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-------
4.1.  Primary Impacts

4.1.1.  Construction Impacts

     Each of  the alternatives,  excluding  the No  Action  Alternative,  involve
some  construction  initially;  thus,  these  are  called  "build"  alternatives
throughout  the  impact  analyses.   The  No  Action  Alternative includes  some
construction of  new systems and upgraded  systems throughout  the  life  of the
project;  therefore,  this  is  discussed  under  operation  impacts  (Section
4.1.2.).  The  impacts are  addressed in the following  subsections  for  each of
the major categories of the natural and man-made environments.

4.1.1.1.  Atmosphere

     Construction activities associated  with  the "build" alternatives cluster
drainfields, and  on-site  systems  will  produce  short-term  adverse impacts to
local  air  quality.   Cleaning,  grading,  excavating,  backfilling, and  other
related construction activities will generate fugitive dust, noise, and odors.
Emission  of fumes and  noise from construction  equipment will be  a temporary
nuisance to residents living near the construction sites.

4.1.1.2.  Soil Erosion and Sedimentation    ~  -

     Soils  exposed  during  construction  will  be  subjected  to  accelerated
erosion until  the soil surface  is protected by revegetation or  other means.
Most  of the sewers  and force mains will  be laid  within  road right-of-ways
where runoff tends to concentrate in roadside drainageways.  Most rainfalls do
not result  in significant runoff because the  sandy soils  readily absorb preci-
pitation.   Major storms,  though,  could  cause  considerable  erosion  in  some
drainageways that have large  drainage areas.   The  alternatives  that involve
considerable lengths  of sewers  and  force  mains can be  expected  to result in
the   greatest  erosion  and  subsequent sedimentation.  Adverse  consequences due
to  increased  sedimentation  include  excessive phosphorus  inputs  to lakes and
streams,  clogging of  road  culverts, localized flooding where  drainageways are
filled  with sediment,  and  filling of lakes so that a substrate for tnacrophyte
growth  is provided.
                                    4-14

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4.1.1.3.  Surface Water

     Wastewater collection  system  and treatment plant construction activities
(Alternatives  2-7)  could produce  discharge of turbid waters  pumped  from ex-
cavations and  trenches  and  turbid  surface runoff from disturbed areas result-
ing in  increased  turbidity  and sedimentation in adjacent  wetlands,  lakes, or
waterways.  This  sediment  transport  could result in water quality degradation
and the potential for  adverse impacts  to  aquatic biota.   Upgrading on-site
systems  (Alternatives  8A,   8B,  and 9) and  construction  of collection systems
for  cluster  drainfields (Alternatives  8A  and 8B)  would  contribute  turbid
runoff  to  lakes  or  waterways, but  to  a lesser  extent  compared  to  the  con-
struction of the centralized collection and treatment alternatives.

4.1.1.4.  Groundwater

     Groundwater  may  be impacted by  construction  activities  in  localized
areas.   Construction dewatering may cause  some  shallow  wells  to  fail,  es-
pecially where pump stations  are  to be  constructed.  A  potential  change in
water  quality would  likely occur where organic  soils  are  disturbed  either
directly  or by  altering the  watertable.   Organics  may  leach  out  of these
areas and affect  the taste  of water  in  nearby  wells.  Spilled fuel and other
construction  materials   could  quickly pass  through  the  sandy soils  to  con-
taminate the groundwater.

4.1.1.5.  Terrestrial Biota

     Construction activities  associated  with various components  of  the  pro-
posed  alternatives  would  result   in  impacts to  wildlife  and vegetation to
various  degrees.   Collection  sewers  (Alternatives 2-7),  some cluster drain-
fields  (Alternatives 8A and 8B), and upgraded systems (Alternative 9) would be
placed on residential lots;  temporary loss of grassed areas and the removal or
death of trees would result from construction of these facilities.  Disruption
of backyard vegetation  and  the presence of  construction  equipment and noises
would cause temporary displacement  of most vertebrate species and mortality of
a  few  (probably  small  mammal)  species, but   replacement  of  vegetation  and
cessation  of   construction  activities  would  allow  re-establishment  of  the
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animals  to  the  areas.   More likely the animals commonly associated  with human
habitation  (e.g.,  eastern   cottontail   rabbits,   house  sparrows,   European
starlings) that would be displaced, would move to suitable neighboring habitat
and induce no density-related stress upon neighboring habitats.

     Proposed conveyance lines for Alternatives 2 through 7 generally parallel
and are  contiguous  to  existing road rights-of-way.  Approximately 20 feet  of
roadside vegetation would  be destroyed during construction along county road
right-of-ways and  approximately 50  feet  would be disrupted  for  placement  of
force mains along M-62.

     Agricultural cropland  and orchards  are  the primary  land uses  along the
proposed  lines.   Small  woodlots   border  the  routes  at  scattered  locations;
second-growth roadside shrubbery would likely be destroyed.

     Birds and mobile mammals, reptiles, and amphibians that reside  on or near
the  proposed  routes would  migrate from  disturbed  areas  during  construction.
Small  mammals  and  reptiles  would  incur some  mortality from  construction.
Displacement  of most animals would be temporary, however, coinciding with the
duration of construction.

     The placement of WWlTs and some cluster drainfields proposed for Alterna-
tives 2-7 and 8A  and  8B, respectively, would  adversely affect vegetation and
wildlife to varying degrees, during construction, depending upon the proposed
site.

     A new  WWTP in Section  11  would require 80  (Alternative 2)  to  100 acres
(Alternative  4) .    Construction activities  would  disrupt a  larger  area  of
agricultural  cropland  and  possibly adjacent wetlands.  Any wetlands construc-
tion involving  fill would  require a Section  404  permit issued  by the US Army
COE or MDNR permits issued by the Division of Land Resources Program.

     Construction of  the  proposed WWTPs  at  this  site  would  result  in the
permanent displacement or  mortality  of  various animals  commonly  associated
with cultivated fields.  This habitat  does not support a highly diverse ver-
tebrate  population,  however, so  losses  would not  be  significant.   Following
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 completion  of  construction,  areas  adjacent  to  the  proposed  plant  would
 probably  be  reoccupied  by wildlife  communities  similar  in  composition to
 preconstruction communities.

     Construction activities associated with  the  proposed WWTP on  agricultural
 land in  Sections  8 (Alternative 3) and  29  and 32  (Alternatives 2 and 5) pro-
 bably  would  not  destroy  any  native vegetation.   A larger  area  (100 acres)
 would  be  required  for Alternatives 3 and  5 than would be needed  for Alterna-
 tive 2 (25  acres).   No wetlands would  be  affected during construction of the
 WWTP at either site, but outfall sewers for the proposed plants  in Sections 29
 and  32 may disrupt  a wetland area occurring  along the receiving stream.  No
 significant impacts  to terrestrial wildlife would  be expected.  Disruption of
 existing  communities would  be similar to that expected  in Section  11.

     Conversion of  orchard to agricultural cropland  would  be necessitated to
 accommodate the  land  application  site proposed  for  Section  8.   The area re-
 quired would  depend  upon exact placement of the  site.  This change in vegeta-
 tion would represent a permanent decrease in habitat diversity and result in a
 corresponding change in diversity of vertebrate populations.

     Placement of  cluster  drainfields surrounding  the  lakes  (Alternatives 8A
 and 8B) would primarily be adjacent to residential areas,  and  little disrup-
 tion of vegetation  or wildlife would be expected by construction activities.
 Temporary displacement  of  wildlife in the vicinity of  construction  is likely
 to occur, but no permanent  adverse effects would  be expected.

     The  impacts  on terrestrial biota  that  would  result from  upgrading the
 existing  systems  (Alternative  8A,  8B,  and 9)  would be  insignificant because a
 relatively small amount of construction on developed land would be required to
 complete  the project.

 4.1.1.6.   Land Use

     Construction activities associated with  the implementation of any of the
 "build" alternatives  would require some conversion of land use in  the  study
area.  Under Alternatives 2-5 residential,  agriculturals orchard, forests, and
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wetland areas would be affected to varying degrees.  The construction of WWTPs
under these alternatives  would  require the greatest conversion  of  land,  pri-
marily  agricultural  land.   Under Alternative  3  two  hundred and  fifty-five
acres of  cultivated  crop  land  and orchards,  located  in  Section 8  of Silver
Creek Township,  would be used  as  part of a regional  treatment  and  land  dis-
posal system.  The orchards  would be converted  to  cultivated  cropland.   Less
than 1% of  the  agricultural  land within  the  study area would be converted to
lagoons for wastewater  treatment  purposes.  Under Alternatives  2,  4,  5A,  and
5B less than  2%  of the agricultural land within the study area (less than 1%
of the  agricultural  land  within the four township area) would be used for the
construction and operation of WWTPs.  The existing Dowagiac WWTP would be used
under Alternative 6 and 7, eliminating the need for any significant changes in
land use within the study area.

     The  construction  of a  sewer system  under  Alternatives  2-7 would occur
primarily  in  residential  areas,   however,  certain  environmentally sensitive
areas  would  be  affected.  Agricultural,  wetland,  orchard, and  forest areas
will  be  traversed by connector  sewers  under these  alternatives.   Following
construction  of  the  sewer systems a 30 to 40 foot easement may be enforced to
insure  access to  the sewer system for repairs and maintenance.  The magnitude
of  these  impacts  is not anticipated  to  be  significant  because most of the
sewer system  would  follow existing rights-of-way,  such  as those along road-
ways.

     Wetlands may be subject to sedimentation during construction of the sewer
collection  system.   Water circulation  patterns  within  these  wetlands may be
permanently  modified.   Excavation,  clearing,   grading,  and  backfilling may
temporarily affect  the productivity  and  aesthetic  value of wetland  agricul-
tural,  orchard,  and  forest  lands during  construction  of conveyance lines.

     The  construction  of on-site  and cluster systems under Alternatives 8A,
8B,  and 9 would occur primarily on lots  which are already  developed for resi-
dential use.   Some  cluster  systems may be built  on land designated  as being
agricultural  or open space which is adjacent to  residential areas.  An insigni-
ficant  amount  of  these  areas  would  be  necessary for  the  construction of
cluster systems.   No  significant  overall land  use  impacts would occur under
Alternatives  8A, 8B, and  9.
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Prime Agricultural Land

     The  amount  of  prime  agricultural  farmland,  as classified  by the  SCS,
affected  by  construction activities is dependent  upon the actual location  of
the  wastewater  treatment  facilities.   No information  on prime  agricultural
farmland  is  available  for Section  11  (Cass  County)  of  the study  area,  there-
fore it  is impossible  at  this  time to  assess  impacts  under Alternatives 4 and
6.  Under Alternatives 2,  3, 5A, and  5B, the affects of  construction activi-
ties associated  with wastewater treatment are dependent upon the exact loca-
tion of   those facilities  in Sections  8,  29,  and  32.   These sections contain
prime  agricultural  farmland.   The  irreversible loss  of agricultural land  to
other land uses  is  a  growing national  concern.  The  Council on Environmental
Quality  (CEQ)  issued a memorandum  (CEQ 1976)  to all Federal  agencies request-
ing that efforts be made to  insure  that prime and  unique farmlands (as de-
signated  by  SCS) are  not irreversibly converted  to  other uses  unless other
national  interests   override the  importance  or  benefits  derived from their
protection.

     The  USEPA has  a  policy of not allowing  the  construction of a  treatment
plant or  the plac-ement of interceptor  sewers,  funded  through the  Construction
Grants Program,  in  prime agricultural  lands- unless  it is necessary  to  elimi-
nate existing  point  discharges  and accommodate flows  from existing habitation
that violates the  requirements of  the  Clean Water  Act  (USEPA   1981b).  The
policy of USEPA  is  to protect  prime  agricultural  land from being adversely
affected  by  primary  and secondary impacts.  It is considered to be a signifi-
cant impact  if 40 or  more acres of prime agricultural  land  are diverted  from
production.

     Less  than 40 acres of  prime agricultural land  are likely to be affected
under  Alternatives 2-6.   These  lands would be taken out of production for use
as lagoons,  treatment  facilities,  buffer  zones, and access roads.  The  actual
amount  of  acres  of  prime agricultural  land  taken  out of  production for these
treatment alternatives is dependent upon  the precise location and  placement  of
the treatment sites and interceptor routes.
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     Less than 40 acres  of  prime agricultural  land are likely to be converted
for use as  cluster  system  sites under Alternatives 8A and 8B.    Therefore,  no
significant impacts are expected to occur.

4.1.1.7.   Demography

     Temporary jobs  created  by the construction of wastewater  collection  and
treatment facilities under the "build" alternatives are not likely to attract
any  new  permanent  residents  to  the  study  area.  These positions  would  be
filled by workers from the  study area and surrounding  three-county area.   Some
seasonal  residents may reduce  time spent in their  study  area home while con-
struction of on-site or  sewer  systems occurs on  their  property.   No signifi-
cant demographic impacts will  occur during construction of wastewater facili-
ties.

4.1.1.8.   Economics

     The  construction  of  wastewater  treatment  facilities under  the "build"
alternatives would  create  a limited  number of  short-term construction  jobs.
Masons, pipefitters,- heavy equipment  operators,  electricians,  truck drivers,
plumbers,  roofers,   painters,   and  carpenters - would  be  among   the  tradesmen
necessary  to  complete  construction  of  the proposed  facilities.   Most jobs
would be  filled by persons  living within the study area or within a reasonable
commuting distance of the study area.

     The purchase  of construction  materials  from  study  area merchants  would
benefit the local economy.   However, few firms  offering materials required for
the  construction of  wastewater facilities are  established within  the  study
area.  Thus, most materials  would be imported  from outside of the study area.
Purchases made by  construction workers within the study area also would bene-
fit  the  local  economy.  These purchases  would likely be  for  fuel,  food,  and
clothing.   Patronage may be  reduced for some  business  along  sewer lines when
road  closings  and  disruptions occur.   No significant  economic  impacts  are
anticipated to  occur during the construction of  wastewater  facilities  under
any of the alternatives.
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4.1.1.9.  Recreation and Tourism

     Any  increase  or  decrease of tourism  and  the use of recreational facili-
ties, within  the  study area,  attributable  to  the construction of wastewater
facilities  is  dependent upon construction activities which detract from study
area recreational  amenities.   Most  recreational  activities in  the study occur
on  or   along  the  perimeter of  the  lakes.   No  major  air, water,  noise, or
traffic  impacts are  expected to  occur near  the lakes which  would interupt
tourism and recreation  activities.  Under  Alternatives 5A and 5B the construc-
tion of a discharge line into Indian Lake would create a temporary and minor
interruption of use along that shoreline of  Indian Lake.  Access to recreation
facilities  interrupted  by  construction activities may curtail  some recreation
and  tourist activities.   However,   these  impacts  are  not anticipated  to be
significant.

4.1.1.10.   Transportation

     Increased  truck  and  grading equipment  traffic during the  construction of
wastewater  treatment  facilities  under the "build" alternatives would increase
street  congestion.   Vehicular traffic  would be inconvenienced by excavating,
grading,  backfilling,  and  temporary road  closures during construction of  con-
veyance lines  along roadways under Alternatives  2-7,  8A,  and 8B.  The incon-
venience  experienced  during  these  periods  is  not  anticipated  to be signifi-
cant.

4.1.1.11.   Energy Resources

     Residential,  commercial,  and  industrial  energy  requirements  are  not
likely  to be  affected during the construction  of wastewater  facilities under
any of  the alternatives.  Active competition for  specific energy sources would
become  apparent if a  national fuel  crisis  reoccurred  such  as the  one   pre-
cipitated by  the  oil  embargo of 1977.  Trucks and construction equipment  used
during  the  construction  of  wastewater  treatment  facilities  would increase
demand  for  local  supplies  of gasoline and  diesel fuel.   The  highest demand
created by  trucks  and construction  equipment would occur under Alternatives 6
and 7.   The  lowest  energy demand created by trucks and construction equipment
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would occur under Alternatives 8A, 8B, and 9.  No significant demands on local
energy supplies  are anticipated during construction  of  wastewater facilities
under any of the alternatives.

4.1.1.12.  Cultural Resources

     Archaeological data  for the  study area are unprocessed  and not readily
available  (Section  3.2.8.).   Three structures in the study area are listed on
the Michigan Register  of  Historic Sites.  Fourteen additional sites of archi-
tectural  significance  were  identified  by WAPORA  personnel in  1979 (Section
3.2.8.).  Because no  research has been completed,  it is impossible to assess
adverse  impacts  attributable  to  construction  activities  which  may  affect
historic,  archaeological,  and   architectural sites   (By  letter,  Martha M.
Bigelow,  Director,  Michigan History  Division and  State  Historic  Preservation
Officer,  to WAPORA,  Inc.,  8  January  1979).  Final  routings and WWTP sites
should be  presented to the SHPO for assessment before construction activities
begin.   Construction excavations could  uncover significant cultural resources
which  otherwise might  not  be  found.   To  provide adequate  consideration of
impacts  affecting these resources an archaeological  survey of specific sites
should be conducted following the selection of an alternative.

4.1.2.   Operation Impacts

     Each  of  the alternatives,  including the No  Action Alternative,  involve
operations  that will  continue  through the  project period.   Included  in  the
definition  of   operations  are  constructing   new  septic  tank  systems  for  new
structures and upgrading on-site systems that fail  under the No Action  Alterna-
tive  and Alternatives 8A,  8B,  and 9.  The  impacts are  addressed for each of
the major categories of the natural and man-made environments.

4.1.2.1.  Atmosphere

     The potential  emissions from  the  operation of  the wastewater  management
alternatives  include  aerosols, hazardous  gases,   and  odors.   The emissions
could pose a public health risk or be a nuisance.
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     Aerosols are  defined  as solid or  liquid  particles,  ranging in size from
0.01  to 50 micrometers  that are  suspended  in the  air.   These particles are
produced  at  wastewater  treatment  facilities during  various  treatment  pro-
cesses.   Some of  the  constituents of aerosols could  be  pathogenic and could
cause respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.  Concentrations of bacteria
or viruses in aerosols, however, are generally insignificant  (Hickey and Reist
1975).  The vast majority of the  microorganisms  in  aerosols are destroyed by
solar radiation, desiccation, and other environmental phenomena.  There are no
records  of disease  outbreaks resulting  from pathogens present  in aerosols.
Therefore, no adverse  impacts are expected from  aerosol  emissions  for any of
the alternatives.

     Discharges of hazardous gases could have adverse affects on public health
and the environment.  Explosive,  toxic,  noxious,  lachrymose (causing tears),
and asphyxiating  gases  can be  produced  at  wastewater  treatment facilities.
These  gases  include  chlorine,  methane,  ammonia,  hydrogen  sulfide,  carbon
monoxide,  nitrogen  oxides,  sulfur,  and  phosphorus.   The  knowledge  of  the
possibility that  such  gases can escape from the facilities or into work areas
in  dangerous  or  nuisance  concentrations might  affect  the  operation  of the
facilities and  the  adjacent  land uses.   Gaseous  emissions, however,  can  be
controlled by proper design, operation, and-maintenance procedures.

     Odor  is  a  property  of  a  substance that  affects  the sense  of smell.
Organic material  that contains  sulfur or nitrogen  may  be partially oxidized
anaerobically and result in the emission of byproducts that may be malodorous.
Common  emissions,  such  as  hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are  often referred to
as sewer  gases  and have odors of  rotten  eggs and concentrated urine, respec-
tively.   Some  organic  acids,  aldehydes,  mercaptans,  skatoles,  indoles,  and
amines  also may  be odorous, either individually  or  in combination with other
compounds.  Sources of wastewater treatment related odors include:

     •    Fresh, septic, or incompletely treated wastewater
     •    Screenings,  grit, and  skimmings  containing  septic  or putres-
          cible matter
     •    Oil,  grease,  fats, and  soaps from  food  handling  enterprises,
          homes, and surface runoff
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     •    Gaseous  emissions  from  treatment  processes,  manholes,  wet
          wells,  pumping  stations,  leaking  containers,  turbulent  flow
          areas, and outfall areas
     •    Raw or incompletely stabilized sludge or septage.
Wastewater  stabilization lagoons typically  emit considerable  odors when the
ice cover goes out in the spring.  These odors are likely to be noticeable for
at least one-half mile in the wind direction.  Odors from septic tank effluent
sewers may escape from lift stations where turbulent flow occurs unless proper
design  steps  are taken to minimize  odors.   Sewage may  become  septic  and
odorous  in  the  lengthy force  mains  that  are part  of  some alternatives,
especially during the low-flow winter season.

