversity, as well as its propagation through media, and the inclusion of
these topics in educational programmes; and
(b) Cooperate, as appropriate, with other States and international organizations in developing
educational and public awareness programmes, with respect to conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity.
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Artlcl* 14. Impact A*s«**m«nt and Minimizing AdvtrM impacts
1. Each Contracting Party, as far as possible and as appropriate, shall:
(a) Introduce appropriate procedures requiring environmental impact assessment of it.
projects that are likely to have significant adverse effects on biological diversity with a view tc
or minimizing such effects and, where appropriate, allow for public participation in such proc
(b) Introduce appropriate arrangements to ensure that the environmental consequen
programmes and policies that are likely to have significant adverse impacts on biological diversit;
taken into account;
(c) Promote, on the basis of reciprocity, notification, exchange of information and co
on activities under their jurisdiction or control which are likely to significantly affect adve
biological diversity of other States or areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, by encour
conclusion of bilateral, regional or multilateral arrangements, as appropriate;
(d) In the case of imminent or grave danger or damage, originating under its jurist
control, to biological diversity within the area under jurisdiction of other States or in areas be
limits of national jurisdiction, notify immediately the potentially affected States of such danger or
as well as initiate action to prevent or minimize such danger or damage; and
(e) Promote national arrangements for emergency responses to activities or events,
caused naturally or otherwise, which present a grave and imminent danger to biological dive
encourage international cooperation to supplement such national efforts and, where appropriate ar
by the States or regional economic integration organizations concerned, to establish joint con
plans.
2. The Conference of the Parties shall examine, on the basis of studies to be carried out, the
liability and redress, including restoration and compensation, for damage to biological diversity
where such liability is a purely internal matter.
Artlcl«15. Acctt* to Gtowtte RtsourcM
1. Recognizing the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources, the authority to de
access to genetic resources rests with the national governments and is subject to national legisl
2. Each Contracting Party shall endeavour to create conditions to facilitate access to genetic re
for environmentally sound uses by other Contracting Parties and not to impose restrictions that run
to the objectives of this Convention.
3. For the purpose of this Convention, the genetic resources being provided by a Contractin
as referred to in this Article and Articles 16 and 19, are only those that are provided by Cor
Parties that are countries of origin of such resources or by the Parties that have acquired the
resources in accordance with this Convention.
4. Access, where granted, shall be on mutually agreed terms and subject to the provisions
Article.
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5. Access to genetic resources shall be subject to prior informed consent of the Contracting Pany
providing such resources, unless otherwise determined by that Party.
6. Each Contracting Pany shall endeavour to develop and carry out scientific research based on genetic
resources provided by other Contracting Parties with the full participation of, and where possible in, such
Contracting Parties.
7. Each Contracting Pany shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, and
in accordance with Articles 16 and 19 and, where necessary, through the financial mechanism established
by Articles 20 and 21 with the aim of sharing in a fair and equitable way the results of research and
development and the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with
the Contracting Party providing such resources. Such sharing shall be upon mutually agreed terms.
Article 16. Access to and Transfer of Technology
1. Each Contracting Party, recognizing that technology includes biotechnology, and that both access
to and transfer of technology among Contracting Parties are essential elements for the attainment of the
objectives of this Convention, undertakes subject to the provisions of this Article to provide and/or
facilitate access for and transfer to other Contracting Parties of technologies that are relevant to the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or make use of genetic resources and do not cause
significant damage to the environment.
2. Access to and transfer of technology referred to in paragraph 1 above to developing countries* shall
be provided and/or facilitated under fair and most favourable terms, including on concessional and
preferential terms where mutually agreed, and, where necessary, in accordance with the financial
mechanism established by Articles 20 and 21. In the case of technology subject to patents and other
intellectual property rights, such access and transfer shall be provided on terms which recognize and are
consistent with the adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights. The application of
this paragraph shall be consistent with paragraphs 3, 4 and 5 below.
3. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, with
the aim that Contracting Parties, in particular those that are developing countries, which provide genetic
resources are provided access to and transfer of technology which makes use of those resources, on
mutually agreed terms, including technology protected by patents and other intellectual property rights,
where necessary, through the provisions of Articles 20 and 21 and in accordance with international law
and consistent with paragraphs 4 and 5 below.
4. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, with
the aim that the private sector facilitates access to, joint development and transfer of technology referred
to in paragraph 1 above for the benefit of both governmental institutions and the private sector of
developing countries and in this regard shall abide by the obligations included in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3
above.
5. The Contracting Parties, recognizing that patents and other intellectual property rights may have
an influence on the implementation of this Convention, shall cooperate in this regard subject to national
legislation and international law in order to ensure that such rights are supportive of and do not run
counter to its objectives.
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Article 17. Exchange of Information
1. The Contracting Parties shall facilitate the exchange of information, from all publicly ,
sources, relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking into ace
special needs of developing countries.
2. Such exchange of information shall include exchange of results of technical, scientific an
economic research, as well as information on training and surveying programmes, specialized kno
indigenous and traditional knowledge as such .and in combination with the technologies referr
Article 16, paragraph 1. It shall also, where feasible, include repatriation of information.
Article 18. Technical and Scientific Cooperation
1. The Contracting Parties shall promote international technical and scientific cooperation in t
of conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, where necessary, through the app
international and national institutions.
2. Each Contracting Party shall promote technical and scientific cooperation with other Com
Parties, in particular developing countries, in implementing this Convention, inter alia, throu
development and implementation of national policies. In promoting such cooperation, special at
should be given to the development and strengthening of national capabilities, by means of
resources development and institution building.
3. The Conference of the Panics, at its first meeting, shall determine now to establish a clearing
mechanism to promote arid facilitate technical and scientific cooperation,
4. The Contracting Parties shall, in accordance with national legislation and policies, encoura'
develop methods of cooperation for the development and use of technologies, including indigenoi
traditional technologies, in pursuance of the objectives of this Convention: For this purpos
Contracting Parties shall also promote cooperation in the training of personnel and exchange of ex
5. The Contracting Parties shall, subject to mutual agreement, promote the establishment of
research programmes and joint ventures for the development of technologies relevant to the objecm
this Convention.
Article 19. Handling of Biotechnology and Distribution of Ha Benefits
1. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropri
provide for the effective participation in biotechnological research activities by those Contracting Pa
especially developing countries, which provide the genetic resources for such research, and where fea
in such Contracting Parties.
2. Each Contracting Party shall take all practicable measures to promote and advance priority ac
on a fair and equitable basis by Contracting Parties, especially developing countries, to the results
benefits arising from biotechnologies based upon genetic resources provided by those Contracting Par
Such access shall be on mutually agreed terms.
10
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3. The Parties shall consider the need for and modalities of a protocol setting out appropriate
procedures, including, in particular, advance informed agreement, in the field of the safe transfer, handling
and use of any living modified organism resulting from biotechnology that may have adverse effect on
the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
4. Each Contracting Party shall, directly or by requiring any natural or legal person under its
jurisdiction providing the organisms referred to in paragraph 3 above, provide any available information
about the use and safety regulations required by that Contracting Party in handling such organisms, as well
as any available information on the potential adverse impact of the specific organisms concerned to the
Contracting Pany into which those organisms are to be introduced.
ArtJcl«20. Financial Resources
1. Each Contracting Party undertakes to provide, in accordance with its capabilities, financial support
and incentives in respect of those national activities which are intended to achieve the objectives of this
Convention, in accordance with its national plans, priorities and programmes.
2. The developed country Parlies shall provide new and additional financial resources to enable
developing country Parties to meet the agreed full incremental costs to them of implementing measures
which fulfil the obligations of this Convention and to benefit from its provisions and which costs are
agreed between a developing country Party and the institutional structure referred to in Article 21, in
accordance with policy, strategy, programme priorities and eligibility criteria and an indicative list pf
incremental costs established by the Conference of the Parties. Other Parties, including countries
undergoing the process of transition to a market economy, may voluntarily assume the obligations of the
developed country Parties. For the purpose of this Article, the Conference of the Parties, shall at its first
meeting establish a list of developed country Parties and other Parties which voluntarily assume the
obligations of the developed country Parties. The Conference of the Parties shall periodically review and
if necessary amend the list. Contributions from other countries and sources on a voluntary basis would
also be encouraged. The implementation of these commitments shall take into account the need for
adequacy, predictability and timely flow of funds and the importance of burden-sharing among the
contributing Parties included in the list
3. The developed country Parties may also provide, and developing country Parties avail themselves
of, financial resources related to the implementation of this Convention through bilateral, regional and
other multilateral channels.
