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H. RECOMMENDATIONS
Surveys of sediment quality, benthic community structure and
water quality have revealed an impacted zone along the Ontario
shore downstream of the industrial and municipal discharges.
This zone was characterized by an impaired benthic community,
contaminated sediments (zinc, cyanide, oil and grease, phenols,
PAHs) and elevated concentrations of phenols, PAHs, iron, zinc,
cyanide, phosphorus, ammonia, and fecal coliform bacteria in
surface waters. Notwithstanding reductions in Algoma Steel ef-
fluents, impacts still exist in the benthic community in the
river. Generally, the studies revealed that biota, sediments and
water quality along the Michigan shore of the St. Marys River and
in Lake Nicolet were good.
Based on these findings, the following recommendations are made
in support of remedial programs already underway and to address
the goals identified in Section F.
A. Industrial and Municipal Point Source Remedial Recommendations
1. Ontario and Michigan should incorporate the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement's goal of the virtual elimination
of all persistent toxic substances into their respective
regulatory programs.
2. Algoma Steel which was the major contributor of ammonia,
phenols, oil and grease, cyanide and suspended solids must
continue to reduce loadings of these substances to meet the
requirements of the Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Control Order, the compliance dates of which should be
strongly enforced. This recommendation is subject to reco-
mmendations 8 to 10, below.
3. The Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario East End WWTP should be equi-
pped with phosphorus removal in order to bring the total
phosphorus concentration in the final effluent down to the
required 1 mg/L (this is expected to be on-line in 1989).
4. The treatment capacity of the East End WWTP is frequently
exceeded. To reduce the frequency of plant overflows and
bypasses this plant must be upgraded to provide secondary
treatment and expanded, or a portion of the wastewater must
be rerouted to the West End WWTP.
The Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario East End WWTP contributed the
highest loadings of benzene-chloroethers and was the second high-
est contributor of oil and grease, ammonia, chloride, total me-
tals , volatiles, PAHs, chlorinated phenols and phthalates. Elev-
ated levels of PAHs and chlorinated phenols were observed only on
the first day of sampling, presumably due to an industrial spill
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into the sanitary system.
5. The municipality, with the support of the OMOE, take steps
to strictly enforce the Sault Ste. Marie Sewer By-Law and
thus prevent the discharge of untreated industrial wastes
to municipal sewers. The municipality and/or OMOE should
also initiate an educational program to discourage home
owners from disposing of hazardous or toxic waste in sew-
ers.
6. Discharges of fecal coliform and fecal streptococci from
Algoma Steel, WWTPs and combined sewer overflows must be
reduced to meet Provincial Water Quality objectives.
7. The A.B. McLean aggregate extraction operations is poten-
tially a significant source of suspended solids to the St.
Marys River. The current, permitted extraction must be
closely monitored and the requirements must be strictly
enforced. Furthermore, the pending permit application must
not be issued until a comprehensive environmental review
indicates that the increased activity would not result in
unacceptable adverse impacts.
In moving toward the virtual elimination of persistent toxic
substances, future toxic controls will place increased emphasis
on the ambient conditions of the St. Marys River ecosystem.
8. Discharge limits for point sources should be based on mix-
ing zones with all water quality objectives met at the
boundary of the mixing zone. This zone is expected to be
reduced (ultimately to zero) as advances in treatment tech-
nology are implemented.
9. Depending on the parameter, Algoma Steel samples their
effluent on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. Most of the
controlled parameters are based on 12 month averages. Due
to the variability in effluent characteristics, sampling
should be more frequent. The frequency and type of samp-
ling should be re-evaluated and audit sampling by OMOE
should be increased.
10. Additional parameters, such as PAHs, should be regulated
and incorporated into Algoma's monitoring program.
B. Nonpoint Source Remedial Recommendations
Concentrations and estimates of loadings from urban runoff are
available only for the Ontario side. Estimates of atmospheric
deposition on the Ontario side of the river indicated that sig-
nificant amounts of PAHs might reach the river through the storm
sewers. For rural runoff, loading estimates were available only
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for the Michigan side.
11. Ontario and Michigan should conduct additional stud-
ies for both urban and rural runoff to better iden-
tify and quantify loadings of trace inorganic and
organic compounds.
Several active and inactive waste sites in Michigan and Ontario
were identified as having the potential for contributing con-
taminants to the St. Marys River. These studies have been limit-
ed in scope and do not quantify the magnitude of the contaminant
loadings entering the river.
12. Investigate the kinds of contaminants, the pathways of
contamination (surface water and groundwater), and the
magnitude of the contaminant flux; establish monitoring
networks as required; and undertake necessary remedial
clean-up activities at the following waste sites:
i) the Algoma Slag Site;
ii) Cannelton Industries Tannery disposal site (under CER-
CLA authority);
iii) Union Carbide and Superior Sanitation landfills (under
Michigan Act 307).
13. Spill containment must be improved at both industrial and
municipal facilities to minimize the frequency of shock
loadings to the aquatic ecosystem. This will entail spill
prevention, development of contingency plans to deal with
material reaching the river and following established proc-
edures for the reporting of spills.
C. Surveys, Research and Development
14. Many PAHs have been shown to be bioaccumulative or to have
toxic effects on aquatic organisms and some are proven car-
cinogens. The absence of specific, numerical water quality
standards makes it difficult to regulate the discharge of
PAHs. An accelerated effort to assess the ecological sig-
nificance of PAHs and to develop compound specific criteria
is required.
15. There are no regulatory guidelines 'to permit assessment of
the biological significance of sediment associated con-
taminants. Development of such guidelines is required to
aid in site-specific evaluations of contaminated sediments.
16. Impacts to benthic macroinvertebrate communities have been
related to sediment quality. Further site specific work
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must be completed to prioritize sediment "hot spots" based
on biological impacts. In addition, physical and chemical
characteristics of the sediment should be evaluated. This
information will be used to determine appropriate remedial
actions for sediments. Suggested studies include acute and
chronic sediment bioassays as well as physical/chemical and
bedload assessments.
17. The development of water quality based effluent limits for
specific PAH compounds requires additional monitoring of
point source discharges (water as well as air) and deter-
mination of PAH concentrations in resident aquatic indicat-
or species.
18. There is a paucity of data on the near-field atmospheric
deposition of metals and organics. This information should
be obtained, and evaluated relative to other sources (e.g.
effluents, urban runoff, Lake Superior) to the river.
19. Suspended solids are of concern due to their ability to
deposit contaminants locally or to transport them long
distances, before settling out. An investigation of the
combined effects of suspended solids discharges from Algoma
Steel, St. Marys Paper, and WWTPs should be completed.
This may involve a sediment transport modeling effort that
considers the sources, transport and ultimate deposition of
sediment and contaminants. This study would also allow
prioritization of sources for remedial action.
20. The NPDES Permit for the Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan WWTP
includes effluent limits for 8005, pH, suspended solids,
total phosphorus, fecal coliform, and residual chlorine.
No loadings were measured for UGLCCS parameters during the
1986 survey period. Although no adverse impacts on the
river ecosystem have been observed, trace contaminant load-
ings from this facility should be determined to verify the
absence of environmentally significant loadings to the
river.
21. The OMOE has issued fish consumption advisories for many
large game fish due to mercury contamination. Although the
main source of mercury is believed to be natural, there are
potential sources in the Sault Ste. Marie urban area.
Mercury has been detected, for example, in all point source
effluents and in stormwater in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
Therefore, it is recommended that a study to determine the
relative contributions of background and urban source(s) of
mercury be completed.
22. Fecal coliform bacteria densities were detected in river
water downstream of the Edison Sault Power Canal in
Michigan. Further sampling must be conducted to determine
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whether Michigan's fecal coliform standard is being ex-
ceeded and, if so, to identify the source(s) and appropri-
ate remedial action.
23. For chemicals where ambient data and standards are avail-
able, the agencies must develop an ecosystem model. The
model should provide insight into the fate of chemicals
entering and leaving the river by various pathways as well
as a systematic process for predicting the relative effect-
iveness of proposed corrective actions.
24. Although the current water quality objective for oil and
grease is narrative (i.e. no visible sheen), a numerical
objective should be developed that is based on no adverse
impacts on sediment quality and associated benthos.
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I. LONG TERM MONITORING
1. UGLCCS vs. Other Monitoring Programs
A presentation of the purposes for monitoring and surveillance
activities is included under Annex 11 of the GLWQA and a discus-
sion of considerations for the design of a long term monitoring
program can be found in Chapter 7 of the Report of the Niagara
River Toxics Committee (59). Because the focus of the UGLCC
Study was toward remedial actions to alleviate impaired uses of
the Connecting Channels System, long term monitoring recommenda-
tions will likewise focus on the evaluation of trends in environ-
mental quality in order to assess the effectiveness of remedial
actions. In general, post-UGLCCS monitoring should be sufficient
to 1) detect trends in conditions noted by the UGLCCS, and 2)
detect changes in ambient conditions which have resulted from
remedial actions. Monitoring programs should be designed to
specifically detect the changes intended by the remedial actions
so as to ensure relevance in both temporal and spatial scales.
Two major programs sponsored by the IJC also contain plans for
long term monitoring: the Great Lakes International Surveillance
Plan (GLISP) and the Remedial Action Plans (RAPs) for Areas of
Concern (AoC's) identified by the IJC. The GLISP for the Upper
Great Lakes Connecting Channels is presently incomplete, pending
results of the UGLCC Study, but it is expected to provide moni-
toring and surveillance guidance to U.S. and Canadian agencies
responsible for implementing the provisions of the GLWQA that
include general surveillance and research needs as well as moni-
toring for results of remedial actions.
The St. Marys River is one of the AoCs, and a RAP is being devel-
oped jointly by Michigan and Ontario. The RAP will identify uses
impaired, sources of contaminants, desired use goals, target
clean-up levels, specific remedial options, schedules for im-
plementation, resource commitments by Michigan and Ontario as
well as by the federal governments, municipalities and industries
and monitoring requirements to assess the effectiveness of the
remedial options implemented. Results and recommendations coming
from the UGLCC Study will be incorporated extensively into the
RAP, which will then be the document that influences federal,
state and provincial programs for the St. Marys River. The reco-
mmendations for long term monitoring that are presented below are
intended for consideration and incorporation into either or both
the GLISP and RAP for the St. Marys River.
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2. System Monitoring for Contaminants
Water
Knowledge of the concentrations of the principal contaminants in
the water of the St. Marys River should be used to indicate gene-
ral exposure levels for the biota, to identify changes and trends
over time in the concentration levels, and to be used for general
assessment of contaminant impacts. The parameters to be monito-
red include phenols, iron, cyanide, ammonia, total PAHs, oil and
grease, benzo(a)pyrene, and ether solubles. Monitoring stations
should provide information on contaminant concentrations through-
out the river. For continuity, these should include the sampling
transects identified in this study (i.e., SMU 1.0 and 0.5; SMD
0.2, 1.0, 1.2, 2.6, 4.2E, and 5.0E). Sampling frequency should
be 'influenced by the variability in contaminant sources. Spring
high flow conditions and late summer low flow conditions would be
expected to bracket the normal seasonal variability in flow that
could influence measured contaminant concentrations.
A mass balance approach to contaminant monitoring will help to
identify any changes in the contaminant mass over time, and it
will provide the basis for targeting future remedial actions by
providing a comparison of the magnitude of the sources. A mass
balance analysis should be conducted approximately once every
five years, assuming that some effective remedial action has been
implemented against one or more sources such that the total load-
ings of contaminants, or the relative contribution of the sources
to the loading, has changed. The sources to be measured should
include:
1) Head and mouth transects for upstream and downstream bound-
ary movements. The number and locations of stations should
relate to measured or predicted plume distributions. Sug-
gested locations include Point Aux Pins, the head of Sugar
Island, and the downstream end of Lake George and Lake
Nicolet. Both dissolved and particulate fractions should
be analyzed. The quantity of suspended sediment flux sho-
uld also be measured.
2) Municipal and industrial point sources. During the survey,
the sampling must be frequent enough to accurately reflect
the likely loading fluctuations from the major point sour-
ces. The sources include the major outfalls of Algoma
Steel, St. Marys Paper, and the East End WWTP, the West End
WWTP and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan WWTP.
3) Tributaries. Preliminary assessment has shown that con-
tributions from tributaries to the St. Marys River are
secondary to the industrial and municipal point sources.
These findings should be confirmed periodically.
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4) CSOs and Runoff. To provide an estimate of contaminant
mass loadings expected during storm events, occasional
studies on selected urban drainage areas should be con-
ducted. Estimates should be made for all urban and agri-
cultural runoff on both sides of the river.
5) Groundwater inflow. Groundwater monitoring systems de-
signed to detect potential loadings to the St. Marys River
need to be installed at the Algoma Slag Site and at
Cannelton Industries Tannery disposal site following re-
mediation. The existing monitoring system at the Cherokee
Landfill should be utilized to detect potential loadings to
the river.
6) Sediment transport. Preliminary studies indicate that bed-
load sediments moving into and out of the St. Marys River
carry contaminant masses similar to, or exceeding the other
sources. The mass flux should be quantified.
7) Atmospheric deposition. Direct atmospheric deposition of
contaminants to the St. Marys River is expected to be
minor. Deposition to the drainage basin and subsequent
runoff into the river or its tributaries, however, could be
an important source for some contaminants. Estimates of
contaminant mass in both wet and dry deposition to the
drainage basin should be made when unidentified nonpoint
sources are found to be a major contributor of any of the
contaminants of interest.
Sediments
Monitoring of sediments for concentrations of contaminants should
be conducted periodically throughout the St. Marys River in order
to assess both the trends in surficial contaminant concentrations
and the movement of sediment-associated contaminants within the
river. The grid used by the U.S.FWS during the 1985 survey would
be appropriate for consistency in sampling sites and sediment
composition. An analysis of sediment chemistry including both
bulk chemistry, organic and inorganic contaminants, and particle
size distribution should be conducted every 5 years, in conjunc-
tion with a biota survey (see "habitat monitoring" below). In
the St. Marys River, particular attention should be given to
sediment concentrations of oil and grease, phenols, cyanide, and
PAHs.
Because the grid stations are distributed throughout the river
reach and are associated with appropriate habitat for a sensitive
benthic invertebrate (Hexagenia), the periodic survey will allow
assessment of 1) contaminant distribution throughout the river
sediments, 2) relative movement of the contaminants within the
river sediments between surveys, and 3) correlation of contamin-
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ant concentrations with benthic biotic communities.
The sediment at any stations established 'at the mouths of tribu-
taries to the St. Marys River should be monitored for organic and
inorganic contaminants on an annual or biannual basis when sig-
nificant remedial actions are implemented within the watershed
for the tributary. The remedial actions should be expected to
measurably reduce loadings of one or more particular contaminants
via the tributary in order to trigger the more frequent sediment
monitoring programs.
Biota
Long term monitoring of concentrations of contaminants in biota
will provide a time series useful to track the bioavailability of
contaminants to selected representative organisms. Three long-
term monitoring programs are already in place and should be con-
tinued:
i) Annual or bi-annual monitoring of sport fish.
This program should focus especially on PAHs, mercury, and PCBs.
The monitoring should be continued regardless of the differences
that may be observed between acceptable concentrations or action
levels that may be established by governmental agencies and the
measured contaminant concentrations in the fish flesh. As a link
between human health concerns and integrated results of remedial
programs to reduce contaminants in the UGLCC System, this program
is critically important.
ii) Spottail shiner monitoring program.
This program is designed to identify source areas for bioavail-
able contaminants. In locations where spottail shiners contain
elevated levels of contaminants, additional studies should be
conducted to identify the sources of the contaminants. Some
upstream studies in tributaries may be required. Spottails sho-
uld also be employed to confirm that remedial actions have been
effective in removing or reducing the loading of one or more
contaminants.
iii) Caged clams contaminants monitoring.
Caged clams should continue to be used at regular time intervals,
perhaps in conjunction with spottail shiners, to monitor inte-
grated results of remedial actions to reduce contaminant loadings
to the water. Clams may be located at tributary mouths and down-
stream of suspected source areas. Repeated assays from the same
locations should confirm results of remedial actions.
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iv) Benthic survey
The macrozoobenthic community should be evaluated at least every
3 years. As a minimum, the abundance and distribution of the
mayfly Hexagenia should be determined to serve as an indicator
species of environmental quality. The grid used by the U.S.FWS
during the 1985 survey (Figure VI-20) would be appropriate for
consistency in sampling sites each survey. An analysis of sed-
iment chemistry, including bulk chemistry, organic, inorganic and
extractable (available) contaminants, and particle-size distribu-
tion, should be conducted for samples taken concurrently with the
macrozoobenthic survey. These data will provide information on
the quality of the benthic habitat.
v) Toxicity testing
Sediment toxicity tests, using whole sediment and sediment pore
water or elutriate should be conducted at selected sites in con-
junction with the benthic survey. Results will assist to dif-
ferentiate between toxicity and substrate or dissolved oxygen
effects.
3. Sources Monitoring
Remedial actions intended to reduce concentrations and/or load-
ings of contaminants from specific point sources generally re-
quire monitoring for compliance with the imposed criteria or
standards for permitted contaminants. The monitoring may be
conducted by the facility or by the regulating agency, whichever
is applicable, but attention must be given to the sampling sched-
ule and analytical methodology such that mass loadings of the
contaminants can be estimated, as well as concentrations in the
sampled medium. Monitoring of the "near-field" environment,
i.e., close downstream in the effluent mixing zone, should be
conducted regularly to document reductions in contaminant levels
in the appropriate media and to document the recovery of impaired
ecosystem processes and biotic communities. Such monitoring may
be required for a "long time", but over a restricted aerial ex-
tent, depending on the severity of the impact and the degree of
reduction of contaminant loading that is achieved.
For the St. Marys River, four actions were recommended that would
affect specific sources of contaminants:
a) Reduction of toxic substances from Algoma Steel effluents,
especially at the Terminal Basins. Reductions in loadings
of phenol, cyanide, ammonia, oil and grease, and suspended
solids are expected as a result of new effluent limitations
imposed as part of the MISA program. Monitoring of sed-
iments and biota for contaminant concentrations and effects
downstream of the effluent should be conducted regularly to
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document any improvement in environmental conditions.
b) Enforcement of the regulatory mixing zone for the Sault
Ste. Marie, Ontario East End WWTP. Ontario must design a
monitoring plan adequate to determine that all water qual-
ity objectives are met at the boundary of the regulatory
zone, and to determine if adverse environmental effects
continue in the sediments and biota despite compliance with
water quality objectives.
c) Enforcement of the Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario Sewer By-Law
to prevent the discharge of untreated industrial wastes or
contaminants disposed by homeowners into municipal sewers.
Ontario will provide additional monitoring, inspection and
enforcement tools for implementing controls of toxic dis-
charges to sewer systems. The monitoring component must
include assessment of continuing environmental effects in
sediments and biota downstream of the sewer outfall, as
well as monitoring for concentrations of selected contamin-
ants in the sewer influent.
d) Equip the Sault St. Marie, Ontario, East End WWTP with
phosphorus removal facilities. Frequent in-plant monitor-
ing will be required to document that the target discharge
limit of 1 mg/L is being met.
Other recommendations for specific contaminant sources involve an
assessment of the present conditions or a study to quantify con-
centrations or loadings: review of PAHs for risk and hazard in-
formation; assess the need for further reduction of suspended
solids from St. Marys Paper; quantify trace contaminants from the
Sault St. Marie, Michigan WWTP, estimate loadings of trace or-
ganic and inorganic compounds from urban and rural runoff, and
quantify potential releases of contaminants from waste disposal
sites. Each of these items requires a specific program of data
collection and analysis. Additional needs for longer term moni-
toring may be identified as a result of these studies.
4. Habitat monitoring
Habitat monitoring should be conducted to detect and describe
changes in the ecological characteristics of the St. Marys River
through periodic analysis of key ecosystem elements. In par-
ticular, quantification of the extent of wetlands along the St.
Marys River should be conducted every three years. Aerial pho-
tography or other remote sensing means would be appropriate to
discern both emergent and submergent macrophyte beds that are
important as nursery areas for larval fish and other wildlife.
Verification of aerial data should be conducted by inspection of
selected transects for plant species identification and abun-
dances . Changes in wetland areas should be correlated with flue-
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tuating water levels and other natural documentable influences so
that long term alterations in wetlands can be tracked and causes
identified.
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Ontario.
29. Burt,A. J., D.R. Hart, and P.M. McKee. 1988. Ben-
thic invertebrate and sediment survey of the St.
Marys River 1985. Beak Consultants Ltd., Missis-
sauga, Ontario, Canada Prepared for Ontario
Ministry of the Environment.
30. Schloesser, D.W. et al., 1988.
(1985 Benthic Study)
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31. Persaud, D., T.D. Lomas and A. Hayton. 1987. The
In-Place Pollutants Program, Volume III, Phase I
Studies. OMOE, Toronto.
32. Krantzberg, W. and Baily, 1983.
(Sediment Size/Invertebrates)
33. International Joint Commission. 1983. Annual
Report. Report of the Ecosystem Objectives Commit-
tee to the IJC. Windsor, Ont.
34. Ministry of the Environment/Ministry of Natural
Resources. 1988. Guide to eating Ontario sport
fish. Toronto, Ontario.
35. Suns, K., G.E. Crawford, D.D. Russell, and R.E.
Clement. 1985. Temporal trends and spatial dis-
tribution of organochlorine and mercury residues
in Great Lakes spottail shiners (1975-83).
Ontario Ministry of the Environment.
36. Zenon. 1985. To Devise and Implement a Revised
Monitoring Scheme for Persistent and Toxic Or-
ganics in the Great Lakes Sport Fish. Report pre-
pared for Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Inc., Burlington, Ontario, October 10, 1985.
37. Kobiak, T.J., H.J. Harris, L.M. Smith, T.R.
Schwartz, D.L. Stalling, J.A. Trick, L. Sileo, D.E.
Docherty and T.C. Erdman. 1988. Microcontaminants
and Reproductive Impairment of the Forster's Tern
on Green Bay, Lake Michigan - 1983. Arch. Env.
Cont. Toxic. (Submitted for Publication).
38. Hesselberg, R.J. and Y. Hamdy. 1987. Current and
historical contamination of sediment in the St.
Marys River, 1987. UGLCCS Sediment Workgroup Re-
port. 17 pp.
39. Oliver, E.G., J.A. Robbins, and Y.S. Hamdy. 1987.
History of PAH and PCB contamination of the St.
Marys River by anlaysis of Lake George sediment
core. (In review). National Water Research In-
stitute, Canada Centre for Inland Waters.
40. Orchard, Ian and A. Mudrock. 1987. Report on sedi-
ments, water, and the distribution of benthic or-
ganisms in the St. Marys River in 1986. Environ-
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Toronto.
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41. Bertram, P., T.A. Edsall, B.A. Manny, S.J. Nichols,
and D.W. Schloesser. 1987. Physical and Chemical
characteristics of sediment in the Upper Great
Lakes Connecting Channels, 1985. Sediment Work-
group - UGLCCS. U.S.EPA/GLNPO.
42. Kauss, P.B. 1986. Presentation to citizens hearing
(Great Lakes United) on St. Marys River water
pollution. August 7, 1986, Sault Ste. Marie,
Michigan. Ontario Ministry of the Environment,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 24 pp.
43. Pranckevicius, Pranas E. 1987. Upper Great Lakes
Connecting Channels Tributary Sediments. A prelim-
inary Data Report. U.S.EPA.
44. DAS, B.S. 1983. Applications of HPLC to the anal-
ysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in en-
vironmental samples. In Liquid chromatography
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45. Larssen, P. 1985 "Contaminated sediments of lakes
and oceans act as sources of chlorinated hydrocar-
bons for release to water and atmosphere. Nature
Vol. 317.
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In-Place Pollutants in the Upper Great Lakes Con-
necting Channels. Fisheries and Ocean Canada,
Great Lakes Laboratories for Fisheries and Aquatic
Sciences, Canada Centre for Inland Waters,
Burlington, Ontario.
47. Duffy, W.G. 1985. The population ecology of the
damselfly, Lestes disjunctus disjunctus, in the St.
Mary River, Michigan. Ph.D. Diss. Mich. State
Univ., East Lansing. 119 pp.
48. Holland, L.E., and J.R. Sylvester. 1983. Evalua-
tion of simulated drawdown due to navigation traf-
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Upper Mississippi River. U.S. Army Corps Eng.
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49. Point Source Workgroup Report. 1988. St. Marys
River Geographic Area.
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50. Marsalek, J. and H.Y.F. Ng. 1987. Contaminants in
Urban Runoff in the Upper Great Lakes Connecting
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27.
51. Boom, A. and J. Marsalek. 1987. Accumulation of
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an Urban
Snowpack. National Water Research Institute, Bur-
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62.
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Connecting Channel Study Nonpoint Source Workgroup
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"Report on St. Marys River Hydrodynamic and Dis-
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U.S. EPA; OMOE; Env. Can.; NYSDEC.
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CHAPTER VII
ST. CLAIR RIVER
A. STATUS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
1. Ecological Profile
Watershed Characteristics
The St. Clair River flows in a southerly direction forming the
international boundary between the United States and Canada.
This navigable waterway physically separates Lambton and Kent
Counties in Ontario, and St. Clair County in Michigan. The St.
Clair River is not a typical river system, occupying an alluvial
valley, but must technically be regarded as a strait tl). This
system is a true connecting channel or conduit which transports
water, nutrients, sediments, and biota from Lake Huron to Lake
St. Clair (Figure II-3).
The complex connecting channel between Lake Huron and Lake Erie
that involves the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and the
Detroit River came into existence nearly 10,000 years ago with
the retreat of the Pleistocene ice sheet. As the massive weight
of ice was removed, an uplift in the form of glacial rebound
occurred, leaving the St. Clair River/Lake St. Clair/Detroit
River channel as the dominant outlet for the waters of the Upper
Great Lakes. As time passed, the actions of the moving water
enhanced the exit mechanism, until some 3,000 years ago, when the
complex connecting channel became a permanent feature of the
landscape.
The St. Clair system overlays 4,200 metres of sedimentary
Paleozoic bedrock resulting from the hardening of ancient silts
and muds to form extensive deposits of sandstones, limestones,
dolomites, salts and shales. This thick depositional sequence
rests upon a foundation of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Fossil fuels have been extracted from the area for more
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224
than a century, beginning with the first oil field in North Amer-
ica developed at Oil Springs, Ontario, in 1858. Minerals of
evaporative origin, such as halite (rock salt), have been exten-
sively extracted by the Morton Salt Company for decades in St.
Clair, Michigan.
The geologic origin of the St. Clair River resulted in a river
system which forms the single outlet for Lake Huron, conducting
its waters approximately 64 km southward to Lake St. Clair.
Sediments in the river consist of gravel with sand in the inter-
stices over glacial clay. Very little sediment deposition occurs
along the river channel above the river delta. Prior to entering
Lake St. Clair, the diminished velocities of the river with
broadening provided an extensive depositional area. Thus, a
large river delta-system developed containing numerous distri-
bution channels and an extensive region of wetlands. The shore-
line of the St. Clair River, including the principal delta dis-
tribution channels, is 192 km in length.
Hydrology
As might be expected, water velocities within the St. Clair River
are highest in the northern stretch of the river adjacent to the
exit of Lake Huron, and lowest in the southern delta area. The
total flow time from Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair is shown in
Figure VII-1. It has been estimated to be 21.1 hr from Lake
Huron to Lake St. Clair (2). The total average fall in this
stretch is 1.5 m in vertical height (3). The mean water velocity
is 3.5 km/hr, with a minimum of 1.1 km/hr in the delta area ad-
jacent to Lake St. Clair (Figure VII-1)(2).
The river flow ranges between approximately 3,000 m-Vsec and
6,700 in^/sec (2). The mean monthly discharge was 5,200 m^/sec
between 1900 and 1981 (6). Eight percent of this mean flow (410
m3/sec) passes through the Ontario channels of the St. Clair
Delta; the remainder (92 percent) passes through the more
westerly main channels of the delta (7).
The river behaves like three separate panels of water: two near-
shore sections strongly influenced by discharges; and a centre
panel which passes through the river with minimal change.
On the Michigan side of the St. Clair River, four heavy indus-
tries are the principal users of river water for metal plating,
paper manufacturing, and salt processing. By far, the heaviest
municipal and industrial use occurs on the Canadian side of the
river with ten major industrial plants in the Sarnia area produc-
ing refined petroleum, petrochemical and agricultural products. A
large coal-fired power generating station is also located on the
Ontario shore. A number of studies have shown that effluents
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225
ri
Robert* rn
Landing 41"
I I Port
I lLambton
MHA.B J ^^^^
Lake Distance Flow Velocity
From Time (Hr) Of Flow
Source (Km) (Km/Hr)
0.0
0.1
0.9
4.4
ONTARIO
9.8
aao 12.0
--42.0 12.5
- 64.0 21.1
0.0
6.0
3.9
2.9
5.8
3.7
2Q
3.6
52.0 17.9 2.4
1.1
FIGURE VII-1. St. Clair River indicating approximate flow times and
velocities of flow of various reaches of the river.
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226
from a number of these plants have degraded the quality of the
St. Clair River system (8-12).
Historically, waterborne commerce has been a very heavy user of
the St. Clair River system. Traditionally, iron ore, limestone,
and coal account for 90 percent of commercial shipping on the St.
Clair River (13).
Habitats and Biological Communities
The St. Clair River ecosystem consists of five fundamentally
distinct biologic zones: (i) open-water, (ii) submerged wetland,
(iii) emergent wetlands, (iv) transition or ecotone, and (v)
upland. Each of these zones may be subdivided by the community
of organisms which occupy them, or by their physical character-
istics.
The open-water zone may be subdivided into two major groups: (i)
the channelized flow communities, and (ii) the open-water marsh
communities. The channelized flow communities include such
diverse groups as free-swimming nekton, e.g., fish, amphibians,
and reptiles; drift communities, e.g., uprooted submerged and
emergent plants, phytoplankton, and zooplankton; and sessile,
burrowing, or attached communities, e.g., immature aquatic in-
sects, invertebrates, and mollusks. The open-water marsh com-
munities predominate in the St. Clair Delta area. They are typi-
cally either bullrush marshes, or cattail marshes. The
open-water bullrush marsh is prevalent in the abandoned channels
of the St. Clair Delta, or mixed with cattail marshes where water
depth and sandy sediments favour the development of bullrush
communities. Open-water cattail marshes are found in delta sec-
tions of the river where peaty or clayey hydrosoils predominate,
and where water depth exceeds 15 cm (5).
The St. Clair River system contains approximately 550 ha of
coastal wetlands. The primary type of wetlands in the St. Clair
River belong to the river wetland group, and are composed largely
of submerged species (5,14,15). These shoreward, submerged com-
munities may be conveniently divided by location into the delta
channel, and the river shoulder. The delta channel communities
include both abandoned and active delta channels. The river
shoulder communities border the channelized area of the river for
a distance of 30-40 m, and rarely exceed 2 m in depth (2). Emer-
gent wetland communities occasionally occupy the river shoulder
area, but more often, these forms are to be found on point bars
and within the river delta structure.
The transition zone, or ecotone, may be conveniently subdivided
into three major categories of community types: (i) the island
shoreline and transgressive beach, (ii) sedge marshes, and (iii)
the transition wet-meadow. Long, narrow beaches of fine sand
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227
which support emergent vegetation are found on the Canadian side
of the river delta. Transgressive or stranded beaches are also
found on the islands of the delta area which support intermediate
or transition communities, including tussock sedge (Carex sp.),
reed (Phragmites australis), swamp thistle (Cirsim muticum),
bluejoint grass (Calamagrostis canadensis), willows (Salix sp.),
and the eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides). The sedge marsh
communities occupy a very narrow zone of transition between the
wetter cattail marshes and the more terrestrialized upland zones.
Typical residents of this community are nearly all members of the
tussock sedge group (Carex sp.), with the exception of bluejoint
grass (Calamagrostis canadensis). The transition wet-meadow
communities represent a transition state between the sedge
marshes and the upland communities. This community lies above
the water table and is infrequently flooded. It consists of a
mixture of grasses, herbs, shrubs, and water-tolerant trees,
including quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), red ash (Fraxinus
pennsylvanica), red osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), swamp
rose (Rosa palustris), bluejoint grass (Calamagrostis cana-
densis) , rattlesnake grass (Glyceria canadensis), and panic grass
(Panicum sp.) .
The terrestrialized upland communities bordering the St. Clair
River system include upland shrub, and deciduous hardwood. The
upland shrub community consists of mixed shrubs and water toler-
ant trees, including eastern cottonwood and quaking aspen (Pop-
ulus sp.), red ash (Fraxinum pennsylvanica), red osier dogwood
and gray dogwood (Cornus sp.), wild grape (Vitis palmata), and
hawthorn (Crataegus sp.). The deciduous hardwood community ad-
jacent to the St. Clair River begins on an average of 1-3 m above
the level of the river. Major species in this community include
red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and members of the genus
Quercus, including swamp white oak, pin oak, and burr oak. Other
hardwoods include silver maple (Acer saccharinum), the American
elm (Ulmus americana), eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides),
and shagbark hickory (Carva ovata). The terrestrialized upland
communities are chiefly found in the less industrialized portions
of the basin, particularly in southern reaches of the river, and
notably in the island complex associated with the delta area.
i) Macrozoobenthos
The macrozoobenthos of the St. Clair River exhibits a higher
taxonomic diversity than Lake St. Clair. The number of individ-
ual species observed in the river is in excess of 300 (2). Mem-
bers of the Oligochaeta, Chironomidae, Gastropoda, Ephemeroptera,
Trichoptera, and Amphipoda contribute most significantly to total
macrozoobenthic biomass. Large numbers of Hydra sp. are present,
but contribute little to biomass.
The genera Cricotopus, Parachironomus, Parakiefferiella, Rheo-
tanytarsus, and Stictochironomus are the dominant chironomid
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228
forms. The most common amphipod is Hyalella, and the common
trichopteran genera include Cheumatopsyche, Hydropsyche, and
Oecetis. Species diversity is greatest in the Chironomidae,
Trichoptera, and Oligochaeta. Numerous freshwater mussels are
present in abundance in the St. Clair River, as are the common
snail genera Amnicola and Elimia.
ii) Zooplankton, Phytoplankton and Macrophytes
The St. Clair River harbors relatively low densities of limnetic
zooplankton (16). Several authors report that the St. Clair
River zooplankton community is dominated by fugitive drift com-
munities of zooplankton from Lake Huron (2.16,17). A total of 18
rotifer genera, 9 calanoid copepods, 4 cyclopoid copepods, and 6
cladocerans have been observed in.the St. Clair River (18).
While rotifers were most frequently seen (17), the dominant
zooplankton species observed were Bosmina longirostris, Cyclops
thomasi, and Diaptomus minutus.
The primary production system of the St. Clair River consists of
Phytoplankton, emergent macrophytes, submerged macrophytes, and
the periphyton community associated with the submerged portions
of the latter two groups. A single source of information is
available regarding the phytoplankton composition of the St.
Clair River. This study was completed more than a decade ago
(17,19), and suggests that the phytoplankton community of the St.
Clair River is dominated by diatoms occurring in patterns similar
to the communities of Lake Huron. Dominant species reported in
1974 included Cyclotella sp., Fragillaria sp., Melosira sp.,
Stephanodiscus sp., Synedra sp., and Tabellaria sp. At the time
of preparation of this manuscript, no published data were avail-
able related to native periphyton communities in the St. Clair
River.
Submerged macrophytes are a prominent feature of the littoral
waters of the St. Clair River. These extensive macrophyte beds
provide food, shelter, and habitat requirements for fish and
wildlife populations. Not only do they support a wide variety of
migratory waterfowl, but young fish were observed to be more
abundant from spring to fall among the submerged macrophytes than
in the plant-free areas of the St. Clair River islands (20).
More than 20 submerged macrophyte taxa occur in the St. Clair
River system (20,21). In order of frequency of occurrence, these
include Chara sp., Vallisneria americana, Potamogeton sp., and
Heteranthera dubia. Of this group, only Chara forms single
species or monotypic stands of vegetation. Typically, submerged
macrophyte stands are composed of 2-3 species; however, a stand
with a maximum of 11 taxa has been reported (2). The greatest
depth of water colonized by submerged macrophytes is not docu-
mented for the St. Clair River system, but most stands occur in
water depths of 3.7 m or less. The 3.7m depth contour accounts
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229
for 16 km2 of the St. Clair River shoreline. It has been es-
timated that 88 percent of the St. Clair River bottom is covered
by plant material within the 0-3.7 m range of depths (2).
A total of three submerged macrophyte taxa are found in the St.
Clair River system. These species include Potamogeton crispus,
Nitellopsis obtusa, and Myriophyllum spicatum. P. crispus is one
of the first aquatic plants to appear in the spring. This plant
serves as a host for aquatic invertebrates which are consumed by
northward migrating waterfowl (1). Since it is also one of the
most abundant macrophytes in the river during April to June, P^
crispus provides an important spawning substrate for fish (22).
N. obtusa was first reported in the St. Clair River in 1984 (23).
M. spicatum was first observed in Lake St. Clair in 1974 (24),
and became the fourth most common submerged macrophyte in the St.
Clair River system by 1978 (21).
Emergent macrophyte distributions are less well understood.
While Herdendorf et al. (5) provide some discussion of the emer-
gent forms of the lower St. Clair River, no definitive study of
species compositions, abundance, distribution, occurrence, or
productivity has yet been made. Estimates, however, suggest that
as much as 3,380 ha of the St. Clair River may be colonized by
emergent vegetation (25,26). It is further estimated that 95
percent of the stands of emergent vegetation occur in the lower
reaches of the river (1). Typical emergent vegetation within the
river area proper includes cattails (Typha sp.) and reed
(Phragmites australis), Within the delta, numerous canals,
ponds, and abandoned channels support a wide diversity of emer-
gent plant communities, including the yellow and white water
lilies (Nuphar advena and Nymphaea tuberosa, respectively),
buttonbrush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), arrowhead (Sagittaria
latifolia), bullrush (Scirpus sp.), and water smartweed Polyhonum
amphibium).
iii) Fish
With regard to fish populations, the St. Clair River is important
in two respects: (a) it supports its own native fishery, and (b)
it serves as a conduit, providing a means of access for movement
of fish to both Lakes Huron and Erie. The latter aspect is par-
ticularly significant in association with fish spawning.
The St. Clair River is critical to the spawning and nursing of
juvenile fish of between 23 and 41 taxa (4,27,28,29), with larval
fish densities averaging 296 per 1000 m^. Fish species observed
within the river include walleye, muskellunge, rainbow trout,
lake sturgeon, smelt, coho and Chinook salmon, smallmouth bass,
channel catfish, yellow perch, and freshwater drum (30).
Juvenile and adult fish were most often observed in the lower
reaches of the river where macrophyte communities were abundant.
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230
Forty-eight fish species are known or presumed to utilize the
wetland areas associated with the St. Clair River. The manage-
ment of this system is critical to protect both the habitat of
these fish and the fish themselves from accumulating body burdens
of chemical contaminants.
Haas et al. (31), conducted seven monthly surveys of fish in the
St. Clair River which identified rock bass, yellow perch, and
walleye as the most common forms. Fish populations vary season-
ally, with smallmouth bass most numerous in the fall, and white
suckers dominating the spring populations.
As was noted above, the river serves as a corridor for fish move-
ment between Lakes St. Clair and Huron. Walleye are known to
spawn in the delta area and tributaries of Lake St. Clair, and to
move in late spring through the St. Clair River to southern Lake
Huron. These fish typically return through the river in the fall
of the year (30) . This migration pattern is further complicated
by walleye breeding migrations in which fish from Lake Erie move
into the St. Clair River complex to spawn.. Spawning areas in the
St. Clair River area are also important for the rare lake stur-
geon. The lake sturgeon enters the St. Clair River to spawn in
the north channel of the St. Clair River Delta.
Regional Climate
The St. Clair River basin is characterized by typical inland
climatic patterns modified by the water mass of the Great Lakes
which surrounds it. Summer temperatures are regarded as warm and
mild, and winter temperatures are moderately cold. Mean annual
temperature regimes range from a high of 23.6°C in July, to a low
of -4.4°C in January. Periodic cyclonic storms of varying inten-
sity occur throughout the year, with the general exception of the
high summer months (June, July, and August). During this period,
thunderstorms are common as a function of atmospheric convection-
al uplift.
The modifying influence of the adjacent Great Lakes provides the
St. Clair River region with the second longest frost-free season
in the Great Lakes basin. On an average, the interval between
the last vernal frost and the first autumnal frost is 160 days.
The fall warming effect provided by the surrounding water masses
retards the occurrence of autumn frost, thus extending the grow-
ing season. The spring cooling effects of the lakes also prevent
premature vegetational growth, lessening the chances of crop and
plant loss to late spring frosts (32). The length and intensity
of the growing season may also be estimated from the accumulation
of growing degree-days. This value is an index of the amount of
heat available during a given growing season. The growing
degree-day index is normally defined as the number of degrees of
mean daily temperature above a threshold value of 5.6°C for the
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231
period in which that limit is exceeded. A normal year in the
Port Huron/Sarnia area consists of 2,056°C (2),
Average annual water temperature values describe a classic sig-
moidal curve, with winter minima occurring in mid-February (ap-
proximately 0.5°C), and the annual maxima being achieved in
mid-August at values approaching 21°C (4). Mean water tempera-
ture recorded for the St. Clair River for the years 1967-1982 was
11.8°C (5).
Characteristically, the climate of the Great Lakes region is
marked by a lack of major seasonal fluctuations in precipitation
patterns. Extensive records for three adjacent weather stations
- Mount Clemens, Michigan (1940-1969); Detroit City Airport,
Detroit, Michigan (1940-1069); and Windsor, Ontario Airport
(1941-1970) - indicate that the mean annual precipitation is
77.83 cm (33) .
2. Environmental Conditions
Water Quality
Despite the highly industrialized character of the upper reaches
of the St. Clair River, water clarity in the river is exception-
ally high. This exceptional clarity is largely because Lake
Huron is the primary source for the waters of the river. As a
result, the suspended sediments are largely silicate in nature,
derived from southern Lake Huron shoreline sands (1,2).
Urban centres are found along the length of the St. Clair River,
and a major petrochemical complex is concentrated along the
Ontario side in the Sarnia-Corunna area. Concerns relating to
bacterial contamination, phenols, metals (particularly iron and
mercury) and phosphorus were identified as early as the 1940s
(34). Mercury (35) and lead (10) have been the metals of most
concern. Phenols, oil and grease, and a variety of chlorinated
organics including PCBs, hexachlorobenzene, octachlorostyrene,
hexachlorobutadiene, and volatile organics were considered the
major problem organics in the river (8,12,36).
Many of these inputs have been reduced significantly as a result
of implemented control programs. Over the years, the focus of
attention has shifted from nutrients and conventional pollutants
to toxic substances that have been detected throughout the
system, and concern for their effects on human health and the
ecosystem.
The high flows in the St. Clair River are conducive to dilution
of material inputs from sources along the river. But it should
be kept in mind that, because of the flow pattern of the river,
contaminant plumes tend to hug the shoreline, and thus, only a
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232
portion of the total flow (perhaps 5%) is available for dilution.
Nonetheless, the concentrations of many of the contaminants of
concern in the water column are extremely low, often from un-
detectable to the low ng/L range. This requires the use of
state-of-the-art sampling and analytical methodologies to provide
accurate results. Higher concentrations are often found in close
proximity to sources. It should be recognized, however, that
even low concentrations coupled with the high flow still produce
loadings that are often significant. Table VII-1 illustrates
approximate loadings for several UGLCCS parameters at typical
concentrations and flows found in the river. While organisms
respond in the short term to concentrations (e.g., acute tox-
icity), the system as a whole is ultimately responsive to load-
ings. This is particularly critical for persistent toxic organic
pollutants and toxic metals, since these contaminants can have a
severe impact on downstream lakes.
TABLE VII-1
Loading Ranges for UGLCCS Parameters in the St. Clair River.
Parameter
Concentration
Range
1-10 ppm(mg/L)
10-100 ppb(ug/L)
0.1-1.0 ppb(ug/L)
10-100 ppt(ng/L)
1-10 ppt(ng/L)
0.1-1.0 ppt(ng/L)
Associated
Loading Range
(kg/yr)
1.7xl08-1.7xl09
1.7xl06-1.7xl07
1.7xl04-1.7xl05
1.7xl03-1.7xl04
1.7xl02-1.7xl03
17-170
Chemical
Chloride
Phosphorus, Iron
Lead,Cobalt, Copper
Mercury
PCBs, PAHs, Cadmium
HCB, DCS
Even though considerable dilution does occur, the lack of lateral
mixing leads to a considerable concentration gradient across the
St. Clair River. For example, at Port Lambton (a distance of 34
km downstream of point sources in Sarnia), 95% of the contamin-
ants still remain in Canadian waters. To illustrate, on
September 23, 1985, HCB and OCS concentrations at Port Lambton
were 1.6 and 0.05 ng/L, respectively, near the Canadian shore,
and 0.02 ng/L and not detected near the U.S. shore. Similar gra-
dients were found on three other occasions for samples collected
at 100 m intervals across the river (37). These results show
that contaminant inputs- along each shoreline travel downstream in
-------
233
plumes which tend to hug the shoreline with limited lateral,
cross-stream mixing. This fact has implications for locating
water intakes for communities downstream of industrial sources
using St. Clair River water for drinking purposes.
A comparison of typical ambient concentrations of UGLCC Study
chemicals in the river and concentrations near point sources to
water quality and drinking water guidelines for 1986 are shown in
Table VII-2. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) concentrations in the river
near point sources below Sarnia are far in excess of both the
Canadian water quality and WHO drinking water guidelines. Am-
bient water samples collected near the Canadian shoreline at Port
Lambton are about one-tenth of the guideline values. No guide-
lines are available for octachlorostyrene (OCS), but an estimated
water quality guideline can be calculated by multiplying the HCB
guideline by the ratio of the bioconcentration factors of the two
substances, BCFHCB/BCFOCS This procedure assumes that HCB and
OCS have similar toxicities. Comparing the OCS water concen-
trations to this estimated guideline suggests that OCS would
exceed this calculated value in the river near point sources, but
mean ambient values would be below this guideline. On the other
hand, PCBs do not appear to present such an acute problem in the
St. Clair River, even in the industrialized Sarnia area.
Benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) was assessed as a representative polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). No direct measurement of water con-
centrations was made for BaP. The BaP water concentration was
estimated by using the Ontario Ministry of Environment's (OMOE)
caged clam data (38) downstream of Imperial Oil (20 ng/g) and
dividing by the bioaccumulation factor for invertebrates found by
Frank et al. , 680 (39). Near Sarnia and downstream at Port
Lambton, the estimated BaP water concentration appears to exceed
the guidelines by a factor of 3 or 4.
All metals, with the exception of lead near Sarnia and near Ethyl
Corporation in Corunna, are well below the guidelines. The lead
values near point sources slightly exceed the Canadian water
quality objectives, but are well below drinking water standards.
Some other significant St. Clair River organic contaminants are
compared to the guidelines in Table Vll-3. All parameters exceed
guideline values near point sources. Exceedences were particu-
larly evident for perchloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, hexa-
chlorethane, hexachlorobutadiene, and pen'tachlorobenzene. Am-
bient mean concentrations are well below guidelines for all para-
meters. Maximum concentrations found well downstream of the
sources are within an order of magnitude of the guidelines for
benzene, perchloroethylene, and carbon tetrachloride.
Table VII-4 compares the concentrations of chemicals in suspended
solids and unfiltered water at the head and mouth of the St.
Clair River. The data clearly show that major sources of
-------
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TABLE VII-4
Comparison of chemical concentrations in unfiltered water (UW) and
suspended sediments (SS) at the head and mouth of the St. CLair River.
Compound
Compound
UGLCCS Parameters
Head Mouth
Herac hi orobenzene
Oct.ach 1 orostyrene
PCRs
Lead
Cadmium
Mercury
Copper
Iron
Cobalt
Ch loride
SS(ng/g)
2.0
0.7
--
SS(ug/g)
23
1 .0
0.04
24
16000
17
UW(ng/L)
0.03
0.008
2.3
UW(ug/Ll
<3
(0.01 )*
0.002
(0.24)*
110
(0.17)*
6200
SS(ng/g)
130
23
SS(ug/g )
42
0.8
0.28
25
16000
16
UW(ng/L)
0.8
0.12
1.5
UW(ug/L)
<3
(0.008 )*
0.011
(0.25 )*
140
(0.17)*
8400
Other Parameters
Head Mouth
Benzene
To luene
Perchloroethylene
Carbon Tetrachloride
Hexachloroe thane
Hexachlorobutadiene
Pentach 1 orobenzene
SSIng/g)
__
--
--
0.5
1 .0
2.2
UW(ng/L)
ND
ND
ND
ND
0. 16
0.09
0.012
SS(ng/g)
__
--
--
0.5
20
4.5
UW(ng/L)
560
710
210
330
3.6
2.3
0.072
* Estimated assuming an average suspended sediment concentration of
10 mg/L.
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237
chemicals such as HCB, OCS and mercury occur along the river.
There is no water or compound solids data for PAHs, but other
media (caged clams and sediments) show that there are significant
PAH sources in the Sarnia area. The chloride concentration also
increases over the river's course. Marginal increases occur in
lead and mercury concentrations; whereas, cadmium, copper, and
cobalt do not exhibit significant concentration differences bet-
ween the head and mouth. There is no apparent change in PCB
concentrations along the river based on this very limited data
set.
Some chemicals not on the UGLCCS contaminant test list that show
significant sources along the river are the volatiles benzene,
toluene, perchloroetheylene, and carbon tetrachloride. Hexa-
chloroethane, hexachlorobutadiene, and pentachlorobenzene also
display significant positive changes in concentration between the
head and mouth of the river.
The partitioning of chemicals between the suspended solids and
dissolved phase has a considerable impact on the ultimate fate of
the contaminant. The more volatile organics such as benzene,
toluene, perchloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and hexa-
chloroethane exhibit little tendency to bind to suspended sedi-
ments. These compounds will be subjected to continual dilution
as they move downstream, and will also be lost from the water by
the process of volatilization. The other organics and the metals
in Table VII-4 exhibit a much stronger tendency to become ad-
sorbed to suspended particulates. This adsorption reduces the
tendency of the chemicals to volatilize from the system. The
ultimate fate of the particle-bound organics and metals will be
temporary storage in Lake St. Clair followed by transport via the
Detroit River to Lake Erie.
Once the particle-bound material reaches these lakes, it is par-
tially available to benthic organisms. These organisms serve as
a food source for fish, so the presence of these chemicals in the
lake sediments causes an increase in the contaminant burden in
consumable sport fish through the process of bioaccumulation.
Details of the sediment/water partitioning of some of the per-
sistent organics have been documented as part of the UGLCC Study
(37,40) .
In addition to concerns about the effect of effluent discharges
on water quality, serious consideration must also be given to the
effects of intermittent spills on aquatic life and drinking water
quality in the river and in downstream areas, including Lake St.
Clair and the Detroit River. Between 1974 and 1986, there were a
total of 32 spills involving 10 metric tonnes or more of deleter-
ious materials discharged directly to the St. Clair River (36).
The most studied spill was that of 9,400 gallons of perchloro-
ethylene (August 13 to 16, 1985) by Dow Chemical Company of
Sarnia (36). Drinking water supplies in the downstream towns of
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238
Wallaceburg, Walpole Island, Windsor, Amherstburg, and
Marysville, Michigan, were analyzed twice weekly after the spill.
As would be expected because of the lack of lateral mixing of the
river no perchloroethylene was detected in the Marysville treat-
ment plant on the U.S. side of the river. The highest concentra-
tion observed was 7 ppb in raw water at Wallaceburg and Walpole
Island. Perchloroethylene concentrations of 2-3 ppb were found
much further downstream at Windsor and Amherstburg on the Detroit
River. The former values approach the World Health Organization
(WHO) drinking water standard for lifetime exposure of 10 ppb.
Some water sampling conducted during the UGLCC Study indicated
that higher concentrations of such chemicals as hexachlorobenzene
and octachlorostyrene in unfiltered water and suspended sediments
were associated with rainfall events (41,42). Further studies
are required to assess the importance of such events to water
quality.
Biota Impairments
A number of studies of various biologic components of the St.
Clair River ecosystem, (phytoplankton, wetlands, submerged macro-
phytes, macrozoobenthos, and fish), suggest that the river is
increasing in biological productivity in formerly impaired habi-
tats (9,15,19,21,43,44). This increase in productivity is ap-
parently a function of remedial actions to control the input of
conventional pollutants and toxic substances and to improve the
quality of the river water.
The distribution of macrozoobenthos in an aquatic ecosystem is
often used as an index of the impacts of contamination on that
system. Undisturbed benthic populations are normally character-
ized by very diverse populations with a relatively high number of
organisms per unit area. Frequently, these populations include
significant numbers of pollution intolerant organisms. Perturbed
or impaired areas will demonstrate a characteristically reduced
diversity of species, an absence of pollution intolerant forms,
and typically a reduced number of organisms per unit area, except
in the case of pollution with organic materials (e.g., sewage),
where certain species tolerant of these conditions can thrive at
incredible densities.
Distributions of macrozoobenthos in the St. Clair River have been
well documented (1,2,9,45,46,47,48). In 1968, the Canadian
shoreline exhibited macrozoobenthic populations characteristic of
degraded conditions, compared with the U.S. shoreline. By 1977,
however, it was clear that significant improvement had occurred,
apparently in response to improved effluent treatment initiated
some years prior.
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239
Currently, benthic health along the U.S. shore is good (49,50),
although there have been some historical problems downstream of
the Black River (46) . Figure VII-2 shows the water quality zones
along the Canadian side of the river based on benthic inverte-
brate community structure. Term definitions in the figure are:
toxic = no benthic organisms; degraded = large numbers of pol-
lutant tolerant organisms; impaired = lower numbers of pollutant
tolerant organisms plus facultative species; fair = atypical
community structure; good = normal benthic community structure.
The benthic community begins to be impacted at km 5 near Sarnia's
industrial complex. Conditions deteriorate to toxic downstream
of Dow Chemical (km 6.5). The ecological status gradually im-
proves until Talfourd Creek (km 10) where the water quality
changes adversely to a degraded state. Following this 1 km zone,
the benthic community along the Canadian shoreline gradually
improves and reaches a "good" condition at km 20.
Historically, conditions along this river shore were much worse.
In 1968, the toxic and seriously degraded zone extended over the
entire portion of the river surveyed (at least 44 km). This
major impact zone decreased to 21 km in 1977. A further improve-
ment is evident from the above 1985 data which showed a major
impact zone of 12 km (46).
Direct contaminant toxicity impacts to benthic fauna in the St.
Clair River appear to be confined to the Sarnia industrial water-
front and a few km downstream. Recent studies (51) have shown
that the sediments from the industrial area are lethal to Hexa-
genia, Hydallela, and fathead minnows. This confirms earlier
work that showed only pollution-tolerant benthic organisms could
survive in this region of the river (9).
A wider ranging problem is the bioconcentration and bioaccumula-
tion of chemicals in biota at all trophic levels in the river and
in downstream Lake St. Clair. Elevated concentrations of several
contaminants with known sources in the St. Clair River have been
found in plankton (51), macrophytes (51), benthic organisms [in-
cluding native (36) and introduced clams (52)], young-of-the-
year spottail shiners (36,53), and sportfish (36) in the river.
Of the UGLCCS contaminants, hexachlorobenzene, octachlorostyrene,
and mercury are of greatest concern in the St. Clair River.
Concentrations of between 50 and 100 ng/g of HCB and OCS have
been found in various sportfish from the river (36), although
some species contain little or no HCB or OCS. Elevated concen-
trations of chlordane, G-BHC and mercury were found in young-of-
the-year spottail shiners at the mouth of Perch Creek on Lake
Huron near the head of the St. Clair River (36). No fish con-
sumption guidelines exist for these compounds, but the World
Health Organization (WHO) has set a very low drinking water
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240
Black River
Michigan
Mooretown
Courtright
Bowmans Creek
Lake Huron
Sarnia
Talfourd Creek
Corrunna
Ontario
ZONES OF IMPAIRMENT
i!J8i:§:l Moderate
I | Unimpaired
Middle
Channel
Seaway
Island _. O
Chenal Ecarte
SCALE (km)
Lake St. Clair
Goose Lake
NOTE
Zones of impairment refer to the relative occurrence of pollution tolerant species and to the
diversity of benthic species in general
Figure VII - 2. Zones of benthic fauna impairment in the St. Clair River.
-------
241
guideline of 10 parts per trillion for HCB. DCS is probably of
comparable concern since it has a higher bioconcentration factor
than HCB.
The University of Windsor (54) studied waterfowl and muskrats on
Walpole Island in the St. Clair River. Their data show that the
nonmigratory ducks contained consistently higher HCB and OCS
residues than did their migratory counterparts. Muskrats on the
island also contained measurable HCB and OCS residues. Weseloh
and Struger (55) showed that flightless Peking ducks released on
Bassett Island in the St. Clair River rapidly accumulated HCB.
Residues of PCB, HCB, DDT and other chlorinated organics found in
diving ducks in the Lower Detroit River also suggest that water-
fowl in the St. Clair River may be a source of human toxicity
(56) .
Mercury levels in the edible portion of walleye from the Lake St.
Clair/st. Clair River vicinity have shown a steady decline from a
1970 maximum value of nearly 2.5 mg/kg or ppm. Current mercury
concentrations for walleye up to 45 cm in length are reported as
less than 0.5 ppm and are suitable for unlimited consumption
(57). Walleye in the 45-65 cm length class generally contain 0.5
to 1.0 ppm mercury, and above 65-75 cm are between 1.0 and 1.5
ppm (57).
In 1970, mercury in northern pike fillets was more than double
that of walleye. Levels now, however, are less than 25 percent
of the 1970 values. Northern pike up to 55 cm contain less than
0.5 ppm mercury while those larger than 55 cm contain between 0.5
and 1.0 ppm. Similar reductions in the mercury levels in white
bass have been observed (57). Individuals up to 30 cm contain
less than the 0.5 ppm consumption guideline. Larger fish of most
species still contain mercury concentrations in excess of 0.5
ppm. This may be due, in part, to historical mercury contamina-
tion and to mercury recycling within the system. The PCB content
of most fish in the St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair is below
the 2 ppm consumption guideline set by the OMOE and the Michigan
Department of Natural Resources (MDNR), as well as the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration action level, but levels exceeding the
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) Specific Objective of
0.1 ppm were found.
Alkyl lead compounds have been detected in game fish near Ethyl
Corporation (11). Since the organolead compounds are much more
toxic than inorganic lead, some attention may be required to
control loadings from this source. There are no fish consumption
guidelines for these compounds, although a tentative consumption
guideline of 1.0 mg/kg was established by OMOE in 1984 for total
alkyl lead.
Elevated concentrations of several PAHs have been found in caged
clams downstream of Sarnia's industrial discharges. The data on
-------
242
these chemicals in the river are too limited at this stage to say
whether or not these chemicals are a problem. Other trace metals
on the UGLCCS parameter list, including cadmium, iron, copper,
and cobalt do not appear to pose any problems in biota along the
river.
Other contaminants that have been found at elevated concentra-
tions in caged clams and fish from the river are: hexachloro-
ethane, hexachlorobutadiene, pentachlorobenzene, perchloro-
ethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and benzene (36). These con-
taminants may exert an individual toxicity effect. Further, the
potential additive, antagonistic, or synergistic effects of mul-
tiple contaminant exposure to the river's biota and to fish and
water consumers is completely unknown.
Bottom Sediments
The St. Clair River is essentially a conduit of water between
Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair. Very little sediment accumulates
because of the high current velocities in the river (0.6 - 1.8
m/s). Sediments are largely a pavement of well-rounded cobbles
and boulders, with sand or till in the interstices over cohesive
glacial clay, and sand ripples and dunes moving as bed load.
There was no consistent trend along the shore in sediment thick-
ness, but variations in an offshore direction indicate a wedge-
shaped deposit that is thickest at the shoreline. The average
thickness of the deposit is 9 cm, with a mean width of 100 m.
The average texture of the samples was 63% sand, 32% gravel, and
5% silt-clay, with a mean grain size of 1.7 mm (58).
Based on very limited sampling, the inorganic elemental composi-
tion of the St. Clair River sediments was: Si02i 65%; A1203,
6.3%; Fe203, 6.9%; MgO, 3.5%; CaO, 12.7%; Na20, 1.3%; K^O, 1.6%;
Ti02, 0.4%; MnO, 0.06%; and P2Q5> 0-05% (59). On average, the
organic carbon content of the sediments is fairly low (0.9%) as
would be expected from the coarse nature of the river's sediments
(60) .
The most extensive recent sediment surveys of the river were
conducted by the OMOE (60) in 1985 (78 stations), and by Oliver
and Pugsley (61) in 1984 (45 stations). In addition, a more
limited study of 33 stations (21 in the U.S.), in which the only
organics analyzed were PCBs and oil and grease, was conducted in
1985 by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (62). A more
intensive survey covering 60 stations in the Sarnia industrial
area was conducted by Environment Canada and Ontario Ministry of
the Environment in 1985 (36).
These samples were collected using a variety of techniques in-
cluding cores, Shipek dredge, and divers. The information deriv-
ed from all these sampling methods is similar in this river
-------
243
because most of the surficial sediment is of recent origin (36).
Only limited historical information is available from sediments
in the river, since they are shallow and transitory in nature.
Despite the coarseness of the sediments, some heavily contamin-
ated deposits were found in the river. Table VII-5 compares the
sediment chemical concentrations to the criteria for open-water
disposal of dredged spoils. The contaminant range indicates that
a sediment guideline is exceeded at some location for every para-
meter except nitrogen and phosphorus. In the cases of PCBs,
mercury, lead, copper and iron, the mean contaminant concentra-
tion in river sediments exceeds both the Ontario and several
U.S.EPA guidelines. Most guideline exceedances occurred along
Sarnia's industrial waterfront, but sediment samples collected at
several other locations along both the Canadian and United States
shores of the river also exceeded the guidelines for some param-
eters.
No sediment objectives are available for two of the important
UGLCCS parameters, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and octachlorostyrene
(OCS). These chemicals are present at high concentrations in
several locations along the river.
The UGLCC Study shows that the mean values for all parameters are
highest along Sarnia's industrialized waterfront and gradually
decrease downstream. The wide range of concentrations encounter-
ed in each river reach shows the extreme variability of sediment
contamination along the river. This is likely due to the transi-
tory nature of the sediment and their lack of homogeneity.
Areas of elevated concentration for HCB and OCS are found down-
stream of the Cole Drain (also known as the Township Ditch) and
adjacent to Dow Chemical's First Street sewer discharge. Con-
centrations of HCB and OCS are in the high ppm range at the
latter site. These extremely high sediment concentrations are
caused by contamination of the area with nonaqueous waste mater-
ial that has leaked from the Dow site in the past (63). The Dow
First Street Sewer has been closed. It should be noted that some
HCB/OCS-containing streams have been diverted to Fourth Street
since the time of this survey. The HCB and OCS concentrations in
bottom sediments diminished by one or two orders of magnitude
downstream of Dow, but remained elevated, well above background
levels, along the entire length of the Canadian Shoreline to Lake
St. Clair (61).
Sarnia's industrial waterfront sediments also contain high con-
centrations of oil and grease. For oil and grease, other high
concentration areas along the Canadian shoreline were found ad-
jacent to downtown Sarnia upstream of major industries (2,200 and
1,300 ppm), adjacent to Imperial Oil (1,200 ppm), just above
Talfourd Creek (4,700 and 1,200 ppm), just north of Corunna
(2,300 and 1,100 ppm), and below Courtright (1,400 ppm).
-------
244
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245
Somewhat elevated concentrations of PCBs were found in the Sarnia
area, but this may be due to an analytical interference problem
from other chlorinated organics (64). The only additional PCS
elevated concentration area was located just below Ontario Hydro,
downstream of the industrial complex (1,900 ppb), and could indi-
cate a PCB source to the river at this location.
In general, sediments on the U.S. side of the river do not con-
tain significant quantities of HCB and OCS. PCB concentrations
along this shoreline are also quite low, ranging from undetect-
able to 150 ppb (mean value, 36 ppb). A few minor areas of ele-
vated concentrations for oil and grease were found above the Blue
Water Bridge adjacent to Port Huron (2,300 ppm), above the Belle
River adjacent to Marine City (2,000 ppm), and along the North
Channel downstream of Algonac (1,200, 1,200 and 1,300 ppm).
The concentrations of metals along the Canadian shoreline from
OMOE's complete river study (1985) show cadmium and cobalt con-
centrations are low and reasonably constant over the entire
length of the river. A few minor exceedences of dredging guide-
lines are found for iron and copper, but in general, the con-
centrations of these metals in the sediments do not appear to be
a problem. The highest value of copper (180 ppm) was found just
downstream of Sarnia's sewage treatment plant outfall. The
highest iron concentration (7.5%) was observed just south of
Beckwith street, Corunna, and the Corunna Waste Water Treatment
Plant.
Total lead concentrations in the sediments were low over most of
the river except just south of Ethyl Corporation. The highest
value found was 330 ppm for the site closest to Ethyl, with down-
stream concentrations decreasing systematically (244 ppm, 180
ppm, and 79 ppm). Ethyl Corporation produces alkyl lead com-
pounds which are used as anti-knocking agents in gasoline. It is
likely that the sediments contain a mixture of inorganic and
organic lead forms, all of which have been shown to bioconcen-
trate in fish (11) . The high sediment lead concentrations at
these sites indicate an active lead source in this location.
Historically the most serious heavy metal problem in the St.
Clair River has been mercury. Mercury is present at significant-
ly elevated values at and downstream from Sarnia's industrial
complex. The highest mercury value (51 ppm) was recorded ad-
jacent to Dow chemical but all sites below the Cole Drain exhibit
high concentrations. Although these concentrations are consider-
ably lower than peak mercury values observed in the late 1960s
and early 1970s (1,470 ppm) (35) , they are still quite high. This
suggests that continuing, albeit low level, sources of mercury in
the area may be inhibiting reductions in sediment concentrations.
Prior to 1973, Dow Chemical operated mercury cell chlor-alkali
plants on site. These plants were identified as the source of
-------
246
mercury. These facilities have since been decommissioned and
replaced by new plants using the diaphragm process which does not
use mercury. Point source data show that low concentrations (< 1
ug/L) of mercury are still discharged from the Dow site (65).
For the metals on the U.S. side of the river, the only major
anomalous value was 620 ppm for lead for a site just downstream
of the Canadian National Railway tunnel. The next site (approxi-
mately 1 km downstream) had a somewhat elevated concentration of
69 ppm. This site is also downstream of the Black River which
had an elevated lead level in river mouth sediments. Most of the
other metal concentrations on the U.S. side of the river are near
Lake Huron background values. Sediment nutrient concentrations
were low on both sides of the river and do not seem to be a prob-
lem (64) .
Many other organic compounds not included in the UGLCCS parameter
list are present in St. Clair River sediments. Hexachloro-
butadiene, hexachloroethane, and pentachlorobenzene are other
major components of waste byproducts from Dow's chlorinated sol-
vent production. These compounds are present at high concentra-
tions in the sediments adjacent and downstream of Dow, and are
strongly correlated with HCB and OCS distributions. Similarly,
the solvents perchloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride have been
found at concentrations up to the percent range in sediments
opposite Dow due to solvent spillage and leakage of non-aqueous
wastes into the river at this site (61) . Dow has taken action to
reduce these problems since these analyses (66).
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been found at con-
centrations up to 140 ppm near Sarnia's industrial complex. The
alkylated PAHs were present in all samples at lower concentra-
tions than the parent compounds. As high temperature combustion
does not produce alkyl-PAHs, their presence indicates petroleum
as a likely source. The presence of n-alkane concentrations that
correlate well with oil and grease distributions in the area
support the contention that refineries and petro-chemical plants
are the probable sources.
A limited amount of data are available on dibenzo-p-dioxins and
dibenzofurans in St. Clair River sediments (36). Maximum con-
centrations of total dioxins and furans found downstream of Dow's
First Street sewers were 12 and 100 ppb, respectively. Most of
these compounds consisted of the octa- and heptacongeners. The
2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin was not found in any of the
samples.
Four other chemicals were found at high concentrations in sedi-
ments collected near Sarnia: diphenylether, biphenyl, 4-ethyl-
biphenyl, and diethyl biphenyl (67). The concentrations of these
chemicals ranged from undetectable (ND) to 490 ppm for diphenyl-
ether, from ND to 150 ppm for biphenyl, from ND to 5 ppm for
-------
247
4-ethylbiphenyl, and from ND to 5.2 ppm for diethylbiphenyl. The
ratio of these chemicals in the sediments is similar to that
present in heat transfer fluids. Two such fluids, Dowtherm A
(73.5% diphenylether/26.5% biphenyl) and Therminol VP-1, are
produced only in the United States by Dow and Monsanto. These
fluids also contain ethyl and diethylbiphenyls as lesser com-
ponents. The sediment data indicated that heat exchange fluids
entered the river from Sarnia's industrial complex.
Tributary Sediments
Sediment samples were collected from the mouths of tributaries
entering the St. Clair River to identify other potential con-
taminant sources to the river. The analysis of the Canadian
tributaries was conducted by the Ontario Ministry of the Environ-
ment in 1984 and 1985 (68). The Canadian tributary that con-
tributes the greatest chemical burden to the river is the Cole
Drain. While no bottom sediment samples were obtained at the
Cole Drain during the Canadian tributary study, water quality and
suspended sediment data reflect treated leachate and untreated
runoff from several industrial landfill sites upstream. Levels
of HCB (0-210 ng/L), HCBD (0-345 ng/L), HCE (0-550 ng/L) and DCS
(0-160 ng/L) in whole water were generally 1-2 orders of mag-
nitude higher than at other tributaries (68). Sediment samples
from Talfourd Creek and Murphy Drain contained HCB levels of 55
and 103 ppb, respectively. Metal contamination in tributary
sediments resulted in provincial dredging guidelines being ex-
ceeded at several Ontario tributaries for chromium, copper, iron
and nickel. Mercury guidelines were exceeded in a single sample
obtained from the Talfourd Creek mouth (0.76 ppm). Mean instan-
taneous loadings based on suspended sediment and water chemistry
and instantaneous flow were calculated for four Ontario tributar-
ies (Table VII-6).
The U.S. tributaries were analyzed in 1985 by the Great Lakes
National Program Office (GLNPO) of the U.S.EPA (69). For the
U.S. tributaries, a high value for lead (270 ppm) and somewhat
elevated copper concentrations (160 ppm) were found in Black
River sediments (Table VII-7). The Black River is potentially a
source for anomalous lead concentrations observed south of the
Black River confluence on the St. Clair River. Elevated con-
centrations for several parameters (PCBs 76 ppb, PAHs 33 ppm, oil
and grease 11,600 ppm, lead 230 ppm, TKN 6,600 ppm and phosphorus
1,300 ppm) were found in an unnamed creek across the river from
Lambton Generating Station. The only other anomalously high
concentrations were found for PCBs, 490 and 95 ppb, in the Belle
River. High levels of calcium, strontium and sodium were found
in sediments near the Diamond Crystal Salt Company and suggest
continuing inputs of total dissolved solids. Otherwise the
-------
248
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-------
249
TABLE VII-7
Summary of sediment quality in mouths of Michigan tributaries to the St. Clair
River,
MAJOR METALS AND
CALCIUM
MAGNESIUM
SODIUM
POTASSIUM
ALUMINUM
IRON
ARSENIC
BARIUM
BFRYLTUM
BISMUTH
CADMIUM
CHROMIUM
COBALT
COPPER
LEAD
MANGANESE
MOLYBDENUM
NICKEL
SILVER
STRONTIUM
VANADIUM
ZINC
TIN
LITHIUM
SELENIUM
YTTRIUM
MERCURY
NUMBER
OF ANALYTICAL
DETECTIONS
STANDARD
MAXIMUM
MINIMUM
MEAN DEVIATION
TRACE METALS (ms/ke)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
7
NUTRIENTS AND OTHERS PARAMETERS IN
COD
OIL AND GREASE
AMMONIA
TKN
PHOSPHORUS
CYANIDE
TOTAL SOLIDS (%)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
TOTAL VOLATILE SOLIDS (%) 10
TOTAL PCBs, PAHs.