     The  occasional  failure  of  an  on-site  system may release  some  odors.
Septage haulers using inadequate or improperly maintained equipment  may create
odor nuisances.

4.1.2.2.  Soils

     The operation of  the land application  site  and cluster drainfield sites
for wastewater treatment would alter the soils of,these  sites over the life  of
the project.   The potential changes depend -on  the  existing soil  chemical and
hydraulic properties and on the chemical characteristics and application rate
of  the  effluent.   The  cropping and tillage  practices  on the land application
sites will, to some extent, effect the changes in the soil.

     The  chemical and physical  properties  of  typical   soils of  the area are
given in Appendix G and  a report by Ellis and Erickson (1969).  The  pH, cation
exchange  capacity,  and  phosphorus  retention capacity  are adequate to insure
that  most  constituents  in the  effluent will  be removed  effectively  at the
proposed irrigation rates.

     Organic  constituents in  the  applied water  would  be oxidized  by natural
biological  processes  within  the  top  few  inches  of  soil  (USEPA and others
1977).   At Muskegon,  Michigan  the  BOD  of  renovated  water from  the under-
drainage system  ranged  from 1.2 rag/1 to 2.2 mg/1 (Demirjian 1975).  Suspended
solids  in  the applied  water also are  removed by the soil  through filtration.
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The volatile solids are biologically oxidized and  inorganic solids become part
of the soil matrix  (USEPA and others 1977) .

     Phosphorus would  be  present in the  storage  pond or septic tank effluent
                                                        _2
in an  inorganic form as orthophosphate  (primarily HPO   ),  as polyphosphates
(or condensed phosphates), and as organic  phosphate  compounds.  Because the pH
of  wastewater   is  alkaline,  the predominant  form  usually  is orthophosphate
(USEPA  1976).   Polyphosphate is converted quickly  to orthophosphate in con-
ventional  wastewater  treatment,  in  soil,  or in water.   Dissolved organic
phosphorus is converted more slowly (day to weeks) to  orthophosphate.

     When  effluent  is  applied  to  soils,  dissolved   inorganic  phosphorus
(orthophosphate)  may  be adsorbed  by the  iron, aluminum, and/or calcium com-
pounds, or may  be precipitated  through with  soluble iron,  aluminum, and cal-
cium.   Because  it  is  difficult  to distinguish between adsorption and preci-
pitation reactions, the term "sorption" is utilized  to refer to the removal of
phosphorus by  both processes  (USEPA and  others  1977).   The  degree to which
wastewater phosphorus is sorbed  in soil depends on its concentration, soil pH,
temperature, time,  total loading,  and the  concentration of other wastewater
constituents that ..directly  react with phosphorus,, or  that  affect soil pH and
oxidation-reduction reactions (USEPA and others 1977).

     The phosphorus in  the  absorbed phase in  soil exists in equilibrium with
the concentration of dissolved soil phosphorus (USEPA  and others 1977) .  As an
increasing amount of existing adsorptive capacity  is used, such as when waste-
water enriched with phosphorus is applied, the dissolved  phosphorus concentra-
tion similarly  will  be  increased.   This may result  in an increased concentra-
tion of phosphorus in the percolate, and thus in the groundwater or in the re-
covered underdrainage water.

     Eventually, adsorbed phosphorus is transformed  into a crystalline-mineral
state,  re-establishing  the  adsorptive capacity of the soil.  This transforma-
tion occurs  slowly,  requiring  from  months  to  years.   Work by  various re-
searchers indicates that as much as 100%  of  the  original adsorptive capacity
may be  recovered  in as little as 3 months.  However,  in  some instances it may
take years  for  the adsorptive  capacity  to  fully recover  because the active
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cations may become  increasingly  bound in the crystalline  form.   The possible
amount of phosphorus  that  could  precipitate to the crystalline form, based on
a  2%  to 4% iron and 5%  to 7.5%  aluminum  soil content,  is estimated  to be
250,000 pounds of  phosphorus  per acre-foot  of soil (Ellis and Erickson 1969).

     Dissolved  organic   phosphorus  in  applied  wastewater  can move  quickly
through the soil and  enter the groundwater.  Adequate retention of the waste-
water in the  unsaturated  soil zone  is necessary  to  allow enough time for the
organic phosphorus  to be  hydrolized by microorganisms  to the orthophosphate
form.  In the orthophosphate form, it then can be adsorbed.

     A  limited  phosphorus  sorption test was  conducted  following  the methodo-
logy utilized  by  Enfield  and  Bledsoe (1975).  The data  from this 5-day  test
for  samples  from  the study  area indicate a range  of  phosphorus adsorption
values  of  from 62 mg/kg to  371  mg/kg.   The  adsorptive  capacity  of the soils
apparently  decreases  with depth.   This reflects  the  lower  organic  matter
content and reduced soil development with increasing depth.

     The surface soil of  the loamy sands sampled (up to approximately 5 feet)
has an average phosphorus adsorptive capacity of approximately  165 mg/kg.  The
underlying material below  5 feet was not extensively  sampled,  and no samples
were taken from  below a depth of  68 inches.   Assuming that  soil forming  pro-
cesses are less  and the grain-size is larger at depths in excess of 5 feet, a
conservative  estimate  of  50  mg/kg for  a 5-day  test  equivalent value appears
reasonable.   Enfield  and  Bledsoe  (1975)  determined  that  phosphorus sorption
after  a 4-month  test  period was from  1.5  to  3.0  times the  5-day sorption
value,  reflecting  a  more  steady-state  approximation.   An  approximation for
long-term  sorption would be  greater, a  value of 3.5 was  used  in this study.

     Based on similar analyses (Ellis and Erickson 1969) ,  the study area soils
should  have  adequate  sorption  capacity  for  phosphorus where drain  beds of
current design  are constructed.   The water quality sampling  results appear to
verify it.  Because dry wells result in a considerably smaller  soil mass being
contacted by  the  percolating  effluent  as  compared  to drain beds and drain-
fields, the soil material would become saturated more quickly with phosphorus.
Also,  the  dry well  introduces effluent  lower  in the  soil  profile where the
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 sorption  capacity of soils  is generally  lower.   Ellis and others  (1978) recom-
 mended  that  dry  wells   be discontinued  from  further  application  for  that
 reason.   Increases in phosphorus  levels in groundwater  over  time can be ex-
 pected,  although the  specific increases would be highly variable, and minimal
 where the  residence is occupied seasonally.

     The alternative that incorporates land application of lagoon  effluent for
 treatment  would  result in increased levels of phosphorus  in  the soils.  Irriga-
 tion onto  the soil  surface utilizes  the  surface  soil  for  sorption of phos-
 phorus.   These surface soils have  considerably  greater sorption  capabilities
 than the underlying soil  (Appendix G).

     Nitrogen  loadings  in  the  wastewater are of  greatest concern.  Nitrogen
 would be  present in  applied wastewater  principally in  the  form of ammonium
 (NH ),  nitrates  (NO ) ,  and organic nitrogen.   When wastewater  is applied to
 soils,  the natural supply  of  soil  nitrogen is  increased.   As in the natural
 processes, most  added  organic nitrogen  slowly is converted  to ionized ammonia
 by  microbial  action  in  the soil.    This form  of  nitrogen,  and  any ionized
 ammonia in the effluent, is  adsorbed by  soil particles.

     Plants  and  soil  microbes both utilize  ammonium directly.  Microbes oxi-
 dize ammonium  to nitrite  (NO )  that is  quickly  converted to the nitrate (NO )
 form  through  nitrification.   Nitrate  is  highly soluble and is  utilized  by
 plants, or leached from the  soil into the groundwater.  Under anaerobic condi-
 tions (in the absence of oxygen), soil nitrate can be reduced by soil microbes
 to gaseous nitrogen  forms  (denitrification).  These gaseous forms move upward
 through the  soil atmosphere and are dissipated  into the air.  Denitrification
 depends  on organic carbon  for  an energy source;  thus,  the  interface between
 natural soil and the gravel  fill in a drain bed has both requisite characteris-
 tics for denitrification.

     Unlike  phosphorus,  nitrogen  is not  stored in soils except  in organic
matter.   Organic matter increases within the soils would result from increased
microbial  action and  from decreased oxidation.  The increased organic matter
 improves the soil  tilth  (workability),  water holding capacity, and capability
of retaining plant nutrients.
                                    4-27

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4.1.2.3.  Surface Waters

Nutrient Loads to Lakes and Rivers of the Study Area

     A  major  water quality concern  in  the study area  is  the acceleration of
eutrophication  in the  lakes.  Two important  nutrients  in  the eutrophication
process are  nitrogen and  phosphorus (Zevenboom  and  others  1982)  with phos-
phorus usually  recognized  as  the most important  (Smith  and Shapiro  1981).  To
evaluate  the  impact  of  the  alternatives,  nutrient loading  levels  for phos-
phorus  were  calculated.   Changes in  phosphorus  loadings due  to  wastewater
management alternatives are presented in Table 4-2.  These changes reflect the
percent increase or  decrease  of phosphoriis  loading  compared to  the  current
loading rates estimated in Section 3,1.3.4.

     If  the  No  Action  Alternative  were  implemented  in  the study area the
phosphorus loading to  all  lakes would increase compared to present  conditions
(Table  4-2).    The  increase  is based  on future  population  estimates around
Indian  Lake  and  Sister  Lakes.   An  increased  population would use  additional
on-site systems, resulting in greater phosphorus  loads  to  the lakes.   Alterna-
tives 2-7 offer  the largest percent decrease in phosphorus loads to  the lakes.
A centralized  collection system effectively eliminates  phosphorus  loads  asso-
Table 4-2.
Lake
Cable
Crooked
Dewey
Indian
Magician
Pipestone
Round
Comparison of phosphorus loading
various alternatives to the current
No
Action
5%
8%
2%
2%
4%
1%
5%
increase
increase
increase
increase
increase
increase
increase
Alternatives
2-7
29%
45%
11%
14%
25%
5%
27%
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
rates associated
loading rates.
Alternatives
8A & 8B
26%
39%
10%
13%
22%
4%
24%
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
with the
Alternative
9
26%
39%
10%
13%
22%
4%
24%
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
decrease
                                    4-28

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ciated with  on-site  systems.   Crooked Lake would  experience  the largest per-
cent decrease.   Alternatives 8A,  8B,  and  9 are similar  to  the reduced phos-
phorus  loads associated  with  the alternatives using  centralized collection
systems  for  several  reasons.   Jones  and Lee  (1977)  demonstrated  that a pro-
perly designed  and  installed septic tank drainfield  could  remove  nearly 100%
of the phosphorus  load  from the septic effluent.  It was assumed for Alterna-
tives 8A,  8B,  and  9  that upgrading existing  on-site systems and placing cri-
tical areas on a cluster collection system or on holding tanks would result in
a 90% decrease in the phosphorus load  from on-site systems compared to present
conditions.

     The changes in  phosphorus  loading imposed by various wastewater alterna-
tives could affect the trophic status and management considerations of some of
the lakes  in the study area.   Current  trophic  status is based on secchi disc
readings,  chlorophyll  a_,  and phosphorus concentrations  (when available; Sec-
tion  3.1.3.2.2.).    Future  trophic conditions  will  be  influenced  by in-lake
phosphorus concentrations,  which  are  a function  of  the phosphorus  load  and
other physical-chemical  characteristics of  each lake  basin.   It  appears the
"build"  alternatives (Alternatives 2-7) would reduce  the  phosphorus load so
that  water  quality  would  be  enhanced for  three  lakes; Cable,  Crooked,  and
Round.   Some improvement  in  Magician Lake_ may occur,  but  Dewey Lake,  Indian
Lake, and  Pipestone  Lake  would likely  remain  eutrophic  (Figure 4-1).   Imple-
mentation  of  Alternatives  8A,  8B  or 9  is predicted to have effects similar to
Alternatives  2-7  (Figure  4-1).   The information plotted  on  Figure 4-1  should
be interpreted  with  caution.   Phosphorus loads and  lake  response  is based on
information  currently  available.   In  addition, the management  schemes  (Figure
4-1) have  assumed  that lake basins and the biological lake components respond
in  similar fashions.  This  is  not always  the  case.   Phosphorus dynamics and
biological  production  will  be  greatly  affected  by  unique  factors  occurring
within each  lake basin, which are  unquantified  at this time.

     Some  rivers of  the  study area would be directly impacted by discharge of
wastewater effluents to a receiving stream under Alternatives 2, 4, 5A,  5B, 6,
and 7 which  include  collection sewers  and  centralized  treatment.   Release of
the  treated   wastewater  effluent  from  the  stabilization lagoons  would occur
between  1  March  and  15 May annually.   The  release rate during this period is
designed to  cause minimum impacts.
                                    4-29

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W
O
X
a.
LiJ
o
o
2
LIJ
r
o
o
CO
High Phoa.
Loading
0.55 _
0.45 _
0.35 _
0.25 _
0.20 _
0.19 _
0.18 _
0.17 _
0.16 _
IE 0.15 _
0) 0.14 _
0.13
0.10
0.07
0.06 _
0.05 _
0.04 _
0.03 _
0.02 _
0.01 _
Low Phos.
Loading




C
•»!•
~




Cable .
I
I
A



Legend
• present conditions
O alternatives 8-9
# alternatives 2-7

III!
8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4

Plpestona
i

DDewey-
1 ^
Indian.

Magician t )

( )
Crooked -j -
« Round
*
B






r i
.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 (




~?r








0)
a
lenwelder
"o

3
              (Oligotrophic)
(Eutrophic)
    A.
    B.

    C.
                                      Secchi
                                      (meters)
    No nutrient abatement steps necessary.
    Strong renewal potential; long term benefits may be possible without
    extensive nutrient abatement.
    Prompt action needed; degradation may be imminent if nutrient abatement
    steps are not taken.
D.  Problem lakes; renovation desirable but lasting improvement may  require
    extensive nutrient abatement.

Figure 4-1.  Future phosphorus loading conditions for the centralized waste-
             water management alternatives  (after Vollenweider 1979; Uttormark
             and Wall 1975).
                                       4-30

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     The  nutrient loads  discharged  to Silver  Creek  or  Indian  Lake Outlet
coincide with  high  river  flows of this time of year; thus, the nutrient loads
would be assimilated by the streams.  Slightly elevated nutrient levels should
not  be  detrimental to  the ecology of  the  receiving streams.  Increased dis-
charges  to  Dowagiac Creek  from the Dowagiac WWTP  would  occur under  Alterna-
tives 6 and 7.  The increased continuous discharge would affect Dowagiac Creek
to some extent, although the assimilative capacity of the Creek was calculated
when the effluent limits  were set.  The  Dowagiac  River,  a cold water stream,
would be affected to  some extent  by any  of the wastewater treatment  alterna-
tives that have discharges to surface waters.

Coliform Bacteria Levels in Lakes  and Rivers

     Data regarding bacterial contamination of the lakes in the study  area are
somewhat inconclusive.   Bacterial sampling efforts  usually  have involved one
sample at each station for a single date.   Federal Water Quality Regulations
require  that   violations  of  standards  be  based on  the  geometric mean  of a
minimum of five samples.

     Continued  reliance on existing systems  (No Action Alternative)   in areas
of high  water  tables  (e.g.,  Pipestone  Lake)"  has  potential  for bacterial con-
tamination.   For  the  "build"  alternatives, the wastewater management  alterna-
tives should effectively  prevent  these problems, although bacteria contamina-
tion problems are still a possibility with centralized alternatives in case of
pumping  station malfunctions  or   with  upgraded  on-site  systems  in  case  of
surface ponding of the effluent.

     Land application  of  wastewater  (to be considered under  Alternative 3) is
an effective  way of  eliminating  or immobilizing  sewage-borne pathogens.   In
fine-textured  soil,  bacteria  can  be  filtered out  by 1 to 2 meters  of soil.
Soils containing  clay remove  most organisms through  adsorption.   Sandy soil
removes them through filtration (Lance  1978).
                                    4-31

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Suspended Solids and Organic Carbon Levels in Lakes and Rivers

     Alternatives implementing  on-site systems  (Alternatives 8A, 8B,  and 9)
should  effectively   remove  suspended  solids  from  the wastewater  effluent.
Dissolved organic substances may move with the groundwater into the lakes.  In
the study area lakes the septic leachate survey detected groundwater plumes in
each  of  the  lakes.   The  groundwater plumes  contain dissolved  organics and
salts as  components.  Dissolved  organics will  exert  a BOD  resulting in the
consumption of dissolved oxygen  within a lake.  Within  a  properly maintained
on-site system, BOD  movement to lake waters should be insignificant.

     Centralized  collection and   treatment  alternatives  that use  receiving
streams for discharge of  treated wastewater effluents (Alternatives 2, 4, 5A,
5B,  6,  and 7) have  the discharge timed  for release during  the  spring runoff
period.    The   waste  stabilization lagoons  are designed  to  meet  State and
Federal  discharge standards.   Suspended  solids and  dissolved   organics are
expected to exert a  BOD in the  receiving stream that could depress dissolved
oxygen levels.  But  most of the residual BOD and ammonia should be oxidized in
the  respective streams.   Increased effluent discharge  from  the  Dowagiac WWTP
to Dowagiac Creek in Alternatives 6 and  7 would result in increased suspended
solids and dissolved organic  loadings.  These- should  be  within  the discharge
standards  for the  stream   if  the  plant  is  designed and  operated  properly.
Chlorination of the  effluent from  the Dowagiac plant may result in chlorinated
organics (e.g., trihalomethanes) that are known to be carcinogenic.

     Lake  water  levels  may  decline slightly with  the centralized collection
alternatives  because water  would  be exported from  the  basin.  Only Pipestone
Lake  has  a continuous  surface water  discharge  and  Indian  Lake  and  Magician
Lakes have intermittent discharges.  The groundwater inflow and outflow of the
lakes, which cannot   be quantified with present information, does not appear to
be  large  for  any of the lakes;  thus, export of lake  water  could potentially
lower lake  levels slightly.   Assuming no  change  in  inflows  and outflows, a
volume of  water equivalent  to 2  inches  of water would be  exported  from the
Sister  Lakes   during the   summer.   The  significance of  this export volume
depends on  the inflow-outflow relationships, the configuration of the shore-
lines, and  the total volume of the  lakes.   Because the requisite information
                                    4-32

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is not available, the impact of these potential water level declines cannot be
assessed.

4.1.2.4.  Groundwater

     Long-term impacts  that  could be encountered  in  the  operational phase of
any of  the  alternatives concern the following  types  of pollutants: bacteria,
dissolved  organics  and  suspended  solids;  phosphorus;  and nitrate-nitrogen.
Movement to groundwater  of  other wastewater constituents or of soil chemicals
would occur, but are  not expected  to  significantly  affect any of  the uses of
the groundwater.

     Bacteria  and dissolved  organics  are  readily removed by  filtration and
adsorption onto  soil  particles.   Two feet  of soil material is generally ade-
quate for  bacterial  removal, except in  very  coarse-grained,  highly permeable
soil material.   Contamination of  drinking  water  wells or  surface water with
bacteria and dissolved organics in the study area  is unlikely under any of the
alternatives.

     Phosphorus  is significant in groundwater because it can contribute to the
excessive eutrophication of  lakes.   Section 4.1.2.2. contains a discussion of
phosphorus sorption in  soils and supports  the conclusion that, except for dry
well soil absorption systems, phosphorus contributions to the groundwater from
any of the alternatives would be minimal.

     The ability to predict phosphorus concentrations in percolate waters from
soil treatment systems  has  not yet been demonstrated (Enfield 1978) .   Models
that have  been  developed for  this  purpose  have not  yet  been  evaluated under
field conditions.   Field  studies  have  shown  that  most  soils,   even  medium
sands,   typically remove in  excess  of 95%  of phosphates  in  relatively short
distances from effluent sources (Jones and Lee 1977) .