4. The extent to which developing country Parties will effectively implement their commitments under
this Convention will depend on the effective implementation by developed country Parties of their
commitments under this Convention related to financial resources and transfer of technology and will take
fully into account the fact that economic and social development and eradication of poverty are the first
and overriding priorities of the developing country Parties.
5. The Parties shall take full account of the specific needs and special situation of least developed
countries in their actions with regard to funding and transfer of technology.
6. The Contracting Parties shall also take into consideration the special conditions resulting from the
dependence on, distribution and location of, biological diversity within developing country Parties, in
particular small island States.
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7. Consideration shall also be given to the special situation of developing countries, including
that are most environmentally vulnerable, such as those with arid and semi-arid zones, coast
mountainous areas.
Article 21. Financial Mechanism
1. There shall be a mechanism for the provision of financial resources to developing country P
for purposes of this Convention on a grant or concessional basis the essential elements of whic
described in this Article. The mechanism shall function under the authority and guidance of, ar
accountable to, the Conference of the Parties for purposes of this Convention. The operations c
mechanism shall be earned out by such institutional structure as may be decided upon by the Confe
of the Panics at its first meeting. For purposes of this Convention, the Conference of the Parties
determine the policy, strategy, programme priorities and eligibility criteria relating to the access tc
utilization of such resources. The contributions shall be such as to take into account the nee
predictability, adequacy and timely flow of funds referred to in Article 20 in accordance with the an
of resources needed to be decided periodically by the Conference of the Parties and the important
burden-sharing among the contributing Panics included in the list referred to in Article 20, paragr
Voluntary contributions may also be made by the developed country Parties and by other countrie
sources. The mechanism shall operate within a democratic and transparent system of governance.
2. Pursuant to the objectives of this Convention, the Conference of the Parties shall at its first met
determine the policy, strategy and programme priorities, as well as detailed criteria and guideline
eligibility for access to and utilization of the financial resources including monitoring and evaluatio
a regular basis of such utilization. The Conference of the Parties shall decide on the arrangements* to
effect to paragraph 1 above- after consultation with the institutional structure entrusted with the oper
of the financial mechanism.
3. The Conference of the Parties shall review the effectiveness of the mechanism established ui
this Article, including the criteria and guidelines referred to in paragraph 2 above, not less than two y
after the entry into force of this Convention and thereafter on a regular basis. Based on such reviev
shall take appropriate action to improve the effectiveness of the mechanism if necessary.
4. The Contracting Parties shall consider strengthening existing financial institutions to prov
financial resources for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
Article 22. Relationship with Other International Conventions
1. The provisions of this Convention shall not affect the rights and obligations of any Contract
Party deriving from any existing international agreement, except where the exercise of those rights
obligations would cause a serious damage or threat to biological diversity.
2. Contracting Parties shall implement this Convention with respect to the marine environm
consistently with the rights and obligations of States under the law of the sea.
Article 23. Conference of the Parties
1. A Conference of the Parties is hereby established. The first meeting of the Conference of t
Parties shall be convened by the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme r
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later than one year after the entry into force of this Convention. Thereafter, ordinary meetings of the
Conference of the Parties shall be held at regular intervals to be determined by the Conference at its first
meeting.
2. Extraordinary meetings of the Conference of the Parties shall be held at such other times as may
be deemed necessary by the Conference, or at the written request of any Party, provided that, within six
months of the request being communicated to them by the Secretariat, it is supported by at least one third
of the Parties.
3. The Conference of the Parties shall by consensus agree upon and adopt rules of procedure for itself
and for any subsidiary body it may establish, as well as financial rules governing the funding of the
Secretariat. At each ordinary meeting, it shall adopt a budget for the financial period until the next
ordinary meeting.
4. The Conference of the Parties shall keep under review the implementation of this Convention, and,
for this purpose, shall:
(a) Establish the form and the intervals for transmitting the information to be submitted in
accordance with Article 26 and consider such information as well as reports submitted by any subsidiary
body;
(b) Review scientific, technical and technological advice on biological diversity provided in
accordance with Article 25;
«
(c) Consider and adopt, as required, protocols in accordance with Article 28;
(d) Consider and adopt, as required, in accordance with Articles 29 and 30, amendments-to this
Convention and its annexes;
(e) Consider amendments to any protocol, as well as to any annexes thereto, and, if so decided,
recommend their adoption to the parties to the protocol concerned;
(0 Consider and adopt, as required, in accordance with Article 30, additional annexes to this
Convention;
(g) Establish such subsidiary bodies, particularly to provide scientific and technical advice, as
are deemed necessary for the implementation of this Convention;
(h) Contact, through the Secretariat, the executive bodies of conventions dealing with matters
covered by this Convention with a view to establishing appropriate forms of cooperation with them; and
(i) Consider and undertake any additional action that may be required for the achievement of
the purposes of this Convention in the light of experience gained in its operation.