TOTAL PCBs
TOTAL PAHs
TOTAL DDTs
TOTAL PHTHALATES
PHTHALATE ESTERS
7
6
7
8
350000
7500
3400
1100
8100
17000
9. 2
81
0.4
17
0.6
84
9.7
160
270
340
4.5
62
0.3
2700
22
150
5.2
22
0.6
8.6
0.5
ST. CLAIR
91000
11600
250
6600
1300
0.7
74.7
20
. AND DDT 4
490
32600
83
1900
11000
4600
100
200
1100
2100
1 .4
11
0. 1
8
0.2
1 . 3
1
3.1
7
52
1
4
0.3
8.3
2.8
14
4
3.7
<0.1
1 . 1
0.1
65200
5150
477
570
4490
10610
5 . 25
41 .50
0.19
9.99
0.36
19.71
5.51
38. 53
86. 50
202.80
2.13
18.76
0.30
303.93
13.62
85.50
4.27
13.81
0.24
5. 10
0.21
RIVER TRIBUTARY SEDIMENTS
3000
650
8.3
190
93
0.1
13.5
1.3
METABOLITES
39
200
2
300
29300
2146
83
1627
5 76
0.24
58.05
5.73
f ug/ke )
150.86
6866.67 1
24.29
768. 75
96051
812
978
337
2259
4203
2.46
20.05
0 .08
3.17
0. 18
22.19
2.60
42 . »7
87 . 76
95.60
0.98
15 .65
0.00
798.88
6.12
41.26
0.46
5.42
0.20
2.27
0.14
(mg/ke )
24742
3235
61
1771
321
0. 16
17.19
5.04
151 .53
1552.44
26.91
516.56
SELECTED OTHER ORGANICS (ug/kg>
HCB
2.13
DICHLOROMETHANE
10
65.6
1.2
26.41
3.33
20.23
-------
250
Michigan tributaries do not appear to be significant sources of
contaminants to the river.
Most sediments in the St. Clair River are transitory, having a
lifetime in the river of less than one year (61) . The moving bed
sediments constitute only a very minor component (less than 1
percent) of total contaminant transport along the river (64).
The ultimate sink of this fine sand that constitutes bed load
appears to be the St. Clair River Delta. Sand cores taken from
the delta area contain mercury and other contaminants to a con-
siderable depth (64). Because of the contaminant storage in this
area, contaminant body burdens in wildlife could remain elevated
for a considerable period, even after control measures have been
implemented. Most of the contaminants are transported via water
and suspended solids which would be carried and dispersed further
down the system into Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie.
-------
251
B. SPECIFIC CONCERNS
A summary of specific concerns including contaminants and as-
sociated use impairments, media affected and location is provided
in Table VII-8.
1. Conventional Pollutants
Nutrients
Phosphorous reduction programs have had a major impact on the
discharge of phosphorus to the St. Clair River. Water column
concentrations for total phosphorus (1984) were low, ranging from
0.009 to 0.03 mg/L (41). These values are much lower than re-
ported for the river in the 1970s (45). Bottom sediments (64)
and suspended sediments (41) for the river are both below the
1000 ppm guideline for open-water disposal of dredged sediments.
The nitrate/nitrite concentration range found in the river
(0.29-0.31 mg/L) is typical of that found in oligotrophic waters
(70). Thus, the discharge of nutrients to the St. Clair River
seems to be largely under control.
Chloride
Chloride loadings to the St. Clair River are very high. The
chloride concentration changes from a mean of 6.2 mg/L at the
head of the river, to 7.7 mg/L at the river's mouth (41). This
change amounts to a daily river loading of about 585 metric
tonnes of chloride. Chloride is a conservative parameter that
will not be lost from the system. The increased salinity of the
lower Great Lakes from these very large chloride inputs could
potentially have a significant effect on the structure of bio-
logical communities in the system (71). A shift in the organism
diversity to more saline-tolerant species (halophilic) could
occur over long time scales.
Bacteria
Concentrations of bacteria increase along the course of the St.
Clair River. Heterotroph counts in bottom waters along the
Canadian shore increased from 2,200 organisms/ml at the head of
the river, to 10,500 at the mouth (51). Sediment bacteria in-
creased from 1,500 bacteria/ml at the head, to 450,000 at the
mouth. Head to mouth changes along the U.S. shore were 110 to
13,000 organisms/ml for the water, and 700 to 27,000 hetero-
trophs/ml for the sediments. In some cases, swimming areas along
the river have been closed due to bacterial contamination (72).
-------
252
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-------
253
2. UGLCCS Toxic Organics and Heavy Metals
The priority contaminants in the St. Clair River found from the
water, biota, and sediment reports are remarkably consistent.
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and octachlorostyrene (OCS) are the two
chlorinated UGLCCS chemicals of most concern. These chemicals
are associated with Dow Chemical's Sarnia operations. Major
sources include Dow Chemical's direct sewer discharges, and in-
direct leachate from Dow's Scott Road landfill via the Cole
Drain. HCB in the St. Clair River water exceeds water quality
guidelines near the discharges, and OCS exceeds an approximate
guideline value calculated from bioconcentration considerations.
The river sediments are contaminated with HCB and OCS all the way
to Lake St. Clair (59,76). HCB and OCS are also bioaccumulated
by all trophic levels of biota including plankton, benthic organ-
isms, young-of-the-year fish, and sport fish.
PAHs, including benzo-a-pyrene, have been found in caged clams
and sediments in the river. PAHs were not detected in water
samples obtained from the mouth of Talfou'rd Creek, Baby Creek,
Murphy Drain or the Cole Drain in 1984. Data on PAHs in the St.
Clair system are limited at present, but sufficient information
exists to demonstrate cause for concern.
The importance of PCB loadings to the St. Clair River is not a
clear-cut issue. PCB concentrations in bottom sediments along
Sarnia's industrial waterfront appear to be elevated. However,
analytical difficulties in PCB determinations in this area have
been cited (64). The presence of other halogenated organics may
be leading to false high PCB readings (by a factor of 4) in sedi-
ments from this region (64,77). PCBs in fish from the river may
also be misidentified and overestimated. Maximum PCB levels in
sediments from Ontario tributaries were observed at the mouth of
Talfourd Creek (65 ppb).
PCB levels appear to be somewhat elevated in sediments and young-
of-the-year fish downstream of Lambton Generating Station.
Because this site is about 15 km downstream of Sarnia's indus-
trial discharges, PCB analytical interferences may be less sig-
nificant at this site. Thus, a PCB discharge to the river may be
occurring in this region. The PCB residues in fish from the
river and Lake St. Clair have declined by 50% since 1976 (36).
Except for a few of the larger fish of some species, most sport
fish are less than the 2 ppm guideline.
Because of the considerable number of refineries and petrochem-
ical plants along the Canadian side of the river, oil and grease
discharges to the river are of concern. Oil and grease in sedi-
ments are highest along Sarnia's industrial waterfront, with many
values exceeding open-water dredge disposal guidelines. Tar-
saturated sediments were observed from just north of the
Imperial/ Polysar boundary, to south of the Suncor property (36).
-------
254
They occur at or just below the surface in cores collected up to
25 meters from the shore. The cohesion provided by the tar
apparently stabilizes the contaminated sediments and hinders
their incorporation into bed load transport.
Additional areas on the Canadian shoreline with high sediment oil
and grease levels were adjacent to downtown Sarnia (upstream of
the industrial complex), just above Talfourd Creek, just north of
Corunna, and below Courtright. On the U.S. side of the river,
oil and grease sediment levels were high above the Blue Water
Bridge adjacent to Port Huron, above the Belle River adjacent to
Marine City, and along the north channel downstream of Algonac.
An unnamed creek across the river from Lambton Generating Station
also contained anomalously high oil and grease sediment concen-
trations. However, the creek has no visible discharge to the St.
Clair River and the high level here may be the result of a spill
on Michigan Highway 29 (64). Oil and grease levels measured at
the mouths of Baby Creek and the Murphy Drain were generally an
order of magnitude higher than other Ontario tributaries with a
maximum value of 7,380 ppm observed at the Murphy Drain.
Of the UGLCCS heavy metals, only mercury and lead appear to be of
concern. Mercury concentrations of the larger fish of some
species still exceed the consumption guideline of 0.5 ppm. Sedi-
ment mercury concentrations near Dow are still elevated, indi-
cating a continuing mercury source in the area. The discharge of
mercury to the river has been reduced dramatically since the
1970s, and fish mercury concentrations may be due, in part, to
mercury recycling in the system.
Lead concentrations in sediments and biota are elevated down-
stream of Ethyl Corporation. Because a portion of the lead load-
ing from this source is the more toxic alkyl lead compounds (11),
the environmental implications of this discharge to the river are
of concern.
3. Other Specific Contaminants
Three other contaminants associated with Dow's chlorinated sol-
vent production that are consistently present in water, sedi-
ments, and biota in the river are hexachlorobutadiene, hexa-
chloroethane, and pentachlorobenzene. The concentrations of
these contaminants are highly correlated with HCB and OCS. The
discharge of volatile organics to the river is also fairly high.
Volatile substances of greatest concern in the area are benzene,
perchloroethylene, and carbon tetrachloride. Near source inputs,
these chemicals are found at higher concentrations than recom-
mended water quality guidelines. They are also found in biota,
including fish, in the river. Diphenylether and biphenyl are
found at very high concentrations in sediments along Sarnia's
industrial waterfront. The loss of heat exchange fluids to the
-------
255
river at this location is apparent.
Phenols have been a historical problem along the Canadian side of
the river downstream from Sarnia. Since the implementation of
improved waste water treatment by industrial waste dischargers in
the area, the phenol loadings to the river have been drastically
reduced (78) . Very little data on phenols was produced for the
water, biota, and sediment studies. The Point Source Workgroup
(65) showed that discharges of phenols were still of concern in
certain industrial and municipal discharges in Sarnia.
Pesticides are common organics that have been studied extensively
throughout the Great Lakes Basin. Several common pesticides such
as DDT and its breakdown products, alpha- and gamma-benzene hexa-
chloride, and dieldrin are found in the St. Clair River (79).
However, the concentration of these contaminants does not change
significantly over the river's course, indicating that there are
no significant sources along the river (37,79). Elevated con-
centrations of chlordane, gamma-BHC and mercury were found in
young-of-the-year spottail shiners at the mouth of Perch Creek on
Lake Huron near the head of the St. Clair River (36). Several
pesticides were frequently detected in Ontario tributaries to the
St. Clair River. These included alpha-BHC, a breakdown product
of the insecticide lindane and atrazine, a triazine herbicide,
found in whole water samples. The latter compound was estimated
to account for a nearly 1 mg/s loss to the St. Clair River, from
Talfourd and Baby Creeks and Murphy and Cole Drains. The pre-
dominant pesticide occurring on suspended solids was dieldrin;
however, total loading from these creeks was in the order of 0.9
ug/s (68) .
4. Habitat Alterations
Historically, humans made considerable changes in the St. Clair
river for navigational purposes (80) . Recent physical habitat
alterations along the St. Clair River appear to be minimal;
however, more information about shoreline development and its
effects is needed before a definitive statement can be made.
There has been periodic dredging in the lower channels of the
river about every two years. Chemical alteration of the habitat
is a problem for 12 km downstream of Sarnia's heavy industry, as
indicated by benthic studies (49).
-------
256
C. SOURCES
1. Municipal and Industrial Point Sources
A study by the UGLCCS Point Source Workgroup (65) indicates that
a total of 52 known point sources were discharging to the St.
Clair River in 1986. The total point source flow was estimated
at 91,800 x 103 m3/d. Apparently, 96 percent of this total was
utilized by electrical generating facilities for once-through,
noncontact cooling; of the remainder of the flow, 2,590 x 10^
m^/d, was contributed from industrial sources. Eighteen of these
sources were sampled for a total of 26 study parameters. The
calculated loadings from these analyses are presented in Table
Vll-9.
Industrial sources were found to be important contributors of
most of the UGLCC Study parameters, compared with municipal faci-
lities. The predominant sources were the petrochemical plants in
the Sarnia, Ontario area, known as "Chemical Valley". The major-
ity of the sources were located in the upper 10 km of the St.
Clair River. These industrial sources were responsible for the
majority of the loadings of HCB, OCS, PAHs, oil and grease, lead,
mercury, copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, chromium, chlorides, total
organic carbon (TOO, total suspended solids (TSS), and a spec-
trum of organic contaminants including volatile hydrocarbons,
acid and other base neutral extractable hydrocarbons.
A comparison of municipal direct and indirect sources, and in-
dustrial direct and indirect sources by country of origin for
each parameter of concern is shown in Table VII-10. Direct
sources are those discharged to the river, indirect are dis-
charged to tributaries or drains which flow into the St. Clair
River.
The point source data are too limited (single day survey by the
U.S., and three to six day surveys by Canada) to permit the cal-
culation of precise annual loadings. For more common parameters,
the data were compared to self-monitoring data collected by the
industries and municipalities. This provides an indication as to
how representative the sampling was. For most parameters, the
point source samples were within normal r'anges. Despite the
limitations, the data are adequate to make conclusions and recom-
mendations concerning relative point source contributions, and
identify major point sources of concern.
The point source contributions of the following parameters were
considered important by the Point Source Workgroup Report (65),
based on concentration alone, for the reasons indicated:
-------
257
TABLE VI1-9
Loading summary of principal sources of UGLCCS paramerers to the St. Clair River
I based on data collected in 1986).
PARAMETER
Total PCBs
Hexachlorobenzene
Octachlorostyrene
Total Phenols
PAHs
Total Cyanide
Oil and Grease
Total Cadmium
Total Lead
Total Zinc
Total Mercury
Total Copper
TotaJ Nickel
Total Cobalt
Total Iron
Chloride
Phosphorus-P
Ammonia-N
Total Organic
Carbon
Total Suspended
Solids
Biochemical
Oxyeen Demand
Total Chromium
Total Volatiles
Total Acid
Extractables
Total Other
Base/Neutrals
i
TOTAL ,'
LOADING! PRINCIPAL
( kg/d ) ! SOURCE! S)
0.006 ,' Dow Chemical
IPort Huron WWTP
0.0247 |Dow Chemical
0.0047 |Dow Chemical
1
12.2 ISarnia WPCP
i Dow Chemical
|Pt. Edward WPCP
0.331 ICole Drain
IPolvsar Sarnia
3.22 ! Marine City WWTP
3170 |Cole Drain
0.143 ! Sarnia WPCP
29.0 ! Ethyl Canada
44.9 ! Sarnia WPCP
0.0445 ! Dow Chemical
11.8 IDow Chemical
4. 37 ISarnia WPCP
IPolysar Sarnia
IDow Chemical
0.857 IPolysar Sarnia
582 ICIL Inc.
ISarnia WPCP
356,000 |Dow Chemical
I
89.9 ISarnia WPCP
IPort Huron WWTP
1670 ISarnia WPCP
JPolvsar Sarnia
ICIL Inc.
|St. Clair County
1- Aleonac WWTP
6700 IPolysar Sarnia
ISarnia WPCP
9400 ICIL Inc.
7740 JSarnia WPCP
16.1 ICIL Inc.
IPolvsar Corunna
254 ,'Polysar Sarnia
|Dow Chemical
,'Ethvl Canada
1.09 IPolysar Sarnia
1 .03 |Dow Chemical
i
i
% OF i LOAD ING
TOTAL | (kg/d>
1
53.3| 0.0032
33.4| 0.002
i
>90 | 0.03
t
~100 10.0047
1
35.51 4.32
14.6| 1.78
13.91 1.69
32.6| 0.172
30.81 0.163
55.9| 1.8
t
41.01 1,300
t
95.8| 0.137
65.9] 19.1
1
47.9| 19.7
64.5| 0.0287
52.9| 6.24
1
22.3| 0.973
15.0| 0.657
14.71 0.644
78.21 0.67
1
35.9| 209
23.6! 137
76.1 |283,820
27.4| 43.6
15.51 24.6
37.9| 633
21.0| 350
15.3| 256
10.8J 181
34 12,200
28 11,850
53 |4,980
26 (2,000
56 | 8.96
16 1 2.5
51 | 124.0
20 | 51.0
17 1 43.2
66.4| 0.74
i
76 | 0.78
i
1 1
CONCENTRA-
TION RANGE
(ug/L)
ND-0.4412
0.025
ND-0.829
0.024-0.094
52-165
3.5-4.5
11-1780
1.2 ( avg 1
0.49 (avg)
270
1,700 (avg)
ND-7
293-910
110-710
ND-0.88
ND-107
5-15
26-44
0.82 (avs)
29-41
530-670
1950-3150
211 ,000 -
1 ,271 .000
550-1300
480
5800-20000
17300-20000
600 (avg)
21,000
45000-60000
33000-51000
17000-24000
41000 (avg)
20-22
258-567
ND-37,400
ND-1 ,500
ND-1.500
ND-77
ND-5
IMPOR-
TANT
PARAME-
TER I*)1
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1 Facilities and
described in the
parameters are designated as "important" under the condition
text and in the UGLCCS Point Source Workgroup Report (65).
2 Detected once only in 5 samples of First Street 54" sewer (MDL 0.06 ug/L).
-------
258
% OF PT.
SOURCE
TOTAL
PT . SOURCE
TOTAL
TOTAL
INDIRECT
TOTAL
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INDUSTRIAL
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-------
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-------
260
UGLCCS Parameters: Non-UGLCCS Parameters;
i. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) vii. Chromium
ii. Total Phenols viii. Total Volatiles
iii. Chrysene, Pyrene and Fluoranthene
iv. Cyanide
v. Lead
vi. Ammonia Nitrogen
i) Hexachlorobenzene (HCB): the major source of HCB, the Dow
Chemical 1st Street 42" and 54" sewers, had variable con-
centrations (ND-0.829 mg/L). Although effluent quality
cannot be directly compared to ambient water quality stan-
dards or guidance, effluent concentrations exceeded the
Provincial Water Quality Objective of 0.0065 ug/L. Since
the survey, the process streams containing HCB have been
diverted to a spill containment pond. The pond discharges
to the Dow 4th Street Sewer. The effect of this change on
the loadings is unknown. The total loading was 25 grams/
day.
ii) Total Phenols: the Ontario Industrial Discharge Objective
of 20 ug/L was exceeded at Polysar Sarnia and Suncor.
Effluent concentrations at the Sarnia WWTP and the Pt.
Edward WWTP also exceeded the Ontario Municipal Effluent
Objective of 20 ug/L. The total loading was 12.2 kg/d of
which about 70% was contributed by these four facilities.
iii) Chrysene, Pyrene, Fluoranthene: these PAHs were found in
one source and only at low concentrations. However, these
concentrations were in excess of the U.S.EPA AWQC Human
Health Criteria for total PAHs for fish ingestion of 31.1
ng/L; the only ambient water quality guidance available for
PAHs. This criterion is below the method detection limit
of the analytical methods used. This suggests that other
point sources may too be discharging at levels of concern.
The total loading of these three compounds was 190 g/d.
iv) Total Cyanide: an exceptionally high concentration of
total cyanide (270 ug/L) was found at the Marine City WWTP.
The City has an industry that discharges potential cyanide
containing waste water to the WWTP and cyanide has been
detected in the WWTP in the past. Other point sources
discharged total cyanide at levels below industrial dis-
charge objectives and often below ambient water criteria.
The total loading was 3.22 kg/d.
v) Total Lead: this parameter is of concern only in the Ethyl
Canada effluent. This is due to its presence in concentra-
tions in excess of the GLWQA specific objective and the
OMOE Provincial Water Quality Objective (PWQO) of 25 ug/L.
The total loading of lead was 29 kg/d, 66% of which was
-------
261
attributed to Ethyl Canada.
vi) Ammonia-Nitrogen: concentration in excess of the 10 mg/L
Ontario Industrial Discharge Objective were present in the
Sarnia WWTP and the Polysar Sarnia Biox effluents. The
total loading was 1.67 tonnes/d.
vii) Total Chromium: high concentrations (258 to 567 ug/L) were
detected at Polysar Corunna. The effluent would require
substantial dilution to meet the GLWQA Specific Objective
of 50 ug/L and the Michigan Rule 57 allowable level of 1.5
ug/L at the edge of the mixing zone. The total loading from
all sources was 16.1 kg/d.
viii) Total Volatiles: the total loadings of this group of com-
pounds was 254 kg/d. Benzene, chloroethane and toluene
accounted for 72% of the total. Polysar Sarnia (51%), Dow
Chemical (20%), and Ethyl Canada (17%) were the main
contributors of these compounds. Each facility had con-
centrations of one or more volatiles well in excess (> lOx)
of ambient guidelines.
Principal Effluent Contributors:
In terms of effluent loadings, the following facilities were
considered to be the principal contributors of one or more of the
parameters studied.
Canada:
a. Sarnia WWTP - phenols, nickel, phosphorus, and ammonia.
b. The Cole Drain, Sarnia - PAHs, oil and grease, and cyanide.
c. Polysar, Sarnia - benzene, phenols, cobalt, and ammonia.
d. Dow Chemical, Sarnia - HCB, OCS, PCBs, copper, mercury, and
volatiles.
e. Suncor, Sarnia - volatile aromatics (associated with a pro-
cess upset at the time of the survey).
f. Ethyl Canada, Corunna - lead, mercury, volatiles (chloroeth-
ane) .
g. CIL, Courtright - iron, TSS, and chromium.
U.S. :
a. Port Huron WWTP - PCBs, phosphorus.
b. Marine City WWTP - cyanide.
c. St. Clair County - Algonac WWTP - ammonia.
-------
262
2. Urban Nonpoint Sources
Michigan
There is a remarkable lack of data regarding the impacts of urban
nonpoint sources on the water quality of the St. Clair River
system from Michigan. In 1986, the Michigan Department of
Natural Resources (81) completed a stormwater discharge inventory
of the areas adjacent to the St. Clair River. The data within
this inventory consisted only of location and size of discharge
pipes within the St. Clair River study area. No data relative to
flows, water quality, contaminant concentration, annual dis-
charge, or loading values were provided.
The inventory reports that, on the Michigan shoreline, three
urban areas have storm- sewers which drain directly or indirectly
into the St. Clair River. These urban areas include: Port Huron,
which identified 10 storm sewers discharging directly into the
St. Clair River, and 14 which discharge into the Black River;
Marine City, which describes three storm sewer outlets discharg-
ing into the Belle River; and Algonac, which reports two storm
sewers discharging directly into the St. Clair River. The cities
of Marysville and St. Clair, Michigan, have no stormwater dis-
charges .
Ontario
No data were available for contaminants in U.S. sources of urban
stormwater and combined sewer overflow. But a comparison of
Canadian discharges due to urban nonpoint sources, with indus-
trial/municipal point sources is shown in Table VII-11. In most
cases, the point source to nonpoint source ratio is much greater
than one, suggesting that most materials are derived from in-
dustrial and municipal point sources.
While the total number of stormwater discharges on the Ontario
side of the St. Clair River were not identified, considerably
more information is available from the study of Marsalek and Ng
(82) for the urban runoff for the city of Sarnia. The 50,200
residents of the City of Sarnia are served by combined and separ-
ate sewers, and in some of the less developed areas, by open
channels. Combined sewers serve the older areas of the city (540
ha) and discharge into an interceptor which runs along the St.
Clair River. The interceptor has four overflow structures which
allow direct dumping of untreated combined sewage into the St.
Clair River when interceptor capacities are exceeded. In nonover-
flow periods, the sewage is conducted to the sewage treatment
plant.
Available resources prevented Marsalek and Ng (82) from directly
measuring combined sewer flow rates. Instead, they used the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers STORM model (83) to estimate urban runoff
-------
263
TABLE VII-11
Comparison of industrial/municipal point source discharges with
urban stormwater and combined sewer overflow8a (kg/yr, Canadian
sources only) .
PARAMETER
Ammon i a-N i t rogen
Phosphorus
Chloride
Cadmium
Cobalt
Copper
Iron
bead
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
Oil and Grease
Total Phenols
Cyanide
HCB
DCS
Total PCBs
17 PAHs
POINT
505,000
27,000"
131,000,000
50.4
0.84
3,930
189,000
10,500
15.6
1,420
15,000
907,000
4,200
311b
8.9
1.7
1.2
120
ST. CLAIR RIVE1
URBAN NON-
POINT SARNIA
7,300
18,600
2,200
5,100
1 ,180,000
2 , 360,000
8.6
48.2
150
460
43,100
48,800
2,030
0.8
1.5
149
242
2,430
47,200
73,400
121
136
23
0.8
0.015
1.4
1.5
52
74
R
PS/NPS RATIO
69
27
12
5.3
111
56
5.9
1 .05
0.0054
11
4.4
3.9
5.2
19
10
9.5
5.9
6.2
19
12
35
31
13
11
113
0.86
0.80
2.3
1.6
Based on Canadian Industrial/Municipal Point Source Survey Data (daily
average multiplied by 365), and results reported by Marsalek and Ng
(82). Some urban runoff values have upper/lower estimates.
Industrial point sources only.
-------
264
and combined sewer overflow. Using this model, they calculate
annual surface runoff in Sarnia to be 6.7 x 10 6 m3/yr, and a
combined sewer overflow value of 1.0 x 106 m3/yr, for a total
annual average of 7.7 x 10 6 m
Contaminant concentrations in Sarnia stormwater and combined
sewer overflows were measured in samples collected during storm
events. Mean values for these parameters are presented in Table
VII-12. For parameters with a significant percentage of data
below detection limits, a low estimate where undetected values
are considered zero, and a high estimate, where they are set
equal to the detection limit, are reported.
The concentrations for the various contaminant parameters meas-
ured in field studies were multiplied by annual flow volumes to
yield annual contaminant loading estimates . The results of these
calculations are presented in Table VII-13. Where applicable,
both low and high loading estimates are given.
When loadings derived from stormwater and1 sewer overflows are
compared, overflow incidents are a major source of ammonia and
phosphorus. Both sources are apparently equal in their contribu-
tions of loadings of oil and grease, zinc, and mercury; but for
all remaining parameters, stormwater is the dominant source.
Marsalek and Ng (82) estimate that stormwater contributes ap-
proximately 80 percent of total loadings of industrial chemicals
derived from urban runoff.
3. Agricultural Nonpoint source
The watershed of the St. Clair River region includes a geographic
area of approximately 340,000 ha, of which approximately 6 per-
cent, 20,976 ha, are located within Lambton County, Ontario.
Within this drainage area, major tributary watersheds include
Talfourd Creek in Canada, and the Belle, Pine, and Black Rivers
in Michigan (84).
A total of nearly 70 percent of the St. Clair River geographic
area is agricultural land. More than 60 percent of the total
cropland in both Canada and the U.S. is under intensive cultiva-
tion. The chief cash crops grown are corn and soybeans. Live-
stock operations are dominated by beef and dairy farming, fol-
lowed by swine and poultry husbandry.
Nonpoint sources of aquatic pollution associated with agricult-
ural operations have traditionally included the additions of
nutrient compounds, increases in particulate burdens from land
erosion, and the inputs of fugitive pesticides and herbicides
(84) .
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265
TABLE VII-12
Mean concentrations observed in stormwater and combined sewer overflows
in Sarnia (82).
Parameter
Stormwater
Unit
Residential Commercial Industrial
Combined
Sewer
Overflows
Ammonia (N)
Phosphorus
( total )
Chloride
Cadmium
Cobalt
Copper
Iron
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
Oil & Grease
Phenols
Cyanide
HCB
OCS
PCBs (total)
17 PAHs
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
ng/L
ng/L
ng/L
ng/L
0.4
0.37
--
0.00
0.006
0.00
0.02
0.009
3.1
0.066
0.00006
0.000063
0.018
0.026
0.18
2.1
--
0.0170
0.0035
1.55
75
8 , 500
12,000
0.27
0.16
172«
343"
0.0023
0.008
0.00
0.02
0.051
5.0
0.28
0.00004
0.005
0.025
0.33
--
4.1
--
0.0107
0.0017
4.4
--
2
146
2,800
3,300
0.70
0.22
--
0.0007
0.009
0.00
0.02
0.087
9.4
0.45
0.00018
0.030
0.039
0.48
--
10.3
--
0.0188
0.0030
257
324
6,700
7,000
3.9
15.7'
0.4
3.4
32.9
65.3
0.005
0.008
0.00
0.02
0.14
2.5
8.4
0.29
0.00005
0.00075
0.005
0.023
0.24
1.64
7.5
34.8
0.0099
0.0255
0.0030
12
43
2
150
5,000
15,400
* For parameters with a significant percentage of data below detection
limits, a low estimate where non-detected values are considered zero,
and a high estimate, where they are set equal to the detection limit,
are reported.
Equivalent mean concentration.
-------
266
TABLE VII-13
Summary of annual loadings in urban runoff from the Sarnia area
(kg/yr") (82).
Parameter
Ammonia (N)
Phosphorus
Chloride
Cadmium
Cobalt
Copper
Iron
Lead
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
Oil & Grease
Phenols
( total )
Cyanide
HCB
OCS
PCBs (total)
17 PAHs
Stormwater
3,600
1,800
1,150,000
2,300,000
3.8
40.2*
0
131(23 )a
326
40,700
1,750
0.7
0.8
144
220
2,200
40,000
112
20
0.8
0.013
1.3
47
59
Overflows
3,700
15,000*
400
3,300
31,600
62,700
4.8
8.0*
0
19(3)a
134
2,400
8,100
280
0.1
0.7
5
22
230
7,200
33,400
9
24
3
0.0
0.002
0.1
0.2
5
15
Total
7,300
18,600
2,200
5,100
1,180,000
2,363,000
8.6
48. 2»
0
150( 26)*
460
43,100
48,800
2,030
0.8
1.5
149
242
2,430
47,200
73,400
121
136
23
0.8
0.015
1.4
1.5
52
74
* Where applicable, both low and high loading estimates are given.
a Loadings calculated from data above the detection limit.
-------
267
Nutrient Additions
The use of commercial fertilizers and livestock manure as soil
builders potentially contributes to the pollution of adjacent
aquatic resources by adding excessive burdens of bacteria, nitro-
gen, and phosphorus. On the U.S. side of the St. Clair River,
commercial fertilizers are applied to approximately 78 percent of
tillable land, while livestock wastes are added to 8 percent.
The total quantity of phosphorus generated from manure has been
estimated at 3,800 tonnes/yr (85). In Canada, croplands receive
an estimated 3,800 tonnes of commercial fertilizer per year.
This value translates to 376 kg/ha. Analysis of soil fertility
and crop requirements indicate that as much as two times more
phosphorus fertilizer is being used than is required in both the
U.S. and Canada. Livestock operations on the Canadian side of
the river generate a further 6.3 tonnes/yr of phosphorus, ul-
timately disposed of on farm land.
Studies of the Black River (84,85), a U.S. tributary to the St.
Clair River, noted that phosphorus concentrations ranged from
0.03 to 0.73 mg/L, and averaged 0.14 mg/L. The PWQO for phos-
phorus in rivers is 0.03 mg/L. In Ontario, several creeks were
monitored with similar results. Phosphorus concentrations ranged
from 0.033 to 0.665 mg/L in Talfourd Creek, Baby Creek, Murphy
Drain and the Cole Drain (68,84,86). All samples from the
Ontario tributaries exceeded provincial water quality standards
for phosphorus.
Pesticide Additions
Agricultural pesticides are used extensively in the St. Clair
River basin for the control of weeds, plant diseases, and in-
sects. Wall et al. (84,85) estimate that some 500,000 kg were
used annually on the U.S. side. The majority (75 percent) of the
compounds used were herbicides, with atrazine, alachlor (now
banned in Canada), cyanazine, and metolachlor being the most
frequently used. Additionally, nearly 9,000 kg of restricted-use
pesticides were sold in four counties of the St. Clair River area
(84). In this category, parathion and other organophosphorus
insecticides were highest in sales. In Canada, approximately
30,000 kg of pesticides were applied annually (2.3 kg/ha). At
the time of the study, the most common herbicides used were iden-
tical to those used on the U.S. side.
The Belle and Black rivers on the U.S. side were monitored for
pesticides between April and August of 1985 (84). The loads to
the Black River for atrazine, alachlor, cyanazine, and metola-
chlor were reported as 0.3, 0.22, 0.99, and 0.07 g/ha, respec-
tively. Loadings for the same compounds to the Belle River were
reported as 0.12, 0.03, 0.03, and 0.07 g/ha, respectively.
-------
268
Analysis of sedimentary materials from the St. Clair River tribu-
taries yielded the observation that restricted-use pesticides
were present in 70 percent of the samples. Chlordane and meta-
bolites of DDT were most frequently observed.
Ontario tributaries were monitored for pesticides including
organochlorine, organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides as
well as phenoxy acid and triazine herbicides.
Atrazine was detected in 47% of all water samples from Ontario
tributaries of the St. Clair River at concentrations up to
8,450 ug/L. Additional pesticides which were detected less fre-
quently, included gamma-BHC, pp-DDE and endrin. Alpha-BHC was
detected in 62% of water samples but typically at levels below 5
ng/L.
The frequency of sampling was insufficient to estimate annual
loadings; however, mean instantaneous loadings for atrazine indi-
cate that Talfourd Creek is discharging approximately 0.5 mg/sec
to the St. Clair River.
Industrial organic compounds were detected primarily on suspended
solids and were consequently observed in bottom sediments at the
tributary mouths. Concentrations of HCB, OCS and PCBs were ob-
served in whole water, suspended solids and bottom sediments from
Ontario. Several elevated levels were measured on suspended
solids at the Cole Drain (HCB - 5,800 ng/g; OCS - 5,400 ng/g) and
at Talfourd Creek (PCBs - 77,840 hg/g)(68,84,85). The signifi-
cance of these intermittent peaks cannot be determined based on
the limited data available.
4. Atmospheric Deposition
Direct atmospheric deposition of contaminants to the St. Clair
River is likely to be negligible because of the relatively small
surface area of the river. However, atmospheric deposition may
be defined as the sum of the contaminants deposited from the
atmosphere on a stream or lake surface (direct input), plus that
material which has fallen on upstream areas and is transported
through the connecting channels to downstream bodies of water.
This phenomenon is likely the mechanism responsible for the regu-
lar observation of common pesticides observed in the St. Clair
River (87). Such compounds as the metabolites of DDT, alpha- and
gamma-benzene hexachloride, and dieldrin are routinely reported
in water samples from the St. Clair River, but the concentration
of these contaminants does not change significantly over the
length of the connecting channel. This fact suggests that there
are no active sources along the St. Clair River (37,79).
-------
269
5. Groundwater Contamination/Waste Sites
Three different groundwater flow systems contribute to the over-
all groundwater discharge, or flux, including discharge from
surficial aquifers, from intermediate flow systems and from deep
bedrock systems. Groundwater in the unconsolidated surficial
deposits generally flows to the St. Clair River. Locally, how-
ever, the direction of groundwater flow is influenced by surface
water drainage and glacial landforms. Groundwater flow direc-
tions in the deeper units are as yet not well defined.
Total groundwater seepage directly to the St. Clair River was
estimated by three independent teams of investigators to range
between 645 L/s and 741 L/s and to average about 700 L/s. The
U.S. Geological Survey estimated total groundwater discharge to
the river from groundwater discharge areas, based upon tributary
baseflow information. The University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
used a combined geophysical and hydrological method to compile
continuous measurements of groundwater flow passing through the
St. Clair River bed. The University of Windsor Great Lakes
Institute deployed seepage meters and mini-piezometers to measure
seepage in the Sarnia area (88).
Shallow groundwater in the study area, which does not discharge
directly to the St. Clair River, contributes about 10% of stream
flow to the tributaries of the St. Clair River. Rates of ground-
water seepage to the St. Clair River generally decreased down-
stream, with higher fluxes noted in the Sarnia and Port Huron
area, and between Stag Island and Courtright coinciding with
areas having the largest number of sources of groundwater con-
tamination.
Although the total amount of discharge to the St. Clair River is
small relative to the St. Clair River's water budget, the hetero-
geneities that are apparent in the nature and the distribution of
groundwater flux suggest that inputs of contaminated groundwater
may be locally significant.
Surface Runoff from Landfills
Groundwater is not a principal route of contaminant transport
from many waste sites in the St. Clair study area. Low hydraulic
conductivities of surficial materials here restrict infiltration
and groundwater movement. Surface runoff from waste sites to
storm drains, and small tributaries which flow to major surface
water bodies appears to be of greater importance as a contaminant
transport pathway.
-------
270
Michigan's Potential Groundwater Contamination Sources
Groundwater movement was investigated in an area extending 19 km
inland along the St. Clair River. An inventory of active and
inactive waste sites within this area was conducted as part of
this investigation. Twenty-six sites of known, or potential
groundwater contamination were identified and ranked. The major-
ity of sites are solid waste landfills, regulated and unregulated
hazardous waste disposal sites, storage sites and spills. Other
potential sources that were reviewed included leaking underground
storage tanks, contaminated well water, and underground injection
wells. Underground injection wells were not ranked for potential
contributions to contaminant burdens and are treated separately
below.
Those sites in areas which discharge directly to the river were
ranked and assigned priorities for potential impacts upon the St.
Clair River. Ranking of sites, using a modification of U.S.EPA's
DRASTIC ranking system, was based on their potential for con-
tributing contaminants directly to the St. Clair River via
groundwater by evaluating the hydrogeology, the nature of waste
material as described in state and federal files, and the dis-
tance to the river (89). The 7 highest ranked sites had the
greatest potential for impact upon the St. Clair River (Table
VII-14). The water table in this region was generally less than
4.6m below the land surface and the individual sites had prior-
ity pollutants and/or inorganic contaminants.
Evaluation of Potential Impacts
One round of samples were collected from 8 observation wells that
were installed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in each
groundwater discharge area. Actual locations of wells depended
upon the number of up gradient waste sites, the size of the
groundwater discharge area, and on permission for drilling from
landowners. It was possible to locate two wells near waste
sites, including a well installed down gradient of both A and B
Waste Disposal and the Hoover Chemical Reeves Company, and a well
installed down gradient from the Wills Street Dump Site. Other
locations were chosen to provide background information.
Analyses were made for 72 volatile, base neutral, acid extract-
able, and chlorinated extractable hydrocarbons, and 24 trace
metals and other chemical parameters. These analyses were com-
pared to both surface water quality criteria and objectives, and
drinking water standards.
i) Organic
The pesticide endosulfan was detected in one sample. Phthalate
esters were found in four of eight samples. N-nitrosodiphenyl-
amine, was detected in a well at a level in excess of U.S.EPA
-------
271
TABLE VTI-14
Confirmed or possible Michigan contamination sites within the
St. Clair River groundwater discharge areas*.
1. Grand Trunk Railroad (CERCLIS/RCRA/Act 3071
The Grand Trunk Railroad site is an oil pipeline leak. There is a perched water table about 2 feet
below the surface that is underlain by about 100 feet of lake clays and a gravel aquifer. Oil may have
discharged to a sewer and ditch (MDNR). Groundwater contamination is not indicated in the Act 30?
listing. There are no monitoring wells. The upper, perched aquifer is contaminated with diesel fuel.
Sandy soils on site are saturated with oil and nay contribute oils to the shallow aquifer (observed,
1979, from PA). Oils and *2 diesel fuel flowed to WWTP via storm drain on site (observed 1978 - 1979,
from PA). Note: CERCLA authorities were not applied because the observed release was limited to
petroleum products which are covered under the Clean Water Act.
2. A and B Waste Disposal (CERCLIS/RCRA/Act 307)
The A and B Waste Disposal site is a transfer facility where wastes are sorted for resale/cycling and
disposal. Soil and groundwater sanples contain toluene, xylene, trichloroethylene and
tetrachloroethylene. There are alleged incidents of dumping paint thinner on the ground. Ground-
water contamination is not indicated in the Act 307 listing. There are no monitoring wells.
3. Hoover Chemical Reeves Company (CERCLIS/RCRA/Act 307)
The Reeves Company buys and distributes paint products locally. In the past, the facility built
fiberglass buildings for Port-a-john. Hoover Chemical manufactures adhesives. Drums containing paint
and adhesive wastes are stained on site. Groundwater contamination is not indicated in the Act 307
listing. There are 5 monitoring wells.
4. Eltra Corp. Prestolite Wiring (CERCLIS/RCRA/Act 307)
This company is a RCRA generator and treatment/storage/disposal facility. Various halogenated and non-
halogenated solvents, electroplating wastes, lead and ketones are stored in containers on site. There
are no monitoring weld*.
5. Wills Street Dump Site (CERCLIS/Act 3071
The Wills Street Dump Site is located within one-half mile of the St. Clair River. Drums from the St.
Clair Rubber-Michigan Avenue plant were dumped into open pits each year for 8 years. These liquid
wastes included toluene, acids, and polyurethane. Over the eight year period, as many as 1,500 drums
were dumped. A ditch just east of the site empties into the St. Clair River (MDNRI. Groundwater
contaminations is not indicated in the Act 307 listing. There are no monitoring wells.
The site was not submitted to NPL for the following reasons: Marysville's drinking water surface water
intake is located 1.5 mi. upstream of the Wills St. Dump and 90' of clay overlies the aquifer used for
drinking water. Nonetheless, the site is near a wetland. On-site soil samples contained low levels of
1,1-dichioroethane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and toluene. Also found were elevated levels of phenol and
Arochlor - 1260.
6. General Technical Coatings (Act 307 I
Paint and solvents are stored in barrels at the General Technical Coatings site. The site is within
one-quarter mile of the St. Clair River. Ground-water contamination is not indicated in the Act 307
listing. The site was removed from the Act 307 list after cleanup.
7. Winchester Disposal Area (CERCLIS/Act 307)
The Winchester Disposal Area site is an unlicensed refuse dump. It is located in a low marshy area
near Port Huron. The site is unfenced and continued dumping is possible. No records of the types or
amounts of wastes present exist. Drums have been seen on the site and more may be buried (MDNR).
Ground-water contamination is not indicated in the Act 307 listing. There are no monitoring wells.
The fill on-site is at least ten feet thick in some areas. No cover was ever applied. Drums, concrete
and household appliances are exposed. Tens of thousands of tires are stacked on site up to ten feet
high in areas. In 1981 three monitoring wells in this area were sampled. Down-gradient wells in the
vicinitv of Winchester Disposal Area, showed higher concentrations of phenolics, cadmium, copper, lead,
zinc and iron than were found in an up gradient well in the vicinity of the Winchester Disposal Area.
CERCLIS: Site is listed within the information system for Superfund and is considered for clean-up
under the Comprehensive Environmental Compensation and Recovery Act of 1980.
RCRA: Facility has a Resource Conservation and Recovery Act identification number.
Act 307: Site is listed on Michigan's compilation of sites of known and possible environmental
degradation.
« Information from (88).
-------
272
Human Health Criteria for carcinogens at a 10-6 risk level. It
is possible that phthalate esters were introduced during sampling
or shipment.
ii) Inorganic
U.S.EPA Drinking Water Primary Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL)
were exceeded for chromium at one well, for lead at six of eight
wells and for barium at two wells.
Table VII-15 contains a summary of groundwater quality in these
wells based on unfiltered samples (88). The metals are generally
associated with finely-divided particulates. Groundwater that
discharges to the St. Clair River is thought to be free of fine
particulates, and thus of lower trace metals concentration than
determined for these samples. Thus, a computation of the loading
of the St. Clair River by chemical substances transported by
groundwater does not seem feasible at the current time.
Several sites that were selected as priorities for investigation
by the USGS may have potential for local impacts upon the St.
Clair River.
Elevated levels of barium, cobalt, copper, lead, zinc, and nickel
contamination, as well as the n-Nitrosodiphenylamine contamina-
tion in well G3 appear to be related to discharges from A and B
Waste disposal, or Hoover Chemical Reeves Company, or a combina-
tion of the two. The proximity of well G3 and of the two sites
to the St. Clair River suggests that seepage of contaminated
groundwater originating from the sites may result in local im-
pacts upon St. Clair River biota or water quality.
Elevated lead, mercury, and zinc in well G4 might be attributable
to the Wills Street Dump Site.
Elevated chromium, lead, iron, zinc and phosphorus concentrations
in well Gl, and elevated barium, copper, 'iron, lead, nickel,
total organic carbon, and oil and grease concentrations in well
G8 had no identifiable source.
Generally, it seems that environmental problems of waste, stor-
age, treatment and disposal facilities are associated with over-
land flow or runoff, rather than through groundwater discharge.
Low hydraulic conductivities, and hydraulic gradients suggest
that groundwater is not a major route of contaminant transport to
the St. Clair River from these sites. Nonetheless, the possible
presence of unidentified discontinuous stringers of sand and
gravel may serve to enhance contaminant transport locally.
-------
273
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274
Ontario's Potential Groundwater Contamination Sources
On the Ontario side of the St. Clair River, a total of 16 design-
ated waste disposal sites were identified in Lambton County. The
Ontario sites were prioritized to determine those sites that
require monitoring or remedial investigations. In designing
criteria for this evaluation, emphasis was placed on identifying
sites which lack specific information tha't is important in
assessing environmental impacts. Thus, sites lacking particular
information could rank higher than sites having evidence of im-
pact. Seven main groups of criteria were selected:
1. Geologic Information
2. Hydrologic Information
3. Hydrogeologic Information
4. Geochemical Information
5. On Site Monitoring
6. Waste Characterization and Containment
7. Health and Safety
Specific questions within these groups, that are significant in
assessing the site environmental impact were used to derive a
quantitative score. Three categories of priorities were develop-
ed, including:
Priority 1 Sites: those sites with a definite potential for im-
pact on human health and safety;
Priority 2 Sites: those sites which require immediate investiga-
tion in order to determine the potential for impact either on the
environment or human health and safety; and
Priority 3 Sites: those sites requiring additional monitoring,
but with lesser potential to impact their surrounding environ-
ment.
The Nonpoint Source Workgroup (88) reported that three sites in
Lambton County were categorized as Priority 1 Sites. Included in
this category were:
1) Dow Chemical, Scott Road
2) Polysar Limited, Scott Road
3) P and E Oil Recyclers, Petrolia.
Ten sites in Lambton County were identified as Priority 2 Sites.
These locations included:
1) K and E Solid Waste, Sarnia Township
2) Unitec, Inc., Moore Township
3) C.I.L., Inc., Lambton Works, Sombra Township
4) City of Sarnia Landfill, Sarnia Township
5) Canflow Services, Petrolia
-------
275
6) Dow Chemical, La Salle Road, Moore Township
7) Ladney, Moore Township
8) Sun Oil Company, City of Sarnia
9) Fiberglass Canada, Ltd., City of Sarnia
10) DuPont of Canada, Ltd., Moore Township.
Priority 3 sites in Lambton County included three listings.
These were:
1) Walpole Island, Walpole Island Indian Reserve
2) Esso Petroleum, Scott Road, City of Sarnia
3) Johnson Construction, Sarnia Township.
It is important to note that the ranking schemes for U.S. and
Canadian sites are not strictly comparable. Site characteristics
of the four highest priority sites are provided in Table VII-16.
Most contamination problems associated with waste sites are cen-
tered in the Scott Road area of Sarnia. Shallow groundwater and
surface water drainage here is to the Cole Drain. In addition to
Dow and Polysar landfills, other waste disposal sites may be
contributing contaminants to the Cole Drain and are situated
adjacent to the Dow and Polysar landfills. These include the
City of Sarnia sludge lagoons, Fibreglas Canada's landfill site,
and further south the Esso Petroleum Landfill site. Due to the
uncertainty of the origin of contaminants in the Cole Drain, the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment has undertaken a study of
surface runoff within the Scott Road watershed. Preliminary
findings to date indicated the presence of slightly elevated
levels of hexachlorobenzene and octachlorostyrene in surface
water draining from the landfill area.
Underground Injection Wells
i) Michigan
In the United States, the U.S.EPA has the primary responsibility
to establish and enforce protection of underground sources of
drinking waters through its Underground Injection Control (UIC)
program. This program regulates five classes of injection wells:
Class 1: Industrial and municipal disposal wells which inject
below the lower most formation containing underground
sources of drinking water.
Class 2: Injection wells associated with oil and gas production
and liquid hydrocarbon storage.
Class 3: Special process wells used in conjunction with solution
mining of materials.
-------
276
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-------
277
Class 4: Hazardous waste wells which inject into or above under-
ground sources of drinking water (wells in this categ-
ory were banned in 1985).
Class 5: Wells not falling into one or more of the above cate-
gories; including heat exchange wells, domestic waste
wells, and cesspools.
A total of 72 injection wells are presently rule authorized or
permitted on the U.S. side of the St. Clair River. Of this
total, 63 are in current operation, two are temporarily aban-
doned, and seven are permanently plugged and abandoned.
Class 1 Wells:
Consumers Power Company Facility in Marysville, Michigan current-
ly has two temporarily abandoned Class I Non-Hazardous Industrial
Waste wells. These wells will be reclassified as salt water
disposal wells (2D) per clarification of 1986 Safe Drinking Water
Act Amendments. The wells are designed to inject brine associat-
ed with the hydrocarbon storage operations at their facility.
The injection zone for these fluids are the Eau Claire and Mt.
Simon Formations at a depth greater than 1,380 m at a pressure of
12,757 kPa (1,850 psi).
Class 2-D Salt Water Disposal Wells:
Eleven Class 2-D salt water disposal wells are currently operat-
ing in the St. Clair area. One additional salt water disposal
well is temporarily abandoned, and two others have been permanen-
tly plugged and abandoned. Disposal intervals for Class 2-D
wells in this area range from the Detroit River Group of forma-
tions at a depth of 267 m to the Eau Claire Formation at a depth
of 1,350 m. Permitted injection pressures range up to 8,960 kPa
(1,300 psi). All Class 2-D wells in the area with one exception
have passed mechanical integrity tests: one of the ANR Pipeline
Co. wells had failed its mechanical integrity test on April 9,
1986 and was shut down, but has since been reworked and retested
for mechanical integrity, and is functioning properly as of June
6, 1986.
Class 2-H Hydrocarbon Storage Wells:
Class 2-H, Hydrocarbon Storage Wells service natural gas storage
reservoirs, or are used for storage of refined petroleum prod-
ucts, or liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Gas storage reservoirs
for natural gas are depleted gas fields into which gas produced
in other areas is stored for future marketing. Injection and
withdrawal of gas is typically through former gas production
wells which have been converted to storage. Injection and with-
drawal may be through the same well, or through separate wells.
Observation wells are used to monitor reservoir pressures, reser-
-------
278
voir capacity and other parameters.
Currently there are 11 hydrocarbon storage fields or facilities
located in the St. Clair River area with an average surface area
of 406 acres. These fields have all been converted to hydrocar-
bon storage since 1970. Most gas storage reservoirs in St. Clair
County are in the Middle Silurian Niagaran Reefs, and Salina
Carbonates and Evaporites. Depths to the gas storage reservoirs
range from 659 to 884 m and the thickness of the reservoirs
ranges from 1 to 92 m. The Middle Silurian Reefs are used prin-
cipally for the storage of natural gas that is produced elsewhere
and stored for future marketing. This activity is carried out
principally by the Consumers Gas Company. The Salina Evaporites
are primarily used for the storage of LPG and other refined
petroleum products.
Amoco Productions company operates a LPG storage facility having
seven wells in the Salina-A Evaporite. The depth to these
caverns ranges from 690 to 750 m and the estimated capacity of
all the caverns is 2,265,000 L. Consumers Power Company operates
9 wells completed in the Salina-B Salt for the storage of refined
petroleum products.
Class 2-R Enhanced Oil Recovery Well:
Five Class 2-R, enchanced oil recovery wells, operate in the St.
Clair River area in the Detroit River Group of Formations and the
Niagaran Dolomite. One well, formerly operated by Vans Tank
Truck Service, failed its mechanical integrity test in April of
1986 and is no longer in operation.
Class 3-G Solution Mining Wells:
Solution mining wells operate through production of artificial
brines by wells completed a hundred m or more apart in the same
salt bed. Salt is dissolved by pumping water through one well
into the bedded salt, and out through the second well. The brine
that is produced is processed to recover bromine, iodine, and
sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides. The Salina Group
evaporites presently produce brines, but the Devonian Detroit
River Group has also been used in the past for production.
Eight Class 3-G solution mining wells are operated by Diamond
Crystal Salt Co. Four additional solution mining wells have been
operated in the past by Morton Salt Co. but have since been
plugged and abandoned.
Other Wells:
No Class 4 wells operate in the St. Clair River area. Seventeen
Class 5 wells operate in the St. Clair River area.
-------
279
The impacts of Michigan Underground Injection wells in the area
upon the St. Clair River are uncertain. However, it appears
that, with the exception of short-term mechanical integrity prob-
lems for a salt water disposal well and an enhanced oil recovery
well, all wells are operating in an environmentally sound manner.
ii) Ontario
In Lambton County, Ontario, deep injection wells were used to
dispose of industrial wastes during the period 1958-1972 and are
still used for the disposal of cavern brines and oil field brines
(88). There are about 35 deep wells in Lambton County (Figure
VII-3). The Lucas formation of the Detroit River Group was heav-
ily utilized prior to 1976 for the injection of industrial waste.
The freshwater aquifer lies above this bedrock, therefore the
potential exists for wastes to flow upwards into the aquifer and
thus migrate to the St. Clair River.
The industrial waste wells were located in three areas. The most
heavily utilized area was the industrialized section south of
Sarnia, adjacent to the St. Clair River. In this location wells
were used by Imperial Oil Ltd. (5 wells), Shell Canada Ltd. (2
wells), Sun Oil Company (1 well), Polymer Corp. (1 well), and Dow
Chemical Ltd. (2 wells to the Salina formation) (Figure VII-3).
The second area is located inland from the river and included the
well of Marcus Disposal (1 well), Thompson Wright Co. (2 wells),
and Tricil-Goodfellow (2 wells). A third area is found in Court-
right adjacent to the St. Clair River, and consists of 2 wells
belonging to Canadian Industries Ltd. (CIL) (Figure VII-3).
The Primary waste types disposed into the wells were spent
caustics, acids, phenols, minor hydrocarbons, and brine. The
volumes of industrial wastes disposed of into the Detroit River
Group total 7,513,722 m3. In the industrial area of Sarnia, it
was usually necessary to inject waste under pressure to achieve
the required injection rate. The wells close to the St. Clair
River often required pressures up to 3,103 kPA (450 psi) at
surface to inject the waste. The average injection pressure was
2,758 kPa (400 psi).
Cambrian Disposal Ltd., owned and operated 7 wells in Lambton
County, for the disposal of cavern-washing brine waters. Between
1971 and 1985 the total volume of waste injected under gravity
into these wells, was 10,194,889 m3. All wells used for the
disposal of brine materials have established monitoring well
networks on adjacent properties to determine water quality in the
freshwater aquifer. The company is also required to pay a levy
for each cubic metre of waste injected for the perpetual care of
the well once it is abandoned.
-------
280
Plympton
10 - Well I.Q No.
A
Industrial Waste
Injection
Cavern Washing
Brine Injection
_ Oil Field Brine
Injection
Oil Field Brine
- Injection to
Guelph Fm
A 7 WRIGHT
Enniskillen
MARCUS
4
-f-
\
FIGURE VII-3. Injection wells.
-------
281
Of concern to the Ontario Ministry of the Environment and the
Federal Department of the Environment is the past practice of
injection of industrial wastes into the Detroit River geologic
formation, and the potential for contamination of the freshwater
aquifer. Because of high pressures used for injection and the
large volumes of wastes disposed, the potential exists for con-
taminants to migrate from the disposal unit to the freshwater
aquifer and hence, to the St. Clair River. The possible pathways
of migration include the following:
1. Numerous bore holes, many of them abandoned and unplugged,
provide open conduits through the bedrock confining units;
2. Poorly constructed injection wells could allow waste to
migrate along the outside of the casing;
3. Faults, fractures and joints are likely to exist in the
bedrock confining units. It is possible the pressurized
waste could travel great distances via these fractures; and
4. The permeability of the confining shale and limestone units
may be of sufficient magnitude to allow pressurized wastes
to migrate via pore spaces to the shallow aquifer.
In view of the possible migration pathways and the fact that
there were documented cases of upwelling in the Sarnia area,
which occurred between 1966 and 1972, there was the possibility
that the groundwater system had been pressurized above its nat-
ural state. This being the case, it was possible that the dis-
placement of formation fluids, or the upwelling of industrial
wastes, may have contaminated the freshwater aquifer in the St.
Clair River area or have migrated across the St. Clair River to
Michigan.
Detailed studies of the fresh water aquifer and the movement of
injected wastes were undertaken from 1986 to late 1988 by the
federal and provincial governments, and industry. The prelimin-
ary results of these studies were reported by Intera Technologies
Inc. (90). The executive summary of this report is reproduced
below:
"This report .... describes the results of a hydrogeologic
study of the fresh water aquifer and deep geologic forma-
tions in the Sarnia Ontario area. The study was undertaken
to assess the extent to which the St. Clair river and a thin
sand and gravel aquifer (fresh water aquifer) located at the
bedrock surface have been impacted by past practices of
industrial waste disposal to the Detroit River Group of
Formations located at 150 to 200 m below bedrock surface....
this study included: drilling, testing and installation of
fifteen groundwater monitoring wells to the fresh water
aquifer; drilling, testing and installation of one 300 m
-------
282
deep borehole to the disposal formation in the Detroit River
Group of formations; and quarterly groundwater sampling and
hydraulic head monitoring of a 29 point monitoring well
network of the fresh water aquifer and of the deep borehole.
The computer modeling included a numerical simulation of
groundwater flow in the fresh water aquifer and simulation
of waste migration within the disposal zone. The potential
size of contaminant plumes that may result from vertical
migration through an open abandoned borehole between the
disposal zone and the fresh water aquifer was also simulated
using a computer model.
"The results of this study show that the fresh water aquifer
is a thin, discontinuous aquifer located at or near the
bedrock surface with an average hydraulic conductivity of 5
x 10~6 m/s. A buried bedrock valley of depth 60-80 m below
ground surface and 30-40 m below surrounding bedrock is
located about 500-1000 m east of the current channel of the
St. Clair River. The fresh water aquifer has a higher
hydraulic conductivity of about 1 x 10~4 m/s within the
bedrock valley due to the presence of alluvial sands and
silts. The freshwater aquifer is generally overlain by 30-
70 m of low permeability clay till; however, below the St.
Clair River the thickness of confining till in places may be
a thin as 3 m.
"Groundwater flow within the fresh water aquifer toward the
bedrock valley averages 0.57 m^/yr per unit aquifer width.
Within the bedrock valley some flow is directed down to
deeper geologic formations and some of the flow is discharg-
ed to the St. Clair River. No groundwater flows under the
St. Clair River within the fresh water aquifer to the U.S.
"Phenol contamination of the fresh water aquifer by injected
industrial waste is evident on the Esso Petroleum Canada
property near the St. Clair River and below the St. Clair
River in the area of the CN Railway tunnel. Loading to the
St. Clair from this 800 m by 600 m contaminated zone is
calculated at 5.2 g/d which, given the volume of flow in the
St. Clair River, is rapidly reduced to below detection
levels. Chloride contaminant loading to the River from the
same area is calculated at 50 kg/d.
"It is recognized that some undetected contaminant plumes
may exist in the vicinity of disposal wells due to waste
migration up abandoned boreholes. Assuming such plumes did
exist adjacent to the St. Clair the total potential phenol
loading to the River is estimated at 25 g/d. This would
result in an increase in phenol concentration in the River
of 1.9 ng/L which is about 500 times less than the minimum
detection limit of I ug/L.
-------
283
"Industrial Waste characterized by Phenol (30,000 - 40,000
ug/L) volatile organics (e.g., benzene, toluene, etc., 200 -
5,800 ug/L) and naphthalenes (50 - 829 ug/L) is restricted
to a narrow 11 m interval between 185.9 and 196.6 m depth in
the upper section of the Lucas dolomite. Vertical migration
of this waste through the pore space of the overlying and
underlying rocks has been negligible and measured hydraulic
heads show fluid flow in the adjacent rocks is now to the
disposal zone. This study suggests that there is a rela-
tively active flow system within the disposal formation
today and that understanding the fate of 8,000,000 m3 of
waste disposed to the Detroit River Group will require
knowledge of the current rates and directions of flow within
the disposal zone.
"The hydraulic head within the disposal zone is now 14 to 15
m below that in the fresh water aquifer and 8 m below the
level of the St. Clair River. Therefore current flow direc-
tions are from the fresh water aquifer and St. Clair River
to the disposal zone.
"A significant finding of this study was the occurrence of
high hydraulic conductivity limestone layers in the Hamilton
Group of formations at 74 and 123 m depth that likely con-
tain industrial waste at phenol concentrations of 6000 -
10,000 ug/L and hydraulic heads above those in the fresh
water aquifer. The 2 m thick limestone layer at 74 m depth
is of particular concern to this study because groundwater
from this horizon likely discharges to the fresh water
aquifer within the bedrock valley and this horizon flowed
industrial waste in 1967 and 1969 at rates of 10 to 238
L/min. The extent of contamination in this and the 123 m
depth horizon is not known but is likely significant as the
only two monitoring wells to these horizons (from this and
an earlier study) detected industrial waste. This waste was
likely introduced to these limestone horizons from improper-
ly completed disposal, cavern or abandoned wells."
6. Spills
A recent, well-publicized spill of perchloroethylene in the
Ontario waters of the St. Clair River underscored the potential
for accidental loss of large quantities of materials in this
river system (36). This incident prompted a major investigation
on the biological effects of spills and related discharges (91).
The results of the study demonstrated that the waters, sediments,
and biota of the St. Clair River system were adversely affected
by discharges of contaminants to the river, and that the per-
chloroethylene spill aggravated an existing condition.
-------
284
The perchloroethylene spill was not an isolated event. Rather,
it was simply another incident in a long history of accidental
spills. The data presented in Table VII-17 indicate that, on the
Canadian side, 11 major oil spills of 10 tons or more (a total of
1,282 tons) and 21 major spills of other hazardous compounds (a
total of 10,390 tons) occurred between 1974 and 1985.
The Michigan shoreline is considerably less industrialized than
the Ontario portion of the river. However, between 1973 and
1979, there were 120 spills of petroleum related compounds from
land based facilities and vessels which released over 18,500 L of
these materials into the St. Clair River. An additional spill
released 208 L of other hazardous substances to the river during
this period.
Tables VII-17a and 18 provide information on spill occurrences
during 1986. In 1986, a total of 48 surface water spills to the
St. Clair River were reported. There were 17 U.S. spills includ-
ing 3 chemical, 4 non-PCB oil, and 10 raw sewage. Sixteen chemi-
cal, and 22 non-PCB oil spills to the Canadian waters of the St.
Clair were reported. Very recently, (May 1988) a spill of
acrylonitrile (maximum 12,000 kg) occurred at Polysar Sarnia, but
the chemical was not detected in the St. Clair River.
Although improvements in water and sediment quality have been
made in the St. Clair River system in recent years, spills from
vessels and land-based facilities continue to threaten the suita-
bility of the river for fish and wildlife populations.
7. Contaminated Sediments
The sediments along the Canadian shore are significantly con-
taminated with a variety of chemicals (58,59,67). But compared
to chemicals in water and suspended sediments, much less than one
percent of the contaminants moving along the river are transport-
ed by bed sediment movement (67). The total mass of contaminants
such as HCB and DCS in Canadian shoreline sediments in the river
is comparable to the annual loadings of these contaminants
(37,59). Unless a significant percent of this material is being
desorbed each year, it is unlikely that contaminated sediments
contribute significantly to the loading in the water column.
However, because no measurements have been made, it is not pos-
sible to come to a definite conclusion at this time.
Another way sediments can act as source of contaminants is
through the biological community. Benthic organisms have been
shown to accumulate contaminants from sediments in the river
(50). These organisms serve as a food source for higher trophic
levels such as fish. Thus contaminated sediments can act as a
source of higher body burdens of chemicals in biota in the
system. Sediments from the Sarnia industrial area are lethal to
Hexagenia, Hydallela, and fathead minnows.
-------
285
TABLE VII-17
Spills of hazardous materials in excess of 10 tons into the Ontario
waters of the St. Clair River and its tributaries, 1974 - 1985*.
Source
Suncor
Suncor
CNR
Esso Petroleum
Hall Corp. (Vessel)
CNR
Esso Petroleum
Esso Petroleum
Esso Petroleum
Imp. Bedford (Shell)
Esso Chemical
Total
Polysar
Polysar
Polysar
Polvsar
Total
Dow
Polvsar
Total
Dow
Dow
Dow
Dow
Polysar
Suncor
Esso Chemical
Esso Petroleum
Total
Polysar
Esso Petroleum
Suncor
Eagle Transport
Dow
Esso Petroleum
Dow
Total
Substance
Spilled
Bunker & oil
Bunker 4 oil
Bunker & oil
Gas Oil
Bunker & Oil
Bunker 4 Oil
Gasoline
No. 2 fuel Oil
No. 2 fuel Oil
Catalytic cracker
Slop Oil
Latex
Latex
Latex
Latex
Styrene
Styrene
Hydrochloric Acid
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium chlorate
Sodium chloride
Sulphuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Sodium hydroxide
Brine
Lignin liquor
Phenolic wastewater
Process water
Xvlene
Ethylene Glycol
Waste Water
Perchloroethyiene
Year
1976
1976
1977
1978
1980
1981
1981
1984
1984
1985
1985
1975
1976
1980
1980
1974
1978
1974
1975
1979
1981
1981
1982
1983
1984
1975
1975
1975
1975
1976
1982
1985
Amount ( Tons )
Spilled Unrecovered5
150
300
86
29
21
21
348
116
16
75
120
1,282
17
18
87
20
T4T
4,504
4,915
21
28
4,080
379
13
16
19
164
4,720
159
239
91
11
13
46
FT3"
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17
0
13
4
0
23
3
1
0
91
17
18
87
20
T4~Z
2,700
80
2,780
21
28
4.000
76
13
0
4
33
33
239
73
2
0
46
4
797
a - Data from (36).
b - Estimate based upon reports of percent recovered.
-------
286
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289
8. Navigation
As stated earlier, ship traffic through the St. Clair River is
considerable. These ship movements cause some minor sediment
resuspension but should have little impact on the movement and
effects of contaminants in the river. Periodic dredging is
required in the lower channels of the river for navigation pur-
poses. The material dredged from the Canadian channels is placed
in a confined disposal facility (the Southeast Bend Cutoff Site,
Seaway Island), because it exceeds open water disposal guidelines
for oil and grease, and mercury. Periodic U.S. shoal removal in
the upper reaches of the river of a few hundred m^ of sediment
are disposed in Lake Huron. A few hundred thousand m^ of
sediments are removed by the U.S. in the lower reaches of the
river approximately every three years. These materials are
placed in the Dickinson Island Confined Disposal Facility.
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290
D. DATA REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS
In answering the source/sink question for the St. Clair River,
data sets from single laboratories were used. Thus, even if the
analyses were biased high or low, the relative changes in con-
centrations would still be apparent. Some of the bottom sediment
data for several parameters were combined and averaged. The
laboratories that generated these data performed acceptably in
the round-robins conducted by the Data Quality Management Work-
group (Chapter IV), and comparable data for the different studies
were found for overlapping sampling stations.
For the point source study, the United States methods provided
much lower detection limits (DL) for three organics than did the
Canadian methods. For most chemicals, this did not impact the
study because of the lower concentrations found in the U.S.
sources for most organic parameters. However, for PCBs (U.S. DL
0.0001 ug/L; Canadian DL 0.1 ug/L), the difference in detection
limits could affect the ranking of the PCB sources along the
river. Fortunately, PCB discharges to the St. Clair River appear
to be fairly low, so remedial measures for PCBs may not be re-
quired.
While sensitivity analyses were applied to most of the models
used to simulate conditions in the St. Clair River, the quality
of the initial data utilized in most modeling exercises is dif-
ficult to judge. Furthermore, Monte Carlo simulations and other
uncertainty analyses are almost entirely lacking for the process
models developed to date. These shortcomings render existing
modeling tools less than fully useful for management authorities.
Additional resources will undoubtedly be a priority to overcome
these deficits.
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291
E. MODELING AND MASS BALANCE CONSIDERATIONS
1. Dispersion Models
The St. Clair River, like the other connecting channels of the
Great Lakes is the recipient of large volumes of effluents. Under
normal circumstances, the apparent impact of these additions
would be less noticeable because of the large volume of water
conducted through this channel. However, because of the neces-
sity to maintain broad channels for navigation, shore based dis-
charge structures must be maintained relatively close to shore-
ward margins of the river. This fact dictates that only a rela-
tively small portion of the total river flow is available for
waste dispersal.
In an early study of lateral dispersion, Hamdy and Kinkead (92)
adapted an existing numerical dispersion model to predict
in-stream concentration of a conservative substance (chloride)
from shore based discharge outfalls to the St. Clair River. These
authors found that the nondimensional dispersion coefficient
measured in the field was in a range of 0.93 - 1.0, based upon a
shear velocity of 0.042 m/s and a depth of 10 m. This coeffi-
cient observed in the St. Clair River was substantially greater
than the classic value of 0.23 normally used in dispersion pre-
dictions .
A simultaneous parallel study conducted by Akhtar and Mathur (93)
used equations identical to Hamdy and Kinkead, but incorporated
the classic 0.23 value for the nondimensional dispersion coeffi-
cient. When Akhtar and Mathur reran their model using the Hamdy
and Kinkead value of 0.96, the transverse chloride distribution
predicted by the model agreed reasonably well with observed
values. The reported data suggest that the bulk of chlorides
were contained close to the Canadian shoreline. Shoreward con-
centrations of 80 mg/L were observed, while concentrations de-
clined to levels approaching zero 50 m off shore. Validation of
the model was made against 1976 chloride data for the St. Clair
River at the same sites. In this case, shoreward concentrations
of nearly 100 mg/L were shown to decrease laterally to concentra-
tions approaching zero 45 m off shore. The 1976 verifications
were made against a point source loading for Cl~ of 2.6 kg/s, a
function of a discharge rate of 3 m-Vs and an initial concentra-
tion of 860 mg/L.
In a report to the Water Resources Branch of the Ontario Ministry
of the Environment, McCorquodale and Bewtra (94) provide a users
manual for a model designed to assess the convection-dispersion
and decay of vertically mixed pollutants from multiple outfalls.
The authors state that this model was developed using OMOE field
data on chlorides and phenols in the St. Clair River. While the
model was intended to simulate phenol concentrations along the
entire length of main channel of the St. Clair River, neither
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292
data nor model simulations are provided. No evidence of calibra-
tion, verification, or application of this model is available.
In the same short report to OMOE, McCorquodale and Bewtra (95)
consider the dispersion and transport of phenols in the St. Clair
River. These authors describe adapting a previously existing
model (characterized only as "The Detroit River Model") to condi-
tions existing in the St. Clair River.