     One potential  source  of  phosphorus inputs to  groundwater are the  soil
absorption systems included  in the No Action Alternative and Alternatives 8A,
8B, and  9.   The groundwater quality analyses performed in conjunction with the
"Septic  Snooper"  survey  (Appendix B)  confirm that some phosphorus is reaching
                                    4-33

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the  lakes  by  way of  the  groundwater.   The  majority of  groundwater  plumes
sampled, though, had phosphorus  concentrations less than 0.02 tag A (25 out of
33 effluent-related plumes).  The contribution of phosphorus to the lakes from
on-site  systems  has not been  quantified  from  the  sampling data,  but  from
theoretical data.  Thus,  on-site systems are  likely  stimulating  algal growth
in  localized  areas where effluent  plumes  emerge,  but their  contribution to
lake eutrophication is  not  quantifiable.  The greatest quantity of phosphorus
would be contributed  to groundwater under the No Action Alternative.  A slight
amount cf  phosphorus would  be contributed to the groundwater under the alter-
natives that continue to rely on on-site systems.

     Alternative 3, which incorporates  land application of lagoon effluent is
not  expected   to  significantly  increase  the  phosphorus concentration  in the
groundwater.   Irrigation onto the soil  surface  results  in utilization of the
complete  soil  profile   for   sorption  in  contrast  to  on-site  systems  which
utilize  only  the  subsoil.   Phosphorus in groundwater under a land application
site is  of concern  only when surface waters  are affected.  Groundwater  from
the  site would likely  flow primarily to the west, but partially to the Sister
Lakes.

     The wastewater  stabilization lagoons which are  components  of all of the
centralized alternatives,  except Alternative  7, may  contribute phosphorus to
the  groundwater if  seepage  from the  lagoons  is  considerable.  A  study of
Minnesota  wastewater  stabilization  lagoons  (SA Hickok and  Associates  1978)
concluded  that none of the ponds  (all had natural soil liners) were capable of
meeting  the designed and specified seepage rates.  Most  of the ponds studied
removed  phosphorus effectively, although  some  had  seepage rates  considerably
higher than the maximum allowable.

     Nitrates  in  groundwater  are of concern at  concentrations greater than 10
mg/1 as  nitrogen  because they  cause metheraoglobinemia  in infants who ingest
liquids prepared with such waters.  This limit was set in  the National Interim
Primary Drinking Water Regulations (40 CFR  141)  of the Safe Drinking Water Act
(PL  93-523).    A  general  discussion of nitrogen  in  soils  is  presented in
Section 4.  1.2.2.
                                    4-34

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     The density  of  soil absorption systems  is  said to be the most important
parameter  influencing  pollution levels of nitrates  in  groundwater (Scalf and
Dunlop  1977).   That  source  also  notes,  however,  that  currently available
"information has  not been sufficiently definitive nor  quantitative to provide
a basis  for  density  criteria."  The potential for high nitrate concentrations
in groundwater  is greater in areas of multi-tier or grid types of residential
developments  than in single tier developments.   Depending  on the groundwater
flow direction  and  pumping  rates  of  wells,  nitrate contributions  from soil
absorption systems may  become  cumulative in  multi-tier  developments.  Thus,
separation distances are  critical  for new  construction and  maximum density
codes are crucial  for new subdivisions.

     The groundwater sampling  results  (Section 3.1.3.3.) from wells show that
elevated nitrates  (greater  than 4 mg/1 as nitrogen)  occurred in  11 of the 60
wells  that were  sampled.   Some of  these wells  appeared  to  have sources  of
nitrates other  than  soil absorption systems, particularly the wells on Keeler
Lake.  Other values  (two were greater  than 20 mg/1) may indicate direct pollu-
tion from the surface or anomalous sampling error because the wells are 45 and
46 feet  deep.   None  of  the wells which were sampled under the auspices of the
Van Buren  County  Health Department  had nitrates present that exceed the limit
(By  interview,  Linda  Surlow,  Van  Buren County  Health  Department, to WAPORA,
Inc. 15 July 1981).

     These high levels of nitrate would perpetuate under the No Action Alterna-
tive and  increased  violations  of  the drinking  water  quality  standard  would
occur.   The  alternatives that  include continued  use   of on-site  systems and
cluster  systems may  not  necessarily  result  in  declines  in concentrations  of
nitrates in the groundwater.  Wells that continue to have high nitrate concen-
trations may  need to  be deepened so  that a  hydraulically  limiting  layer  is
penetrated.

     Cluster  drainfields are designed similarly  to  individual drainfields  to
ensure an  adequate  areal distribution of the effluent for  satisfactory re-
movals of  phosphorus.   Nitrate concentrations within the  groundwater  below a
cluster drainfield are  anticipated  to  be equivalent to those below an indivi-
dual soil  absorption system.   Insufficient experimentation has been conducted
                                    4-35

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to  enable  designing  for nitrogen  removals from  septic tank  effluent.   One
precaution would  be to  locate  the  drainfield  as far  from  wells  as feasible.
Once nitrates  enter  the  groundwater,  dilution is the  only  practical means of
reducing the concentration.

     Lagoon  effluent  typically contains  nitrogen  levels of  approximately 12
mg/1 (Urie 1979; Urie and others 1978).  Nitrates in the groundwater below the
land application  sites probably would average considerably less than 10 mg/1,
the drinking water quality standard.  Volatilization, crop uptake and removal,
soil storage,  and denitrification  would account for removal  of nitrogen from
the applied effluent.  Some increase in nitrate concentration above background
levels is  anticipated, but  no significant adverse  impacts  on the environment
or proposed use is anticipated.

     Seepage  from the wastewater  stabilization lagoons  could  result in ele-
vated nitrate  levels in  the  groundwater below the  lagoons.   Clay liners are
not impermeable and  plastic liners can  be  punctured or experience deteriora-
tion.  Field studies (EA Hickok and Associates 1978) have shown that a seepage
rate of  500 gallons  per acre  per  day  is  very difficult  to achieve even on
in-place,  fine-textured   soils.   On  medium-  to  coarse-textured  soils,  the
quality  of  the  liner  is  of  utmost  concern   for  protection  of groundwater
quality.   Monitoring wells  are to  be installed as part of  lagoon construction
and  these  are to  be sampled  on a  regular basis.   The sampling program would
identify problems before neighboring residents are affected.

     Changes  in groundwater levels would occur  with the centralized alterna-
tives.    Export of water  from the  lakeshore  areas  where it  is typically re-
charged  to the wastewater treatment system would change the groundwater levels
slightly.   The  greatest change  in  groundwater  levels would occur  in the
vicinity of  the land application site.   Inadequate data have  been assembled to
accurately  predict the  water  table rise.  The water  table rise would affect
not  only  the  land application site,  but also  the surrounding  area  and the
normal outflow areas.  Either draintile  or recovery wells on  the  land applica-
tion area  would prevent  the water  table from  rising to the  surface, if it is
shown to be necessary through further studies.
                                    4-36

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4.1.2.5.  Terrestrial Biota

     The  land  disposal site  proposed in Section 8 under  Alternative  3 would
affect  the  terrestrial biota during  plant operation,  however,  no significant
adverse  long-term effects  would  be  expected  during  normal  plant  operating
conditions.  Wildlife  may avoid the  area during  waste application.   Periodic
monitoring  should  be  performed  to detect the  presence of  potentially  harmful
concentrations of  heavy metals, other toxic susbstances, or micronutrients in
the soil, crops, or other vegetation.

4.1.2.6.  Land Use Impacts

     The  land  use  conversions   discussed  in  Section  3.2.2. would  remain in
effect for the operation of the proposed wastewater treatment facilities under
the  "build"  alternatives.  Land  use under the easement  of sewage conveyance
lines would  be  intermittently affected when maintenance or repairs  were per-
formed on  sections of the lines.  Periodic excavating and filling would dis-
turb vegetation  and soil  along conveyance lines.   The release  of  low level
odors and  aerosols from  WWTPs  and  the  knowledge that  hazardous gases could
potentially  be released from those plants may affect  land use adjacent to the
plants.    Improper  maintenance   of cluster  and  on-site  systems may create
malodorous conditions which would adversely affect adjacent land uses.

4.1.2.7.  Demographics

     The operation and maintenance of wastewater facilities proposed under the
"build" alternatives  will  not have a significant  impact  on the demography of
the study area.   A limited number of long-term jobs  created by the operation
and maintenance  of these  facilities likely will be filled by  persons living
within  the  study  area or  within commuting distance.  No  new  residents  are
expected to be attracted to the study area to fill these positions.

4.1.2.8.  Economics

     The  operation of wastewater  facilities  under Alternatives  2,  3,  4,  5A,
5B, and  6 would create a  few long-term  jobs.   These  jobs  could  be  filled by
                                    4-37

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persons  residing  in  the study  area.   No  new  jobs would  be  created  under
Alternative 7.  The  existing  staff  at the Dowagiac WWTP is expected to assume
any  additional  responsibilities  as  a result  of implementing  Alternative 7.

     No new jobs  are anticipated to be created under Alternatives 8A, 8B, and
9.  Existing contractors are expected to satisfy local demand for construction
and  maintenance  services of  on-site systems.   Contractors  and tradesmen in-
volved  in  the construction  and  maintenance of  on-site  systems will suffer a
loss of work  opportunities  within the study area  under  Alternatives 2, 3, 4,
5A,  5B, 6,  and  7.  These contractors and  tradesmen are likely to compete for
work opportunities in neighboring areas.   No significant economic impacts will
occur during the operation of wastewater treatment facilities under any of the
alternatives.

4.1.2.9.  Recreation and Tourism

     The operation  of  wastewater facilities under any of  the "build" alterna-
tives  could affect  tourist  and recreational activities in the  study area  if a
malfunction of  those facilities  occurred.  A failure in the system  components
of the  WWTPs  under  Alternatives 2,  4, 5A,  5B,  and  6 could cause untreated or
partially treated waste  to be discharged into study  area surface waters.   This
phenomenon would  result  in  short-term water  quality degradation and a reduc-
tion  in the  recreational  use of  that, body  of water.  Odors  emanating  from
malfunctioning on-site  systems  may curtail outdoor  recreational activities in
the  near vicinity.

4.1.2.10.  Transportation

     Impacts  arising  during the  construction  of   conveyance  lines  (Section
4.1.1.)  would reoccur when  maintenance  or  repairs  are made  on those lines.
Occasionally  some roads  may be  closed temporarily.   Truck traffic  to and  from
the  proposed  treatment  facilities  under Alternatives  2-7 will be  associated
with  supply  deliveries.   Truck  traffic associated with repairs  and sludge
hauling will occur periodically under Alternatives 8A, 8B, and  9.
                                    4-38

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4.1.2.11.  Energy

     The operation  of  wastewater treatment facilities and pump stations under
the  "build"  alternatives  require  the  use of  electricity and  fossil fuels.
Alternatives  6  and 7 would  require  the  greatest amount  of  these energy
sources, Alternatives  8A,  8B,  and 9 would  require  the  least.  No significant
demands  would  be placed  on local  energy supplies  under  any of the  alterna-
tives.

4.1.3.  Public Finance

     The total  project costs  will be  apportioned  between the  USEPA and the
local  residents.   The  apportionment  is made on  the basis of  what costs are
eligible to  be  funded  by USEPA.  The costs for each alternative are presented
in  Appendix  N.  The local construction  costs and  the  entire cost  of system
operation  and  maintenance  will  be  borne entirely  by  the system  users.   As
discussed  in Section  1.2., Federal  funding  through the  National Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Works Construction Grants Program  will  provide  funds to
cover  75%  of  the eligible planning design, and  construction  costs of conven-
tional  wastewater  treatment facilities.   "Innovative/alternative" components
of  the  proposed treatment  systems,  such  as  pressure  sewers,  septic  tank
effluent sewers,  septic  tanks,  and soil absorption systems  are eligible for
85% Federal  funding.   The annual residential user  costs  for  each alternative
are presented  in the  Table 4-3.   The  detailed annual  residential user cost
analyses with  and   without  Federal Grant monies are  presented  in Tables N-ll
and N-12, respectively.

     Wastewater  treatment  facilities  can create significant  financial impacts
for communities  and users  who will pay  the  capital,  operation, maintenance,
and debt  costs associated  with sewage  treatment  facilities.  Two guidelines
for determining  the magnitude  of these  impacts are  the  State of Michigan 10%
of  SEV general obligation  bonding authority limit  for  local governments and
the USEPA  average  annual user  charge  to median  family income  ratio (USEPA
1981b) .
                                    4-39

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Table 4-3.     Annual residential user costs.
                                          Annual Cost per Residence
Alternative
2
3
4
5A
5B
6
7
8A
8B
9
With Federal Grant
264.77
258.95
265.69
254.18
599.66
271.62
329.30
167.29
161.34
126.21
Without Federal Grant
1,044.93
1,043.29
1,059.58
1,020.00
1,266.02
1,033.69
1,061.16
488.83
481.56
233.32
     Cass County would  assume  the local share of additional debt under any of
the "build" alternatives.  Berrien County and Van Buren County residents would
be billed user  charges  by Cass County under  any of the "build" alternatives.

     The debt to state  equalized  assessed valuation ratio  for  four debt sce-
nerios,  which  include  the high-  and  low-cost  capital  shares  for  sewer  and
on-site  systems are  presented  in  Table 4-4.   Under the  highest local capital
cost scenerio,  Alternative  5B,  Cass  County's debt would rise $12,541,000 over
its 1980 debt of $1,335,000 for a  total of $13,876,000.  Cass County's debt to
state equalized assessed  valuation ratio under Alternative 5B would reach 33%
of  the  state  of  Michigan's  general  obligation bonding authority  limit  for
local governments.

     Under  the  lowest  local  capital  cost  scenerio,  Alternative 9,  Cass
County's  debt   would  rise  $968,400  over  its  1980  debt  for  a  total  of
$2,303,400.   Cass  County's debt  to  state equalized  assessed valuation ratio
under Alternative 9  would reach 5% of  the state of Michigan's general obliga-
tion bonding authority  for  local  governments.  Cass County would not approach
its state mandated  debt limit under any of the alternatives.
                                    4-40

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     The  USEPA  considers projects  to be  expensive  and as  having an adverse
impact on the finances of users when average annual user charges are:

     9    1.0% of median household incomes less than $10,000
     •    1.5%  of  median  family  incomes  between  $10,000  and   $17,000
     «    1.75% of median household incomes greater than $17,000.

Median  family  incomes for  Berrien,  Cass and Van  Buren Counties  are $19,200,
$18,600, and  $20,500,  respectively.  (By telephone, Mr. John Maloney, Economic
Market.  Analysis  Division,  US  Department  of  Housing  and  Urban  Development,
Detroit, MI to WAPORA, Inc. 4 March 1982).

     Incomes  of  system  users  residing  in Van  Buren County  may  be somewhat
lower  than  $20,500  because  Van  Buren  County is  included  in  the Kalamazoo
Standard Metropolitan  Statistical  Area (SMSA).  Wages are likely  to be higher
in the  Kalamazoo  metropolitan  area than in Van Buren County.  The high wages
paid  in Kalamazoo  tend  to raise  the median family income  for  the SMSA as a
whole.

     Average  annual user charges  expressed as a  percentage of median family
income  for  a household  of  four are  presented in  Table  4-5.   User fees under
Alternative 5B surpass suggested upper limit user  fees for system  users in  all
three counties.   Under Alternative 7, user fees surpass suggested upper limit
user  fees for  system users  in Cass County.   Thus,  some  system  users under
these  alternatives would  be  financially  adversely affected.   Alternative 9
offers  the  lowest user fees  for system  users  in all  three counties.  None of
the other alternatives surpass  suggested upper limit user fees as  a percentage
of median family  income, indicating that none of these alternatives would be a
"high cost"  system that  would pose a significant  financial  burden on system
users.

     The  financial  stress  on  low  income  families  and  the  local  share   of
capital cost  for  the  proposed wastewater facilities, under any of the "build"
alternatives, may be  overstated in Tables 4-4 and  4-5 because of the uncer-
tainty  of  how available  Farmers  Home Administration  (FmHA)  grants and loans
may be  applied.   Cass County is currently eligible for a $1,200,000 grant  and

                                    4-42

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Table 4-5.     Average annual user charges for the "build" alternatives
               expressed as a percentage of median household income for
               Berrien, Cass and Van Buren Counties.
Alternative

     2

     3

     4

     5A

     5B

     6

     7

     8A
                                           County
Berrien
1.38%
1.35%
1.38%
1.32%
b
3.12%
1.41%

1.71%
0.87%
0.84%
0.66%
Cass
1.42%
1.39%
1.43%
1.37%
b
3.22%
1.46%
b
1.77%
0.90%
0.87%
0.68%
Van Buren
1.29%
1.26%
1.30%
1.24%
b
2.93%
1.32%

1.61%
0.82%
0.79%
0.62%
 The USEPA considers a project expensive when average annual user charges
 exceed 1.75% of median household incomes greater than $17,000.

 The costs residents would pay under these alternatives would be considered
 expensive according to USEPA guidelines.
                                    4-43

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a $1,000,000 loan for 40 years at 5% interest from the FmHA (By telephone, Mr.
Roy  O'Breiter,  FmHA District  Office,  Hastings MI to WAPORA,  Inc.  2 February
1982) .   The grant  and loan  are set  aside  for wastewater  facilities  around
Indian Lake.  Cass County could apply for an additional loan to finance waste-
water facilities  in  other parts of the  study  area.   If FmHA grants and loans
are  incorporated  into  the public financing scheme for implementing any of the
"build" alternatives,  the financial stress on  study  area  low income families
and  the  local  share of  capital cost  for the  proposed wastewater facilities
would be reduced.

4.2.  Secondary Impacts

     Each of the  alternatives, including the No Action Alternative, will have
effects  that  extend  beyond  primary  or  direct  impacts.   These  impacts,
secondary impacts,  would occur  because induced  growth may occur  or because
changes in  lake  water  quality may  occur.  The  categories  that may experience
significant secondary impacts  are described in  the following sections.

4.2.1.  Demographics

     Wastewater management facilities historically have been a major  factor  in
determining the capacity  of  an area to support population growth and develop-
ment.  On-site  wastewater treatment  facilities,  although  generally available
to any potential  user,  limit  development to areas with suitable soil and site
characteristics.   Sewer   systems,  while  not  always  available at  a specific
location or with adequate capacity, allow development to be more site indepen-
dent,  since soil, slope,  and drainage  become  less  constraining  design para-
meters.  Consequently,  the construction of sewers in an area usually increases
the  inventory  of developable  land and  the density  of  development, often un-
leashing pent-up demand for or encouraging growth and development.

     This phenomenon is not evident in the study area nor is it anticipated  to
occur  during  the  planning  period.   Economic factors  discussed  in Section
3.2.3. which follow  national,  state,  and regional trends,  outweigh the incen-
tive for growth which wastewater facilities provide.
                                    4-44

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     Population growth in the study area as discussed in Section 3.2.1. is not
likely  to  be significantly  affected  by the selection of  any  of  the alterna-
tives.  The  first  tier of sewers away  from the lakes proposed under Alterna-
tives  2-7  would  provide  service to a corridor  which is already developed and
where  few lots available for development exist.  Little population increase is
likely  to  occur in  this  corridor.   The cost to users  under Alternatives 2-7
may  create  a  financial   burden for  families  with  low incomes.   This could
result  in  displacement of  these families  from the  service  area  because they
cannot afford user charges.

     The selection of  Alternative  8A or 8B would allow for  the development of
a  limited  number  of  lots  which  are not  suitable  for on-site  systems.   No
significant population increase  is anticipated  to occur.

     Under Alternatives 1 and 9, population growth would occur as discussed in
Section 3.2.1.   The  projected  conversion  of  seasonal  dwellings  to permanent
homes would continue.  Population increases would be dependant upon the carry-
ing capacity of the land available for development.  No significant population
impacts would occur.

4.2.2.  Land Use

     Economic factors  (Section  3.2.3) will have a greater influence than the
provision of wastewater  facilities  (Section 4.2.)  in determining land use for
the study  area  during  the planning period.  The location of wastewater treat-
ment facilities and  sewer systems  under Alternatives 2-7 will affect patterns
of future development.   Residential development would be likely to occur along
sewer lines.  Because little induced growth is predicted to  occur, no signifi-
cant land use impacts will occur.