5. The United Nations, its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency, as well
as any State not Party to this Convention, may be represented as observers at meetings of the Conference
of the Parties. Any other body or agency, whether governmental or non-govemmenfaJ. qualified in fields
relating, to mww*™ an/* "istaiPahlff use of biological diversity, which has informed the Secretariat of
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itsjvish to be represented as an observer at a meeting of d^ rgnference of r^g Parri^ nav be adm
unless at least one third of the Parries present object. The admission and participation of observers :
be subject to the rules of procedure adopted by the Conference of the Parties.
Article 24. Secretariat
1. A secretariat is hereby established. Its functions shall be:
(a) To arrange for and service meetings of the Conference of the Parties provided fo
Article 23;-
(b) To perform the functions assigned to it by any protocol;
(c) To prepare reports on the execution of its functions under this Convention and present tr
to the Conference of the Parties;
(d) To coordinate with other relevant international bodies and, in particular to enter into s
administrative and contractual arrangements as may be required for the effective discharge of its functic
and
(e) To perform such other functions as may be determined by the Conference of the Panic:
2. At its first ordinary meeting, the Conference of the Parties shall designate the secretariat fr
amongst those existing competent international organizations which have signified their willingness
carry out the secretariat functions under this Convention.
Article 25. Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice
1. A subsidiary body for the provision of scientific, technical and technological advice is here
established to provide the Conference of the Parties and, as appropriate, its other subsidiary bodies w
timely advice relating to the implementation of this Convention. This body shall be open to participate
by all Parties and shall be multidisciplinary. It shall comprise government representatives competent
the relevant field of expertise. It shall report regularly to the Conference of the Parties on all aspects
its work.
2. Under the authority of and in accordance with guidelines laid down by the Conference of t
Parties, and upon its request, this body shall:
(a) Provide scientific and technical assessments of the status of biological diversity;
(b) Prepare scientific and technical assessments of the effects of types of measures taken
accordance with the provisions of this Convention;
(c) Identify innovative, efficient and state-of-the-art technologies and know-how relating to tf
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and advise on the ways and means of promotin
development and/or transferring such technologies;
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(d) Provide advice on scientific programmes and international cooperation in research and
development related to conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity; and
(ej Respond to scientific, technical, technological and methodological questions that the
Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies may put to the body.
3. The functions, terms of reference, organization and operation of this body may be further elaborated
by the Conference of the Parties.
Article 26. Reports
Each Contracting Party shall, at intervals to be determined by the Conference of the Parties, present
to the Conference of the Parties, reports on measures which it has taken for the implementation of the
provisions of this Convention and their effectiveness in meeting the objectives of this Convention.
Article 27. Settlement of Disputes
1. In the event of a dispute between Contracting Parties concerning the interpretation or application
of this Convention, the parties concerned shall seek solution by negotiation.
2. If the parties concerned cannot reach agreement by negotiation, they may jointly seek the good
offices of, or request mediation by, a third party.
3. When ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to this Convention, or at any time thereafter, a
State or regional economic integration organization may declare in writing to the Depositary that for a
dispute not resolved in accordance with paragraph I or paragraph 2 above, it accepts one or both of the
following means of dispute settlement as compulsory:
•,
(a) Arbitration in accordance with the procedure laid down in Part 1 of Annex II;
(b) Submission of the dispute to the International Court of Justice.
4. If the parties to the dispute have not, in accordance with paragraph 3 above, accepted the same or
any procedure, the dispute shall be submitted to conciliation in accordance with Part 2 of Annex II unless
the parties otherwise agree.
5. Trie provisions of this Article shall apply with respect to any protocol except as otherwise provided
in the protocol concerned.
Article 28. Adoption of Protocols
1. The Contracting Parties shall cooperate in the formulation and adoption of protocols to this
Convention.