Although this modified far-field model was used to simulate
phenol concentrations in the St. Clair River from outfall A to
the Delta, only estimations of pollutant loadings in the channels
of the St. Clair River delta are provided. The authors report
that 5 percent of the total flow and 14 percent of the total
phenol load exit the St. Clair River by way of Chenal Ecarte.
This loading approximates 4 kg/d of phenol. The South Channel is
responsible for conducting 42 percent of the total flow and 81
percent of the total phenolic load (23 kg/d, phenol) from the St.
Clair River. A total of 20 percent of the river flow, but less
than 5 percent of the total phenolic load exists the St. Clair
River via the Middle Channel. This burden represents only about
1.4 kg/d of phenol. While the North Channel is responsible for
conducting 33 percent of the total river flow, only a trace of
the total phenol loading is found in this channel. The authors
note that these values represent loadings without consideration
for decay. If degradation rates were added, the.phenol loadings
to the channels could be reduced by as much as 30 percent.
Chan et al. (37) modeled the fluxes and the concentration dis-
tribution profiles in water column transects across the upper and
lower St. Clair River for the contaminants hexachlorobenzene
(HCB), hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD), pentachlorobenzene (QCB), and
octachlorostyrene (OCS). The data they derived clearly demon-
strated a plume of these contaminants for the Sarnia Industrial
Area. Dieldrin concentrations, on the other hand, were quite
consistent for all stations sampled, fluctuating about a mean of
approximately 0.25 ng/L. The ubiquitous distribution of this
contaminant suggests long-range transport as the likely mechanism
involved in this widespread contamination. The authors report
that similar concentration distributions to dieldrin were ob-
served for several other organic substances including alpha and
gamma BHC and PCBs.
A marked plume of contaminants was apparent, originating for the
Sarnia area. This plume was observed for HCB, HCBD, QCB, and
OCS. Very little of these compounds are present at the head
waters of the St. Clair River. At Port Lambton, however, peak
values were observed near the Canadian shoreline, with decreasing
concentrations across the river. This observation corroborates
the lateral distribution calculated for chloride by Hamdy and
Kinkead (92). Chan et al. (37) report that downstream, however,
Chenal Ecarte contained the highest concentrations, the South
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293
Channel was described as having significant levels, and very low
concentrations were observed in the North Channel. Unfortunate-
ly, no flow data are provided to enable an exact comparison of
channel burdens with the various values provided by McCorquodale
and Bewtra (95). However, if the normal flow value of 5,100 m-Vs
for the St. Clair River provided by McCorquodale et al. (86) is
used, and if the percent of total flow reported by McCorquodale
and Bewtra (95) for Chenal Ecarte (5 percent of total), South
Channel (42% of total), and the North Channel (33 percent of
total) are accepted, a comparison of values may be made. This
comparison is presented in Table VII-19 below.
An order of magnitude agreement between the percentage contribu-
tions of the contaminants in the two data sets exists when the
differences in methodologies are considered. Chan et al. (37)
measured HCB in centrifuged water samples at the Port Lambton
stations. These samples represented "dissolved phase' HCB, since
the majority of suspended solids had been removed. The authors
note that 41 percent of the HCB observed at Port Lambton was in
the dissolved phase. When the percentage contributions to total
HCB loadings are adjusted for suspended solids concentrations,
the sum of the channel values approach 10-0 percent of the total
HCB loading rate of 1.63 kg/d reported by Nettleton (96).
Chan et al. (37) also used the observed contaminant concentra-
tions and water depths to calculate the flux of each compound
across the river cross section at Port Lambton. Good agreement
of values was obtained when compared with Environment Canada and
Ontario Ministry of the Environment district monitoring data.
Between August and October of 1985, HCB fluxes ranged from 59 to
280 gm/day, QCB was observed from 22 to 31 gm/day, HCBD 240 to
1,700 gm/day, and OCS 5 to 15 gm/day.
These authors then calculated lateral mixing in the river channel
using a transverse mixing coefficient derived by varying the
coefficient until the calculated concentration profile matched
the measured profile. The original calculation of this factor
was made against the HCB data and applied to other measured para-
meters. With the exception of a single HCBD data set for 23
September 1985, excellent agreement with measured concentration
profiles was achieved. This single data set demonstrated no
plume-like distribution, but rather a relatively constant con-
centration across the river cross section. All other calcula-
tions demonstrated a plume which tended to remain near the
Canadian shore of the St. Clair River.
These authors also note that future studies should consider
special sampling procedures for modeling studies. They report
that the results of the water/suspended sediment partitioning
study showed that measurements should be made on both dissolved
and suspended sediment phases, or on unfiltered water samples if
contaminant fluxes or loadings are to be calculated.
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294
TABLE VII-19
A comparison of burdens of chemical contaminants
of the St. Clair River Delta (kg/d).
in the various channels
Distributary-
Channel
Chenal Ecarte
South Channel
Middle Channel
Morth Channel
Phenol
Burden'
4.0
23.0
1.4
Trace
% of
Total Phenol
Load
14
81
<5
Trace
HCB
Burden"
0.286
0.740
0.073
% of
Total HCB
Load0
17
45
4
Data from (86 ) .
Data from (37).
A total of ± 45% of HCB loadings are unaccounted for, since Chan et
al. (37) used centrifuged water to measure HCB at the Port Lambton
stati ons. They note that 41% of the HCB observed at Port Lambton
was in the 'dissolved phase'.
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295
2. Hydrodynamic Model
A river transport model has been constructed by McCorquodale et
al. (86) which has potential for application to the St. Glair
River. This model has been variously referred to as the Univer-
sity of Windsor K-E model and the University of Windsor K-E River
Mixing Model (96). This model is a steady state, depth average,
turbulent mixing model designed to simulate complex river systems
with multiple outfalls. Nettleton (96) reports that velocity
distributions and dispersion characteristics of the St. Clair
River were computed with this model. The model divides the St.
Clair River into 14 segments, estimating the flow in each segment
using U.S. Army Corps of Engineers data adjusted to interpolated
sections in each segment based upon a normal flow rate of 5,100
m3/s (187,000 cfs).
Nettleton reports that the model was calibrated by adjusting
parameters for the lateral profile of the velocity to provide
predicted results similar to those measured. This author writes
that in addition to velocities and dispersion coefficients, this
model also provides the lateral locations of river streamlines in
the various river segments. Nettleton concludes that, based upon
the results of this and other OMOE applications of the hydro-
dynamic model, it would appear that the model is well suited for
use in the St. Clair River. At the present time, however, there
is no report of verification of this model.
3. Chemical Transport Models
Nettleton (96) reports that, to date, chemical transport modeling
for the St. Clair River has been accomplished only for the con-
taminant hexachlorobenzene (HCB). Two models were used to study
the chemical transport of HCB. One of these models, the Univer-
sity of Windsor Hydrodynamic Model discussed above, calculates
the depth averaged total contaminant concentrations in two dimen-
sions in the water column. The U.S.EPA TOXIWASP model (97),
estimates the dissolved, sediment sorbed,' and biosorbed concen-
trations of the contaminant in both the water column and the
sediment bed of the river.
The University of Windsor transport model was run with both
average and maximum loadings using both average and minimum flow
rates. The best agreement with measured field data was achieved
using average flows and maximum loadings of HCB. Nettleton (96)
reports that, under these conditions, the total loading rate of
HCB to the St. Clair River System was 1.63 kg/d. He notes that
in excess of 97 percent of this total loading results from a
single point source, the Dow Chemical First Street sewer complex.
Comparisons of the river model predictions of HCB concentrations
with measured values were reported to be in good agreement (86).
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296
The magnitudes of predicted concentrations were generally within
the probable error of field data measurement (96).
The TOXIWASP model is a multiple cell model which divides the
water column and bed into segments both vertically and hori-
zontally. The principal mass transfer mechanisms considered by
this model include contaminant advection and dispersion, sediment
settlement and resuspension, volatilization and biological degra-
dation of the contaminant, and point and nonpoint sources of
contaminant to the water column, including sediment bound ma-
terials.
In relation to the St. Clair River, this model was run using only
one layer of water column and bed sediments. The river was
divided horizontally into four flow panels. Both "fine" and
"coarse" grid patterns were used. The "coarse" grid considered
the entire river to the Delta area, while the "fine" grid was
used to concentrate on the analysis of the river in the vicinity
of the outfalls.
Nettleton (96) reports that comparisons between water column
concentrations of HCB predicted by TOXIWASP with those measured
in the field were satisfactory. He notes that both the trends
and the magnitudes of the predicted values are in good agreement
with the measured field data. Bed sediment predictions occa-
sionally tended to over-predict both magnitudes and trends when
compared with field data. However, both magnitude and trend
predictions appear to be within the estimated field measurement
accuracy.
Nettleton concludes that it would appear that both the University
of Windsor transport model and the TOXIWASP model can predict the
chemical transport of HCB relatively accurately within the St.
Clair River. He notes, however, that these results must be
regarded as preliminary. Confirmatory results (and presumably
model verification) await the final assembly of the 1986 St.
Clair River Municipal Industrial Strategy for Abatement data
base.
4. Unsteady Flow Model
An unsteady flow model for the St. Clair River from Lake Huron to
Lake St. Clair was developed by Derecki et al. (98). This model
simulates hourly and daily flow rates of the river. Unlike other
single-stem river models, the unsteady flow model provides flow
separations in the vicinity of Stag and Fawn Islands and in the
North, Middle, South, and Cutoff Channels of the St. Clair River
Delta. The model predicts stage, discharge, and velocity data
required to simulate the fate and transport of toxic substances.
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297
Derecki et al. (98) suggest that the model has been calibrated.
This calibration consisted of adjusting the roughness coef-
ficients of the river channel. These coefficients were derived
from 14 sets of flow measurements conducted by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers between 1959-1979. No evidence of validation
of this model is available.
5. Other Models
In a departure from the usual academic modeling format, Nettleton
and Hamdy (91) have created a user-oriented model for assessment
of effects of spilled contaminants. The modeling format is
termed "The St. Clair River Spill Manual'. This device was
developed to provide a convenient, easily used, rapid assessment
methodology for predicting the downstream effects of spilled
contaminants on water intakes. A total of 21 outfalls located in
the Chemical Valley near Sarnia are considered in this manual.
Using this well-designed instrument, assessments of impact are
possible all along the Canadian shoreline and at five Michigan
intake sites, including St. Clair, East China Township, Marine
City, Algonac, and Old Club. The Marysville intake was found to
lie outside of all the plumes observed, and is, therefore, not
considered in the manual.
Users desiring to assess impacts of a spill need only know the
type and total mass of contaminant spilled, the duration of the
event, and the total river flow at the time of the spill. If
decay characteristics are known, there is a possibility to incor-
porate this information into the analysis.
With these data available, the manual is then consulted to ascer-
tain the peak contaminant concentration expected, and times of
arrival and departure of the spill plume at a given water intake.
This adaptation and coupling of two mathematical models in a
specific user-oriented fashion will undoubtedly be extremely
useful to managers charged with the responsibility of providing
of safe drinking water.
6. Model Applications
A major application of these hydrodynamical dispersion models and
fate and transport models, after calibration, is for the analysis
of hypothetical effluent discharge scenarios proposed in remedial
studies. This analysis can be approached in two ways: i) ef-
fluent loadings may be established based upon treatment tech-
nology, and the models used to ascertain the resulting short and
long-term changes expected in the quality of the downstream
water/sediment/biota of the receiver; or ii) the models can be
used to estimate appropriate effluent criteria assuming known
ambient water quality criteria downstream of the outfall.
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298
As an example, effluent loading criteria for HCB discharged to
the St. Clair River from Dow Chemical can be determined (Table
VII-20). There are two important reasons to develop effluent
criteria for HCB: i) it has been shown to impact exposed sediment
and biota within the effluent plume due to its chemical char-
acteristics (e.g., large Kow); and ii) when reduced via the
appropriate industrial treatment, other related contaminants
should also be reduced from the effluent.
For this example, three criteria are used in the analysis for
HCB. The first is the 6.5 ng/L freshwater aquatic life guideline
for concentrations in the water column. The second criterion is
that HCB concentrations in the sediment are not to increase by
more than 1 ng/L above the background level. The third criterion
is that HCB concentrations in biota, as a result of bioconcentra-
tion, is not to increase more than 50 ug/L above the background
level. The second and third criteria are arbitrarily selected
(for demonstration purposes) for protection of the sediment and
biota under long-term steady state conditions.
The calculations (as summarized in Table VII-20) are performed
for two selected mixing zone lengths. The first mixing zone is
to the south property line of Dow Chemical (about 1,200 m down-
stream of Dow's First Street sewer complex). In this case, the
total HCB load is assumed proportional among the various outfalls
as measured in 1986. The second mixing zone is two Dow's Second
Street outfall (about 300 m downstream of the First Street com-
plex) . In this case, all loading is assumed to be discharged via
Dow's First Street complex.
In this particular example, the arbitrary biota criterion for the
shorter mixing zone would result in the most stringent effluent
loading.
-------
299
TABLE VII-20
Loads required to limit zones of effect for HCB discharged
from Dow Chemical.
Criterion No. Loads (kg/d) to limit the zone of effect to:
Dow's south property Second Street outfall
line (1,200 ml* ' (300 m)2
1. Water (6.5 ng/L) 0.106 0.065
2. Sediments (1 ppm 0.517 0.317
above background)
3 . Biota (50 ug/L
above background) 0.041 0.025
Notes:
1.Assumes load is proportioned - 83, 2. 5, 10% to Dow's 1st, 2nd,
3rd and 4th street'outfalls, respectively.
2.Assumes load is entirelv from Dow's 1st Street outfalls.
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300
F. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS FOR REMEDIAL PROGRAMS »
4 I
1. Water Quality, Sediment, and Biota Standards, Guidelines and »
Objectives
Setting goals and objectives based on water quality, sediment,
and biota guidelines is difficult because guidelines do not exist
for many of the contaminants found in the St. Clair River. The
guidelines and objectives that do exist are chemical specific and
do not take into consideration the cumulative toxicity of ex-
posure to multiple contaminants. However, comparing media con-
centrations to relevant guidelines or objectives which exist
allows the identification of areas and ecosystems likely to be
impacted by contaminants.
One of the goals of the UGLCC Study is to protect and maintain
the channels for the highest attainable use. If this goal is
achieved near industrial and municipal point sources of contamin-
ants, then impacts to the river and downstream water bodies
should be greatly reduced. During the study, water samples col-
lected near point sources exceeded many of the Ontario Provincial
Water Quality Objectives (see Tables VII-2 & 3) for the protec-
tion of freshwater aquatic life. Objectives are available for
several chemicals of concern in the St. Clair River. However,
for some chemicals found to be impacting the river, such as
octachlorostyrene and hexachloroethane, there are currently no
surface water objectives.
Objective 1. Develop water quality guidelines or objectives
for OCS, hexachloroethane and other chemicals not
currently possessing water quality objectives.
Objective 2. Reduce surface water concentrations of organic
and inorganic contaminants found to be impacting
the St. Clair River surface water quality to
concentrations below the most restrictive water
quality guidelines with virtual elimination as a
goal.
Several sets of sediment criteria are available with which to
compare sediment contaminant concentrations in the St. Clair
River. These include the Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Guidelines for Dredge Spoils for Open Water Disposal, the GLWQA
Guidelines for Open Water Disposal of Dredged Materials, and the
U.S.EPA Guidelines for the Pollutional Classification of Great
Lakes Harbor Sediments. Even though present sediment guidelines
are generally inadequate, a comparison with contaminant concen-
trations in St. Clair River sediments indicates that there are
several locations with which to be concerned. Many of these
locations are along Sarnia's industrial waterfront, although
there are impacted areas along other reaches of the river, as
well. Guideline exceedences occur for oil and grease, lead, and
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301
mercury (Table VII-5). Sediment guidelines do not exist for many
contaminants found in the sediments of the St. Clair River, in-
eluding hexachlorobenzene, pentachlorobenzene and octachloro-
styrene.
Objective 3. Delineate more accurately, the extent of con-
taminated sediments in the St. Clair River,
especially along Sarnia's industrial waterfront.
Sediment contaminant concentrations should also
be determined for the major St. Clair River tri-
butaries; Talfourd Creek, the Black River, the
Cole Drain.
Objective 4. Develop sediment guidelines for organic chemicals
of concern in St. Clair River sediments for those
not currently having guidelines (e.g. HCB and
OCS) .
Objective 5. Reduce the discharge (concentration and loading)
of chemicals which are Impacting St. Clair River
sediments from known point sources to the lowest
level achievable through the use of best avail-
able technology with virtual elimination as a
goal.
Fish consumption guidelines are available for only a few St.
Clair River contaminants. The only exceedences occur for mercury
and PCBs in the larger fish, of some species (such as carp).
There are no fish consumption guidelines for most of the chemi-
cals of concern in the river.
Objective 6. Reduce inputs (with a goal of virtual elimin-
ation) of mercury, PCBs and other chemicals to
the St. Clair River which are resulting in con-
centrations of contaminants in fish exceeding
guidelines.
Objective 7. Develop fish consumption guidelines for chemicals
found in St. Clair River biota which do not cur-
rently have objectives, such as OCS and HCB, and
reduce, to the extent practicable, inputs of
these contaminants to the St. Clair River.
It is necessary for regulations to move away from requirements
and objectives based solely on concentrations towards those which
include targets for reducing the total mass loading of pollutants
entering the system. Basing effluent limitations on concentra-
tions alone does not account for the long term effect of persis-
tent contaminants which remain in sediments and biota. The dis-
charge of persistent toxic substances should be reduced to as
close to zero as possible (99) , in keeping with the goals of the
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. The only practical way of
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302
reducing/eliminating release of toxic substances to the environ-
ment is at the source of the release.
Several point sources which were identified as providing signif-
icant loadings of chemicals to the St. Clair River discharged in
compliance with their concentration based discharge limitations.
However, the magnitude of their effluent flow was such that sig-
nificant loads were still provided to the St. Clair River. In
other instances, significant discharges of chemicals originated
from point sources that were not regulated with respect to that
chemical (e.g. HCB, DCS and mercury from Dow Chemical and HCB and
PAH from Polysar Sarnia).
Objective 8. Develop mass loading limitations for the point
source discharges of contaminants found to be of
concern in the St. Clair River.
Several municipal waste water treatment facilities, both in
Canada and the United States, periodically exceeded discharge
requirements for certain parameters during the study (e.g.,
Sarnia WWTP, Port Edward WWTP and St. Clair WWTP). Most munici-
pal facilities are only required to control conventional param-
eters, such as total suspended solids, phosphorus and BODS.
Better control of operating conditions at these facilities and
some upgrading may be required to ensure that they are discharg-
ing in compliance.
In some instances, municipal facilities were found to be signifi-
cant contributors of unconventional and toxic substances which
are not regulated, such as, phenols, PAHs, cyanide, zinc and
iron, among others (e.g. Port Huron WWTP and Sarnia WWTP). Iden-
tification of the sources of these contaminants to the municipal
facilities needs to be performed and programs to reduce such
inputs developed if further control is required.
Objective 9. Upgrade the technology and operating procedures
at municipal waste water treatment facilities
found to be exceeding discharge limits to ensure
compliance with all effluent requirements.
Objective 10. Develop additional effluent requirements, in both
mass loading and concentration form, at waste
water treatment facilities identified as provid-
ing significant inputs of nonregulated contamin-
ants impacting the St. Clair River.
Objective 11. Identify the sources of unconventional and toxic
substances entering the municipal facilities
(i.e. industrial contributors) and reduce such
inputs.
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303
Urban nonpoint sources in Canada, such as stormwater and combined
sewer overflows, increase the river contaminant burden for
several parameters including oil and grease, PAHs, lead and iron.
A thorough evaluation of this pollution source on the United
States side of the river was not carried out for the UGLCC Study,
but is needed.
Objective 12. Upgrade or redesign municipal facilities operat-
ing CSOs, such as the Port Huron and the Sarnia
WWTPs, to ensure that CSOs do not occur.
Objective 13. Identify the original sources of contaminants
contained in urban runoff (e.g. atmospheric
sources and spills) and take regulatory and man-
agement steps to reduce or eliminate contaminant
input.
Rural and urban industrial nonpoint sources have been poorly
characterized for the St. Clair River. Contaminant loadings
determined for the Black River and the Cole Drain showed these
tributaries to be significant contributors of many contaminants
including phosphorus, nitrogen, nickel, copper, zinc and cadmium
(Black River) and PAHs, cyanide, and oil and grease (Cole Drain).
Although no contaminant loadings were determined for Talfourd
Creek, the presence of herbicides and pesticides commonly used in
agriculture and high concentrations of some metals supports the
supposition that Talfourd Creek may. be a significant contributor
of contaminants.
Objective 14. Develop programs within the agricultural com-
munity to reduce excessive use of phosphorus and
pesticides. Develop new programs and support
existing ones which provide instruction on the
use of conservation tillage techniques and live-
stock waste management.
Several waste disposal sites have been ranked as having a high
potential to pollute the river. Several other waste disposal
sites appear to need additional information to assess their pre-
sent and future hazard. Improved contaminant and leachate con-
trol and treatment systems may be required for some sites, others
may require more intensive remediation. 'Sludges from municipal
and industrial wastewater treatment plants are either incinerated
or placed in approved land disposal facilities. The transport of
contaminants in surface runoff or groundwater leachate plumes
from the disposal facilities has not been fully assessed.
The ultimate fate of injected wastes disposed in the past by
pressurized injection in Ontario and by continuing pressurized
injection in Michigan is unknown.
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304
Objective 15. Determine the actual state of containment of the
waste sites having a potential to contaminate the
St. Clair River and its tributaries and monitor
groundwater and surface water discharges. For
those sites providing contaminant inputs to the
St. Clair River, remedial and enforcement actions
should be undertaken.
Objective 16. Further delineate the impacts, location and
migration trends of past and present liquid waste
injection into disposal wells, particularly the
role of the buried valley in transporting wastes
to the St. Clair River.
Chemical and oil spills into the river are a continuing problem
which require increased diligence. The feasibility of construct-
ing spill containment facilities at several of the major indus-
tries which frequently experience spills should be analyzed on a
case by case basis. Improved spill prevention plans and worker
training as well as better monitoring devices are other methods
of reducing spills at industrial sites.
Objective 17. Eliminate chemical and oil spills to the St.
Clair River. Management plans and prevention
structures of industries regularly experiencing
spill events should be studied and modified, if
necessary.
2. Habitat Goals
At present, portions of the river support a naturally diverse
assemblage of aquatic organisms generally indicative of an unim-
paired habitat, while in other portions of the river contaminant
discharges have extirpated or reduced the abundance of pollution
intolerant benthic invertebrates that typically have key trophic
roles and contribute substantially to the maintenance of fish
populations. Contaminant controls are required to make the entire
river habitable.
Observable negative impact on benthic communities is apparent for
about 12 km downstream of Sarnia's industrial waterfront.
Because most sediments in the river are transient, reduced con-
taminant discharges should lead to fairly rapid restoration of
the habitat. To restore sediments along the 4-5 km industrial
waterfront, from the Cole Drain to Suncor, may require dredging
or suction removal. Some of the sediments in this area are ag-
gregated with a black tarry substance and show little tendency to
move down the river. There are several other smaller localized
impact zones along the river (described earlier) which will re-
quire the same type of discharge control strategies for clean-
up.
-------
laceburg
FIGURE 11-4
Lake St.Clair
-------
-------
-------
'allaceburg
LAKE
ST. CLAIR
FIGURE 11-3
St. Clair River
-------
Objective 18. Maintain the existing high quality wildlife
habitats throughout the river and delta area.
Objective 19. Restore a healthy biotic community in the 12 km
reach of the St. Clair River along the Sarnia
industrial waterfront.
3. Uses to be Maintained and Restored
At present, the river is inhabited by a variety of aquatic or-
ganisms. Because of contaminant discharges to the river, select-
ed regions are inhabited by few, if any, species, or species that
have a high pollution tolerance. Pollution control improvements
will make the entire river a suitable habitat for diverse aquatic
species.
The river is also used extensively for sports fishing. Fish from
the river contain a variety of contaminants for which fish con-
sumption guidelines have not been developed. The fish obtain
their chemical body burden from direct uptake from water and
through consumption of contaminated lower food chain organisms.
Reduction of discharges to the river would result in a lowering
of contaminant residues in fish and minimize any potential ad-
verse impact to fish consumers. These improvements would un-
doubtedly lead to more recreational use of the river and down-
stream lakes for fishing and other tourism activities.
The river is used by several communities as a drinking water
source. Not all contaminants found in the St. Clair River have
drinking water guidelines . Although drinking water requirements
are more extensive than water quality guidelines, development of
such requirements is needed. The control of chemical discharges
to the river would reduce any potential health effects to drink-
ing water consumers .
Objective 20. Ensure that the quality of fish, waterfowl, other
wildlife and drinking water is suitable for human
consumption by addressing the sources of con-
taminants .
Bacteria concentrations increase along the course of the St.
Clair River from head to mouth. Areas along the river which are
used for swimming have been posted, at times, due to bacterial
contamination .
Objective 21. Reduce the bacterial contamination of the river
to concentrations below public health guidelines
for body contact.
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306 »
v r
G. ADEQUACY OF EXISTING PROGRAMS AND REMEDIAL OPTIONS *
1. Projection of Ecosystem Quality Based on Present Control
Programs
Trend Analysis
The pollution situation in the St. Clair Hiver has improved
steadily over the years. Benthic surveys conducted along the
Canadian shoreline in 1968, 1977, and 1985 showed the seriously
degraded zone had decreased from over 44 km in 1968, to 21 km in
1977, to 12 km in 1985 (49). Yearly sportfish analysis by the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment in the St. Clair System has
shown that PCB and mercury concentrations in fish have steadily
declined since the 1970s (36). Restrictions in use to closed
systems, then finally banning PCBs, are the reason for the PCB
declines. Mercury discharges to the river have declined dramat-
ically since Dow Chemical (the major source) changed its chlorine
production process from mercury electrodes to the diaphragm
process.
Phenol violation zones (water concentrations above 1 ug/L) along
the Canadian shoreline near Sarnia's industrial waterfront and
downstream have decreased significantly in size since 1979
because of improved wastewater treatment (78). Also, the dis-
charge of hexachlorobenzene and octachlorostyrene have been mod-
erated by the addition of a carbon treatment system at Dow's
Scott Road Landfill and by dredging of the Cole Drain (78).
Because of the transitory nature of bottom sediments in the St.
Clair River, the use of sediment cores to infer historical con-
taminant trends is difficult and perhaps impossible. But a
detailed radiochemical analysis of one sediment core collected
downstream of Dow showed that some of the material had been there
for at least 10 years. The uppermost recent layer of this study
core was more contaminated with HCB and OCS than the deeper older
layers. This observation is probably due to the direct contamin-
ation of the sediment with nonaqueous waste material lost from
the Dow site (36). Thus, it is possible that effluent discharges
of these chemicals have decreased in recent years yet the sedi-
ments are more contaminated due to this direct contaminant con-
tact. Dow has made several modifications to its site and have
installed a nonaqueous waste recovery system in the river. The
amount of material lost to the river has decreased significantly
since the time of the UGLCC Study (100).
Superimposed on the large steady wastewater discharges to the
river are intermittent discharges which likely cause considerable
variability in water quality. Sampling in the river for the
UGLCC Study was too infrequent to pick up this variability. But
some studies showed that the concentrations of several contamin-
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307
ants in the river increased after rainfall events (41,42). Pre-
cipitation leads to contaminant loadings in urban runoff and
combined sewer overflows. Also, contaminated stormwater from
several industrial sites is discharged directly to the river.
Stormwater at other industrial sites goes through wastewater
treatment lagoons prior to discharge. This can cause overloading
of low capacity systems. Several industries in the area have
increased their lagoon capacities to eliminate this problem
(100). Precipitation events also lead to increases in leachate
discharge from the waste disposal sites in the area.
Pollution control during rainfall events appears to require
special measures. Better housekeeping practices by industry
would lead to a lowering of contaminant concentrations in storm-
water. Also, improved stormwater storage and treatment systems,
and better leachate treatment for landfills would reduce con-
taminant loadings from these sources. The urban pollution load-
ings could also be reduced by better collection and treatment
methods.
Another variable source of contaminants to the river is spills.
Forty-eight spills occurred in 1986 (65). Large spills can have
a severe impact on biota near the source, and even well down-
stream because of the panelled nature of the flow in the river.
The regular occurrence of spills to the St. Clair must be stopped
if the river is to be restored.
The St. Clair River system should respond quickly' t.o reduced
chemical loadings. The water residence time from Lake Huron to
Lake St. Clair is only 21 hours. Surficial bottom sediments
remain in the river for less than one year. There are a few
pockets of deeper sediments over bottom undulations, and some of
the deeper sediments along Sarnia's industrial district seem to
be congealed together with black, tarry material. Some of these
sediments may require removal, but it is possible that they will
gradually disappear through natural weathering processes.
Mass Balance Model Scenarios
No mass balance models were constructed for the St. Clair River
because of insufficient data. Before useful mass balance models
can be constructed for the river, more detailed information on
loading from various point and nonpoint sources, loadings during
precipitation events, and loadings from ambient water measure-
ments will be required. Ontario's Municipal and Industrial
Strategy for Abatement (MISA) program should provide sufficient
information on Ontario industrial and municipal contributions.
However, data for the U.S. sources and tributary/ambient water
measurements will still be required to provide sufficient data
for a mass balance model.
-------
308
^
Calculations show that the majority of contaminant discharge to
the river for most chemicals originates from point sources in
Canada. Net inputs to the river occur for HCB, OCS, PAHs,
chloride, mercury, and lead. Other parameters not on the UGLCCS
list; benzene, toluene, perchloroethylene, and pentachloroben-
zene, also have sources along the river. Thus, even though a
complete mass balance model was not produced during the UGLCC
Study, the study still provided sufficient information to priori-
tize sources and begin the cleanup task.
2. Assessment of Technical Adequacy of Control Programs
Adequacy of Present Control Technology
The largest users and dischargers of water on the St. Clair River
are four coal-fired power plants (89,170 x 103 m3/d): Detroit
Edison's St. Clair, Marysville, and Belle River Plants and
Ontario Hydro's Lambton Generating Station. For the most part,
water discharged is once-through cooling water. The effects of
this warm-water discharge on the ecosystem was not assessed
during the UGLCC Study. The maximum temperature of discharge
water was within government guidelines most of the time. The
cooling water at all facilities is normally chlorinated to pre-
vent slime buildup on the condenser tubes. The impact of the
chlorine residuals on St. Clair River biota should be limited to
near-field effects, because chlorine will quickly react and dis-
appear in the river. The impact of chlorine residuals from the
power plants was not accessed for the UGLCC Study.
Other contaminant sources from the power plants are storm runoff
from the coal piles and stormwater losses of fly and bottom ash.
All plants have settling basins to minimize the losses of these
potentially toxic solids. The suspended solids concentration in
the effluents was within government guidelines. Analysis of the
contaminant concentration on these suspended solids has not been
performed, and seems to be needed before a proper assessment on
their effects on the environment can be made. Fly ash may con-
tain chlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans, and coal fines will
contain PAHs.
PCBs were used in capacitors and transformers in the electrical
generating industry. Elevated PCS concentrations were found in
the sediments downstream of Lambton Generating Station. PCB
loadings from this facility need further evaluation.
The loadings of contaminants from the power plant effluents was
difficult to evaluate because of the large cooling water dilution
that occurs. More detailed studies appear to be needed to assess
whether or not the current minimal wastewater treatment from
these facilities is adequate.
-------
309
The next largest effluent discharges to the river (1,150 x 103
m3/d) are chemical companies. A list of the major chemical com-
panies, their locations, and their wastewater treatment methods
are listed in Table VII-21. Methods of treatment vary from pri-
mary, physical/chemical treatment to secondary biological treat-
ment, depending on the nature of the product and wastewater
generated.
In general, these companies are required to meet annual average
discharge limits for ammonia, phenols, suspended solids, and oil
and grease. All facilities complied with government discharge
limits. But, many toxic and persistent contaminants are not
controlled by government effluent permits. An excellent example
of this is Dow Chemical which is the largest discharger of hexa-
chlorobenzene to the St. Clair River. One of the effluent
streams at Dow is biologically treated, but the largest HCB load-
ings are from effluents that go into the river after receiving
only primary treatment. Biological treatment is not an appro-
priate method for HCB. Decreases in HCB effluent concentrations
which occur during biological treatment are due to adsorption of
HCB by the sludge. However, this simply transforms the phase of
the material, and therefore does not really eliminate the problem
from an ecosystem perspective.
Generally, biological treatment does not adequately treat persis-
tent chemicals. Even though these companies are putting more
emphasis and money into environmental control programs (100),
much more effort is needed to minimize the formation of persis-
tent toxic organics and/or to destroy them on-site. These per-
sistent chemicals should not be discharged into the environment.
The next largest dischargers (543 x 103 m'3/d) to the St. Clair
River are four petroleum refineries; Imperial Oil (Sarnia),
Suncor (Sarnia), Polysar (Corunna), and Shell (Corunna). As with
the chemical companies, these industries are regulated for am-
monia, phenols, suspended solids, sulphide, pH and oil and
grease. All companies are in compliance. The treatment for all
companies involves oil separators, dual media filters, and bio-
logical treatment. Studies have shown that this treatment se-
quence efficiently removes not only the regulated parameters, but
also the aromatic hydrocarbons and PAHs from the wastewater (66).
Whether or not these chemically are biodegraded or simply
transferred to the air or sludge is an important question that
should be addressed.
Municipal wastewater treatment plants are the next largest dis-
chargers (151 x 103 m3/d) to the river. All plants except Sarnia
and Point Edward have secondary biological treatment plus phos-
phorus removal. Sarnia and Point Edward WWTPs have only primary
treatment plus phosphorus removal. Upgrading of these two plants
would reduce the discharge of some contaminants to the river.
The municipal wastewater treatment plants were significant
-------
310
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311
sources for some of the persistent contaminants; for example,
PCBs and trace metals. Since these materials are not readily
degradable, efforts must be made to stop their discharge into the
sanitary sewers at source.
Another significant source of industrial wastewater to the river
is the Cole Drain (147 x 10^ m^/d). In dry weather, the flow in
this open municipal ditch is largely industrial (65). Major
discharges to the drain were: leachates from disposal sites along
Scott Road owned by Polysar, Dow, Fiberglas, Imperial Oil, and
the City of Sarnia (sewage sludge); Canadian National Railway
yard runoff; Dome Petroleum; Esso Chemical (stormwater); Cabot
Carbon, Fiberglas, and Polysar (stormwater). Dow Chemical has
carbon treatment on the Scott Road landfill leachate, but this
seems to be inadequate to prevent the discharge of HCB, OCS, and
other persistent chlorinated organics to the drain. The Cole
Drain is also a significant source of PAHs, cyanide, and oil and
grease. Individual discharges to the ditch will need to be quan-
tified before the source of these chemicals can be traced. It is
apparent that much better treatment and control of effluents
discharged to the ditch will be required.
Urban runoff has also been shown to be a significant source for
some contaminants (82). At present, this water is completely
untreated. Agricultural nonpoint sources are the most signifi-
cant contributor of phosphorus to the St. Clair River (84,85).
Improved tillage practices and reduced use of unnecessary
commercial fertilizers would be the only way to reduce these
inputs. Such a program would require extensive education of
farmers in modern agricultural techniques.
Several waste disposal sites could potentially seriously impact
the St. Clair River. These sites have been ranked by the Non-
point Source Workgroup (88). Clay or synthetic liners, leachate
collection systems, and monitoring well networks have not been
required for most of the sites. For most sites, there is minimal
or no treatment of waste or leachate.
3. Assessment of Regulatory Adequacy
Major industrial dischargers in the Sarnia area are subject to
discharge limits specified in Certificates of Approval, Control
Orders or the Ontario Industrial Effluent Guidelines. The in-
dustries are required to self-monitor on a regular basis and
supply the OMOE with the data. It is a violation of the Environ-
mental Protection Act to "knowingly give 'false information". The
Ministry collects audit samples to check the validity of the
self-monitoring data. Sampling visits are frequently arranged in
advance. This could be a weakness in the system because surprise
visits would be more effective.
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The companies discharging to the St. Clair River are largely in
compliance with the regulations. Since problems in the river
still persist, this would seem to indicate that the laws and
regulations are insufficient to provide environmental protection.
If tougher regulations came into force, more environmental polic-
ing will likely be required. More frequent auditing of the
self-monitoring data will also be necessary.
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H. RECOMMENDATIONS
The UGLCC Study for the St. Clair River has revealed several
problems which need to be addressed. Point source discharges,
particularly in Sarnia's Chemical Valley, need to be reduced.
These sources represent the largest contributors of many con-
taminants to the system, so remedial measures here will provide
cost effective improvements in river quality. In addition, tri-
butary contributions and urban runoff appear to be supplying
significant loadings of certain contaminants. Sources of these
contaminants need to be identified and addressed.
Comparison of river media concentrations to guidelines is a quick
way of identifying areas of probable environmental impact or
impairment. However, the ecosystem approach may give a better
indication of contaminant impacts on the system as a whole. A
multi-media perspective must be developed so that the overall
impact on the system is assessed.
The following recommendations are designed to address the objec-
tives identified in Section F. As these recommendations are
implemented, monitoring programs should be undertaken to ensure
the objectives are being met.
A. Industrial and Municipal Point Source Remedial Recommendations
1. Ontario and Michigan should incorporate the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement's goal of the virtual elimination of
all persistent toxic substances into their respective regu-
latory programs.
2. Polysar Sarnia should take action to significantly reduce
benzene and phenols in the American Petroleum Institute
(API) stereo separator effluent. The operation of the Biox
treatment system should be optimized to attain the Ontario
Industrial Effluent Objectives for total phenols and
ammonia-nitrogen. Effluent requirements (in both concentra-
tion and mass loading form) should be instated for PAHs and
HCB at the most stringent levels attainable through the use
of the best available technology.
3. Dow Chemical should significantly reduce its discharge of
organic chemicals to the river. The facility was a major
contributor of 5 of the 7 organic groups studied. It is
noted that current self-monitoring data is being made pub-
licly available to demonstrate the effect of recent remedial
efforts at this facility. Many improvements in operation
have been implemented at Dow Chemical since the time of the
UGLCCS survey. Self-monitoring data and other sampling
results should be reviewed to determine if additional rem-
edial actions are needed.
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4. The sources of ongoing mercury discharges from Dow Chemical
and Ethyl Canada should be identified and eliminated.
5. Ethyl Canada should improve the operation of its treatment
plant to reduce concentrations of tetra ethyl lead to meet
the GLWQA specific objective and the PWQO of 25 ug/L. In
addition, enforceable mass loading limitations for lead
should be instated at this facility. Volatiles, especially
chloroethane, should also be significantly reduced in the
effluent.
6. Polysar Corunna should reduce the concentration of chromium
and zinc in the final effluent. This facility should con-
sider substituting less persistent additives in the recycle
cooling water system.
7. Effluent concentrations for chloride were generally below
drinking water objectives, but the total point source load-
ing to the system was very large (356 tonnes/day). Most was
from facilities in the Sarnia area. The extreme loadings
may be affecting aquatic organisms downstream of these faci-
lities . Chloride concentration and loading limitations
should be considered for those facilities discharging sig-
nificant amounts of chlorides.
8. All potential sources of releases of heat exchanger fluids
should be identified and controlled.
9. The Sarnia WWTP should be expanded and upgraded to secondary
biological treatment with phosphorus removal. In conjunc-
tion with the upgrading, the Point Edward WWTP (a primary
plant) should be considered for use as a pretreatment facil-
ity which would discharge to the Sarnia Plant. The loading
of ammonia-nitrogen, total phenols, heavy metals, and or-
ganics to the St. Clair River would be significantly reduced
by this action.
10. American Tape in Marysville should be evaluated to ensure
compliance with their NPDES permit, Michigan Water Quality
Standards and BAT requirements for toluene and xylene in its
discharge.
11. The City of Marysville should be evaluated to ensure com-
pliance with their NPDES permit and Michigan Water Quality
Standards for toluene in its discharge.
12. The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit
for the Marine City WWTP should be evaluated to ensure com-
pliance with Michigan Water Quality Standards for cyanide.
The pretreatment program should be reviewed to ensure that
cyanide is adequately regulated. Acute and chronic bio-
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assays for cyanide may be required at this facility.
13. A survey should be conducted at the St. Clair County-Algonac
WWTP to evaluate the efficiency of the treatment system. An
ammonia-nitrogen effluent limitation should be considered
for the facility. Nitrogen loading to the river and Lake
St. Clair may be reduced by these actions.
14. The City of St. Clair WWTP should be resurveyed to ensure
that the expanded plant is operating effectively.
15. A study of industrial contributors to the Port Huron WWTP
should be undertaken to identify the source or sources of
CN- and PCBs to this facility. Pretreatment requirements
for all industrial contributors should be examined, and
modified if needed. Effluent requirements for CN- and PCBs
should be considered for inclusion in the facility's NPDES
permit.
16. Biomonitoring studies should be conducted at the major
dischargers to determine whole effluent toxicity at these
facilities. This study evaluated the point sources only on
a parameter-by-parameter basis, with no attempt made to
determine the impact of any additive or synergistic effects
the parameters may exhibit.
B. Nonpoint Source Remedial Recommendations
17. Sources of PAHs and total cyanide to the Cole Drain, Sarnia,
should be identified. If the sources are exceeding applic-
able effluent guidelines, they should be remediated.
18. The loadings via surface water runof.f and groundwater dis-
charge from landfills in the Scott Road area to the Cole
Drain need to be determined and treated as necessary.
19. Licensing requirements for sludge disposal facilities should
ensure that surface water and groundwater are properly moni-
tored and treated.
20. A and B Waste Disposal, Hoover Chemical Reeves Company, and
Wills St. Dump Site were all scored under the Superfund
Hazard Ranking System (HRS) apparently without consideration
of groundwater quality information. The State of Michigan
should determine, based upon USGS chemistry information, the
State priority for action at each site. Development of more
complete groundwater information on-site would allow the
State the options of pursuing Federal action under Superfund
by rescoring the site under the new HRS (when it is approv-
ed) , or pursuing remediation under Act 307 (MERA). Further-
more, the facilities needs for RCRA permitting need to be
assessed, or reassessed.
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21. The proximity of Eltra Corp. Prestolite to the St. Clair
River, and the nature of wastes on site call for careful
evaluation of impacts on groundwater and on the St. Clair
River prior to facility closure under RCRA authorities. In
the event that a satisfactory evaluation of groundwater
contamination and runoff impacts upon the St. Clair River
are not secured, a Site Investigation (SI) under Superfund
authorities should be undertaken. The SI should include
assessment of both groundwater and surface runoff impacts
upon the St. Clair River.
22. The State of Michigan needs to restrict access of dumpers to
Winchester Landfill. The State's development of groundwater
information for this site would assist in scoring by the
HRS.
23. Michigan and Ontario municipal combined sewer overflows
should be intensively surveyed to determine their contri-
bution of pollutant loadings to the river. In the long term
(due to the enormous cost), combined sewers in all munici-
palities should be eliminated. In the interim, the munici-
palities should institute in-system controls to minimize the
frequency and volume of overflows.
24. The Michigan Pollution Emergency Alerting System and spill
reports from the Ontario Spills Action Centre should be
improved so that all information on recovery, volume (if
known), and final resolution are fed back to the central
reporting system to complete each report for inventory pur-
poses.
25. Spill management programs at all facilities should be re-
viewed and enhanced to reduce the frequency and magnitude of
spills to the St. Clair River with the goal of eventually
eliminating all spills.
26. Aggressive educational programs on the use of conservation
tillage techniques and pesticide, fertilizer, and manure
application techniques should be provided to farmers to
reduce rural runoff contaminant contributions. Stricter
legislation to control such application should be developed
and enforced.
C. Surveys, Research and Development
27. Water quality guidance needs to be developed binationally
for OCS, individual or total PAHs, hexachloroethane and
chlorides. In addition, Canada needs to develop guidance
for hexachlorobutadiene, and the U.S. needs water quality
guidance for hexachlorobenzene, phosphorus and pentachloro-
benzene. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement needs to
develop specific objectives for all of these parameters.
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Fish consumption and sediment guidance are needed for HCB,
OCS, PAHs, alkyl lead, and other chemicals found to be of
concern in this study.
28. More data are needed to assess the impact of PAHs on the St.
Clair River. Ambient water concentrations, and point and
nonpoint source loadings should be measured. Monitoring
should be detailed enough to allow for the finger printing
of sources.
29. The importance of contaminant loadings during rainfall
events needs to be evaluated.
30. The loadings of all chemicals with high bioconcentration and
bioaccumulation potential should be reduced to minimize
contaminant body burdens in resident and spawning fish.
31. Assess the significance of mercury contamination to biota
from sediments relative to ongoing discharges and develop
remedial actions as necessary.
32. Industrial and municipal facilities discharging to St. Clair
River tributaries should be surveyed to determine their
contribution of contaminants to the St. Clair River. In
particular, contaminant loadings from Talfourd Creek in
Ontario and the Black River in Michigan should be deter-
mined.
33. The potential PCB source in the vicinity of the Lambton
Generating Station should be investigated and quantified.
34. The loadings and sources of PCBs, PAHs, oil and grease,
lead, ammonia, and phosphorus from the unnamed creek in
Michigan across from the Lambton Generating Station should
be determined and controlled to ensure compliance with
Michigan Water Quality Standards.
35. The lead source to the Black River in Michigan should be
located and controlled.
36. Sources of bacterial contamination to the river should be
traced and eliminated.
37. A waterfowl consumption advisory should be considered by
Ontario and Michigan for the St. Clair River.
38. A study on the magnitude of contaminant input to the St.
Clair River from Michigan urban runoff should be undertaken,
and an additional, more refined study on Canadian urban
runoff should also be performed. Management control options
for urban runoff should be developed.
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39. Contamination from waste disposal sites, identified as high
priority by the Nonpoint Source Workgroup (88), need to be
further investigated with regard to contaminant pathways,
including surface water runoff and groundwater seepage, and
environmental impacts.
40. Continued monitoring of water levels and water quality in
the freshwater aquifer in the Sarnia area is required.
41. The potential for transboundary migration and contamination
of the St. Clair River and/or the fresh water aquifer in the
Sarnia area from industrial waste in the 74 m and 123 m
depth limestone layers of the Hamilton Group should be in-
vestigated. Of particular concern, is the 74 m depth hori-
zon which likely flows into the fresh water aquifer in the
deeper sections of the bedrock valley.
42. To understand the fate of the industrial waste disposed to
the Detroit River Group, additional deep boreholes to the
disposal formation are required to quantify the current
directions and rates of groundwater movement.
43. Michigan should co-operate with Ontario in the deep well
studies. A number of deep wells are needed in St. Clair
County to supplement the information from the Ontario
studies. If evidence of impacts upon Michigan groundwater
is developed, a variety of authorities, including Superfund,
may be applicable for remediation of identified problems.
44. The potential biological consequences of increased chloride
concentrations in the St. Clair River and downstream should
be examined.
45. Better methods for analysis of PCBs in the St. Clair River
need to be undertaken.
46. Studies on the bioavailability of particle-bound contamin-
ants, and contaminant desorption from suspended and bottom
sediments are required to make a better assessment of the
impact of in-place pollutants.
47. Studies on the effects of multicontaminant exposure to
aquatic life.
48. Studies to better understand the fate and transport of sedi-
ment-borne contaminants are needed. These studies should
include profiling the age and contamination of sediments in
St. Clair River and delta depositional areas.
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I. LONG TERM MONITORING
1. Purposes for Monitoring and Relationships Between UGLCCS and
Other Monitoring Programs.
A presentation of the purposes for monitoring and surveillance
activities is included under Annex 11 of the 1978 GLWQA, and a
discussion of considerations for the design of a long term mon-
itoring program can be found in Chapter 7 of the Report of the
Niagara River Toxics Committee (1984). Because the focus of the
UGLCC Study was toward remedial actions to alleviate impaired
uses of the Connecting Channels System, long term monitoring
recommendations will likewise focus on the evaluation of trends
in environmental quality in order to assess the effectiveness of
remedial actions. In general, post-UGLCCS monitoring should be
sufficient to 1) detect system-wide trends in conditions noted by
the UGLCCS, and 2) detect changes in ambient conditions which
have resulted from specific remedial actions. Monitoring
programs should be designed to specifically detect the changes
intended by the remedial actions so as to ensure relevance in
both temporal and spatial scales.
Two major programs sponsored by the IJC also contain plans for
long term monitoring: the Great Lakes International Surveillance
Plan (GLISP) and the Areas of Concern Remedial Action Plans (AoC-
RAPs). The GLISP for the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels
is presently incomplete, pending results of the UGLCC Study, but
it is expected to provide monitoring and surveillance guidance to
U.S. and Canadian agencies responsible for implementing the pro-
visions of the WQA that include general surveillance and research
needs as well as monitoring for results of remedial actions.
The St. Clair River is one of the AoCs, and a RAP is being devel-
oped jointly by Michigan and Ontario. The RAP will present
details of uses impaired, sources of contaminants, specific reme-
dial actions, schedules for implementation, resources committed
by Michigan and Ontario to the project, target clean-up levels,
and monitoring requirements. Results and recommendations coming
from the UGLCC Study will be incorporated extensively into the
RAP, which will then be the document that influences State and
Provincial programs in the St. Clair River. The recommenda-
tions for long term monitoring that are presented below are in-
tended for consideration and incorporation into either or both
the GLISP and RAP for the St. Clair River.
2. System Monitoring for Contaminants
Water
Knowledge of the concentrations of the principal contaminants in
the water of the St. Clair River should be used to indicate
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general exposure levels for the biota, to identify changes and
trends over time in the concentration levels, and to be used for
general assessment of contaminant impacts. The parameters to be
monitored include HCB, OCS, total phenols, cyanide, mercury,
lead, total volatiles and chlorides. Monitoring stations should
be located where elevated concentrations of the contaminants are
known or predicted from dispersion models. Suggested locations
include the head of the St. Clair River and at Port Lambton,
particularly on the Canadian side. Sampling frequency should be
influenced by the variability in contaminant sources. Spring
high flow conditions and late summer low flow conditions would be
expected to bracket the normal seasonal variability in flow that
co-uld. influence measured contaminant concentrations.
A mass balance approach to contaminant monitoring will help to
identify any changes in the contaminant mass over time, and it
will provide the basis for targeting future remedial actions by
providing a comparison of the magnitude of the sources. A mass
balance analysis should be conducted approximately once every
five years, assuming that some effective remedial action has been
implemented against one or more sources such that the total load-
ings of contaminants, or the relative contribution of the sources
to the loading, has changed. The sources to be measured should
include:
1) Head and mouth transects. The number and location of sta-
tions should relate to measured and predicted plume dis-
tributions. Suggested locations include the head of the St.
Clair River and at Port Lambton. The Port Lambton transect
will be consistent with past dispersion measurements and
modeling work, and will help delineate contaminant loading
into Lake St. Clair. Both dissolved and particulate frac-
tions should be analyzed. The quantity of suspended
sediment flux should also be measured.
2) Municipal and industrial point sources. During the
survey, the sampling must be frequent enough to ac-
curately reflect the likely loading fluctuations from
the major point sources. The sources include the major
outfalls of Sarnia WWTP, Cole Drain, Polysar Sarnia,
Polysar Corunna, Dow Chemical, Suncor, Ethyl Canada,
CIL Inc., Port Edward WWTP, and Marine City WWTP.
3) Tributaries. Efforts should be focused on seasonal and
storm event loadings of contaminants to the St. Clair
River from Talfourd Creek and the Belle, Pine and Black
Rivers. A channel near Fawn Island also diverts some
of the Sydenham River drainage to the St. Clair River
during severe spring runoff events. Tributary mouth
stations should be sampled and analyzed for both dis-
solved and sediment-associated contaminant loadings.
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4) CSOs and Urban Runoff. To provide an estimate of con-
taminant mass loadings expected during storm events,
occasional studies on selected urban drainage areas
should be conducted. Some estimates have been made for
Sarnia, Ontario. Similar estimates should be made for
other urban areas along the river.
5) Groundwater inflow. The quantity and quality of poten-
tial contaminant releases from waste disposal sites
adjacent to the St. Clair River or its tributaries
should be determined. Permits should require ground-
water monitoring, an assessment of surface water runoff
and determination of overall loadings to surface water.
Characterize the distribution, composition and movement
of deep well injected waste. Evaluate the impacts of
Michigan and Ontario injection pressure regimes on the
movement of the waste.
6) Sediment transport. Preliminary studies indicate that
less than 1% of the contaminants in the St. Clair River
are transported by bed-load sediments movement. How-
ever, the quantity of contaminants being desorbed from
the sediments should be determined in order to assess
loadings from these in-place polluted sediments.
7) Atmospheric deposition. Direct atmospheric deposition
of contaminants to the St. Clair River is expected to
be minor. Deposition to the drainage basin and sub-
sequent runoff into the river or its tributaries,
however, could be an important source for some con-
taminants. Estimates of contaminant mass in both wet
and dry deposition to the drainage basin should be made
when unidentified non-point sources are found to be a
major contributor of any of the contaminants of
interest.
Sediments
Monitoring of sediments for concentrations of contaminants should
be conducted periodically throughout the St. Clair River in order
to assess both the trends in surficial contaminant concentrations
and the movement of sediment-associated contaminants within the
River. The grid used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service dur-
ing the 1985 survey would be appropriate for consistency in sam-
pling sites and sediment composition. An analysis of sediment
chemistry including bulk chemistry, organic and inorganic con-
taminants, and particle size distribution should be conducted
every 5 years, in conjunction with a biota survey (see "habitat
monitoring" below). In the St. Clair River, particular attention
should be given to sediment concentrations of chlorinated or-
ganics (PCBs, HCB, OCS, HCBD), benzene, phenols, oil and grease,
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and heavy metals, including mercury.
Because the grid stations are distributed throughout the river
reach and are associated with appropriate habitat for a sensitive
benthic invertebrate (Hexagenia), the periodic survey will allow
assessment of 1) contaminant concentrations in the river sedi-
ments throughout the river reach, 2) relative movement of the
contaminants within the river sediments between surveys, and 3)
correlation of contaminant concentrations with benthic biotic
communities.
The sediments at any stations established at the mouths of tribu-
taries to ,the.St. Clair River should be monitored for organic and
inorganic contaminants on an annual or biannual basis when sig-
nificant remedial actions are implemented within the watershed of
the tributary. In order to trigger the more frequent sediment
monitoring program, the remedial actions should be expected to
measurably reduce loadings of one or more particular contaminants
via the tributary.
Biota
Long term monitoring of concentrations of contaminants in biota
will provide a time series useful to track the bioavailability of
contaminants to selected representative organisms. Three long
term monitoring programs are already in place in the Great Lakes
basin and should be expanded into the St. Clair River.
i) Annual or Bi-Annual Monitoring of Sport Fish.
This program should focus especially on PCBs, mercury and/or
other contaminants (e.g. dioxins and dibenzofurans) that are
considered to be known or suspected health hazards. Because many
of the fish species in the river are transitory, efforts should
be made to identify and sample those species that have an ex-
tended residence time in the river as well as those that are most
sought by anglers. The monitoring should be continued regardless
of the differences that may be observed between acceptable con-
centrations or action levels that may be established by govern-
ment agencies and the measured contaminant concentrations in the
fish flesh. As a link between human health concerns and integr-
ated results of remedial programs to reduce contaminants in the
UGLCC System, this program is critically important.
ii) Spottail Shiner Monitoring Program.
This program is designed to identify source areas for bioavail-
able contaminants. In locations where spottail shiners or other
young-of-the-year fish contain elevated levels of contaminants,
additional studies should be conducted to identify the sources of
the contaminants. Some upstream studies in tributaries may be
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required. Spottails should also be employed to confirm that
remedial actions upstream to a previous survey have been effec-
tive in removing or reducing the loading of one or more contamin-
ants.
iii) Caged Clams Contaminants Monitoring.
Caged clams should continue to be used at regular time intervals,
perhaps in conjunction with spottail shiners, to monitor in-
tegrated results of remedial actions to reduce contaminant load-
ings to the water. Clams may be located at tributary mouths and
downstream of suspected source areas. Repeated assays from the
same locations should confirm results of remedial actions.
3. Sources Monitoring for Results of Specific Remedial Actions
Remedial actions intended to reduce concentrations and/or load-
ings of contaminants from specific point sources generally re-
quire monitoring for compliance with the imposed criteria or
standards. The monitoring may be conducted by the facility or by
the regulating agency, whichever is applicable, but attention
must be given to the sampling schedule and analytical methodology
such that mass loadings of the contaminants can be estimated, as
well as concentrations in the sampled medium. Monitoring of the
"nearfield" environment, i.e., close downstream in the effluent
mixing zone, should be conducted regularly to document reductions
in contaminant levels in the appropriate media and to document
the recovery of impaired ecosystem processes and biotic com-
munities. Such monitoring may be required for a "long time", but
over a restricted areal extent, depending on the severity of the
impact and the degree of reduction of contaminant loading that is
achieved.
For the St. Clair River, eleven actions were recommended that
would affect specific sources of contaminants, and that would
require site specific monitoring for compliance or other effects
of the action at the following locations: Marine City WWTP
(cyanide concentration), St. Clair County-Algonac WWTP (ammonia-
nitrogen limits), American Tape in Marysville (xylene and
toluene), City of Marysville WWTP (toluene), Sarnia WWTP
(phosphorus, ammonia-nitrogen, total phenols, heavy metals and
organics), Cole Drain, Sarnia (PAHs, cyanide, oil and grease),
Polysar Sarnia (benzene, phenols), Dow Chemical (several organic
chemicals), Ethyl Canada (lead, volatile organics, mercury, and
chloroethane), and Polysar Corunna (chromium and zinc).
Other recommendations for specific contaminant sources involve an
assessment of the present conditions or a study to quantify con-
centrations or loadings: survey the St. Clair County-Algonac WWTP
and the City of St. Clair WWTP to document the efficiency of the
treatment system, intensively survey CSOs in Michigan and Ontario
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for determining the contribution of pollutant loadings to the
River, establish biomonitoring studies at a major point source
contributors, assess impact of PAHs on St. Glair River and es-
timate their loadings, measure contaminant loadings during rain-
fall events, obtain better estimates of the mercury losses from
the Dow site, quantify loadings of contaminants from urban non-
point sources, evaluate contamination from waste disposal sites,
etc. Each of these items requires a specific program of data
collection and analysis. Additional needs for longer term monit-
oring may be identified as a result of these studies.
4. Habitat Monitoring
Habitat monitoring should be conducted to detect and describe
changes in the ecological characteristics of the St. Clair River
through periodic analysis of key ecosystem elements. The
following items are recommended:
a) The abundance and distribution of the mayfly Hexagenia
should be determined every five years. The grid used
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service during the 1985
survey would be appropriate for consistency in sampling
sites each survey. An analysis of sediment chemistry,
including bulk .chemistry, organic and inorganic con-
taminants, and particle-size distribution, should be
conducted for samples taken concurrently with the Hexa-
genia survey. These data will provide information on
the quality of the benthic habitat for a common pollu-
tion-sensitive organism that would serve as an indica-
tor species of environmental quality.
b) Quantification of the extent of wetlands along the St.
Clair River should be conducted every five years, in
conjunction with the Hexagenia survey. Aerial photog-
raphy or other remote sensing means would be appro-
priate to discern both emergent and submergent macro-
phyte beds that are important as nursery areas for
larval fish and other wildlife. Verification of areal
data should be conducted by inspection of selected
transects for plant species identification and abun-
dances . Changes in wetland areas should be correlated
with fluctuating water levels and other natural docu-
mentable influences so that long term alterations in
wetlands can be tracked and causes identified.
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J. REFERENCES
1. Edsall, T.A., B.A. Manny, and C.N. Raphael. 1988. The
St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair, Michigan: an ecologi-
cal profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biol. Rep.
85 (7.3) . 130 pp.
2. Edsall, T.A., P.B. Kauss, D. Kenaga, T. Kubiak, J. Leach,
T. Nalepa, and S. Thornley. 1988b. St. Clair River biota
and their habitats: A geographic area report of the Biota
Work Group, Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study
(Typescript). pp.42 plus 5 tables and 26 figures.
3. Korkigian, I.M. 1963. Channel Changes in the St. Clair
River since 1900. J. Waterways Harbors Div., Proc. Am.
Soc. Civil Eng. 89:1-14.
4. Muth, K.M., D.R. Wolfert, andM.T. Bur. 1986. Environ-
mental study of fish spawning and nursery areas of the
St. Clair - Detroit River system. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Draft Final Report, Sand'usky, Ohio, U.S.A.
5. Herdendorf, C.E., C.N. Raphael, and W.G. Duffy. 1986.
The ecology of Lake St. Clair wetlands: A community prof-
ile. National Wetlands Research Center, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.7). U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. pp.187.
6. Quinn, F.H., and R.N. Kelly. 1983. Great Lakes monthly
hydrologic data. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. ERL GLERL-26. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
pp.79.
7. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1968. Provision for
alternate disposal methods for Detroit River, Michigan
COE, Detroit District.
8. Kauss, P.B., and Y.S. Hamdy, 1985. Biological monitoring
of organochlorine contaminants in the St. Clair and
Detroit Rivers using introduced clams, Elliptio
complanatus. J. Great Lake Res. 11:247-263.
9. Thornley, S. 1985. Macrozoobenthos of the Detroit and
St. Clair Rivers with comparisons to neighboring waters.
J. Great Lakes Res. 11:290-296.
10. Chau, Y.K., R.J. Maguire, P.T.S. Wong, and M.E.
Sanderson, (eds.). 1985a. Detroit River - St. Clair River
Special Issue. J. Great Lakes Research 11:191-418.
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11. Chau, Y.K., P.T.S. Wong, G.A. Bengert, J.L. Dunn, and B.
Glen. 1985b. Occurrence of alkyl lead compounds in the
Detroit and St. Clair Rivers. J. Great Lakes Res.
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12. Oliver, B.C., and R.A. Bourbonniere , 1985. Chlorinated
contaminants in surficial sediments of Lake Huron, St.
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St. Clair and Detroit Rivers. J. Great Lakes Res.
11:366-372.
13. United States Environmental Protection Agency and
Environment Canada, 1987. The Great Lakes - An
environmental atlas and resource book. EPA-905/9-87-002,
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14. Jaworski, E. , and C.N. Raphael. 1978. Fish, wildlife,
and recreational values of Michigan's coastal wetlands.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Twin Cities, Minnesota.
pp.209.
15. Raphael, C.N., and E. Jaworski. 1982. The St. Clair
River Delta, a unique lake delta. Geograph. Bull.
21(2) :7-28.
16. Bricker, K.S., F.J. Bricker, and J.E. Gannon. 1976.
Distribution and abundance of zooplankton in the U.S.
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17. Munawar, M. 1988. Report to UGLCCS Biota Workgroup (see
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18. Watson and Carpenter. 1974. Cited by Edsall et al. ,
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20. Hudson, P.L., B.M. Davis, S.J. Nichols, and C.M. Tomcko.
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21. Schloessar, D.W., and B.A. Manny. 1982. Distribution and
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327
22. Schloesser, D.W. 1986. A field guide to valuable
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23. Schneider, J.C., and J.H. Leach, 1979. Walleye stocks in
the Great Lakes, 1800-1975: Fluctuations and possible
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24. Dawson, S.A. 1975. Waterfowl food production and
utilization in Anchor Bay, Lake St. Clair, Michigan.
M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp.124.
25. Lyon, J.G. 1979a. Analyses of coastal wetland
characteristics: The St. Clair Flats, Michigan. M.S.
Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp.65.
26. Lyon, J.G. 1979b. Remote sensing analysis of coastal
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27. Hatcher, C.O., and R.T. Nester. 1983. Distribution and
abundance of fish larvae in the St. Clair and Detroit
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28. Goodyear, C.D., T.A. Edsall, D.M.O. Dempsey, G.D. Moss,
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29. Hamilton, J.G. 1987. Survey of critical habitat within
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30. Rodgers, P.W., M.S. Kieser, and G.W. Peterson. 1985.
Summary of the existing status of the Upper Great Lakes
Connecting Channels data. Limno-Tech, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan, pp.156 plus appendices.
31. Haas, R.C., M.G. Galbraith, and W.C. Bryant. 1983. Move-
ment and harvest of fish in Lake St. Clair, St. Clair
River, and Detroit River. 1983 Annual Report, Winter
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32. Eichenlaub, V.L. 1979. Weather and climate of the Great
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328
33. Sanderson, M. 1980. The climate 'of the Essex region -
Canada's southland. Dept. of Geography, University of
Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, pp.105.
34. International Joint Commission. 1946. Pollution of the
St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River and St.
Marys River. Document No. 54-R.
35. Water Resources Branch, Ontario Ministry of the
Environment. 1977. Mercury content of sediments in the
St. Clair River - Lake St. Clair system. Unpublished
report.
36. Environment Canada and Ontario Ministry of the
Environment. 1986. St. Clair River pollution
investigation (Sarnia area).
37. Chan, C.H., Y.L. Lau, and B.C. Oliver. 1986. Measured and
modeled chlorinated contaminant distribution in St. Clair
River water. Water Poll. Res. J. Canada. 21:332-343.
38. Kauss, P.B., and Y. Hamdy, 1987. PAH Concentrations in
caged clams from St. Clair and Detroit Rivers, 1984.
OMOE Report in preparation.
39. Frank, A.P., P.P. Landrum, and B.J. Eadie. 1986.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon rates of uptake,
depuration, and biotransformation by Stylodrilus
Heringianus of Lake Michigan. Chemosphere 15:317-330.
40. Oliver, B.C. 1987. Partitioning relationships for
chlorinated organics between water and particulates in
the St. Clair, Detroit and Niagara Rivers. In: QSAR in
Environmental Toxicology II. K.L.E. Kaiser (Ed). D.
Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, Holland.
41. Johnson, G.D., and P.B. Kauss. 1987. Estimated
contaminant loadings in the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers,
1984. Ontario Ministry of the Environment Report ISBN
0-7729-3264-6, Toronto.
42. Oliver, B.C., and K.L.E. Kaiser. 1986. Chlorinated
organics in nearshore waters and tributaries of the St.
Clair River. Water Poll. Res. J. Canada. 21:344-350.
43. Winner, J.M., A.J. Oud, and R.G. Ferguson. 1970.
Plankton productivity studies in Lake St. Clair. Proc.
13th Conf. Great Lakes Res., Int. Assoc. Great Lakes Res.
pp. 640-650.
44. Haas, R.C., W.C. Bryant, K.D. smith, and A.J. Nuhfer.
1985. Movement and harvest of fish in Lake St. Clair, St.
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Clair River, and Detroit River. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Detroit, Michigan, pp.141.
45. Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1977. Great Lakes
water quality data summary, St. Clair River, 1976. Great
Lakes Survey Unit, Toronto, pp.57.
46. Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1979. St. Clair
River organics study: Biological 'surveys 1968 and 1977.
Water Resources Assessment Unit, Technical Support
Section, Southwest Region, pp.90.
47. Hiltunen, J.K. 1980. Composition, distribution, and
density of benthos in the lower St. Clair River,
1976-1977. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Great Lakes
Fish. Lab., Ann Arbor, Mich., Adm. Report 80-4. pp.27.
48. Hiltunen, J.K., and B.A. Manny, 1982. Distribution and
abundance of macrozoobenthos in the Detroit River and
Lake St. Clair, 1977. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Great Lakes Fish. Lab., Ann Arbor, Mich. Adm. Report
80-2. pp.87.
49. Griffiths, R.W. 1987. Environmental quality assessment
of the St. Clair River in 1985 as reflected by the
distribution of benthic invertebrate communities.
Aquatic Ecostudies, Ltd., Kitchener, Ontario, pp.51.
50. Persaud, D., T.D. Lomas, and A. Hayton. 1987. The
in-place pollutants program. Vol. III. Phase I studies.
Ontario Ministry of the Environment Report. October
1987, Toronto, Ontario.
51. Hamdy, Y., B. Hawkins, M. Jackson, G. Johnson, W.
Schneider, and S. Thornley. 1987. Preliminary report
St. Clair River MISA pilot-site investigation. Vol. 1:
Part 1. Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto.
52. Pugsley, C.W., P.D.N. Hebert, G.W. Wood, G. Brotea, and
T.W. Obal. 1985. Distribution of contaminants in clams
and sediments from the Huron - Erie corridor. I - PCBs
and octachlorostyrene. J. Great Lakes Res. 11:275-289.
53. Suns, K., G. Crawford, and D. Russell. 1985.
Organochlorine and mercury residues in young-of-the-year
spottail shiners from the Detroit River, Lake St. Clair
and Lake Erie. J. Great Lakes Res. 11:347-352.
54. The Great Lakes Institute, University of Windsor. 1987.
Organochlorinated compounds in duck and muskrat
populations of Walpole Island. Report prepared for
Walpole Island Band Council, pp.31.
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330
55. Weseloh, D.V., and J. Struger. 1987. Contaminants in
wildlife in the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels.
UGLCC Study Report. Canadian Wildlife Service,
Burlington, Ontario Typescript, pp.9.
56. Smith, V. E., Spurr, J.M., Filkins, J.C., Jones, J.J.
1985. Organochlorine Contaminants of Wintering Ducks
Foraging on Detroit River Sediments. Journal of Great
Lakes Research, 11:231-246.
57. Ministry of the Environment/Ministry of Natural
Resources. 1987. Guide to eating Ontario sport fish.
58. Rukavina, N.A. 1986. Bottom sediments and morphology of
the upper St. Clair River. Water Poll. Res. J. Canada.
21:295-302.
59. Mudroch, A., and K. Hill. 1988. Distribution of mercury
in Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River sediments. J.
Great Lakes Res. In press.
60. Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1987. Data report
on the 1985 St. Clair River bottom sediment survey.
61. Oliver, B.C., and C.W. Pugsley. 1986.. Chlorinated
contaminants in St. Clair River sediments. Water Poll.
Res. J. Canada. 21: 368-379.
62. Bertram, P., T.A. Edsall, B.A. Manny, S.J. Nichols, and
D.W. Schloesser. 1987. Physical and chemical
characteristics of sediments in the Upper Great Lakes
Connecting Channels, 1985. J. Great Lakes Res.
(Submitted.)
63. Lawrence, J. (ed.). 1986. St. Clair River pollution.
Special Issue. Water Poll. Res. J. Canada. 21:283-459.
64. Oliver, B.C. 1987. St. Clair River sediments. Level II
report for the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels
Study.
65. Point Source Workgroup. 1988. Geographic area report.
St. Clair River. Typescript.
66. Canviro Consultants. 1987. Sampling and analysis of
refinery effluents to assess variations in trace
contaminant concentrations. Report pp 46. ISBN
0-7729-2786-3.
67. Carey, J.H., J.H. Hart, and N.A. Rukavina, 1987.
Occurrence of diphenyl ether and biphenyl in the St.
Clair River. Sediment contamination by heat transfer
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fluids. Environ. Sci. Technol. (Submitted.)
68. Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 1987. Data report
on 1984- 1985 tributary study.
69. Pranckevicius, P.E. 1987. Upper Great Lakes Connecting
Channels tributary sediments (a preliminary data report).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Great Lakes
National Program Office, Chicago.
70. Edwards, C.J., P.L. Hudson, W.G. Duffy, S.J. Nepszy, C.D.
McNabb, R.C. Haas, C.R. Liston, B. Manny, and W.D. Busch.