     Under Alternatives 8A,  8B, and 9  future  development  would be limited to
the carrying capacity  of  the land.   Continued  and  increased nuisances attri-
butable  to  failing  on-site systems  in  residential areas  would  make infill
development of those  areas less desirable.
                                    4-45

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Prime Agricultural land

     Little prime agricultural  farmland is likely to be  taken out of produc-
tion to  accommodate wastewater  treatment  facilities.  This will  result  in a
minimal net loss of food and fibre which was previously produced on this land.
The  lack  of induced  growth created  by implementing any  of  the alternatives
removes the threat  to prime agricultural farmland usually associated with the
construction of wastewater facilities.

4.2.3.   Surface Water

     Increased housing development along lake shores may increase nutrient and
sediment loads into the lakes as a result of the following:

     •    increased runoff  from construction of impervious surfaces such
          as rooftops, parking areas, and paved roads
     •    increased  housing  density  normally  accelerates  storm  water
          runoff  thereby  increasing  not  only the amount  of  runoff, but
          also  its  ability  to  erode soil  and  to transport contaminants
     •    lawn  and  garden  fertilization  may  create  unnaturally  high
          nutrieat levels in runoff.
     Accompanying housing  development is the increase  in  the  use of the  lake
for  recreational  and  fishing  purposes.  An  increase  in  fishing pressure may
ultimately  result  in  detrimental  water quality  effects.  When  larger  pis-
civores are removed  by angling, fewer  planktivores are consumed, resulting  in
greater  numbers of planktivores.  The  planktivore  community  then exerts  high
predation pressure  on the zooplankton  community.  A decrease  in the zooplank-
ton  community  will reduce  grazing  pressure  on  phytoplankton  resulting in  an
increase in the phytoplankton, and greater  turbidity.

     The installation  of a  centralized  collection system probably would induce
a  more  rapid  development  rate compared  to alternatives  calling for upgraded
on-site systems.
                                    4-46

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 4.2.4.  Recreation and Tourism

     Any  increase or  decrease  of  tourism  and recreational activities within
 the  study  area attributable to the  Long-term  operation of wastewater facili-
 ties under  the "build" alternatives  would occur when  a  quantum  change  in water
 quality of  area  lakes  occurs.   A significant decline  in water quality would
 cause  fewer tourists  to  visit the  study area.   Permanent and seasonal resi-
 dents  of  the  study  area would  likely decrease some  of their recreational
 activities  around area lakes under  these conditions.

     A significant  increase  in water quality may contribute to an increase of
 recreational  activities  among  local residents and  tourists  within the study
 area.  Other  factors  discussed  in Section  3.2.4. would have  a greater affect
 upon  use  of  the study  area by  tourists  and recreationists.   Increased and
 continuing  nuisances  created by  failing on-site systems  under the No Action
 Alternative  would detract  from  the study  areas reputation  as  a desirable
 recreational  area.   Recreation and  tourist activities  would  likely  decline.
 No significant  recreational  or tourist impacts are  likely to  occur under any
 of the alternatives.

 4.2.5.  Economics

     It is  unlikely  that the additional wastewater treatment capacity created
 under  Alteratives  2-7 would  create any population,  development,  or  economic
 growth  (Section  3.2.3.).   Economic  development would proceed  as discussed in
 Section 3.2.3.  under Alternatives  8A,  8B,  and   9.   Increased  and continuing
 nuisances created by  failing on-site systems under  the No Action Alternative
 would  detract from  the  study  areas reputation  as   a  desirable recreational
 area.  Recreation and tourist activities would likely  decline  resulting in a
 loss of revenues for study area businesses.

 4.2.6.  Threatened and Endangered Species

     No threatened or  endangered  species have been identified  at the  proposed
plant sites or  sewer  lines.   The habitats present, however, could be  suitable
for a  number  of  endangered  and threatened  species   in  the State  of Michigan
 (Tables 3-14,  3-15,  and 3-16).
                                     4-47

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     The MDNR  should  be  consulted to determine whether any listed species are
actually found  in the vicinities of the proposed  sites.   If  so, appropriate
measures must  be developed  through  consultation with  Berrien,  Cass,  and Van
Buren counties,  MDNR, and  US  Fish and Wildlife  Service,  if  appropriate, and
other agencies that may be interested in the proposed action.

4.3.  Mitigation of Adverse Impacts

     As previously discussed, various adverse impacts would be associated with
the  proposed  alternatives.   Many  of these  adverse impacts could  be  reduced
significantly  by the  application of  raitigative measures.   These mitigative
measures consist  of  a variety of legal requirements,  planning  measures, and
design practices.  The extent  to which these measures are applied will deter-
mine  the  ultimate  impact  of  the selected action.   Potential  measures for
alleviating  construction,  operation,  and  secondary  effects  presented  in
Sections 4.1. and 4.2. are discussed in the following sections.

4.3.1.  Mitigation of Construction Impacts

     The construction oriented impacts presented in Section 4.1. primarily are
short-term  effects  resulting  from  construction  activities  at  WWTP  sites or
•ilong the route  of  proposed sewer systems.  Proper design should minimize the
potential impacts and the plans and specifications should incorporate mitiga-
tive measures consistent with the following discussion.

     Fugitive  dust  from  the  excavation  and  backfilling operations  for the
force mains  and treatment  plants could be minimized  by  various techniques.
Frequent street sweeping of dirt  from construction  activities would reduce the
major source of dust.   Prompt repaving of roads disturbed by construction also
could reduce  dust effectivaly.  Construction sites,  spoil  piles, and unpaved
access roads should be  wetted  periodically to minimize dust.  Soil stockpiles
and backfilled trenches should be seeded with a temporary or permanent seeding
or covered with mulch to reduce susceptibility to wind erosion.
                                    4-48

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     Street cleaning  at  sites where trucks and  equipment gain access to con-
struction  sites  and  of  roads along which  a  force  main would be constructed
would  reduce  loose  dirt  that  otherwise would  generate  dust,  create unsafe
driving  conditions,  or   be   washed  into  roadside  ditches  or  storm drains.
Trucks  transporting  spoil material to disposal  sites should cover their loads
to eliminate the escape of dust while in transit.

     Exhaust emissions  and noise  from construction equipment could be mini-
mized by proper equipment maintenance.  The resident engineer  should have, and
should  exercise  the  authority, to  ban from  the  site  all  poorly maintained
equipment.  Soil borings  along the proposed force main rights-of-way conducted
during  system design,  would  identify organic  soils  that  have  the potential  to
release odors when  excavated.  These areas could be bypassed  by rerouting the
force  main if,  depending on  the location,  a  significant impact might be ex-
pected.

     Spoil disposal sites should be identified during the  project design stage
to ensure that adequate sites are available and  that disposal  site impacts are
minimized.   Landscaping  and  restoration  of   vegetation  should  be  conducted
immediately after disposal  is completed to prevent  impacts  from dust genera-
tion and unsightly conditions.

     Lands disturbed  by  trenching  for force  main  construction should be re-
graded and compacted  as  necessary to prevent  future subsidence.  However, too
much compaction will result in conditions unsuitable for  vegetation.

     Areas disturbed  by  trenching and  grading  at  the  plant  site  should   be
revegetated as soon as possible to prevent erosion and dust generation. Native
plants and grasses should be used.  This also will facilitate  the re-establish-
ment of wildlife habitat.

     Construction-related disruption in the community can  be minimized through
considerate contractor  scheduling and appropriate  public announcements.   The
State  and County   highway  departments  have  regulations concerning  roadway
disruptions,  which  should be  rigorously applied. Special  care should be taken
to minimize disruption of access to frequently visited establishments.
                                    4-49

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Announcements should be published in local newspapers and broadcast from local
radio stations  to alert  drivers  of temporary traffic  disruptions  on primary
routes.    Street  closings  should be  announced  by  fliers  delivered  to  each
affected household.

     Planning of  routes  for heavy construction equipment and materials should
ensure that  surface  load restrictions  are considered.  In this way, damage to
streets  and  roadways would  be avoided.   Trucks  hauling excavation  spoil to
disposal  sites  or  fill   material  to  the WWTP  sites  should be  routed  along
primary  arteries  to minimize  the  threat to public safety  and  to reduce dis-
turbance in residential environments.

     Erosion  and  sedimentation must be minimized  at  all construction sites.
USEPA Program Requirements Memorandum  78-1  establishes requirements for con-
trol of  erosion and runoff from construction  activities.   Adherence to these
requirements would serve to mitigate potential problems:
          Construction  site selection  should consider  potential occur-
          rence of erosion and sediment losses
          The project plan and layout should be designed to fit the local
          topography and soil conditions
          When appropriate, land grading and excavating should be kept at
          a  minimum to  reduce  the  possibility  of  creating  runoff and
          erosion  problems  which  require  extensive  control  measures
          Whenever  possible,  topsoil  should  be  removed  and  stockpiled
          before grading begins
          Land  exposure  should  be  minimized in  terms  of area  and time
          Exposed  areas  subject  to erosion  should  be covered  as quickly
          as possible by means of mulching or vegetation
          Natural vegetation should be retained whenever feasible
          Appropriate structural or agronomic practices to control runoff
          and sedimentation should be provided during and after construc-
          tion
          Early  completion of stabilized  drainage  system (temporary and
          permanent  systems)  will  substantially  reduce  erosion  potential
                                    4-50

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     •    Access  roadways  should  be  paved  or  otherwise stabilized  as  soon
          as feasible
     •    Clearing  and grading  should not be  started until a  firm  con-
          struction  schedule is known and  can  be  effectively  coordinated
          with  the grading and  clearing  activities.
     The  Natural Historic  Preservation  Act  of   1966,  Executive  Order  11593
 (1971), The Archaeological and  Historic  Preservation  Act  of  1974,  and the 1973
 Procedures  of  the Advisory  Council  on Historic Preservation require  that care
 must be taken early  in the planning  process to  identify cultural resources and
 minimize  adverse  effects  on them.   USEPA's final  regulations  for  the prepara-
 tion of EISs (40  CFR 1500)  also specify  that  compliance with these regulations
 is  required when a  Federally funded,  licensed,  or permitted project  is  under-
 taken.   The State Historic Preservation  Officer  must have an  opportunity  to
 determine that  the requirements have been  satisfied.

     Once an alternative is  selected and design work  begins, a  thorough  pedes-
 trian  archaeological survey may  be required for  those areas  affected  by the
 proposed facility.   In addition to the information already collected  through a
 literature  review   (WAPORA  1979)  and consultation  with the  State  Historic
 Preservation Officer and other knowledgeable informants, a  controlled surface
 collection  of  discovered  sites  and minor  subsurface  testing  should be  con-
 ducted.   A  similar  survey would be required of  historic  structures,  sites,
 properties,  and objects  in and adjacent  to  the  construction areas, if  they
 might be affected by the construction  or operation of  the project.

     In consultation with  the State  Historic  Preservation Officer, it would  be
 determined  if  any of  the  resources identified by  the surveys appear  to  be
 eligible  for  the National Register  of  Historic Places.   Subsequently,  an
 evaluation  would  be made  of  the  probable  effects  of the project  on  these
 resources and what mitigation procedures may  be  required.  Prior to initiation
 of  the  proposed  Federally funded project, the Advisory Council  on  Historic
 Preservation in Washington DC  should  be notified  of  the intended undertaking
and be provided an opportunity to comment on  the proposed project.
                                    4-51

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4.3.2.  Mitigation of Operation Impacts

     The  majority  of  potentially  adverse  operational  impacts  of  the  WWTP
alternatives are  related  to  the discharge of effluent to surface waters.   For
the land treatment alternative, the most significant potential adverse effects
are  impacts  on  groundwater  and  possible  health  risks.   Adverse  impacts
associated with  the operation  of cluster  and  on-site systems  are primarily
related to malodorous conditions which may affect outdoor recreational activi-
ties.  Measures  to  minimize  these and other  operation phase impacts from all
the alternatives are discussed below.

     Adverse impacts  related  to  the operation of  the proposed  sewer systems
and  treatment  facilities  would  be  minimal  if  the  facilities  are designed,
operated,  and  maintained  properly.   Aerosols,  gaseous emissions,  and  odors
from  the  various treatment  processes could be controlled  to  a  large extent.
Above-ground pumps  would  be  enclosed and installed to minimize sound impacts.
Concentrations of the effluent constituents discharged from the WWTPs would be
regulated  by  the conditions  of  the  NPDES  permits.   The  effluent quality is
specified by the  State  of Michigan and must be monitored.  Proper and regular
maintenance of cluster  and on-site systems also would maximize the efficiency
of  these systems  and minimize odors  rele_ased  from malfunctioning systems.

     Special  care  to  control chlorination  and  effluent  concentrations  of
chlorine residuals  should  be taken to minimize adverse impacts to the aquatic
biota  of  study area   surface waters.  Tsai  (1973)  documented that depressed
numbers  of fish  and  macroinvertebrates  were found  downstream  from outfalls
discharging chlorinated effluent.   No fish were found in  water  with chlorine
residuals greater than 0.37 mg/1, and the species diversity index reached zero
at  0.25  mg/1.   A 50% reduction  in  species  diversity index occurred at 0.10
mg/1.   Arthur   and  other?  (1975)  reported  that  concentrations  of  chlorine
residuals lethal  to various species of warm water fish range from 0.09 to 0.30
mg/1.  Many wastewater  treatment  plants have effluents with chlorine residual
concentrations of 0.5 to  2.0 mg/1.  Furthermore,  chlorination  of wastewater
can result in  the formation of halogenated  organic  compounds  that are poten-
tially  carcinogenic  (USEPA  1976) .   Rapid  mixing  of chlorine and  design  of
contact  chambers  to  provide  long  contact  times,  however,  can  achieve  the
                                    4-52

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desired  disinfection  and  the  minimum chlorine  residual  discharge (USEPA and

others  1977).   Chlorination will  require especially  careful  application and
routine monitoring to insure that chlorine residual concentrations are kept to

a minimum.


     In the document Federal Guidelines for Design, Operation, and Maintenance
of Wastewater Treatment Facilities   (Federal   Water   Quality   Administration
1970), it is required that:


     All  water  pollution  control  facilities  should  be planned  and  de-
     signed so as  to  provide for maximum  reliability  at  all times.  The
     facilities  should  be  capable   of  operating  satisfactorily during
     power  failures,   flooding,   peak  loads,  equipment  failure,  and
     maintenance shutdowns.
4.3.3.  Mitigation of Secondary Impacts


     As discussed in Section 4.2., few secondary impacts are expected to occur
during the operation of any of the ten "build" alternatives.  Adequate zoning,

health,  and  water  quality regulation  and  enforcement would  minimize  these

impacts.  Local growth  management planning would assist in  the regulation of

general location, density, and type of growth.that might occur.


4.4.  Unavoidable Adverse Impacts


     Some impacts  associated  with  the  implementation  of  any  of  the  "build"

alternatives  cannot be  avoided.   The  centralized  collection and  treatment
alternatives would have the following adverse impacts:


     •    Considerable  short-term construction dust,  noise,  and  traffic
          nuisance

     •    Alteration of  vegetation and wildlife habitat along the sewer
          and force main corridors and at the WWTP sites

     •    Considerable erosion and siltation during construction

     •    Discharge of  BOD,  SS,  and  phosphorus at  greater  than  ambient
          levels to Silver  Creek and/or the Indian  Lake outlet with the
          waste stabilization  lagoon alternatives
                                    4-53

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     •    Discharge  of  increased  BOD,   SS,  phosphorus,  and ammonia  to
          Dowagiac Creek from  the  Dowagiac WWTP for Alternatives 6 and 7

     •    Significant odors during spring turnover of waste stabilization
          lagoons

     •    Significant user fees for wastewater treatment services for the
          residents within the proposed sewer service areas

     •    Conversion  of  agricultural  land  and,  for  Section  29  (near
          Indian  Lake), prime  farmland  to  waste  stabilization lagoon  use.

     The decentralized  alternatives that  include primarily  continued  use of

existing and upgraded on-site systems and either cluster systems or blackwater

holding  tanks  for critical  areas  would  have  the following  adverse  impacts:


     •    Some short-term  construction  dust,  noise, and traffic nuisance

     •    Some erosion and siltation during construction

     e    Alteration  and  destruction of  wildlife  habitat  at the cluster
          drainfield sites

     •    Discharge  of  percolate  with  elevated  levels of  nitrates  and
          chlorides  from  soil  absorption  systems  to the  groundwater

     •    Occasional ephemeral odors associated with pumping  septic tanks
          and holding tanks and trucking  it to disposal sites

     •    User fees  for management and operation of wastewater  treatment
          services for  the residents within the proposed service areas.

4.5.  Irretrievable and Irreversible Resource Commitments


     The major  types  and  amounts of resources that would be  committed through

the  implementation of  any  of the  ten  "build" alternatives  are presented in

Sections 4.1. and 4.2.   Each of the alternatives would include  some or all of

the  following resource  commitments:


     •    Fossil  fuel,  electrical  energy, and human labor for facilities
          construction  and operation

     •    Chemicals,  especially  chlorine,  for  Dowagiac  WWTP   operation

     •    Tax dollars for construction and operation

     •    Some unsalvageable construction materials.
                                    4-54

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     For each alternative involving a WWTP, there is a significant consumption
of  these  resources  with no feasible means of recovery.  Thus, non-recoverable
resources  would be  foregone  for  the  provision of  the  proposed  wastewater
control system.

     Accidents  which  could  occur from system construction and operation could
cause irreversible bodily damage or death, and damage or destroy equipment and
other  resources.   Unmitigated  Dowagiac  WWTP  failure potentially  could kill
aquatic life in the immediate mixing zone.

     The potential accidental destruction of undiscovered archaeological sites
through excavation  activities is  not  reversible.   This  would represent per-
manent loss of  the site.
                                    4-55

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5.0.  LITERATURE CITED

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Ayensu,  E.S.,   and  R.A. De  Filipps.    1978.   Endangered and  threatened
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                                 5-1

-------
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                                 5-2

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                                 5-3

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Michigan Department  of Natural Resources.  1973.  General Rules, Part 4,
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                                 5-4

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                                 5-6

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     jects.   Draft  —  generic  environmental   impact  statement.  USEPA
     Region  V,  Water  Division,  Chicago  IL,   133 p.  plus  appendixes.

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                                 5-7

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     Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters 8:269-278.

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     37:53-83.

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     the  Indian Lake  - Sister Lakes environmental statement.  Submitted
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WAPORA,  Inc.  1981.   Memorandum to Mr. Charles Quinlan, USEPA, Region V.
     Revised population projections.  Chicago IL.

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     and Oceanography 27:39-52.
                                 5-8

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 6.0.   LIST  OF  PREPARERS
     The  Draft  Environmental  Statement  (DES)  was  prepared  by the  Chicago
 Regional  Office  of  WAPORA,  Inc.,  under  contract to  USEPA Region V.   USEPA
 approved  the DES and  hereby publishes it as  a  Draft EIS.   The  USEPA Project
 Officers  and  the WAPORA  staff involved  in the  preparation of  the  DES/DEIS
 during  the  past  4 years  include:
USEPA
Charles Quinlan  III
Kathleen Schaub
WAPORA, Inc.
Robert France
John Johnson
E. Clark Boli
Gerard Kelly
J. P. Singh

Kenneth Dobbs

Gerald Lenssen
Ellen Renzas
Kathleen Brennan
Richard C. McKean
Rosetta Arrigo
William McClain
Anita C.  Locke
Gregg Larson
Andrew Freeman
Mirza Meghji
Project Officer
Project Officer  (former)


Project Administrator
Project Administrator
Project Administrator
Project Administrator
Project Manager, Environmental Engineer
and Principal Author
Assistant Project Manager and
Principal Author
Project Engineer and Principal Author
Socioeconomist and Editor
Biologist
Biologist
Biologist
Biologist
Botanist
Demographer
Demographer
Sr. Water Quality Scientist
                                    6-1

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Steve McComas                      Water Quality Scientist
Valarie Krejcie                    Graphics Specialist
Peter Woods                        Graphics Specialist
Phil Pekron                        Environmental Scientist
Kent Peterson                      Geologist
John Rist                          Engineer
Jan Saper                          Editor
Mary Bryant                        Production Specialist
Shirley Zingery                    Production Specialist


     In  addition,  several  subcontractors and others  assisted in the prepara-
tion of this document.  These, along with their areas of expertise, are listed
below:

     •    Aerial Survey
               Office of Research and Development
               US EPA
               Las Vegas NV

     •    Septic Leachate Analysis
               K-V Associates
               Falmouth MA

     •    Richard Larson
               Soil Scientist
               Traverse City MI
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 7.0.   GLOSSARY OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS

 Activated  sludge  process.   A method  of  secondary wastewater  treatment  in
     which  a  suspended microbiological  culture  is  maintained  inside  an
     aerated  treatment basin.  The microbial  organisms  oxidize the  complex
     organic matter  in  the wastewater  to  carbon dioxide,  water, and  energy.