2. Protocols shall be adopted at a meeting of the Conference of the Parties.
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3. The text of any proposed protocol shall be communicated to the Contracting Parties by
Secretariat at least six months before such a meeting.
Article 29. Amendment of the Convention or Protocols
1. Amendments to this Convention may be proposed by any Contracting Party. Amendments to
protocol may be proposed by any Party to that protocol.
2. Amendments to this Convention shall be adopted at a meeting of the Conference of the Par
Amendments to any protocol shall be adopted at a meeting of the Parties to the Protocol in question.
text of any proposed amendment to this Convention or to any protocol, except as may otherwist
provided in such protocol, shall be communicated to the Parties to the instrument in question by
secretariat at least six months before the meeting at which it is proposed for adoption. The secret
shall also communicate proposed amendments to the signatories to this Convention for information.
3. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on any proposed amendment to
Convention or to any protocol by consensus. If all efforts at consensus have been exhausted, anc
agreement reached, the amendment shall as a last resort be adopted by a two-third majority vote of
Parties to the instrument in question present and voting at the meeting, and shall be submitted by
[Depositary to all Parties for ratification, acceptance or approval.
4. Ratification, acceptance or approval of amendments shall be notified to the Depositary in writ
Amendments adopted in accordance with paragraph 3 above shall enter into force among Parties'ha\
accepted them on the ninetieth day after the deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance or apprc
by at least two thirds of the Contracting Parties to this Convention or of the Parties to the protc
concerned, except as may otherwise be provided in such protocol. Thereafter the amendments shall e
into force for any other Party on the ninetieth day after that Party deposits its instrument of ratificat
acceptance or approval of the amendments.
5. For the purposes of this Article, "Parties present and voting" means Parties present and castin
affirmative or negative vote.
Article 30. Adoption and Amendment of Annexes
1. The annexes to this Convention or to any protocol shall form an integral part of the Conven
or of such protocol, as the case may be, and, unless expressly provided otherwise, a reference to
Convention or its protocols constitutes at the same time a reference to any annexes thereto. Such anne
shall be restricted to procedural, scientific, technical and administrative matters.
2. Except as may be otherwise provided in any protocol with respect to its annexes, the follow
procedure shall apply to the proposal, adoption and entry into force of additional annexes to
Convention or of annexes to any protocol:
(a) Annexes to this Convention or to any protocol shall be proposed and adopted accordin
the procedure laid down in Article 29;
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(b) Any Party thai is unable to approve an additional annex to this Convention or an annex to
any protocol to which it is Party shall so notify the Depositary, in writing, within one year from the date
of the communication of the adoption by the Depositary. The Depositary shall without delay notify ail
Parties of any such notification received. A Parry may at any time withdraw a previous declaration of
objection and the annexes shall thereupon enter into force for that Party subject to subparagraph (c) below;
(c) On the expiry of one year from the date of the communication of the adoption by the
Depositary, the annex shall enter into force for all Parties to this Convention or to any protocol concerned
which have not submitted a notification in accordance with the provisions of subparagraph (b) above.
3. The proposal, adoption and entry into force of amendments to annexes to this Convention or to any
protocol shall be subject to the same procedure as for the proposal, adoption and entry into force of
annexes to the Convention or annexes to any protocol.
4. If an additional annex or an amendment to an annex is related to an amendment to this Convention
or to any protocol, the additional annex or amendment shall not enter into force until such time as the
amendment to the Convention or to the protocol concerned enters into force.
Article 31. Right to Vote
1. Except as provided for in paragraph 2 below, each Contracting Party to this Convention or to any
protocol shall have one vote.
2. Regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall exercise their
right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their member States which are Contracting
Parties to this Convention or the relevant protocol. Such organizations shall not exercise their right to vote
if their member States exercise theirs, and vice versa.
Article 32. Relationship between This Convention and Its Protocols
1. A State or a regional economic integration organization may not become a Party to a protocol
unless it is, or becomes at the same time, a Contracting Party to this Convention.
2. Decisions under any protocol shall be taken only by the Parties to the protocol concerned. Any
Contracting Party that has not ratified, accepted or approved a protocol may participate as an observer in
any meeting of the parties to that protocol.
Article 33. Signature
This Convention shall be open for signature at Rio de Janeiro by all States and any regional
economic integration organization from 5 June 1992 until 14 June 1992, and at the United Nations
Headquarters in New York from 15 June 1992 to 4 June 1993.