1988. Hydrological, morphometrical, and biological
characteristics of the connecting rivers of the
international Great Lakes: A review. Can. J. Aquat. Sci.
In press.
71. Tuchman, M.L. 1982. Effects of conservative ions on
algal assemblages. Doctoral dissertation. The
University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources.
72. Edwardson, D.C. 1988. Ontario Ministry of the
Environment, Sarnia Office. Private Communication.
73. Kaiser, K.L.E., and M.E. Comba, 1986. Volatile
hydrocarbon contaminant survey of the St. Clair River.
Water Poll. Res. J. Canada. 21:323-331.
74. Comba, M.E., and K.L.E. Kaiser. 1987. Benzene and
toluene levels in the upper St. Clair River. Water Poll.
Res. J. Canada. 22: 468-473,
75. Oliver, B.C., and A.J. Niimi. 1983. Bioconcentration of
chlorobenzenes from water by rainbow trout: Correlations
with partition coefficients and environmental residues.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 17:287-291.
76. Thomas, R.L., and A. Mudroch. 1979. Small craft harbours
- sediment survey Lakes Ontario, Erie and Lake St. Clair,
1978. Report to Small Craft Harbours Ontario Region.
77. Oliver, B.C., and K.D. Nicol. 1988. Analysis of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in St. Clair River sedi-
ments by capillary GC/ECD and GC/MS: Determination of
potential ECD interferences. Report to Ontario Ministry
of the Environment by ELI Eco Laboratories, Inc.
Typescript, pp.17.
78. Dochstader, J.M. 1984. Remedial measures for the control
of industrial discharges to the St. Clair River.
Presented at 27th Conference on Great Lakes Research, St.
Catherines, Ontario (May, 1984).
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79. Chan, C.H., and J. Kohli. 1986. A report on the St.
Clair River trace contaminants survey 1985. Water
Quality Branch, Ontario Region, Burlington.
80. Derecki, J.A. 1985. Effect of channel changes in the St.
Clair River during the present century. J. Great Lakes
Res. 11:201- 207.
81. Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Undated. Un-
titled. Study report related to stormwater discharges.
Typescript. Unpaginated.
82. Marsalek, J., and H.Y.F. Ng. 1987. Contaminants in urban
runoff in the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels area.
Environment Canada, National Water Research Institute.
NWRI #87-112. pp.54 plus appendices.
83. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1977. Urban stormwater
runoff: STORM generalized computer program 723-58-L 2520.
Davis, California.
84. Wall, G.J., E.A. Pringle, and W.T. Dickinson. 1987a.
Nonpoint Source Workgroup agricultural sources of
pollution, St. Clair River Land Resource Research Centre,
Guelph, Ontario. Typescript, pp.12 (unpaginated).
85. Wall, G.J., E.A. Pringle, and W.T. Dickinson. 1987b.
Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study. Nonpoint
Source Workgroup agricultural pollution sources, St.
Clair River Canada. Land Resource Research Centre,
Research Branch, Agriculture Canada, Guelph, Ontario.
pp.27 plus appendices.
86. McCorquodale, J.A., K. Ibrahim, and E.M. Yuen. 1986b.
Final report on transport and fate modeling of
hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in the St. Clair River to the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment. The Industrial
Research Institute of the University of Windsor.
Typescript, pp. 46.
87. International Joint Commission. 1987. Summary report of
the workshop on Great Lakes atmospheric deposition.
Windsor, Ontario, pp.41.
88. Nonpoint Source Workgroup. 1988. Upper Great Lakes Con-
necting Channel Study. Waste disposal sites and poten-
tial groundwater contamination, St. Clair River, pp.72.
89. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. A
standardized system for evaluating groundwater pollution
potential using hydrogeologic settings. Cooperative
agreement CR- 810715-01, U.S.EPA and Natural Water Well
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Association, pp.163.
90. Intera Technologies Ltd. 1989. Hydrogeologic study of
the fresh water aquifer and deep geologic formations
Sarnia, Ontario. Kept to OMOE, Detroit/St. Clair/St.
Marys Rivers Proj., Sarnia, Ont., 3 vol.
91. Nettleton, P., and Y.S. Hamdy. 1988. St. Clair River
spill manual. Water Resources Branch, Ontario Ministry of
the Environment. ISBN-0-7729-2670-0.
92. Hamdy, Y.S. and J.D. Kinkead. 1979. Waste dispersion in
the St. Clair River. Ontario Ministry of the
Environment, Water Resources Branch, Great Lakes Unit,
Typescript, pp.27.
93. Akhtar, W. and G.P. Mathur. 1974. Models for dispersion
of soluable wastes in the St. Clair River. Fourth Annual
Environmental Engineering and Science Conference,
Louisville, Kentucky.
94. McCorquodale, J.A. and J.K. Bewtra. 1982a. Users guide
to computer programme for the convection - dispersion and
decay of a vertically mixed pollutant with multiple out-
falls. In: Simulation of Phenol concentrations in the
St. Clair River. A report to the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment. The Industrial Research Institute of the
University of Windsor, pp. 8-15.
95. McCorquodale, J.A., and J.K. Bewtra. 1982b. Simulation
of phenol concentrations in the St. Clair River. A
report to the Water Resources Branch of the Ontario Mini-
stry of the Environment; Toronto Ontario. The Industrial
Research Institute of the University of Windsor.
Typescript, pp. 1-7.
96. Nettleton, P. 1988. St. Clair River modeling and mass
balance considerations. Great Lakes Section; Water
Resources Branch; Ontario Ministry of Environment.
Typescript. Unpaginated.
97. Ambrose, R.B., S.I. Hill, and L.A. Mulkey. 1983. Users
manual for the chemical transport and fate model
TOXIWASP. U.S.EPA., ORD, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Athens, Georgia.
98. Derecki, J.A., L.L. Makuch, J.R. Brook. 1988. Unsteady
flow model of entire St. Clair River. Typescript.
Unpaginated.
99. Muldoon, P., and M. Valiante. 1988. Zero Discharge. A
strategy for the regulation of toxic substances in the
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Great Lakes ecosystem. Canadian Environmental Law
Research Foundation Report, pp. 79.
100. Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Environment
Canada. 1988. Implementation of recommendations of the
1986 St. Clair River pollution investigation report.
Report pp. 30 ISBN 0- 7729-3531-9.
101. Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers.
1987. Canadian water quality guidelines. Water Quality
Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
102. World Health Organization. 1984. Guidelines for drinking
water quality: Vol.1, Recommendations. Geneva.
103. Oliver, B.C., and A.J. Niimi. 1985. Bioconcentration
factors of some halogenated organics for rainbow trout:
Limitations in their use for prediction of environmental
residues. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19:842-849.
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CHAPTER VIII
LAKE ST. CLAIR
A. STATUS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
1. Ecological Profile
Watershed Characteristics
The St. Clair system including the St. Clair River and Lake St.
Clair is a significant waterway economically, biologically and
physically. Together with the Detroit River, the system forms
the connecting channel between Lake Huron and Lake Erie.
Located on the international boundary between the United States
and Canada, Lake St. Clair borders Lambton, Kent and Essex
counties in Ontario, and Macomb and Wayne counties in Michigan.
It has a shoreline length of approximately 272 km plus the delta
shoreline area. It possesses a maximum natural depth of 6.5 m, a
maximum length of 43 km, a width of 40 km and an area of about
1,115 km2. In Ontario, wetlands and agriculture dominate the
shoreline, while in Michigan the entire shoreline is highly
urbanized. Because of its modest depth, the lake has no commer-
cial harbors. To accommodate heavy commercial marine traffic,
however, a navigation channel has been dredged to a depth of 8.3
m running in a northeast-southwest direction between the St.
Clair cutoff in the St. Clair River Delta and the head of the
Detroit River (Figure II-4).
The eastern shoreline of the lake is low lying and characterized
by agricultural and recreational land uses. Low barrier islands
less than 170 m in width and probably not more than 1 m above
lake level parallel the shoreline and are colonized by marsh
vegetation. The wetland zone, which is approximately 1 km wide,
extended farther inland (east) in the past. Approximately 40% of
the low plain has been ditched and drained since 1916. The
coastal barriers provide a line of defense from wave attack to
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the lagoon and wetland zone. The annual net erosion rates on the
south shore of Lake St. Clair are in excess of 2 m/yr (1) . How-
ever, other coastal reaches on the south shore are actually
accreting at rates of up to 0.4 m/yr.
On the western shore, permanent residential homes occupy about 30
km of lake shoreline, with industrial and commercial uses occupy-
ing only 2 km of shoreline. Most of the shoreline is in private
ownership, but 12 km is publicly owned and dedicated to recrea-
tion and wildlife preserves.
Despite the various intensive and conflicting land and water uses
to which the St. Clair system is subjected, the system continues
to provide recreation to many Americans and Canadians. Typically
more walleye, bass, muskellunge and centrarchid panfish are taken
from Lake St. Clair each year than from any of the Great Lakes or
other Great Lakes connecting channels. These anglers and boaters
are served by more than 140 commercial, municipal and private
marinas in Michigan and Ontario.
Hydrology
The physics of Lake St. Clair is important in determining the
distribution and fate of contaminants and other substances in the
sediment and water column. The St. Clair River contributes 98%
of the water to the Lake St. Clair basin, with the remaining 2%
being contributed by other lake tributaries, including the Clin-
ton, Thames and Sydenham Rivers. The average discharge of the
St. Clair River from 1900 through 1981 was 5,200 m3/s with a
range from 3,000 m3/s to 6,700 m3/s. Outflow from the lake,
which is through the Detroit River to Lake Erie, is only about 3%
greater than the inflow from the St. Clair River. Average flush-
ing times for the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair and the Detroit
River are 21 hours, 5-7 days and 19 hours respectively (2).
Flows in the system are controlled principally by the inflows
from Lake Huron and the outflows to Lake Erie, which in turn
depend largely on the difference in water levels between these
two lakes. Fluctuations of water levels and flows do occur at
the head and mouth of both the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers in
response to seasonally fluctuating water levels in the upstream
and downstream lakes as well as wind set-ups on each of the lakes
during periods of high winds and storms. Ice jams are a common
occurrence on the St. Clair River and often reduce the river
flow, thereby both raising the level of Lake Huron and lowering
the level of Lake St. Clair. For example, in 1984 an ice jam
reduced the monthly average flow to about 2,520 m3/s, which
caused a drop of 0.4 m in lake level.
Lake St. Clair has an established elevation of 174.65 m above sea
level, but the average lake level from 1900 through 1983 was
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174.87 m. The lake had a maximum elevation of 175.64 m, and a
minimum elevation of 173.71 m.
The St. Clair River empties into Lake St. Clair through a large
delta consisting of three main channels in the upper delta (North
Channel, South Channel and Chenal Ecarte) and a number of secon-
dary channels in the lower delta. The delta area, commonly
referred to as the St. Clair Flats, extends 18 km from the open
waters of Lake St. Clair towards the St. Clair River. Channel
depths are extremely variable, but the three active distribu-
taries average 500 m wide and 11 m deep. At the mouths of the
channels, depths decrease abruptly due to river mouth bars 2 to
4 m below mean lake level. The North Channel, the South Channel
and the Chenal Ecarte contribute 53%, 42% and 5% of the river
flow to Lake St. Clair respectively (3).
Wind forces largely determine the water mass distribution and
circulation patterns in the lake. In general, the main surface
movement to the lake's outflow in the Detroit River appears to be
along the south shore for southwest to north winds, and along the
west shore of the lake for northeast to south winds. Two dis-
tinct water masses have been identified: a northwestern mass
consisting primarily of Lake Huron water flowing from the main
channels of the St. Clair River, and a southwestern mass of more
stable water enriched by nutrient loadings from Ontario tribu-
taries and shoreline development. The margins of the masses may
shift according to wind direction and speed, but the overall
discreteness of the distributions is maintained.
Habitats and Biological Communities
The St. Clair system contains one of the largest coastal wetlands
in the Great Lakes. Topographic maps and navigation charts indi-
cate there are 13,230 ha in Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair
Delta. The wetlands include the following major types:
1. Open water wetlands have variable water depths and thus
support submersed plants in deeper waters and emergent
aquatic macrophytes in more shallow water. They commonly
occur in interdistributary bays and shallower waters along
the perimeter of Lake St. Clair.
2. River channel wetlands are composed largely of submersed
species but occasionally emergent macrophytes occur on point
bars.
3. Beach and shoreline wetlands are represented by a mix of
species.
4. Cattail marsh wetlands colonize broad zones located at
the lower St. Clair Delta and at the mouth of the Clinton
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338
River. Stands of hybrid cattails (Typha x glauca) are
associated with clayey and organic sediments. Shallow open-
ings are colonized by floating and submersed species.
5. Sedge marsh wetlands are mainly composed of tussocks of
sedges.
6. Abandoned river channel wetlands support emergent and
submersed aquatics.
7. Wet meadow wetlands contain low, woody plants inter-
spersed with grasses.
8. Shrub wetlands are dominated by mixed shrubs, water tole-
rant trees, and understory plants typical of wet meadows.
In general, all wetland types occur in the St. Clair Delta area.
A sedge marsh wetland dominates the shallow regions. Where water
depths exceed 0.3m the sedges are replaced by cattail marsh,
which is extensive, especially in Ontario. In deeper water, the
cattail marsh gives way to open water wetlands dominated by the
hardstem bulrush. This zone of emergents is less dense lakeward,
where submersed macrophytes occur in bays at low density. The
size, location and structure of the wetland plant communities
shift in response to the periodic changes in water levels of Lake
St. Clair.
Benthic macroinvertebrates also exhibit spatial zones within Lake
St. Clair. In one recent study of benthic invertebrates and
sediment chemistry, six community assemblages were identified.
Two communities were associated with the periphery of the lake
and in Anchor Bay, three communities were found in the deeper
waters, 2 to 7.5 m deep, and one grouping was found in the lower
reaches of the St. Clair River and Thames River.
Local Ecological Relationships
i) Nutrient Cycling
Lake St Clair is a highly productive north-temperate lake. The
distribution of nutrients and chlorophyll within the lake are
influenced primarily by lake currents and the flow of Lake Huron
water through the delta system. Concentrations of chemical vari-
ables and chlorophyll tend to increase across the lake from
northwest to southeast. Because of nutrient inputs from agricul-
tural drainage, sewage discharge and greater stability in water
mass, the southeastern area is more eutrophic than the remainder
of the Ontario section of the lake. The northwestern water mass
consists primary of Lake Huron water flowing from the main chan-
nels of the St. Clair River. The southeastern water mass con-
sists of more stable water enriched by nutrient loadings from
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339
Ontario tributaries, and can be considered to be mesotrophic,
bordering on eutrophic.
Thermal and chemical stratification do not occur and oxygen con-
centrations remain near 100% saturation throughout the lake.
Moderate alkalinity, low specific conductance and low pH vari-
ability indicate Lake St. Clair is a well-buffered, hard water
lake. The input of high quality water from Lake Huron, through
the St. Clair River, maintains the water quality and the biota in
the open waters of Lake St. Clair similar to conditions in south-
ern Lake Huron.
ii) Food Webs
The primary producers in the St. Clair system are phytoplankton
and macrophytes. At least 71 species of phytoplankton and 21
taxa of submersed macrophyte have been identified from the St.
Clair system. According to Edwards et al., (2) about 215,330
tonnes of plant biomass are produced in the St. Clair system each
year, of which about 25% and 75% originates in the St. Clair
River and in Lake St. Clair respectively. The estimated phyto-
plankton biomass, 96,900 tonnes, represents about half the total
plant biomass produced in the system. Because of the short
flushing time of the system, however, most of the phytoplankton
probably passes into Lake Erie before it is utilized by other
trophic levels. Most of the periphyton and macrophytic biomass
dies back in the fall, over-winters on the bottom, and moves
downstream in spring just after ice break-up. Additional alloc-
thonous organic matter which is added to Lake St. Clair from
municipal sewage treatment plant equals approximately 25% of the
total annual primary production of all vegetation in Lake St.
Clair.
Lake St. Clair has relatively low densities of limnetic zooplank-
ton. In general, cladocera (28 species) are present in higher
densities than cyclopoid copepods (5 species), and cyclopoids are
more abundant that calanoid (7 species) or harpacticoid (4 spe-
cies) copepods. The overall low abundance of limnetic zooplank-
ton in Lake St. Clair has been attributed to well-developed
macrophyte beds and the rapid flushing time of Lake St. Clair.
In excess of 300 taxa of macrozoobenthos have been reported from
Lake St. Clair. Oligocheata, Chironomidae, Gastropoda, Ephemer-
optera, Trichoptera and Amphipoda comprise the most significant
biomass of macrozoobenthos. Nymphs of the mayfly Hexagenia may
reach densities up to 3,000 nymphs/m2. Species richness is
greatest among the Chironomidae, Trichoptera and Oligochaeta.
-------
340
iii) Trophic Relationships
Details of the relationships between the flora and fauna in the
St. Clair system, beyond the generalized limnological interac-
tions commonly thought to occur, have yet to be determined. The
St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair are major sources for sub-
mersed and emergent plants that provide substrate for periphyton
and for invertebrates that are fed upon by fish and waterfowl.
They also provide cover for young fish. As detritus, the plants
serve as food for macrozoobenthos. Poe et al., (4) showed that a
percid-cyprinid-cyprinodontid fish community was dominant in Lake
St. Clair in vegetatively complex areas occupied by many plant
species, and that a less diverse, centrarchid community dominated
in the areas with fewer plant species.
High productivity of benthic macroinvertebrates in Anchor Bay and
around the delta of the St. Clair River in Lake St. Clair is
probably related to the large accumulations of macrophytes in
those areas. The macroinvertebrates are probably not food limit-
ed for at least half the year.
iv) Links to the Great Lakes
The St. Clair system provides important spawning and nursery
habitat for fishes that are permanent residents and for others
from Lake Huron and Lake Erie which enter the system to spawn.
Of the approximately 70 species of fish recorded as residents or
migrants in Lake St. Clair, at least 45 have spawned in the St.
Clair system. Large numbers of lake herring and lake whitefish
from Lake Erie historically migrated into Lake St. Clair to
spawn over the large Chara beds along the western side of the
lake.
Lake sturgeon were also historically abundant and supported a
commercial fishery, but overfishing reduced the population and
now only a limited recreational fishery is permitted. The shal-
low marshes of the St. Clair Flats are the only known nursery
areas for the species in Lake St. Clair.
Walleyes and yellow perch spawn in Anchor Bay of Lake St. Clair,
along the south shore of the lake, in the Clinton, Sydenham and
Thames Rivers, and in the St. Clair delta. Stocks that were
depressed from historical levels have rebounded in the past
decade and major spawning runs now occur in the St. Clair system.
Yellow perch populations of southern Lake Huron and the St. Clair
system are closely linked. Many of these fish apparently over-
winter and spawn in Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair delta, and
then spend the rest of the year in the St. Clair River and Lake
Huron.
Smallmouth bass and muskellunge support important recreational
fisheries in Lake St. Clair and have extensive spawning grounds
-------
341
in the lake. Smallmouth bass spawn along the shoreline of the
lake from the Thames River and the southeast edge of the lake,
north into the St. Clair delta, and along the north and west
shorelines of the lake to the head of the Detroit River. Virtu-
ally all of the delta and the shoreline of Anchor Bay are also
nursery areas for smallmouth bass. Muskellunge spawning areas
extend more or less continuously along the shoreline of the lake
across the St. Clair delta, into Anchor Bay, and intermittently
along the west shoreline to the head of the Detroit River.
Marshes of the St. Clair delta are the only recorded muskellunge
nursery areas.
Exotic fish species which now inhabit Lake St. Clair, as well as
the Great Lakes, include the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), the
alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), the rainbow smelt (Osmerus mor-
dax) and the white perch (Morone americana). The carp have re-
cently made up much of the commercial fish catch, and the smelt
plus alewife together are the most abundant fish larvae in the
St. Clair system. The white perch, first captured in Lake St.
Clair in 1977, now provide an important recreational fishery.
The extensive wetlands of Lake St. Clair are also an important
concentration and nesting area for waterfowl. Major concentra-
tion areas extend from the lower St. Clair River to the middle of
Lake St. Clair. The coastal wetlands and shallow waters of Lake
St. Clair make it a critical resting and feeding habitat. Spe-
cies whose primary migration corridor traverse Michigan with a
resting stopover in the vicinity of lake St. Clair include the
American goldeneye, bufflehead, canvasback, hooded merganser,
ruddy duck and Canada goose. Important species of ducks that
nest in the St. Clair area include mallards, blue-winged teal,
black ducks, redheads and wood ducks.
Climate
The climate of the region is characterized by mild summers and
cold winters. Average annual air temperatures range from a high
of 23.6°C in July to a low of -4.4°C in January. Monthly precip-
itation ranges from a high of 8.10 cm to a low of 3.6 cm. In
winter, temperatures are commonly below 0°C and ice occurs on
most of the lake. Water temperatures during the summer months
are near 21°C. Precipitation is mainly rain and is evenly dis-
tributed throughout the year.
-------
342
2. Environmental Conditions
Water Quality
i) Tributaries
Because the St. Clair River provides 98% of the water to Lake St.
Clair, the mass loading of contaminants to the Lake is mainly
from this single input. Additional loadings from other tribu-
taries do occur, however, and local impacts have been observed
due to degraded tributary water quality. In the following dis-
cussions, references to Lake St. Clair tributaries exclude the
St. Clair River.
Tributary water quality data from six tributaries (Thames,
Sydenham, Puce, Belle and Ruscom Rivers in Ontario, and the
Clinton River in Michigan) in 1984 and 1985 indicated the
presence of eight pollutants (PCBs, HCB, OCS, P, Cd, Cl, N and
Pb) that were designated as parameters of concern for the UGLCC
Study. In these streams, P, Cd, Pb and Cl concentrations ranged
from 0.014-0.94, 0.002-0.0022, 0.003-0.58 and 11-349 mg/L respec-
tively (Table VIII-1). Estimated daily loadings from each river
are presented in Table VIII-2. Expression of loadings on a daily
basis is somewhat artificial, since true loadings from tributar-
ies have been shown to be strongly flow-dependent and seasonal.
However, expression in this manner should facilitate comparison
with other sources of loadings presented in this report.
The organic contaminants, PCBs, HCB and OCS were usually not
found in quantifiable concentrations in unfiltered water samples
(5). PCBs associated with suspended sediments from the Belle,
Sydenham and Thames Rivers were found in concentrations up to
1,560 ng/g, 60 ng/g and 61,190 ng/g respectively. Suspended
sediments were not sampled from the other rivers.
The phosphorus concentration in water from all six tributaries
exceeded the Ontario Provincial Water Quality Objective (PWQO) of
30 ug/L for rivers in all samples, except for some samples from
the Sydenham River. Estimates of loadings from the tributaries
ranged from 23.5 kg/d from the Puce River to 2,021 kg/d from the
Thames River. All sampled Canadian tributaries together provided
a loading of 3,052 kg/d, while the Clinton River contributed an
additional 340 kg/d (Table VIII-2).
The largest nitrate + nitrite loadings to Lake St. Clair came
from the Thames River (31,435 kg/d), Sydenham River (4,542 kg/d)
and Clinton River (2,186 kg/d).
Concentrations of chlorides in unfiltered water ranged from 11
mg/L in the Sydenham River to 349 mg/L in the Clinton River. The
Clinton River concentrations exceeded the 250 mg/L concentration
set as the U.S.EPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level for aes-
-------
343
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thetic effects, the Health and Welfare Canada Maximum Acceptable
Concentration, and the Ontario Maximum and Maximum Desirable
Concentration for aesthetics. The greatest loadings were provid-
ed by the Thames River (190,318 kg/d), Clinton River (182,661
kg/d) and Sydenham River (50,483 kg/d).
The range of cadmium concentrations in unfiltered water were 0.2-
0.4 ug/L in the Belle River, 0.2-0.7 ug/L in the Sydenham and
Thames Rivers, and 0.1-2.2 ug/L in the Clinton River. These
concentrations were generally greater than the Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement (GLWQA) specific objective and PWQO of 0.2
ug/L, and some were greater than the chronic AWQC of 1.1 ug/L
(assuming water hardness of 100 mg/L). Estimated loadings from
the Clinton, Thames and Sydenham Rivers were .83 kg/d, 1.82 kg/d
and 0.696 kg/d respectively.
The Belle, Sydenham and Thames Rivers all contained concentra-
tions of lead in some samples that exceeded the chronic AWQC of
3.2 ug/L (assuming a hardness of 100 mg/L). The Thames River
contained concentrations which also exceeded the acute AWQC of 82
ug/L, as well as the GLWQA specific objective and PWQO of 25
ug/L. Major loadings of lead were provided by the Thames River
(123.1 kg/d), Clinton River (15.6 kg/d) and Sydenham River (11.2
kg/d).
The pesticides atrazine, cyanazine, metolachlor and alachlor were
detected in Thames River water samples between 1981 and 1985 with
a frequency of occurrence of 99%, 16%, 7% and 4% respectively at
concentrations from less than detection limits to 3.0, 5.0, 8.0,
and 3.0 ug/L respectively (Table VIII-1). In the Clinton River
in 1985, the pesticides as ordered above were observed with fre-
quencies of 95%, 73%, 2.7% and 21.6% respectively at concentra-
tions from less than detection limits to 1.9, 0.2, 0.2 and 0.9
ug/L respectively.
Some U.S. agencies have proposed drinking water standards for the
four pesticides discussed above. None of the measured concen-
trations of the pesticides in either of the rivers exceeded the
proposed standards, except for the State of Wisconsin standard
for alachlor (0.5 ug/L).
ii) Open Lake St. Clair Water
Water temperature in Lake St. Clair is determined in part by the
shallow depth and short hydraulic retention time of the water.
Highest temperatures are reached in August, and average about
22.5°C. Temperatures may be 2 to 4°C lower in Anchor Bay because
of the greater inflow from the St. Clair River, and they may be 5
to 6°C higher in the coastal wetlands. The lake is too shallow
to stratify thermally, and dissolved oxygen concentrations are
usually at saturation.
-------
346
In general, surface water temperatures at the outflow of Lake St.
Clair exceed the upper limit (19°C) of the range selected for
residence by adult rainbow trout from about late June through
mid-September, and they exceeded the upper limit of the range
(17°C) selected for residence by juvenile lake whitefish in Lake
Huron from about mid-June through late September. Thus, Lake St.
Clair may provide optimum thermal habitat for indigenous Great
Lakes cold water fishes only during the cooler months of the
year. Anchor Bay may contain suitable thermal habitat for cold-
water fishes for a slightly greater portion of the year than the
rest of the lake.
Because of the large contribution of water from the St. Clair
River into Lake St. Clair and the relatively short residence time
of water in the lake (5 to 7 days), the water quality of Lake St.
Clair largely reflects that of the St. Clair River.
Concentrations of contaminants within the water may be inferred
by comparing those in the incoming water with those in water at
the head of the Detroit River. Studies of water from the St.
Clair and the Detroit Rivers were conducted in 1985, with samples
analyzed for a number of chemical parameters, including organo-
chlorine pesticides (DCs), PCBs, and a variety of other chemicals
of industrial origin including chlorobenzenes (CBs), hexachloro-
butadiene (HCBD), hexachloroethane (HCE) and octachlorostyrene
(DCS). Details of the analytical procedures were provided by
Chan et al., (6).
Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs:
Concentrations of total PCBs in unfiltered water at the head of
the Detroit River averaged 0.0014 ug/L from two surveys. This
concentration was slightly above the Ontario Provincial Water
Quality Objective (PWQO) of 0.001 ug/L. The difference in con-
centration of PCBs between the mouth of the St. Clair River and
the head of the Detroit River was not significant, i.e., less
than detectable and 0.0014 ug/L in two surveys of the St. Clair
River, 0.00139 ug/L and 0.00144 ug/L in two surveys of the
Detroit River. Because the concentrations of other organic com-
pounds (HCBD, HCB, DCS and HCE) were lower at the Detroit River
than at the mouth of the St. Clair River (7), however, a source
of PCBs may exist within the Lake St. Clair basin. At the head
of the Detroit River, the concentration of PCBs was greater on
the U.S. side than on the Canadian side, suggesting that a source
of PCBs may exist on the western shore of Lake St. Clair.
Concentrations for the organochlorine pesticides in the dissolved
phase were in the low ng/L range or less along the St. Clair
River. While there were some seasonal variations noted, no
marked spatial variation was observed, either downstream or
cross-river. Because concentrations were also similar at the
head of the Detroit River, an argument similar to that for PCBs
-------
347
above can be made for the possible existence of a source for
these pesticides in the Lake St. Clair basin.
Chlorobenzenes, Octachlorostyrene:
In contrast to the behaviour of the pesticides and PCBs noted
above, increases in the concentration of HCBD, HCB, and OCS indi-
cate significant sources of inputs of these industrial compounds
to the St. Clair River, but the plume of contaminants remains
close to the Canadian shore and does not disperse uniformly
across the river. In the upper delta, concentrations were high-
est in the Channel Ecarte, which receives Canadian nearshore
water. Because this stream contributes only 5% of the total
river flow to Lake St. Clair, however, the major loading of these
substances to the lake would come from the South Channel.
Diminished, but measurable concentrations of these chemicals in
the dissolved phase were observed at the head of the Detroit
River in 1985, showing that some contaminant carryover from the
St. Clair River occurred, but also that some significant loss
processes occurred within the lake. Similar findings were re-
ported for a survey conducted in 1984 (8). For example, loss
processes in Lake St. Clair may account for up to 95% reductions
in HCB and OCS between the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers (8).
Phosphorus, Chlorides and Metals:
Concentrations of total phosphorus, chlorides and metals in whole
water and suspended solids from the mouth of the St. Clair River
and the head of the Detroit River in 1984 are presented in Table
VIII-3. All measured concentrations in water were below the
relevant surface water standards or guidelines except for some
observations of excessive iron in the Detroit River. Similarly,
the mean concentrations of the following parameters that were
measured at the head of the Detroit River, in 1985 were below all
relevant criteria, objectives or guidelines: total phosphorus,
8.6 ug/L; cadmium, 0.023 ug/L; zinc, 1.217 ug/L; mercury, 0.008
ug/L; copper, 1.29 ug/L; and nickel 0.966 ug/L. A significant
increase (71%) in phosphorus concentration in both whole water
and suspended sediments was observed between the mouth of the St.
Clair River and the head of the Detroit River, thereby indicating
that Lake St. Clair and/or its basin are a net source for
phosphorus.
The metals and chloride exhibited variable responses across Lake
St Clair in 1984. The concentration of total iron in both whole
water and in suspended' solids was greater at the head of the
Detroit River than at the mouth of the St. Clair River, while
that of zinc was greater only associated with suspended solids.
Lead and mercury concentrations tended to be greater in the
Detroit River than in the St. Clair River, but cross channel
differences were detected. Chloride concentrations were not
observed to be different in the two river reaches.
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348
TABLE VII1-3
Concentrations of total phosphorus, chlorides and metals in whole water and
suspended solids from the mouth of the St. Clair River and the head of the
Detroit River, 1984, range and (mean)a.
Whole Water
Location
St. Clair River
North
South
Channel
Channel
Fe Pb
mg/L ug/L
0.054-0.220 <3
(0.130)
0.063-0.170 <3
(0.085)*
Hg
ug/L
<0.01
<0.01
Zn
ug/L
0.5-3.0
(1.5)
0.5-5.0
(2.4)
TP
ug/L
6-12
(8.8)
7-10
(8.5)
Chloride
mg/L
5.77- 6.
(6.30)
7.82-10.
(9.06)
82
94
Detroit River
West side
East side
0.088-0.380 <3 <0.01 0.3-3.0
0.130-0.920 <3 <0.01 0.5-1.0
Suspended Solids
9-21 7.09-12.45
(14.0) (9.0)
12-20 7.34-11.93
(15.5)* (9.1)
St. Clair River
North Channel
South Channel
Detroit River
West side
East side
Fe
mg/g
16-22
( 19.0)
14-18
( 16)
21-31
(25.3)
21-34
(26.0)
Pb
ug/g
10-26
(20.5)
25-49
(40)
39-62
(52.5)
36-40
(38.3)
Hg
ug/g
0.03-0.14
(0.09)
0.16-0.35
(0.27)
0.06-0.17
(0.18)
0.17-0.47
(0.32)
Zn
ug/g
74-86
(81.0)
70-110
(81.5)
110-130
(120)
93-130
(111)
TP
mg/g
0.5-1 .0
(0.8)
0.6-1.0
(0.8)
1.2-1.6
(1.4)
1.2-2.2
(1.5)
Sus . Solids
mg/L
5.6-12.
(8.31*
5.6-11.
( 7.1 )
4.6-22.
(5.5)*
5.3-16.
(6.9)*
7
1
2
3
a from Johnson and Kauss (8 ) .
* denotes median value instead of mean.
-------
349
Biota
i) Plankton
In 1984, relatively high biomass concentrations of phytoplankton
were recorded during early June (1.17 g/m^) compared to that in
late July (0.27 g/m^)(9). In spring, the species composition was
dominated by Diatomeae (67-90%), with significant contributions
from Chrysophyceae and Cryptophyceae phytoflagellates. During
summer, the community structure was equally composed of Chryso-
phyceae (34%) and Diatomeae (34%). From May through September,
Chlorophyta (greens) contributed only once substantially, during
late July (24%). The contribution from Cyanpphyta (blue-greens)
was relatively low.
Zooplankton abundance in Lake St. Clair in June and July, 1984,
ranged from 35 to 93 organisms/L, and from 500 to 1,500 ug/L in
total biomass (10). These densities are among the highest
reported for the Great Lakes. Cladocerans were proportionately
dominant in both numbers and biomass. This pattern of cladoceran
predominance is in contrast to the other Great lakes in which
copepods routinely dominate to a much greater extent. Lake St.
Clair is a more typical cladoceran habitat than the other lakes,
because it is shallow, more productive, and may not contain dense
populations of planktivorous fish to which cladocerans are
particularly vulnerable. In addition, the high flushing rate of
Lake St. Clair may favor species with shorter generation times.
Large zooplankters such as Holopedium and Leptodora were not
abundant. Copepods comprised approximately 1/3 numerically and
40-50% by biomass of the zooplankton community.
ii) Macrophytes
At least 12 submersed plant taxa occur in Lake St. Clair (11,12).
Common native taxa are Chara sp. (macroalga), Vallisneria amer-
icana, Potamogeton richardsonii, Elodea canadensis, Potamogeton
sp. (narrow-leaved forms), and Najas flexilis. Chara sp. in-
cludes Nitella sp. and muskgrass, both of which overwinter as
green plants. Nitella is often found in deeper water to a depth
of 27 m where few other plants are present. Submersed plant
stands in the lake are usually composed of 2-3 species, and most
occur at depths less than 3.7m. The 0.0 to 3.7 m depth interval
in Lake St. Clair covers approximately 628 km2, and plant cover-
age of the bottom within this depth interval is 35%. Estimated
annual production of submersed aquatic plants in Lake St. Clair
is 13,780 tonnes ash-free dry weight (13).
No detailed studies on species composition, distribution and
relative abundance of emergent macrophytes in Lake St. Clair have
been completed. The estimated total areal extent of emergents in
the lake in the late 1970s was 9,170 ha (14). Estimated produc-
tion of emergent aquatic plants in Lake St. Clair is 60,990
-------
350
tonnes ash-free dry weight/yr (13).
The drift of live (chlorophyllous) submersed plant matter out of
Lake St. Clair in the surface waters was measured in 1986 (15).
Of the 6 submersed plant and macroalgae taxa present in drift
samples collected from April through October 1986 immediately
below Belle Isle near the head of the Detroit River, Vallisneria
americana, Potamogeton richardsonii, and Myriophyllum spicatum
occurred most frequently. Substantial drift occurred in all
months. Drift biomass was lowest in April and highest in
September at 14 and 1,183 g wet weight/1000 m3 filtered). The
submersed plant biomass leaving Lake St. Clair as surface drift
during April to October, 1986, was calculated to be 32,052 tonnes
wet weight or about 1,602 tonnes ash-free dry weight. This cal-
culation may underestimate the biomass of macrophyte drift
because the Detroit River discharge in 1986 was probably greater
than the 1900-1980 average that was used for river flow. Concern
exists that the drift of plant material containing contaminants
may facilitate the dispersal of contaminants within the UGLCC
Study area, including western Lake Erie.
iii) Benthos
Lake St. Clair supports a healthy and diverse community of ben-
thic fauna. Nematoda, Amphipoda, Diptera (Chironomidae), Ephem-
eroptera, Trichoptera, Gastropoda, and Pelecypoda are abundant in
the St. Clair River system. The taxonomic diversity of macro-
zoobenthos in Lake St. Clair (65 taxa) was lower than that in the
St. Clair River (98 taxa) and the Detroit River (80 taxa), how-
ever (12) .
In 1985, a total mean density of mayfly (Hexagenia) nymphs of 194
nymphs/m2 was found throughout the UGLCC Study area, including
279 nymphs/m2 in Lake St. Clair. The maximum density was also
found in Lake St Clair at 3,099 nymphs/m2. Nymphal production
ranged from 165 to 2,321 mg dry wt./m2/yr in the study area, with
a maximum rate of 4,011 mg dry wt./m2/yr at the single location
studied in Lake St. Clair. The river production values were
similar to the range of values reported in the literature, but
production in Lake St. Clair was about twice the highest pub-
lished value.
Macroinvertebrate taxa were identified at 47 sampling stations in
Lake St. Clair in 1983 (16). Six benthic invertebrate commun-
ities were identified with different species assemblages (Table
VIII-4). Two communities occurred generally in the shallow peri-
phery of the lake, three communities were found in the deeper
waters, and one was present in the St. Clair River and mouth of
the Thames River (Figure VIII-1). Discriminant analysis sug-
gested that the six communities were associated with different
environmental conditions. The "shallow periphery" communities
occurred at sites with coarser, sandy sediments and lower con-
-------
351
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Michigan
St. Clair River
Detroit River
Ontario
FIGURE VIII-1. Distribution of benthic invertebrate communities in Lake St.
Clair, Anchor Bay and the St. Clair River, May 1983 (16).
-------
356
centrations of metals, organic carbon and nutrients relative to
the "deeper water" communities (Table VIII-5). Poor correlations
were found between the measured physicochemical variables and the
community separations, however, implying that one or more addi-
tional variables were influencing the community structure.
Based on the distribution of the benthic communities, mesotrophic
conditions prevailed in the central basin of the lake and Anchor
Bay and in the lower part of the St. Clair River, while oligo-
mesotrophic conditions were present in the shallower nearshore
areas of the lake and Anchor Bay. Neither the St. Clair or
Thames rivers had any perceivable effect on the environmental
quality of the lake. Impairment of environmental quality was
observed at the mouths of the Puce, Belle, and Ruscom rivers and
near a sewer outfall from St. Clair Shores, Michigan. The local-
ly impaired environmental quality may be related to the discharge
of oils and grease into the lake. In addition, reduced environ-
mental quality related to organic matter enrichment was observed
in deeper parts of the study area near the St. Clair River delta.
Concentrations of lead (up to 40 ppm), cadmium (up to 19 ppm) and
octachlorostyrene (OCS, up to 0.15 ppm) in Lake St. Clair clams
were generally highest in that portion of the lake which receives
the majority of the St. Clair River discharge, i.e., adjacent to
the South Channel outlet. There are no Michigan or Ontario
guidelines or objectives for OCS or Cd in fish.
In contrast, the concentration of PCBs in clams, up to 0.7 ppm
exhibited a different distribution with highest concentrations
along the southwest shore of the lake rather than in the St.
Clair River (17). By comparison, the GLWQA includes a specific
objective of 0.1 ppm PCBs in whole fish. A positive correlation
between clam tissue and sediment concentrations was observed only
for PCBs and OCS, however, suggesting that sediment distribution
patterns of lead and cadmium may not provide much information on
contaminant exposure of clams.
iv) Fish
The fish community of Lake St. Clair is diverse and abundant,
consisting mainly of warm-water and mesothermic species. Cold-
water species are found in the lake, but not as year-round resi-
dents. Of the more than 70 species recorded as native or mi-
grants, 34 use the lake for spawning (18). Most of the 28 native
species spawn in shallow water along the delta (St. Clair Flats)
or other shoreline areas or in tributaries to the lake. Of the
exotic species, rainbow smelt and sea lamprey spawn in tribu-
taries, and alewives, carp, goldfish and gizzard shad spawn in
bays, marshes and other shallow areas.
Because of the proximity of Lake St. Clair to large urban popula-
tions, recreational fisheries are active year-round. In Michigan
-------
357
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358
waters, yellow perch (59%) and walleye (18%) were the main spe-
cies harvested by boat anglers in 1983-1984. In Ontario waters
in 1986, the main species were walleye (59%), yellow perch (24%)
and smallmouth bass (4.6%). Yellow perch dominated the ice
fishery.
PCB concentrations in edible portions of walleye and yellow perch
were approaching 0.25 ppm and 0.05 ppm, respectively, in 1985
(7). These concentrations are below the U.S.Food and Drug Admin-
istration (U.S.FDA) action level of 2 ppm, but the concentration
in walleye exceeded the GLWQA specific objective of 0.1 ppm for
whole fish.
The concentration of mercury in the edible portions of walleye,
northern pike, white bass and yellow perch were approaching 0.3
to 1.0 ppm in 1985. These concentrations of mercury do not
exceed the U.S.FDA action level of 1 ppm, but they do in some
cases exceed the Ontario objective.
Habitat Alterations
Of an estimated 22,366 ha of wetlands that existed in Lake St.
Clair in 1873, more than 9,000 ha were lost to shoreline develop-
ment by 1968. Losses are most evident in the Clinton River, the
St. Clair delta and the eastern shore of the lake. In all three
areas, the margins of the wetlands have been modified. On the
eastern shoreline the wetlands at one time were approximately 2.5
km wide, but now they are about 0.8 km in width.
In Ontario, wetlands are currently being lost to agriculture.
The wetlands from the Thames River north to Chenal Ecarte dwin-
dled from 3,574 ha in 1965 to 2,510 ha in 1984 (19) Draining for
agriculture accounted for 89% of the wetland loss, whereas marina
and cottage development consumed the remaining 11%. During the
record high lake level in the early 1970s, about 1,000 ha of
emergent shoreline marsh from Mitchell Bay southward to the
Thames River were also temporarily lost (20). This loss was
tempered in part by the flooding of transition vegetation which
occurred on the upland (east) margin of the wetlands.
The St. Clair delta and the Anchor Bay area in Michigan are also
subject to flooding, but the recent wetland losses there are due
mainly to diking and filling for urban development. In the
Clinton River area, wetland losses occurred from both landward
and lakeward boundaries and the remaining wetlands are now iso-
lated from Lake St. Clair.
Navigation-related dredging has also altered aquatic habitat
within Lake St. Clair. In the 1950s, the minimum channel depth
in the St. Clair River, South Channel and Lake St. Clair was
dredged to 8.2 m as part of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway.
-------
359
Navigation dredging projects have altered the flow regimes of
Lake St. Clair and replaced productive shoal water habitat with
less productive channel habitat. Bulkheading, dredging and back-
filling by landowners has also resulted in the loss of signifi-
cant amounts of littoral habitat in the system. The loss of
shoal and littoral waters, along with the removal of gravel and
the lack of delta growth represent loss of habitat that is uti-
lized by many Great Lakes fishes to satisfy spawning and other
early life history requirements.
Bottom Sediments
i) Physical Characteristics
The thickness and grain size distribution of bottom sediments is
an important aid to understanding the transport, accumulation and
resuspension of polluted sediments in Lake St. Clair. Based on a
coring survey completed in 1986, the modern sediment thickness
corresponds roughly with lake depth (21). The maximum thickness
of over 30 cm is generally confined to the St. Clair River delta
and a narrow band extending from the delta southwest toward the
head of the Detroit River (Figure VIII-2).
Analysis of grain size distribution, based on 1984 data (21),
indicated the most common size interval in sediment samples to .be
0.063 to 0.125 mm (3-4 PHI units). This size particle occurred
as a band trending NW-SE across mid-basin and in the north and
eastern portions of Anchor Bay. Coarser unimodal sediment (0.125
to 0.500 mm, 1-3 PHI units) was present opposite the Chenal
Ecarte and Clinton River mouths on the northeast and west coasts,
and in the central portion of Anchor Bay. Coarser bimodal sedi-
ments with gravel and sand modes occurred along the south and
southwest shores. Size modes finer than sand (0.063 mm, 4 PHI
units) were found only in a small area in the western part of the
central basin.
The distribution of sediment composition based on percentage
gravel, sand and silt-clay (mud) was similar to that observed for
the modal size distribution. Gravel content was generally less
than 1% with the exception of the south and southwest margin of
the lake where it ranged from 5 to 45%. Sand was the major com-
ponent of the surface sediments and ranged from 30 to 100%. The
highest percentages of sand occurred at the mouths of the delta
distributary channels and in the south and southwest area of the
lake. Percent silt and clay (muds) ranged from I to 68% with
highest percentages in the west-central part of the basin (Figure
VIII-3).
-------
360
M
FIGURE VIII-2. Thickness of modern sediment (cm).
-------
361
FIGURE VIII-3. Distribution of sediment types.
-------
362
ii) Evidence of Historical Inputs of Contaminants
Organic Contaminants:
Distributions of hexachlorobenzene (HCB), octachlorostyrene
(OCS), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hexachlorobutadiene
(HCBD), pentachlorobenzene (QCB) and total DDT plus degradation
products in Lake St. Clair surficial sediments (0-1 cm) in 1985
are shown in Figure VIII-4. The data were derived from the sam-
pling pattern identified in Figure VIII-5. The highest contamin-
ant concentrations were found near the centre of the lake in the
region of greatest water depth, thickest layer of recent sedi-
ments over glacial clay, and greatest accumulation of fine-
grained sediment. Some minor accumulation of contaminants also
was found in Anchor Bay at the northern end of the lake. For the
most part, the sediments in the rest of the lake were sandy, and
contained low concentrations of organic contaminants. Although
the mean contaminant concentrations were not particularly high
compared to other areas in the Great Lakes Basin, with the
possible exception of HCB, the maximum concentrations reached
significant levels for many of the Sarnia-source contaminants
(Table VIII-6).
In most, but not all, instances, higher concentrations of PCBs
were found at greater depths in the sediments in 1985, corre-
sponding qualitatively with the loading history of PCBs. The
highest concentrations, 0.06 ppm, exceeded the Ontario Ministry
of Environment (OMOE) Guidelines for Dredged Spoils for Open-
Water Disposal and the IJC Guidelines for In-water Disposal of
Dredged Materials of 0.05 ppm. However, these concentrations did
not cause the lake to be classified as "polluted" by U.S.EPA
Pollutional Classification Guidelines for Great Lakes Harbour
Sediments where sediments containing greater than 10 ppm PCBs are
classified as "polluted". PCBs were also found in the Cottrell
Drain and at the mouth of the cutoff channel of the Clinton River
at concentrations of 2.0 and 0.6 ppm, respectively. Up to 0.03
ppm PCBs were found in the Sydenham River, based on two samples.
Two localized areas of high HCB sediment concentrations were
found in Lake St. Clair in 1985. One was in the central portion
of the lake, and another was in the eastern section, northwest of
the mouth of the Thames River. The maximum concentration found
was 0.17 ppm. HCB was also detected in sediments of the Milk
River (0.003 ppm), Marsac Creek (0.002 ppm), Swan Creek (0.002
ppm), Sydenham River (0.007 ppm) and the Thames River (0.001
ppm). No specific guidelines exist for HCB in sediments.
The highest concentration of OCS, 0.021 ppm, was found in the
central portion of the lake. OCS was detected in sediments of
the Sydenham River (0.001 ppm), but information on OCS in sedi-
ments of U.S. tributaries is not available. No specific guide-
lines exist for OCS in sediments.
-------
363
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364
LAKE ST. CLAIR
FIGURE VIII-5. 1985 Lake St. Clair sediment core stations.
-------
365
TABLE VIII-6
Chlorinated organic compounds in surficial (0-1 cm) sediments of
Lake St. Clair (ug/kg).
Compound Range Mean
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) 0.4-170 32
Octachlorostyrene (DCS) ND-21 4.8
PCBs ND-21 19
Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) ND-32 5.4
Pentachlorobenzene (QCB ) ND-8.7 3.2
Total Trichlorobenzene (TCB) ND-28 4.3
Total Tetrachlorobenzene (TeCB) ND-20 3.7
Total DDT and metabolites (SDDT) ND-12 3.8
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366
Information on PAHs in Lake St. Clair sediments or in Canadian
tributaries was not available. In U.S. tributaries, PAHs were
found in surficial sediments at concentrations ranging from 0.4
to 14.3 ppm. The highest concentrations were found in the Milk
River (14.3 ppm), Cotrell Drain (13.8 ppm), Clinton River (12.1
ppm) and Frog Creek (10.7 ppm). No specific guidelines exist for
PAHs in sediments.
Cyanide of a concentration up to 0.7 ppm was found in the Clinton
River sediments. In Lake St. Clair sediments, three samples near
the southeast shore and one sample south of the Clinton River
were reported to contain 0.5 to 0.8 ppm cyanide, although these
values were reported to be below the analytical criterion of
detection. These concentrations exceed the OMOE and IJC Guide-
lines of 0.1 ppm, and cause a classification of "heavily pol-
luted" by U.S.EPA classification guidelines. Information on
cyanide in Canadian tributaries was not available.
High concentrations of oil and grease (up to 3,700 ppm) were also
found in the Clinton River. This concentration exceeds the OMOE
and IJC Guideline of 1,500 ppm, and causes a classification of
"heavily polluted" by U.S.EPA Classification Guidelines. Of 45
stations sampled in Lake St. Clair in 1985, the sediments in only
3 contained between 597 and 637 ppm oil and grease. The rest
contained less than 343 ppm, causing a classification of "unpol-
luted" by U.S.EPA Classification Guidelines. Oil and grease re-
sults from 1984 indicated levels between 635 and 707 ppm for
Canadian tributaries: .Somewhat elevated levels were determined
from 1985 samples, with a peak of 3,131 ppm obtained from
Sydenham River sediments. Concentrations from the Belle and
Thames Rivers and Pike Creek were 433, 792 and 1,018 ppm, respec-
tively.
Metal Contaminants:
Concentrations of metals measured in surficial (0-1 cm) layers of
the sediment samples collected in 1985 (Figure VIII-5) indicated
that some enrichment of cadmium and zinc has occurred over the
average concentrations of metals in surficial sediments in Lake
Huron (22). For Cd and Zn, 22 and 21 samples respectively, of 36
samples collected, had concentrations elevated above the Lake
Huron averages of 1.4 and 62 ug/g respectively (Table VIII-7).
The concentrations generally remained below OMOE, IJC and U.S.EPA
guidelines, however, except for the region near to the mouth of
the Clinton River. Sediments from the Clinton River were found
to contain up to 6.3 ppm Cd and 430 ppm Zn, both of which exceed
U.S. Classification Guidelines for heavily polluted sediments of
6 ppm and 200 ppm respectively. The Milk River sediments also
exceeded the guidelines with 380 ppm Zn.
Concentrations of chromium, copper, nickel and lead were mostly
below the Lake Huron averages, and below OMOE, IJC and U.S.EPA
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Guidelines, except for an area near to the mouth of the Clinton
River. The distribution of the metals in Lake St. Clair sedi-
ments did, however, indicate greater concentrations in the
central, south and southeast areas than in the north and west
areas. Concentrations of lead and copper in the Clinton and Milk
Rivers, and of Ni in the Clinton River exceeded the OMOE and IJC
Guidelines, and cause a classification of "heavily polluted"
according to U.S.EPA Classification Guidelines.
Mercury (Hg) enrichment in the surface sediments was confined to
central Lake St. Clair, where up to 1.2 ug/g dry weight was
found. By comparison, surficial sediments in Lake Huron contain
an average of 0.22 ug/g (22). Except for the central area, most
of Lake St. Clair surficial sediments contained less than 0.3 ug
Hg/g, the value for OMOE and IJC Guidelines. The concentration
profiles of Hg in at least three cores in 1985 indicated lower
concentrations of Hg at the surface of the cores than at a depth
of 5-6 cm, thereby implying the deposition of less contaminated
recent material. The background concentrations deep in the core,
however, were less than 0.1 ug Hg/g. Concentrations of Hg in
Clinton River sediments were found up to 0.7 ppm, exceeding the
OMOE and IJC Guidelines, but not U.S.EPA Classification
Guidelines for "polluted" sediments.
The depth-integrated concentrations of metals in cores from the
same samples as above were generally similar to those in the
surficial sections, except for significantly greater concen-
trations of Cd in the composi'te.d samples (Table Vlll-8) . Using
the guidelines for OMOE evaluations of dredging projects for
sediment contaminated by metals, which are roughly equivalent to
U.S.EPA guidelines for moderately polluted sediments (22), the
guidelines were exceeded in 100%, 75%, 36% and 8% of the cores
for Cd, Cr, Ni and Cu respectively.
In a separate study of surficial sediments conducted in 1985 in
which sampling sites were selected specifically to collect fine-
grained sediments capable of supporting mayfly (Hexagenia)
nymphs, sediment at only 2 of the 45 stations were heavily pol-
luted with mercury. Sediments at 2-9 (4-20%) of the stations
were moderately polluted with nickel, copper, chromium and zinc.
Five to 10 (11-22%) of the stations sampled contained mercury,
PCBs or copper in excess of OMOE guidelines for contaminated
sediments. Concentrations of contaminants were generally highest
in sediments at stations near L'anse Creuse Bay offshore of the
Clinton River Cutoff Canal. A 1984-85 study of Canadian tribu-
tary mouths indicated that Provincial dredging guidelines were
exceeded at a number of tributaries for chromium, copper, iron
and nickel. An assessment of heavy metal concentrations measured
on suspended solids (RSP) indicated a higher frequency of guide-
line exceedence.
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Phosphorus Enrichment:
Total phosphorus concentrations in surficial sediments were
higher in three discrete areas during the 1983 survey: the mouth
of the cutoff channel of the Clinton river, the mouth of the
Thames River and the south-central portion of the lake. Con-
centrations were below OMOE and IJC Guidelines (1,000 ppm), but
are classified as either "moderately polluted" (420-650 ppm) or
"heavily polluted" (>650 ppm) by U.S.EPA Classification Guide-
lines. In tributaries, the highest concentrations were found in
the Clinton River (3,100 ppm), which exceeded all relevant guide-
lines.
iii) Evidence of Current Inputs of Contaminants
In sediment cores taken in 1985 from Lake St. Clair, PCBs, DDT
and OCS exhibit higher concentrations deeper in the sediment than
at the surface. Reduced surface concentrations apparently ref-
lect the decrease in loading of the chemicals which has likely
occurred in recent years. Both HCB and HCBD concentrations,
however, increased near the top of the cores. This suggests that
loadings of these chemicals to Lake st. Clair were evidently not
dropping, and may even had been increasing in 1985. These
results are consistent with those of a 1985 study within the St.
Clair River that showed HCB and HCBD (hexochlorobutadiene) con-
centrations in water to be elevated on the Canadian side of the
mouth of the river (7).
Studies of sediments from the St. Clair River have shown that the
ratios of HCB to OCS are useful for tracking the source of con-
taminants in that river (23). The HCB/OCS and HCB/QCB ratios
were 1.3 and 4.0, respectively, for sediments near the Scott Road
Landfill, a site which contains waste byproducts from Dow's early
production of chlorine and chlorinated solvents. The HCB/OCS and
HCB/QCB ratios in sediments just below Dow's outfall and where
nonaqueous wastes have leaked into the river were 16 and 23 res-
pectively. In sediment cores from the central area of Lake St.
Clair in 1985, the ratio of HCB/OCS changed from 2 lower in the
core to 9 at the surface. Similarly the HCB/QCB ratio increased
from 4 near the bottom to 20 near the surface. These trends were
thus consistent with decreasing waste losses from the Scott Road
Landfill and an increase in the relative importance of Dow's
current effluent discharge and waste losses from the plant site.
Localized Hot Spots of In-Place Pollutants:
A survey of metal contaminants in surficial sediments of Lake St.
Clair conducted in 1983 included sampling sites closer to the
nearshore areas than were the sites in the 1985 survey (24). In
1983, near the Cutoff Canal of the Clinton River, relatively
elevated concentrations of Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Cr, and Pb were
observed. Similar concentrations were also observed in the
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371
Chenal Ecarte near Mitchell Bay. Distributions and concentra-
tions of Cu, Zn, Pb and Cr across Lake St. Clair were similar to
the findings of the 1985 survey, the nickel and cadmium concentr-
ations were about half of those reported for 1985 sediments. The
reason for this discrepancy has not been defined.
iv) Sediment Transport
Due to the strong hydraulic circulations, sediments from either
tributary sources or from resuspension during severe storms are
generally transported considerable distances, on the order of
several km from their origin, before they either deposit to the
lake bed or enter the outflow. Besides direct sediment transport
by the lake circulation, it is possible that sediments are trans-
ported from nearshore zones to the open lake depositional basins
by gravity currents associated with heavier turbid water. A thin
layer of more turbid water was observed near the bottom at one
open lake observation site. Evidence supporting this method of
sediment transport is seen in the sediment concentration contours
of zinc, copper and organic carbon, which indicate a source of
these parameters at the mouth of the Thames River.
v) Sediment Burial
Since only 30 cm, at most, of sediment has accumulated in Lake
St. Clair in post-glacial times, the lake must be considered as
nearly nondepositional. However, the isotopic studies of bottom
sediments (25) suggest that the burrowing activities of such
organisms as Oligochaete worms can mix newly deposited sediment
to an average depth of around 5 cm. At that depth the sediment
could be buried for long periods of time. Mass budget studies of
various tracers indicate residence time of sediments ranging from
3 to 6 years with a mean of 4 +/- 1 year. In the contaminant
modeling studies, the burial process was quantified at a rate of
0.1 cm/yr throughout the lake. However, it should be noted that
this burial rate inferred from the modeling studies leads to a
sediment accumulation which is about two orders of magnitude too
large. On the other hand, it is possible that precultural rates
of burial were much less than the present rates of burial.
vi) Sediment Residence Time
Two sediment residence times are of concern: 1) the residence
time of newly suspended or tributary input sediment in the water
column, and 2) the sediment residence times of deposited sedi-
ments in the lake. Estimates of the time during which contamin-
ants bound to sediments could exchange with the water column are
based on measured and inferred settling rates of suspended par-
ticles in Lake St. Clair. The settling velocities of the fine-
sized components of suspended sediment which presumably originate
from nearby deposits range from 2 to 5 m/d, but are mainly about
4 m/d. Thus once suspended, particles remain in suspension for
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372
somewhat less than a day before being deposited. This is
probably a maximum residence time in the water column since the
particles were separated before analysis. Flocculation of par-
ticles could decrease the residence time of particles to several
hours. This notion is supported by the application of the simple
sediment model to five time series of suspended sediments,
neglecting horizontal transport. The mean settling velocity
inferred from the model was 21 m/d.
An approximate residence time for deposited sediments may be
estimated from the strength of the hydraulic flow and the
settling time. If, for example, fine sediment particles are
resuspended for 8 hours on the average, then they would be trans-
ported by the main hydraulic flow about 2 km towards the outflow
before being deposited as the storm event subsides. For par-
ticles deposited in the depositional basin, at least 12 storm
events would be required to move them a distance of 20 km to the
outflow area. Because the physical measurements of suspended
sediments were unable to distinguish between local resuspension
in deep water and the transport by the lake circulation from
shallower areas, it is impossible to estimate the number of
storms per year capable of resuspending fine sediments in the
deeper zones of the lake. It is probably safe to say that there
would be at least two storms per year of sufficient strength to
initiate sediment resuspension in the deeper area. Therefore,
one might conclude that strongly adsorbed contaminants would take
about 6 years to move to the outflow area.
There are several processes which could lengthen this residence
time. As the sediments travel towards the outflow, there would
be a progressively shorter wind fetch. Consequently, the wave
energy available for resuspension would decrease towards the
outflow region in the prevailing wind direction. This finding
was supported by the wave, wind and sediment data of Hamblin et
al., (26) who showed that suspended sediment levels are high in
the Detroit River inflow area only during major storms from the
northeast. Those storms which are from the prevailing wind
direction do not result in appreciable export of suspended sedi-
ment from the lake.
The one-dimensional bottom sediment model of Robbins and Oliver,
(27) shows erosion of sediment becomes progressively more dif-
ficult as erosion proceeds because of compaction. Therefore,
while there may be several storms per year capable of initiating
sediment resuspension, it is possible that major storms occurring
only once in 20 years or even 100 years can erode appreciable
amounts of bottom sediments.
Due to the many uncertainties at this time in the understanding
of the physical processes involved in estimating the residence
time for strongly attached contaminants on fine sediment par-
ticles, estimates of the residence times can be better achieved
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373
through budget methods.
Residence times for bottom sediments in Lake St. Clair based on
long term budgets of radioactive tracers, mercury and various
organic contaminants are given in Table VIII-9. Residence times
range from 3 to 6.2 years with a mean of 4 +/- 1 years. Some of
these estimates were based on the assumption that there is no
exchange with the overlying water during resuspension events.
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374
TABLE VIII-9
Sediment reservoir residence times inferred from radionuclide
storage as of 1985 and changes in mean contaminant levels from
1970 to 1974 (25).
Constituent Residence Time(yr)
Cesium-137 6.0
Excess lead-210 3.0
Mercury 4.0
DDE 3.6
TDE 4.6
DDT 2.9
Total PCBs 6.2
Mean 4+/-1
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375
B. SPECIFIC CONCERNS
A summary of specific concerns for Lake St. Clair, based on the
following discussion may be found in Table VIII-10. Included are
the specific concerns, the use impairments prompting the con-
cerns, the media affected, and the geographic scope of the use
impairment.
1. Conventional Pollutants
Due to the agricultural base of the Lake St. Clair geographic
area's counties, the nonpoint source pollutants of greatest con-
cern are suspended sediments, nutrients and pesticides. These
concerns were documented in 1985 through the small watershed
assessment process (28). These pollutants can impair the use of
Lake St. Clair area resources for drinking water supplies, fish-
eries and wildlife, recreation, industrial shipping and agricul-
ture.
Nutrients and Eutrophication
Nonpoint source water quality problems are aggravated or pro-
nounced by variations in stream-flow. During high flow periods,
most surface waters display their poorest quality, with signif-
icant increases in biological oxygen demand, nutrients, pesti-
cides and sediments from nonpoint sources. When low flows occur,
the nonpoint source material deposited during high flow events
have an impact because they are no longer diluted. Scouring and
the deposition of sediments is also a significant nonpoint source
impact. Both water quality and water quantity are therefore
important to consider in devising control and management plans.
The input of relatively clean, low nutrient water from Lake Huron
via the St. Clair River, and the short flushing time of Lake St.
Clair has prevented nutrient concentrations from increasing and
has kept eutrophication to a minimum.
Although phosphorus concentrations in Lake St. Clair per se do
not appear to be a problem, the lake basin does contribute phos-
phorus to the water which enters Lake Erie via the Detroit River.
The Water Quality Agreement specifically calls for "improved
measurement of tributary loadings to the Lower Lakes for the
purpose of providing improved nonpoint source loading estimates".
Because tributary loadings of nutrients have been shown to exceed
those from atmospheric or point sources, accurate tributary load-
ing data are important to identify total loadings from the lake
basin. Michigan and Ontario have target nonpoint source loadings
of phosphorus to Lake Erie to meet as part of their phosphorus
loading reduction program, and the contribution from the Lake St.
Clair basin may be significant.
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376
TABLE VIII-10
Specific concerns in Lake St. Clair, uses impaired, media affected, and
geographic scope of the perceived problem.
CONCERN
Phosphorus
Pesticides
Oil and grease
Heavy metals
Mercury
POTENTIAL
USE IMPAIRMENT
use associated with
eutrophication of
Lake Erie
potential reduction of
plant productivity
toxicity to benthic
community
toxicity to benthic
community
toxicity to biota
toxicity to biota
MEDIA
water
water
sediments
sediments
sediments
water
sediments
GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE
tributaries
wetlands
tributaries
whole lake
tributaries
whole lake
PCBs
PAHs
Phthalate
esters
Habitat
alterations
human health hazard
(when consumed)
human health hazard
(when consumed)
toxicity to benthic
community
human health
hazard
human health
hazard
lowered wildlife
production
fish
fish
ducks
whole lake
whole lake
Walpole Island
sediments tributaries
sediments tributaries
sediments tributaries
biota wetlands
sediments
water
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377
Beach Closings
In 1986, there were eight U.S. bathing beaches on Lake St. Clair
in Macomb and Wayne counties (29). All were monitored for water
quality, and none were temporarily closed due to water quality
problems. This issue does not appear to be a problem.
Aesthetics
In the nearshore regions, the water is brownish-green. Over the
navigation channel the water colour tends to cloudy-green, but
the water is clear green near the centre of the lake away from
the navigation channel. Noxious odors and floating mats of algae
are generally not present. Mid-summer water transparency ranges
from 0.6 m near the shore to about 2.6 m near the open lake.
Aesthetics is therefore not a major issue concerning Lake St.
Clair.
2. Toxic Organics and Heavy Metals
Ambient Waters
For compounds that persist and bioaccumulate, loadings into the
Great Lakes are of concern regardless of the concentrations at
which the compounds are delivered. Even when loadings occur at
concentrations below detection limits, such compounds can bio-
accumulate and exert significant ecosystem effects. Such com-
pounds have received extensive study within the Great Lakes.
Most of the current generation of pesticides have short environ-
mental half-lives and have little tendency to bioaccumulate.
They are present, however, at much higher concentrations than
most of the persistent organics (30). Their ecological effects
have received very little study in comparison with studies of
persistent organics.
The most commonly applied agricultural pesticides were the herb-
icides atrazine, alachlor, metolachlor and cyanazine. Data and
tables have been provided (5,31). Maximum measured concentra-
tions of these pesticides in the Thames and Clinton Rivers in
1985 and unit area loads from the watershed to these rivers are
summarized in Table VIII-1. The 1985 Thames River estimated
loading rates for atrazine, metolachlor and alachlor were 6,892
kg (16 g/ha) , 2,875 kg (7 g/ha) , and 299 'kg (0.7 g/ha) respec-
tively (Table VIII-1). Atrazine was detected in 93% of all sam-
ples. Alachlor, which was banned in 1985, was detected in
approximately 15% of the samples collected in 1984 to 1985.
During April through August, 1985, the Clinton River estimated
loading rates for atrazine, metolachlor, alachlor, and cyanazine
were 52.2 kg (0.28 g/ha), 1.3 kg (0.1 g/ha), 14.2 kg (0.08 g/ha),
and 9.1 kg (0.05 g/ha) respectively. The unit area loadings of
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378
atrazine and metolachlor from the Thames River watershed were
therefore approximately 1 to 2 orders of magnitude greater than
those from the Clinton River watershed.
In general, the 1985 concentrations of pesticides observed in the
Michigan tributaries would have little effect on fish or aquatic
invertebrates, but could affect photosynthetic rates of some
algae and rooted aquatic plants. However, the 1985 pesticide
loads for the Clinton River is very likely to be significantly
less than the average load for this river, due to the near ab-
sence of runoff events following pesticide applications in this
watershed.
Biota
In edible portions of Lake St. Clair fish, PCBs have declined
generally and with the exception of carp, channel catfish and
muskellunge, all species have not exceeded the Health and Welfare
Canada guideline of 2.0 ppm. Mean PCS concentrations in mus-
kellunge have increased since 1980 (32).
Measurements of DDT in Lake St. Clair fish have not exceeded the
Health and Welfare Canada guideline of 5 ppm in any of the 13
species tested. As with the PCB data, highest concentrations
were detected in channel catfish and carp, and they were lowest
in yellow perch.
Concentrations of HCB and OCS in channel catfish from Lake St.
Clair are greater than those from southern Lake Huron. In carp,
OCS concentrations are greater in fish from Lake St. Clair than
in those from southern Lake Huron. Chlorinated dioxins and
dibenzofurans have been detected in Lake St. Clair channel cat-
fish and carp, but not in walleye.
A survey of contaminants in spottail shiners from 1977 through
1986 indicated that the highest contaminant burdens were assoc-
iated with the south channel of the St. Clair River. Shiners
from Mitchell Bay were less impacted, and those from the south-
eastern part of the lake near the mouth of the Thames River and
from the southern part of the lake near the mouth of the Detroit
River were not measurably impacted by contaminant loadings from
the St. Clair River. Concentrations of PCBs, HCB, OCS, DDT and
Chlordane in spottails from Lake St. Clair were generally similar
to those in southern Lake Huron, except for elevated levels of
PCBs and HCB in fish from the South Channel.
Current mean concentrations of mercury in walleye, northern pike
and carp fillets are less than 25% and yellow perch and white
bass less than 20% of 1970 levels (33). Mercury concentrations
in muskellunge, however, did not decline between 1975 and 1985
(32) .
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379
Despite declining concentrations of contaminants in the fish, a
Public Health Fish Consumption Advisory exists for both U.S. and
Canadian waters. As of 1987, the Advisory included "No Consump-
tion" for largemouth bass over 14", muskellunge and sturgeon.
"Restricted consumption" of no more than one meal per week for
the general population was advised for larger specimens of
walleye, white bass, smallmouth bass, yellow perch, carp, rock
bass, black crappie, largemouth bass, bluegill, pumpkinseed,
freshwater drum, carp-sucker, brown bullhead, catfish and north-
ern pike. Nursing mothers, pregnant women, women who expect to
bear children and children age 15 and under were advised to not
eat the fish listed because of the potential for effects of con-
taminants on the infant or child.
For 1988, Michigan will retain the advisory as issued for 1987.
Ontario, however, will reduce the advisory such that no "No Con-
sumption" category will be issued. The advise toward pregnant
mothers and their children will still remain in effect.
A comparison of the abundance of mayfly (Hexagenia) nymphs in the
UGLCC Study area where visible oil did and did not occur in the
sediments indicated substantially lower densities (61/m2) in the
presence of visible oil than in the absence of visible oil
(224/m2).
The annual production of Hexagenia nymphs was measured in the
UGLCC Study area along with sediment concentrations of oil,
cyanide, Hg, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. Production averaged
2,086 mg dry wt./m2/yr at 3 locations where sediment levels of
contaminants were not in excess of guidelines established by the
U.S. and Canada for distinguishing polluted sediments. Elsewhere
in the study area, the guidelines for polluted sediments were
exceeded by as many as 7 contaminants at a single location, and
production averaged only 364 mg dry wt./m2/yr. In Lake St.
Clair, where production was highest, only Hg exceeded the guide-
line.
Wildfowl:
Recent analyses (34) have indicated elevated levels of penta-
chlorobenzene (QCB), PCBs, HCB and OCS in duck populations resi-
dent in the St. Clair River marshes near Walpole Island. Mean
OCS concentrations of 115 ppb and PCB concentrations ranging from
1.5 to 4 ppb were found in nonmigratory mallards in samples of
breast and liver tissue. At present no wildfowl consumptions
advisories exist for HCB, OCS and QCB. While a comparison of the
PCB concentrations with the Wisconsin guidelines (35) of 3 ppm do
not indicate a major health concern and consequent loss of use of
the wetland habitat, there is considerable evidence that organic
compounds moving down the St. Clair River are being trapped
within the wetland region. Wildfowl consumption advisories are
being considered by the appropriate governmental agencies in the
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380
Lake St. Clair region (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources,
Michigan Department of Natural Resources and Canadian Wildlife
Service).