 Advanced  secondary  treatment.   Wastewater  treatment more  stringent  than
     secondary treatment but  not to advanced waste  treatment levels.

 Advanced  waste treatment.   Wastewater treatment  to  treatment levels  that
     provide  for maximum monthly  average BOD   and SS concentrations  less
     than 10  rag/1  and/or total nitrogen  removal  of greater than 50% (total
     nitrogen removal  = TKN + nitrite  and nitrate).

 Aeration.  To circulate oxygen  through a  substance, as in wastewater treat-
     ment, where it  aids in  purification.

 Aerobic.  Refers  to life  or processes that occur  only  in the presence  of
     oxygen.

 Aerosol.  A suspension  of liquid or solid particles in a  gas.

 Algae.   Simple  rootless plants  that  grow  in  bodies of  water in relative
     proportion  to  the amounts  of nutrients  available.   Algal blooms,  or
     sudden growth spurts, can affect  water quality adversely.

 Algal  bloom.   A  proliferation of algae on the surface of lakes, streams  or
     ponds.  Algal blooms are stimulated by phosphate enrichment.

 Alluvial.  Pertaining  to material that has been carried by a stream.

 Ambient air.  Any unconfined  portion of the atmosphere:   open air.

 Ammonia-nitrogen.  Nitrogen  in  the form of ammonia (NH  ) that is produced
     in  nature when nitrogen-containing  organic material is   biologically
     decomposed.

Anaerobic. Refers  to life or  processes that occur in the  absence of  oxygen.

 Aquifer.  A geologic stratum or unit  that contains water  and will allow  it
     to pass through.   The water may reside in and  travel  through innumera-
     ble spaces  between rock grains in a sand  or gravel  aquifer, small  or
     cavernous  openings  formed by  solution  in  a limestone   aquifer,  or
     fissures, cracks, and rubble in harder rocks such as  shale.

Artesian (adj.).   Refers  to  ground water that is under sufficient pressure
     to flow to the surface without being pumped.

Artesian well.   A well  that normally gives  a continuous flow because  of
     hydrostatic  pressure,  created  when the outlet of the  well   is below the
     level of the water source.
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Bar screen.   In wastewater  treatment,  a screen that  removes  large float-
     ing and suspended solids.

Base flow.  The  rate  of movement of water  in  a stream channel that occurs
     typically  during  rainless  periods, when  stream  flow is  maintained
     largely or entirely by discharges of groundwater.

Bed Rock.  The solid rock beneath the soil and subsoil.

Biochemical oxygen  demand (BOD).   A bioassay-type  procedure  in  which the
     weight of oxygen  utilized  by microorganisms to oxidize and assimilate
     the organic  matter present  per liter of  water  is  determined.  It is
     common to note the number of days during which a test was conducted as
     a subscript to the abbreviated name.  For example, BOD  indicates that
     the results  are  based  on  a five-day  long (120-hour)  test.   The BOD
     value  is  a relative measure  of the amount (load)  of  living and dead
     oxidizable organic matter   in  water.   A high  demand may  deplete the
     supply of oxygen in the water, temporarily or for a prolonged time, to
     the degree  that  many or all  kinds  of aquatic  organisms are killed.
     Determinations of  BOD are  useful  in the  evaluation  of the  impact of
     wastewater on receiving waters.

Biota.  The plants and animals of an area.

Chlorination.  The  application   of  chlorine  to drinking water,  sewage or
     industrial  waste  for  disinfection  or  oxidation of  undesirable com-
     pounds .

Clarifier.   A settling tank where solids  are mechanically  removed from
     waste water.

Coliform bacteria.  Members  of  a large  group  of  bacteria that flourish in
     the feces  and/or  intestines  of warm-blooded  animals,  including man.
     Fecal  coliform  bacteria,   particularly  Escherichia  coli  (E.   coli) ,
     enter water mostly in fecal matter, such as sewage or feedlot runnoff.
     Coliforms  apparently do not  cautie serious human diseases,  but  these
     organisms are  abundant  in  polluted waters and  they are fairly easy to
     detect.  The abundance of coliforms in water,  therefore,  is used  as an
     index  to  the probability of the occurrence  of such disease-producing
     organisms  (pathogens)  as  Salmonella,  Shigella,  and  enteric viruses.
     The pathogens are  relatively difficult to detect.

Community.  The  plants and  animals in  a particular area that are closely
     related through food chains and other interactions.

Cultural resources.   Fragile and nonrenewable  sites,  districts, buildings,
     structures,  or  objects  representative  of   our heritage.   Cultural
     resources  are divided  into three  categories:   historical,  architec-
     tural, or  archaeological.   Cultural resources  of special significance
     may  be eligible   for listing   on  the  National Register  of Historic
     Places.
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Decibel  (dB).  A unit of measurement used to express the relative intensity
     of  sound.   For environmental  assessment, it is  common  to use a fre*
     quency-rated scale  (A scale)  on which  the  units  (dBA) are correlated
     with responses of the human ear.  On the A scale, 0 dBA represents the
     average  least  perceptible sound  (rustling  leaves,  gentle breathing),
     and 140 dBA  represents  the intensity at which the eardrum may rupture
     (jet engine  at open throttle). Intermediate values generally are:  20
     dBA,  faint   (whisper  at 5 feet,  classroom,  private office);  60 dBA,
     loud  (average   restaurant  or  living  room,  playground);  80  DBA, very
     loud  (impossible  to  use  a telephone,  noise  made by  food blender or
     portable  standing machine;  hearing  impairment  may result  from pro-
     longed exposure);  100  dBA, deafening noise  (thunder, car horn at 3
     feet, loud motorcycle,  loud power lawn mower).

Detention  time.   Average  time required  to  flow through  a  basin.   Also
     called retention time.

Digestion.  In wastewater  treatment a closed tank, sometimes heated to 95°F
     where sludge is subjected to intensified bacterial action.

Disinfection.   Effective  killing  by chemical  or  physical  processes of all
     organisms capable of  causing  infectious disease.  Chlorination  is the
     disinfection method  commonly  employed  in sewage  treatment processes.

Dissolved oxygen  (DO).   Oxygen gas (0 ) in  water.   It is  utilized in res-
     piration by  fish  and  other aquatic organisms, and those organisms may
     be  injured  or  killed  when  the  concentration  is low.   Because much
     oxygen diffuses into water from  the air,  the concentration  of  DO is
     greater,   other conditions  being   equal,  at  sea  level  than  at high
     elevations,   during  periods of  high  atmospheric  pressure than  during
     periods  of   low  pressure, and  when  the  water  is  turbulent  (during
     rainfall, in rapids,  and  waterfalls)  rather than when  it is placid.
     Because cool  water  can absorb  more oxygen than  warm  water,  the con-
     centration tends  to  be  greater at low  temperatures  than at high tem-
     peratures.   Dissolved oxygen  is depleted by  the  oxidation of organic
     matter and  of  various  inorganic  chemicals.  Should depletion be ex-
     treme, the  water may  become  anaerobic and  could stagnate and  stink.

Drift.    Rock material  picked up and transported by a  glacier and deposited
     elsewhere.

Effluent.  Wastewater or  other liquid, partially or completely treated, or
     in  its natural state,  flowing  out of  a  reservoir,  basin,  treatment
     plant, or industrial treatment plant, or part thereof.

Endangered species.   Any  species of animal or plant that is in  known danger
     of  extinction   throughout  all or  a  significant  part  of its   range.

Eutrophication.   The process of  enrichment of  a water body with nutrients.

Fauna.    The total animal  life of a particular geographic  area or habitat.

Fecal coliform bacteria.   See coliform  bacteria.
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Floodway.  The portion  of  the floodplain which carries moving water during
     a flood event.

Flood  fringe.   The part of  the  floodplain which serves  as  a storage area
     during a flood event.

Flora.   The  total plant life of a particular  geographic area or habitat.

Flowmeter.  A guage  that  indicates the amount of flow of wastewater moving
     through a treatment plant.

Force main.  A pipe designed to carry wastewater under pressure.

Gravity system.   A  system  of conduits  (open  or closed)  in which no liquid
     pumping is required.

Gravity  sewer.   A sewer in which  wastewater  flows  naturally down-gradient
     by the force of gravity.

Groundwater.  All  subsurface  fresh water, especially that part in the zone
     of saturation.

Groundwater  Runoff.   Groundwater that is  discharged  into a stream channel
     as spring or seepage water.

Holding Tank.  Enclosed tank, usually of  fiberglass, steel or concrete, for
     the  storage of  wastewater prior  to removal  or disposal  at another
     location.

Hypolimnion.  Deep,  cold and  relatively undisturbed water  separated from
     the surface layer in lakes.

Infiltration.  The  water entering  a  sewer  system  and  service connections
     from  the ground  through such means  as,  but  not  limited to, defective
     pipes, pipe joints, improper connections, or manhole walls.  Infiltra-
     tion does not include, and is distinguished from, inflow.

Inflow.   The  water  discharged  into  a  wastewater  collection  system and
     service  connections  from such  sources  as,  but  not  limited  to,  roof
     leaders,  cellars,  yard  and  area  drains, foundation  drains, cooling
     water  discharges,  drains  from  springs  and  swampy  areas,  manhole
     covers, cross-connections from storm sewers and combined  sewers,  catch
     basins, storm  waters,  surface runoff, street wash waters or drainage.
     Inflow  does  not it elude,  and  is  distinguished  from,  infiltration.

Influent.   Water,  wastewater,  or  other  liquid flowing  into  a reservoir,
     basin, or treatment facility, or any unit  thereof.

Interceptor sewer.  A sewer designed and  installed to collect sewage from a
     series of trunk  sewers and to convey it to  a sewage treatment plant.

Innovative  Technology.   A technology whose  use has  not  been widely docu-
     mented by experience  and is not a  variant of  conventional biological
     or phys.ical/chemical treatment.
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Lagoon.   In  wastewater  treatment,  a  shallow  pond,  usually man-made,  in
     which  sunlight,  algal  and  bacterial action  and  oxygen interact  to
     restore  the wastewater  to a  reasonable state of  purity.

Land Treatment.   A method of treatment in which the  soil, air, vegetation,
     bacteria, and  fungi are employed  to  remove pollutants from wastewater.
     In  its most  simple  form,  the method includes  three steps:   (1)  pre-
     treatment  to  screen  out  large  solids;  (2)   secondary  treatment and
     chlorination;  and  (3)  spraying  over cropland,  pasture,  or natural
     vegetation  to  allow  plants and  soil microorganisms to remove addi-
     tional  pollutants.    Much  of  the sprayed  water  evaporates,  and the
     remainder may be allowed to percolate to  the  water table, discharged
     through drain  tiles,  or reclaimed  by wells.

Leachate.   Solution  formed when water  percolates through  solid wastes,  soil
     or other materials and extracts soluble or suspendable substances  from
     material.

Lift  station.  A  facility  in  a collector sewer  system, consisting  of  a
     receiving chamber, pumping equipment, and associated drive and control
     devices,  that collects wastewater from  a  low-lying district at  some
     convenient point, from which  it is lifted to  another  portion of the
     collector system.

Limiting  Factor.    A  factor whose  absence,  or excessive   concentration,
     exerts some restraining influence  upon a population.

Loam.  The  textural class name for  soil  having  a  moderate amount of sand,
     silt,  and  clay.  Loam  soils contain  7  to  27% of  clay,  28  to 50%  of
     silt, and less  than 52% of sand.

Loess.   Soil of wind-blown origin, predominantly silt and fine sand.

Macroinvertebrates.    Invertebrates  that  are  visible  to  the  unaided  eye
     (those  retained by a standard  No. 30 sieve,  which  has  28 meshes per
     inch  or  0.595  mm  openings);   generally  connotates  bottom-dwelling
     aquatic animals  (benthos).

Macrophyte.   A  large  (not  microscopic)  plant,   usually in an  aquatic
     habitat.

Melt Water.   Water which   is formed from the melting of snow,  rime, or  ice.

Mesotrophic.  Waters wi.h  a moderate supply of nutrients and no significant
     production of organic matter.

Mesotrophic Lake.   Lakes  of intermediate characteristics between oligotro-
     phic and eutrophic.   They  contain a moderate  supply  of  nutrients and
     plant life.
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Milligram per liter  (mg/1).   A concentration of 1/1000 gram of a substance
     in. 1  liter  of  water.   Because  1  liter  of  pure water  weighs 1,000
     grams,  the  concentration also  can  be stated as  1 ppm  (part per mil-
     lion,  by  weight) .   Used  to  measure and report  the  concentrations of
     most  substances  that commonly  occur  in natural  and polluted waters.

Moraine.   A  mound,  ridge,  or other  distinctive accumulation  of sediment
     deposited by a glacier.

National Register of  Historic Places.  Official  listing of  the cultural
     resources of the  Nation  that are worthy of  preservation.   Listing on
     the National Register  makes  property  owners eligible to be  considered
     for  Federal grants-in-aid   for  historic  preservation  through state
     programs.   Listing also  provides  protection  through  comment  by  the
     Advisory Council  on Historic Preservation on  the effect of Federally
     financed, assisted,  or licensed  undertakings  on historic properties.

Nitrate-nitrogen.  Nitrogen in the form of nitrate  (NO ) .   It is the most
     oxidized  phase  in  the nitrogen  cycle in  nature and  occurs  in high
     concentrations  in  the final  stages of biological oxidation.   It can
     serve as a  nutrient for  the growth of algae and  other aquatic  plants.

Nitrite-nitrogen.  Nitrogen  in the  form of nitrite   (NO  ).    It  is  an in-
     termediate stage in the nitrogen cycle in nature.  Nitrite normally is
     found  in  low concentrations  and  represents a  transient stage  in the
     biological oxidation of organic materials.

Nonpoint source.  Any  area,  in contrast to a pipe or  other structure, from
     which pollutants  flow into  a body of water.   Common pollutants from
     nonpoint sources are sediments from construction  sites and fertilizers
     and sediments from agricultural soils.-

Nutrients.   Elements or compounds essential as raw materials for  the growth
     and development  of an  organism;  e.g., carbon,  oxygen, nitrogen,  and
     phosphorus.

Outwash.   Sand  and gravel  transported away  from a  glacier  by  streams of
     meltwater  and  either  deposited as a fLoodplain along  a preexisting
     valley  bottom or  broadcast over a. preexisting plain  in a form  similar
     to an alluvial fan.

Oligotrophic.  Waters  with  a  small supply of nutrients and hence an insig-
     nificant production of organic matter.

Oligotrophic  Lakes.   Deep  lakes  that  have a  low  supply  of nutrients and
     thus  contain little organic matter.   Such  .' *.es  are characterized by
     high water transparency and high dissolved oxygen.

Ordinance.   A municipal or county regulation.

Outwash.  Drift  carried  by melt water from a  glacier ar,«  deposited beyond
     the marginal moraine.
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Outwash  Plain.   A plain formed by material  deposited by melt water from a
     glacier  flowing  over a  more  or  less  flat  surface  of  large  area.
     Deposits of  this origin are usually distinguishable from odinary river
     deposits by the fact  that they often  grade  into  moraines and their
     constituents  bear  evidence  of  glacial origin.  Also  called frontal
     apron.

Oxidation  lagoon (pond).  A  holding area where  organic wastes are broken
     down by aerobic bacteria.

Percolation.  The downward movement of water through pore spaces or larger
     voids in soil or rock.

pH.  A measure of the acidity or alkalinity  of a material, liquid or solid.
     pH  is  represented  on a scale of 0 to 14 with  7 being a neutral state;
     0, most acid; and  14, most alkaline.

Phosphorus.  An  essential food element that  can contribute to the eutrophi-
     cation of water bodies.

Photochemical  oxidants.   Secondary  pollutants   formed  by  the  action of
     sunlight on nitric  oxides  and hydrocarbons in  the air;  they are the
     primary components  of photochemical smog.

Piezometric level.   An  imaginary point that represents  the  static head of
     groundwater  and is defined by  the  level  to  which water  will  rise.

Plankton.   Minute plants  (phytoplankton)  and  animals  (zooplankton)   that
     float  or  swim  weakly in  rivers, ponds,  lakes, estuaries,  or  seas.

Point  source.    In  regard  to  water,  any  pipe,  ditch,  channel,  conduit,
     tunnel, well,  discrete operation,  vessel or other  floating craft, or
     other  confined  and discrete  conveyance from  which a  substance   con-
     sidered to  be  a  pollutant is,  or  may be, discharged  into a body of
     water.

Pressure  sewer  system.   A wastewater collection  system  in  which household
     wastes are collected in the building drain and conveyed therein to the
     pretreatment  and/or pressurizatdon facility.   The  system consists of
     two  major  elements,  the  on-site or pressurization facility,  and the
     primary conductor pressurized sewer main.

Primary  treatment.   The  first  stage  in  wastewater  treatment,  in  which
     substantially  all  floating  or  settleable solids are  mechanically
     removed by screening and sedimentation.

Prime farmland.    Agricultural lands, designated Class I or Class II, having
     little or no limitations to profitable crop production.

Pumping  station.  A  facility within a  sewer   system  that pumps  sewage/
     effluent against the force of gravity.

Runoff.   Water   from  rain, snow melt,  or irrigation  that  flows  over  the
     ground surface and  returns to streams.   It can collect  pollutants   from
     air or land and carry them to the receiving waters.
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Sanitary sewer.   Underground  pipes that carry only  domestic or commercial
     wastewater, not stormwater.

Screening.   Use of racks of screens to remove coarse floating and suspended
     solids from sewage.

Secondary  treatment.   The second  stage  in the  treatment  of wastewater in
     which bacteria are utilized to decompose the organic matter in sewage.
     This step  is  accomplished  by introducing the sewage  into  a trickling
     filter or  an  activated  sludge process.  Effective secondary treatment
     processes  remove virtually  all  floating solids and settleable solids,
     as well  as 90%  of  the  BOD  and  suspended  solids.   USEPA regulations
     define secondary treatment  as 30 mg/1 BOD,  30 mg/1 SS, or 85% removal
     of these substances.

Seepage.  Water that flows through the soil.

Seepage cells.  Unlined  wastewater lagoons designed so that all or part of
     wastewater percolates into the underlying soil.

Septic  snooper.   Trademark for the ENDECO  (Environmental  Devices Corpora-
     tion)  Type 2100 Septic Leachate Detector.  This instrument consists of
     an underwater  probe,  a  water intake system, an  analyzer  control unit
     and a  graphic recorder.   Water  drawn through  the  instrument  is con-
     tinuously  analyzed  for  specific fluorescence  and conductivity.   When
     calibrated against  typical effluents,  the  instrument  can detect and
     profile  effluent-like  substances and  thereby locate  septic tank lea-
     chate or other sources  of domestic sewage entering lakes and streams.

Septic  tank.    An  underground   tank  used  for the  collection  of  domestic
     wastes.  Bacteria  in  the  wastes  decompose the organic matter, and the
     sludge settles to  the bottom.  The effluent flows through drains into
     the ground.  Sludge is pumped out at regular intervals.

Septic tank effluent pump (STEP).  Pump designed to transfer settled waste-
     water from a septic tank to a sewer.

Septic  tank  soil  absorption system.   A system  of wastewater  disposal in
     which large solids are retained in a tank; fine solids and liquids are
     dispersed into the surrounding soil by a system of pipes.

Settling tank.  A holding area for wastewater, where heavier particles sink
     to the bottom and can be siphoned off.

Sewer, Interceptor.  See  interceptor Sewer.

Sewer,  lateral.   A sewer  designed and  installed to  collect  sewage  from a
     limited  number of  individual properties  and  conduct it  to  a  trunk
     sewer.  Also  known as a street sewer or collecting sewer.

Sewer, sanitary.  See Sanitary Sewer.