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Article 34. Ratification, Acc«ptanc* or Approval
1. This Convention and any protocol shall be subject to ratification, acceptance or approval b
and by regional economic integration organizations. Instruments of ratification, acceptance or a
shall be deposited with the Depositary.
2. Any organization referred to in paragraph 1 above which becomes a Contracting Party
Convention or any protocol without any of its member States being a Contracting Party shall be
by all the obligations under the Convention or the protocol, as the case may be. In the case c
organizations, one or more of whose member States is a Contracting Party to this Convention or r
protocol, the organization and its member States shall decide on their respective responsibilities
performance of their obligations under the Convention or protocol, as the case may be. In such ca
organization and the member States shall not be entitled to exercise rights under the Conven
relevant protocol concurrently.
3. In their instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval, the organizations referred to in par
1 above shall declare the extent of their competence with respect to the matters governed
Convention or the relevant protocol. These organizations shall also inform the Depositary of any n
modification in the extent of their competence.
Artlcl«35. Accession
1. This Convention and any protocol shall be open for accession by States and by regional ecc
integration organizations from the date on which the Convention or the protocol concerned is]do
signature. The instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Depositary.
2. In their instruments of accession, the organizations referred to in paragraph 1 above shall c
the extent of their competence with respect to the matters governed by the Convention or the re
protocol. These organizations shall also inform the Depositary of any relevant modification in the
of their competence. • •
3. The provisions of Article 34, paragraph 2, shall apply to regional economic integration organiz
which accede to this Convention or any protocol.
Artlcl«36. Entry Into Fore*
1. This Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit of the th
instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
2. Any protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit of the nurat
instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, specified in that protocol, has
deposited.
3. For each Contracting Party which ratifies, accepts or approves this Convention or accedes tf
after the deposit of the thirtieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, it shall
into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit by such Contracting Party of its instrume
ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
18
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4. Any protocol, except as otherwise provided in such protocol, shall enter into force for a Contracting
Party that ratifies, accepts or approves that protocol or accedes thereto after its entry into force pursuant
to paragraph 2 above, on the ninetieth day after the dale on which that Contracting Party deposits its
instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, or on the date on which this Convention
enters into force for that Contracting Party, whichever shall be the later.
5. For the purposes of paragraphs 1 and 2 above, any instrument deposited by a regional economic
integration organization shall not be counted as additional to those deposited by member States of such
organization.
Article 37. Reservation*
No reservations may be made to this Convention.
Article 38. Withdrawal*
1. At any time after two years from the date on which this Convention has entered into force for a
Contracting Party, that Contracting Party may withdraw from the Convention by giving written notification
to ihe Depositary.
2. Any such withdrawal shall take place upon expiry of one year after the date of its receipt by the
Depositary, or on such later date as may be specified in the notification of the withdrawal.
3. Any Contracting Party which withdraws from this Convention shall be considered as also having
withdrawn from any protocol to which it is party.
Article 39. Financial Interim Arrangement*
Provided that it has been fully restructured in accordance with the requirements of Article 21, the
Global Environment Facility of the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations
Environment Programme and the Internationa] Bank for Reconstruction and Development shall be the
institutional structure referred to in Article 21 on an interim basis, for the period between the entry into
force of this Convention and the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties or until the Conference of
the Parties decides which institutional structure will be designated in accordance with Article 21.
Article 40. Secretarial Interim Arrangements
The secretariat to be provided by the Executive Director of the
United Nations Environment Programme shall be the secretariat referred to in Article 24, paragraph 2, on
an interim basis for the period between the entry into force of this Convention and the first meeting of
the Conference of the Parties.
Article 41. Depositary
The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall assume the functions of Depositary of this
Convention and any protocols.
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Article 42. Authentic Taxis
The original of this Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, Engiish, French, Ru;
Spanish texts are equally authenc :. shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized to that effect, have sig
Convention.
Done at Rio de Janeiro on this fifth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two.