Sediments
Results of sediment surveys in Lake St. Clair that were conducted
within the last few years indicate that some accumulation of
contaminants has occurred in the deeper, thicker bottom sedi-
ments, but no particular areas or hot spots of highly contamin-
ated sediments were located. The data showed that sediments in
several tributaries to the lake contained much greater concentra-
tions of pollutants than were found in the open lake deposits.
Therefore, the areas requiring further attention for possible
remedial actions were within the regions of tributary discharge.
In 1985, bottom sediments from 12 U.S. tributaries to Lake St.
Clair were analyzed for UGLCCS parameters of concern and other
contaminants. The data are presented in Table VIII-11 and sum-
marized below.
i) Pesticides
DDT and its metabolites were found in 9 of the 12 tributary sedi-
ment samples. The maximum concentration was found in the Milk
River (383 ug/kg) .' The p'p forms of DDT predominated, and DDT
and DDE generally were more prevalent than ODD. The p'p forms
were detected in 10% of sediment samples from the mouths of
Ontario tributaries.
Other chloro-organic pesticides were also found in 9 of 12 tribu-
tary sediment samples. Gamma-chlordane was the pesticide most
commonly found, ranging from 2 ug/kg in the Clinton Cutoff Canal
to 196 ug/kg in Cottrell Drain. The sample from the Milk River
contained the greatest number of pesticide compounds identified,
including the only occurrence of Aldrin outside of the Detroit
River tributaries. With exception of a single sample containing
2, 4-D from Pike Creek no other pesticides or herbicides were
measured in bottom sediments from Ontario tributaries.
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) was found in only 6 samples at levels of
1 to 7 ug/kg.
ii) Organic Contaminants
PCBs were found in 9 of 12 tributary samples with concentrations
up to 1,974 ug/kg in the Cottrel Drain. Most of the PCB was
found as aroclor 1254, although in the Cottrel Drain aroclor 1248
was dominant. Aroclor 1260 was found only from the Milk River
sediments.
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381
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382
PAHs were found in 9 of the samples, with the maximum total PAHs
being reported in sediments from the Milk River (14,300 ug/kg).
Elevated concentrations were found also in the Cottrel Drain
(13,800 ug/kg), Clinton River (12,100 ug/kg), and in Frog Creek
(10,700 ug/kg). Most samples were dominated by 3-, 4- and 5-ring
PAHs. Naphthalene was found only from the Clinton River.
Cottrel Drain, Milk River and Frog creek had the highest number
of individual PAH compounds with 11, 9 and 8 respectively.
Phthalate esters were found in 9 of 12 samples. Occurrences of
all the four phthalate esters that were found throughout the
UGLCC Study area were found in the Lake St. Clair tributary sedi-
ments, including the 4 highest concentrations of di-n-butyl
phthalate (in sediments from the Ventre Beuf Drain/Black Creek,
Salt River, Cottrel Drain and Frog Creek) and the only occur-
rences of diethyl phthalate in the UGLCC Study area. Bis(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate was found in 9 of 12 samples with
concentrations up to 16,200 ug/kg in the Clinton River.
iii) Metals and Conventional Pollutants
Several tributary sediment samples contained concentrations of
metals and conventional pollutants in excess of U.S.EPA Guide-
lines (22) for nonpolluted sediments. These guidelines, number
of tributaries with exceedences of the guidelines, and the rivers
with maximum concentration, of each parameter are presented in
Table VIII-12. Most of the maximum concentrations occurred in
either the Clinton River or the Milk River. The Ventre Beuf
Drain/Black Creek sediments contained elevated concentrations of
the agricultural contaminants, ammonia, TKN and phosphorus.
3. Habitat Alterations
The delta marshes, estuaries, lagoons and channel wetlands that
fringe the shores of Lake St. Clair in both Michigan and Ontario
are among the most biologically productive areas in the Great
Lakes system. Because they occur in the proximity of a densely
populated, highly industrialized and inte'nsively farmed region,
the wetlands have suffered losses in both quality and quantity
(36). The remaining wetlands perform many important hydrological
and ecological functions, including providing habitat for fish,
furbearers and waterfowl.
Although portions of the wetlands have been permanently lost or
severely degraded, the prospects for future preservation of re-
maining wetlands and for at least partial rehabilitation of
selected areas are reasonable good. Wetland legislation and
other policies designed to protect the environment are in place
or under consideration. A comprehensive discussion of the Lake
St. Clair wetlands, including their ecological features, human
-------
383
TABLE VII1-12
Exceedences of U.S. guidelines for heavily polluted sediments for metals
and conventional pollutants in U.S. Lake St. Clair tributaries.
Parameter Guideline
* of tribs
with
exceedences*
maximum measured
concentration
River with
maximum
Cd
Cr
Cu
Pb
Mn
Ni
Ag
Zn
Se
Fe
As
Ba
Bo
COD
0*G
NH4
TKN
P
CN
TVS
6
75
50
60
500
50
200
0.8
25,000
8
60
80,000
2,000
200
2,000
650
0.25
8
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kf
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
-
mg/kg
mg/kgb
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
-
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
1
1
4
7
3
3
-
3
1
4
2
9
-
1
5
6
6
9
5
3
6.3
140
130
410
670
100
3.5
430
1.1
36,000
9.5
150
25
81,000
3,700
330
6,900
3,100
0.7
8.4
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
Clinton
Clinton
Clinton
Milk
Cl inton
Clinton
Clinton
Clinton
Milk
Marsac Creek
Clinton
Clinton
Frog Creek
Salt River
Clinton
Clinton
Milk
Ventre Beuf
Drain/Black
Creek
Cl inton
Clinton
Clinton
U.S.EPA Guidelines for the Pollutional Classification of Great Lakes
Harbour Sediments (22).
6 Lake Erie background concentration (22).
-------
384
impacts, and management issues has been presented by Herdendorf,
et al. (36), to which the reader is referred for details beyond
the scope of the UGLCC Study.
-------
385
C. SOURCES
1. Municipal Point Sources
Identification
In 1986 there were 18 major (flow > 3.7 x 103 m3/d or 1.0 U.S.
MGD) municipal wastewater treatment facilities and 29 minor muni-
cipal facilities discharging to the basin (37). Only four of
these, however, discharged directly to Lake St. Clair. Several
of the U.S plants discharged to the Clinton River, Michigan, and
most of the Canadian plants discharged to the Sydenham and Thames
Rivers, Ontario. Total flow from municipal sources was 559 x 103
m3/d.
The major facilities were predominantly activated sludge systems
with phosphorus removal, while the minor .facilities were predom-
inantly lagoon systems or trickling filter plants. All U.S.
plants were served by separated sewer systems. Three of the
larger Canadian municipalities have some combined sewer systems
which represent varying percentages of the total serviced area in
each municipality (Chatham, Wallaceburg, and London).
The largest urban centre, London (population 277,000), has 25%
combined sewers. Chatham, population 36,000, and Wallaceburg,
population 12,000, each have 37% of their, sewer systems combined.
In the U.S., five major municipal waste water treatment plants
(WWTP) were identified and selected for sampling: New Baltimore
WWTP discharges directly to Lake St. Clair, while the WWTPs at
Mt. Clemens, Pontiac, Rochester and Warren discharge to the
Clinton River. Three waste water treatment plants in Canada were
selected for study: The Belle River-Maidstone WWTP discharges
directly to Lake St. Clair, the Chatham WWTP discharges to the
Thames River, and the Wallaceburg WWTP discharges to the Sydenham
River. The sources were sampled for the 18 UGLCC Study param-
eters plus additional conventional pollutants, metals and organic
contaminants. One to six day surveys were conducted at each
facility between October 1985 and November 1986.
Based on the study of municipal dischargers, of greatest concern
were the Wallaceburg WWTP, the Mt. Clemens WWTP and the Warren
WWTP. Trace organics, heavy metals, phenols, ammonia and phos-
phorus were the notable pollutants contributed by these plants.
All three received industrial wastewaters as a significant por-
tion of their influent.
Classification
In terms of effluent loading for the sources surveyed, the fol-
lowing facilities were considered to be major contributors of the
-------
386
parameters studied:
1. Wallaceburg WWTP: Total copper, total nickel, total iron,
and ammonia-nitrogen.
2. Chatham WWTP: Chloride, ammonia-nitrogen, lead, total
suspended solids, and oil and grease.
3. Warren WWTP: PCBs, HCB, cyanide, total cadmium, total
chromium, total zinc, total nickel, total cobalt, chloride,
phosphorus, total organic carbon, and BOD.
4. Mt. Clemens WWTP: PCBs, phenols, oil and grease, total lead,
total mercury, total iron, phosphorus, ammonia-nitrogen,
total suspended solids and BOD.
All sources were in compliance with applicable guidelines or
site-specific limitations for the study parameters, except for
the Mt. Clemens WWTP which exceeded the Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement effluent limitation for total phosphorus of 1.0 mg/L.
However, the following sources were discharging elevated con-
centrations of contaminants which were not subject to site-
specific effluent limitations, requirements or guidelines:
1. Wallaceburg WWTP: Total cadmium, total chromium, total
copper, total nickel, and ammonia-nitrogen.
2. Mt. Clemens WWTP: PCBs, total phenols, total mercury.
3. Warren WWTP: PCBs.
The Warren WWTP and the Chatham WWTP, although classified as
major sources of the UGLCC Study parameters, were operating
efficiently and were discharging low concentrations of all para-
meters, except PCBs at the Warren WWTP. Their ranking as major
contributors was due to their flows being considerably larger
than most of the other sources. The municipal waste water treat-
ment facilities at Belle River, New Baltimore, Rochester and
Pontiac were considered to be minor contributors of the param-
eters studied.
Extent of Contributions to the Problems
A summary of the major municipal point source loadings of the
UGLCCS parameters to Lake St. Clair is presented in Table VIII-
13. Included is information on analytical detection limits,
flows, average concentrations, loads, and percentage of total
point source contribution for each facility for each parameter.
Municipal point source contributions of immediate concern were
identified:
-------
387
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391
i) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs): Although detected at
only two Michigan sources, Mt. Clemens WWTP and Warren
WWTP, the loading of 9.3 g/day to Lake St. Clair was high
compared to the loadings estimated for the other UGLCCS
areas. Both sources were discharging comparatively large
concentrations, 0.019 ug/L at Warren WWTP and 0.540 ug/L at
Mt. Clemens WWTP. Although PCBs were not detected in the
Canadian sources, the analytical method detection limit was
1,000 times less sensitive for Canadian samples than for
the U.S. samples.
ii) Total Phenols: The total loading was 1.73 kg/d. The
elevated concentration at Mt. Clemens WWTP, 77 ug/L, was
much higher than a comparable objective in Ontario of 20
ug/L for industrial discharges.
iii) Total Cadmium: The Wallaceburg WWTP effluent exceeded the
Ontario Industrial Effluent Objective of 1 ug/L in two of
the three samples collected. The concentration in both
samples was 4 ug/L. The total loading from all sources was
94.4 g/d.
iv) Total Mercury: Mt. Clemens WWTP had an unusually high
effluent concentration of 0.878 ug/L. The concentration
was more than four times the Great Lakes ambient water
quality objective for filtered mercury. The total loading
from all sources was small, 12.8 g/d.
v) Total Copper: The Wallaceburg WWTP had effluent concen-
trations of 196 to 500 ug/L, 10 times larger than any
other point source and two orders of magnitude greater than
the Great Lakes Agreement ambient objective of 5 ug/L. The
combined loading from all sources was 4.18 kg/d.
vi) Total Nickel: The Wallaceburg WWTP had effluent concen-
trations of 225 to 452 ug/L, well above existing ambient
objectives such as the Great Lakes Agreement objective of
25 ug/L. The total loading from all sources was 6.06 kg/d.
vii) Total Phosphorus: Mt. Clemens had an effluent concentra-
tion of 2.4 mg/L during the survey, above the 1.0 mg/L
permit limit and the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
Effluent Objective. Facility self-monitoring reports indi-
cated the 1.0 mg/L objective was frequently exceeded in
1986. The plant's interim permit did not contain a phos-
phorus limitation. Total loading from all sources surveyed
was 123 kg/d.
viii) Ammonia-nitrogen: The Wallaceburg WWTP had two of three
effluent concentrations above the Ontario industrial objec-
tive of 10 mg/L, i.e., 12.2 and 18.6 mg/L. The combined
loading from all sources was 541 kg/d.
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392
No significant contributions of non-UGLCCS parameters were iden-
tified.
2. Industrial Point Sources
There were 38 known point sources discharging to the Lake St.
Clair Basin in 1986, and all were minor facilities. All in-
dustries were indirect dischargers to Lake St. Clair, except the
Mt. Clemens, Michigan, water filtration plant, which discharged
filter backwash directly to the Lake. The total flow from
industries was not available. However, the majority of the in-
dustrial flow was once through cooling water or storm water.
The ten Canadian industries were predominantly food processors
and cement plants while the majority of the 28 Michigan plants
were automotive parts manufacturers, with process water usually
discharging to municipal WWTPs and cooling waters discharging to
surface waters. Because there were no direct industrial dis-
chargers to Lake St. Clair, no industrial sources were sampled as
part of the UGLCC Study.
3. Urban Nonpoint Sources
Intermittent Stormwater Discharges
PCB concentrations on the U.S.(west) side' of the head of the
Detroit River were found to be greater than on the Canadian side
(28). This finding was consistent with the observations of
Pugsley et al. (38) that the highest concentrations of PCBs in
clams and sediments from Lake St. Clair were found along the
western shore. Johnson and Kauss suggest that the single high
value of 1,630 ng/g that was observed on a single survey may be
related to an episodic point or nonpoint source discharge that
occurred during the survey. High total organic carbon (TOG)
concentrations were also observed during the same survey, which
may have resulted in increased adsorption of hydrophobic com-
pounds .
Some municipal storm drains exist in Michigan communities on Lake
St. Clair (39). New Baltimore has a single 8" drain that enters
Frog Creek, a minor tributary to the lake. In Mt. Clemens, 13
storm drains, ranging in size from 12" to 54" in diameter, dis-
charge into the Clinton River. Impacts of these drains on the
receiving water quality have not been documented. However, seven
of the drains in Mt. Clemens have received a preliminary "high
priority" ranking by Michigan Department of Natural Resources
(MDNR). Discharge priority ranking was based on indicators such
as basin land use, basin area, and diameter of discharge. The
process included many assumptions and estimation of relative
impacts. Therefore, the ratings should be regarded as only an
indication of potential impacts.
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393
Estimates of the annual contaminant loadings to Lake St. Clair
from Canadian urban runoff (stormwater and combined sewer over-
flow) are presented in Table VIII-14. These estimates were based
on the mean measured concentration of contaminants in urban run-
off from April 1985 to November 1986 in Windsor, Sarnia and Sault
St. Marie, Ontario, and on previous estimates of the volume of
urban runoff in the Canadian Lake St. Clair basin. Because of
the uncertainties involved in the data used in the calculations,
these estimates should be considered only as approximations. No
similar loadings were calculated for the Michigan urban areas.
Combined Sewer Overflows
None of the U.S. municipalities have combined sewers, while three
of the larger Canadian municipalities do have combined sewer
systems. The larger urban centre, London (population 277,000) is
serviced by 25% combined sewers. Chatham (population 36,000) and
Wallaceburg (population 12,000) each have 37% combined sewers.
Chatham and Wallaceburg are the largest major urban centers on
the two largest Canadian tributaries of Lake St. Clair, Thames
and Sydenham Rivers, respectively. The impacts of either the
storm water discharge or of any combined sewer overflows on the
quality of the receiving waters have not been documented.
4. Rural Nonpoint Runoff
Nutrients
Major sources of nutrients within the Lake St. Clair drainage
area are fertilizer (commercial and manure spreading), livestock
operations and soil erosion. Nutrients removed by leaching or
transported by sediment and runoff may produce two pollution
problems: groundwater contamination and accelerated eutrophica-
tion of surface waters.
Commercial fertilizer (and to a lesser extent, livestock manure)
is applied to approximately 50% of the land in the Lake St. Clair
geographic area. Approximately 90% of this land is situated in
Ontario and receives approximately 300,000 tonnes (429 kg/ha) of
commercial fertilizer annually. Over-fertilization has been
identified for both Michigan and Ontario agricultural areas.
Analysis of soil fertility and crop nutrient requirements
relative to fertilizer applications reveal that many farmers are
applying up to 3 times more phosphorus fertilizer than required
in Canada, and up to two times the required rate in the U.S.
Livestock operations in the Lake St. Clair geographic area
consist of dairy, beef, hog, sheep, chicken and horse operations.
Beef and dairy cattle are the biggest producers of phosphorus,
followed by hogs. A total of 61 tonnes/yr of phosphorus are
-------
394
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estimated to be delivered to the water courses from the livestock
operations, 65% of which comes from Ontario counties.
Soil erosion contributes approximately 3.2 tonnes/yr of phos-
phorus from Michigan to the water courses.. Based upon the
percent of total cropland erosion occurring from wind, Macomb and
St. Clair Counties should be targeted for accelerated conserva-
tion assistance.
Pesticides
Lake St. Clair geographical area is a region of potential prob-
lems regarding the movement of pesticides into the water course.
These problems are a result of an estimated 3.5 million kg being
applied to land in both Canada and the U.S. which has a high
potential to transmit the chemicals via surface runoff, fine
particulate matter carried by wind or water, and infiltration to
groundwater. Based on soil texture and drainage, approximately
70% of the St. Clair geographical area in Canada has been iden-
tified as potential problem areas with respect to surface water
contamination, and approximately 60% of the area possesses a high
risk for pollutant transfer to groundwater systems (5).
5. Atmospheric Deposition
Loadings of contaminants .to Lake St. Clair from the atmosphere
are a nontrivial portion of the total estimated load of lead and
phosphorus (see section E, modeling and mass balance considera-
tions, for further discussion). The major sources of phosphorus
are soil dust, leaf and insect debris, and industrial activity.
A large percentage of the loading may be derived from entrainment
of phosphorus-containing particles in agricultural areas. Lead
and cadmium are introduced through combustion of fossil fuel,
including exhaust from burning leaded gasoline in automobiles.
From measurements in urban and rural locations close to Lake St.
Clair, atmospheric deposition of lead was estimated to range from
4 to 8 kg/d and for cadmium from 0.8 to 1.1 kg/d (17).
The atmospheric loadings of P, NC-3, NH3, Cd, Pb, Zn and Cl to
Lake St. Clair for the years 1982 - 1985 were estimated from data
collected at the Mt. Clemens station of the Great Lakes Atmos-
pheric Deposition network. The thirty-year mean precipitation
average was used to convert concentration values into loadings,
as displayed in Table VIII-15.
Quantitative estimates of loadings of organic contaminants to
Lake St. Clair are not available. Given the quantity of inor-
ganic materials introduced to the lake from the atmosphere, how-
ever, an atmospheric source for organic pollutants is also likely
to be important.
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396
TABLE VIII-15
Atmospheric loadings of selected parameters to Lake St. Clair for 1982 -
1985. Mt. Clemens GLAD station is the source of data. Lake surface area
is 1101.178 km2 (430 mi2).
1982
1983
1984
1985
AVERAGE
1982
1983
1984
1985
AVERAGE
Nitrate(N03)
301 ,723
441,810
514,250
445,242
425,756
Cadmium
226
254
299
260
kg/yr
Ammonia(NH4) Total Phosphorus ( TP )
180,593 3,402
342,466 5,952
427,257 5,102
305,124 3,928
313,860 4,596
Chloride Zinc Lead
436,067 30,909
252,170 14,773 5,179
322,645 23,393 5,509
323,492 13,769 3,825
333,594 20,711 4,838
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397
6. Groundwater Contamination/Waste Sites
Surface Waste Sites
Active and inactive waste sites within 19 km of the Connecting
Channels were identified as part of this investigation. The
majority of sites were landfills, hazardous waste disposal sites,
and regulated storage sites. Other waste sites included trans-
portation spills, leaking underground storage tanks and contamin-
ated water wells. Underground injection wells were also iden-
tified.
Ranking of sites was based on their potential for contributing
contaminants to the Connecting Channels via groundwater. Sites
in the U.S. were ranked using the U.S.EPA DRASTIC System with
additions and minor modifications. This system assesses the
impact by evaluating the hydrogeology, waste material and the
distance from Lake St. Clair for each site. Nine U.S. sites were
ranked as confirmed or possible contamination sites within the
Lake St. Clair groundwater discharge area (Table VIII-16). In
general, these sites are in areas of sandy unconsolidated sur-
ficial materials and are near to the Connecting Channels. The
water table is generally less than 4.6m below land surface and
priority pollutants and/or inorganic contaminants are on site or
in the groundwater.
Waste disposal sites in the Ontario study area were also iden-
tified. Emphasis was placed on identifying sites that require
monitoring or remedial investigation's. Criteria for ranking and
prioritization of the sites included geologic, hydrologic, hydro-
geologic and geochemical information, on-site monitoring, waste
characterization and containment, and health and safety. No
sites in Kent County were identified that require immediate
investigation or that posed a definite potential for impact on
human health and safety. Three waste disposal sites in the area
contain only building refuse, domestic waste and commercial gar-
bage. These sites are small and not close to the lake. There-
fore, no significant impact is expected from them.
Deep Well Injections
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974 requires U.S. EPA to
provide for the safety of United States drinking water. The act
contains a set of requirements which involves the protection of
underground sources of drinking water from contamination by in-
jection well activities. Seven U.S. injection facilities are
presently authorized in the Lake St. Clair area, five of which
are salt water disposal wells and two of which are hydrocarbon
storage wells. Of the salt water disposal wells, two are cur-
rently in operation: Consumers Power injects to the Dundee Forma-
tion at 957 m and Lakeville Gas Association injects to the
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398
TABLE VIII-16
Confirmed or possible contamination sites in the U.S. within the Lake St.
Clair groundwater discharge areas.
1. Hwy M-29 and Michigan St. This site is a gas station with a leaking
underground tank on sandy materials near the St. Clair River and a shallow
water table.
2. Clay Township Sanitary Landfill This landfill has accepted household
and commercial wastes, and is near to the north Channel of the St. Clair
River distributary system, sandy surficial deposits, and a shallow water
table.
3. Selfridge Air National Guard Base (CERCLIS/RCRA/ACT 307) The Base site
consists of 7 individual groundwater contamination sites: 3 landfills, 2
fire training areas and 2 ramps. The landfills contain residential and
industrial wastes, solvents, and waste oils. The fire training areas
contain flammable waste (JP-4), solvents, strippers and thinners. There
have been fuel spills at the two ramps.
4. Metro Beach Incinerator This closed incinerator handled general refuse
(most likely from the Metropolitan Beach Park), and is located on the
Clinton River Delta within one-half mile from Lake St. Clair over a shallow
water table and on silty-sandy surficial material.
5. Q and L Industries (Act 307) Phthalate and lead are listed as
pollutants for this fiberboard manufacturer in Mount Clemens, Mi., and
groundwater contamination is indicated. The site is located on sandy soil
near to a shallow water table and aquifer.
6. County Line Landfill This landfill accepted household, commercial and
industrial wastes.
7. Henning Road Landfill (Act 307) The Landfill accepts domestic waste.
Groundwater contamination is not indicated in the Act 307 listing.
8. Sugarbush Road Dumpsite (CERCLIS/Act 307) This site is a solid waste
landfill with pollutants of concern being Pb, Ni, Cr, Cu and Zn. Surface
water, air and soil contamination are indicated in the Act 307 listing.
Groundwater contamination is not indicated, but there are no monitoring
wells.
9. Rosso Highway SAFE - Avis Ford This landfill accepted foundry sand.
CERCLIS: Site is listed within the information system for Superfund and is
considered for clean-up under the comprehensive Environmental
Compensation and Recovery Act of 1980 (CERCLA).
RCRA: Site has current activity under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act.
Act 307: Site is listed on Michigan's compilation of sites of known and
possible environmental degradation.
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399
Sylvania Sandstone at 733 m in Oakland county. One additional
well is presently under construction in Oakland County. Two
wells are temporarily abandoned: one to the Detroit River Group
of formations at 276 m and one to the Sylvania Formation at 588 m
Consumers Power Co. operates the two gas storage caverns in the
Salina Formation Group.
Estimates of Groundwater Discharge to Lake St. Clair
Groundwater discharges to Lake St. Clair from three hydrogeologic
units termed the shallow glacial (or shallow plus intermediate
units), glacial-bedrock interface (or regional, freshwater
aquifer), and bedrock units. The shallow glacial unit consists
entirely of Pleistocene Age glacial deposits. In southeastern
Michigan these are mostly silty-clay till and glaciolacustrine
deposits that contain discontinuous stringers of sand and gravel.
Base flow of perennial streams largely represents groundwater
discharge from this unit.
The glacial-bedrock interface unit occurs between the shallow
glacial unit and the bedrock. In general, the glacial-bedrock
interface unit discharges less water to the Connecting Channels
than does the shallow glacial unit. Environmental concerns,
however, are that high head pressures from deep waste injection
practices could cause waste fluids to migrate through fractures
or more permeable horizons in the rock. The glacial-bedrock
interface unit could thus be one pathway by which waste fluids
could reach the channels or contaminate adjacent groundwater. No
evidence exists at present that this has occurred in Michigan.
The bedrock unit is defined as the first bedrock aquifer lying
directly beneath the Connecting Channels. In the Lake St. Clair
study area, the bedrock unit includes all carbonate rocks of the
Traverse Formation which lie at depths of. 30 to 91 m beneath the
Antrim shale.
Total discharge from the three units to the Lake St. Clair study
area was estimated to be 1,315 L/s.
More direct measurement of groundwater flow to Lake St Clair was
also undertaken. Recognizing that all flow entering the lake
from groundwater must pass through its bed, the flow was calcu-
lated using the lakebed area, hydraulic gradients, and hydraulic
conductivities established by an electrical survey of the lake
sediments. The advantage of the electrical survey approach to
calculating groundwater flux is that it produces continuous meas-
urements of the hydraulic conductivity, as long as sediment is
present over the bedrock, allowing both detailed resolution of
the locations of groundwater inflow and an alternative method to
calculate the quantity. Summations of groundwater fluxes for the
entire lakeshore show a total groundwater discharge of 886 L/s.
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400
This estimate agrees well with that from above, estimated from
fluxes within geologic units.
Groundwater Contamination
In order to determine the concentration of contaminants in
groundwater in the Lake St. Clair area, and subsequently to cal-
culate loads from groundwater to the lake, eight monitoring wells
were installed in four groundwater discharge areas on the
Michigan shore of Lake St. Clair. Analyses of water from the
wells were made for volatile, base neutral, acid extractable and
chlorinated neutral extractable hydrocarbons, trace metals, and
other chemical substances.
Volatile hydrocarbons, if present, were consistently less than
the detection limit of 3.0 ug/L. Benzene was detected in water
from one well near Mt. Clemens at a concentration of 3.1 ug/L.
Concentrations of base neutral and acid extractable compounds,
and 13 chlorinated pesticides, were also generally below the
analytical detection limits of 0.1 to 30 ug/L and 0.01 ug/L res-
pectively. Phthalates were found in the water from all but one
well, with concentrations up to 170 ug/L (for bis (2-ethyl hexyl)
phthalate).
Some pesticides were found in four wells at levels exceeding
U.S.EPA Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Chronic Effects and
the GLWQA Specific Objectives. Lindane and total DDT were found
down-gradient from the Clay Township Landfill near the St. Clair
River delta. DDT was found also in wells near New Baltimore and
St. Clair Shores. Heptachlor was found in a well near the
Selfridge Air National Guard Base (ANGB).
Most wells exceeded the GLWQA Specific Objectives, the Ontario
(Provincial) Water Quality Objectives or the U.S.EPA Drinking
Water Primary or Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels for total
phenols, phosphorus, pH and some heavy metals. The elevated
metals concentrations may have been due to the inclusion of fine
particulate matter in the samples, and if so, the concentrations
of metals dissolved in the groundwater may be much lower than
those reported. The well near the Selfridge ANGB contained the
highest levels of phosphorus, phenols, dissolved solids and spec-
ific conductance.
A computation of the loading of chemical substances transported
by groundwater to Lake St. Clair does not seem feasible based
upon the data currently available. Concentrations of organic
compounds were generally less than their respective limits of
analytical detection, and concentrations of trace metals were
reported higher than they would have been had the finely divided
particulate matter been excluded from the analyses.
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401
7. Spills
Spills reports from Michigan and Ontario information systems were
reviewed and indicate that a limited number of spills to surface
water occurred in 1986. However, in many cases the volume of the
amount spilled was not known and it is no.t possible to compare
point source effluent loadings with the loadings due to spills.
8. Contaminated Sediments
Identification
i) Organics
Depth-integrated samples (interval composites) were prepared from
sediment cores collected in 1985 (Figure VIII-5) and analyzed for
organics in order to estimate the mass of contaminants stored in
the sediments. Horizontal distributions in total storage have
patterns which are essentially congruent with the thickness of
recent sediments and form the basis for estimating total storage
in the lake by contour integration. For the sandy nonaccumula-
ting area, where cores were not collected, a value of 5 ng/cm2
was used for PCBs and HCB, and a value of 0.5 ng/cm2 was used for
OCS. These approximations were not critical since the sandy
areas contributed less than 5% of the contaminant mass for these
chemicals. Lake St. Clair sediments presently contain about 960
kg of HCB, 870 kg of PCBs and 210 kg of OCS.
These values are much higher than the contaminant masses found by
Oliver and Pugsley (40) for the St. Clair River sediments (3 kg
HCB, 20 kg OCS) indicating that Lake St. Clair is a more signif-
icant repository for chemicals than the river itself, in part due
to the much greater mass of sediments in the lake. Recent load-
ing estimates for HCB and OCS in the combined dissolved and par-
ticulate fraction at Port Lambton in the St. Clair River were 180
kg/yr for HCB and 11 kg/yr of OCS. At these rates, Lake St.
Clair sediments contain the equivalent of 5 years loading of HCB
and 20 years loading of OCS. Thus, the sediments retain signif-
icant fractions of these chemicals and, given the uncertainties
in the calculation, accumulation is consistent with sediment
reservoir residence times derived from historical studies of
metal and organic chemicals in the system and from the response
of sediments to particle-associated radionuclides.
ii) Metals
In order to estimate the total mass and anthropogenic mass of
each metal stored in Lake St. Clair sediments, the sediment cores
collected at each station in 1985 were designated to be repre-
sentative of a region of the lake. The anthropogenic mass of
each metal stored in each sediment type was calculated by sub-
tracting background metal concentrations from all concentrations
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402
in post-settlement sediments. In general, metal concentrations
increased above the glacial deposits.
Within the lake and its marshes, 30 to 64% of the mass of metals
stored in post-settlement sediments is anthropogenic. Storage of
anthropogenic metals is highest in the silts and clays (48-70%),
second highest in the sands (32-35%), and lowest in the marshes
(5-29%). An exception to these general statements is the high
fraction of anthropogenic lead stored in the marshes (29%), based
on the one core used to represent the marshes.
Lake St. Clair appears to be a temporary trap for some metals
(Table VIII-9). Thus, sediments and their associated contamin-
ants, appear to be transient and will eventually be transported
down the Detroit River to Lake Erie.
Classification
Using the OMOE and U.S.EPA pollution guidelines, the sediments
underlying the open water of Lake St. Clair can be classified as
only lightly polluted. Sediments at the mouths of some tribu-
taries are more contaminated.
9. Navigation
As a result of the Rivers and Harbors Flood Control Act of 1970,
which authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to construct
facilities for containment of polluted dredge spoil from the
Great lakes harbors and waterways, two diked facilities were
constructed on Dickinson Island adjacent to North Channel in the
St. Clair delta. Both sites were located on the high pre-modern
delta deposit and did not infringe on the wetlands. These
disposal sites were designed to accommodate dredgings produced
during a 10 year period, and they presently receive the materials
dredged from the St. Clair system. Navigation-related dredging,
which removes contaminated sediments and deposits them in con-
fined disposal facilities could be considered beneficial in that
the total contaminant load within the system is reduced. Impacts
of the dredging due to resuspension of contaminated sediments
during the dredging operations, and the subsequent temporary
increase in bioavailability of the contaminants, have not been
documented.
Commercial vessel operations through the shipping channel are
also believed to cause some local sediment resuspension. The
extent of influence and effects of the contaminants associated
with the resuspended particles have not been documented.
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403
D. DATA LIMITATIONS
A detailed discussion of data quality management for the UGLCC
Study can be found in Chapter IV. The information presented
below reflects concern for some data quality pertaining specif-
ically to Lake St. Clair.
1. Sediment Surveys
References in the text to a "1983 sediment survey" in Lake St.
Clair refer to a study conducted by the OMOE. The data have not
yet been published, nor have the methods, results or any inter-
pretation of the data been peer reviewed. Discussions with the
principal investigators, however, indicate that the samples were
obtained by bottom grab sampler, and the top 3 cm of each of 3
grabs were composited. The samples were then sent to a labora-
tory for analysis by "standard techniques". This study has the
appearance of being a valuable contribution to the knowledge of
the distribution of contaminants in Lake St. Clair sediments.
However, the data must be considered "preliminary" at this time,
and used only to support the findings of other documented
surveys, particularly the 1985 surveys conducted by Environment
Canada and by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
2. Tributary Loadings
Accuracy of estimates of tributary loadings of chemical param-
eters is dependent on the responsiveness of the stream to storm
events and on the frequency of sampling. Data from a program
employing infrequent sampling will generally be biased low for
substances which increase in concentration with increasing stream
flow, such as nutrients from agricultural runoff (41). Of
various sampling strategies, flow-stratified sampling, i.e.,
emphasizing storm events, and calculations provide the most ac-
curate results. Loading data for phosphorus, nitrogen,
chlorides, lead and cadmium from the Clinton, Thames and Sydenham
Rivers were based on a combination of monthly and storm-event
sampling and included from 15 to 72 samples per year. Data for
the Ruscom, Puce and Belle Rivers were based on only 14 or fewer
samples per year, and may therefore be subject to considerable
error.
A recent analysis of the flow responsiveness of Great Lakes tri-
butaries, i.e., their potential for change in rate of flow in
relation to storm events, indicated that the Clinton River was
"stable", the Sydenham River was "event responsive", and the
Thames was intermediate between the other two (42) Estimates of
loads of phosphorus, Cd and Pb for the Thames River, with the
greatest number of annual samples, and the Clinton River, with
the most stable flow, may be expected to have about the same
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404
accuracy, although confidence intervals were not reported. The
estimate for the Sydenham, with the about the same or fewer samp-
les and more variable flow response, may under represent the true
load by some unknown amount.
The difficulty in calculating loads from small data sets created
the need to make loading calculations using several methods. For
Canadian tributaries, the Beale Ratio Estimator was used to ar-
rive at loads for P, Cd, Pb, and Cl. Loading calculations for
these parameters plus NC>3 were also made from the same data set
by plotting P concentration vs flow. A "best line fit" was then
drawn, and concentrations were then read off the graph for days
on which no samples were taken. Phosphorus loads on the remain-
ing Canadian tributaries were calculated using a two-strata
method. A "cut-off" line was determined by doubling the annual
mean flow. An average concentration was found for days when flow
exceeded the cutoff, and another was found for days with flow
below that value. Loads for unsampled days were calculated by
multiplying the average concentration by the flow for that day.
The values presented in this report represent an arithmetic
average of results obtained by the two methods.
Concentrations of lead, cadmium, chloride and nitrogen in
Canadian streams did not exhibit a variation with respect to
flow. Therefore, loads were calculated by averaging all samples
and multiplying by the flow.
For the Clinton River, loads were calculated using the
Stratified Ratio Estimator (43). This method is essentially a
modification of the Beale Ratio Estimator.
The average annual loads for Canadian tributaries as displayed in
Table VIII-1 represents a mixture of included data. For P, the
average unit area load is based only on data from the Sydenham
and Thames Rivers, which comprise 57% of the Lake St. Clair
watershed. Were an arithmetic average of all estimates of load-
ings from all Canadian tributaries to be used, the unit area
loading would have been reported as 3.18 kg/ha instead of 2.26
kg/ha.
For NC>3 and Cl, the loadings include an average unit area loading
from the Ruscom River, which was approximately 10 times that of
the other rivers in 1985. The average unit area loading for the
Sydenham and Thames Rivers combined for N03 and Cl was 20.5 kg/ha
and 160 kg/ha, respectively, instead of the reported 40 kg/ha and
287 kg/ha. The cause for the Ruscom River concentrations and
loads may need investigation, but the data should not be con-
sidered typical of the unit area loads for the Lake St. Clair
watershed.
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405
3. Point Sources
The point source monitoring data in general were developed with a
rigorously defined quality assurance program. Due to constraints
on the sampling frequency and quantity, however, a number of
shortcomings in the point source survey data limit the inferences
that can be drawn from the results of the study. Most facilities
in the Lake St. Clair basin were not sampled. The major facili-
ties closest to the lake itself, as opposed to those furthest
upstream, were surveyed, however.
One deficiency, that of a small data base consisting of one day
sampling by the U.S. and 3 to 6 day surveys by Canada, prevents
precise determination of annual loadings. The timing of the
surveys reduced the comparability of the data. The U.S. surveys
were carried out during May and August of 1986, while the
Canadian data was collected on October 1985 and March and
November of 1986. The sampling methods were also different. The
U.S. composited four grabs (one per six hours) for each facility.
Canadian samples were collected by automatic composite samplers
(one portion per 15 min.). Differences in the analytical methods
and the method detection limits used by the U.S. and Canada for
several parameters also reduced data compatibility. This defi-
ciency was particularly pronounced for PCS analyses.
Despite these limitations, the data were considered adequate for
identifying major sources of contaminants, and were used to make
conclusions and recommendations concerning specific point
sources.
4. Fish Consumption Advisories
The data upon which the fish consumption advisories for Lake St.
Clair are based were derived primarily from Canadian analyses of
samples of the edible portions of fish. This method generally
returns concentrations of contaminants less than those found in
larger skin-on fillets that the U.S. uses for its analyses of
contaminants in fish. One implication, therefore, is that if the
U.S. method for assessing contaminants in fish were used, the
fish consumption advisories may become more restrictive. Al-
though the impacts to humans of contaminants other than mercury
in fish flesh for commercially marketed fish are not quantified,
the advisories remain useful as a general guide for use by the
public who consume fish from Lake St. Clair.
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406
E. MODELING AND MASS BALANCE CONSIDERATIONS
1. Mass Balance Models
Four days prior to the onset of the System Mass Balance measure-
ments in the Detroit River, measurements of contaminants entering
Lake St. Clair from the St. Clair River were initiated. The
intent of starting four days before making measurements on the
Detroit River was to allow for passage of most of the St. Clair
River water through the lake. By doing so, upstream and down-
stream contaminant fluxes could be compared and conclusions could
possibly be drawn concerning whether Lake St. Clair is a source
or a sink of contaminants. It must be emphasized that the valid-
ity of comparing upstream and downstream measurements in this
mass balance calculation depends on how well the same parcel of
water was sampled at the head and mouth of Lake St. Clair. Given
winds that existed.during the sampling time, and output from a
particle transport model (developed at the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration - NOAA) discussed below, we estimate
that 60-80% of the water that entered the lake, exited it on day
four. Therefore, downstream contaminant fluxes that are 20-40%
different from upstream fluxes cannot be argued to be signif-
icant. On the mass balance diagrams that follow (Figures VIII-6
through VIII-13), best estimates of point and nonpoint source
inputs have also been noted. If estimates were not available,
they are indicated with a "?" on a diagram. Loading information
was compiled with data provided by the Point and Nonpoint Source
Workgroups. Groundwater loading estimates are extremely prelimi-
nary and should be treated as such. These diagrams should there-
fore be used only to suggest possible issues that may require
further investigation. This is because of uncertainty about time
lags between the head and mouth of the Lake, and the "long term
average" character of some of loading information.
In most cases, the downstream contaminant fluxes do not differ
widely from the contaminant flux entering the lake via the St.
Clair River. In the cases of cadmium and particularly lead, it
appears that a significant portion of the lake's total load could
be coming from its tributaries. If the Thames River lead loads
are reasonably accurate, then a regulatory problem may exist.
Sediment records that indicate a net storage of lead over the
years would corroborate these observations.
A total phosphorus budget was developed for Lake St. Clair for
1975-1980 (Figure VIII-13). Phosphorus load estimates were made
for point sources and hydrological areas (Figure VIII-14).
During this period Lake Huron accounted for 52% of the total
annual load, while hydrologic area loads accounted for 43% (13).
The remaining load came from the atmosphere, shoreline erosion
and direct point sources. The Thames hydrologic area contributed
58% of the total hydrological area load, followed by the Sydenham
(17%), the Clinton (9%), the Ruscom (7%), and the Black (6%).
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407
Atmosphere
.71
Upstream
Input
12.3
SIS.
Point
Sources
.075
.57-.77
Clinton R.
Ground
H20
Lake
St.. Clair
.02
CANADA
Point
Sources
.-4'-6 Syden. R.
.2-2.2
Thames R.
Ground
H2O
14.3
Downstream output
ln=15.4-16.8
out=14.3
slnk=1.1 2.5?
FIGURE VIII-6. Lake St. Clair
total cadmium (kg/d).
Atmosphere
?
US.
Point
Sources 1-S1
9.4-15.1
Clinton R.
Ground
H20
1.7
Upstream
Input
450.2
CANADA
Lake
St.. Clair
472.9
Downstream output
10=465.5-471.2
OUt=472.9
sources?.4-1.7?
Point
Sources
Syden. R.
Thames R.
Ground
H2O
FIGURE VIII-7. Lake St. Clair
total copper (kg/d).
Atmosphere
.218
Upstream
Input
US.
Point
Sources -°
Clinton R. ?
Ground
H2O
CANADA
Lake
St.. Clair
-o
.252
Downstream output
ln=.218
out=.252
sources.034?
Point
Sources
Syden. R.
Thames R.
Ground
H2O
FIGURE VIII-8. Lake St. Clair
HCB (kg/d).
Atmosphere
IIS.
Point
Sources
.5
7.4-15.2,
Clinton R. aVal
13.3 46.7
Lake
St.. Clair
Upstream
Input
CANADA
Ground
H2O
18.0
Point
Sources
Syden. R.
Thames R.
123.1
Ground
~ H2O
58.8
Downstream output
1(1 = 220.7-228.5
out=55.8
store=161.9-169.7?
FIGURE VIII-9. Lake St. Clair
total lead (kg/d).
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408
Atmosphere
?
SIS.
Point
Sources
Clinton R.
Ground
H2O
-0
Upst ream
4.8 Input
CANADA
Lake
St.. Clair
Downstream output
in=4.8
out=7.1
source=2.3?
Point
Sources
-0
_? _ Syden. R.
_? _ Thames R.
Ground
H2O
FIGURE VIII-10. Lake St. Clair
total mercury (kg/d).
Atmosphere Upstream
S71 Input
SIS.
Point
Sources 3.2
24.9-16.4.
Clinton R."~H
Ground
H2O
1.7
Lake
St.. Clair
2.9
CANADA
Point
Sources
Syden. R.
Thames R.
Ground
H2O
499
in=595.2-603.7
out=499
sink=96-105?
FIGURE VIII-11. Lake St. Clair
total nickel (kg/d).
Atmosphere
IIS.
Point
Sources
Clinton R. 7
Ground
H2O
Upstream
Input
CANADA
Lake
St.. Clair
.0
_?
?
Sources
Syden. R.
Thames R.
Ground
H2O
.85
Downstream output
in=.89
out=.85
stores.04?
FIGURE VIII-12. Lake St. Clair
total PCB (kg/d).
U.S.
Hydrologic
Areas
Atmospheric,
Erosion, Lake Huron
Direct Point 1,621
155 r
Black
78
St. Clair
Complex 38
t
Rouge
Complex 5-
LAKE ST. CLAIR
Net Loss = 15
Canadian
Hydrologic
Areas
232 Sydenham
788 Thames
Detroit River Outflow 3,148
FIGURE VIII-13. Lake St. Clair average
phosphorus loads and losses
during 1975-80 (mt/yr).
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409
83W
82°00'
43*30'
43*OCT
42°00*
LAKE
ST.CLA/R
42W
Rouge ,
Complex'
'Lake\EHe
FIGURE VIII-14. Hydrological areas used in determining mass balances.
-------
410
Over the six year period examined, the lake's total input and
output of phosphorus were nearly equal. Therefore, there was no
significant net source or sink of phosphorus in the lake during
that period.
2. Process-Oriented Models
Changes of water level caused by wind are most pronounced in
shallow lakes such as Lake St. Clair. The ability to predict
wind-induced water level changes would therefore be useful, since
these changes can affect shorelines and contingent properties. A
hydrodynamic model was developed to investigate the effects of
bottom drag and wind stress on computed lake setup, and to deter-
mine the efficacy of hydro-dynamic or purely empirical approaches
to predicting water measurements. Empirical approaches by-pass
many of the calculations that are used in the hydrodynamic ap-
proach. No essential difference between the two approaches was
found, but for an empirical model to be developed, an adequate
historical data base for the site of interest must exist. The
strength of the hydrodynamic approach is that it is transferable
among lake systems.
To predict the fate and transport of contaminants in any body of
water, the movement of that water, as affected by winds or tribu-
taries, must be known or predictable. Because of this need,
several models were developed by Canadian and U.S. scientists to
predict and understand currents in Lake St. Clair. In addition,
models were developed for predicting and understanding wave dyna-
mics in Lake St. Clair since waves can resuspend sediments and
associated contaminants.
Simons and Schertzer, (Environment Canada - EC) developed a model
that predicts mean daily currents in Lake St. Clair. They found
that an important consideration in developing the model was ac-
counting for the effects of a shallow bottom on currents. Lack
of information regarding these effects has been a major impedi-
ment to the application of hydrodynamic models to shallow lakes.
They were able to develop a tentative relationship between eddy
viscosity and wind stress that aided in shallow water model
development.
Schwab and elites (NOAA) developed a particle transport model for
Lake St. Clair to answer the following questions: 1) What path
does water entering Lake St. Clair from one of the tributaries
follow through the lake before leaving the Detroit River? 2)
How long does it take? 3) How is the particle path changed by
wind-induced circulation in the lake? 4) For the meteorological
conditions during the summer and fall of 1985, what are the typi-
cal statistical distributions of these pathways? The model they
developed calculates currents on a 1.2 km grid and yields results
that are similar to those of Simons and Schertzer above. Their
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411
model can be used to make preliminary estimates of the spatial
distribution, transport and residence times of conservative,
hazardous spills in Lake St. Clair. This model, however, only
tracks conservative, nondispersive tracers from the mouths of the
tributaries through the lake under various wind conditions.
Even though the average hydraulic residence time for Lake St.
Clair is about nine days, the residence time for conservative
particles entering the lake from the individual tributaries
ranges from 4.1 days for the Middle Channel to over 30 days for
water from the Thames River, depending on the wind conditions.
If significant contaminant loads were to enter the lake from
tributaries that have long residence times, the impact of these
contaminants might be greater than if they entered the lake from
other tributaries.
Most of the water from the St. Clair River enters the lake
through the North Channel (35%). According to the calculations,
this water tends to flow down the western shore of the lake and
never gets into the central or eastern parts of the basin. Water
from the Middle Channel tends to remain in the western third of
the lake, almost never entering the eastern half. Water from St.
Clair Flats and the St. Clair Cutoff can be dispersed almost
anywhere in the lake to the south of the shipping channel which
connects the St. Clair Cutoff with the Detroit River. A small
amount of the St. Clair inflow. (5%) enters through Bassett
Channel. This water can pass through any part of the eastern
half of the lake depending on the wind conditions. The Thames
inflow tends to be confined to the eastern and southern shores
before reaching the Detroit River and it can take a very long
time to get there. Water from the Clinton River and the Clinton
Cutoff is most likely to follow the western shore of the lake
southward with the most probable paths within 3 km of the western
shore.
Water quality measurements made in Lake St. Clair by Leach (44,
45) showed two distinctly different areas in the lake. In the
southeastern part of the lake, the water quality was dominated by
the Thames inflow, which is a major source of phosphate and other
dissolved and suspended material. The central and western parts
of the lake possessed water quality similar to Lake Huron than to
the southeastern part of the lake. The pattern of water mass
distribution (45) is very close to the combined patterns of the
four main St. Clair River inflows and the Thames inflow. Bricker
e_t al. (46) examined the distribution of zooplankton in the
western half of the lake. They distinguished an area of biologi-
cal and physiochemical similarity along the western shore of the
lake that appeared to be influenced more by the Clinton River
than the St. Clair River. The shape of this area matches quite
well with the modelled distribution pattern for water from the
Clinton River.
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412
To verify the circulation model and lend credulity to currents
calculated by Schwab and elites, their model was tested by com-
paring model output to actual current data measured in Lake. St.
Clair in 1985. Two separate current data bases were gathered.
One involved the use of 5 drifting buoys which were repeatedly
launched and tracked in the lake. The other was the result of
several synoptic current surveys utilizing electromagnetic cur-
rent meters. Currents predicted by the circulation model were
used to simulate 16 drifter tracks. Most of the tracks were
about 2 days in length from various portions of the lake. In
most cases, the model simulated the tracks extremely well as did
a similar study by Hamblin et al., (26). For the entire data
set, the mean root mean square (rms) of the drifter was 25% grea-
ter than that of the calculated current track. The directions
compared favorably except for a few tracks near the mouth of the
Bassett Channel, where the model prediction was over 90 degrees
different in direction when compared with the observed track.
The comparisons between current meter measurements and model-
predicted currents were even better. In nearly 100 comparisons,
60% of the variance is explained by the model prediction. The
model again seems to under-predict the current speeds, here by
about 30%.
Contaminant transport depends in large part on the movement of
suspended particles. Therefore, accurate computation of hori-
zontal sediment transport should rely upon the accurate simula-
tion of the vertical structure of the horizontal flow field.
Hamblin et al., (26) developed such a three dimensional finite
element model for Lake St, Clair. Model agreement with observa-
tions was good near the lake bottom but poorer near the surface
and suggested that a more elaborate model would be needed to
accurately model vertical velocity profiles. The more elaborate
model would include the effect of surface waves.
An empirical model was developed to describe and understand the
relationship between waves and sediment settling and resuspension
(25). The importance of these relationships to our ability to
predict and understand the transport of contaminants is evident.
Statistical relationship between suspended matter and concentra-
tion and wave orbital velocity was computed. Integration of
computed resuspension rates provided an estimate of sedimentation
in sediment traps. The model-generated sedimentation rates com-
pared rather well with the sediment trap data.
Present Status of Physical-Chemical-Biological Models
To predict the fate and behaviour of contaminants, models that
integrate physical, chemical, and biological processes are often
needed. Two such synthesis models were developed for predicting
contaminant fate in Lake St. Clair. Halfon (EC) utilized TOXFATE
and Lang, Fontaine and Hull (NOAA) utilized the U.S.EPA TOXIWASP
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413
model. TOXFATE was used to predict the spatial distribution of
seven halocarbons in Lake St. Clair, and the fate of perchloro-
ethylene in the St. Clair - Detroit River system. The TOXIWASP
model was used to predict and understand the fate of the contam-
inant surrogate Cs-137, as well as PCBs and OCS. Neither of
these models could be fully tested for Lake St. Clair applica-
tions due to a limited test data set. However, these models are
based on well documented cause and effect relationships, and as
such, could be used to forecast the fate and behaviour of con-
taminants introduced to the lake in the future. Representative
results of Halfon's Lake St. Clair TOXFATE model is demonstrated
in Figure VIII-15.
Lang and Fontaine (NOAA) developed a multi-segment, generic con-
taminant fate and transport model for Lake St. Clair. The
TOXIWASP code upon which it was based was. streamlined to make it
more specific to Lake St. Clair. Because evidence of biological
mixing in Lake St. Clair was extensive, this capability was added
to Lake St. Clair version of TOXIWASP. An extremely fast version
was created that calculates steady state contaminant concentra-
tions in seconds rather than hours. Numerous programming errors
in the original code were found, corrected and passed on to the
U.S.EPA-Athens modeling group.
Lang and Fontaine (NOAA) calibrated the transport mechanisms of
TOXIWASP using chloride and meteorological data that were col-
lected during a series of cruises in Lake St. Clair during 1974.
After- obtaining reasonable agreement with the conservative
chloride ion, calibrations of contaminant dynamics was carried
out using Cesium-137. Cesium-137 was used to calibrate the
model's contaminant dynamics since Cesium-137 adsorbs to par-
ticles in a manner similar to that of many hydrophobic, organic
contaminants. Most importantly, the source function of Cesium-
137 to the lake is well known (Figure VIII-16). This informa-
tion, coupled with knowledge of the spatial and depth distribu-
tions of Cesium-137 in the sediments of the lake, provided an
excellent calibration and verification data set. Verification
results are acceptable (Figure VIII-17).
Having calibrated the TOXIWASP model for Lake St. Clair, it was
used to hindcast possible loadings of octachlorostyrene and PCBs
to Lake St. Clair. The model predicted that about 3.9 MT of OCS
had to have been loaded to the lake over a period of 12 years to
produce measured sediment concentrations (Figure VIII-18). This
finding implies that OCS was first loaded in the latter part of
1970 and is consistent with speculation to that fact. The model
also estimated that 3,400 kg of PCBs had to have been loaded to
produce measured PCB sediment concentrations (Figure VIII-19).
The model tended to under-predict the PCB values along the east-
ern and western segments of the main lake, which may indicate
additional or increased PCB sources in these areas.
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414
TRICHLOROETHYLENE
ng/L
OBSERVED JUNE 18-21
PREDICTED
FIGURE VIII-15. Modelled and observed distributions of trichloroethylene
1984.
-------
415
a
U
4^
on
w
D
O
-------
416
en
4-*
c
o
(U
v>
?
O
w
c*
D
O
E
-------
417
c
CL>
S
o
o
2
o
c
o
u
c
o
o
00
w
ft!
D
O
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-------
418
c
W
1*
O
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-------
419
TOXIWASP assumes a local equilibrium between the dissolved, par-
ticle-adsorbed and bio-adsorbed chemical. Hull, Lang and
Fontaine (NOAA) modified the TOXIWASP model so that kinetic,
instead of equilibrium, reactions were simulated. This was done
to determine whether the equilibrium approach was valid in all
circumstances. Equilibrium models assume implicitly that incom-
ing contaminant loads are at local equilibrium between dissolved,
adsorbed, and bioaccumulated phases. When the same load
conditions were assumed for the kinetic model, greatest devia-
tions between the two models occurred when predicting the fate of
highly hydrophobic contaminants (Kow>106). The kinetic model not
only required a longer time to reach steady state contaminant
concentrations, but also required a longer time to flush out the
resident contaminant mass after the input load was shut off.
Generally, one would expect problems with an equilibrium approach
when the time to equilibrium is longer than the residence time of
the water body in question.
Halfon (EC) used TOXFATE to predict the fate of perchloroethylene
(PERC) in the St. Clair - Detroit River system. The model sug-
gested that about 82% of the PERC would be volatilized, and the
remainder, less 1% that would remain in sediments, would enter
Lake Erie. Comparison of simulated and measured PERC concentra-
tions show reasonable agreement. Since so much of the PERC is
volatilized before it reaches the open lake, Halfon's model does
not realistically demonstrate what may happen to a nonvolatile
spill entering the lake.
In the case of a nonvolatile spill travelling the lake from the
St. Clair River to the Detroit River outflow, the dilution of the
concentration would be determined mainly by the strength of
horizontal turbulent mixing. There were no direct measurements
of horizontal diffusion in Lake St. Clair reported by any of the
UGLCCS activities. However, two investigations (17,53) have
employed a vertically integrated model of transport and diffusion
of a conservative substance, chloride, to infer an effective
horizontal diffusion coefficient of 10+5 cm^/s. Because this
quantity has been deduced from vertically averaged concentration
in the possible presence of current shear over the water column,
these authors have termed the diffusion coefficient as a disper-
sion coefficient.
The particle trajectory measurements and models reported for
August 12, 1985 by Hamblin (47) and by the Modeling Workgroup
Report (53) for September 1985 demonstrated that particles would
take about four days to cross the lake. If a slug of contamina-
ted river water had dispersed longitudinally to a length of 5 km
in the St. Clair River, then in the four day transit to the out-
flow region it would have grown by about 7 km to a characteristic
patch size of 12 km under the assumptions of average mete-
orological conditions and horizontal Gaussian diffusion. In
turn, this patch would take about two days to pass across the
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420
water intakes near the outflow. Finally, the average concentra-
tion would be about 20% of the original concentration entering
the lake.
3. Summary
The modeling work on Lake St. Clair has made much progress during
the study period from the water level fluctuation models (storm
surge) to the coupled contaminant-circulation models. However,
more work is required before the models could be used as
effective water management tools. Testing of the models with
parameters additional to PCB and OGS, more realistic treatment of
sediment water interaction, and linkage of the models to lake
biota are seen as necessary steps before the models can reliably
assess the ecological responses to reductions in loadings to the
lake. Although not developed for operational purposes, the mod-
els TOXFATE and TOXIWASP, with modest additional effort, could be
used to predict the trajectories and dilutions of spills of
either volatile or nonvolatile substances occurring on the lake
or entering from the rivers.
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421
F. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS FOR REMEDIAL PROGRAMS
The following objectives and goals are grouped according to
media. However, remedial actions are likely to have multimedia
effects. For example, elimination of point and nonpoint sources
of contaminants can be expected to reduce concentrations in
water, sediments and biota, even though direct remediation of
contaminated sediments or biota may be infeasible. Some objec-
tives may be reached, therefore, upon attainment of one or more
others.
1. Water Quality
Since the water quality of Lake St. Clair is dominated by that of
the St. Clair River, remedial programs directed towards the St.
Clair River will also improve water quality in Lake St. Clair.
Objective 1. Full implementation of recommendations for the St.
Clair River presented in Chapter VII of this
report for the elimination of industrial, munici-
pal and nonpoint sources of contaminants to the
St. Clair River, particularly HCB, HCBD, OCS, Hg,
and Pb.
Excluding input from the St. Clair River, phosphorus loadings to
Lake St. Clair are dominated by nonpoint sources. For example,
in the Thames River 93% of the loading was of the nonpoint source
type. In water samples from Lake St. Clair tributaries, nearly
all contained phosphorus in excess of the PWQO of 30 ug/L.
Improved agricultural practices such as conservation tillage,
elimination of over-fertilization and control of feedlot
effluents are identified as actions relevant to reduction of
nonpoint source loadings.
Objective 2. Reduction of phosphorus loadings from point and
nonpoint sources in Michigan and Ontario to assist
in meeting target load reductions for Lake Erie.
The Mt. Clemens WWTP was identified as having average phosphorus
concentrations in its effluent exceeding the GLWQA objective of
1.0 mg/L for municipal water treatment facilities. Municipal
treatment plants discharging to the Thames River in excess of
this guideline in 1986 were Chatham, Ingersoll (new), City of
London (Adelaide, Greenway, Oxford, Pottersburg and Vauxhall) and
the Strathroy Town Plant.
Objective 3. Necessary and sufficient technology and operation
procedures at all wastewater treatment facilities
to meet the target concentration of phosphorus in
the effluent of no more than 1.0 mg/L.
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422
Excessive unit area loading of pesticides from agricultural lands
into tributaries of Lake St. Clair was identified. Some areas
were identified to be of particular concern.
Objective 4. Reduction in the loadings of pesticides from all
tributaries.
Objective 5. Identification and elimination of the source of
DDT and metabolites to the Milk River.
Water quality in several tributaries was reduced by the presence
of heavy metals. Cadmium concentrations generally exceeded the
GLWQA specific objective and PWQO of 0.2- ug/L, and some were
greater than the chronic AWQC of 1.1 ug/L in the Belle, Sydenham,
Thames and Clinton Rivers. Also, some lead concentrations were
in excess of the chronic AWQC of 3.2 ug/L in the Belle and
Sydenham Rivers, and in the Thames River some exceeded the acute
AWQC of 82 ug/L.
Objective 6. Identification and elimination of all point
sources of Hg, Pb and Cd in the watersheds of the
Clinton, Thames and Sydenham Rivers.
Objective 7_ Elimination of combined storm sewer overflows
which will reduce contributions of P, Pb, Cd, Hg
and PCBs to Lake St. Clair tributaries.
2. Sediment Quality
Reductions in industrial loadings of mercury in the St. Clair
River have resulted in dramatic improvements since 1970 in the
bottom sediments. However, surface concentrations in bottom
sediments still exceed the IJC and OMOE guidelines of 0.3 ppm and
contain values classified as "polluted" by the U.S.EPA Classifi-
cation Guidelines. Since recent mercury concentrations of bottom
sediment samples do not appear to be reducing as quickly as in
the earlier studies there is some concern that unknown tributary
sources exist. The mass balance studies of Section E indicate a
net outflow of mercury from Lake St. Clair. Since the tributary
loadings are not known, it is impossible to determine the source
of the mercury.
Objective 8. Identification and elimination of continuing
sources of Hg to the St. Clair River.
Objective 9. Identification and elimination of point and non-
point sources of Hg to Lake St. Clair tributaries.
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423
Of the other metals, only zinc and copper exceed the OMOE guide-
lines in the sediments of the open lake and would result in a
classification of sediments as moderately polluted.
Objective 10. Reduction in heavy metals concentrations in sur-
ficial sediments of Lake St. Clair to levels sup-
porting a classification of "not polluted" by
OMOE, U.S.EPA and IJC Guidelines.
The sediment surveys revealed that PCBs did not exceed the guide-
lines in the open lake. However, guideline concentrations were
exceeded in some of the tributary sediments including the Cot-
trell Drain, the mouth of the cutoff channel of the Clinton River
and the Sydenham River. Other organic contaminants with specific
guidelines such as HCD, OCS and pesticides were identified in
sediments from the open lake and tributaries. In general, the
sampling of all tributary sediments was incomplete, so there
could be cases of excesses of certain compounds not reported or
cases of compounds that were sampled which have no guidelines.
Objective 11. Elimination of DDT in sediments at the mouth of
the Milk River.
Objective 12. Identification and elimination of sources of PAHs
in sediments from the Milk River, Cottrel Drain,
Clinton River and Prog Creek.
Objective 13. Reduction in PCB concentrations at the mouths of
Lake St. Clair tributaries such that the sediments
would be classified as "not polluted" by OMOE,
U.S.EPA and IJC Guidelines.
3. Biota and Habitat
The most significant impaired use of Lake St. Clair waters is the
restriction in the consumption of sports fish. A joint fish
consumption advisory between Ontario and Michigan remains in
effect for the larger specimens of 18 species of sports fish
(33). Levels of mercury in excess of Canadian governmental
guidelines have been identified as the main contaminant respon-
sible for restricted fish consumption. Because the concentra-
tions of mercury in the tissues of sports fish have declined
dramatically since 1970, programs to control the major historical
sources of mercury appear to be satisfactory. However, since
tributaries were not monitored, smaller, uncontrolled sources
could be contributing to the loading.
Objective 14. Reduction in mercury concentration in Lake St.
Clair fish to less than 0.5 mg/kg, and subsequent
elimination of the fish consumption advisory based
on mercury contamination.
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Objective 15. Continued reduction in PCB concentrations in fish
to meet the GLWQA specific objective of 0.1 mg/kg
for protection of birds and animals which consume
fish.
In addition to being an important sports fishery, Lake St. Clair
is a major duck hunting area. The habitat necessary for wildfowl
resting, feeding and breeding is provided by the extensive wet-
lands around Lake St. Clair particularly in the Lake St. Clair
Delta. More than 9,000 km of wetlands were lost to shoreline
development in Lake St. Clair between 1873 and 1968. Losses are
most evident in the Clinton River, the St. Clair River Delta and
the eastern shore of the lake. In 1979 the state of Michigan
prohibited the modification of a wetland over 5 acres in size to
restrain encroachment into the wetland areas. In Ontario, sub-
sidies for engineering projects still encourage drainage of wet-
lands and their conversion to agricultural use. However, tax
relief that favors retention of the wetlands has recently (1987)
been granted to wetland owners. Although diked Ontario wetlands
are effectively managed for waterfowl hunting, there is a loss of
other wetland functions, particularly those related to fish prod-
uction.
Objective 16. Preservation of remaining wetlands surrounding
Lake St. Clair, and protection of them from
further diking, filling or other forms of destruc-
tion.
4. Management Issues
In the Clinton River, the concentration and impact of contamin-
ants are sufficiently severe for the area to be recognized as an
IJC "Area of Concern". A Remedial Action Plan is in the process
of being developed by the State of Michigan for restoring benefi-
cial uses of the area. This plan will contain details of the
problems, their extent and causes, and a schedule for remedial
actions to be implemented. Plans for further monitoring for
results of the actions will also be included.
Objective 17. Full implementation of the Remedial Action Plan by
Michigan and other responsible agencies for clean-
up and restoration of uses in the Clinton River.
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Although the Thames River is not presently one the IJC Areas of
Concern, many agricultural and industrial contaminants have been
identified in the water and sediments, and impaired uses were
identified that are similar to those for 'the Clinton River. The
absence of the Thames River on the AoC list should not imply that
the area is contaminant-free.
Objective 18. Preparation and implementation by Ontario of a
Plan for the restoration of impaired uses in the
Thames River. The Plan should address issues of
agricultural runoff of nutrients and pesticides,
CSOs in the watershed, and sources of heavy metals
in the tributary.
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G. ADEQUACY OF EXISTING PROGRAMS AND REMEDIAL OPTIONS
1. Projection of Ecosystem Quality Based on Present
Control Programs
In general, the ecosystem quality in Lake St. Clair is adequate
for the maintenance of a desirable biological community that
includes the production of sport fish. Impairment of the bio-
logical communities due to contaminants appears to exist only in
localized areas around the mouth of some tributaries (although
some contaminant levels in fish are sufficient to force the is-
suance of a fish consumption advisory by Michigan and Ontario),
and the loadings of agricultural nutrients have not caused severe
eutrophication problems. Loss of habitat due to wetlands de-
struction, however, has been extensively documented.
The specific concerns addressed in Section B, above, relate most-
ly to contaminants in the Lake St. Clair basin, and can be
grouped into three major categories: nonpoint source loading of
contaminants and nutrients, contaminants in tributary water and
sediments, and contaminants in fish. Of these categories, insuf-
ficient data exist to determine trends in the loading of con-
taminants from nonpoint sources, including tributaries. However,
the concentration of mercury in the edible portions of northern
pike, white bass and yellow perch from Lake St. Clair, and of
PCBs in walleye from 1970 through 1984 have been declining at a
geometric rate (7), indicating that control programs for these
two contaminants have been at least partially effective. Evi-
dence for continuing loadings of nutrients, pesticides, PCBs, and
heavy metals implies that the rate of decline in contaminant
burdens in fish could be greater were no additional contaminants
entering the system.
Although the impact of the loading of the UGLCCS parameters to
Lake St. Clair directly may appear to be minimal, consideration
must be given to the ultimate impact on Lake Erie populations.
Lake St. Clair may be storing HCB and HCBD, but it is a source
for PCBs and total phosphorus. These contaminants are then
transported through the Detroit River and should be accounted as
loadings to Lake Erie.
2. Assessment of Technical Adequacy of Control Programs
Present Technology
In 1985, inputs of nine of the UGLCCS parameters were determined
to be significant, resulting in impacts to either water, sediment
or biota quality. These were cadmium, copper, cyanide, lead,
mercury, nickel, PCBs, phosphorus and zinc. In general, dis-
charge of these parameters from point sources was not controlled
by limitations or objectives. All of the surveyed point sources
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were municipal facilities, and all were subject to discharge
limitations mainly for conventional parameters. However, for
many of the parameters, point sources were not the most signifi-
cant contributors. Rather, the largest loading was obtained from
unidentified sources discharging through tributaries.
The control of phosphorus has been the main approach of the U.S.
and Canada to remediating the eutrophication of the Great Lakes.
All municipal plants surveyed in the Lake St. Clair basin had
average concentrations less than 1 mg/L, except the Mt. Clemens
WWTP. The GLWQA Objective, the Canadian Municipal effluent Ob-
jective, and the standard Michigan permit limit for phosphorus is
1.0 mg/L monthly average in sewage plant effluent. The Mt.
Clemens WWTP exceeded the 1 mg/L average frequently in 1986 ac-
cording to self-monitoring data. An expansion and improvement of
the facility is underway (1987) which will enable the plant to
meet the limitation.
Excluding input from the St. Clair River, the Thames River
provided the largest loading of phosphorus to Lake St. Clair,
exceeding the contributions made by the point sources by a factor
of about 16. Similarly, the Sydenham and Clinton Rivers exceeded
the point source loadings by factors of 7 and 3 respectively.
Atmospheric loading to the lake was less than 5% that from the
Clinton River. This indicates that these rivers were receiving
substantial inputs of phosphorus from other sources, and that
controls were not adequate or effective. The most probable route
is drainage of phosphorus from agricultural uses and livestock
operations. The application rates in Michigan and Ontario were
found to be 2 and 3 times the recommended rates, respectively,
and the use of conservation tillage techniques were not
widespread.
Likewise, excluding input from the St. Clair River, the Thames
River provided the largest loading of cadmium to Lake St. Clair,
almost twenty times greater than all point sources combined. Of
the three point sources that were found to discharge cadmium,
none did so to the Thames River. The loading from the Sydenham
River was 34 times greater than accounted for by the Wallaceburg
WWTP, and the loading from the Clinton River was 11 times that of
the two WWTPs that discharged Cd. None of the facilities had
site-specific permit limits or objectives for Cd. However, the
evidence indicates that all three rivers were receiving signifi-
cant inputs of cadmium from other sources, perhaps from air depo-
sition or use of cadmium-contaminated phosphate fertilizer (48).
Estimated loading of Cd to Lake St. Clair from the atmosphere was
approximately the same at that from each of the Sydenham and
Clinton Rivers.
The Thames River also provided over 100 times the loading of Pb
than all the surveyed point sources combined, and three times the
loading from the St. Clair River. The Clinton and Sydenham
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428
Rivers each contributed more than 10 times the quantity of lead
than did the point sources, and the atmospheric loading was es-
timated to be similar to that of the Clinton and Sydenham Rivers.
Clearly the loading of lead to Lake St. Clair from unidentified
sources in the tributary basins was more significant than from
the point sources, which did not have effluent limitations or
objectives for lead.
Mercury contamination in Lake St. Clair has resulted largely from
historical inputs through the St. Clair River. However, inputs
may still be occurring, as evidenced by sediment surveys and by
the mass balance calculations presented in Section E, above.
Although none of the point sources surveyed had effluent limita-
tions or objectives for the discharge of mercury, point source
loadings accounted for only 0.0157 kg/d of an estimated 2.3 kg/d
source in the Lake St. Clair basin. The source could include the
contaminated sediments themselves. Loading estimates from the
tributaries and atmosphere were not available for this study.
The Clinton River also contributed significant loads of PCBs to
Lake St. Clair. Both the Warren WWTP and Mt. Clemens WWTP serve
large communities with substantial industrial bases, and both had
industrial pretreatment programs in place. Neither reported
specific sources of PCB in their service areas, and neither had
permit limits for PCB at the time of the survey. PCBs were not
found in three Ontario WWTPs. Although the Canadian MDL was
1,000 times greater than that in the U.S.., the PCB concentrations
in the U.S. sources were much higher than the Canadian MDL.
Michigan and Ontario both recommend zero discharge of PCB.