Sewer,  storm.   A  conduit that  collects and  transports storm-water  runoff.
     In many  sewerage systems,  storm  sewers are separate from  those carry-
     ing sanitary  or industrial wastewater.
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Sewer,  trunk.   A  sewer designed  and installed  to collect  sewage  from a
     number of lateral sewers and conduct it to an  interceptor sewer or, in
     some cases, to a sewage treatment plant.

Shoaling.   The  bottom effect  that influences  the  height  of  waves  moving
     from deep to shallow water.

Sinking  fund.  A  fund established by periodic  installments to provide for
     the retirement of the principal of term bonds.

Slope.  The incline of the surface of the land.  It is usually expressed as
     a percent  (%)  of slope that equals the number of feet of fall per 100
     feet in horizontal distance.

Sludge.  The accumulated  solids that have been separated from liquids such
     as as wastewater.

Soil association.   General  term used to describe taxonomic units of soils,
relative proportions, and pattern of occurrence.

Soil textural class.   The  classification of soil material according to the
     proportions of  sand,  silt, and clay.   The  principal textural classes
     in  soil,  in increasing order  of  the amount of silt and  clay,  are as
     follows:  sand,  loamy sand,  sandy  loam, loam, silt  loam,  sandy clay
     loam,  clay  loam, silty  clay loam,  sandy clay, silty  clay,  and clay.
     These class names  are  modified to indicate the size of the sand frac-
     tion or the presence of gravel, sandy loam, gravelly loam, stony clay,
     and  cobbly  loam,  and are  used  on  detailed  soil maps.   These terms
     apply  only  to individual  soil  horizons or to the surface  layer of a
     soil type.

State  equalized  valuation  (SEV).  A  measure employed  within a  State to
     adjust  actual  assessed  valuation upward  to  approximate  true  market
     value.  Thus it is possible to relate debt burden to the full value of
     taxable property in each community within that State.

Stratification.   The  condition  of  a  lake,  ocean,  or  other  body  of water
     when the water  column  is divided into  a  relatively  cold bottom layer
     and  a  relatively warm  surface  layer,  with  a  thin boundary  layer
     (thermocline)   between  them.   Stratification  generally  occurs  during
     the summer and  during  periods of ice cover in the winter.  Overturns,
     of periods of  mixing,  occur in the spring and autumn.   This condition
     is most  common in middle  latitudes and is  related  to weather  condi-
     tions, basin morphology,  and altitude.

7-day, 10—day low flow.  The lowest average flow that occurs for a consecu-
     tive 7-day  period at a recurrence interval of  10 years.

Surface water.   All bodies of water on the surface of the Earth.

Suspended solids (SS).  Small  solid particles that contribute to turbidity.
     The examination  of suspended  solids  and the  BOD  test constitute the
     two main determinations for water quality that are performed at  waste-
     water treatment facilities.
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Threatened  species.   Any  species of  animal  or  plant  that is  likely to
     become endangered  within the foreseeable future throughout  all  or a
     significant part of its range.

Till.   Unsorted  and  unstratified  drift,  consisting  of a  heterogeneous
     mixture of clay, sand,  gravel,  and boulders, that is deposited by and
     underneath a glacier.

Trickling  filter  process.  A  method  of  secondary  wastewater treatment in
     which the  biological  growth  is  attached to a fixed medium, over which
     wastewater is sprayed.  The filter organisms biochemically oxidize the
     complex organic matter in the wastewater to carbon dioxide, water, and
     energy.

Topography.  The  configuration of a  surface area including  its relief, or
     relative  evaluations,  and  the  position  of its natural  and manmade
     features.

Trophic  level.   Any  of  the  feeding  levels through  which the  passage of
     energy  through  an  ecosystem  proceeds.   In  simplest  form,  trophic
     levels are:   primary producers (green plants)  herbivores, omnivores,
     predators, scavengers, and decomposers.

Unique  farmland.   Land,  which is  unsuitable  for  crop  production  in its
     natural state,   that  has  been  made  productive  by  drainage, irriga-
     tion, or fertilization practices.

Wastewater.   Water-  carrying  dissolved   or  suspended  solids  from  homes,
     farms, businesses,  and industries.

Water  quality.   The  relative  condition of  a  body  of water,  as judged by
     a  comparison between  contemporary  values  and  certain more or   less
     objective  standard values for  biological, chemical,  and/or physical
     parameters.   The  standard  values  usually  are  based  on  a specific
     series  of  intended  uses, and  may  vary  as  the intended  uses vary.

Water  table.   The upper  level of groundwater that  is  not  confined by an
     upper  impermeable  layer  and  is  under atmospheric pressure.   The upper
     surface of the  substrate that  is  wholly saturated with groundwater.

Wetlands.  Those areas that are inundated by surface or ground water with a
     frequency  sufficient to support and under normal circumstances does or
     would support a  prevalence of vegetative or aquatic  life that requires
     saturated  or  seasonally  saturated  soil  conditions  for  growth and
     reproduction.
                                   7-10

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       APPENDIX A
EXISTING ON-SITE SYSTEMS

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NOTES ON EXISTING ON-SITE SYSTEMS MEMORANDUM

1.   The memorandum Is dated 1979 and is consequently outdated with respect to
     systems  that  have  been upgraded.   Also,  recent  sources  have clarified
     certain information that was unclear.

2.   Updated  information concerning  upgraded  systems  indicates  that during
     1980  and 1981  systems have  been  upgraded at  a  lesser  rate  than was
     typical  of  earlier  in the decade.   The number  of  new systems  for new
     dwellings declined markedly these two years.

3.   One unique  cluster  system  has been identified on  the west side of Indian
     Lake in Segment 3 (Figure 2).   The Old German Village group of 20 (or 21)
     houses has  a  sewage collection system,  a  common septic tank, and common
     drain field.  The Association maintains the system and, aside from roots
     plugging the sewers, it functions without problems.

4.   Through a variety of sources,  primarily the mailed questionnaire prepared
     by Gove  Associates,  Inc.  but  also homeowner comments in local interviews
     and personal observation,  it  has been noted that  many  upgradings do not
     go through  the permit  processes of the "health  departments.   In Berrien
     County permits  are  rarely  filed for  an upgrading because none  are re-
     quired in the  health code.  Restoning dry wells,  surely an indication of
     a failed system, are  not  subject to permits in  Van Buren County.  Addi-
     tionally, many upgradings  have reportedly occurred without the direction
     of the health departments because the homeowner wished to escape the more
     costly systems designed by a sanitarian.
                                 A-l

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                                   MEMORANDUM
i o:
Ms. Kathleen Schaub,  Project Officer
                                                     Date:
29 January 1980
From:
Gregg S. Larson,  Project Manager
                                                     Ref:
(559-C)
Subject:   Summary of Existing Treatment and  Disposal
         Systems in the Project  Area
              This memorandum  summarizes  the  results  of  the field  work that was
         conducted by  Mr.  G. Lenssen,  Associate  Agricultural Engineer,  during the
         period from 16  to  19  October 1979.  Mr.  Lenssen visited  the  Health Depart-
         ment in Berrien, Cass,  and Van Buren Counties  to document  wastewater  treat-
         ment system malfunctions and replacements in the project  area.   Tables  that
         summarize structural characteristics and  replacement  system characteristics
         accompany the  narrative descriptions  of planning segments.  Planning  seg-
         ment maps  also are attached.   The  information regarding  the  40 planning
         segments in the Indian Lake and Sister Lakes service  areas  will  be utilized
         by WAPORA in the development of decentralized  alternatives.

         EXISTING TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL SYSTEMS

         1.0.  Introduction
              Septic tanks and soil disposal systems of some kind have been utilized
         for  sewage  treatment  and disposal  in the  Indian Lake/Sister Lakes  area
         since  outdoor  toilets were  moved indoors.   Early systems  were  "anything
         that worked" (i.e.,  that  allowed  the sink and toilet  to  continue to func-
         tion) .   These generally consisted  of cinder block tanks with a short length
         of  tile.   A.S  long  as  ti'e plumbing  did not  back up, the operation  of the
         system was  considered  satisfactory.   Some  of the  alternative  systems in-
         stalled  consisted  of  precast  concrete  septic  tanks,  open-core  concrete
         block  and  precast dry wells,  drain beds,  and hybrid  systems  of anything
         that could  eliminate wastewater.    Sewage  disposal was a  private concern;
         the  public  health  department became  involved only  when  a  complaint  was
         registered and a  distinct public  health problem existed.   The  septic  tank
         and  soil absorption  system  generally were added  as an afterthought after a
                                           A-2

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residence  was  construcced.   Thus,  they  frequently  were installed  on the
margin of  the  lakes  in  a variecy  of soil  material,  and often  below the
groundwater table.

     In the late 1960s, State law enjoined each county health department to
regulate  the  installation of septic  tanks.   Standards for  materials and
installation were  adopted, and  a permit program  was established  for new
and/or repaired  systems.   During  the early years' of the permit program,
permits usually were  granted  without an examination of the proposed system
site.  The  health departments  would prepare a crude  sketch, based on the
homeowner's verbal  property  description,  and  would  indicate satisfactory
locations  for  the septic  tank  and soil  absorption  system.   The  homeowner
could  choose  the type of  construction;  the same  alternative systems uti-
lized  prior to  the  permit  program  were available.   Because  the  health
department  field  inspections were   infrequent,  actual construction bore
little resemblance  to what was  described in the permit.  In the mid 1970s,
the health  departments began  to inspect regularly the system installations
to ensure that the regulations were complied with.

     Each  county  health  department  with jurisdiction  in  the project area
has developed its own standards  for soil absorption systems.   The Van Buren
County Health  Department  permits block trench and  precast concrete dry
wells in any location where depth to groundwater is great enough to allow 2
feet of  soil  below  the  dry  well.   Both the  Cass County and  the Berrien
County Health Departments allow precast concrete dry wells only where depth
to  groundwater  is  satisfactory  and where other  replacement  systems cannot
be  installed  because  prescribed  isolation distances  are  unattainable.
Isolation  distances,  depth to groundwater,  and  soil  material requirements
are enforced.  Raised drain  beds (mound systems) are utilized in all  three
counties,  for  new  construction  and  for replacements,  on lots  where the
depth to water table criteria cannot otherwise  be met.

     Information concerning  existing systems  has  been extracted  from che
permits filed with each county health department.  Although general conclu-
sions can  be drawn,  che  information cannot be  used co develop a definitive
analysis of existing systems  in the project area.  Difficulties  encountered
                                  A-3
                                       -2-

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in  evaluating the  permit  information  included  revised  standards  within
individual counties,  varying standards between  counties,  inadequate loca-
tion descriptions, few  as-built  sketches,  limited field inspections during
the early years,  and completed repairs without filed permits.   The informa-
tion that was  obtained  during the reviews of health department permits has
been tabulated  for each  service area by  segment in  the  descriptions and
tables that follow.

2.0.  Segment  Physical  Characteristics,  Housing and  Wastewater  Treatment
      Systems

     Segment 1.   This area is located along  the northwestern shoreline of
Indian Lake  in  Cass  County.  It consists primarily of four land divisions:
the  Tice leases,  the Love trailer park development,  the  Lake View Mobile
Home Estates,  and the Oak Grove subdivision.  About  70%  of the residences
are  permanent  dwellings,  most of which are mobile homes in the Love subdi-
vision.   High water  table  and   limited  lot  sizes are  common problems for
wastewater  disposal.    Soils  are  sands  and  in  some locations  are rather
silty.   Most wastewater  treatment  systems consist of a septic  tank and a
dry  well,  although new and replacement units  have  included drain beds and
raised drain  beds with effluent lift pumps.  About 25% of the septic tank/
soil absorption  systems (ST/SAS) have been installed since 1972.  About 5%
of the total number have been replaced since 1972.

     Segment 2.   This area is located along  the west  side of Indian Lake.
The  Forest  Beach subdivision constitutes most of the  area.   Also included
are  some apartment buildings,  the Indian Lake  Golf  Course Clubhouse, and
some individual  parcels.   About  50% of the residences are permanent dwell-
ings.   The  lake  margin  has a  high  water table,  and  the land  slopes up
rapidly  away  from that margin.   The soil material consists of sands.  Most
of the residences are old; however, only three soil absorption systems have
been replaced  in  the last 7 years.   Drain  beds  and dry  wells  have been
utilized for replacement systems.  A few lots are too limited  for drain bed
replacement systems.
                                A-4

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     Segment 3.  This  araa Is located along  che  west side of Indian Lake,
south of  Segment  2.   The Forest Beach  subdivision constitutes most of che
area.   The "Old  German  Village"  area  is  contained within  chis segment.
About  65Z of  the  housing  is  seasonal.   The  broad lake  margin  and large
marsh have high water tables.  The land slopes up  rather abruptly from the
lake margin.   Except for  the  muck soils in the  marshy  area,  the soil ma-
terial  is sand.  Most  of  the  residences  date back  numerous years.  Five
systems  (82)  have been  replaced  in the last  7 years.   Drain beds, raised
and  conventional,  were  used  for replacement  systems.  Some  lots  have re-
stricted areas  chac preclude drain bed utilization.

     Segment 4.  This  area is  located on  the south side  of Indian Lake.
Individual lots make up  the  bulk  of  the area;  the  Ridenour Park and the
South Shore  subdivisions  comprise  the remainder.  About  65% of  the resi-
dences  are  seasonal.    This  segment  also  contains  the  eight  commercial
structures located around Indian Lake.   Most of  che segment has a narrow
lake margin with  a high water  table,  a  steeply sloping strip of land nexz
to  the  lake margin,  and gently sloping land away from  che  lake.   At the
southern tip of the lake, the lake margin is much broader and has some muck
soils.   Many of che Iocs are too limited to allow for replacement drain bed
systems.  A small  proportion  (7*)  of  che systems  have  been replaced since
1972.

     Segment 5.   This  segment  includes  all  the  leased properties  on  che
east side of  Indian  Lake and some individual lots on che south side of the
lake.   JTearly  all  of the residences ara  occupied seasonally.   The  area
consiscs  of  che lake margin,  with a high water  cable,  and gently sloping
land away  from che  lake.   Two exceptions co  chis  description include che
low-lying  land  bordering  che  Indian  Lake outlet  drain  and che  scaeply
sloping land  at che  southern  end of che segmenc.   Only a small percencage
(7%) of  che  systems have  been replaced  since 1972.  Limited  lot  sizes  on
the south sida of che lake appear co be che only genuine hindrance co drain
bed replacement syscens.  conventional or raised.

     Segment  6.   This  segment  Is   locaced  northeast of  Indian Lake.   Ic
includes che Loeb's Oakwood and Seachwood  subdivisions,   as veil  as numer-
ous individual  Iocs.  Abouc 65£ of che residences are seasonally  occupied.
                                   A- 5
                                       -4-

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A restaurant also  Is  located within this segment.   Some  of che residences
are new  or have been  rebuilt  recently.   Nearly all of che residences are
located on  soils with  high water tables.  About 12% of the soil absorption
systems have been replaced since 1972,  primarily in the Beechwood  subdivi-
sion.    Raised   drain   beds  have been  used  extensively  for  replacements.

     Segment 8.  This  area  is  located  on che south side of Pipestone Lake.
Nearly all  the  residences are  located  in the Bass Island Park subdivision.
A tavern also  is  located within the segment.   About 30%  of che residences
are occupied seasonally.   Nearly all of che residences are located on muck
soils   that  have a  high  water  cable.   About 10% of  che  systems have been
replaced within the  last  8  years.  Replacements  have been  raised drain
beds.   The Bass Island Tavern has holding tanks for its wastewater.

     Segment 9.  This  area  is  located  on the north side of Pipestone Lake.
About  20%  of  che  residences are occupied  seasonally.  The  residences  in
chis area  are  located  on muck soils with high water tables.  Concern about
lake pollution in the late 1960s led many residents to install raised drain
beds.    The most  recent   replacements  (since  1972)  also  have  been raised
drain  beds.   The Berrien  County Health Department  has denied sepcic tank
permits in  che muck soils that  surround Pipestone  Lake.   New housing must
have either  off-sice  sewage treatment,  or the housing must be distant from
the lake.

     Segment 10.  This area is located along Napier Avenue  (M152) northeast
of  Pipestone  Lake.  The  segment includes the  Sister  Lakes laundromat and
some  residences.    The  proposed sewer  plans  did  not include  service for
these  struccures,  alchough  a  sewage lift station  was located there.  The
land is  steeply sloping  and has a  depch to  che water table greater  chan 6
feec.    The  laundromat  recently has  installed  a   small  lagoon  for waste
washwater treatment.

     Segmenc 11.  This segment  is  locaced on  che south side of Dewey Lake
and che  boat  channel.   It consists of  che Dewey  Beach  Resort  No.  1 and
Sandy  Beach  Estates subdivisions.   Many of che residences are newly con-
structed,  and  about 50%  serve  as  permanent residences.    The  land slopes
                                    A-6
                                       -5-

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upward from  the  shoreline toward che south.  Since  most of the residences
are relatively  new,  few  replacement  systems have been installed.   Nearly
all of the systems recently installed in this segment have been drain beds.

     Segment 12.  This  segment consists  of the land on  the  south  side of
Dewey Lake  between che lake  and the channel.   Most of  the residences are
old and about 40% are seasonal.  No new  residences  have been constructed,
and no  replacement systems have been  installed  since  1972.   Most of the
soil area  has a  high  water  table,  especially  at the  eastern end  of the
segment.

     Segment 13.  This segment consists of western shorelands on Dewey Lake
and a 0.5 mile strip along Dixon Street. It includes  the Swisher's Landing,
Dewey Terrace, Dewey  Beach,  and Plat of Deweymore subdivisions, as well as
numerous  individual  parcels.   About 40%  of the  residences  are occupied
seasonally,  including several  small  resorts with leased units.  Generally,
che segment  consists  of a narrow  lake  margin  with a high  water  table and
gently sloping land beyond.  The southern portion of che segment is steeply
sloping away  from the  lake.   About 7% of the systems have been replaced in
the last  8 years.  Some  lots  especially  toward che southern end,  are so
limited in size  that  isolation distances cannot be  achieved  even wich dry
wells.

     Segment 14.  This  segment lies  between Dewey Lake  and Magician Lake,
and includes  the  Dewey  Brook, Magician Bay Park, and  Supervisor's  Plat of
South Bay  Park  subdivisions  and parts of  che  Midway,  Orchard Hills, and
Currans Beach subdivisions.   Most  of che residences predate  1972,  and 70%
arss occupied seasonally.   Some multiple family  dwellings  are present in
this segment.   The land  has  limited lake margins with  high  water cables.
Most of  che land  scopes  upward away  from  che  l«r--es.    Replacements have
been minimal.   Limiced lot  sizes and  slopes  preclude  conventional  drain
beds on many of  che Iocs.

     Segment 15.  This  segnenc is locaced  on  che east  side  of Dewey Lake
and is comprised  of  che Sleepy Hollow  subdivision and  a number of indivi-
dual parcels. About 50% of the rasidences are  occupied seasonally.   Nearly
                                   A-7     -—
                                        s

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all the  residences  predate  1972.   With the exception  of  a low area with a
high  water  table  at the  southern  end  of  the segment,  the  land  slopes
steeply  away  from  che  lake.   Few replacements  have occurred  even  chough
most of  the  residences  are  rather old.  The  lots  are generally narrow but
very long and have adequate replacement area for drain beds.

     Segment 16.  This  area  includes a small portion of  the  west shore of
Magician Lake and a wide area along M152.   The segment includes the follow-
ing  subdivisions:   Magician Lake  Park,   Lakeview No.l,  and  portions  of
Lakeview and Midway.  Some individual parcels and the commercial structures
along M152 also  are included in this  segment.   Most of the land is gently
sloping with  a  depth to the water table  greater than 5 feet.  No replace-
ments have been  recorded for this segment.  Lots in the Magician Lake Park
subdivision are small; siting replacement drain beds on chese lots would be
difficult.

     Segment 17.  This  segment includes  virtually all  the west  and north
shorelands  of Magician  Lake.   The  Orchard  Hills, Midway, Lakeview,  Oak-
lands,  Woodlawn,  Krohne's  Peninsula, and Gregory's Addition  to Magician
Lake  Woods  subdivisions  are located  in   this  segment.   About 30S  of the
residences  are  occupied  permanently.  Nearly  all  of the  structures  were
built  prior  to  1972.   The  lake  margin,  with  a high water  table,  varies
considerably  in width.   The land slopes gently  away from che shore on the
west shore and  abruptly on the north shore.  About 10% of  che soil absorp-
tion systems  have been replaced since 1972.  Many of che Iocs on che north
shore  have  sizes and  slopes that preclude  replacement  systems other than
dry wells.  However,  isolation distances   cannot, be  attained  even with dry
well installation.