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Annex I
IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING
1. Ecosystems and habitats: containing high diversity, large numbers of endemic or threatened species,
or wilderness; required by migratory species; of social, economic, cultural or scientific importance; or,
which are representative, unique or associated with key evolutionary or other biological processes;
2. Species and communities which are: threatened; wild relatives of domesticated or cultivated species;
of medicinal, agricultural or other economic value; or social, scientific or cultural importance; or
importance for research into the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, such as indicator
species; and
3. Described genomes and genes of social, scientific or economic importance.
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Annex II
Part 1
ARBITRATION
Article 1
The claimant party shall notify the secretariat that the parties are referring a dispute to a
pursuant to Article 27. The notification shall state the subject-matter of arbitration and ini
particular, the articles of the Convention or the protocol, the interpretation or application of whi
issue. If the parties do not agree on the subject matter of the dispute before the President of the
is designated, the arbitral tribunal shall determine the subject matter. The secretariat shall for
information thus received to all Contracting Parties to this Convention or to the protocol conce
Artlcl* 2
1. In disputes between two parties, the arbitral tribunal shall consist of three members. Eac
parties to the dispute shall appoint an arbitrator and the two arbitrators so appointed shall desi
common agreement the third arbitrator who shall be the President of the tribunal. The latter sha
a national of one of the parties to the dispute, nor have his or her usual place of residence in the
of one of these parties, nor be employed by any of them, nor have dealt with the case in a
capacity.
*
2. In disputes between more than two parties, parties in the same interest shall appoint one a
jointly by agreement
3. Any vacancy shall be filled in the manner prescribed for the initial appointment.
Article 3
1. If the President of the arbitral tribunal has not been designated within two months
appointment of the second arbitrator, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall, at the rec
a party, designate the President within a further two-month period.
2. If one of the parties to the dispute does not appoint an arbitrator within two months of rec
the request, the other party may inform the Secretary-General who shall make the designation v
further two-month period.
Arties 4
The arbitral tribunal shall render its decisions in accordance with the provisions of this Conv
any protocols concerned, and international law.
ArtlctoS
Unless the parties to the dispute otherwise agree, the arbitral tribunal shall determine its ow
of procedure.
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Artlcla 6
The arbitral tribunal may, at the request of one of the panics, recommend essential interim measures
of protection.
Arflcl* 7
The parties to the dispute shall facilitate the work of the arbitral tribunal and, in particular, using
all means at their disposal, shall:
(a) Provide it with all relevant documents, information and facilities; and
(b) Enable it, when necessary, to call witnesses or experts and receive their evidence.
Artlcl* 8
The parties and the arbitrators are under an obligation to protect the confidentiality of any
information they receive in confidence during the proceedings of the arbitral tribunal.
Artlcl* 9
Unless the arbitral tribunal determines otherwise because of the particular circumstances of the case,
the costs of the tribunal shall be borne by the parties to the dispute in equal shares. The tribunal shall
keep a record of all-its costs, and shall furnish a final statement thereof to the parties.
Artlcto 10
Any Contracting Party that has an interest of a legal nature in the subject-matter of'the dispute
which may be affected by the decision in the case, may intervene in the proceedings with the consent of
the tribunal.
-»
Article 11
The tribunal may hear and determine counterclaims arising directly out of the subject-matter of the
dispute.
Artlcl* 12
Decisions both on procedure and substance of the arbitral tribunal shall be taken by a majority vote
of its members.
Article 13
If one of the parties to the dispute does not appear before the arbitral tribunal or fails to defend its
case, the other party may request the tribunal to continue the proceedings and to make its award. Absence
of a party or a failure of a party to defend its case shall not constitute a bar to the proceedings. Before
rendering its final decision, the arbitral tribunal must satisfy itself that the claim is well founded in fact
and law.
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Article 14
The tribunal shall render its final decision within five months of the date on which it is fully
constituted unless it finds it necessary to extend the time-limit for a period which should not exceed five
more months.
Artlcto 15
The final decision of the arbitral tribunal shall be confined to the subject-matter of the dispute and
shall state the reasons on which it is based. It shall contain the names of the members who have
participated and the date of the final decision. Any member of the tribunal may attach a separate or
dissenting opinion to the final decision.
Article 16
The award shall be binding on the parties to the dispute. It shall be without appeal unless the
parties to the dispute have agreed in advance to an appellate procedure.
Article 17
Any controversy which may arise between the parties to the dispute as regards the interpretation
or manner of implementation of the final decision may be submitted by either party for decision to the
arbitral tribunal which rendered it.
PM2
CONCILIATION
Article 1
A conciliation commission shall be created upon the request of one of the parties to the dispute.