Michigan is now using a water quality based effluent limit of 1.2
X 10~5 ug/L in some NPDES permits, the allowable effluent guide-
line calculated using the State's Rule 57(2). The level is below
any current MDL, so the permits also contain an interim limit of
detection at 0.2 ug/L, the MDL commonly achieved with routine
monitoring methods. The permittee is further required to develop
a plan to meet the water quality based limit.
The Warren WWTP, Mt. Clemens WWTP, Rochester WWTP and Pontiac
WWTP all operate an industrial pretreatment program, receiving
waste water from industries in their area. Due to the quantities
of contaminants coming from these facilities, however, the pre-
treatment requirements of these facilities and/or the compliance
by the contributing industries with the requirements may be
suspect.
Similarly, the Chatham WWTP receives industrial waste water, and
it provided the largest loading of oil and grease and the third
largest loading of nickel to the Lake St. Clair Basin. The
quality of the waste water it receives may also be suspect and
not in compliance with the Ontario By-Law to control the receipt
of contaminants from industrial sources.
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Best Available Technology
Discussions concerning the adequacy of "best available
technology" (BAT) for reducing or eliminating loadings of con-
taminants to Lake St. clair are premature until specific sources
of the loadings are defined. No direct industrial discharges
occur to Lake St. Clair, but elevated levels of contaminants were
found in the water and sediments of many tributaries, implying
that sources may exist upstream. Should specific sources of
contaminants be identified, then an assessment of the impact of
BAT may be made for that industry on the receiving stream and on
Lake St. Clair,
Because phosphorus is found to be coming from agricultural prac-
tices, the implementation of conservation tillage and reduced
fertilizer application rates should greatly reduce the magnitude
of the loadings of P to the system. Likewise, reductions in
phosphorus loadings from municipal and industrial effluent, if
needed, can be achieved with improved facility design and opera-
tions. Urban nonpoint source runoff, however, may be more dif-
ficult to control.
Additional efforts are needed to identify the sources of mercury
loadings to Lake St. Clair. If internal loadings from the con-
taminated sediments are found to be significant, active control
technology might be infeasible. Techniques for dealing with in-
place polluted sediments is a topic for current research, and
demonstration projects are expected to be established within the
next several years by U.S.EPA. However, technology for treating
contaminated sediments is expected to be applicable to localized
areas, including harbors and restricted tributary mouths, but not
appropriate for a whole lake basin. Given the rather short resi-
dence time of sediments in Lake St. Clair, in the order of 10
years, the problem of contaminated sediments could be resolved
for Lake St. Clair through natural proces-ses. However, continued
problems would be expected in the western basin of Lake Erie.
3. Regulatory Control Programs Applicable to Lake St. Clair
A detailed discussion of regulatory programs in the UGLCCS
regions may be found in chapter III. The following programs have
particular impact on Lake St. Clair. The Clinton River is one of
the Areas of Concern as designated by the International Joint
Commission. As part of the effort to develop and implement a
Remedial Action Plan (RAP) for the river basin, the State of
Michigan has begun intensive remedial activities in the area
(49). All major NPDES permits in the Clinton River basin were
reviewed and new water quality based or technology based effluent
limits (whichever was more restrictive) were developed in 1985.
Metals, organics and conventional pollutants were included. A
pretreatment program for process industrial wastewater was im-
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plemented throughout the Clinton River basin as of 1987, and
upgrades to four WWTPs were completed in 1986 and 1987. Full
details of the remedial programs and schedule for implementation
will be included in the RAP, which is expected to be submitted to
the IJC in 1988.
Where stormwater is determined to impact water quality in
Michigan, the stormwater provisions (section 405) of the U.S.
Water Quality Act of 1987 will be implemented to correct the
problem. The State 305 (b) report will be reviewed in 1988 to
determine if any of the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels
areas are impacted by stormwater runoff.
Some technical and educational programs for farmers are in exis-
tence. For example, a Canadian Federal and Provincial effort
called the Soil and Water Environmental Enhancement Program
(SWEEP) encompasses all aspects of soil and water conservation.
Within the SWEEP program, a provincial program called the Ontario
Soil Conservation Environmental Protection Assistance Program
exists which will financially assist the farmer in implementing
soil and water conservation practices with up to 67% funding. A
Land Stewardship Program has also recently been announced to
assist farmers in the implementation of conservation techniques.
All of these programs should assist in achieving reduced phos-
phorus and pesticide contamination in streams.
The preservation of wetlands in Lake St. Clair has been assisted
by three relatively recent laws enacted by the State of Michigan:
1) The Great Lakes Submerged Lands Act (1955) which prohibits
constructing or dredging any artificial body of water that would
ultimately connect with a Great Lake, and which requires a permit
from MDNR to fill any submerged lands, including Lake St. Clair;
2) Shorelands Protection and Management Act (1970) which desig-
nates wetlands adjacent to a Great Lake as environmental areas
necessary to preserve fish and wildlife; and 3) The Goemaere-
Anderson Wetland Protection Act (1979) which regulates wetlands
through several laws relating to shorelands and submerged lands
(36).
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H. RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Industrial and Municipal Point Source Remedial Recommendations
1. Ontario and Michigan should incorporate the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement's goal of the virtual elimination
of all persistent toxic substances into their respective
regulatory programs.
2. The City of Mt. Clemens should determine the source of
PCBs, total phenols and mercury in the WWTP effluent and,
through pretreatment or in-plant controls, reduce the con-
centrations of these pollutants to acceptable levels.
Effluent limitations for these parameters should be con-
sidered. Phosphorus concentrations in the effluent should
be lowered to meet the 1 mg/L Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement objective.
3. Site specific effluent limitations for total cadmium, total
copper, total chromium and total nickel to protect the
water quality for the Sydenham River and Lake St. Clair
should be developed for the Wallaceburg WWTP. The opera-
tion of the plant should be optimised to meet the Ontario
industrial effluent objective of 10 mg/L for ammonia.
4. The Warren WWTP should determine the source of PCBs in its
effluent and take the necessary steps to reduce the con-
centration to acceptable levels.
B. Nonpoint Source Remedial Recommendations
5. Agricultural areas with high rates of wind erosion need to
be targeted for assistance due to the characteristics of
wind transported soil (fine textured, high enrichment
ratio, and high organic matter content) and its ability to
transport nutrients and agrichemicals. The relatively low
erosion rates and high percentage of wind erosion in com-
bination make conservation tillage the most practical con-
servation practice to be recommended. The primary reasons
for this are the effectiveness of residue cover in reducing
wind erosion and the low cost of implementing the practice.
Conservation tillage is recognized as being highly cost-
effective and physically effective in areas of sandy soils
where wind erosion is a problem. If conservation tillage
were applied to all cropland eroding over the soil toler-
ance level, with a resulting compliance with the tolerance
level, a 32% reduction in phosphorus loading from cropland
could be achieved.
6. Rural landowners need to implement,' with the assistance of
Federal, State and Provincial governments, a comprehensive
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soil and water management system in order to control, at
source, the contribution of conventional and organic pol-
lutants including manure and pesticides to surface and
groundwater. Specifically:
a. Agricultural and conservation agencies need to accele-
rate the implementation of control technologies through
technical, financial and information/education
programs. There is a need for extension, education and
incentives to persuade farmers to implement conserva-
tion management systems including cropping, tillage and
structural practices, nutrient and pesticide management
technology,-thereby reducing the movement of soil,
conventional pollutants and contaminants off their land
into the waterways.
b. Environmental and agricultural agencies should assess
the adequacy of existing controls, regulations and
permits for the use of fertilizer and pesticide
products.
c. Specific programs, especially in Macomb County, MI,
should be directed at reducing the excessive levels of
phosphorus fertilization, improving the management of
animal waste disposal and storage, and educating pest-
icide users with respect to handling, application and
storage of pesticide products.
7. Future assessment and control of agricultural nonpoint
sources of pollution would be facilitated by compatible
Federal, State and Provincial monitoring data and more
frequent flow-weighted tributary monitoring data. The
small water quality monitoring data set available for tri-
butaries indicated the need for increased sampling for all
parameters, especially flow weighted data. The lack of
samples in high flows created difficulty in calculating
representative loads as well as understanding seasonal
patterns of pollutant transport. More samples on high flow
days would improve the basis for pollution control strat-
egies .
8. Macomb and St. Clair Counties, Michigan, should be targeted
for fertilizer management. U.S.EPA Region V has requested
the USDA-SCS Michigan State Office to develop standards and
specifications for a nutrient, best management practice
that would protect ground and surface waters as well as
sustain crop production. The Michigan Departments of Agri-
culture and Natural Resources are developing a joint action
plan to manage livestock waste problems that includes best
management practices for proper animal disposal that gives
attention to air and water pollution from concentrated
animal operations. This program may require a system of
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permits for concentrated feeding operations.
9. The CSOs from municipal wastewater treatment plants should
be intensively surveyed to determine their contribution of
pollutant loadings to the surface waters. In the long term
(due to enormous cost) combined sewers in all munici-
palities should be eliminated. In the interim, the munici-
palities should institute in-system controls to minimize
the frequency and volume of overflows.
10. The Michigan Pollution Emergency Alerting System and the
Ontario Spills Action Centre spills reports should be im-
proved so that all information on recovery, volume (if
known) and final resolution are fed back to the central
reporting system to complete each report for inventory
purposes.
11. The Superfund Site Investigations to be undertaken at
Selfridge ANGB should focus on groundwater and surface
water runoff impacts upon Lake St. Clair and the Clinton
River. In the event that this site is not included on the
U.S. National Priorities List, the 'State of Michigan should
place high priority upon cleanup on this site.
12. Michigan should require groundwater monitoring as a permit
condition for the Sugarbush solid waste landfill.
13. Michigan should include groundwater monitoring as part of
the RCRA Generators permit for G and L Industries.
C. Surveys, Research and Development
14. Data interpretation would be facilitated by the development
of more complete water quality objectives for the organic
pollutants and pesticides that are used extensively by the
agricultural industry. Currently, water quality objectives
do not exist for many parameters that are measured. Al-
though meeting water quality objectives does not guarantee
"no impact" of a contaminant, the objectives do provide a
point of reference for assessing the relative potential for
negative impacts of various contaminants in the aquatic
system.
15. The presence of organic contaminants (PCBs, HCBs and OCS)
in the Canadian tributaries illustrates the need to locate
the contaminant sources.
16. The cadmium content of the phosphate fertilizer that is
being used on agricultural lands should be determined.
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434
17. A study of atmospheric deposition of organic contaminants,
particularly PCBs, to Lake St. Clair and to the tributary
watersheds would provide quantitative information on load-
ing of these contaminants to the lake. The loading esti-
mates are important for mass balance calculations and the
identification of unknown sources of the contaminants.
18. Urban runoff was identified as being a potentially major
nonpoint source of many parameters,including PCBs, oil and
grease, zinc, mercury, copper and nickel. The loadings
from urban runoff, however, were based on contaminant con-
centrations from Canadian urban areas outside of the Lake
St. Clair basin. Therefore, the loading information
provide only a general potential for urban runoff to con-
tribute contaminants to Lake St. Clair. A study should be
performed to determine the contribution actually made by
urban runoff on the Michigan shore where the shoreline is
more urbanized than is that of Ontario.
19. The sediments near the mouth of the Clinton, Sydenham and
Thames Rivers contain contaminants that may be impairing
benthic communities. Studies are needed to document
possible impairment of benthic communities of these sites.
Appropriate actions to remedy any observed problems will
need to be defined. Techniques and technologies for remedi-
ating in-place polluted sediments should be developed.
20. Recognizing that the biological effects of a substance are
dependent in part on the chemical species of that sub-
stance, studies should be conducted' to identify the
chemical species and valances of the heavy metals in Lake
St. Clair and its tributaries. For those forms which are
present but for which toxicity information is lacking in
the literature, toxicity and bioaccumulation experiments
should be conducted on appropriate target organisms.
21. The evaluation of the point source data has been conducted
on a parameter by parameter basis. In order to assess the
quality of whole effluents, it is recommended that biomon-
itoring studies, both acute and chronic, be conducted at
the major facilities (Wallaceburg WWTP, Chatham WWTP,
Warren WWTP, and Mt. Clemens WWTP).
22. An inventory of all point sources, hazardous waste sites,
urban and rural runoff, and spills discharging or poten-
tially discharging to the Clinton River should be col-
lected. These facilities, sites or incidents should then
be examined for their potential to contribute chemicals to
the Clinton River.
23. A more complete analysis of sediment, water and biota
quality along the entire stretch of the Clinton River is
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435
needed. Such information would establish the locations of
sources of contaminants.
24. The Thames and the Sydenham Rivers were found to be major
contributors of phosphorus, ammonia, lead and cadmium. An
inventory of all point sources, hazardous waste sites,
urban and rural runoff and spills discharging to these
rivers should be collected. These facilities, sites or
incidences should then be examined for their potential to
contribute chemicals to the rivers.
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I. LONG TERM MONITORING
1. Purposes for Monitoring and Relationships Between UGLCCS and
Other Monitoring Programs
A presentation of the purposes for monitoring and surveillance
activities is included under Annex 11 of the 1978 GLWQA, and a
discussion of considerations for the design of a long term moni-
toring program can be found in Chapter 7 of the Report of the
Niagara River Toxics Committee (50); Because the focus of the
UGLCC Study was toward remedial actions to alleviate impaired
uses of the Connecting Channels System, long term monitoring
recommendations will likewise focus on the evaluation of trends
in environmental quality in order to assess the effectiveness of
remedial actions. In general, post-UGLCCS monitoring should be
sufficient to 1) detect trends in system-wide conditions noted by
the UGLCCS, and 2) detect changes in ambient conditions which
have resulted from specific remedial actions. Monitoring pro-
grams should be designed to specifically detect the changes in-
tended by the remedial actions so as to ensure relevance in both
temporal and spatial scales.
Two major programs sponsored by the IJC also contain plans for
long term monitoring: the Great Lakes International Surveillance
Plan (GLISP) and the Areas of Concern Remedial Action Plans (AoC-
RAPs). The GLISP for the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels
is presently incomplete, pending results of the UGLCC Study, but
it is expected to provide monitoring and surveillance guidance to
U.S. and Canadian agencies responsible for implementing the pro-
visions of the GLWQA that include general surveillance and
research needs as well as monitoring for results of remedial
actions.
Lake St. Clair is not one of the AoCs, although the Clinton River
in Michigan is, and a RAP is being developed by Michigan for the
Clinton River. The RAP will present details of uses impaired,
sources of contaminants, specific remedial actions, schedules for
implementation, resources committed by Michigan to the project,
target clean-up levels, and monitoring requirements. Results and
recommendations coming from the UGLCC Study will be incorporated
extensively into the RAP, which will then be the document that
influences Michigan programs in the Clinton River. The recommen-
dations for long term monitoring that are presented below are
intended for consideration and incorporation into either or both
the GLISP for the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels, and the
RAP for the Clinton River.
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2. System Monitoring for Contaminants
Water
Knowledge of the concentrations of the principal contaminants in
the water of Lake St. Clair should be used to indicate general
exposure levels for the biota, to identify changes and trends
over time in the concentration levels, and to be used for general
assessment of contaminant impacts. The parameters to be moni-
tored include phosphorus, PCBs, mercury, lead, and cadmium. Near
tributary mouths, concentrations of ammonia, total phenols, pest-
icides, Cu, Ni and PAHs should also be determined. Monitoring
stations should be located to coincide with identified water use
areas, such as biota habitat, and with contaminant entry points
to the lake. Suggested locations include the mouth of the St.
Clair River at Port Lambton, around the St. Clair Delta, at the
mouth of the Clinton, Sydenham, and Thames Rivers, and at the
head of the Detroit River. Sampling frequency should be
influenced by the variability in contaminant sources. Spring
high flow conditions and late summer low flow conditions would be
expected to bracket the normal seasonal variability in flow that
could influence measured contaminant concentrations.
A mass balance approach to contaminant monitoring will help to
identify any changes in the contaminant mass over time, and it
will provide the basis for targeting future remedial actions by
providing a comparison of the magnitude of the sources. A mass
balance analysis should be conducted approximately once every
five years, assuming that some effective remedial action has been
implemented against one or more sources such that the total load-
ings of contaminants, or the relative contribution of the sources
to the loading, has changed. The sources to be measured should
include:
1) Head and mouth transects. The number and location of
stations should relate to measured and predicted plume
distributions. Suggested locations include the mouth of
the St. Clair River at Port Lambton and the head of the
Detroit River. Dispersion modeling and past sampling
results should be used to predict contaminant concentra-
tions and therefore to establish appropriate collection and
analytical methodology. Both dissolved and particulate
fractions should be analyzed. The quantity of suspended
sediment flux should also be measured.
2) Municipal and industrial point sources. No direct in-
dustrial sources are considered to be major contributors of
contaminants to Lake St. Clair. The principal municipal
sources all discharge to tributaries. Thus, special moni-
toring consideration should be given to the Sydenham,
Thames and Clinton Rivers to fully address municipal load-
ings of the contaminants.
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3) Tributaries. Efforts should be focused on seasonal and
storm event loadings of contaminants to Lake St. Clair from
the Clinton, Sydenham and Thames Rivers. Tributary mouth
stations should be sampled and analyzed for both dissolved
and sediment-associated contaminant loadings.
4) CSOs and Urban Runoff. To provide an estimate of con-
taminant mass loadings expected during storm events, oc-
casional studies on selected urban drainage areas should be
conducted, particularly for the Michigan shoreline.
5) Groundwater inflow. The quantity and quality of potential
contaminant releases from waste dispos.al sites adjacent to
Lake St. Clair or its tributaries should be determined.
6) Sediment transport. Efforts to mea.sure and model sediment
transport to, within and from Lake St. Clair should be
continued. The quantity of contaminants being desorbed from
the sediments should be determined in order to assess load-
ings from these in-place polluted sediments.
7) Atmospheric deposition. Monitoring of wet and dry atmos-
pheric deposition to Lake St. Clair should continue, and
should be expanded to include organic contaminants. Vola-
tilization losses of organics should also be quantified.
Sediments
Monitoring of sediments for concentrations of contaminants should
be conducted periodically throughout Lake St. Clair in order to
assess both the trends in surficial contaminant concentrations
and the movement of sediment-associated contaminants within the
Lake. The grid used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service during
the 1985 survey would be appropriate for consistency in sampling
sites and sediment composition. An analysis of sediment chem-
istry including bulk chemistry, organic and inorganic contamin-
ants, and particle size distribution should be conducted every
five years, in conjunction with a biota survey (see "habitat
monitoring" below).
In Lake St. Clair, particular attention should be given to sedi-
ment concentrations of PCBs and mercury. Additional stations
should also be established at the mouth of the Clinton, Sydenham
and Thames Rivers and at Chenal Ecarte to track effects of
remedial actions in the tributary watersheds to reduce loadings
of these materials.
Because the grid stations are distributed throughout the river
reach and are associated with appropriate habitat for a sensitive
benthic invertebrate (Hexagenia), the periodic survey will allow
assessment of 1) contaminant concentrations in the river sedi-
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439
merits throughout the river reach, 2) relative movement of the
contaminants within the river sediments between surveys, and 3)
correlation of contaminant concentrations with benthic biotic
communities.
The sediments at any stations established at the mouths of tribu-
taries to Lake St Clair should be monitored for organic and
inorganic contaminants on an annual or biannual basis when sig-
nificant remedial actions are implemented within the watershed of
the tributary. In order to trigger the more frequent sediment
monitoring program, the remedial actions should be expected to
measurably reduce loadings of one or more particular contaminants
via the tributary.
Biota
Long term monitoring of concentrations of contaminants in biota
will provide a time series useful to track the bioavailability of
contaminants to selected representative organisms. Three long
term monitoring programs are already in place and should be con-
tinued:
i) Annual or Bi-Annual Monitoring of Sport Fish.
This program should focus especially on PCBs, mercury and/or
other contaminants (e.g. dioxins and dibenzofurans) that are
considered to be known or suspected health hazards. -The monitor-
ing should be continued regardless of the differences that may be
observed between acceptable concentrations or action levels that
may be established by governmental agencies and the measured
contaminant concentrations in the fish flesh. As a link between
human health concerns and integrated results of remedial programs
to reduce contaminants in the UGLCCS system, this program is
critically important.
ii) Spottail Shiner Monitoring Program.
This program is designed to identify source areas for bioavail-
able contaminants. In locations where spottail shiners contain
elevated levels of contaminants, additional studies should be
conducted to identify the sources of the contaminants. Some
upstream studies in tributaries may be required. Spottails sho-
uld also be employed to confirm that remedial actions upstream to
a previous survey have been effective in removing or reducing the
loading of one or more contaminants.
iii) Caged Clams Contaminants Monitoring.
Caged clams should continue to be used at regular time intervals,
perhaps in conjunction with spottail shiners, to monitor inte-
grated results of remedial actions to reduce contaminant loadings
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440
to the water. Clams may be located at tributary mouths and down-
stream of suspected source areas. Repeated assays from the same
locations should confirm results of remedial actions.
3. Sources Monitoring for Results of Specific Remedial Actions
Remedial actions intended to reduce concentrations and/or load-
ings of contaminants from specific point sources generally re-
quire monitoring for compliance with the imposed criteria or
standards for permitted contaminants. The monitoring may be
conducted by the facility or by the regulating agency, whichever
is applicable, but attention must be given to the sampling
schedule and analytical methodology such that mass loadings of
the contaminants can be estimated, as well as concentrations in
the sampled medium. Monitoring of the "nearfield" environment,
i.e., close downstream in the effluent mixing zone, should be
conducted regularly to document reductions in contaminant levels
in the appropriate media and to document the recovery of impaired
ecosystem processes and biotic communities. Such monitoring may
be required for a "long time", but over a restricted areal
extent, depending on the severity of the impact and the degree of
reduction of contaminant loading that is achieved.
For Lake St. Clair, seven actions were recommended that would
affect specific sources of contaminants, and that would require
site-specific monitoring for compliance or other effects of the
action at the following locations: Macomb and St. Clair Counties,
Michigan (fertilizer management); Mt. Clemens WWTP (PCBs,
phenols, mercury, phosphorus); Wallaceburg WWTP (Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni,
ammonia); Warren WWTP (PCBs); Selfridge Air National Guard Base
(several contaminants) ; Sugarbush landfil-1, Michigan (groundwater
monitoring); and G and L Industries, Michigan (groundwater moni-
toring) .
Other recommendations for specific contaminant sources involve an
assessment of the present conditions or a study to quantify con-
centrations or loadings: quantify CSOs from municipal waste
water treatment plants, identify sources of organic contaminants
in tributaries; determine Cd content of phosphate fertilizer,
measure atmospheric deposition of organic contaminants; measure
loadings of contaminants from urban runoff; conduct biomonitoring
studies at WWTP's; inventory point sources and waste sites dis-
charging to the Clinton River; analyze sediment, water and biota
quality along the Clinton River; and inventory point sources and
waste sites discharging to the Sydenham and Thames Rivers. Each
of these items requires a specific program of data collection and
analysis. Additional needs for longer term monitoring may be
identified as a result of these studies.
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441
4. Habitat Monitoring
Habitat monitoring should be conducted to detect and describe
changes in the ecological characteristics of Lake St. Clair
through periodic analysis of key ecosystem elements. The follow-
ing items are recommended:
a) The abundance and distribution of the mayfly Hexagenia
should be determined every five years. The grid used by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service during the 1985 survey
would be appropriate for consistency in sampling sites each
survey. An analysis of sediment chemistry, including bulk
chemistry, organic and inorganic contaminants, and par-
ticle-size distribution, should be conducted for samples
taken concurrently with the Hexagenia survey. These data
will provide information on the quality of the benthic
habitat for a common pollution sensitive organism that
would serve as an indicator species of environmental
quality.
b) Quantification of the extent of wetlands along Lake St.
Clair should be conducted every five years, in conjunction
with the Hexagenia survey. Aerial photography or other
remote sensing means would be appropriate to discern both
emergent and submergent macrophyte beds that are important
as nursery areas for larval fish and other wildlife. Veri-
fication of areal data should be conducted by inspection of
selected transects for plant species identification and-
abundances. Changes in wetland areas should be correlated
with fluctuating water levels and other natural documented
influences so that long term alterations in wetlands can be
tracked and causes identified.
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442
J. REFERENCES
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Shore Damage Survey, Toronto, Ontario 97 pp.
2. Edwards, C.J., P.L. Hudson, W.G. Duffy, S.J. Nepszy, C.D.
McNabb, R.C. Hass, C.R. Liston, B. Manny and W.D. Busch.
1986. Hydrological, morphometrical, and biological
characteristics of the connecting rivers of the
International Great Lakes: a review. Contribution XXX.
National Fisheries Centre-Great Lakes. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. Ann Arbor, Michigan
3. Quinn, F.H. 1976. Detroit River flow characteristics and
their application to loading estimates. J. Great Lakes Res.
2(1):71-77.
4. Poe, T.P., C.O. Hatcher, C.L. Brown and D.W. Schloesser.
1986. Comparison of species composition and richness of
fish assemblages in altered and unaltered littoral habitats.
J. Freshwater Ecol. 3(4): 525-536
5. Wall, G.J., E. A. Pringle and w.T. Dickinson. Agricultural
Pollution sources Lake St. Clair - Canada. UGLCC Study Non-
point Source Workgroup Level 2 report.
6. Chan, C.H., Y.L. Lau and E.G. Oliver. 1986. Measured and
modelled chlorinated contaminant distributions in St. Clair
River water. Water Poll. Res. J. Can. 21(3):332-343.
7. EC/MOE (Environment Canada/Ontario Ministry of the
Environment). 1986. St. Clair River Pollution Investigation
(Sarnia area). Canada/Ontario Agreement Report, January 28,
1986. Toronto, Ontario. 135 pp.
8. Johnson, G.D. and P.B. Kauss. 1987. Estimated Contaminant
Loadings in the St. Clair and Detroit Rivers - 1984. OMOE,
Great Lakes Section, Water Resources Branch, November 1987.
Toronto, Ontario.
9. Munawar, M. and I.F. Munawar. 1987. Phytoplankton of Lake
St. Clair, 1984. Great Lakes Laboratory for Fisheries and
Aquatic Science Report. Fisheries & Oceans Canada. Canada
Centre for Inland Waters. Burlington, Ontario.
10. Sprules, W.G. and M. Munawar. 1987. Plankton spectrum and
zooplankton of Lake St. Clair, 1984. Great Lakes Laboratory
for Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Report. Fisheries and
Oceans Canada. Canada Centre for Inland Waters. Burlington,
Ontario.
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11. Schloesser, D.W. and B.A. Manny. 1982. Distribution and
relative abundance of submersed aquatic macrophytes in the
St. Glair-Detroit River ecosystem. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Great Lakes Fish. Lab., USFWS-GLFL/AR-82-7. Ann Arbor, Mich.
49 pp.
12. Hudson, P.L., B.M. Davis, S.J. Nichols and C.M. Tomcko.
1986. Environmental studies of macrozoobenthos, aquatic
macrophytes, and juvenile fish in the St. Glair-Detroit
River system. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Great Lakes Fish. Lab.
Admin. Rep. 86-7. 303pp.
13. Edwards, C.J., P.L. Hudson, W.G. Duffy, S.J. Nepszy, C.D.
McNabb, R.C. Hass, C.R. Listen, B. Manny and W-D Busch.
1988. Hydrological, morphometrical, and biological charac-
teristics of the connecting rivers of the International
Great Lakes: a review. Can J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44. (In
press).
14. Lyon, J.G. 1979. Remote sensing analyses of coastal wetland
characteristics: The St. Clair Flats, Michigan. Proc. 13th
Symp. Remote Sensing of Environment. Mich. Sea Grant Rep.
MICHU-56-80-313.
15. Manny, B.A., D.W. Schloesser, S.J. Nichols and T.A. Edsall.
1988. Drifting submersed macrophytes in the upper Great
Lakes Channels. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National
Fisheries Centre-Great Lakes.
16. Griffiths, R.W. 1987. Environmental quality assessment of
Lake St. Clair in 1983 as reflected by the distribution of
benthic invertebrate communities. Aquatic Ecostudies, Ltd.
Kitchener, Ontario 35 pp.
17. GLI (Great Lakes Institute). 1986. A case study of selected
toxic contaminants in the Essex Region. GLI, Univ. of Winds-
or. Vol. 1: Physical Sciences. Parts One and Two, July,
1986. Windsor, Ontario.
18. Goodyear, C.D., T.A. Edsall, D.M.O. Demsey, G.D. Moss and
P.E. Polanski. 1982. Atlas of spawning and nursery areas of
Great Lakes fishes. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Ann Arbor, MI
FWS/OBS-82/52, 164 pp.
19. McCullough G.B. 1985. Wetland threats and losses in Lake
St. Clair. pages 201-208 in H.P Prince and P.M. D'ltri,
eds. Coastal Wetlands, Lewis Publishing Co., Chalsea,
Michigan.
20. McCullough, G.B. 1982. Wetland losses in Lake St. Clair and
Lake Ontario, pages 81-89 in A. Champagen, ed., Proc.
Ontario Wetlands Conf., Ryerson Polytech. Institute.
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Toronto, Ontario September 1981.
21. Rukavina, N.A., 1987. Status report of UGLCCS, Lake St.
Clair Bottom Sediment data. Level I, Report to the IJC.
22. International Joint Commission. 1982. Guidelines and Regis-
ter for Evaluation of Great Lakes Dredging Projects. Report
of the Dredging Subcommittee to the Water Quality Programs
Committee of the Great Lakes Water Quality Board. 365pp.
23. Oliver, E.G. and R.A. Bourbonniere. 1985. Chlorinated con-
taminants in surficial sediments of Lakes Huron, St. Clair
and Erie: implications regarding sources along the St. Clair
and Detroit Rivers. J. Great lakes Res. 11:366-372.
24. OMOE, Unpublished.
25. Sediment Workgroup Report, 1987 Geographical area report,
Lake St. Clair. UGLCCS Level II Report.
26. Hamblin, P.P., P.M. Boyce, P. Chiocchio and D. S. Robertson,
1987. Physical measurements in Lake St. Clair: Overview and
preliminary analysis. National Water Research Institute
Contribution 87-76
27. Robins, J.A. and E.G., Oliver, 1987. Accumulation of fall-
out cesium-136 and chlorinated organic contaminants in
recent sediments of Lake St. Clair. In Modeling Workgroup
Report (53).
28. MDNR (Michigan Department of Natural Resources). 1985. Non-
point Assessment for Small Watersheds. Staff report, Surface
Water Quality Division, Lansing, Michigan.
29. Leuck, D. and B. Leuck. 1987. survey of Great Lakes Bathing
Beaches 1986. OMB No. 2090-003. U.S.EPA, Great Lakes
National Program Office, Chicago.
30. Baker, David B. 1987. Pesticide Loading into the St. Clair
River and Lake St. Clair in 1985. Final Report. U.S.E.P.A.
Grant R005817-01. Great Lakes National Program Office,
Chicago.
31. Wall, G.J., E.A. Pringle and T. Dickinson. 1987.
Agricultural Sources of Pollution, Lake St. Clair. Executive
Summary of the Nonpoint Source Workgroup, Level 2 reports.
32. Lundgren, R.N., editor. 1986. Fish contaminant monitoring
in Michigan. Report of EPA 205j Grant. Michigan Dept. of
Natural Resources. Lansing, Michigan.
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33. OMOE/OMNR (Ontario Ministry of the Environment/Ontario Mini-
stry of Natural Resources). 1987. Guide to eating Ontario
sport fish. Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Natu-
ral Resources, Toronto.
34. GLI (Great Lakes Institute). 1987. Organochlorinated com-
pounds in duck and muskrat populations of Walpole Island.
University of Windsor, Ontario.
35. Amundson, T.E. (UNDATED). Environmental Contaminant Monitor-
ing of Wisconsin Wild Game 1985-86. Bureau of Wildlife
Management, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
Madison, Wisconsin.
36. Herdendorf, C.E., C.N. Raphael and E. Jaworski. 1986. The
Ecology of Lake St. Clair Wetlands: A Community Profile.
U.S. Fish Wildlife Service. Biol. Report. 1985 (7.7). 187
pp.
37. Point Source Workgroup. 1988. Geographic Area Report - Lake
St. Clair. UGLCCS Level 2 report.
38. Pugsley, C.W., P.D.N. Herbert, G.W. Wood, G. Brotea and T.W.
Obal. 1985. Distribution of contaminants in clams and sedi-
ments from the Huron-Erie corridor. I. PCBs and octachloro-
styrene. J. Great Lakes Res. 11(3):275-289.
39. MDNR (Michigan Department of Natural Resources). Undated.
Progress Summary-Activity E.8. Draft UGLCC Study report,
Nonpoint Source Workgroup Level 2 Report for Lake St. Clair.
40. Oliver, E.G. and C.W. Pugsley. 1986. Chlorinated Contamin-
ants in St. Clair River sediments. Water Poll. Res. J. Can.
21:368-379.
41. Richards, R.P. and J. Holloway. 1987. Monte Carlo studies of
sampling strategies for estimating tributary loads. Water
Resources Res. 23 (10):1939-1948.
42. Richards, R.P. 1988. Measures of flow variability and a new
classification of Great Lakes tributaries. Report, U.S.EPA
Great Lakes National Program Office, Chicago 40 pp.
43. Dolan, D., A. Yui and R. Geist. 1981. Evaluation of river
load estimation methods for total phosphorus. J. Great Lakes
Res. 7(3):207-214.
44. Leach, J.H. 1972. Distribution of chlorophyll a and related
variables in Ontario waters of Lake St. Clair. pp 80-86.
In Proc. 15th Conf. Great Lakes Res., Inst. Assoc. Great
Lakes Res.
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45. Leach, J.H. 1980. Limnological sampling intensity in Lake
St. Clair in relation to distribution of water masses. J.
Great Lakes Res. Vol 6 141-145.
46. Bricker, K.S., Bricker F.J., and J.E. Gannan, 1976. Dis-
tribution and abundance of zooplankton in U.S. waters of
Lake St. Clair, 1973. J. Great Lakes Res 2:256-271.
47. Hamblin, P.P., P.M., Boyce, J. Bull, F. Chiocchio and D.S.,
Robertson, 1987. Reports to UGLCCS Workgroups. National
water Research Institute Contribution 87-87.
48. Hammons, A.S., J.E. Huff, H.M. Braunstein, J.S. Drury, C.R.
Shriner, E.B. Lewis, B.L. Whitfield and L.E. Towill. 1978.
Reviews of the Environmental Effects of Pollutants: IV.
Cadmium. EPA Publication No. EPA-600/1-78-026. Office of
Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio.
49. GLWQB (Great Lakes Water Quality Board). 1987. 1987 Report
to Great Lakes Water Quality Board, Appendix A, Progress in
Developing Remedial Action Plans for Areas of Concern in the
Great Lakes Basin. Report to the International Joint Com-
mission, Windsor, Ontario.
50. Niagara River Toxics Committee, 1984. Report on the
Niagara River Toxics Committee to U.S. U.S.EPA, Environment
Canada, OMOE and N.Y. DEC.
51. Marsalek, J. and H.Y.F. Ng. 1987. Contaminants in Urban
Runoff in the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Area.
NWRI contribution No. 87-112. National Water Research In-
stitute, Burlington, Ontario.
52. Marsalek, J. and H.Q. Schroeter. 1984. Loadings of selected
toxic substances in urban runoff in the Canadian Great lakes
Basin. NWRI Unpublished Report. National Water Research
Institute, Burlington, Ontario.
53. Modeling Workgroup, UGLCCS. 1988. Geographical area
synthesis report. Draft May 1988, T.D. Fontaine (Chairman),
NOAA-Great Lades Env. Res. Lab. Ann Arbor, MI. 96p.
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CHAPTER IX
THE DETROIT RIVER
A. STATUS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
1. Ecological Profile
Watershed Characteristics
The Detroit River makes up the lower 51 km of the connecting
channels between Lakes Huron and Erie. An international boundary
divides the Detroit River about equally into United States
(Michigan) and Canadian (Ontario) waters (Figures II-5 and IX-1).
The Detroit River is a hydrologically and ecologically distinct
ecosystem compared to Lake St. Clair and the St. Clair River (-1) .
It is limnologically mesotrophic and supports cold water fish
from September to June. The Detroit River provides important
habitat for fish, birds and the bottom dwelling life on which
they feed. It is also an important source of potable water, with
drinking water intakes near Belle Isle, Windsor, Amherstburg and
Wyandotte (2). Water is also used to supply a major industrial
complex consisting of automobile, steel and chemical companies.
The St. Lawrence Seaway utilizes the Detroit River for commercial
shipping. This portion of the Seaway is presently the busiest in
the upper Great Lakes, involving shipments of iron ore, coal,
limestone, gypsum, oil, and wheat.
The topography of the Detroit River basin is flat, broken only by
the valleys of the Rouge River and a few lesser tributaries. Low
moraine deposits and beach ridges of ancestral Lake Erie provide
slight relief. Land elevations range from 214 m above sea level
near the tributary head waters to approximately 174 m along the
Detroit River. The relative relief of the lake plain is 1 to 5
m/km3, and most slopes are less than 3%.
The Detroit River courses through Pleistocene glacial drift
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448
. - LAKE
/ HURON
Port
Huron
Marysville
Marine
.-' City
MICHIGAN
UPPER
DETROIT
RIVERA*
.Windsor .':.''." ".
ONTARIO
LOWER
DETROI
FIGURE IX-1. The Huron-Erie corridor.
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449
underlain by Paleozoic sedimentary rock. The sedimentary rock
beneath the river is the Detroit River Formation (primarily dolo-
mite) which outcrops intermittently in the navigation channels
east of Grosse lie. On top of the bedrock is a mantle of glacial
drift 0 to 30 m thick.
Lake plain soils are poorly drained loam and clay loams, which
developed on former lake bottoms or lacustrine clay sediments.
Sandy ridges mark former shorelines, and on the Michigan side, an
isolated sand sheet marks remnants of the glaciofluvial delta of
the post-glacial Huron River. When drained and tiled, the loamy
lake plain soils are agriculturally productive. Many surface and
subsurface soils are moderately permeable (0.25 and 1.27 cm/hour)
with high surface runoff coefficients causing the local streams
to be storm event responsive.
The Ontario shoreline, except for the City of Windsor and its
docks, is less disturbed than the Michigan shoreline. North of
the Canard River there are scattered marinas, canals, and private
boat slips. In places, Ontario farmers have encroached upon the
wetland margins of the Detroit River and its tributaries. Thus,
a green buffer zone exists only intermittently between the farm
fields and the riverine ecosystem. Access to the water for com-
mercial navigation, business, pleasure boating, fishing and hunt-
ing is important locally on both sides of the river.
Hydrology
Nearly 98% of the Detroit River flow enters from Lake Huron via
the St. Clair River and Lake St. Clair. The river discharge
averages 5,300 m-Vsec and ranges from a low of 3,200 m-Vsec to a
maximum discharge of 7,100 m-Vsec. The Fleming Channel in the
upper Detroit River, north of Peach Island, accounts for 77% of
total river flow. Flow distribution in the lower river is rela-
tively complex downstream of Fighting Island, as several channels
separate or combine the flow (2,3,4).
Flow velocities average 0.49-0.88 m/sec, but mid-surface veloci-
ties can be nearly twice that rate. Surface currents near the
Ambassador Bridge and in the Amherstburg Channel reach 1.2 m/sec,
while the Trenton Channel flow averages 0.6 m/sec.
Detroit River water depth and velocity are directly affected by
water levels in Lakes St. Clair and Erie, which vary seasonally
and annually. Lake Erie seiches and Lake. St. Clair ice jams may
also produce changes in Detroit River water levels and currents.
The river slope is relatively uniform, and falls 0.9m over its
51 km length. The average time of passage for water through the
Detroit River is about 19 to 21 hours.
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450
The Rouge River, the main tributary to the Detroit River, drains
about 121,000 ha in Michigan, and consists of upper, main, middle
and lower branches. The stream is very event-responsive and
frequent flooding occurs along the middle Rouge. Its mean annual
discharge is 26 m3/sec, with over 75 percent of it draining
through urban areas, collecting considerable stormwater runoff,
overflow from combined sewers during wet weather, and over 500
million gallons per day (mgd) of waste water from municipal and
industrial facilities. The lower Rouge is partially lined with
concrete, so runoff rapidly reaches the Detroit River during
storms.
Other tributaries include the Ecorse, Canard and Little rivers
and Turkey Creek. The Ecorse River tributary drains 11,556 ha in
Michigan, occupied by 2 communities with a total population of
198,000 in 1980. The Ecorse River has two open channel tributa-
ries, the North Branch and the South Branch (or Sexton-Kilfoil
Drain). These branches join approximately 1 km upstream from the
confluence of the Ecorse and Detroit rivers near Mud Island.
Ontario's Little River empties into the Detroit River at its
mouth, by Peach Island. It drains approximately 5,750 ha of
agricultural and industrial land. Turkey Creek enters the
Detroit River just north of Fighting Island, draining 2,960 ha of
primarily agricultural land in Ontario. The Canard River enters
the Detroit River in Ontario, south of Windsor and east of Grosse
lie. It is a turbid, slow moving stream which discharges into
diked wetlands just north of its mouth, and drains approximately
20,000 ha of primarily agricultural land (5). Other minor tribu-
taries also exist, such as Monguagon Creek (in Michigan, by the
northern end of Grosse lie) and Conners Creek (in Michigan, by
the eastern end of Belle Isle).
Effluent from the Detroit area wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs) discharge over 32 m3/sec (1985), a volume equal to the
combined tributaries flowing into the Detroit River. The Metro-
politan Detroit WWTP alone discharges 30 m^/sec near the mouth of
the Rouge River (6).
Habitats and Biological Communities
The Detroit River ecosystem can be divided into an upper stretch
(upstream of the Rouge River) and a lower river stretch. The
Detroit River's biologic zones include deep channels, shallow
water/nearshore zones, and terrestrial zones. Deep channel
environments generally have water depths exceeding 7 m, relative-
ly high flow velocities, and coarse sediments. Since the river
channels are also used for shipping, the high sediment load and
lack of anchorage prevent macrophyte growth. Macrophytes and
associated periphyton and invertebrates are most abundant in the
shallow water-nearshore zone, seldom occurring at depths greater
than 4 m. The terrestrial biological zone includes undeveloped
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451
island habitat, coastal wetland and riparian environments along
such less developed tributaries as the Canard River. The
Wyandotte National Wildlife Refuge is located in the Detroit
River, off the northern tip of Grosse lie. This Refuge encour-
ages shorebirds and waterfowl feeding, nursery and nesting activ-
ities. Stony, Celeron, Grassy and Mud Islands provide shorebird
habitat.
The coastal wetlands and large, emergent and submersed macrophyte
beds along the Detroit River were nearly continuous in colonial
times. They now exist only in 31 small isolated remnants cover-
ing 1,382 ha (7). Most of the remaining vegetation along the
river consists of submersed macrophytes because the land formerly
occupied by the swamp-scrub-meadow communities along the ter-
restrial river margin has largely been converted to other uses.
Fifty-four percent (748 ha) of the remaining wetlands are in
Ontario. The single largest wetland, immediately north of the
Canard River, is functional only along its outer, undiked mar-
gins. Functional wetlands also exist along the open water mar-
gins of a few islands.
A number of biological surveys have documented the biotic com-
munities in the river (7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16). Although it
is not well understood how the various trophic levels relate to
one another, enough information exists to describe species com-
position, standing crop and biomass for a variety of primary and
secondary producers.
i) Macrophytes
At least 21 submersed macrophyte taxa occur in the river, domin-
ated by Vallisnera, Chara, Potamogeton, Myriophyllum and Heteran-
thia. Stands are typically composed of 2 or 3 species but as
many as eleven have been recorded in a single stand. Chara is
the only taxon consistently occurring in monotypic stands. The
lower depth limit for plant colonization is not established, but
most stands occur in water less than 3.7m deep. In the Detroit
River, the area of the river bed between shoreline and the 3.7m
depth contour is about 99 km2, 72% of which is occupied by sub-
mersed plants. The wetlands and submersed macrophyte beds con-
stitute the most critical areas for primary and secondary produc-
tion for plants, fish and birds, and are the most stable habitat
in the ecosystem (17). Their invertebrate populations include
clams, snails, midges, caddisflies, mayflies, amphipods, spring-
tails, and worms. Juvenile yellow perch and adult northern pike
have been- observed feeding along the wetland shoreline among the
submersed macrophytes. These areas are also heavily used for
spawning by numerous fish species. No detailed studies of spec-
ies composition, distribution, and relative abundance of emergent
macrophytes have been completed, although wetland communities
have been mapped by remote sensing. Over 95% of the emergent
beds occur in the lower river.
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452
The St. Glair-Detroit River system produces about 264,000 tons of
plant biomass each year, of which 19% originates in the Detroit
River. Most of the plant biomass in the Detroit River is pro-
duced by submersed macrophytes.
ii) Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton standing crop and production values is assumed to
have phytoplankton biomass and daily production similar to Lake
St. Clair. Eighty two phytoplankton species are present in the
river at low density (about 500 cells/ml), and are dominated by
diatoms that are common in Lake Huron in July and August. Blue-
green algae that are common in Lake St. Clair at that time domin-
ate the Detroit River phytoplankton. No periphyton studies have
been conducted to date, but a recent study in a wave exposed
breakwater in western Lake Erie indicates that diatoms, green
algae and red algae may be common over-wintering taxa in the
Detroit River. Filamentous green algae can be expected to domin-
ate during summer months.
Current information is inadequate to determine how much of the
planktonic production of the river is used by river biota. If
only moderate amounts of this biomass is retained, then the
littoral plant complex of emergent and submersed macrophytes and
macrozoobenthos are the main standing stock in the river. From
calculations of drifting macrophytic plants, it appears that the
Detroit River is a large source of detrital organic matter that
supports productivity in western Lake Erie.
iii) Zooplankton
Detroit River zooplankton studies are not yet completed, but
zooplankton composition and abundance seem to resemble those
found in Lake St. Clair. Cladocera and several species of Cyc-
lops and Diaptomus dominate the zooplankton in Lake St. Clair.
Difflugia is the most common protozoan, and Conochilus, Keratel-
la, Polvarthra. Synchaeta, and Brachionus are the most common
rotifers. Maximum numbers of zooplankton may be expected between
June and September. A study of foods eaten by larval yellow
perch during passage through the Detroit River revealed that
zooplankton, including copepod nauplii, older cyclopoids and
copepods, cladocera and rotifers were eaten. Hence, zooplankton
are likely the critical food resource for larval fish.
iv) Macroinvertebrates
The Detroit River benthic macroinvertebrate community includes
over 300 species. Oligochaetes, chironomidae, gastropoda, ephem-
eroptera, trichoptera and amphipoda dominate the biomass. Chir-
onomidae are common throughout the system while oligochaetes are
dominant in the lower river. Hydropsychid caddisflies are the
dominant trichoptera and Hyalella is the most common amphipoda.
-------
453
Hexagenia is the most common mayfly, but density is lower in the
Detroit River (88/m2) than the St. Clair or the St. Marys Rivers
(95/m2 and 199/m2), respectively. Detroit River benthic produc-
tion (5.4 g ash-free dry weight/m^/yr) is lower than the St.
Clair River and Lake St. Clair (7.0 and 6.8 g ash-free dry
weight/m3/yr) with the annual production (440 metric tons ash-
free dry weight/yr) equal to about 2% of the combined annual
Detroit River phytoplankton, periphyton, macrophyte and zoo-
plankton production (7,14,16).
v) Fish
The present Detroit River fish populations are a mixture of
natural and introduced (exotic) species. Among the exotic fish
is the common carp, which was introduced in 1883 in western Lake
Erie. From there, it spread through the Detroit River to the
upper Great Lakes, destroying beds of wild celery and wild rice,
the preferred food of native waterfowl. Large carp populations
continue to inhabit the Detroit River. Rainbow smelt and ale-
wife, introduced in 1932, spread through the Detroit River and
upper lakes. Alewives now comprise the bulk of forage fish in
all the Great Lakes. The sea lamprey spread through the Detroit
River to the upper Great Lakes in the 1940s, greatly reducing
populations of desirable fish, such as the lake trout. The most
recent exotic Detroit River fish, the white perch, was introduced
into Lake Erie in 1953 and now hybridizes with native white bass.
The Detroit River fish community presently has approximately 60
resident or migrant species, 32 of which use mainly the lower
river along the islands and the mainland shoreline for spawning
(18,19,20,21,22).
The Detroit River and its tributaries are. important spawning,
feeding and nursery areas for many species that support major
fisheries in the river and Lakes Huron and Erie. There are 60
recorded resident or migrant fish species in the Detroit River,
32 of which spawn in the river. Townet catches of larval fish in
the Detroit River in 1977-1978, 1983-1984 and 1986 show that the
river is a nursery ground for at least 25 species of fish. Most
abundant were alewife, rainbow smelt, and gizzard shad. Other
species were much less abundant.
The river is part of a complex migration route for walleye and
yellow perch, important recreational fish species, which move
between Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie. Large walleye spawning
runs once occurred in the lower river, the reduction of which is
attributed to pollution and sedimentation. In the 1970s, spawn-
ing was again documented, and walleye larvae were collected in
several locations in the lower 16 km of the Trenton Channel and
the main river. Recently, yellow perch spawning has been ob-
served in the Trenton Channel and near the mouth of the Detroit
River in some areas previously used by walleye.
-------
454
The Detroit river once supported a large commercial fishery for
lake whitefish, lake herring, walleye, lake sturgeon, black bass,
northern pike, muskellunge and carp. Overfishing, pollution and
dredging contributed to the Detroit River commercial fishery
decline (23,24,25).
Sport fishing is still an important activity in the Detroit
River. In 1985, an estimated 1.4 million hours were spent har-
vesting approximately 1.4 million fish (22). The lower river
harvest was 980,200 while the upper river was 440,600 annually.
Dominant species were white bass (63%), walleye (12%), yellow
perch (10%), and freshwater drum (7%).
A larval fish passage study from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie was
conducted along the Detroit River at 17 transects, 2.5 km apart
(Figure IX-2)(22). Thirteen larval fish taxa were observed.
Larval fish densities of walleye, yellow perch and white bass/
white perch greatly increased in the mid-Trenton Channel (tran-
sect 12-13), suggesting spawning and rearing activities in the
vicinity. Yellow perch showed a strong lateral distribution with
greatest densities along the western near-shore, decreasing
toward the main channel with lowest densities along the eastern
shore. Surprisingly, the area containing the highest density of
larval yellow perch coincides with the highest concentration of
environmental contaminants in water or sediments. White
bass/white perch and rainbow smelt did not exhibit significant
east-west density gradations. Longitudinal distribution patterns
were evident for larval bloaters, burbot and deep water sculpin.
Deep water densities of these species were greatest in the upper
Detroit River, but were present throughout, probably being trans-
ported from Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair. Walleye and white
bass/perch were not found, and yellow perch and rainbow smelt
exhibited relatively low abundances in the upper river. Yellow
perch, white bass/white perch, rainbow smelt and walleye larval
densities were greatest in the lower river.
vi) Waterfowl
At least 3 million waterfowl migrate annually through the Great
Lakes region, which is situated at the intersection of the Atlan-
tic and Mississippi flyways. An estimated 700,000 diving ducks,
500,000 dabbling ducks, and 250,000 Canadian geese migrate across
Michigan each fall (1) .
Important species of nesting ducks in the Detroit River wetlands
include mallards, blue-winged teal, black ducks and, if nesting
boxes are provided, wood ducks. In the past, 24 species of ducks
regularly fed in the river. Each year, thousands of waterfowl,
including scaup, goldeneyes, canvasbacks, black ducks, redheads,
and mergansers congregate on the river to forage sediments.
Major concentrations of feeding ducks are often found in littoral
waters around Belle Isle, Grosse lie and Mud, Fighting, Sugar and
-------
455
MICHIGAN
FIGURE IX-2. Detroit River water sampling transects and 24-hour
sampling locations.
-------
456
Celeron islands. Preferred foods vary among species. Mergansers
feed primarily on fish, whereas American goldeneyes prefer crayf-
ish, clams, and other invertebrates. Many diving ducks feed on
submersed aquatic plants and their associated communities.
A recent survey of eelgrass tubers, a preferred food of many
waterfowl, indicated that over the past 35 years, tuber densities
have decreased substantially, resulting in a net loss of 4.6 x
109 tubers in the lower river. This large loss of eelgrass
tubers in the Detroit River explains in part why fewer waterfowl
now use the Michigan migration corridor.
Climate
The Detroit River area enjoys a mid-continental climate, with
cold winters and relatively short hot summers, moderated somewhat
by the Great Lakes. The average first frost is on October 21 and
the average last freezing temperature is on April 23, with an
annual growing season of 180 days. Precipitation averages about
76 cm per year, including 40 cm of snow. Prevailing winds are
from the southwest, and average 16 km/hour.
During late autumn and early winter, water from Lake Huron cools
rapidly as it flows through shallow Lake St. Clair. As a result,
ice often enters the Detroit River from Lake St. Clair before it
begins to form in the Detroit River itself. Before the 1930s,
most of the Detroit River was ice covered in winter, but now
large volumes of heated effluents entering the river usually
prevent the upper river from freezing over, except between Belle
Isle and the Michigan mainland. Extensive slush ice still devel-
ops in the lower river, especially in the broad shallow expanses
adjacent to the islands. In general, ice may now be found in the
river from early December to mid-March, but main navigation chan-
nels remain ice-free. Minor ice jams occur in the Detroit River
with the breakup ice moving south from Lakes Huron and St. Clair
from late March to early May. Easterly winds can also cause Lake
Erie ice to reverse into the lower Detroit River. Monthly water
temperature data show that the highest water temperatures occur
in August, with an average of 22.2°C. In the shallow nearshore
areas of the lower river, water temperatures may attain 25.2°C.
Lowest temperatures occur in January-February, sometimes reaching
0°C.
2. Environmental Conditions
Water Quality
The Detroit River area is heavily industrialized and densely
populated. Industrial and municipal raw water is taken from the
river then returned after use. Due to its varying channel width
-------
457
and depth, berms and islands, the Detroit River is hydrologically
complex, a fact which influences water quality and modifies the
human impact on the Detroit River system.
Information on water quality was obtained as part of this study
(26). To obtain a reliable data set which could provide a mean-
ingful interpretation while minimizing the need for analyses,
water sampling transects across the river were used. Figure IX-3
shows the location of the upper (DT 30.8W and DT 30.7E) and lower
(DT 8.7W and DT 9.3E) transects and the major tributaries. The
upper transects are at Peach Island near Lake St. Clair, upstream
of Detroit and Windsor. The lower transects are near Grosse lie,
upstream of the Livingston Channel and Stoney Island in the east,
and near the lower end of the Trenton Channel on the west. The
lower transect was designed to avoid the influence of Lake Erie,
and in the process was located upstream of two industrial facili-
ties, General Chemical at Amherstburg and McLouth Steel, Gibral-
tar. Therefore, water quality data for the lower transect does
not reflect these facilities. In addition, loadings from Frank
and Poet Drain, which serves several permitted Michigan industri-
al discharges, were also excluded (26). Figure IX-4 describes
the flow distribution in the channels of the Detroit River, and
shows that approximately 21% of the total Detroit River flow
passes through the Trenton Channel and approximately 26% and 47%
through the Livingston and Amherstburg channels, respectively
(27).
Three additional, partial river width water quality monitoring
transects were established in the Trenton Channel between Grosse
lie and the Michigan shore at Point Hennepin (A), just south and
parallel to the Grosse lie toll bridge (C), just south and paral-
lel to the Grosse lie Parkway Bridge off the Monsanto Breakwall
(D). Michigan's monthly Detroit River water sampling transect at
the mouth of Detroit River between Bar Point and Maple Beach (DT
3.9) is also shown (Figure IX-3).
i) Cross-Channel Variations in Water Quality
Cross-channel variation of water quality occurs where large
volumes of low concentrations or smaller volumes of higher con-
centrations of substances are discharged to the river. Cross-
channel variations were demonstrated by dye studies below the
Detroit WWTP outfall (Figure IX-5) (28). The upper Detroit River
between Belle Isle and Fighting Island has a relatively constant
channel width and depth where little or no cross-channel mixing
occurs. In contrast, the lower river section is broken up into
three major channels and several shallow embayments. There, and
downstream of these islands and structures, increased cross-chan-
nel mixing may occur due to the generally lower current veloci-
ties, eddies below these structures, and wind driven currents
cross and counter to the normal current direction.
-------
458
DT30.8W
Michigan
USA
Rouge
River
Ecorse
River
DT12.0W,
Monguagon
Creek
DT8.7W
Little
River
Ontario
CANADA
M
DT3.9
FIGURE IX-3. Detroit River mass balance sampling transects.
-------
459
77%
DETROIT
Ambassador Bridge
51%
26%
Navigation
' Channel
36%
FIGURE IX-4. Flow distribution in the Detroit River (27).
-------
460
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-------
461
Cross-channel variation in concentrations of some organochlorine
contaminants (for example PCBs and chlorobenzenes) between water
in the upper Detroit River and the Detroit River mouth has been
shown (Figure IX-6). Organochlorine concentrations are similar
at the head of the river along both the Michigan and Ontario
shores (about 0.5 ng/L at stations 399 and 379, respectively)
(29). Proceeding downstream, higher levels are found along the
Michigan shore, with levels up to 209 ng/L (station 346), com-
pared with 0.5 ng/L across the river. Station 269 (17 ng/L), on
the Canadian side, may be influenced by U.S. sources as this
station is well within the 50% flow panel of the Detroit River.
ii) Longitudinal Variations in Water Quality
The flow of the Detroit River ranges from 3,200 m3/sec to 7,100
m3/sec, constituting a large water mass. To detect statistically
significant changes in water quality between the river head and
mouth, inputs or sinks of such substances must be substantial.
Due to natural fluctuations between seasons, shipping and dredg-
ing activities and both natural and man-induced fluctuations of
in-coming water quality, any quantitative and even qualitative
interpretation of data is difficult. Only a statistical evalua-
tion of many samples will allow definite conclusions. That sam-
pling intensity was not achieved in this study for most data, and
comparisons made are primarily relative comparisons. Evaluation
of relative changes in water quality parameters does not require
absolute values, but compares the relative abundance or absence
of materials, and may indicate temporal or spatial differences.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs):
Qualitatively, the composition of PCBs in Detroit River water
changes from the upper to the lower Detroit River transects (Fig-
ure IX-7). For nine commonly observed PCB homolog series (com-
prising approximately 100 of the theoretically possible 210 PCB
isomers), a decrease of the lower chlorinated homologs (with one
to four chlorines per biphenyl molecule) and an increase of the
higher chlorinated homologs (6 to 10 chlorines per molecule) is
observed as one moves downstream. Considering the stability of
PCBs, it can be concluded that the observed change in PCB homolog
distribution is due to inputs of higher chlorinated PCBs along
the river stretch (26).
The observed qualitative changes in PCB composition are also
supported by quantitative observations. PCB concentrations in
water averaged approximately 0.6 ng/L at four stations above and
below Belle Isle on both sides of the river from a 1985 survey
(26). Downstream, at several locations along the Ontario side,
PCB concentrations increased to approximately 1.0 ng/L, while PCB
concentrations on the Michigan side in and downstream of the
Trenton Channel increased to levels as high as 3.4 ng/L. In the
-------
462
STATION NUMBER
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OrfuiocMorine contaminants (OCst in tnair, aupmdtd solidt, aid nir/Idof Jtdimaai of tht Detroit Rivtr.
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STATION NUMBER
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FIGURE IX-6. PCBs, CBs, PAHs and OCS in Detroit River water, suspended solids and
surficial sediments (29).
-------
463
STATION NUMBER
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STATION NUMBER
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suspended solids and surficial sediments (29).
-------
464
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Detroit River System Mass Balance Study (30) , total PCB concen-
trations averaged 1.4 ng/L (plus or minus 0.6 ng/L) at the head
of the river and 3.3 ng/L (plus or minus 1.3 ng/L) at the mouth,
based on composite samples across the entire river at each re-
spective transect. Total PCB concentrations in whole water sam-
ples from tributaries averaged 45.4 ng/L in the Rouge River, 47.9
ng/L in Turkey Creek, 33.3 ng/L in the Ecorse River and 7.6 ng/L
in the Little River (Table IX-1). In the Trenton Channel Mass
Balance Study (31), total PCBs in whole river water ranged from 1
ng/L to 385 ng/L. The highest concentrations were found along
the western shore of the Trenton Channel, with daily variations
ranging from 6.8 ng/L to 15.7 ng/L.
PCB concentrations throughout the Detroit River exceeded
Michigan's Rule 57(2) allowable level of 0.02 ng/L, the Ontario
Provincial Water Quality Objective (PWQO) of 1 ng/L and the
U.S.EPA Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQC) for Human Health
(based on fish and water consumption) of 0.079 ng/L, and some
locations (e.g., Trenton Channel) exceeded the U.S.EPA chronic
AWQC of 14 ng/L.
In suspended solids, PCB levels were at or below 50 ng/g at most
locations on both sides of the river, except at two stations on
the Michigan side, below Belle Isle and at the lower end of the
Trenton Channel, where they reached 280 ng/g. Concentrations
measured on suspended solids at the head of the Detroit River
averaged 428 ng/g, largely due to one elevated measurement. A
single suspended sediment sample collected in 1985 from the
Canard River had a very high PCB concentration of 11,760 ng/g,
but other data suggest that the Canard River is only an intermit-
tent PCB source (32).
Chlorobenzenes:
Several of the 5 possible chlorobenzene homologs are commonly
found in aquatic systems, of which hexach'lorobenzene (HCB) is
probably the most widely distributed congener. In Detroit River
water, Chlorobenzenes ranged from 0.3 to 1.0 ng/L at stations
above Belle Isle and at all but two Ontario stations (maximum
approximately 2 ng/L, Figure IX-6). On the Michigan side, chlor-
obenzene levels were somewhat higher, particularly at the mouth
of the Rouge River, where chlorobenzene levels reached 25.9 ng/L
(Figure IX-6). However, HCB concentrations were only 0.28 ng/L,
indicating other Chlorobenzenes are present. In a later study,
concentrations of HCB remained virtually the same from the head
(0.31 ng/L) to the mouth (0.33 ng/L) of the Detroit River (Table
IX-1). In another survey, HCB in water and/or suspended particu-
lates showed essentially the same HCB concentrations on both
shores and at upstream and downstream transects. These results
indicate small or intermittent sources of HCB along the Michigan
side of the Detroit River, perhaps from the Rouge River, with
important background concentrations of HCB entering the Detroit
-------
466
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River from upstream. Data from a 1984 study, however, indicated
increased HCB concentrations on suspended sediments, from ap-
proximately 3.5 ng/g at the river head to approximately 15 ng/g
at the Detroit River mouth.
Other Organochlorine Compounds:
A variety of additional organochlorine contaminants (OCs) are
frequently observed in Detroit River water and seston samples.
Among these are DDT and its environmental metabolites, commonly
referred to as total DDT, hexachlorocyclohexane (three isomers),
chlordane (two isomers), heptachlor epoxide, endosulfan (two
isomers), dieldrin, endrin, methoxychlor, and octachlorostyrene
(OCS). These compounds, collectively referred to as OCs, were
found at concentrations of 0.3 to 0.5 ng/L in upper Detroit River
water on both shores (Figure IX-6). Significantly higher OC
concentrations were observed at many downstream stations on the
Michigan side, with values as high as 20 ng/L at the mouth of the
Rouge River. OCS levels, however, were virtually constant
throughout the river at 0.005 to 0.008 ng/L in water and at 2.0
to 4.3 ng/g on particulate matter as found in another survey.
These data indicate sources of OCS are primarily upstream of the
Detroit River but important loadings of other OC compounds occur
along the Michigan side of the Detroit River (26,32,33).
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are byproducts of incom-
plete combustion of fossil energy resources. PAHs are also as-
sociated with petroleum refining and steel-making operations
(coking, in particular). Consequently, their presence in air and
water in urban and industrial areas is not surprising. At the
head of the Detroit River, PAH concentrations of 100-200 ng/L
were found in water. Higher concentrations were observed at
several downstream stations along the Ontario, and particularly,
the Michigan side of the river, with values as high as 6,100 ng/L
(Figure IX-6). Based on the high concentrations of PAH that were
found at the mouth of the Rouge River and sampling locations
immediately downstream, large sources for PAHs appear to exist in
the Rouge River area (26,30,31). Water samples from the Ontario
tributaries (Turkey Creek, Little River and the Canard River)
obtained during 1984 revealed no PAHs were present at the limit
of detection used (34). There is no appropriate ambient water
quality guideline with which to compare PAH concentrations in
Detroit River water.
Total Trace Metals, Total Phosphorus and Filtered Chlorides:
A 1987 survey of selected trace metals (copper, cadmium, mercury,
nickel, and zinc), phosphorus and chloride concentrations result-
ed in the following general conclusions (.Table IX-1) (26,30).
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468
Total cadmium concentrations increased from the head to the mouth
of the Detroit River from a mean of 0.023 ug/L to a mean of 0.035
ug/L. In general, Detroit River water concentrations were below
relevant ambient water quality guidelines. The Trenton Channel
Mass Balance Study found total cadmium concentrations ranging
from 0.7 ug/L to 0.77 ug/L (data not shown in Table IX-1) in the
vicinity of the Grosse lie free bridge along the western shore of
the Trenton Channel, three of the four times it was sampled.
These concentrations exceeded Michigan's Rule 57(2) allowable
level of 0.4 ug/L (assuming a water hardness of 100 mg/L calcium
carbonate). High cadmium concentrations were found in the Rouge
River (2.06 ug/L), the Canard River (0.2-0.4 ug/L), Turkey Creek
(0.196 ug/L in one study and up to 3 ug/L in another), the Ecorse
River (0.084 ug/L) and the Little River (.0.058 ug/L in one study,
and up to 0.4 ug/L in another). Concentrations in the Rouge
River, Turkey Creek and the Canard River exceeded the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) specific objective and the PWQO
of 0.2 ug/L, and concentrations in the Rouge River and Turkey
Creek exceeded Michigan's Rule 57(2) allowable level.
Total copper concentrations were slightly higher at the Detroit
River mouth than at the river head (1.64 ug/L vs. 1.29 ug/L).
Total copper concentrations in the tributaries were between two
and six times higher than in the Detroit River, with the Rouge
River levels highest at 7.1 ug/L. In general, both Detroit River
and tributary copper concentrations were below relevant guide-
lines, with the exception of the Rouge and Little rivers, which
slightly exceeded the GLWQA specific objective and the PWQO of
5 ug/L.
Total mercury concentrations in Detroit River water did not show
any change between river head and mouth (both 0.008 ug/L). Total
mercury concentrations in the Detroit River and in the Trenton
Channel ranged from 0.024 ug/L to 0.449 ug/L. Tributary mercury
concentrations were approximately double those in the Detroit
River, except in the Ecorse River, where they were lower. These
concentrations generally exceeded the U.S.EPA chronic AWQC of
0.012 ug/L.
Total nickel concentrations in the Detroit River showed little
change between upper (0.97 ug/L) and lower (1.1 ug/L) Detroit
River transects. Nickel concentrations in the Ecorse and Rouge
rivers, and Turkey Creek were from two to eight times the Detroit
River level, with the highest concentration in Turkey Creek (8.8
ug/L). Especially high concentrations of nickel were noted in
the Little River (676.2 ug/L)(26). With the exception of the
Little River, all Detroit River and tributary concentrations of
nickel were below ambient water quality guidelines. Little River
exceeded U.S.EPA chronic, Ontario and Michigan ambient water
quality guidelines.
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469
Total lead concentrations were all below the method detection
limit (MDL) of <0.1 ug/L in the Detroit River head and mouth
transects. Several locations in the Trenton Channel contained
total lead concentrations ranging from 3.24 ug/L to 10.61 ug/L,
which exceeded Michigan Rule 57(2) allowable levels (3.0 ug/L)
and the U.S.EPA chronic AWQC (3.2 ug/L). The highest concentra-
tion was upstream of the Grosse lie toll bridge along the western
shore of the Trenton Channel (transect A, Figure IX-3). Tran-
sects C and D also have total lead concentrations exceeding
guidelines along the western shore of the channel. Total lead
concentrations in Ontario tributaries were determined for the
Little River (3-13 ug/L), the Canard River (3-30 ug/L) and Turkey
Creek (3-33 ug/L). These tributaries all contain total lead
concentrations above guidelines (26,35). Concentrations of total
lead in Michigan tributaries were not available for this report.
Total zinc concentrations increased between upper (1.2 ug/L) and
lower (3.3 ug/L) Detroit River transects. Each of the tributar-
ies also had high mean zinc concentrations, with the Ecorse River
having the least (14 ug/L) and the Rouge River the highest (167
ug/L) total zinc concentrations. With the exception of the Rouge
River and the Little River (74 ug/L), water concentrations were
below ambient water quality guidelines. Little River concentra-
tions of total zinc exceeded GLWQA specific objectives (30 ug/L).
Rouge River total zinc concentrations exceeded this guideline and
also the U.S.EPA chronic and acute AWQC.
Total phosphorus concentrations were nearly twice as high at the
Detroit River mouth (15.7 ug/L) compared to the river head (8.6
ug/L). Total phosphorus concentrations in the major Detroit
River tributaries were much higher than concentrations in the
Detroit River.
Filtered chloride concentrations increased from 6.7 mg/L to 8.4
mg/L between upper and lower Detroit River transects. The lower
Detroit River transect was located above General Chemical, a
major chloride loading source discussed later, and therefore this
loading was not reflected in the Detroit River mouth transect
value shown in Table IX-1. The filtered chloride concentrations
in the Detroit River tributaries were one to two orders of mag-
nitude greater than the Detroit River head. Total chloride con-
centrations (not shown) did not increase between the head and the
mouth. The drinking water guideline for chlorides (250 mg/L) was
exceeded in Turkey Creek and North Drain.
Nutrients, Dissolved Gases and Microorganisms:
The basic plant nutrients in the Detroit River include
phosphates, nitrates, and silicates. Dissolved oxygen and the
metals iron, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese and aluminum
are also present in sufficient quantities. The oversupply of
phosphate, chloride and ammonia has decreased substantially over
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470
the past 20 years.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic carbon
(POC) are often many times greater than the organic carbon found
in living plankton, macrophytes, and fauna produced in streams.
DOC measurements available from Lake Huron, the St. Clair and
Detroit Rivers are in the range of 2-3 g/m-3. The POC entering
the St. Clair-Detroit River system from Lake Huron is about 0.7
g/m3. An average of 1.4 g/m3 was measured at the mouth of the
St. Clair River, and up to 2.0 g/m3 were found in Lake St. Clair.
A single POC sample from the mouth of the Detroit River was 3.8
g/m^. Suspended solids increased by a factor of six between Lake
Huron and Lake Erie, and bed load POC has not been studied, so
3.8 g/m3 may underestimate POC in the Detroit River.
Although not measured during these studies, fecal coliform bac-
teria are of concern in the Detroit River because fecal coliform
bacteria standards and criteria have been violated on both sides
of the river. The Ontario objective is 100 counts/100 ml and the
Michigan standard is 200/100 ml fecal coliform bacteria. Beaches
have been closed or not developed because of this continuing
problem.