     Segment 18.  This  segment consists  of che first  tier development on
both  sides  of M152  and Maple Island Road at their  intersection.   Part of
Ina Curran's  subdivision is located   in the  segment.   The (Ainn Inn also is
located  in  this  segment.  About 502 of the residences are v. .cupied season-
ally.   The  land  is  sloping, and  che depch co  che  wacer cable is greater
than  10  feet.   There  has  been one  replacement system  installed  in  this
segment.
                                   A-8
                                       -7-

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     Segment 19.   This  segment  includes  Maple Island  in Magician  Lake.
Abour  75% of  the residences  are  occupied  seasonally.   The island  has  a
broad lake margin, high water table, and an interior knoll.  Maintenance of
isolation distances,  even  with dry well soil absorption systems, is diffi-
cult because  of the  lot sizes  and shapes.  About 15Z of  the systems have
been replaced  in the  last  8  years.   Raised drain beds  and  dry wells have
been used for replacements.

     Segment 20.  This segment includes  most of  the  lots in  the  Currans
subdivisions on the  south  shore  of Magician Lake.   The  segment  also in-
cludes part of  the Boathouse Addition.  Approximately 65% of the residences
are  occupied  seasonally.   The land  consists  of  a  narrow  to  broad lake
margin with a high water table.  The land rises steeply beyond this margin.
The  lots are  generally narrow  and  some are  also  very  short;  isolation
distances are often difficult to attain.  Some soil absorption systems have
been constructed  opposite   the  residences on  the  other  side of  the  road.
Few soil absorption systems have been replaced in the last 8 years.

     Segment 21.  This segment is  located on the south shore  of  Magician
Lake.  The  land is  owned  by  the  Smith  and  Polk  families and  leased for
cottages, most  of which are occupied seasonally.  The majority of the area
has  a  high wacer cable  and muck  soil  macerial.  About  251  of  the  systems
have bean replaced in  che last 8 years.  Nearly all of the new and replace-
ment systems are  raised drain beds.  Of those, more than half require lift
pumps.

     Segment 22.  This  area is  located on the southeast shore  of  Magician
Lake.  The segment  includes part  of the Rainbow Park subdivision.   Most of
the  cottages  on che  shoreline  are old,  although  several have  been  remo-
deled.    The  residences  sited away  from  the lake  have been  constructed
recently.  About 60S  of the residences ara occupied seasonally.  The land
has a narrow  lake  margin with a high  watar  cable  and  rises  steeply co che
gently rolling  uplands.  Some  layers  of silty soil  material ara found  in
che  sands.   About  15Z of  che  systems  have  been  replaced  in  che  last  3
years.   Many of  these replacements ara raised drain beds.   Land  slope and
lot size restrict replacement  system options  on the shoreline lots.
                                   A-9
                                       -3-

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     Segment 23.   This area is located along the southern shorelands at che
eastern end  of Magician Lake.   It encompasses  land  in both  Cass  and Van
Buren Counties.  Parts  of  che Rainbow Park and  Gilmore  Beach  subdivisions
are  included in  the segment.  About 60% of  the  residences  are  occupied
seasonally.  The land is  flat to  rolling; the water table depth for nearly
all of the segment is less than 6  feet.  About 202 of  che systems have been
replaced  in  the last  8 years.  Most of  the  new systems  and replacement
systems in this segment are raised drain beds.   Several permit  applications
for  septic  tanks  and  soil  absorption  systems  have  been denied  in this
segment.

     Segment 24.   This  area is located  at the  northeast end  of  Magician
Lake.  The segment  Includes the Neff rental cottages  and others on indivi-
dual parcels.   Nearly all  are occupied  seasonally.   The land  Is  steeply
rolling,  particularly  where the  cottages are located.   About 20%  of the
systems have been  replaced  in the  last 8 years.  With the  exception of
areas with steep  slopes,  soil absorption systems appear  suitable  for most
areas.

     Segment 25.   The Magician Lake Woods subdivision, on the north side of
Magician Lake, comprises this segment.  The Blue Fin Marina also is located
on the shoreline  in this  segment.  Only 10% of the residences  are occupied
year-round.  The land  rises steeply from the  lakeshore  to  the uplands.  A
small area at  the  site of the marina has a high water table.  About  10% of
the  systems  have  been replaced  In  the last 10  years.   Some  silty soil
material  in  the segment  may limit  soil  permeability.   Inadequately sized
Cry wells appear to be the primary reason for replacements.

     Segment 26.   This segment consists of the Cable Park Beach subdivision
and some individual parcels on the southwestern shore of Cable  Lake.  About
65% of  the residences are seasonally  occupied.  The  segment is character-
ized by  a steep-sided  ridge that  parallels  che south shore  of the lake.
The wescern  end  of  che segment is  low-lying  land  with a high  water  table.
Replacements have  been minimal.   The steep slopes  and narrow  lots limit
replacement options.

                                  A-10
                                       -9-

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      Segment:  27.   This  segment is  located  on the  southeastern shore  of
 Cable Lake and includes the  Fitch  Foundation Camp,  individual  parcels,  and
 part of  the Wildwood  subdivision.   About 65% of the  residences  are  occupied
 permanently,  including che camp cabins.   The land slopes  gencly  toward  the
 lake.  The lake  margin,  with  a high water cable,  is  narrow.   ITo new  or
 replacement  systems  have  been installed  in  this  segment  in  che last  8
 years.

      Segment  28.   This  area encompasses  the  eastern  shorelands of  Cable
 Lake, including  a  portion of  the  ffildwood  subdivision.  About 65% of  che
 residences are occupied seasonally.  The  land slopes gently away  from  the
 lake; a large area near the  lake has depths to the  water  table less  chan 6
 feet. About  5% of  the systems  have been replaced in the last 3 years.   The
 shallow  water table and small  lot  sizes will preclude  standard replacement
 systems  in some areas.

      Segment  29.   This segment is   located  on the  northern shore of  Cable
 Lake.  The land  includes  portions  of  the  Wildwood  and Sister-Cable Lake
•Shores  subdivisions.   About 60% of  the  residences are  occupied seasonally.
 The   lands  within  che segment consist  of  gently  rolling  uplands  and  a
 steeply  sloping shoreline.  One small  length of shoreline has a wide lake
 margin with a high  water table. About  7% of the systems have been  replaced
 in the  last 8  years.   Most replacement  systems are conventional drain  beds,
 although one  raised drain bed  was  necessary and some dry  wells were needed
 because  of limiced lot sizes.   Although che platted lot sizes  in the  Wild-
 wood subdivision are  small,  adjacent  lots  usually  are owned  by  che same
 individual and available for  replacement systems.

      Segment  30.   This segment is  located  in Van Buren County on the  east-
 ern  shore of  lower Crooked Lake.   It  includes  cha  Adam's  Sistar Lakes  and
 Spencer's  Sister Lakes subdivisions and  several individual parcels.   About
 50%  of  the residences are occupied seasonally.  The  segment  consists   of
 rolling  uplands with a steep  slope  co the  lake shore.   There have  been  cwo
 replacement systems installed  in che last  3 years.   Although che  Iocs ara
 generally  narrow  and  sloping,  their  length  is adequate for raplacament
 syscezs.
                                 A-n
                                       -10-

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     Segment 31.   The  land  between lower  Crooked Lake  and  Cable Lake  is
included in this  segment.   The  segment encompasses nearly all  of  the Sis-
ter-Cable Lake Shores  subdivision.  About  65% of the residences  are  occu-
pied permanently.   The area is  characterized by rolling uplands  sloping,
gently  to  steeply,  toward  che  lake shore.  Replacement systems  have been
installed for about 107, of the  residences.   Although some of  the residences
are old,  many have been  constructed   recently  (40% in  the  last  8  years).
Lot size and  slope  prevent  installation of drain beds  on  some lots.   Most
lots,  however, are large enough for replacement systems.

     Segment 32.   This  segment  consists  of the southwestern shore of lower
Crooked Lake.  The Supervisor's Plat of Sommer's Beach and the Sister-Cable
Lake  Shores No.   2 subdivisions  in  Cass  County,  in addition  to  several
individual  parcels  in both  Cass  and   Van  Buren Counties, are  included  in
this  segment.  About  50% of the residences are  occupied  seasonally.  The
segment has rolling uplands  and a steep slope to the lake shore.  About 20%
of the systems have been replaced in the last 8 years.  Drain beds, half of
which  require lift  pumps,   have  been  used  for  the replacement  systems.
Narrow and  sloping lots make installation of replacement systems difficult,
although the lot sizes are generally adequate.

     Segment 33.   This  segment  is  located between Round Lake and upper and
lower  Crooked  Lake.  It  includes  che oldest  residential  and resort area,
and the old "downtown"  of  Sister Lakes.   Several small  subdivisions are
located  in  the segment; most residences,  however,  are  sited on individual
parcels.   Approximately 10  commercial structures are located in this seg-
ment,  as well  as several rental cottages.  About 50% of the  residences are
occupied  seasonally.   The segment  is   characterized by rolling uplands with
steep  slopes  co  che  lakeshore.   The  land  between  Round  Lake  and upper
Crooked  Lake is low-lying and has a shallow water table.  Approximately 15%
of  the  systems  have  been  replaced  in the past  8 years.   Several   raised
drain  beds  were  installed because of  the  depth co the water cable limita-
tion.   Lot sizes and  shapes have precluded  proper isolati  i distances in
several  areas.
                                  A-12
                                       -11-

-------
     Segment: 34.  This  segment is  located  on che northwest  side  of upper
Crooked Lake.   All  of  Woodland Point subdivision, a  portion  of the Adam's
Hillcresc  Shore subdivision,  and  several  individual  parcels  are  In  che
segment.   A  large  rental  cottage complex also is included.  About  50" of
the  residences  are  seasonally  occupied.   The point  of land on which  the
Woodland  Point  subdivision  is located  is elevated  high  above che  water
surface and has steep  slopes down  to che  lake.   The  remainder of  che seg-
ment is gently sloping.  About 10% of the systems have been replaced in the
last 3  years.   Most of chese have  been  located  on che point,  and  the  re-
placements have been dry  wells  chat receive pumped  effluent.  The  Adam's
Hillcrest  Shores subdivision has  been platted only recently;  systems there
are new.

     Segment 35.  This  segment includes  a  large area  on  the northeastern
shore of  upper  Crooked Lake,  chat  extends  to M152 on  che north and  east.
The Woodland Beach,  Kilburland  Park, Crooked Lake Park, and  Lakeland Ter-
race subdivisions are  in  this  segment.   About  50A  of  che residences  are
occupied  seasonally,  and  che majority  of  chese ara  near che lake.   The
segment  has  gently  rolling  uplands  that  slope  moderately  near  the  lake
shore.   The lake shore margin,  with a high water table,  is  generally nar-
row.  About  102 of  the  systems  have  been replaced  in the   last  8  years.
Some lot  sizes and slopes  preclude maintenance of  isolation distances.
Raised  drain beds have been required in some areas because of the  posicion
of che  watar cable.   '

     Segmenc 36.  This segment  encompasses  che southern shoreland  of upper
Crooked  Lake.   Ic  includes  che  Woodland  Park  and  Hield's  Sister  Lakes
subdivision.  About 50%   of the  residences  ara on  individual  parcels.
Several of  che  parcels  aie occupied by rental coccages.   Three commercial
establishments  and  che Lion's  Park also are  located within che  sagmenc.
About 65%  of  the  residences are occupied seasonally.   The  segmenc  is  char-
acterized  by  rolling uplands  chat  slope steeply  to  che  lake  shora.   Re-
placement  systems have been  installed  for about 10% of che  residences  in
che  lasc 8  years.   Host  replacement  systems have been  dry wells.   Some
araas have lot sizes and slopes chac preclude standard isolation discancas.

                                 A-13
                                       -12-

-------
     Segne_nt_ ,37.  This segment  is  on che south shore  of  Round Lake.  Sev-
eral individual parcels,  the Hampton D.  Sill's Sister Lakes subdivision and
a cottage rental development are in the segment.  Few cottages are occupied
year-round.  The eastern part is steeply rolling,  while the western part is
flat  and low-lying.   The western  end  of  the  segment consists  of  filled
land.  About 152 of the systems have been replaced within the last 8 years.
Raised drain beds  have been utilized extensively for new residences in the
western end of the segment because of the shallow depth to the water table.
Land slopes and  narrow lots in the  eastern end complicate soil absorption
system installation.

     Segment 38.   This segment  encompasses  the  Oak  Park and  Oak  Island
subdivisions on  the  western shore of Round  Lake.   These  subdivisions con-
tain a number of new residences.  Seasonally occupied residences constitute
about 452  of  the residences.  The segment consists of two high ridges; one
is located along the lakeshore (the site of the Oak Island subdivision) and
the  other  is located  in  the middle of the  Oak Park subdivision.  Between
these ridges is marshland designated as Lilly Park.  Slopes on these ridges
are  steep.  One  area of silty soil material with moderately limited perme-
ability has been identified in the segment.  About 102 of the systems have
been replaced in the last 8 years.  Some raised drain beds have been neces-
sary  to  meet che  depth  co  the water table  standard.  Part  of the segment
has  several  residences on  small  lots;  a holding  tank was  the only system
that could meet standards in one instance.

     Segment 39.   This segment is  located on  the  northern  shore of Round
Lake.   The Benton Beach and  Pitcher's  Acres  subdivisions,  and numerous
individual parcels,  are  included  in this  segment.   About  202 of the resi-
dences  are occupied seasonally.   The  land  in  the Benton Beach subdivison
slopes steeply to  the  lake.   Land in the remainder of the segment slopes to
a valley  that  is oriented north-south.  About 102 of the systems have been
replaced  in the  last  8 years.   Most  of  the residences  in  the Pitcher's
Acres subdivision were built  within the  last  15 years.   One parcel with
three leased  residences  has a limited area  for replacement systems.   Steep
slopes  in  the segment could result in  construction difficulties for re-
placement systems, particularly in che Benton Beach subdivision.
                                 A-14
                                       -13-

-------
     Segment 40.   This segment  is  located  on  the northeastern  shore of
Round  Lake and  extends to  the  intersection of  M152  (Napier  Avenue)  and
CR690  (Sister  Lakes Road).   The subdivisions  included are:  Supervisor's
Plat of  Britton Park,  Britton Park, Mariner's  Beach,  Assessor's  Replat of
Part  of  Pitcher's  Beach,   and  Pitcher's Beach.   There are  also  numerous
individual parcels.  The primary commercial area of Sister Lakes is located
in this segment at the intersection of M152 and CR690.  About 15 commercial
establishments  have  been   identified.   The  Sister Lakes  School  also  is
located  in this segment.   Seasonally occupied  residences  constitute about
552 of  the residences, and  most  of these are  located  near  the  lake.   The
land is  gently  rolling,  except along the shoreline of Round Lake,  where it
is moderately steep.   About 10%  of  the  residential  and commercial systems
have  been replaced.   The   lots  on  the  shoreline  are small  and  sloping;
replacement systems have been sited with difficulty.

3.0.  Summary

     Although the  physical  characteristics  of  Che  planning  segments  vary
with location,  all  are primarily residential.  There were a total of 2,513
residential structures and  56 commercial structures located in the planning
segments.   Approximately  93£  were  constructed  prior to  October .1972.
(Generally, two-thirds of che expected flow from collection systems must be
for wastewacer  from residences  in existence prior to October 1972 in order
to  be  eligible  for Federal funding.)    About  2%  of  che  residences  were
constructed after December  1977.   (Federal grant regulations for privately-
owned creatmenc works require that che principal residence or small commer-
cial establishment  be constructed  and  inhabited on or before  27  December
1977.)

     Less than 10% of che systems have been replaced over che last 3  years.
The  numbers  and  types of  replacement   systems,  however,  do not  indicate
whether  systems  are operating satisfactorily or  whether nutrient  enriched
effluent  is being discharged in the lakes.

     The  systems chat  were  replaced were primarily dry wells that  wera coo
small and siced with less chan che required distance above  che watar  table.
                                 A-15
                                       -14-

-------
Some replacemencs were necessary  because  che drain beds or  dry  wells were
insufficiently sized  for  silty soil  material.   Lot  sizes  and  shapes  and
land slopes appear to be  the major constraint to installing  soil  absorption
systems  chat  meet  the  applicable  standards of  each county.   Muck  soils
around Pipestone  Lake,  and  occassionally  along  che  other  lakeshorts,  are
unacceptable  for  replacement systems  and have resulted  in  permit  denials.

     The majority of replacement systems  have  been dry  wells or  block
trenches (42%).   Some were  installed because lot configurations precluded
utilization of drain  beds  where they were preferred.  Dry  wells and block
trenches that  required lift  pumps comprised 8% of  the  replacement systems
installed.   The  lift pumps  were  needed where the  soil  absorption systems
were  installed at higher  elevations  away from  the  lake.   In Cass County
small, congested lots precluded che use of a drain bed.

     The conventional drain  bed  accounted  for  182  of  the replacements.
These were  installed  wherever possible in Cass County  and  in locations in
Van  Buren  County where  clearance above the  water table could  not be at-
tained  with  dry  wells.    Only  a few of  che  drain bed  replacements were
standard drain fields.  Drain beds  that required  lift  pumps accounted for
72  of the   replacements.   They  were  necessary where  che drain bed was in-
stalled  at  a  higher  elevation  than  che residence  because  of requirements
regarding  clearance  over  the  water  table,   setback  from  a lake,  or lot
configuration.  Raised drain beds,  co provide clearance over a  high water
table, were necessary for  72 of  the  replacement  systems.   On level areas,
raised drain  beds required lift pumps.  Concentrations of raised drain beds
with lift pumps were noted in the Gilmore Beach and Beechwood subdivisions,
the Polk leases, and the Pipestone Lake area (Segments 23, 21, 6, 8, and 9,
respectively), and accounted for 13% of the replacements.