The commission shall, unless the parties otherwise agree, be composed of five members, two appointed
by each Party concerned and a President chosen jointly by those members.
Article 2
In disputes between more than two parties, parties in the same interest shall appoint their members
of the commission jointly by agreement Where two or more parties have separate interests or there is
a disagreement as to whether they are of the same interest, they shall appoint their members separately.
Article 3
If any appointments by the parties are not made within two months of the date of the request to
create a conciliation commission, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall, if asked to do so by
the party that made the request, make those appointments within a further two-month period.
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Article 4
If a President of the conciliation commission has not been chosen within two months of the last
of the members of the commission being appointed, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall, if
asked to do so by a party, designate a President within a further two-month period.
Article 5
The conciliation commission shall take its decisions by majority vote of its members. It shall,
unless the parties to the dispute otherwise agree, determine its own procedure. It shall render a proposal
for resolution of the dispute, which the parties shall consider in good faith.
Article 6
A disagreement as to whether the conciliation commission has competence shall be decided by the
commission.
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Partners in Flight
SEGMENT D
PROBLEMS AND PARTNERSHIP
IN BIODIVERSITY
Class #21
Local Issues and
Opportunities in
Ecosystem Protection and
Biodiversity
******************
OBJECTIVE: Encourage students to understand national
concepts and themes by bringing them to a
familiar and local level that they can see
first-hand.
THEME: Biodiversity is an issue, it is currently
threatened, and there are opportunities for
ensuring national and international success
by protecting ecosystems and biodiversity at
the local and community level.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I. Identify and discuss local issues relating to
biodiversity and protection of migratory birds and of
local ecosystems, by reviewing and discussing the
newspaper articles collected on these topics throughout
the spring.
Analyze the articles, and relate them back, to the key
points concerning the importance of biodiversity
preservation discussed in Class #18.
II. Identify and discuss any policies your state has for
protecting biodiversity and encouraging ecosystem
protection.
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PREPARATION:
Collect local newspaper articles for each student. The
articles can be handed out, one at a time, for reading
during the class followed by discussion, or they can be
assigned as homework from Class #20.
Find out any policies your state has concerning
ecosystem protection and biodiversity.
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Articles for each student.
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
Have the students write their own thoughts about:
1. What are the main threats to biodiversity, and
natural ecosystems, including survival of
migratory birds, in their local area?
2. What can they, individually and as a community, do
to help preserve natural systems and biodiversity?
3. Ask students to bring their field trip journals to
the next, and final, class.
FOLLOW-UP:
No specialized follow-up from this class.
HANDOUTS:
Newspaper articles.
LINKS: Science, sociology and political science.
******************
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Partners in Flight
******************
SEGMENT D
PROBLEMS AND PARTNERSHIP
IN BIODIVERSITY
Class #22
Measuring a Journey
******************
OBJECTIVE:
Have students realize how much they have
discovered, learned and thought about during
the course, and that the course is only a
beginning.
THEME:
Repeat the Personal Survey first given in
Class #2, and discuss students' other
personal observations about the material
covered in the course.
CLASS
ACTIVITY:
I.
III.
III.
IV.
Ask the students to share their thoughts from
the Homework assigned from Class #21,
Repeat the Personal Survey given in Class #2.
Then, give the students back their original
copies of the first Personal Survey, so they
each can contrast their answers, and realize
some of the things they have learned about.
Have students take out the journals of their
field trip observations, and encourage them
to share and remember the interesting
observations and experiences of the field
trips.
Be sure students have their individual life-
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lists, and encourage them to look for hawks
in the fall, and to look for birds and
biodiversity throughout their lives.
V. Take out quarters, and flip them, as was done
in Class #1, and encourage students to think
about the amazing journeys and survival of
migratory birds, whenever they use a quarter.
PREPARATION:
Collect and bring to class the original copies of
the students' answers to the Personal Survey from
Class #2.
Review the "Overview, Course Conclusion" (above).
RESOURCES NEEDED:
Quarters
HOMEWORK TO ASSIGN:
None
FOLLOW-UP:
Advise students as to possible continued reading
on this topic area (See "General Preparation,
Materials and Resources" above.)
HANDOUTS:
Original responses to the Personal Survey (from
Class #2).
LINKS: Biology, sociology, and ecology.
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UiS. Environmental Protection™—, 22 _ 2
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