Water Bioassays:
Seven day chronic bioassays measured the impacts of Detroit River
near-bottom water on Ceriodaphnia. Reproductive success was
significantly reduced (mean young produced/female) relative to
Lake Michigan controls at all four test sites. Station 83 near-
bottom water collected along the southwestern shore of Fighting
Island produced the greatest reduction in the number of young
produced/female (70 to 100% reduction) followed by stations 34
(along the west shore of the Trenton Channel), 53 (at the south-
ern tip of Grosse lie and 30CR (in Monguagon Creek). These re-
ductions were most severe from July to September (36).
Considering both exceedences of water quality and impacts on
biota, the pollutants of concern in water of the Detroit River,
or that of its tributaries, include PCBs, chlorobenzenes, PAHs,
total cadmium, total mercury, total lead, total zinc, and total
phosphorus, in addition to fecal coliform bacteria.
Biota
i) Phytoplankton, Macrophytes and Zooplankton
Detroit River phytoplankton communities consist of low densities
(500 cells per ml) of 82 species dominated by diatoms (8,10,37).
Summer blue-greens contribute to phytoplankton community, but
Detroit River picoplankton, a large component of the phytoplank-
ton biomass, were not surveyed.
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471
Activity causing habitat loss, such as filling or dredging, water
or sediment contaminants or simply continuous elevated suspended
solids that reduce macrophyte production, reduces desirable fish
and wildlife production in the Detroit River and western Lake
Erie. Macrophyte production was estimated at 16,410 metric tons
of ash-free dry weight/yr (12). Only 25% is from emergents re-
flecting the limited habitat presently available.
Detroit River zooplankton populations (potential larval fish
food) were 85% copepods with other zooplankton populations at
very low relative abundances. Zooplankton densities were greater
during the night than the day with typically patchy distribution
with peak numbers between June and September (36,38). Zooplank-
ton are a critical component in the diet of many larval and some
juvenile fish. Poor diversity or depressed zooplankton produc-
tion is likely to result in poor fish year classes during natur-
ally occurring or contaminant related stressful conditions.
ii) Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Diversity and abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates are lower
in the deep, fast flowing areas of the river because the sub-
strate is either difficult to adhere to or burrow into. Shal-
lower, uncontaminated zones containing macrophytes are likely to
yield the greatest diversity. The greatest densities are reached
in strongly enriched,, unconsolidated sediments where oligochaetes
are often monotypic.
The Detroit River benthic community upstream of Zug Island is
diverse and dominated by pollution intolerant organisms with the
exception of the Windsor shoreline. Adjacent,to Zug Island, the
community is severely impacted, and downstream, especially in the
Trenton Channel, the community is dominated by pollution tolerant
oligochaetes (13,15,39). The Ontario shoreline is considerably
better as evidenced by the presence of pollution intolerant may-
flies (11,15).
Schloesser, et al. (40) demonstrated an inverse relationship
between Hexagenia abundance and visible oil in sediments of the
Connecting Channels. Edsall et al. (41) found Hexagenia averag-
ing 2,086 mg dry wt/m^/yr at three locations where sediment con-
taminants did not exceed sediment guidelines, but only 364 mg dry
wt/m^/yr where as many as seven contaminants exceeded these
guidelines.
Native Detroit River Lampsilis radiada siliguoidea, at 4 stations
along the Ontario shore, contained lead and cadmium ranging from
3 to 9 and 3.5 to 6.2 mg/kg respectively (42). PCBs ranged from
73 to 196 ug/kg at these same locations. Octachlorostyrene (OCS)
in clams ranged from 31 to 57 ug/kg, 70 to 285 times higher than
sediment concentrations.
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472
Caged Elliptic compalanta placed in the Detroit River for 18
months accumulated HCB and OCS and a variety of organochlorine
pesticides (43). Highest levels were found along the western
Detroit River shore near Conners Creek, the lower Trenton Channel
and the Rouge River. PCBs were the major organochlorine clam
contaminant, ranging from 20 to 293 ug/kg along the Michigan
shore; clams from the Ontario shore had much lower concentrations
(Figure IX-8).
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were also reported in
caged clams at elevated levels along the Michigan shoreline and
downstream in the Trenton Channel ranging from 136 to 772 ug/kg.
Along the Ontario shoreline PAHs ranged from 52 to 274 ug/kg.
iii) Fish
Five fish species were collected from six sites in the lower
Detroit River and examined for external lesions, necropsied for
internal abnormalities and tissues removed for histological
examination (Figure IX-9) (44). Several neoplasms and pre-neo-
plastic lesions were found in Detroit River brown bullhead,
walleye, redhorse sucker, white sucker and bowfin. Bullhead and
walleye were the only two species exhibiting dermal/oral neo-
plasms at 14.4 and 4.8 %, respectively. Other species exhibited
liver neoplasms with highest incidence observed for bowfin at
15.4%. In bullhead, no relationships between dermal/oral and
liver tumors were found. Tumor incidence was age/size related
since tumors were present in bullheads over 25 centimeters and in
walleye over 50 centimeters. Of the six sites examined, bull-
heads at Point Hennepin and Gibraltar Bay, exhibited the greatest
tumor incidence at 36.4% and 33.3%, respectively. Bullheads near
Mud Island north of the Trenton Channel and in the lower end of
the Trenton Channel did not exhibit tumors.
In this study (44), bile was analyzed for benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)
and its metabolites. All species had BaP or its metabolites in
their bile. Walleye and redhorse sucker contained the greatest
BaP concentrations, with concentrations in bullhead substantially
lower. The greatest BaP concentrations were in bowfin and red-
horse sucker from Point Hennepin and in brown bullhead, walleye,
and white sucker from Mud Island.
Contaminants exceeding relevant guidelines were found in the
flesh of fish in the Detroit River. PCBs were found in carp,
with concentrations exceeding the Ontario1 Ministry of Environment
(OMOE) and Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources fish consumption
guidelines and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration action level
of 2 ppm, as well as the GLWQA specific objective of 0.1 ppm
(Figure IX-10). PCBs in young-of-the-year spottail shiners were
found at significantly (p<0.01) higher concentrations along the
Michigan shoreline than along the Ontario, suggesting Michigan
inputs of PCBs (45). High concentrations of mercury were found
-------
473
629
294
552
Michigan
58
695
Total PCB
Concentrations
ng/g, wet wt.
FIGURE IX-8. Total PCB concentrations in Detroit River caged clams.
-------
474
Michigan
Fish Sampling
Locations
n
FIGURE IX-9. Fish sampling locations for tumor analysis.
-------
475
PCS pom
Carp 6.7
HCB ppm
Carp 0.1
m __ . .^. Spottail .006
.____.__-. .< Spottail .007
Spottail 03
Carp 10.7
Spottail .007
Spottail .009
Spottail 2.6
t
FIGURE IX-10. PCBs and HCB concentrations in Carp and Spottails shiners.
-------
476
in the edible portion of several species of fish (rock bass,
freshwater drum and walleye). Concentrations were above both the
GLWQA specific objective and the Ontario fish consumption ad-
visory of 0.5 ppm (46,47). Other chemicals, such as HCB, OCS,
chlordane and DDT metabolites, were uniformly distributed in
Detroit River spottail shiners, suggesting a diffuse source (45).
iv) Birds
Thirteen wintering lower Detroit River diving ducks (7 lesser and
3 greater scaups and three goldeneyes) were analyzed for organic
chemical contaminants (48). Total PCBs ranged from 2 to 20
mg/kg, indicating significant bioaccumulation. Highest mean
concentrations of other residues in ducks were 1.7 mg/kg hexa-
chlorobenzene in goldeneyes, and trans-nonachlor (0.33 mg/kg) and
4,4' DDE (1.3 mg/kg) in greater scaups. Similar chemical resi-
dues were also found in some tern species. Concentrations of
total PCBs in Detroit River seston (5.2 mg/kg) and oligochaete
worms (0.44 mg/kg) mg/kg) were also noted.
Herring gull eggs from Fighting Island contained high PCB and HCB
concentrations in 1985 and 1986 studies. Detroit River herring
gull eggs contained the lowest concentrations of dieldrin, hepta-
chlor epoxide, photomirex, oxychlordane and alpha hexachloro-
cyclohexane in the Great Lakes (49).
Detroit River waterfowl surveys completed in 1982 showed dramatic
declines in merganser and black ducks, and dramatic increase in
canvasbacks and redheads since 1974 (50). It was postulated that
loss of emergent macrophytes caused by high Great Lakes water
levels caused this reduction in dabbling ducks.
In summary, the pollutants of concern in Detroit River biota
include PCBs, PAHs, HCB, OCS, mercury, lead, cadmium and oil and
grease. Other biota concerns include habitat alteration and fish
tumors.
Sediment Quality
i) Sediment Characteristics
Sediments in the Detroit River are generally sandy, consolidated
clay or bedrock because of the relatively high flow velocities.
Sediment particle size analysis conducted in 1980 revealed that
surficial sediments were generally sand, but gravel dominated
areas of high velocity along the Detroit waterfront, the entrance
of the Trenton Channel and the upper Amherstburg Channel. Fine-
grained samples were collected in slow waters near tributary
mouths. Silts and clays were found downstream of Zug Island, in
the Rouge River, the Trenton Channel near Trenton and the Detroit
River mouth (51,52).
-------
477
Detroit River sediment thickness over bedrock revealed a maximum
sediment thickness of 33 m near Belle Isle, which declined stead-
ily southward to nearly zero in the Trenton Channel and zero in
the main channel (53) . The outer and Amherstburg Channel silt
layer averaged 0.45 to 0.50 m near Lake Erie and zero in the
Amherstburg Channel at Bois Blanc Island and in the Ballard Reef
Channel.
The Michigan Detroit River tributaries which were not sampled in
1982 were sampled in 1985, revealing fine-grained, anthropogenic
sediments frequently of sludge-like consistency (54,55). Samples
in Monguagon Creek and downstream of the Rouge River contained
very fine sands, silt, and coarse sand and gravel. The upper
Rouge River sediments were coarser than elsewhere, consisting of
medium to fine sands with little very fine sand sediments.
Conners Creek sediments also had only minor amounts of fine to
very fine sands. Studies conducted in 1986 at 47 sites (56,57),
generally confirmed the earlier findings.
ii) Sediment Transport
Detroit River average main channel velocities are 0.49 to 0.88
m/sec, but surface velocities may be nearly twice that rate in
the main channels (0.9 to 1.2 m/sec)(58). Sand is transported in
the main channels when the velocity exceeds 0.42 m/sec, while
along the shore and in shallow water areas, where velocities may
drop to 0.25 m/sec or less, sand deposition occurs. Navigation
channel bottoms are scoured by currents leaving few sediments to
resuspend, and no significant relationships between ship passage
and turbidity has been found (59).
A field portable shaker device was used to measure sediment
resuspendability at eight Trenton Channel locations from Mon-
guagon Creek to Celeron Island. Lick et al. predicted that
resuspension could occur regularly in the Trenton Channel (60).
Direct instantaneous measurements of flow velocity, turbidity and
sediment concentration at four locations in the Trenton Channel
using instrumented towers assisted the above researchers (61).
iii) Navigation and Dredging
Until recently, the entire Detroit River commercial navigation
system was dredged by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USCOE) to
a depth of 8.2 m below low water datum. At present, the Ontario
portion of these channels are dredged by Public Works Canada
under contract to Transport Canada. Before enactment of the
Rivers and Harbors Act of 1970, nearly 3 million m3 of dredged
materials were disposed of in the open lake at two sites in Lake
Erie south of the Detroit River mouth (62). In addition, an
unknown amount of Detroit River dredged materials were placed in
Lake St. Clair, near the head of the Detroit River. Since 1970,
about 30,100 m3 of polluted dredged materials were placed on
-------
478
Grassy Island. From 1979 to 1984, 3.1 million m^ of dredged
material were deposited in the Pointe Mouillee confined disposal
facility (CDF) near the Huron River mouth (58). In 1985, 814,000
m^ of polluted Detroit River material was scheduled for disposal
in the Point Mouillee CDF. Rouge River sediments, since 1950,
have been placed on Grassy Island (62). Some polluted dredged
materials were also disposed of along the lower Raisin River
prior to 1979. Mud Island, a small containment site near Grassy
Island, was also used for dredged material disposal.
iv) Sediment Contamination
Results of the six major surveys conducted since 1982 include
contaminant chemistry at approximately 135 sites (51,54,55,63,64,
65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73). For ease of presentation, the
Detroit River was divided up into seven subareas (Figure IX-11).
Because the purposes for the survey, sampling gear, analytical
methods, depth of sample collection, compositing techniques and
sampling locations varied considerably between the studies, com-
parison of these data from year to year may not be entirely
valid. However, an attempt was made to make some comparison.
Organics - Polychlorinated Biphenyls:
High total PCS concentrations were found by six surveys in all
subareas except subarea 7 (Table IX-2, Figure IX-11). The high-
est mean sediment PCB concentrations were found in subarea 2,
just below Belle Isle, where 5 of 10 samples exceeded 10,000
ug/kg in 1986. These were associated with sewer system outfalls,
and indicate that combined sewer overflows have historically
been, and may still be, an important source of PCBs (64).
The 1984 analyses of Oliver and Pugsley (74) noted localized
areas of high concentrations of PCBs downstream of the Detroit
WWTP and the Rouge River (in subarea 3), at concentrations higher
than reported in 1980 (75), assuming the methodologies of the
1980 and 1984 studies were comparable. Comparison of 1982 and
1985 collections are supportive of the conclusion that subarea 2
sources were more significant than the Rouge River. Rouge River
sediments collected at the mouth in 1986 revealed total PCBs up
to 3,500 ug/kg (76). Samples collected downstream of the Detroit
WWTP outfall and off the Rouge River mouth in 1985 and 1986
revealed PCBs up to 2,840 ug/kg near Zug Island (28). Concentra-
tions up to 3,800 ug/kg were found in the Ecorse River (subarea
4). The highest concentrations in the navigation channel (sub-
area 4) was 140 ug/kg, between Grosse lie and Fighting Island
(77). Sediments analyzed from along the Windsor waterfront
showed PCB concentrations ranging from less than 1 ug/kg to 370
ug/kg.
Sediment collections made in 1982 and 1985 also indicate PCB
sources in subarea 6, the Trenton Channel. Highest levels were
-------
479
FIGURE IX-11. Detroit River sub-areas for sediment sampling.
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480
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481
in Monguagon Creek (13,870 ug/kg), although very high PCB con-
centrations were found near BASF/Federal Marine Terminal Prop-
erties and below McLouth Steel, near Trenton. Tributary data
collected in 1985 also targets Monguagon Creek as a PCB source,
with concentrations in the creek of up to 1,530 ug/kg (55).
Since PCB concentrations of up to 9,130 ug/kg were reported in
the Trenton Channel proper, other sources are contributing PCBs
to the Trenton Channel in addition to Monguagon Creek (56).
Bottom sediments from Ontario tributaries obtained during the
1984-1985 survey revealed PCB concentrations of 1,305 ug/kg, 248
ug/kg and 20 ug/kg at the mouths of Turkey Creek, the Little
River and the Canard River, respectively (5).
Many of these PCB sediment concentrations in the Detroit River
and its tributaries, in Michigan and Ontario (particularly ad-
jacent to and downstream of Detroit, Windsor and Amherstburg and
in the Trenton Channel), exceed dredging guidelines. Guidelines
exceeded include the OMOE dredging guidelines (50 ug/kg), the
U.S.EPA dredging guidelines (10,000 ug/kg) and are higher than
the guidelines recommended for Lake Erie by the Dredging Sub-
committee of the Great Lakes Water Quality Board (up to 252
ug/kg).
Hexachlorobenzene:
Sediments collected in 1982 and 1985 in subareas 3, 6 and 7 con-
tained hexachlorobenzene (HCB) exceeding 100 ug/kg. Concentra-
tions' of HCB in 1985 downstream of Monguagon Creek ranged from 26
to 140 ug/kg. Inputs from the St. Clair River are probably minor
since loadings between the St. Clair River mouth and the head of
the Detroit River were reduced at least 95%. Increases noted
within the Detroit River may arise through diffuse or unknown
minor inputs. The highest concentrations of HCB were found, in
Michigan at the mouth and downstream of the Rouge River and in
the Trenton Channel; and in Ontario adjacent to Amherstburg and
east of Fighting Island. There are no dredging guidelines for
HCB.
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons:
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) analyses were performed on
Detroit River sediments in 1982 and 1985. Total PAH values
ranged from 620 to 265,000 ug/kg along the Michigan shore down-
stream of Belle Isle. High total PAH levels (up to 125,000
ug/kg) were also reported in the lower Rouge River. In 1985,
PAHs were reported in the Detroit Dearborn Channel and all
Michigan Detroit River tributaries, ranging from a low concentra-
tion of 600 ug/kg to a high concentration of 600,100 ug/kg in
Monguagon Creek. Most tributary PAH samples were dominated by
3-, 4-, and 5-ring PAH compounds. Two-ring naphthalenes were
found in appreciable quantities only in the Monguagon Creek and
-------
482
the Rouge River. There are no dredging guidelines for total
PAHs.
Phenols:
Phenols ranged from nondetectable to 44,000 ug/kg in localized
areas within subarea 6 along the Michigan shore. High levels
were generally found in subareas 1, 2, and 3 near the Edward C.
Levy Company. There are no dredging guidelines for total phen-
ols.
DDT and Metabolites:
DDT analyses were performed on Detroit River sediments collected
in 1982 and 1985. In 1982, the highest total DDT concentrations
were found near Belle Isle (2,265 ug/kg). In 1985, total DDT was
highest in subarea 1. DDT and metabolites were found in all 1985
samples ranging from 7 to 482 ug/kg (Conners Creek). High levels
of total DDT were also found in the Rouge River mouth and Trenton
Channel, suggesting recent additions that have not been degraded.
Sediments from the mouths of Ontario tributaries generally con-
tained less than 5 ug/kg p'p'-DDT, while breakdown products p'p1-
DDE and p'p'-DDD approached maximum levels of 36 ug/kg and 20
ug/kg, respectively. There are no dredging guidelines for DDT or
its metabolites.
Other Pesticides:
Approximately 34 other pesticides were analyzed in sediments in
1985, 14 of which were found in bottom sediments. Alpha-chlor-
dane, gamma-chlordane, dieldrin and methoxychlor were most com-
monly found. Highest dieldrin levels were found in subarea 5, at
the Canard River mouth (30 to 55 ug/kg). Methoxychlor and gamma-
chlordane were highest in sub-area 3. Maximum levels in bottom
sediments for methoxychlor were 86 ug/kg while gamma-chlordane
levels were 10 ug/kg.
Several chlorinated pesticides were found in the Detroit River
sediments collected in 1985 with highest levels in Monguagon and
Conners Creek sediments. Highest levels of trifluralin (19
ug/kg) were present in the Frank and Poet Drain and the only
occurrences of DCPA (Daethai) were in the Ecorse River and the
Detroit River Dearborn Channel, a tributary to the Rouge River.
Dieldrin (14 ug/kg) was highest in the Detroit-Dearborn Channel,
while aldrin was found primarily in the Rouge River and Conners
Creek sediments.
Beta-BHC concentrations were elevated at Belle Isle (170 ug/kg)
and near the Ecorse River (195 ug/kg) in 1982 collections.
Gamma-chlordane was found throughout the study area with peaks at
Conners Creek and the Ecorse River. Concentrations of other
-------
483
pesticides in sediments showed no distinct relation to potential
sources.
Phthalate Esters:
Phthalate esters were found in 14 of the 20 Detroit River tribu-
tary samples in 1985. Highest levels were found on the Michigan
side in Conners Creek, the Rouge River and near the Federal
Marine Terminals and BASF properties (17,600 ug/kg). There are
no dredging guidelines for phthalate esters.
Volatile Organic Compounds:
Volatile organic compounds were found in 15 of 20 sediment samp-
les analyzed from the Detroit River tributaries in 1985. Di-
chloromethane appeared in 9 of the 20 samples ranging from 0.8 to
6.9 ug/kg in Monguagon Creek where the great variety of volatile
organic compounds were found. Highest concentrations were found
in subarea 7, in the Frank and Poet Drain. There are no dredging
guidelines for specific volatile compounds.
Metals - Mercury:
Mercury analyses were performed on sediments collected in 1982,
1985 and 1986. The highest levels in subarea 6 (Trenton Channel)
were located below the mouth of Monguagon Creek near the Edward
C. Levy Company (55.8 mg/kg). However, a 1985 sample in Mon-
guagon Creek (1.5 mg/kg) indicated that Monguagon Creek was not a
prominent mercury source. Mercury analyses of sediments in sub-
area 6 exceeded 3.0 mg/kg, while bottom sediments in subarea 1
exceed 2.5 mg/kg. U.S.EPA and Ontario dredging guidelines for
mercury were exceeded at many sampled locations along the
Michigan and Ontario shores throughout the length of the river.
Lead:
Lead concentrations exceeded 200 mg/kg in subareas 1, 2 and 6 in
1982 and 1985. Tributary sediment levels were highest in Conners
Creek and the Detroit-Dearborn Channel of the Rouge River, rang-
ing from 500 to 750 mg/kg, but declined downstream to less than
100 mg/kg in subarea 1. Sediment lead concentrations for samples
collected in 1982 and 1985 were similar at subarea 6 above Eliza-
beth Park Canal (1,750 mg/kg). Dredging guidelines were exceeded
along most of the Michigan shore and downstream of Windsor and
Amherstburg in Ontario.
Arsenic:
Sediment data for 1982 and 1985 indicate that Detroit River sedi-
ments contain approximately 10 mg/kg arsenic throughout, with
elevated levels of 36 and 54 mg/kg found at Elizabeth Park Canal
and the Rouge River, respectively. The uniformity of the data
-------
484
suggests no major point or nonpoint sources of arsenic to the
Detroit River; however, dredging guidelines for arsenic were
exceeded.
Cadmium:
Peak cadmium concentrations were in subareas 1, 3 and 6, ranging
between 25 and 96 mg/kg. Cadmium concentrations in suspended and
bottom sediments were approximately equal, perhaps indicating a
persistent local source. Dredging guidelines for cadmium were
exceeded along the full length of the Michigan shore (especially
adjacent to Detroit and in the Trenton Channel) and adjacent and
downstream of Windsor and Amherstburg.
Copper:
Sediment data from 1986 show copper peaks exceeding 100 mg/kg in
subareas 2,3,4, and 6. Sediment data for 1985 showed generally
higher copper levels in subarea 1 and 3, than in 5 or 7 (approxi-
mately 100 mg/kg versus approximately 50 mg/kg). In 1982 and
1985, copper values exceeded 700 mg/kg in subarea 3, Turkey Creek
and the Rouge River. Dredging guidelines for copper were ex-
ceeded along the Michigan and Ontario shores, specifically ad-
jacent to the cities of Detroit, Windsor and Amherstburg and in
the Trenton Channel.
Zinc:
Sediment data for 1986 indicate levels of zinc exceeding 500
mg/kg in subareas 2 and 6. The 1982 and 1985 sediment data show
zinc exceeding 1,000 mg/kg in subareas 1, 2, 3 and 6. The Rouge
River, Conners, Turkey and Monguagon Creeks all appear to be
contributing zinc to the Detroit River. Dredging guidelines for
zinc were generally exceeded at the same locations as for copper.
Chromium:
Sediment data for 1986 indicate chromium levels exceeding 100
mg/kg in subareas 2 and 6. The 1985 sediment data show tributary
sediments as chromium sources in subareas 1 and 3, where suspen-
ded and bottom sediments contained greater than 300 mg/kg total
chromium, indicating a continuing source. Chromium levels were
nearly twice as high in the Detroit Dearborn Channel of the Rouge
River as the lower Rouge River sediments. The 1982 chromium
peaks were not apparent in the 1985 subarea 6 sediments samples,
perhaps indicating some source control. Dredging guidelines were
exceeded at several locations in the Detroit River (as per cop-
per) .
-------
485
Nickel:
High nickel levels (500 mg/kg) were found in bottom sediments
from the Ontario tributary in subarea 1, the Little River. Sedi-
ment nickel levels exceeded 50 mg/kg in subareas 2, 3 and 6 in
1986, while 1985 data indicate subareas 1 and 3 as having high
nickel contamination. The high nickel levels found during the
1982 survey in subareas 4 and 6 were not evident in 1985 data.
Dredging Guidelines were exceeded at several locations (as per
copper).
Manganese:
Manganese levels exceeding 1,000 mg/kg were found in subareas 3,4
and 6 (the Rouge and Ecorse Rivers and Monguagon Creek) in 1985,
which was about the same as in 1982. High manganese in subarea 7
in 1982 was not reported in 1985, but 5,000 mg/kg manganese was
reported in the Ecorse River in 1985 that was not noted in 1982.
Dredging guidelines for manganese were exceeded along the
Michigan shore. Manganese concentrations in Ontario sediments
were not determined.
Iron:
Sediment concentrations of iron from the 1982 survey reached
180,000 mg/kg above Elizabeth Park (subarea 6). Iron levels
along the Michigan shore were very high in 1982, with some sta-
tions in all subareas exceeding 25,000 mg/kg. The highest iron
concentration found during the 1985 survey was 120,000 mg/kg from
the Ecorse River. Dredging guidelines were exceeded along the
Michigan shore. Iron concentrations were not determined for
sediments along the Ontario shore.
Cobalt:
Cobalt was analyzed in 1982, 1985 and 1986. The 1986 cobalt
concentrations were relatively uniform with a slight increase
downstream. Highest levels (over 10 mg/kg) were found in subarea
6. The 1982 samples were also relatively uniform, although
slightly higher than 1986 samples. The highest cobalt levels
were found in the 1985 tributary samples in subarea 3 in the
Detroit Dearborn Channel (17 mg/kg). No exceedences of dredging
guidelines were noted.
Nutrients and Conventional Pollutants - Cyanide:
In 1982, cyanide levels exceeding 10 mg/kg were present in sub-
areas 1,3 and 6. In 1985, high cyanide concentrations were pres-
ent in subareas 1 and 3 (Conners Creek and Detroit Dearborn
Channel). Lower levels were found in the Lower Rouge and
Monguagon Creek, indicating that sources other than Monguagon
Creek were responsible for high levels found in subarea 6 in
-------
486
1986. Exceedence of dredging guidelines for cyanide occurred in
Michigan and Ontario adjacent to Detroit, Windsor and Amherstburg
and in the Trenton Channel.
Oil and Grease:
The highest oil and grease levels found during the 1986 survey
were reported in subarea 6 with concentrations over 24,000 mg/kg.
In 1985, oil and grease levels were highest in subareas 1 (44,800
mg/kg) and 3 (28,600 mg/kg), and generally decreased downstream
from the Detroit River head to its mouth. In 1982, peak oil and
grease levels exceeding 30,000 mg/kg were present in subareas 1,
2,3 and 6. Dredging guidelines for oil and grease were exceeded
in many areas, primarily along the Michigan shoreline adjacent to
and downstream of Detroit and in the Trenton Channel, as well as
adjacent to the cities of Windsor and Amherstburg.
Total Phosphorus:
Most total phosphorus concentrations in sediments were lower than
5,000 mg/kg. Along the Michigan side, phosphorus levels up to
6,200 mg/kg in 1982 were found in subarea 6, whereas the highest
level in 1985 (6,200 mg/kg) was found in the Detroit Dearborn
Channel. Exceedences of phosphorus dredging guidelines were
noted in the majority of samples analyzed in both Michigan and
Ontario.
Ammonia:
The 1982 concentrations of ammonia exceeded 500 mg/kg in subareas
1,3,4, and 6 with highest levels (1,400 mg/kg) in the Rouge
River. In 1985, ammonia levels were below 500 mg/kg in all sub-
areas except subarea 1, where 900 mg/kg was found in Conners
Creek. Dredging guidelines for ammonia were exceeded along the
Michigan shore. Ammonia concentrations were not determined for
sediments from the Ontario shore.
v) Sediment Bioassays
Certain Detroit River depositional zone sediments have demonstra-
ted a range of toxicity to various forms of aquatic life, and
some Detroit River sediments have been tentatively classified as
hazardous waste. Figure IX-12 shows the status of macrobenthic
communities along the Detroit River. Bacterial bioluminescence
(Phosphobacterium phosphoreum) assays (MicrotoxR) conducted on
Detroit River sediment porewater provided dose-response relation-
ships with degree of toxicity inferred by a decrease in light
emission. Figure IX-13 indicates that localized western near-
shore Trenton Channel stations caused a 50% reduction in bio-
luminescence with less than 100% porewater while other stations
elicited lesser responses and 30 percent of the stations were
nonresponsive (78).
-------
487
Status of Macrobenthos
Communities
Normal
Intermediate
Severely
Impacted
kilometers
i./4/ff £/?/£
FIGURE IX-12. Macrobenthos distribution in the Detroit River.
-------
488
n
CO
DETROIT
RIVER
1986
42°15'
42°10'
42°05'
n
CO
Microtox
Toxicity
Statement
Great
Moderate
Slight
None
42°15'
42°051
ORtAT LAKES INFORMATION SYSTEM
DEPARTMENT Of NATURAL RESOURCES
LAND ATJO WATER MANAGEMENT DIVISION
, ID
O
n
CO
O
O
FIGURE IX-13. Detroit River sediments porewater Microtox toxicity.
-------
489
Mutagenic potential of sediment extracts were measured by the
bacterial Salmonella/microsome assay (Ames test). Some mutagen-
icity was noted at 28 of 30 Detroit River stations, with the most
strongly mutagenic sediments from the Trenton Channel (Figure IX-
14). Moderately mutagenic sediments were primarily concentrated
in the lower river near Lake Erie (44).
Bacterial and phytoplankton bioassays were conducted on control
sediments and water along the west end of Fighting Island and the
southern end of Grosse lie, measuring changes in the rate of food
uptake in bacteria and phytoplankton photosynthesis. Bacterial
uptake rates were suppressed by control and contaminated sedi-
ments when sediments exceeded 12 to 1,200 ppm of suspended sol-
ids. At 120 ppm suspended solids, control sediments inhibited
uptake by 50% whereas contaminated Trenton Channel sediments
inhibited uptake by 75%. The impact of sediments on phytoplank^
ton was similar to bacteria, but less accentuated (36).
Daphnia pulicaria feeding was generally inhibited 50 to 75% by
Detroit River elutriate with an approximately three fold decrease
in ingestion rate at station 34, downstream of McLouth Steel near
Trenton. Slight feeding suppression of the control at stations
83 (along the west shore of Fighting Island) and 53 (at the
southern tip of Grosse lie) were reported at high elutriate con-
centrations (36) .
The acute toxicity of Detroit River sediment porewater to Daphnia
magna was demonstrated in a study where ten of the thirty sta-
tions in the Trenton Channel caused 50% mortality in a 96-hour
exposure to 50% or less concentration of porewater (78).
Ten day Chironomus tentans growth tests using whole sediments
found the greatest growth inhibition (up to 95%) along the west-
ern near-shore Trenton Channel. Growth rates for these stations
ranged from 0.02 to 0.08 mg/day, whereas reference stations and
three other stations ranged from 0.48 to 0.53 mg/day (36).
Stylodrilus was used to determine avoidance response to Detroit
River sediments. In control sediments, all worms burrowed and
remained buried with no mortality. At other stations, 70% of the
worms remained buried, but a slight incre.ase in mortality rate
was evident. At station 34, downstream of McLouth Steel near
Trenton, only 10% remained buried, with a 53% mortality (36).
Chironomus tentans respiration, undulation, turning and crawling
movements and rest responses to Detroit River sediments showed
significant differences in escape, respiration and rest respon-
ses, relative to Lake Michigan control sediments. Escape time
was higher and respiration and rest time were lower at these
stations compared to the Lake Michigan sediments (36).
-------
490
Michigan
Mutaoenic Potential
Strongly mutagenic
Weakly mutagenic
Non mutagenic
ri
FIGURE IX-14. Mutagenic potential of Detroit River sediments (Ames test).
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491
Feeding rates of larval channel catfish exposed to Detroit River
contaminated and control sediments and sediment porewater indi-
cate the greatest inhibition of feeding rates occurred from ex-
posure to Trenton Channel sediments. There were no differences
in feeding rates when porewater and water column assays were
completed on Trenton Channel stations (36).
Late-eyed stage rainbow trout eggs were injected with serial
dilutions of Detroit River sediment extracts; all sediment ex-
tracts increased embryo mortality two to three fold relative to
the solvent carrier control. Incubated eggs and fry were moni-
tored but increased mortality was not evident in the early sac
fry stages. One year after injection, 3% of the survivors'
livers exposed to Monguagon Creek sediment extract at 100 ug/egg
had liver neoplasms (44).
Schloesser et al. (40) demonstrated an inverse relationship bet-
ween Hexagenia abundance and visible oil in Detroit River sedi-
ments. Edsall et al. (41) found Hexagenia averaging 2,086 mg dry
wt/m-Vyear at three locations where sediment contaminants did not
exceed dredging guidelines, but only 364 mg dry wt/m^/year where
as many as seven contaminants exceeded these guidelines. Both
studies indicate that sediment contaminants had notable negative
impacts on the benthic community.
In summary, sediments of the Detroit River were found to be
severely impacted by a variety of compounds, including PCBs, HCB,
PAHs, total phenols, total cyanide, oil and grease, total phos-
phorus, ammonia and metals (total mercury, total lead, total ar-
senic, total cadmium, total copper, total zinc, total chromium,
total nickel, total manganese, total iron). In addition, some
non-UGLCCS parameters were also found in sediments (pesticides,
phthalate esters and volatile organic compounds). Several tribu-
taries appear to be sources of many of these contaminants. Toxic
effects of the sediments and sediment porewater on benthic biota
were also noted by a variety of toxicity tests.
-------
492
B. SPECIFIC CONCERNS
The specific chemicals which are impacting the Detroit River
ecosystem, as determined in this study, and other concerns, are
identified in this section. They are summarized in Table IX-3.
1. Conventional Pollutants
In the past, severe oxygen depletion in the Lake Erie hypolimnion
was associated with excessive inputs of phosphorus, and correct-
ive action was undertaken by most jurisdictions to reduce phos-
phorus loadings. Since the Detroit River is the major tributary
to Lake Erie, all phosphorus loadings from the Detroit River are
considered important. Concentrations of total phosphorus in the
Detroit River have steadily decreased since the late 1960s and
are presently below 20 ug/L. Tributary concentrations, however,
still currently exceed ambient water quality guidelines.
Chloride concentrations in the Detroit River water were relative-
ly constant, and not excessive; however, one industry which was
found to be discharging high levels of chlorides (i.e., General
Chemical) was not represented by the water quality survey. High
chloride levels may encourage the growth of halophilic phyto-
plankton in the Great Lakes which could cause a shift in the
phytoplankton community and upper trophic levels.
Fecal coliform bacteria are of concern because fecal coliform
bacteria standards and criteria are routinely violated on both
sides of the river. Beaches along both shores have been closed
or not developed because of this continuing problem. Although
not demonstrated in this study, ammonia is also problematic,
since calculated levels of nonionized ammonia have periodically
exceeded the chronic criteria for coldwater fisheries (0.02 mg/L)
along the western Detroit River shoreline.
Phosphorus and ammonia concentrations in sediments exceeded
dredging guidelines at a number of locations in the Detroit River
and in some tributaries.
2. Organic Contaminants
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations in the Detroit
River were found at concentrations exceeding guideline levels.
Although the levels are below acutely toxic concentrations, high
persistence and bioaccumulative properties of PCBs may (and in
fact has) resulted in bioaccumulation of PCBs in aquatic organ-
isms. Similar findings are made for several organochlorine
compounds, including hexachlorobenzene, dieldrin, heptachlor,
heptachlor epoxide, chlordane and endosulfan. The effects of
these contaminants may not be found in the Detroit River itself
-------
493
TABLE TX-3
Specific concerns and use impelrnents in the Detroit River, 1 988
Impairment or Concern Causes of Impairment Location where Impairment Probable Sources of Contaminants
or Concern or Concern is Found Causing Impairment or Concern
Consumption advisory for Body burdens of PCB or Carp-whole river; other Upstream of Detroit River Watershed;
carp, rock bass, walleye Mercury I Other organo- species-1imited river sec- point anrt nonpoint sources; food chain
and freshwater drum chlorine compounds and tions for some larger sizes
aome pesticides mav be
present, but have no
criteria
Changes in fi sh species Toxic concentrations of Prinarilv U.S. shoreline Point and non-point sources; food
compos1tion and fish organic compounds, heaw downstream of Rouge River, chain; habitat changes
toxicity metals and possibly am- Detroit River Tributaries
Monia in water and
sediments
Tumors and deformities PNA's, PCR and other Primarily lower river and Point and nonpoint sources; food
in fish organochlorine contami- downstream of the Rouge River chain
nants, perhaps heavy
metals
Elevated body burdens of PCB, HCB and other or- Primarily lower Detroit River Upstream Detroit River watershed;
organic contaminants in ganochlorine compounds point and nonpoint souces; food
waterfowl and forage fi sh chain
Elevated concentrations PCB, HCB and other or- U,S, Detroit River shoreline Point and nonpoint sources; food
of organic contaminants ganochlorine compounds and Fighting Island chain
in bird livers and egg*
Loss of f i sh and wi |dIife Ru I khenrii ng , t"i I I i ng , Pn mnri I v «1 ong r he U.S. Poi nt and nonpoi nt sources; dredg i ng/
habi tat dr*»d«i ng nnvi eat ion Detroi t River Shore 11 ne and f 11 1 ing
channe I s ; organ1 rs find i n navi gat ion rhanne t s
heavy met A 1«;; contmerr i a I
and t ndtistn al rteve 1 opment
Loss of aquatic animals Contaminants ' urbani- All U.S. Shore1ine and most Point and nonpoint sources; urbaniza-
zation' habitat loss of the Canadian shoreline tion? dredging/filling
Phvtoplankton popui ation Chi orides and heavy Chlondes-J ower Detroit River Industrial and municipal discharges
changes metals esppci«1 Iv Canadian shore1ine
Henvv m«ta M-pn man I y U.S.
shoreline and Trenton Channel
Zooplankton toxicity Organic compounds and Where sediments are heavily Industrial and municipal discharges
heavv metals contaminated) in Trenton
Channe1 espec i a11y
Benthic macroinverta- Heavv metals and organic From Zug Island downstream Point and nonpoint sources
brate commumtv changes compound contamination in along the U.S. shoreline,
sediments and water, also Trenton Channel and Windsor
nutrient enrichment and shoreline
oil and grease
Aesthetic degradation- Nutrients, BODS, oil and Near shore, U.S. Michigan Primarily municipal discharges and
eutrophication grease and organic and side, downstream of CSO's CSO's
CUl. rupn luai 1UI1 5 IWBC aiiu urgaiui; aiiu »*uc , UWWIIB v i c-«n w L \*au a
tributaries
Sediment contamination Organic and heavv metals Primarilv depositional zones
and potential loading and phenols near the U.S. shore, Trenton
to the water column Channel, lower Detroit River
and local i zed spots
Contaminated Groundwater Organics, heavy metals At waste disposal sites
les Point and nonpoint sources; CSO's
.on
Contaminated Groundwater Organics, heavy metals At waste disposal sites Primarily local industrial waste or
1 oad ings pheno I s , ot he r 7 sp 1 1 1 s
Loss of total bodv con- Fecal coliform bacteria Tributaries and both shores CSO's, stormwater, municipal WWTP's
tact recreation of the entire length of the and septic tank leachate reaching
Detroit River into Lake Erie tributaries
Added cost of treatment Excessive concentrations Primari lv along the U.S. Industrial and municipal discharges
to industry and agricul- of contaminants from shoreline downstream of the
ture other dischargers leaves Rouge River
little asm mi lative
capacity for
other dischargers
Potential con tarn mat! on Primari ly organic At publ ic drinking water Upstream industrial discharges
of public potable water chemicals and spills of supply intakes throughout waste disposal sites, spills from
supplv materials the Detroit River ships, and WWTP bypasses and upsets
-------
494
but in Lake Erie, particularly its Western Basin. Significant
concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) enter
the Detroit River at and near the Rouge River mouth. There is no
water quality guideline for PAHs for aquatic life; however, many
of these compounds are known or suspected animal or human car-
cinogens.
Fine-grained sediments in the river are excessively contaminated
by a variety of organic contaminants. Several areas along the
Michigan shore contain excessive PCB concentrations. Organo-
chlorine contaminants other than PCBs are also found in most
Detroit River and tributary sediments. DDT and its metabolites,
dieldrin, methoxychlor, chlordane, trifluralin, hexachlorocyclo-
hexane and hexachlorobenzene are present. Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been found at high concentrations in
Detroit River sediments. Excessive phenols were present in sedi-
ments of the Trenton Channel. High concentrations of phthalates
were present in many sediment samples from Detroit River tribu-
taries, particularly Conners Creek and the Rouge River. Exces-
sive concentrations of oil and grease are present in many Detroit
River depositional zone sediments, and have degraded benthic
macroinvertebrate communities (24).
Fish from several stations in the lower Detroit River had ele-
vated levels of certain, organic chemicals. PCB concentrations
exceed consumption guideline levels in the edible portion of
Detroit River carp. Consequently, the Michigan Department of
Public Health has issued a consumption advisory for these fish.
Several Detroit River fish species exceed the GLWQA objective of
0.1 mg/kg (wet weight) total PCBs in whole fish tissue. OMOE has
also issued a fish consumption advisory for Detroit River carp
because of elevated body burdens of PCBs.
Waterfowl contain elevated PCB levels and other persistent or-
ganic chemicals. There are no existing criteria for a consumption
advisory to protect children and women of child-bearing age from
the potential effects resulting from consumption of these birds.
Herring gull eggs collected from Fighting Island in 1985 and 1986
contained high concentrations of PCBs and PAHs, and contained
several other organochlorine pesticides.
Native and caged Detroit River clams showed increased levels of
PCBs, PAHs and several organochlorine pesticides. Some PAHs
found in Detroit River sediments are probable human carcinogens,
and are thought to be responsible for some liver, lip and dermal
tumors in fish.
3. Metals
Concentrations of metals measured in water during the study were
generally all below the ambient water quality guideline, with the
-------
495
exception of mercury, which exceeded Michigan's Rule 57(2) allow-
able levels throughout the river. Generally, water in the
Trenton Channel was of a poorer quality than other portions of
the river. During the 1986 Detroit River System Balance Study,
some localized areas exceeded water quality guidelines for iron
(GLWQA specific objective) cadmium, lead and mercury (Michigan's
Rule 57(2) allowable level). Water quality in the Little River,
Rouge River, Turkey Creek, the Canard River and Ecorse River is
impaired with respect to certain metals.
Heavy metal contamination of Detroit River sediments is found in
most depositional areas, with concentrations of many metals ex-
ceeding guidelines. Lead, cadmium, copper and zinc levels are
significantly elevated in the Rouge River and Turkey Creek and in
Detroit River sediments downstream of their confluences. High
levels of chromium and nickel are present in the Little River.
Manganese and especially iron are strongly elevated in Trenton
Channel sediments and other Michigan nearshore and sedimentary
zones.
Overall, certain Detroit River sediments are severely degraded by
heavy metals, especially in the Trenton Channel. This contamina-
tion may reduce or eliminate the viability of Detroit River and
Lake Erie sediments as substrate for benthic organisms. Desorp-
tion of contaminants and re-solubilization through chemical and
biological processes make an unknown portion of these chemicals
available to higher aquatic organisms.
OMOE has issued a fish consumption advisory on several fish
species because mercury concentrations exceed 0.5 mg/kg in the
edible portion of the larger sizes of these fish. Native and
caged Detroit River clams showed increased levels of several
metals, particularly lead and cadmium.
4. Habitat Alterations
Eighty-five percent of the wetlands and littoral zones along the
Michigan Detroit River shoreline have been eliminated by filling,
dredging and bulkheading. Aquatic plants which live only in the
littoral zone provide food, substrate, cover and nursery produc-
tion for aquatic organisms, and drive the production and energy
flow through the aquatic ecosystem. Loss* of the littoral zone
results in the loss of large segments of the upper trophic lev-
els, including fish. Habitat loss was the major factor, along
with pollution and overfishing, in the demise of the Detroit
River commercial fishery around the turn of the century. Large
areas of shallow water and marshes associated with tributaries
are still found on the Ontario shore, below Fighting Island.
Seventy percent of the remaining littoral zone is occupied by
submerged plants, macrophytes and other wetland plants.
-------
496
In the Detroit River, upstream of Zug Island, the benthic com-
munity is diverse and dominated by pollution intolerant organ-
isms, except along the Windsor shoreline. Adjacent to Zug Island
the community is severely impacted, and downstream, especially in
the Trenton Channel, the benthos is dominated by pollution toler-
ant oligochaetes.
Overall, aquatic biota, especially benthos, show detrimental
responses to contamination of Detroit River sediments with or-
ganic and inorganic substances, particularly in the lower river
and in the Trenton Channel. Laboratory tests with sediments and
sediment extracts indicate higher toxicity and increased mutagen-
icity on a variety of native species. Fish species diversity and
fecundity may also be negatively affected in some areas.
-------
497
C. SOURCES
This section discusses contaminant inputs from point and non-
point sources in the Detroit River which were analyzed between
1984 and 1987.
1. Point Sources
Introduction, Qualifications and Criteria
During 1985, 1986 and 1987 the Michigan Department of Natural
Resources (MDNR), OMOE, U.S.EPA and Environment Canada collec-
tively monitored flow and effluent quality of major direct and
indirect point source dischargers to the Detroit River (direct
sources are those which discharge directly to the river and in-
direct sources discharge to the river via tributaries or drains).
Nine municipal treatment plants and 20 industrial facilities were
sampled over a 24 hour period (Michigan sources) or 3 to 6 days
(Ontario Sources) during 1985 and 1986. Composite samples were
analyzed for conventional pollutants, metals and trace organics,
including the list of contaminants chosen for the UGLCC Study
(Chapter I, Table 1-1). Table IX-4 presents the industries sur-
veyed and the parameters which are regulated in their effluent.
Table IX-5 presents the municipal facilities and their regulated
parameters. Figures IX-15 and 16 show the locations of these,
and other, Industrial and municipal facilities along the Detroit
River.
Shortcomings limit the inferences that can be drawn from the
survey, including the small data base, differences in survey
timing, and differences in sampling and analytical methods. The
U.S. surveys were performed in May, and July through September,
1986, while the Ontario data were collected between October and
December, 1985. The U.S. composited four grab samples (1 every 6
hrs), while Ontario samples were collected by automatic composite
samplers (1 portion every 15 min).
Differences in detection limits further hinder comparisons. The
U.S. generally used lower detection limits than did Canada, al-
lowing calculated loadings from Michigan facilities with no cor-
responding loadings from Ontario facilities for some parameters
(e.g., OCS and HCB). Consequently, the percent of the total
point source loadings to the Detroit River for some parameters
(depending on corresponding flow volumes) may be skewed towards
Michigan dischargers.
Flows
There were a total of 75 known point sources discharging 9,233 x
to the Detroit River basin in 1986. Three Detroit
-------
498
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501
MICHIGAN
ANACONDA-AMERICAN
BRASS COMPANY
REVERE COPPER t
BRASS NCORPORATED
SOU*y PROCESS 0V
ALLIED CHEMCALCORP"
PLASTC tJMSKH
ALJUED CHEMCAL CORP
PEERLESS CEMENT Co
PORO MOTOR Co.
ROUGE PLANT
OARLWG »Co
AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL
CHEMCAL COMPANY
SCOTT PAPER Co
GENERAL CHEMCAL CUV
ALLIED CHEMICAL CORP
GREAT LAKES STEEL CORP
HOT STRIP MILL
FUEL OIL CORP
DANA CORP
GREAT LAKES STEEL CORP
ECORSE MILL
E.I du PONT dl NEMOURS 1 Co MC
INDUSTRIAL! 8OCHEMCALS OEPT
ALUED CHEMICAL OF CANADA LTD
CALVERT DISTILLERIES LTD
(PORMERIWYANDOTTE CHEMCALS'
CORP N SIDE WORKS
WYANOOTTE CHEMCALS CORP '
S.SIDE WOfiKS
KOPPERS COMPANY
FENNWALT CHEMCALS CORP
FIRESTONE TIRE a RUBBER Co
STEEL PRODUCTS ON
McLOUTH STEEL CORP
TRENTON PLANT
MOBIL OH. Co
CHRYSLER CORP
TRENTON ENQNE PLANT
MONSANTO CHEMCAL Co
TRENTON HESteCORP
CHRYSLER CORP
CHEMCAL PHODUCTS DIV
W»H-£X DIV
MCLOUTH STEEL CORP
GBRALTAR PLANT
5km
FIGURE IX-15. Industrial dischargers to the Detroit River.
-------
502
CONNERS
CREEK \ A
GIBRALTAR
MIC HIG A N
BELLE ISLE
OUTFALL
* t r /-«wh. 1
STP \PONTIAC &
) LITTLE RIVER STP
WINDSOR
X?».
RIVER ROUGE A) /
ONTARIO
x»{ Mud <{* 1
Ecofse River ) !3te j[ O J ^
jc rniIWTV *«T*1 5 \
WAYNE COUNTY
WYANDOTTE
AMHERSTBURG
STP OUTFALL
WYANDOTTE
WYANDOTTE STP OUTBVLL
RIVERVIEW
TRENTON
^ew OUTFALL.
NEW STP
OLD STP
(ouai
TRENTON
OUTFALL
5km
STP SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT OUTFALLS
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT LOCATIONS
A HYDRO FACILITIES
Q SPOIL AREA
MUNICIPAL WATER INTAKES
FIGURE IX-16. Municipal dischargers to the Detroit River.
-------
503
Edison Power Plants discharged 35% of this flow directly to the
Detroit River. These discharges are normally once-through cool-
ing water and storm runoff, so contaminant loadings from these
facilities were not determined.
The majority of the remaining point source flow (5,830 x 103 m3/d
originated from eight direct municipal treatment facility dis-
charges, the largest being the City of Detroit WWTP, averaging
2,160 x 103 m3/day. Four indirect municipal dischargers added
minor flows, the largest being the Windsor, Ontario Little River
Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) (45 x 103 m3/d).
The total measured industrial flow was 2,843 x 103 m3/d, of which
66% was directly discharged. The Great Lakes Steel 80" Mill and
Zug Island facilities contributed 540 x 103 m3/d and 280 x 103
m3/d respectively. The indirect industrial flow (942 x 103 m3/d)
was dominated by Rouge Steel, which averaged 891 x 103 m3/d.
Contaminant Loadings
Individual source loadings can be compared with the sum of the
average loadings from other surveyed facilities to determine the
facility's relative contribution. Effluent evaluations were made
by comparing each facility's effluent to its effluent quality
objectives, guidelines, standards or limitations to determine
compliance. The total daily contaminant loading of principal
dischargers of the UGLCCS and non-UGLCCS parameters are shown in
Table IX-6.
In Michigan, effluent limits are developed for the National Pol-
lution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits, as previ-
ously discussed in Chapter III. These permits may have concen-
tration and/or loading limits, and are either water quality based
or treatment technology based, whichever is more restrictive. In
Ontario, effluent guidelines take the form of the Ontario In-
dustrial Effluent Objectives developed for certain parameters
industry-wide, and required limits are contained in either con-
trol orders or Certificates of Approval developed for specific
parameters for individual facilities.
Also presented in parentheses in Table IX-6, for comparison pur-
poses, is Detroit WWTP self-monitoring data from the facility's
self-monitoring report (SMR) between September 1986 and August
1987. These self-monitoring data are monthly averages averaged
for one year. In general, the SMR data indicates a higher ef-
fluent flow (2,695 x 103 m3/d versus 2,160 x 103 m3/d) and higher
contaminant concentrations, resulting in higher contaminant load-
ings than those determined with use of UGLCCS survey data. Al-
though the 24 hour survey data are used for comparison with other
point source inputs, the self-monitoring data may be more repres-
entative of long term inputs. Self-monitoring data in the table
-------
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508
are placed in parentheses to set them apart from the point source
survey data. In the text, these data are referred to as "SMR"
data.
Parameters which were "of concern", (by virtue of media guide-
lines being exceeded or by impacts upon biota), and the point
sources which provided inputs, are discussed below.
i) Conventional Pollutants
i) Total Phosphorus: The total loading for the UGLCCS survey
was 1,470 kg/d, contributed primarily by the Detroit WWTP
(930 kg/d; self monitoring report for 1987 (SMR) indicates
loading of 2,023 kg/d), the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP (245
kg/d) and the West Windsor WWTP (150 kg/d). The Wayne
County-Trenton WWTP (1.6 mg/L) and the City of Trenton WWTP
(4.7 mg/L), discharged concentrations in excess of the GLWQA
effluent objective of 1.0 mg/L. Both the Detroit and Wayne
County-Wyandotte facilities are generally in compliance with
their permitted concentrations for total phosphorus.
ii) Ammonia-nitrogen: The total loading was 25,000 kg/d, con-
tributed primarily by the Detroit WWTP (19,700 kg/d;
SMR=6,628 kg/d) and the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP (3,230
kg/d; 12 mg/L). General Chemical (14.3 mg/L) discharged
ammonia in excess of the Ontario Industrial Discharge Objec-
tives of 10 mg/L. The Wayne County-Trenton WWTP effluent
concentration for ammonia-nitrogen was 15 mg/L.
iii) Chloride: The total point source loading was 1,440,000
kg/d, contributed primarily by General Chemical (1,050,000
kg/d). Concentrations in the General Chemical North Drain
ranged from 5.5 to 6.6% (55-66 gm/L). No effluent guide-
lines exist for chlorides; but these concentrations do grea-
tly exceed drinking water recommendations of 250 mg/L. The
Detroit WWTP and Rouge Steel discharged 281,000 kg/d and
36,400 kg/d of chloride, respectively, to the Detroit River.
ii) Organic Pollutants
i) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB): The total loading was
0.296 kg/d, contributed primarily by the Detroit WWTP (0.2
kg/d; SMR=0.256 kg/d) and by Ford Canada (0.039 kg/d).
Elevated concentrations were found above the method detec-
tion limit (MDL, which was 0.0001 ug/L for Michigan and 0.1
ug/L for Ontario), at Ford Canada (0.55 ug/L) and the Wayne
County-Wyandotte WWTP (0.088 ug/L).
ii) Hexachlorobenzene (HCB): The total loading was 0.0024 kg/d,
contributed primarily by the Detroit WWTP (0.001 kg/d;
SMR=0.011 kg/d). HCB was not detected at Ontario sources at
their MDL of 0.02 ug/L. Pennwalt discharged the highest
-------
509
concentrations (0.012 ug/L).
iii) Octachlorostyrene (OCS): The loading from the seven Michigan
sources surveyed was 0.000087 kg/d, and only detected at or
near the MDL (0.000001 ug/L). Wayne County-Wyandotte had
the highest concentration (0.21 ng/L) and loading (45 mg/d).
OCS was not found in Ontario effluents (MDL 0.02 ug/L).
iv) Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): The total loading
was 6.0 kg/d, contributed primarily by Rouge Steel (5.2
kg/day), at a concentration of 2 ug/L. Other point sources
contributed PAHs at loadings over an order of magnitude
less.
v) Total Phenols: The total loading was 135 kg/d, contributed
primarily by Ford Canada (48.2 kg/d; 658 ug/L), the Detroit
WWTP (45.4 kg/d; 21 ug/L) and Rouge Steel (17.3 kg/d).
Concentrations for the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP, McLouth
Steel-Trenton and Great Lakes Steel-Zug Island were 36 ug/L,
24 ug/L and 32 ug/L, respectively. The Ontario Industrial
Discharge Objective is 20 ug/L.
vi) Oil and Grease: The total loading was 35,400 kg/d, con-
tributed primarily by the Detroit WWTP (9,090 kg/d, 4.2
mg/L; SMR=14,041 kg/d, 5.2 mg/L), Rouge Steel (8,090 kg/d, 7
mg/L) and McLouth Steel-Trenton (7,060 kg/d, 31.1 mg/L).
Great Lakes Steel-Ecorse (125 mg/L), Great Lakes Steel-80"
Mill (19 mg/L), and Mclouth Steel-Trenton (31 mg/L) dis-
charged elevated concentrations of oil and grease through
their combined outfalls.
iii) Metals
i) Total Cadmium: The total loading was 9.1 kg/d, contributed
primarily by the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP (6.1 kg/d, 23
ug/L) and the Detroit WWTP (1.4 kg/d, 0.65 ug/L; SMR=13
kg/d, 5 ug/L). Elevated concentrations were also discharged
from Ford Canada (11.2 ug/L) and General Chemical (10-21
ug/L). The Ontario Industrial Effluent Objective for total
cadmium is 1 ug/L.
ii) Total Copper: The total loading was 54.9 kg/d, contributed
primarily by General Chemical (17.2 kg/d, 99 ug/L), Rouge
Steel (15 kg/day, 8.3 ug/L) and the Detroit WWTP (7.1 kg/d,
3.3 ug/L; SMR=92 kg/d).
iii) Total Cyanide: The total loading was 121 kg/d, contributed
primarily by the Detroit WWTP (106 kg/day; SMR=59 kg/d).
This facility also discharged the highest concentration of
cyanide in effluent (49 ug/L; SMR=22 ug/L). Other facili-
ties contributed loadings over one order of magnitude less
than the Detroit WWTP.
-------
510
iv) Total Iron: The total loading was 3,570 kg/d, contributed
primarily by Rouge Steel (1,550 kg/d, 850 ug/L), the Detroit
WWTP (592 kg/d, 274 ug/L; SMR=1,887 kg/d) and McLouth Steel-
Trenton (545 kg/d, 2,400 ug/L). Wayne County-Trenton WWTP
discharged concentrations of 6,960 ug/L.
v) Total Lead: The total loading was 52.1 kg/d, contributed
primarily by Ford Canada (30.3 kg/d, 425 ug/L), Rouge Steel
(8.53 kg/d, 4.7 ug/L) and the Detroit WWTP (7.13 kg/d, 3.3
ug/L; SMR=137 kg/d).
vi) Total Mercury: The total loading was 0.115 kg/d, contribu-
ted primarily from the Detroit WWTP (0.064 kg/d, 0.029 ug/L;
SMR=0.54 kg/d, 0.2 ug/L) and the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP
(0.014 kg/d, 0.05 ug/L).
vii) Total Nickel: Total loading was 120 kg/d, contributed prim-
arily by the Detroit WWTP (95.8 kg/d, 44.3 ug/L; SMR=197
kg/d). Concentrations at Wickes Manufacturing (average
3,500 ug/L) exceeded the Ontario Industrial Discharge Objec-
tive of 1,000 ug/L.
viii)Total Zinc: The total loading from all sources, except
Double Eagle Steel, was 641 kg/d, contributed primarily by
the Detroit WWTP (223 kg/d, 103 ug/L; SMR=283 kg/d), McLouth
Steel-Trenton (137 kg/d, 603 ug/L) and Ford Canada (132
kg/d, 1,850 ug/L). Extremely high loadings of zinc were
found at Double Eagle Steel during the survey and were rec-
tified soon after discovery, so were not included in the
total loading. Effluent concentrations at Ford Canada ex-
ceeded the Ontario Industrial Discharge Objective of 1,000
ug/L.
iv) Non-UGLCCS Parameters
i) Total Suspended Solids (TSS): The total loading was 65,300
kg/d, contributed primarily by the Detroit WWTP (21,610
kg/d, 10 mg/L; SMR=35,490 kg/d), Rouge Steel (7,160 kg/d,
ND-17 mg/L) and General Chemical (North Drain; 6,930 kg/d,
7-353 mg/L). Wickes Manufacturing (48-89 mg/L) and Ford
Canada (24-44 mg/L) discharged concentrations in excess of
the Ontario Industrial Discharge Objective of 15 mg/L. The
Wayne County-Trenton WWTP (53 mg/L) and the City of Trenton
WWTP (240 mg/L) discharged similarly elevated concentra-
tions .
ii) Total Chromium: The total loading was 51.4 kg/d, contribu-
ted primarily by the Detroit WWTP (15 kg/d, 7 ug/L; SMR=70
kg/d) and Wickes Manufacturing (13.8 kg/d, 3,800-6,700
ug/L). Wickes Manufacturing discharged concentrations of
chromium exceeding the Ontario Industrial Discharge Objec-
tive of 1,000 ug/L.
-------
511
iii) Total Volatiles: The total loading was 220 kg/d, contrib-
uted primarily by the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP (94 kg/d,
348 ug/L), the Detroit WWTP (85.4 kg/d, 39.5 ug/L) and the
West Windsor WWTP (37.6 kg/d, ND-298 ug/L).
Major Loading Contributors
Summarized below are eleven point source facilities which were
found to be major contributors of chemicals of concern in the
Detroit River, contributing 10% or more of the total identified
point source load. Primary contributors indicate the parameters
for which the identified facility is the largest single source,
based on the UGLCCS point source data.
i) Michigan Facilities
Detroit WWTP
Primary contributor: Total PCBs, HCB, total mercury, total
nickel, total chromium, total zinc,
ammonia-nitrogen, total phosphorus, oil
and grease, total cyanide, suspended
solids
Additional: OCS, total cobalt, total phenols, total
cadmium, total lead, total copper, total
iron, chlorides, total volatiles
Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP
Primary contributor: OCS, total cadmium, total volatiles
Additional: HCB, total mercury, ammonia-N, total
phosphorus
McLouth Steel-Trenton
Primary contributor: None
Additional: HCB, total zinc, total iron, oil and
grease
Rouge Steel
Primary contributor: Total iron, PAHs
Additional: Total phenols, total lead, total zinc,
total copper, oil and grease, suspended
solids
Great Lakes Steel-Ecorse
Primary contributor: None
-------
512
Additional: OCS, oil and grease
Great Lakes Steel 80" Mill
Primary contributor: None
Additional: Oil and grease
Monsanto
Primary contributor: None
Additional: HCB
ii) Ontario Facilities
Ford Canada
Primary contributor: Total phenols, total lead
Additional: PCBs, total zinc
General Chemical
Primary contributor: Total copper, chlorides
Additional: Suspended solids
Wickes Manufacturing
Primary contributor: None
Additional: Total chromium
West Windsor WWTP
Primary contributor: None
Additional: Total phosphorus, total volatiles
Loading estimates are based on limited sampling, and contain some
inherent uncertainty. Comparisons based on these estimates con-
tain that uncertainty, as well.
A summary of parameters considered in the National Pollution
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit effluent limits for
major Michigan Detroit River dischargers were presented in Tables
IX-4 and 5. For a more in-depth description of the permit lim-
itations for each facility, the Point Source Workgroup Report (6)
should be consulted. Also shown are the effluent requirements
for Ontario facilities. Ontario industrial facilities are also
encouraged to comply with the Ontario Industrial Effluent Objec-
tives, discussed in Chapter III. Most facilities have only a few
-------
513
constituents which they are required to measure. Most
constituents monitored are conventional pollutants, although some
monitor regularly for metals. Only a few have monitoring re-
quirements for organic contaminants.
An effort was made to determine if the facilities surveyed were
in compliance with the appropriate effluent requirements, by
comparing the effluent with such requirements. Occurrences of
effluent limitation exceedences are noted for the appropriate
parameters in Tables IX-4 and 5.
2. Urban Nonpoint Sources
United States Storm and Combined Sewer Overflows
Stormwater reaches the Detroit River directly through storm
sewers and CSOs or through tributaries receiving storm and CSO
discharges. Contaminant loading from stormwater and CSOs dis-
charging directly to the Detroit River were measured or est-
imated. Contaminant loadings from storm water and CSOs to tribu-
taries are reflected by the contaminant loading of the tributar-
ies themselves.
There are 243 CSOs discharging to the Detroit River from Michigan
and Ontario. Seventy-six discharge directly to the river and 167
discharge indirectly via tributaries. There are 45 directly
discharging CSOs along the Michigan shoreline and 28 discharging
to the Rouge River (Figure IX-17), and a few others discharging
to small creeks, such as Conners and Fox creeks. The mean con-
centration and loading of selected chemical constituents from the
discharge of 42 City of Detroit CSOs to the Detroit River and
three City of Detroit CSOs to the Rouge River (downstream of the
tributary monitoring location) are shown in Tables IX-7 and 8,
respectively. Major loadings are from the Lieb (4,957 million
gal/yr) and Conners Creek/ Freud/Fairview (2,766 million gal/yr)
overflows located near Belle Isle along the western shore, and
the First Hamilton/ Bates/Woodward (386 million gal/yr) and Sum-
mit CSOs located approximately 1 km up and downstream, respect-
ively, of the Ambassador Bridge (79).
As an illustration, (79), in the late 1970s Detroit CSOs
accounted for 13% of the total phosphorus, 15% of the suspended
solids, 21% of the oil and grease, 25% of the cadmium, 29% of the
chromium, 20% of the copper, 32% of the lead, 96% of the mercury
and 34% of the total PCB loading to the Detroit River. Subse-
quent more restrictive controls as well as industrialization
changes are believed to have reduced these contributions, how-
ever, this has not been documented.
There are no documented direct stormwater discharges to the
Detroit River from the municipalities of Detroit, River Rouge,
-------
514
Outfall location
FARMINOTON
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PLYMOUTH
PEMBROKE
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FRI8BEE
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CNICHOLS
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PURITAN
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CHOOLCRAFT
GLENDALE
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LYMOUTH
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TIREMAN
WARREN
GARDEN CITY
HUBBEL
SOUTHFIELD
BABY CR.
FORT ST.
BRIDGE
LORA
ARBO
FORT ST. BRIDGE
OAKWOOD PUMP STATION
FIGURE IX-17. U.S. Combined sewer overflows discharging to the Detroit and
Rouge Rivers.
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Ecorse, Lincoln Park, Grosse lie or Gibraltar. Stormwater from
these cities enters the combined sewer system and is treated at
the Detroit WWTP, or is discharged directly through CSO outfalls
to the Detroit River. The municipalities of Wyandotte and
Trenton have 13 and 18 direct stormwater discharges to the
Detroit River, respectively. Riverview has 17 and Trenton has 19
stormwater discharges through Monguagon Creek, and Frank and Poet
Drains. The contaminant loadings from these outfalls are un-
known.
Ontario Storm and Combined Sewer Overflows
Mean concentration and loadings of selected chemical constituents
discharged in stormwater and CSOs in Windsor are shown in Tables
IX-7 and 8 (80). Windsor has 28 CSOs which discharge directly to
the Detroit River, these are shown in Figure IX-18. Industrial
runoff and CSOs contained higher concentrations of most con-
stituents than commercial and residential land use areas. Some
constituents (ammonia and lead) were an order of magnitude lower
in residential than in other areas. Approximately 72 to 94% of
the Windsor loads occurred during storm events (about twice a
month and 20 to 42 hours per event). Sixty-five percent of the
load occurred in February, March and April with the greatest
loads during March. Mixed stormwater/sanitary waste water dis-
charges to the river whenever flow in the combined sewers ex-
ceeded 2.5 times the dry weather flow, otherwise the mixed waste
water discharges to one of the two Windsor WWTPs. Based on these
data, Windsor CSOs contribute from less than 1 to 9% of the
conventional, metal, and organic contaminant loading to the
Detroit River.
3. Groundwater Contamination/Waste Sites
Groundwater movement was investigated in an area extending 19 km
(12 mi) along the Detroit River, which is about 50 km (31 mi)
long. Factors which control and influence groundwater movement,
such as geological formations, were investigated for this study
(53,70,71,81,82,83).
In Michigan, general groundwater flow is east towards the Detroit
River. Locally, the direction of groundwater flow is influenced
by surface water drainage, dewatering projects (such as in the
Sibley Quarry in Wayne County) and glacial landforms. Ground-
water discharges to the Detroit River from two hydrogeologic
units: a shallow glacial unit and a bedrock unit. The shallow
glacial unit consists of mostly silty-clay till and glacio-
lacustrine deposits with discontinuous stringers of sand and
gravel. In the upper river (down to about Fighting Island), the
bedrock unit is comprised of carbonate rocks of the Traverse and
Dundee formations, overlain by at least 15 m of glacial deposits.
-------
518
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South of Fighting Island, the bedrock is comprised of limestone,
dolomite and sandstone of the Detroit River Group, overlain by
about 8 m of fine-grained glacial deposits. Near the mouth of
the river, the Detroit River Group forms the river channel.
In Ontario, the groundwater flow is generally west towards the
Detroit River. Three levels of groundwater discharge exist:
local, intermediate and regional (or bedrock). The local unit is
contained in surficial sands and gravels, and the weathered and
fractured zone of lake clay and clay tills. Similar to the
Michigan surficial unit, flow in this system is influenced
strongly by local surface events and conditions. The intermedi-
ate unit is comprised of intact lacustrine clay and clay till,
ranging from less than 3 meters to 40 meters in thickness. It is
believed most of the groundwater flow from this unit is downward
towards the bedrock unit. The bedrock unit is comprised primar-
ily of carbonate rocks of the Hamilton and Dundee Formations and
the Detroit River Group. Flow in this unit is towards the
Detroit River and Lake Erie.
The estimated total discharge of groundwater from the Michigan
side of the Detroit River study area (from Belle Isle to Point
Mouillee) is between 1.5 m-Vsec (54 ft-Vsec) and 3 m^/sec (107
ft-Vsec)(82,83). Rates of groundwater seepage are highest in the
northern portion of the Detroit River, in the vicinity of Belle
Isle, and generally decrease downstream, increasing again below
the Ecorse River mouth. Groundwater and surface water systems
are highly interconnected in the Trenton Channel and the lower
Detroit River, due to thin or absent sediments overlying bedrock.
Estimates of groundwater seepage to the Detroit River from
Ontario were not made. In relation to the flow of the Detroit
River, the groundwater discharge to the river is approximately
0.05%; therefore, quantitatively, contributing a very small
amount to the total river flow.
Waste Disposal Sites
An inventory of active and inactive waste sites within 19 km of
the Detroit River was conducted as part of this investigation.
Ninety four sites of known and potential groundwater contamina-
tion have been found in Monroe and Wayne counties as of January
1987. The majority of sites are solid waste landfills, hazardous
waste disposal sites, regulated storage sites and spills. Twenty
three sites along the Ontario side of the Detroit River were also
identified (84,85). Locations of selected Michigan waste sites
and monitoring wells are shown in Figure IX-19.
Sites which are located in groundwater discharge areas directly
discharging to the Detroit River were ranked and prioritized for
potential impacts upon the Detroit River. Ranking of sites was
based on their potential for contributing contaminants to the
-------
520
41
G5
P5
CWA)5
O
Government monitoring well
Private monitoring well
Waste Site
N
112
G21
FIGURE IX-19. Sites of known or suspected groundwater contamination and
private wells located near the Detroit River.
-------
521
G15I
G5
P5
Government monitoring well
Private monitoring well
(WA)5
O Waste Site
72 O
41
O
69 O
42Q
WINDSOR
23
FIGURE IX-19. (Cont'd.) Sites of known or suspected groundwater contamin-
ation and private well located near the Detroit River.
-------
522
Detroit River via groundwater. Sites were ranked by the United
States Geological Survey (USGS) using the U.S.EPA'S DRASTIC
system, with additions and minor modifications. The USGS ranking
system assesses the potential impact of a site by evaluating the
hydrogeology, nature of the waste material and the distance to
the Detroit River. Table IX-9 lists the 16 highest ranked sites
of the 94 sites considered in the Detroit River area. In gener-
al, these sites are in areas of sandy, unconsolidated surficial
materials, and are located adjacent to, or near, the Detroit
River. The water table at the highest ranked sites is generally
less than 4.5 m below land surface.
i) Michigan Waste Sites
Analysis of groundwater quality from eight wells (5 observation
and 3 private) within the Michigan Detroit River discharge area
was obtained. Of these eight wells, three were located down-
gradient of 3 of the 15 top ranked waste sites: Michigan Con-
solidated-Riverside Park (PI on Figure IX-19), Pennwalt Corpora-
tion (P2) and Petro-Chem Processing (G17). Unfiltered ground-
water samples from these wells were found to contain concentra-
tions of organic and inorganic constituents suggesting ground-
water contamination, as shown below:
PI: Total volatiles 1,440 ug/L; total PAHs 287 ug/L; dissolved
barium 2,000 ug/L; total cadmium 40 ug/L; total arsenic 58
ug/L; total chromium 120 ug/L; total cobalt 160 ug/L; total
copper 660 ug/L; total lead 2,500 ug/L; total mercury 55
ug/L.