     Other  replacement  systems  comprise  che remaining  5%  of che replace-
mencs.  They  include systems where only the septic tank was replaced, those
for  which   no design information  was  available,  and  two holding  tank
systems.
                                 A-16
                                       -15-

-------
Table L.  Structural characteristics, by segment, in the Indian Lake/Sister
          Lakes study area (Gove Associates, Inc. 1979).
                           1
i. v ^u*a.L4w*«i. u utw va
Segiaent • •
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
13
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
23
-9
30
31
32
93
17
19
20
13
27
0
26
37
2
11
21
72
27
13
22
61
3
9
19
3
15
26
5
4
11
13
20
ir
15
31
15
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
6
0
0
0
0
2
5
0
0
1
1
3
2
0
2
1
0
0
0
n
3
0
*3 ^*-Lg
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Permanent
120
17
19
20
18
27
0
27
'38
2
18
21
72
30
13
25
66
3
9
20
4
13
29
5
6
12
13
20
17
15
34
15
UCQiO*
a
49
13
43
36
102
46
0
13
9
0
9
14
44
70
13
15
136
4
26
43
23
21
44
19
53
20
3
33
13
15
16
12
JU.O-L.
a
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
2
1
0
2
0
0
0
1
4
2
0
2
1
0
2
9
0
2
1
tiu ta-a
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
I
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
'juaft
3
0
1
1
3
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
4
0
1-
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Seasonal
57
13
43
37
102
47
0
13
9
0
19
14
45
72
14
15
138
4
26
43
'32
26
46
19
60
21
3
40
27
16
13
13
Tot a.
Housij
177
30
62
57
120
74
0
40
47
2
37
35
117
102
27
40
204
7
35
63
36
44
75
24
66
33
21
50
44
32
52
23
                                  A-17

-------
Table 1.  (continued)
          Permanent Housing
                           1
                                Seasonal Housing"

Segment
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

„
59
25
103
36
4
38
42
19

*
1
2
7
2
0
2
8
2

A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Permanent
60
27
110
38
t4
40
50
21

D
62
25
97
56
35
30
10
23

o
1
0
7
16
1
2
2
3

±
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0

_ 3
9
1
4
4
0
0
3
15
Total
Seasonal
62
25
105
73
36
32
12
26
Total
Housing^
123
52
215
111
40
72
62
47
Total
1,019
80
1,104    1,321  79   9   56    1,385   2,513
  Permanent Housing:
  •  Building permit issued before October 1972
  •  Building permit issued after October 1972 and before December 1977
  A,  Building permit issued after December 1977


  Seasonal Housing:
  D  Building permit issued before October 1972
  o  Building permit issued after October 1972 and before December 1977
  A,  Building permit issued after December 1977


  *  Commercial structure.
                                   A-18

-------
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A-20

-------
          EEUSH
          LAKE
Jigtira  i.  Seg=aac icca.ci.ons in she Indian Lake  sarvica ara^
                                     A-21

-------
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-------
        APPENDIX B








  SEPTIC LEACHATE SUREVY



INDIAN LAKE - SISTER LAKE

-------
   SEPTIC LEACHATE SURVEY

 INDIAN LAKE - SISTER LAKES

        October, 1979
        Prepared for

        WAPORA,Inc.
     Chicago, Illinois
       Prepared by

    K-V Associates, Inc.
      281 Main Street
Faltnouth, Massachusetts 02540

        January, 1980
            T5-1

-------
                        TABLE OF CONTENTS




                                                                 Page




1.0  Introduction.	  1




     1.1  Effluent Plume Theory	  1




          1.1.1  Groundwater Plumes	  3




          1.1.2  Runoff Flumes	  5




     1.2  Special Survey Technique and Equipment....	  6




2.0  Survey Methodology	  9




     2.1  Sample Handling	 10




     2.2  Leachate Detector Calibration	 10




     2.3  Groundwater Plow Measurements*.,..,.	 10




3.0  Plume Locations	 12




4.0  Nutrient Analyses	 28




5.0  Nutrient Relationships.	 34




     5.1  Assumed Waste water Characteristics.	* 36




     5.2  Assumed Background Levels	36




     5.3  Attenuation of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds,	 37




6.0  Coliform Levels in Surface Waters*.	 38




7.0  Groundwater Flow Patterns	41




8.0  Conclusions	 46




     References	 48




     Appendix	49
                              B-2

-------
                                -3-
recreaticmal attractiveness of the lakeshore often induces temporary




overcrowding of homes leading to hydraulically overloaded septic units.




Rather than a passive release from lakeshore bottoms, groundwater




plumes from nearby on-site treatment units may actively emerge along




shorelines, raising sediment nutrient levels and creating local elevated




concentrations of nutrients.  The contribution of nutrients from




subsurface discharges of shoreline septic units has been estimated at




30 to 60 percent of the total nutrient load in certain New Hampshire




lakes, (LRPC, 1977).




     The capillary-like structure of sandy, porous soils and horizontal




groundwater movement induces a fairly narrow plume from malfunctioning




septic units.  The point of discharge along the shoreline is often




through a small area of lake bottom, commonly forming an oval-shaped




area several meters wide when the septic unit is close to the shoreline.




In denser subdivisions containing several overloaded units, the discharges




may overlap forming a broader increase.  (See Figure 2)






1.1.1.  Groundwater Plumes




     Three different types of groundwater-related wastewater plumes




are commonly encountered during a septic leachate survey:  1) erupting




plumes, 2) passive plumes, and 3) stream source plumes.  As the soil




becomes saturated with dissolved solids and organics during the aging




process of a leaching on-lot septic system, a breakthrough of organics




occurs first, followed by inorganic penetration (principally chlorides,




sodium, and other salts).  The active emerging of the combined organic




and inorganic residues into the shoreline lake water describes an
                              5-3

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                                    -4-
r- GRGUNCWATS??   • * «•)
"                I-a a a «J.
                         SEP71C  LSACHA7H
•i.<;_.aG.«
    Figure 2.  Excessive  loading of sepcic systanis  causes  the develocmer
               of plumes  of poorLy-creaCsd effluent which  may
               1) enter nearby waterways through surface runoff or
               which may  2) move Laterally with grou-ndva ter  flow and
               discharge  near the shoreline of aearbv  lakes.
                                B-4

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                                -5-
erupting plume.  In seasonal dwellings where wastewater loads vary in




time, a. plume may be apparent during late summer when shoreline cottages




sustain heavy use, but retreat during winter during low flow conditions.




Residual organics from the wastewater often still remain attached to




soil particles in the vicinity of the previous erupting plume, slowly




releasing into the shoreline waters.  This dormant plume indicates a




previous breakthrough, but sufficient treatment of the plume exists




under current conditions so that no inorganic discharge is apparent.




Stream source plumes refer to either groundwater leachings or near-




stream septic leaching fields which enter into streams which then




empty into the lake.






1.1.2  Runoff Plumes




     Traditional failures of septic systems occur in tight soil




conditions when the rate of inflow into the unit is greater than the




soil percolation can accompdate.  Often leakage occurs around the




septic tank or leaching unit covers, creating standing pools of poorly-




treated effluent.  If sufficient drainage is present, the effluent




may flow laterally across the surface into nearby waterways.  In




addition, rainfall or snow melt may also create an excess of surface




water which can wash the standing effluent into water courses.  In




either case, the poorly- treated effluent frequently contains elevated




fecal coliform bacteria, indicative of the presence of pathogenic




bacteria and, if sufficiently high, must be considered a threat to




public health.
                            B-5

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                               -6-
1.2  Special Survey Technique and Equipment




     Wastewater effluent contains a  mixture of  near-UV  fluorescent



organics derived from whiteners,  surfactants and natural  degradation



products which are persistent under  the  combined conditions  of  low



oxygen and limited microbial activity.   Figure  3 shows  two samples of



sand-filtered effluent from the Otis Air Force  Base,  Massachusetts,



sewage treatment plant.  One was  analyzed immediately and the other



after having been held in a darkened bottle for six months at 20°C.



Note that little change in fluorescence  was apparent, although  during



the aging process some narrowing of  the  fluorescent region did  occur.



The aged effluent percolating through  sandy loam soil under  anaerobic



conditions reaches a stable ratio between the organic content and



chlorides which are highly mobile anions.  It is  this stable ratio



(conjoint signal) between fluorescence and conductivity that allows



ready detection of leachate plumes by  their conservative  tracers.



Such identified plumes are an early warning of  potential  nutrient



breakthrough or public health problems.   The septic  leachate detector



instrument utilizes this principal.



     Septic surveys for shoreline wastewater discharges are  conducted



with a septic leachate detector, ENDECOR Type 2100 "Septic Snooper"™,


                                     TM
and  the K-V Associates, Inc. "Dowser"  *  Groundwater Flow Meter.  The



leachate detector unit can be operated out of any small rowboat.  It



consists of  the subsurface probe (water intake system), the analyzer



control unit, and an analog  stripchart recorder.   Initially the unit



is calibrated against  incremental additions of wastewater effluent of
                              B-6

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  30-
  70-i
  60-
IU
o
2
UJ
UJ
3
u.
UJ
UJ
c:
  30-
 20-
  10-
        EXCITAT10N SCA.\'

        SAND  -iLTERED SECONDARILY-TREATED

        WASTE WATER  EFFLUENT
                                     NEWLY SAND C1LTERED
                                     OTIS EFFLUENT
AGED
SAND FILTERED
EFFLUENT (6 mo.)
              300           400           500

                          WAVELENGTH (nm)

     Figure 3.  Sand-filtered effluent produces a stable fluorescent

              signature, here  shown before and after aging.

                            O 7
                            U-/

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                                 -8-
the type to be detected to the background lake water.  The pump end of




the probe unit is then submerged in the lake water along the near




shoreline.  Groundwater seeping through the shoreline bottom is drawn




into the screened intake of the probe and travels upwards to the analyzer




unit.  As it passes through the analyzer, separate conductivity and




fluorescence signals are generated.  The responses are sent to the




signal processor which registers the separate signals on a strip chart




recorder as the boat moves forward.  The analyzed water is continuously




discharged from the unit back into the receiving water.  The battery-




powered unit used for field studies can record individual fluorescence




and conductivity or a combination signal.  It has also been modified




to operate under the conductivity conditions encountered in the field.




     Well-point sampling of groundwater and bacterial sampling of




surface run-off complement the leachate detector scan, surface water




sampling and groundwater flow vector measurements for the complete




survey.
                             B-8

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                                -9-
                     2.0  SURVEY METHODOLOGY









      Continuous leachate scans were performed on all lakes in a




counter-clockwise direction   around their shallow periphery (in less




than 1 meter deep water) identifying the location of any plume discharges.




The survey team consisted of two field scientists and lightweight mobile




survey gear.  The basic equipment platform was a 12-foot aluminum skiff




with small outboard.  Portable equipment included the battery-powered




leachate detector instrument, hand-driven wellpoints and plastic water




sampling and filtration apparatus.




      As a routine, the team first surveyed each lake with the leachate




detector gear, taking appropriate center and background discrete water




samples from areas showing no obvious indications of pollution.  At




those points along the shore where the instrument recorded a significant




event above background, the crew secured surface and groundwater samples




while charting location and logging any supporting visual observations of




the local surroundings.  The team walked or motored  the boat around the




lakes within 15 feet of shore in shallow water.  Specific conductance of




each sample was measured on the boat as each sample was prefiltered and




bottled.  The team usually checked at least two groundwater sampling




depths for each plume in search of a local maximum conductivity level.




Relative fluorescence and conductivity were continuously plotted on




separate strip recorders with positional cross-references to sewer




planning maps of the lakes*
                             B-9

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                                -10-
     After completing the leachate survey of a lake, the team returned




for bacterial sampling of selected plumes and surface flows, and took




ground-water flow data in the beach sand at distributed points around




the lake*





2.1  Sample Handling




     Both ground and surface water samples for nutrient analysis were




prefiltered on the boat and later final-filtered through .45  fan membrane




filters.  Th« samples were acidified with sulfuric acid (to leas than




pH 2) at the close of each sampling day, following procedures outlined



by EPA Standard Methods.




     Berrien County Health Department provided sterile bacteria sampling




bottles and performed the fecal coliform analyses.





2.2  Leachate Detector Calibration




     The shoreline scanning work day began with a calibration of the




septic  leachate instrument*  Two solutions were required: the first,




a blank sample drawn from an unaffected central portion of  the  lake;




and the second, a sample of Dowagiac Municipal Treatment Plant  effluent.



Calibration was by method of additions, a TL. addition of effluent  to




center water being scaled to cover AOZ of full meter span for each



channel.  Dynamic recirculating flow-through was employed to introduce




solutions to the sensing chamber.





2.3  Groundvater Flow Measurements




     The survey team utilized  the K-7 Associates, Inc. Model 10 Dowser




groundvater  flow meter  to obtain  flow measurements.  The team dug  shallow
                              B-10

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                                -11-
holes to groundwater along sandy shores at spaced Intervals around the




lake.  The instrument probe head was inserted about three inches into




the groundwater - saturated loose sand substrate.  The battery-powered




unit required about three minutes to give a digital indication of flov




velocity and direction.  The unit was calibrated in a simple flov chamber




using local beach sand.
                               B-ll

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                                -12-
                        3.0  PLUlffi LOCATIONS









     The Indian Lake - Sisters Lake project proposed service area en-




compasses the entire shorelines of aight inland lakes lying within




Berrient Cass and Van Buren counties in the southwestern corner of




Michigan.  Vegetated wetlands occur adjacent to each of these lakes which




are fed primarily by groundwater recharge or surface runoff, there being




no major tributary inlets or stream linkages between one lake and another.




     Soils that overlie the glacial landforms of the study area vary




from mucks through loams to fine sand.  The predominant soil association




surrounding Sister Lakes in Cass County is Oshtemo-Kalamazoo-Hillsdale




association.  This association is characterized by deep, well-drained




soils of undulating to rolling topography found on outwash plains and




moraines.  These soils are of moderately coarse to coarse textures.




Some of the rolling areas are covered by croplands and orchards, others




by pasture land or forest.




     For purposes of evaluation consistent with our historical practice,




a waste-water plume was judged to be a leachate detector signal excursion




of at least 17. effluent equivalent of fluorescence and %7. of conductivity.





Devey Lake



     This small  lake ir* Cass County has a surface of nearly 190 acres




and a maximum depth of less than 14 meters.  While populated around most




of its shoreline, it abuts a wetland  to the south.  It has previously
                               B-12

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                                -13-
been classified as eutrophic.  No active wastewater plumes were revealed




around  the  lake perimeter.  Several small organic (fluorescence) rises



were detected along the northern shore, but were unaccompanied by any




inorganic (conductivity) changes.  Sample #4 is clearly bog as revealed



by its  very strong fluorescence  with no coincident conductivity rise,




and also by lab analysis showing fluorescent spectral wavelength shift




and high levels of ammonia-nitrogen characteristic of anaerobic reducing



conditions.  Sample #3 from a canal leading to wetlands also shows bog




characteristics.  No fecal colifonn bacteria contamination was evident,




nor was there any indication of high'nitrate levels in two well water




samples taken, though the Shady Shores well showed high dissolved




solids  loading.





Keeler  Lake




      This very small, outlying lake is to the northeast of the Sisters




Lakes.  A single tier of dwellings surrounds its shore, with the exception




of a wetlands expanse to the west.  The continuous shoreline survey did




not identify any effluent plume sources*  However, each of the sediment




groundwater samples had elevated levels of total phosphorous or ammonia




retained in soft material.





Cable Lake



      This scenic little lake, smallest of the group, also lies in Cass




County  and has a surface area of 91 acres.  Along with Round Lake, Cable




Lake has the smallest watershed (685 acres) of any of the Sister Lakes.




Wooded  swamp confronts a small section of the western shore and constitutes




about 227. of the watershed acreage.  No erupting effluent plumes were found
                               B-13

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                               -In-
       Nitrate levels in surface and groundwater samples were consistently




very low (<.04 ppm).  One routinely sampled background location (#15) did




show a moderately high phosphorous level (.192ppm) in the sediment waters.




Indications of surfactants and whiteners were not apparent on Cable Lake*





Magician Lake




      Magician Lake is second in surface area (468 acres) only to Indian




Lake and has over 11 km of well-developed shoreline.  Swamps lie to the




south and east*  Of three islands on the lake,  two are inhabited: Maple




Island, accessible by causeway; and Hemlock Island, reachable only by




boat.




      Traces of several wastewater plumes were located in the southwest




corner of Magician Lake which includes two narrow canal extensions.




However, nutrient concentrations were not high.  Interestingly, the ground-




water sample of a nominal background location (#25) revealed high con-




ductivity (820 umho/on) and ammonia-nitrogen (31 ppm).  This site was




along the southern shore of Maple Island. -The bottom was a mucky bed




of organic debris and  the surface water became unnavigable because of




the heavy plant growth.  Strong reducing conditions were present.




      Elsewhere around  the lake, nitrate levels were high in plume samples




drawn along  the northern shore.  Broad rolling croplands approach the




shorefront residential  lots.  Owners report numerous  springs underly the




soft silty bottom.  The plume source is  likely a mix of domestic and




agricultural products.




       Sample #27  represented  fresh,  soapy  effluent  believed  to originate




 from a  shower  drain  piped directly  to  the  lake's  edge.  The  pipe end was
                              B-14

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                                -15-
algae covered, and  the total phosphorous  level was high  (.144 ppm).





Pipestone Lake




      An irregularly shaped lake, Pipestone has  the  lowest ratio of




water surface area  to wetted shoreline.   As the  lowest lake  in elevation




in the entire study area, its watershed includes  the highest percentage




of both orchards (237.) and wooded swamp ('291).  The  diversity of fish




species is high in  this lake as it is connected  to the St. Joseph River




by the outflowing Pipestone Creek.  Large salmon were running upstream




to spawn during the period of this October survey.   For  a low-lying




lake surrounded by  such extensive wetlands, Pipestone has logically




been classified as mesotrophic, tending towards eutrophic.  Plume




discoveries were numerous and included high total phosphorous (.843  ppm)




and ammonia-nitrogen (13 ppm) levels in both surface drainpipe and ground-




water samples.  While these stream sources originate from bog areas, the




potential runoff for leachfield wastewater entrainment is very strong,




given the high water table and frequent flooding conditions.  The high




fecal coliform bacteria count at code B32 (7,600 colonies/100 ml water)




from a. pipe running through the yard of a permanent  resident underscores




the septic leaching implications.  The lake bottom was mucky organic




debris and the waterways were often choked with rooted aquatic vegetation.





Indian Lake




      Located well to the south of the Sister Lakes, Indian  Lake is  the




largest in area and most nearly regular in shape.  Some  wetlands append




Indian Lake along its southern boundary,  but over 507. of the watershed area
                               5-1!

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                                -16-
is under agricultural use.  A 1975 Cass County Health Department survey




declared this lake to be experiencing accelerated eutrophication related




to nutrient leakage from on-site sewage systems.




      Our septic survey found very fev distinct septic probletns on a




lake of this size.  Fewer than 10 plumes were reported; virtually all




were along the northern shore.  Of samples taken, all nitrate levels but




one were less than .06 pptn and total phosphorous  <.03 ppm.  Sample #54




was taken in the vicinity of a very discrete patch of Cladophora capping




some submerged cinder'blocks near a concrete breakwall.  Cladophora




occurrences were not widespread but did crop up elsewhere in isolated




patches.  Sample #55 corresponds to a large pipe bearing stream drainage




from the northeast shore region.  Sample #56 was drawn from a broad plume




source along this same northeastern shore.  Autumn leaves collected by




the wind and waves  matted the near shore  to a depth of about ,3m.  The




higher than usual nitrate and conductivity value from  the groundwater




sample beneath the leaves suggests  a wastewater plume source possibility.




Prevailing groundwater flow was found to be into the lake along this north




shore.  Many homes on  the north shore are  situated no more than 15-20 feet




from their neighbors, and have a set-back  of 25-30 feet  from the water.




Mucky bottom sediments prevail in proximity to  the northwest corner canal




area.  A surface  sample  (557) in  the canal showed significant inorganic




breakthrough,  though no  apparent increase  in nominal nutrient  levels.




Attempts  to  pull  groundwater  from  the bottom mucks were  unsuccessful.
                              B-16

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                                 -17-
Crooked Lake




     A lake in two major sections, Crooked Lake has bottom sediments




composed of organic debris and sand.  Crooked Lake is notable in that 507.




of its watershed area is residentially developed, with another 327. under




forestation.  Most of the north and south shores of upper Crooked Lake




are hilly, with housing sitting well above the water.  At the east end




of the upper basin, houses are located close together ("20 ft.) and only




30 ft. back from water's edge.  The terrain at this end is quite level




and has a shallower depth to groundwater.  Fourteen plume occurrences




were plotted around the entire lake, half being more of the dormant




type leaching without inorganic breakthrough.  Neither total phosphorus nor




total nitrogen was notably-high for any of the sample sites.  Ground-




water appeared to flow from the northeast which would be consistent with




the plume patterns developed.





Round Lake




     Nested close to Crooked Lake, Round Lake has a lower total 'hardness




(44 ppm) and specific conductance (-100 pmho/cm) typical of the smaller




lakes and streams.  Swampland appears on the far western shore.  Remarkably,




only one solid plume indication was noted (#76, 1403 Rays Court).  This




site showed high conductivity (840 jimho/cni) and highest of otherwise very




low nitrate levels.  Bacterial contamination was not a problem from the




four sampling stations examined.

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                               -18-
Figures 4a through 4i.  Mapping of Dewey, Keeler, Cable, Magician,


Indian, Pipestone, Crooked, and Round Lakes survey along their


complete shorelines.  Sample stations for bacteria, well water and


nutrients are shown, using the following symbols:
 O
  o
    O

    D
Mutrient sample station




Bacteria sample station




Well water sample station


Dormant groundwater plume


Dormant stream source plume


Erupting groundwater plume


Erupting stream source plume
                              B-18

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                                 -19-
Figure 4a.

-------
                                -20
Figure 4b.
                              B-20

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                                 -21-
Figure Ac.
                              B-21

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                              -22-
Figure 4
                              B-22

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                                  -23-
Figure 4e<
                                 c-;

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                                 -24-
Figure-
                               C-24

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                                   -25-
                                                                                        O
                                                                                        O
                                                                                        CO
                                                                                        LU
                                                                                        UJ
                                                                                      •>• O

Figure
                                   B-25