P2: Total volatiles 5.9 ug/L; total PAHs 269 ug/L; total phthal-
ates 150 ug/L; total phenolics 95 ug/L; total copper 530
ug/L; total lead 800 ug/L; total nickel 1,500 ug/L.
G17: Total PAHs 58 ug/L; total phthalates: 364 ug/L; total copper
2,500 ug/L; total lead 4,700 ug/L; dissolved barium 2,400
ug/L; dissolved beryllium 13 ug/L; total cobalt 50 ug/L;
total iron 570 ug/L; total mercury 2.2 ug/L.
Other wells located downgradient of other lower-ranked waste
sites also showed some contamination. On-site monitoring wells
at each waste site generally revealed much higher concentrations
of metal and organic contaminants. These data are provided in
the Nonpoint Source Workgroup Report (86). The contaminant con-
centrations of the analyses are based on unfiltered samples and
are not indicative of contaminant loadings to the Detroit River
from groundwater discharge. However, it is clear that ground-
water at some of these locations contain high chemical concen-
trations. This suggests that important loadings of contaminants
to the Detroit River may be occurring through contaminated
groundwater discharge. A quantitative estimate of such input
cannot be determined with the present data.
-------
523
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526
ii) Ontario Waste Sites
One Ontario waste disposal site was determined to have potential
for impact on human health and safety. This site, used by Wickes
Manufacturing Ltd., is located near the Little River and had
elevated levels of chromium and iron in the groundwater. The
waste ponds were drained in 1985 and the materials moved to a
certified disposal site in 1986. Subsequent tests indicate some
limited remaining groundwater contamination. This site is pres-
ently under investigation. Little information on other Ontario
waste disposal sites in the Detroit River area was available.
iii) Island Waste Sites
In addition to shoreline waste sites, two waste disposal sites
are located on islands in the Detroit River: Fighting Island
(Ontario) and Point Hennepin, Grosse lie (Michigan).
Fighting Island, the second largest island in the Detroit River,
has an area of approximately 3 km2. Except for its northern tip,
the entire island was used by BASF Wyandotte Corporation (North
Works) to dispose of chemical process wastes. Samples from 51
test sites on Fighting Island were collected between 1982 and
1984. Groundwater and leachate samples contained high levels of
zinc, cadmium, phenols, phthalates, and other chemicals (87).
Compared to groundwater contaminant levels at some Michigan waste
sites, the Fighting Island concentrations are low and the volume
of leachate is small, but all the leachate and groundwater will
eventually reach the Detroit River.
Point Hennepin, on Grosse lie, has an area of approximately 1
km2. This site was an industrial waste lagoon/disposal site by
BASF Wyandotte (South Works). Little is known about the type and
quantity of wastes disposed here, but other waste sites operated
by this corporation (eg., site 5, Table IX-9) contain high con-
centrations of zinc, copper, lead, chromium, mercury, and several
organic compounds including tetrachlorobutadienes and trichloro-
ethylenes. Also, large sinkholes exist on this peninsula which
may provide a connection between the surface water and ground-
water aquifers. A surface leachate sample taken on the eastern
side of the peninsula in 1983 was highly toxic in the Microtox
toxicity bioassay (88) . More detailed investigations of this
site appear warranted.
Underground Injection Wells
Pressurized injection of industrial liquid wastes has occurred in
the Detroit River watershed for many years at depths ranging from
200 m to over 1,200 m and injection pressures ranging from 580 to
1,600 psi (approximately 20 to 50 kBar). There are five classes
of injection wells regulated by U.S. law. Class I wells are
-------
527
industrial and municipal wells which discharge below the lower-
most formation containing an underground source of drinking water
(USDW). Class II injection wells are associated with oil and gas
production and liquid hydrocarbon storage. Class III wells are
special process wells used in conjunction with solution mining of
minerals. Class IV wells, which were banned in 1985, are hazard-
ous waste wells which inject into or above a USDW, and Class V
injection wells are those not fitting into any of the above cate-
gories, such as cesspools and heat exchange wells.
On the Michigan side of the Detroit River, 234 injection wells
have operated or are currently operating. Of the six Class I
wells, three are plugged and abandoned and three are currently
operating at the Detroit Coke facility. The facility disposed of
waste that contained chloride, ammonia, phenols, cyanide and
sulfide. Class II well records indicate a total of 12 wells
operating near the Detroit River, and consist of six salt water
disposal wells and six hydrocarbon storage wells. Two Class III
facilities (Pennwalt and BASF-Wyandotte) operated a total of 150
wells, of which only five are still active, and are scheduled to
be plugged and abandoned soon. Approximately 66 Class V wells
are presently operating in the Detroit River area. The impact of
these underground injection wells on the Detroit River and its
ecosystem is unknown, and warrants investigation.
It is beyond the scope of this investigation to determine the
environmental soundness of the injection well disposal method.
Historically, there is evidence for problems resulting from such
wastes. In general, there is little knowledge of the pathways
and fates of injected solutions.
4. Spills
An inventory of Michigan and Ontario spills occurring in or to
the Detroit River in 1986 is contained in Table IX-10. A variety
of chemical, oil and raw sewage spills occurred during 1986 (pre-
sumably indicative of present day spill events). Since insuf-
ficient information was available from spill reports on all spill
events, such as volume or constituents of spills, no contaminant
loading estimates were made. It is difficult to ascertain the
impact of spills to the Detroit River ecosystem relative to point
source inputs, but what is known suggests that contaminant load-
ing from spills may be important.
5. Rural Runoff and Tributary Input
Land use determines the type, quantity and quality of chemical
constituents present in tributaries which contribute approximate-
ly 117,900 million gal/year to the total Detroit River flow.
-------
528
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530
Land use in the Detroit River area is almost equally divided
between urban/residential/industrial and agriculture (5,86,89).
Forty six percent of the approximately 200,000 hectare watershed
is intensively farmed, primarily for corn and soy beans. Beef
and swine are the dominant livestock, but dairy cattle are also
raised. Fertilizer and manure have the potential to be a major
nitrogen and phosphorus source to the Detroit River since ap-
proximately 17,100 tons per year (11,355 in Ontario and 5,755 in
Michigan) are applied within the Detroit River watershed. This
could be substantially reduced, since phosphorus and fertilizer
application rates are generally more than twice the required
amount in these areas, and only 8% of the Michigan and 10 to 20%
of the Ontario Detroit River watershed farms use recommended
agricultural soil and water conservation practices (5,86).
Michigan applies about 37,000 kg and Ontario applies about 53,000
kg of pesticides annually, including atrazine, alachlor, cyan-
azine and metolachlor. Reports indicate that 60% of the Detroit
River watershed has a high potential for pesticide transport to
the surface and groundwater systems. Instantaneous pesticide
loadings were calculated for all Ontario tributaries for total
atrazine, lindane, and p'p-DDE. Loadings were estimated at 33
ug/sec, 13.4 ug/sec and 4.4 ug/sec, respectively (34).
Tributary contaminant loadings were determined for the Ecorse and
Rouge'rivers in Michigan, and Turkey Creek and Little and Canard
rivers in Ontario. Selected chemical constituents were measured
every 12 hours for two 1 week periods during 1986. Concentra-
tions multiplied by tributary flow determined chemical mass load-
ings to the Detroit River. Calculated contaminant loadings for
these tributaries are shown in Table IX-11 (5,30). Tributary
loadings generally account for only a minor portion of that con-
tributed by point sources. However, for some parameters, tribu-
tary loadings (when expressed as kg/d), approach some point
source loadings.
6. Atmospheric Deposition
No data were obtained for direct atmospheric deposition of con-
taminants to the Detroit River by this study. Contaminant load-
ings from indirect atmospheric deposition to the watershed are
reflected in tributary contributions. Air concentrations of
selected constituents for Wayne County are shown in Table IX-12,
and sampling locations are shown in Figure IX-20. The highest
concentrations of these constituents are near Zug Island. Areas
located 2 to 3 km north of Zug Island generally had the lowest
concentrations. Total suspended particulates exceeded the pri-
mary annual geometric mean of 75 ug/m3 at station 5 just north of
Zug Island during the 1980 to 1986 period. Cadmium and chromium
also exceeded the primary annual geometric mean at all three
stations monitored.
-------
531
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533
HARPER WOODS
GROSSE POINT WOODS
ROSSE POINT
SHORES
GROSSE POINT FARMS
£RC?SSE POINT
GROSSE POINT PARK
WINDSOR, CANADA
Air Quality Monitoring Station
FIGURE IX-20. Wayne County air quality monitoring network.
-------
534
7. Integrated Contaminant Input
The total measured loadings of UGLCCS parameters from all point
source facilities were added to the combined measured loadings of
stormwater, combined sewer overflows and tributary loadings to
determine the total measured loading of each UGLCCS parameter
discharged to the Detroit River. These loadings and their re-
spective percentages by various categories are shown in Tables
IX-13 and 14.
Michigan's point sources contribute 49% or more of the measured
ammonia, total phosphorus, oil and grease, cadmium, chromium,
cobalt, iron, nickel, zinc, cyanide, total phenols, HCB, PCBs and
PAHs. Ontario point sources contributed 64% of the measured
chlorides. Michigan CSOs contributed a substantial proportion of
total phosphorus, suspended solids, oil and grease, cadmium,
chromium, copper, lead and mercury loadings as of 1979. There
are no data on contaminant loadings from Michigan CSOs more
recent than 1979.
An attempt was made to determine changes in concentrations of
UGLCCS parameters between the Detroit River head and mouth during
the Detroit River System Mass Balance Survey, described in a
later section. Most parameters measured had higher concentra-
tions at the mouth than the head, indicating input of these
materials along the river. Measured point sources, tributaries
and CSO loadings acc'ounted for 50% or more of these increases
(30). These data suggest that other sources, possibly including*
atmospheric deposition, direct shoreline runoff, groundwater
discharge, spills and sediments may be contributing to increases
in these chemical constituents between Lake St. Clair and Lake
Erie. Uncertainty in the measurements resulting from limited
sampling may also play a part. These data also suggest that the
Detroit River corridor is a source for waterborne phosphorus,
copper, zinc, suspended solids, chloride and PCB, but is a sink
for waterborne mercury, nickel, iron and cadmium. These latter
metals may be adsorbing or chemically bonding to particulate
matter which settles in Detroit River depositional zones, some
portion of these substances probably settle out, but during this
study their export exceeded the measured .input.
-------
535
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-------
537
D. DATA QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL
1. Limitations
A total of 13 interlaboratory performance evaluation studies were
conducted for the UGLCC Project. All laboratories supplying
analytical data participated in at least one of these round-robin
studies. The parameters tested in the interlaboratory studies
were: PCBs, PAHs, organochlorine pesticides, chlorinated hydro-
carbons, total phenol, chlorophenols, trace metals, major ions,
nutrients, and cyanide (see Chapter IV).
2. General Observations
The Michigan Department of Natural Resources laboratory results
for the UGLCC studies were compared with similar effluent and
surface water samples collected in years in other river systems.
Point sources were evaluated based on field blanks replicates,
reagent blanks, duplicates, sample spikes, annual laboratory
precision and accuracy summaries and UGLCCS interlaboratory com-
parisons (round robin). Field blanks contained only a few con-
stituents and did not impact loadings estimates. Field repli-
cates, describing the relative system variation, varied by less
than 20% for all parameters with three or more field replicates.
Accuracy, described as the percent recovery, was 80 to 100% for
most organic compounds, and 70 to 130% for most conventional
compounds. Precision control (duplicate analyses) showed recov-
eries of 98 to 100% with a mean of 99%.
The U.S.EPA Large Lakes Research Station Laboratory, also did
quality control analysis for PCBs and metals. For PCBs, average
blank concentrations were substantially less than the concentra-
tions observed in the samples. The duplicate analyses were
within 17%. Additionally, the analyses of the 111 prepared labo-
ratory standards were within 20% of the known concentration.
Based on this summary, the PCB data are considered adequate. For
metals, blanks were all less than the river or point source
samples. Duplicate analyses were within 16%. Replicate analyses
were within 27%. Reference standards were within 16% of known
concentration except for chrome which was within 30%. Based on
this information, the point source workgroup concluded the data
were adequate and within the confines of the quality control-
quality assurance management plan for the UGLCCS.
-------
538
E. MODELING AND MASS BALANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Mass balance and process oriented models were developed for the
Detroit River. These are identified in Chapter V along with an
explanation of mass balance and process modeling.
1. Mass Balance Models
Mass balance models permit the evaluation of whole rivers or
river segments as a source or sink of measured contaminants.
Mass balance studies were conducted for the entire Detroit River
system and a section of the lower Detroit River, the Trenton
Channel. These studies represent snapshots of contaminant con-
ditions. Figure IX-21 shows the relative importance of loads in
the Detroit Systems Mass Balance (DRSMB) including Michigan and
Ontario tributaries and the Detroit WWTP (90). Figure IX-22
shows the same relationship for the Trenton Channel Mass Balance
(TCMB) but also includes some tributaries and point sources. The
arrow shaft width indicates the importance of the average con-
taminant load or loss. Estimates marked with a *?' denote data
unavailability. At the bottom is a mass balance interpretation
with statistical conclusions. Diagrams for each contaminant
during the DRSMB periods and diagrams for each contaminant during
the TCMB periods can be' compared directly. Missing data for the
Detroit River System Mass Balance include loadings from the
Canard River, all direct point sources except the City of Detroit
WWTP, nonpoint sources including CSOs, storm water, atmospheric
deposition, groundwater, sediment fluxes, and contaminants as-
sociated with floating aquatic macrophytes. Missing data for the
Trenton Channel Mass Balance include all of the above except
direct point source discharges within the Trenton Channel.
Errors in these calculations may be due to 1) insufficient temp-
oral or spatial sampling, or 2) analytical analysis. Concentra-
tions less than the analytical detection level are particularly
difficult to incorporate into modeling efforts. In the Detroit
River Systems Mass Balance (30) and Trenton Channel Mass Balance
(31), these errors were minimized by using only data generated by
the U.S.EPA Large Lakes Research Station (LLRS) for the Detroit
River, the tributaries and point sources, and City of Detroit
WWTP daily monitoring data for the precise days of each survey.
The method of managing values at less than detection is called
the maximum likelihood method of singly censored data and has
been applied to all U.S.EPA-LLRS results.
-------
539
1 - SUSPENDED SOLIDS (mtld)
Upstream input
4847
us.
Rouge R. 5.U
WWTP
Ecorse R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=1297
(21%)
6292
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(1445 MT/d) of suspended solids.
SMB 2. SUSPENDED SOLIDS (mt/d>
Upstream input
46
SIS.
CANADA
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
32.0.
27.7,
-0 r
i»»»^«i«»»ww««i«
Detroit
River
^^^^^^M^HBBBBMMI^H
1.0
0.5
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=1971
(30%)
6673
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(2033 MT/D) of suspended solids.
SMB 1 ZINC. TOTAL
Upstream input
689
US.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
478
319.
1.6
Detroit
River
CANADA.
^ Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=347
(19%)
1840
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(1151 Kg/d)ofzinc.
SMB2 ZINC. TOTAL
Upstream input
644
US.
Rouge R. 70-3i
WWTP
Ecorse R.
~0
Detroit
River
CANADA
1.4
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=300
(30%)
1016
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(372 Kg/d) of zinc.
FIGURE IX-21- Detroit River mass balance results.
-------
540
NICKEL. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
548
US.
Rouge R.
CANADA
49
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
deficit = 137
(-21%)
644
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
nickel (96 Kg/d) although accumulation may
be occuring.
SMB2 NICKEL. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
502
IIS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
6.5
~0
Detroit
River
CANADA
Little R.
0.2
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=236.2
(32%)
747
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(245 Kg/d) of nickel.
SMB1 PCB. TOTAL (Ke/d)
Upstream input
0.77
IIS.
Rouge R.
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
^^^^H apparent
^^^H deficlt=.29
^^^^^ (.18%)
1.63
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
PCB (.86 Kg/d) although accumulation
may be occuring.
SMB2 PCB. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
.85
US.
Rouge R.
WWTP
-'corse R.
.08
~0
Detroit
River
CANADA
~0
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=.61
(30%)
2.09
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(1.24 Kg/d) of PCB.
FIGURE IX-21. (Cont'd.) Detroit River mass balance results.
-------
541
LEAD. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
79.7
SiS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
93.9
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
deficit = 173.6
(-185%)
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
lead (14.2 Kg/d) although accumulation
may be occuring.
SMB2 LEAD. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
58.0
WWTP
Ecorse R. 0.1
CANADA
*-°-JL Little R.
°- Turkey C.
apparent
deficit=220.7
(-238%)
92.6
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(34.6 Kg/d) of lead although accumulation
may be occuring.
SMR1 MERCURY. TOTAL (Kdd)
Upstream input
4.7
'Jlfi.
Ecorse R.
Turkey C.
apparent
deficitrO.5
(-10%)
4.8
Downstream output
Area is not a statistically significant source
of mercury; accumulation may be occuring.
SMB2 MERCURY. TOTAL (Kg/d>
Upstream input
7.1
OS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
Detroit
River
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplusal.1
(13%)
8.7
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(1.6 Kg/d) of mercury.
FIGURE IX-21. (Cont'd.) Detroit River mass balance results.
-------
542
SMB1 COPPER. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
723
US.
Rouge R.
87.1
WWTP
Ecorse R.
0.3
Detroit
River
CANADA
-M Little R.
0.1
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=88.9
(-10%)
920
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
copper (197 Kg/d).
SMB2 COPPER. TOTAL (Kg/d)
Upstream input
472
ILS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
52.2
Ecorse R.
~0
Detroit
River
~0
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=130
(20%)
663
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(191 Kg/d) of copper.
SIS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
SMRl HCB (Kg/d)
Upstream input
.11
SMB2 HCB
~0
Detroit
River
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus:.009
(7.5%)
.12
Downstream output
Area is a not a statistically significant
source of HCB.
SIS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
Upstream input
0.26
Detroit
River
~0
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplussO
(0%)
0.26
Downstream output
Area is a not a statistically significant
source of HCB.
FIGURE IX-21. (Cont'd.) Detroit River mass balance results.
-------
543
SMB1 CADMIUM. TOTAL
Upstream input
11.1
US.
5.9
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
CANADA
Little R.
~0
Turkey C.
apparent
-deficit = 12.8
(-59%)
21.7
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
cadmium (10.6 Kg/d), although accumulation
may be occuring.
SMB2 CADMIUM. TOTAL (Kg/dl
Upstream input
8.9
~0
CANADA
Little R.
~0
Turkey C.
apparent
deficit = 8.3
(-58%)
14.3
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
cadmium (5.4 Kg/d) although accumulation
may be occuring.
SMBl CHLORIDE. FILTERED (mt/d)
Upstream input
3784
US.
Rouge R. 201»
WWTP
Ecorse R.
Detroit
River
CANADA
Little R.
1.7
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=712
(15%)
4713
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source of
chloride (929 MT/d).
SMB2 CHLORIDE. FILTERED (mtfd)
Upstream input
3872
IIS.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
71
Detroit
River
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=746
(15.9%)
4695
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(823 MT/d) of chloride.
FIGURE IX-21. (Cont'd.) Detroit River mass balance results.
-------
544
PHOSPHORUS. TOTAL (mtJd)
Upstream input
4.9
SLS.
Rouge R. .3 ^
WWTP
Ecorse R. ~0
Detroit
River
~0
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus =1.4
(16%)
8.9
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(4 MT/d) of total phosphorus.
SMB2 PHOSPHORUS. TOTAL (mt/d)
Upstream input
4.4
y_S.
Rouge R. 0.2
WWTP
Ecorse R.
~0
Detroit
River
~0
CANADA
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=0.6
(9%)
6.5
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(2.1 MT/d) of total phosphorus.
SMB1 SILICA .FILTERED (mtJd)
Upstream input
565
US.
Rouge R.
WWTP
Ecorse R.
.6
.37.
Detroit
River
CANADA
.35
.13
Little R.
Turkey C.
apparent
deficit=-43.5
(-8.%)
530
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant sink
(35 MT/d) of silica.
SMB2 SILICA. FILTERED (mtJd)
Upstream input
672
U_£
Rouge R. 3-° .
WWTP 2
Ecorse R. -^
Detroit
River
,04
Turkey C.
apparent
surplus=21
(3.0%)
696
Downstream output
Area is a statistically significant source
(24 MT/d) of silica.
FIGURE IX-21. (Cont'd.) Detroit River mass balance results.
-------
545
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Suspended Solids (MT/d)
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
Suspended Solids (MT/d)
832
Upstream
input
Point
sources
1660
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus=75
(82)
D
-apparent
deficit-31
downstream - upstream = 60 MT/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of TSS.
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus=196
(103)
apparent
deficit=78
1798
downstream - upstream =138 MT/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of TSS.
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Zinc, Total (Kg/d)
634.3
Upstream
input
134.6
Point
sources 5
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus=208 7
(218)
apparent
deficit=255 2
738
downstream - upstream =94.7 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of zinc although the C-A area is a
significant source and the D-C area is a
significant sink
TRENTOH CHANNEL SURVEY III
Zinc, Total (Kg/d)
1073
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus=141.6
(108)
apparent
deficit=330 7
1024
downstream - upstream = 49 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of zinc although the C-A area is
a signifcant source.
FIGURE IX-22. Trenton Channel mass balance results.
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546
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Lead, Total (Kg/d)
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
Lead, Total (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
595
170
apparent
C surplus=8.8
(127.)
apparent
deficit=13
60.5
downstream - upstream =1.0 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of lead although the C-A area is a
significant source.
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
134
apparent
C surplus=29.3
(I4S)
apparent
deficit=75 3
downstream - upstream = 36 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of lead although the C-A area is
a significant source.
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Mercury, Total (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
apparent
C deficit=.02
apparent
deficit=0 1
downstream - upstream = 0.1 Kg/d
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
Mercury, Total (Kg/d)
1.64
Upstream
input
Point
sources
.04
.01
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus= 02
apparent
deficil= 04
1.63
downstream - upstream = .01 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of mercury
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of mercury.
FIGURE IX-22. (Cont'd.) Trenton Channel mass balance results.
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547
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Cadmium, Total (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
3.9
Point
sources
Downstream
output
85
101
9.6
apparent
C deficit=2 3
D
apparent
deficit^ 8
downstream - upstream =1.1 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of cadmium.
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
Cadmium, Total (Kg/d)
93
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
10.1
apparent
C surplus=4
(502)
apparent
deficit=8 4
downstream - upstream = 0.8 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of cadmium although C-A area is
a significant source.
TREHTOH CHANNEL SURVEY II
Chloride, Filtered (MT/d)
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
Chloride, Filtered (MT/d)
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
1307
apparent
C surplus=I I 7
(18)
apparent
deficit=42 0
1321
downstream - upstream =14 MT/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of chloride although the C-A area
is a significant source
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
1198
1264
apparent
C surplus=24.0
(2%)
D
apparent
deficit=45 0
1222
downstream - upstream =24 MT/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of chloride.
FIGURE IX-22. (Cont'd.) Trenton Channel mass balance results.
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548
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Nickel, Total (Kg/d)
TREHTOH CHANNEL SURYEY III
Nickel, Total (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
4.6
Point
sources
Downstream
output
2588
265.5
apparent
C surplus=2
D
-apparent
deficit=23 2
243.1
downstream - upstream =157 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of nickel.
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
334.4
apparent
C surplus=15 5
(4%)
apparent
deficit=37 9
317.7
downstream - upstream = 16.7 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of nickel.
TRENTON CHANNEL SURYEY II
Total PCB's(Kg/d)
TRENTOH CHANNEL SURYEY III
Total PCB's (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
Point
sources
02
~0
Downstream
output
1 48
I
1.29
1.54
apparent
C deficit=0.21
apparent
surplus= 25
downstream - upstream = .06 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of PCS
Upstream
input
.06
Point
sources
Downstream
output
745
6.42
apparent
C deficit=1.09
apparent
"deficit=.57
5.85
downstream - upstream =1 6 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of PCB.
FIGURE IX-22. (Cont'd.) Trenton Channel mass balance results.
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549
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Copper, Total (Kg/d)
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
Copper, Total (Kg/d)
1845
2131
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus=105 7
(357.)
apparent
deficit=107 5
194.3
downstream - upstream =9.8 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of copper. Significant
accumulation occured in the D-C area.
Upstream
input
Point
sources
7.5.
0.9
Downstream
output
apparent
deficit=39 4
apparent
deficit=88 3
172.6
downstream - upstream =40 5 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of copper. Significant
accumulation occured in the D-C area.
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
HCB (Kg/d)
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY III
HCB (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
~0
Point
sources
Downstream
output
.043
apparent
C deficit=0
apparent
deficit=.02
downstream - upstream =.02 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of HCB.
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
apparent
C surplus3.0 I
(173)
apparent
deficit= 007
downstream - upstream = .01 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of HCB although the C-A area is a
s ig i n if icant source.
FIGURE IX-22. (Cont'd.) Trenton Channel mass balance results.
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550
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Phosphorus, Total (Kg/d)
TRENTOH CHANNEL SURVEY III
Phosphorus, Total (Kg/d)
Upstream
input
263
Point
sources
19
Downstream
output
3853
3953
apparent
C deficit=l63
.apparent
deficit=!84
3788
downstream - upstream = 65 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of phosphorus.
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
3685
4061
apparent
C surplus=424
(107.)
D
-apparent
deficit=443
downstream - upstream = 376 Kg/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of phosphorus although the C-A
area is a significant source.
TRENTON CHAHHEL SURVEY III
Silica, Filtered (MT/d)
TRENTON CHANNEL SURVEY II
Silica, Filtered (MT/d)
207
Upstream
input
32
Point
sources
Downstream
output
184
208
apparent
C deficit=0.2
apparent
deficit=2.4
downstream - upstream = 1.0 M l~/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of silica
Upstream
input
Point
sources
Downstream
output
185
apparent
C surplus=l 2
(0.6%)
apparent
deficit=3 3
downstream - upstream = 1.0 MT/d
Entire area is not a statistically significant
source of silica.
FIGURE IX-22. (Cont'd.) Trenton Channel mass balance results.
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551
Detroit River System Mass Balance 1 and 2
The Detroit River System Mass Balance studies 1 and 2 were con-
ducted between April 21 to 29, 1986, and July 25 to August 5,
1986, respectively (30). Sampling transects were located at the
head of the Detroit River at Peach Island and the mouth of the
Detroit River just downstream of the Grosse lie bridge (see
Figure IX-3). The results of these analyses indicate that the
Detroit River is statistically significant source of several
heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn) total phosphorus and PCBs.
These data also suggest that some contaminants may be continuing
to accumulate in the sediments.
Trenton Channel Mass Balance
The Trenton Channel Mass Balance II and III were conducted be-
tween May 6 and 7, 1986, and August 26-27, 1986 (31). Results of
these analyses are shown in Figure IX-22. Letters on the right
hand side of the diagrams refer to the transects indicated in
Figure IX-23. These data suggest that lead and zinc enter the
Trenton Channel in significant amounts. The data also suggest
that cadmium and copper may also enter the Trenton Channel in
significant amounts between certain transects. During the TCMB
II, zinc was a source in segment A-C and a sink in segment C-D
indicating rapid loss of zinc from the water column, probably to
the sediments.
2. Process Modeling
Process oriented models investigate the relative importance of
the processes controlling the simulated system to identify needed
field measurements and experimental studies. Process models
developed for the Detroit River range from physical water move-
ment models to temporal and spatially complex contaminant fate
and behaviour models. Verification is difficult without the
necessary data, but these models can be used to speculate upon
the contaminant fate and organism exposure. Process model output
is uncertain because loading information, boundary conditions,
initial conditions, and parameter estimates are uncertain. Un-
certainty analyses were not completed for these data. Sensiti-
vity analysis helped to identify some parameters and processes
needing further research to improve contaminant fate models.
Detroit River, Detroit WWTP Plume Model
A two dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality model of the
Detroit River was developed to simulate the impact of the Detroit
WWTP effluent on water quality (28) . The model contains two
independent finite elements, a hydrodynamic model which predicts
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552
Transect A
WYANDOTTE
Penwalt Chemical
Wayne County Wyandotte WWTP
Monguagon Creek
McLouth Steel Corp.
TRENTON
Crysler Corp.
Trenton Motor Plant
Trenton WWTP
Wayne County
Trenton WWTP"
Monsanto Chemical Co.
Detroit Edison
Transect D
FIGURE IX-23. Major point source dischargers and Trenton Channel mass
balance sampling transects, Detroit River (1986).
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553
the two dimensional, flow field and river water concentrations and
a finite element transport and kinetic model.
The two dimensional model was used because the river is not
laterally mixed, has rapidly changing bottom geometry, and flow
is divided by islands. The NELEUS TM model simulates and asses-
ses environmental impacts under varied ambient and effluent con-
ditions including 1) two dimensional velocity flow fields; 2)
free surface elevations; and 3) flow distribution in individual
panels and branches. The contaminant transport component simu-
lates the temporal and two dimensional contaminant concentration
distribution using the predicted flow field.
This model was validated with intensive water quality surveys and
could provide a basis for evaluating water quality issues from
upstream of the Detroit WWTP discharge downstream to the Trenton
Channel. The NELEUS TM contaminant transport model was calibrat-
ed and verified using survey data from both dye and water quality
surveys. Model coefficients were developed for longitudinal and
lateral diffusion partitioning coefficients describing the dis-
tribution of contaminants between particulates and dissolved
fractions, characteristic suspended solids concentrations, set-
tling velocities and decay rates for each contaminant.
Eight effluent management scenarios were chosen by the Detroit
WWTP for model evaluation of environmental fate. Results indi-
cate incremental impacts of Detroit WWTP effluent on the Detroit
River and the water quality responses to various management al-
ternatives. Although the model made these predictions, unfor-
tunately the results were not compared to Michigan Rule 57(2)
allowable levels. Mercury and PCS concentrations would both
exceed these levels at all points in the river. In addition, the
size of the mixing zone for the Detroit WWTP is currently under
review. A reduction in its size will alter the interpretation of
model conclusions.
Trenton Channel Transport Model
A transport model is being developed and calibrated for the
Trenton Channel using specific conductance as a tracer for
toxics. When completed, it will calculate the probability dis-
tribution of toxicity in water due to sediment resuspension. The
model requires specific locations of toxic sediments, time bet-
ween resuspension events, magnitude of sediment resuspension and
toxicity associated with resuspended materials.
A hypothetical application was developed to predict water column
toxicity resulting from sediment resuspension in the Trenton
Channel near Monguagon Creek. Introduced toxicity was assumed to
remain in the water with no settling occurring. The time between
resuspension events were assumed to follow a Poisson distribu-
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554
tion. During resuspension, both porewater and suspended solids
are scoured into the water column. Resuspension magnitude was
assumed to be a random variable described by a log-normal dis-
tribution with a median resuspension volume of 4,300 cubic meters
of bed material (the top 3 cm).
Toxic unit concentrations were assigned to the resuspension
volume. The equivalent mass input of toxicity to the water
column was the product of a toxic unit concentration and the
resuspension volume. A single sediment concentration determined
from the dose response analyses of bioassays from the site were
used to describe the site.
Model results for this hypothetical application indicate that
sediment resuspension below Monguagon Creek will increase water
column toxicity along the western shore of the channel. Toxicity
increased as the time between events decreased or as the sediment
toxicity increased. An approximately 1:1 relationship existed
between sediment toxicity and water column toxicity. Toxicity
ranged over several orders of magnitude as a consequence of the
large resuspension variability. Resuspension frequency had the
largest impact on the aquatic toxicity.
The model predicted a slight overall decline in toxicity between
Monguagon Creek and the end of the modeled segment near the bot-
tom of the Trenton Channel.
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555
F. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS FOR REMEDIAL PROGRAMS
By evaluating the specific concerns in the Detroit River identi-
fied by this survey, in light of the contaminant input provided
by point and nonpoint sources, an overall approach to addressing
contaminant inputs can be derived. Remedial programs are to be
developed in areas that fail to meet the general or specific
objectives of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978, as
amended (1987), where such failure has caused or is likely to
cause a change in the chemical, physical or biological integrity
of the Great Lakes. The general goals and objectives for remedi-
ation of the Detroit River and contaminant sources are discussed
below. Specific recommendations are provided in Section H.
1. Water Quality
Water quality in the Detroit River, as determined by this study,
is generally better than applicable water quality guidelines for
most parameters measured. However, there are some exceptions.
PCB concentrations exceeded various water quality guidelines
throughout the river. Homologue analysis suggests that an active
source of PCB exists in the river. Chlor'obenzene concentrations
in the Detroit River are below the Ontario water quality objec-
tive for hexachlorobenzene. However, concentrations of chloro-
benzenes at the mouth of the Rouge River exceed this and other
guidelines for HCB. A substantial increase in PAH concentration
from the head of the Detroit River to the mouth, especially along
the Michigan shoreline, indicates an input source. No appropri-
ate ambient water quality guideline exists for total PAHs. Sever-
al metals exceeded water quality guidelines throughout, or at
specific locations, in the Detroit River, specifically mercury,
lead and cadmium.
Objective 1: Reduction, with the goal of virtual elimination,
of industrial and municipal point source inputs of
contaminants to the Detroit River which are resul-
ting in exceedences of ambient water quality
guidelines.
Objective 2: Development of ambient water quality guidelines
for contaminants without such guidelines, which
are present in the Detroit River water.
Tributaries of the Detroit River exceeded applicable water qual-
ity guidelines for several parameters: the Rouge River (total
cadmium, total phosphorus, total zinc, total mercury), the Canard
River (total cadmium, total phosphorus, total mercury, total
lead), Turkey Creek (total cadmium, total phosphorus, total lead,
total mercury, chlorides), the Little River (total cadmium, total
phosphorus, total lead, total mercury, total zinc) and the Ecorse
River (total phosphorus, total mercury). These tributaries
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556
provide inputs of these parameters approaching that provided by
point sources. Of all Detroit River tributaries, the Rouge River
provides the largest loading of most contaminants.
Objective 3: Identification of contaminant input sources to
tributaries of the Detroit River, and reduction,
with the goal of virtual elimination, of such
inputs.
Contaminants in the Detroit River may have occurred, in part,
through the discharge of groundwater contaminated by waste dis-
posal sites or underground injection wells. Actual loadings of
contaminants from groundwater were not obtained. However, con-
firmed or possible contamination sites within the Detroit River
groundwater discharge areas were identified. The information was
inadequate to assess the impact of the site on the Detroit River.
Objective 4: Verification of groundwater contamination from
waste sites or underground injection wells which
threaten the ecosystem quality of the Detroit
River, and removal or control of wastes and re-
sulting contaminated groundwater.
Detroit WWTP combined sewer overflows (CSOs) were a major con-
tributor (>10%) of PCBs, total mercury, oil and grease, total
cadmium, total chromium, total lead, total copper and total phos-
phorus to the Detroit River. About 55% of the CSOs discharge
directly into the Detroit River and about 40% discharge to the
Rouge River.
Objective 5: Eliminate the impact of City of Detroit CSOs on
water quality of the Detroit River and its tribu-
taries .
Limited information on Windsor urban runoff to the Detroit River
suggests that urban runoff (stormwater) may be a source of cer-
tain contaminants. While stormwater runoff from many municipal-
ities in and around Detroit is treated at the Detroit WWTP
through its combined sewer system, other municipalities (Wyan-
dotte, Trenton and Riverview) have numerous stormwater discharges
to the Detroit River or its tributaries.
Objective 6: Determine the significance of Michigan urban run-
off through monitoring and sampling. Remedial or
management action may be required.
Numerous spills of chemicals, oil and raw sewage to the Detroit
River or its tributaries were reported during 1986, which is
presumably representative of present day spill incidents. Penn-
walt Corporation experienced several chemical spills during 1986;
Wickes Manufacturing experienced a spill of nickel salts and
chromic acid; large volumes of raw sewage were spilled from
-------
557
Michigan, as well. Information regarding spills is inadequate
and incomplete, providing no information on spill volume or con-
stituents, making impact assessment difficult.
Objective 7: Ensure that accurate and complete spill incident
reports are maintained at the appropriate agen-
cies, to allow proper remediation, enforcement and
preventive measures to be taken.
To protect human health, there are periodic beach closings along
the Detroit River, due to elevated bacterial concentrations.
Standards and guidelines for fecal coliform bacteria concentra-
tions have been exceeded in the Detroit River.
Objective 8: Ensure that the Detroit River water is of high
quality to permit total body contact without
deleterious human health impacts.
2. Sediments
Detroit River sediments, especially on the Michigan side and
particularly in the Trenton Channel, contain elevated concentra-
tions of several contaminants. Concentrations of PCBs, cyanide,
oil and grease, cadmium, zinc, mercury, lead, copper, nickel,
iron, chromium, arsenic, manganese, total phosphorus and nitrogen
exceed dredging guidelines at various river locations. Sediments
also contain concentrations of contaminants, such as total phen-
ols and total PAHs, for which no guidelines exist. Other chemi-
cals, such as pesticides, phthalates and volatile chemicals, were
also found.
Objective 9: Reduction, with virtual elimination as a goal, of
industrial and municipal point source inputs of
contaminants resulting in sediment contaminant
concentrations exceeding dredging guidelines.
Objective 10: Reduction, with virtual elimination as a goal, of
nonpoint sources of contaminants (tributaries,
urban runoff, waste sites, CSOs, spills) resulting
in sediment concentrations exceeding dredging
guidelines.
Objective 11: Determination of the areal and vertical extent of
seriously contaminated sediments, to permit class-
ification and prioritization of sediment remedia-
tion.
Objective 12: Development of sediment criteria based on aquatic
life health effects and other pertinent parameters
for contaminants found in the Detroit River which
do not currently have such guidelines.
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558
Certain Detroit River sediments, sediment porewater and near-
bottom water were toxic to benthic and/or pelagic organisms.
Nearshore Trenton Channel sediment porewater was toxic in bac-
terial luminescence assays. Sediment extracts were mutagenic in
the Ames test, particularly those from Trenton Channel and the
lower river, near Lake Erie. Comparable toxicity was demonstra-
ted in Daphnia pulicaria feeding studies, Daphnia magna acute
toxicity tests, Ceriodaphnia reproduction assays, Chironomus
tentans growth tests, and others. Studies on the effect of
Detroit River sediments and sediment porewater on feeding rates
of larval channel catfish and on toxicity to rainbow trout eggs
confirms sediment toxicity to fish species, as well. The great-
est degree of toxicity was invariably found in Trenton Channel
sediments.
Objective 13: Eliminate sediments in the Trenton Channel and
elsewhere in the Detroit River which are toxic to
benthic and pelagic organisms. Work presently
taking place to determine the specific reasons for
degradation and toxicity to benthic organisms
should be supported.
Contaminated Detroit River dredged materials require disposal in
confined disposal facilities and, in some cases, hazardous waste
landfills. Costs for such disposal are high, and may result in
future restrictions on recreational and other uses of the Detroit
River. .
Objective 14: Anticipate future dredging rates through planning
and prioritization, and identify potential dis-
posal sites.
3. Biota and Habitat
There is currently a Michigan consumption advisory for carp due
to elevated body burdens of PCBs. OMOE has also issued a fish
consumption advisory for certain sizes of rock bass, freshwater
drum, and walleye for mercury, and carp for PCBs. PCBs were
found in young-of-the-year spottail shiners at highest concentra-
tions in the lower, western reach of the river (Trenton Channel
and below) and near Grassy Island (by the Ecorse River), indicat-
ing localized Michigan inputs.
Objective 15: Reduction of contaminant concentrations in Detroit
River fish tissue to eliminate all fish consump-
tion advisories.
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559
Objective 16: Reduction, with the goal of virtual elimination,
of industrial and municipal point sources of con-
taminants to the Detroit River which are bioac-
cumulative in aquatic biota, and have or may
result in fish consumption advisories.
Objective 17: Elimination of nonpoint sources of PCS, mercury
and other persistent, bioaccumulative compounds to
the Detroit River which have or may result in fish
consumption advisories.
Caged and native clams in the Detroit River contained elevated
concentrations of several contaminants: PAHs, HCB, DCS, lead and
cadmium. No consumption advisories or other guidelines exist for
these chemicals in aquatic biota tissue, except for lead
(Ontario). Although Detroit River clams are not a common food
source for humans, they are for certain wildlife.
Objective 18: Determination of the importance of clams as a
wildlife food source and the impact of contamin-
ants contained in clam tissue on wildlife health.
Serious impacts to waterfowl, wildlife and fish, and their habi-
tats, have occurred in the Detroit River. Waterfowl, some tern
species, and their eggs contain high concentrations of persistent
compounds (PCB, DDT and other organochlorine compounds), affect-
ing organism health, reproduction and .survival. Oral/dermal
tumors and liver tumors are present in brown bullhead, walleye,
white sucker and other species in the lower Detroit River.
Objective 19: Identification of the chemicals responsible for
such impacts on fish, wildlife and aquatic life,
and the virtual elimination of point and nonpoint
source inputs of these contaminants.
Objective 20: Development of consumption advisories for water-
fowl and wildlife to protect human consumers of
these organisms.
Bulkheading and/or backfilling of wetlands, littoral zones,
bayous and small embayments in the Detroit River, especially in
the Trenton Channel, have resulted in extensive losses of spawn-
ing grounds and nursery areas for desirable fish, and has preven-
ted use by waterfowl, aquatic mammals and other aquatic organ-
isms. The fish community has changed over time resulting in
losses of coldwater species. Channel dredging near the turn of
the century destroyed whitefish spawning habitat near the mouth
of the Ecorse River. In addition to providing habitat, wetlands
also serve to remove contaminants by natural filtering.
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560
Objective 21: Preservation and enhancement of existing fish and
wildlife habitats, and development of new habi-
tats. Maintenance of the Wyandotte National Wild-
life Refuge and protection of Grassy Island need
to be enhanced to encourage wildlife, especially
waterfowl.
4. Other Issues
The contribution made by atmospheric deposition of contaminants
to the Detroit River system was not examined by this study.
Certain contaminants affecting the Detroit River system may be
contributed, in part, through atmospheric deposition, such as
lead (auto exhaust) and cadmium (steel industries). Loadings of
these contaminants were often relatively high for rural and urban
runoff, suggesting a diffuse source.
Objective 22: Determine the significance of atmospheric depo-
sition as a contaminant input mechanism in the
Detroit River system, identification of contamin-
ant origins and reduction of such input to its
lowest achievable level.
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561
G. ADEQUACY OF EXISTING PROGRAMS AND REMEDIAL OPTIONS
1. Projection of Ecosystem Quality Based on Present Control
Programs
Trend Analysis
The general media quality and aesthetics of the Detroit River
have improved over recent years. However, a number of particular
concerns remain.
Generally, water in the Detroit River is of a higher quality than
in the recent past. However, in the present survey, concentra-
tions of a number of contaminants and conventional pollutants
increased from the head to the mouth of the Detroit River, al-
though the statistical significance of these increases is not
known. Other conventional water quality parameters, including
ammonia and phenols, were found to have declining trends. Am-
monia concentrations have decreased by approximately 50% between
1969 and 1981. Data on chloride concentration in the river indi-
cate that although sources still exist on both sides, especially
in the lower river, concentrations and loadings have declined
from 1969 to 1981 (30).
Sediment contamination in the Detroit River is continuous along
the Michigan shoreline and appears to be localized near known
sources along the Ontario shoreline (39). Trend data from 1970
to 1980 indicate levels of mercury in sediments have decreased,
in part a result of improvements in industrial treatment facili-
ties (e.g. replacement of mercury cells by diaphragm cells at
chlor-alkali plants at Wyandotte) (39). Results of two sediment
studies indicated that mercury contamination is higher in sur-
ficial sediments than in the deeper layers, suggesting that there
may still be active sources (76). Significant increases in sedi-
ment levels of cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc
were noted near the mouth of the Rouge River from 1970 to 1980,
suggesting recent inputs.
Data on contaminant levels in fish from the Detroit River is
insufficient to determine trends for many chemicals; however,
some research has been done with young-of-the-year spottail
shiners, which are sensitive biomonitors for organochlorine com-
pounds. High PCB residue accumulations were found in spottail
shiners along the Michigan shoreline in the lower Detroit River,
suggesting the continuing presence of inputs of biologically
available PCBs to the river. DDT residues were found, but con-
sisted of metabolites only, indicating that use restrictions have
effectively reduced DDT inputs to the river. Chlordane residues
were elevated in all spottail shiner samples from urban areas
compared to rural collections (45).
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562
Fish consumption advisories are currently in effect for rock
bass, freshwater drum, walleye and carp due to mercury or PCS
contamination (46,47). Population studies of bottom fauna have
shown organisms characteristic of higher water quality are in-
creasing in some areas, but degraded benthic macroinvertebrate
populations are present especially on the Michigan side of the
river (39).
2. Assessment of Technical Adequacy of Control Programs
Adequacy of Present Technology
i) Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities
There are five municipal waste water treatment plants in Ontario
and six in Michigan which discharge into the Detroit River. The
levels of treatment vary, but all have phosphorus removal. The
facilities which provided inputs of contaminants of concern are
discussed below.
The Detroit WWTP provides secondary treatment (activated sludge)
for up to 3,047 x 103 m-Vday °f wastes tributary to the combined
sewer system. During wet weather periods', incremental flows
above 3,047 x 103 m-Vday are provided primary treatment and
disinfection prior to discharge to the Detroit River. Secondary
effluent is combined with any primary effluent and discharged to
the Detroit River at a rate determined by river elevation and the
portion of flow receiving secondary treatment. Combined sewers
discharge directly to the Rouge and Detroit rivers when the
hydraulic capacity of the system is exceeded. About 284 x 103
m-Vday of wastewater flow is generated by industrial indirect
dischargers. Presently, there are no data available on the per-
centage of industries which are in compliance with the Industrial
Pretreatment Program since the program is new. The Detroit WWTP
facility was generally in compliance with its NPDES permit during
1986, which was confirmed by 1986 wastewater survey. The present
technology is adequate to control the facility's regulated and
monitored parameters based on existing water quality criteria.
The Detroit WWTP's permit is scheduled for reissuance in 1989 and
some facility upgrading may be required.
The Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP is a pure oxygen, activated
sludge facility with a design capacity of 375 x 103 m3/day. The
Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP and the South Huron Valley WWTP
(which discharges into Lake Erie) jointly have an Industrial
Pretreatment Program. In 1986, the facility exceeded its NPDES
monthly average permit limitation for total suspended solids (4
of 12 months), and exceeded its fecal coliform monthly average
limitation for all 12 months of the year. A 1986 wastewater
survey indicated the facility was in compliance with NPDES permit
at the time of the survey. For the purposes of controlling the
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facility's regulated parameters, the present technology is not
adequate, since exceedences of permit limitations have occurred.
As of December 1988, this facility is being sued in federal court
for permit and schedule violations. A consent decree is being
negotiated. The facility has begun construction on two new
clarifiers in its treatment system and is planning additional
repairs.
The Wayne County-Trenton WWTP is operated as a primary treatment
facility with a design capacity of 13 x 103 m3/day. Treated
wastewater was discharged to the Elizabeth Park Canal, a tribu-
tary of the Trenton Channel. This facility served a separate
sewer system, with no combined sewer discharges to the Detroit
River. This facility was in significant noncompliance with its
total suspended solids monthly average loading limitation (5 of
12 months), total phosphorus monthly average concentration limit
(6 of 12 months) and fecal coliform monthly average concentration
limit (8 of 12 months) during 1986. The 1986 wastewater survey
indicated the facility met the NPDES final effluent limitations
at the time of the survey. For the purposes of controlling the
facility's regulated parameters, the technology was not adequate.
This facility has been decommissioned (as of December 1988).
Flows are being directed to the new South Huron Valley WWTP,
which discharges directly into Lake Erie.
The City of Trenton WWTP is an activated sludge secondary treat-
ment system with an average daily flow of 22 x 103 m3/day, and is
discharged to the Elizabeth Park Canal. The City of Trenton has
an approved Industrial Pretreatment Program with 9 major par-
ticipants . Wastewater flow generated by these industries is
approximately 5.3 x 103 m3/day. In 1986,, this facility was in
noncompliance for BOD concentration and loading limits (5 of 12
months), total suspended solids concentration and loading limits
(5 of 12 months), total phosphorus monthly average concentration
(5 of 12 months), and dissolved oxygen minimum concentration (8
of 12 months). A wastewater survey conducted in 1987 showed this
facility to be in noncompliance with its NPDES permit limitations
for dissolved oxygen, and concentrations of other parameters
(8005, phosphorus, suspended solids and fecal coliforms) were
higher than would be desired (the permit does not have daily
maximum limits for these parameters, so noncompliance cannot be
construed). For the purposes of controlling the facility's regu-
lated parameters, the present technology is not adequate, since
exceedences of effluent limitations have occurred. No federal
action has been taken against this facility, as of December 1988,
however, the state has notified the facility of its noncompliance
status.
The West Windsor WWTP currently uses a physical-chemical treat-
ment process with a capacity of 160 x 103 m3/day. The Windsor
catchments receive a large quantity of industrial wastewater.
However, sampling data indicate concentrations compare favorably
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with concentrations in less industrialized catchments. This
facility was in compliance with its effluent requirements for
and suspended solids during 1985 and 1986.
ii) Industrial Point Sources
The UGLCCS Point Source Workgroup identified seventeen Michigan
and four Ontario industries as major point source dischargers
into the Detroit River (directly or indirectly). These indus-
tries include automotive, chemical, cement and steel, and were
presented in Table IX-4.
It is not practicable to discuss the technology used at each
industrial facility. The Point Source Workgroup Report (6)
should be consulted for such detail. However, the attainment (or
lack) of effluent limitations provides insight into the adequacy
of the technology used. Eleven of the Michigan facilities were
in general compliance with their 1986 NPDES Permits (Table IX-4),
one facility did not have a permit (Ford-Wayne Assembly Plant;
but institution of one is being considered), and another facility
began discharging to a sanitary sewer as a result of problems
meeting its permit effluent limits (Chrysler-Trenton Engine
Plant). For the purposes of controlling contaminants at regu-
lated levels, the technology employed at most Michigan industrial
facilities appear to be adequate.
Of the three Ontario industrial facilities surveyed, only one
fully met the Ontario Industrial .Effluent Objectives during 1985
and 1986. Ford Canada exceeded total suspended solids and phenol
objectives, and Wickes Manufacturing exceeded total suspended
solids and nickel objectives. The present technology at Wickes
Manufacturing and Ford Canada does not appear to be adequate to
control certain parameters with industrial effluent objectives.
Adequacy of Best Available Technology
The best available technology economically achievable (BAT) for
every industrial and municipal sector has. not yet been defined,
although some U.S.industries have BAT in place. The U.S.EPA and
the OMOE (through its MISA program) are currently developing BAT
for various sectors.
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3, Assessment of Regulatory Adequacy
Adequacy of Present Laws and Regulations
Existing legislation in the United States, Canada, Michigan and
Ontario addressing ecosystem quality of the Detroit River has
been discussed elsewhere in this report (Chapter III). Many
acts, regulations and programs are currently in place, addressing
the control of point and nonpoint sources of contaminants, man-
agement of solid and hazardous waste, acceptable contaminant
concentrations in various media, and other environmental con-
cerns. Despite the considerable, and often complex, collection
of laws and regulations, serious contamination is apparent in the
Detroit River system, and exceedences of requirements and guide-
lines have been documented. This may indicate that the existing
legislation is inadequate, or is not properly enforced.
Michigan industrial and municipal point source dischargers in the
Detroit River area are generally meeting the effluent limitations
set by the state government. Michigan effluent limits address
conventional pollutants, such as total suspended solids, and
nonconventional or toxic parameters. Unless the facility is out
of compliance with effluent limits, contaminants are discharged
at concentrations within discharge limits. However,-the large
volume of effluents results in very large total loadings of con-
taminants to the river. NPDES permits are reviewed every five
years, providing the opportunity to address specific concerns
highlighted by the UGLCC Study.
All Michigan municipal facilities impacting the Detroit River
receive waste water from industrial facilities. All have some
regulatory mechanism for controlling the input of contaminants
from industries (the Industrial Pretreatment Program - IPP).
However, pretreatment requirements may have not been addressing
all contaminants being introduced to the municipal facility, or
controlling them adequately, as evidenced by the large loadings
of some parameters by the municipal facility. From a practical
viewpoint, controlling the influx of contaminants to the munici-
pal facility from industrial facilities is the most effective
method of preventing ultimate discharge. The IPP program at each
Michigan facility needs to be examined for adequacy and compli-
ance.
Only one Ontario industrial facility studied in the Detroit River
area has effluent requirements (General Chemical) ; the others are
encouraged to attain Provincial Industrial Effluent Objectives.
The Objectives are nonenforceable goals in and of themselves,
although they can be made enforceable through incorporation into
Control Orders or Certificates of Approval. Effluent objectives
are not consistently being met by all Ontario industrial facili-
ties. In other instances, these Objectives were met, yet impacts
in media were seen. For example, General Chemical, Amherstburg
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was identified as a major contributor of copper to the Detroit
River, yet discharged copper at concentrations below the Provin-
cial Industrial Effluent Objective of 1 mg/L. However, high
copper concentrations, exceeding dredging guidelines, were found
in sediments along the Amherstburg shoreline. This suggests that
the Objectives may not be stringent enough, particularly for
compounds with sediment binding capabilities.
The West Windsor WWTP was the only Ontario municipal facility
identified as a major discharger of contaminants to the Detroit
River (total phosphorus). This facility receives industrial
waste water, and adheres to the Windsor By-Law (#8319) which
regulates the discharge of conventional pollutants, metals and
total phenolics to sanitary sewers. Since its total phosphorus
discharge was less than 1 mg/L (annual average) in 1985 and 1986,
it appears that the By-Law regulations are adequate and effec-
tive, in the context of this study.
The new MISA program being implemented by Ontario should improve
discharge regulations in the province. Identification of ef-
fluent contaminants in specific municipal and industrial sectors
will enable the instatement of limits for all potentially harmful
contaminants. To be effective, it is necessary for sector re-
quirements to contain both concentration and mass loading limits.
Customizing of regulations to fit the industrial sectors should
reduce treatment costs and the associated analytical costs for
monitoring.
Present regulations and guidelines, particularly in Ontario, are
media-specific in scope and do not offer the flexibility needed
to address multimedia contamination, as found in the Detroit
River system.
Adequacy of Enforcement Authority and Programs
Michigan and Ontario programs which regulate discharges require
monitoring and reporting. Facilities are required to inform the
regulating agency of all effluent limit exceedences. In addi-
tion, audit samples may be obtained by the regulating agency,
often with the facility's pre-knowledge. Violations of effluent
limitations can be handled in a variety of fashions, ranging from
monetary fines to criminal prosecution. Criminal prosecution
rarely occurs. Civil and administrative enforcement actions,
often involving negotiations between the facility and the regula-
ting agency, are undertaken to ensure future compliance.
Adequate enforcement authority for point sources appears to
exist; however, strengthening of penalties and an increase in
self-monitoring and auditing actions may prevent or hinder ex-
ceedences which are occurring.
In the Detroit River, the majority of point source dischargers
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are in compliance with effluent limitations. The weakness,
therefore, does not lie with the authority of the regulatory
agencies to enforce effluent limitations. It is more the result
of the traditional reliance on concentration based water quality
guidelines rather than on total loadings as well as, in many
cases, the limited number of parameters with which each facility
is legally bound to comply or monitor.
Some Ontario industrial point sources are experiencing exceeden-
ces of the Provincial Industrial Effluent Objectives, which are
nonenforceable goals for the industrial facilities. Requiring
the attainment of the Objectives (or a more stringent value) is a
mechanism by which to gain more control over the discharges. The
new MISA program will establish effluent requirements which are
specific to each industrial sector. Until these become effec-
tive, regulation through requirement of effluent objectives ap-
pears needed.
Regulations and enforcement authorities are limited or absent for
contamination resulting from nonpoint sources.
Adequacy of Governmental and Institutional Authority and Juris-
dictions
Federal, state, provincial, and municipal governments have the
authority to regulate chemical discharges to the Detroit River.
Thus, the lack of authority is not the problem. Ongoing environ-
mental concerns related to chemical contaminants result, in part,
from a fragmented approach to controlling discharges. Different
priorities among agencies result in a lack of co-ordination and
proper long-term planning.
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H. RECOMMENDATIONS:
Actions which can result in improvements in ecosystem quality in
the Detroit River system are many and varied. Generally, recom-
mendations made for the Detroit River are in four forms: recom-
mendations directed at specific sources which can be implemented
with existing regulatory authorities, recommendations which may
require process or treatment changes, management issues and ap-
plications or other voluntary (as opposed to regulatory) meas-
ures, and recommendations which identify further needed research
and study.
A. Industrial and Municipal Point Source Remedial Recommendations
1. Ontario and Michigan should incorporate the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement's goal of the virtual elimination of
all persistent toxic substances into their respective regu-
latory programs.
2. The Detroit WWTP was a major discharger of numerous com-
pounds which impact water, sediment and biota quality in the
Detroit River. Contaminant loadings from this facility
should be evaluated to ensure compliance with Michigan water
quality standards.
a) In general, contaminant concentrations in the effluent of
the Detroit WWTP are low; major loadings resu-lt from the
large volume and rate of effluent discharged. Control of
contaminants may be obtained through the Industrial Pre-
treatment Program (IPP). The IPP of the Detroit WWTP should
be examined and compliance of contributors of industrial
waste water should be determined. The adequacy of the pre-
treatment requirements should be assessed. Pretreatment
requirements should be assessed to determine if parameters
of concern in the Detroit River system are adequately regu-
lated. A notice of violation was issued (September 1988) to
the Detroit WWTP for problems found in its IPP program.
b) The Detroit WWTP currently performs secondary treatment on a
large portion of its effluent. During wet weather flow,
some effluent receives only primary treatment prior to being
mixed with secondary treated effluent and discharged. Met-
als and organics which may be contained on suspended solids
not removed in primary treatment are of concern. The City
of Detroit should complete its studies of treatment plant
capacities started in 1985 and upgrade its treatment process
to provide secondary treatment for all effluent.
c) The effluent limitations contained in the Detroit WWTP NPDES
permit should be re-examined in light of the findings of
this study to ensure compliance with Michigan water quality
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standards. Consideration should be given to increasing the
number of parameters monitored by the permit. All effluent
limitations should be the lowest technically feasible.
Bioassays of the effluent to determine both acute and
chronic impacts to aquatic organisms should be considered as
a condition of the permit. The Detroit WWTP NPDES permit is
scheduled for reissuance in 1989.
3. The Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP was a major discharger of
numerous compounds which impact water, sediment and biota
quality in the Detroit River. Although the facility was
generally in compliance with its effluent limitations, the
NPDES permit monitors very few parameters found to be of
concern in the Detroit River.
In general, contaminant concentrations in the effluent of
the Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP are low; major loadings
result from the large volume and rate of effluent dis-
charged. Control of contaminants may be obtained through
the Industrial Pretreatment Program (IPP). The IPP of the
Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP should be examined. The com-
pliance of industrial contributors should be determined, and
the adequacy of the pretreatment requirements should be
assessed. Pretreatment requirements should be considered
for all parameters of concern in the Detroit River system
which are being discharged by the industrial dischargers.
Contaminant loadings from this facility should be evaluated
to ensure compliance with Michigan water quality standards
and BAT requirements.
4. The City of Trenton WWTP exceeded its permit limitations for
regulated parameters. The treatment provided by this facil-
ity should be examined and upgraded to ensure compliance
with effluent requirements.
5. Several industrial facilities were identified as major dis-
chargers of parameters that impact media quality in the
Detroit River. These facilities are presented below with a
discussion of facility-specific issues.
a) Rouge Steel was a major contributor of total iron, total
copper, total lead, total zinc, and oil and grease to the
Detroit River, chemicals which were present in the sediments
at concentrations exceeding dredging guidelines. Rouge
Steel was the major contributor of total PAHs and a source
of total phenols which were found in sediments, but have no
sediment dredging or quality guidelines. Rouge Steel's
NPDES permits do not regulate total PAHs nor monitor iron or
copper. The discharge of these 3 parameters should be eval-
uated to ensure compliance with Michigan water quality stan-
dards and BAT requirements. Rouge Steel was in compliance
with its permit limitations for total lead (applicable at 3
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of 11 outfalls), total zinc (applicable at 3 outfalls),
total phenols (applicable at one outfall) and oil and grease
(applicable at two outfalls). Considerable amounts of
phenol were discharged from outfalls not monitored for phen-
ol , and oil and grease were also discharged from nonregu-
lated outfalls. Discharge of total phenols and oil and
grease from all outfalls should be reduced to ensure com-
pliance with Michigan water quality standards and BAT
requirements.
b) Ford Canada was a major contributor of total lead, total
zinc, PCBs and total phenols, chemicals which impact the
Detroit River system. The stretch of river downstream of
Ford Canada (sediment subarea 2) had the highest average
sediment concentration of PCBs. Sources other than Ford
Canada were suggested, but Ford Canada cannot be ruled out
as a source. All sources of PCBs should be identified and
eliminated. High total phenol, total lead and total zinc
concentrations in sediments were also found in subarea 2.
This facility met the Ontario Industrial Effluent Objective
for lead and zinc of 1 mg/L, but exceeded the Ontario In-
dustrial Effluent Objective of 20 ug/L for total phenols by
a substantial amount during the survey (almost two orders of
magnitude). Discharge of total phenols should be reduced to
ensure compliance with the Ontario Industrial Effluent Ob-
jective. Discharges of PCBs should be reduced to the lowest
level technologically achievable.
c) Wickes Manufacturing was a major contributor of chromium to
the Detroit River, and discharged nickel, as well. High
bottom and suspended sediment concentrations of chromium
were found in Little River, to which Wickes Manufacturing
discharges. Wickes Manufacturing did not meet the Ontario
Industrial Effluent Objective for chromium during the sur-
vey. Nickel impacted Detroit River sediments in the upper
(as well as lower) Detroit River. High water concentrations
of nickel were also found in the Little River. Wickes
Manufacturing did not achieve the effluent objective for
nickel eight times during 1985 and 1986, in addition to
exceeding it during the survey. Discharges of chromium and
nickel should be reduced to ensure consistent attainment of
the Ontario Industrial Effluent Objective. An effluent
requirement should be developed for Wickes Manufacturing at
the lowest level technologically feasible.
d) McLouth Steel-Trenton-was a major contributor of zinc, iron,
HCB and oil and grease, chemicals which impact the Detroit
River system. Of these, McLouth Steel-Trenton has an ef-
fluent limitation for oil and grease, with which it was in
compliance. This facility has no effluent monitoring re-
quirements for zinc, iron or HCB. Such effluent monitoring
should be considered for McLouth Steel-Trenton.
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e) General Chemical, Amherstburg was a major discharger of
copper to the Detroit River. High copper sediment concen-
trations were found adjacent to Amherstburg. since the time
of the point source survey, General Chemical has split into
two distinct companies, Allied Chemical and General Chem-
ical. The two new companies should be surveyed to determine
the extent of present day copper discharge, and contingent
upon the results, remedial action taken. General Chemical
was also a major source of chlorides to the Detroit River;
however, the lower Detroit River transect measuring water
quality was upstream of General Chemical and did not reflect
the facility's impact on water quality. Although no impacts
due to elevated concentrations of chlorides were noted dur-
ing this study, the potential for an increase in halophilic
organisms exists. Additional surveys downstream of the
General Chemical complex outfalls should be performed to
determine if such a shift in organisms has occurred.
f) Great Lakes Steel-Ecorse and Great Lakes Steel-80" Mill both
contributed large loadings of oil and grease to the Detroit
River, pollutants found to be impacting sediments in the
Detroit River. Both facilities have effluent limitations
for oil and grease; both were in compliance with these
limits in 1986. Consideration should be given to institut-
ing more stringent effluent limitations for oil and grease
at these facilities.
B. Nonpoint Source Remedial Recommendations
6. The extent of contaminant input to the Detroit River system
resulting from Detroit WWTP combined sewer overflows is
largely unknown, although some estimates have been made.
Information available suggests that contaminant inputs may
be substantial. The required study on the Detroit WWTP CSOs
(order issued September 1988) should be expedited, and an
area-wide remediation plan should be developed. Upgrading
of the Detroit sewer system by increasing treatment capaci-
ties of the facility and eventually separating storm and
sanitary sewer to eliminate CSOs should be undertaken.
7. Due to the significance of the Rouge River as a source of
loadings of organic and inorganic substances to the Detroit
River, the Rouge River Remedial Action Plan should be devel-
oped and implemented as expeditiously as possible. The
implementation of recommendations for the Clinton and St.
Clair Rivers' RAPs will also assist remediation efforts for
the Detroit River.
8. Confirmed or possible groundwater contamination sites within
the Detroit River discharge area were identified for this
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study. Extensive recommendations were made for these sites
by the Nonpoint Source Workgroup. The main focus of the
Workgroup's recommendations are:
a) Zug Island Great Lakes Steel: MDNR should perform a site
visit to clarify the facilities' proper RCRA status, to
perform sampling of monitoring wells, to determine the con-
taminant release to groundwater and to provide information
for rescoring of the site for the National Priorities List
(NPL) using the new Hazard Ranking System (HRS).
b) Federal Marine Terminal Properties: ' U.S.EPA should monitor
site closure to assess closure impacts and to study ground-
water discharge to surface water.
c) Industrial Landfill (Firestone): This site should be re-
scored for the NPL using data generated by the UGLCC Study
and other current studies.
d) Michigan Consolidated Gas-Riverside Park: Remedial action
proposed by the company should be reviewed to assess its
adequacy in controlling groundwater discharge to surface
water.
e) BASF/Wyandotte South Works and Chrysler-Trenton: Prompt
assessment of site waste operations should be performed by
MDNR. Determination of any contaminant releases to ground-
water and/or surface water should be made.
f) BASF/Wyandotte North Works, Monsanto Company, Huron Valley
Steel Corp and Jones Chemical: Prompt performance of a RCRA
Facility Assessment should be undertaken by the U.S.EPA,
utilizing data generated by the UGLCC Study and other cur-
rent studies.
g) Edward C. Levy Co, Trenton Plant and Plant #3: The U.S.EPA
should monitor the Consent Agreement and Final Order signed
by the facility to ensure compliance. Data generated for
the UGLCC Study should be used in the evaluation of the
recently performed RCRA Facility Assessment.
h) Pennwalt and Petrochemical Processing: Data generated for
the UGLCC Study should be used in the evaluation of the
recently performed RCRA Facility Assessment.
9. The integrity of the abandoned-underground injection wells
at Pennwalt and BASF/Wyandotte should be evaluated through a
U.S.EPA inspection to determine if injection of spent waste
into caverns at Grosse lie has led to releases.
10. Michigan and Ontario should develop a five year strategy
aimed at reducing spill occurrences and improving spill
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responses within their jurisdictions. Spill reports from
the Michigan Pollution Emergency Alerting System (PEAS), the
Ontario Spills Action Centre (SAC) and other agencies should
be enhanced to provide accurate information on spill volume
and composition, recovery and resolution. Facilities which
experience frequent spills should be required to develop
stricter spill management plans. Michigan and Ontario
should prepare a yearly spill report for public release and
for submission to the IJC, to stimulate interaction and
follow-up, and to ensure appropriate enforcement and preven-
tive measures.
11. Use of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers on agricultural
lands and handling of livestock manure in both Ontario and
Michigan need to be conservatively managed. Federal, state
and provincial environmental and agricultural agencies need
to collaborate to develop a comprehensive soil and water
management system to reduce impacts on ecosystem quality
from these activities. Education on the proper use and
application of fertilizers should be provided to farmers,
and measures, such as conservation tillage and proper live-
stock waste management, should be encouraged to ensure mini-
mal loss of phosphorus, nitrogen and other associated chemi-
cals from agricultural lands.
12. The extent of required dredging and remediation of sediments
in the Detroit River and its tributaries should be planned
and prioritized. To do this, estimations of the volume of
sediments required to be removed should be made, and an
overall plan for handling these materials should be develop-
ed. Financial requirements for such plans should be ana-
lyzed, and incorporated into future agency commitments.
C. Surveys, Research and Development
13. Tributaries to the Detroit River were found to provide major
loadings of several contaminants, particularly metals and
total phosphorus (not all UGLCC Study parameters were ana-
lyzed) . A thorough investigation of the Rouge, Little,
Canard and Ecorse Rivers, Turkey and Monguagon Creeks, and
the Frank and Poet Drain, if not presently being performed,
should be undertaken. An inventory of all point source
dischargers to the tributaries, and an assessment of all
nonpoint contaminant inputs (urban and rural runoff, waste
sites/contaminated groundwater, spills, CSOs, etc.) should
be performed. Water, sediment and biota quality in these
tributaries should be determined for the full stretch of the
tributary. For tributaries where extensive investigation is
presently being undertaken, information provided by this
study should be used to supplement ongoing work.
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14. A study of the significance of atmospheric deposition of
contaminants as a contaminant input mechanism should be
undertaken, in conjunction with a survey and evaluation of
point sources of atmospheric emissions to the Great Lakes
basin.
15. Ambient water quality guidelines for total PAHs need to be
developed and adopted, along with guidelines for specific
PAH compounds (e.g., benzo[a]pyrene) known to be of impor-
tance. Further research on the effects of individual and
total PAHs in water on a variety of aquatic species is
needed for guideline development.
16. The importance of clams as a food source for wildlife and
waterfowl, and the effect of clam flesh contaminants on such
wildlife should be studied.
17. Consumption advisories for waterfowl and wildlife should be
developed as necessary by federal, state and provincial
public health agencies, for the protection of human con-
sumers of these animals.
18. Contaminant concentrations in other biota, such as muskrats
which are consumed by native populations, should be
determined, and the need for consumption advisories con-
sidered.
19. Studies to determine the cause/effect linkages of Detroit
River contaminants to waterfowl and fish need to be per-
formed.
20. Fish and wildlife habitats along the Detroit River should be
protected to the greatest extent possible. The extent of
filling or bulkheading of wetlands should be reduced. Reme-
dial plans should be developed for those habitats which are
severely impacted, and/or alternative habitats developed to
accommodate displaced wildlife.
21. Sediment bioassays should be used to make site-specific de-
terminations of sediment quality. Dischargers responsible
for contaminated sediments should be required to conduct
bioassays of these contaminated sediments to determine
possible impacts. The need for acute and chronic bioassays
on the effluent should be considered for all point source
discharges to the Detroit River.
22. Development of sediment criteria for organic contaminants
found in Detroit River sediments, specifically total phenols
and total PAHs, is needed to assess the level of sediment
contamination. The U.S.EPA is intending to develop such
criteria; such development should be expedited.
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23. A study of the significance and impact of urban runoff from
Michigan municipalities should be performed. The study
should be performed in a manner similar to that of the
Ontario study, for comparability purposes. Contingent on
the results, remedial and management action may be neces-
sary.
24. The role played by sinkholes and carbonate solution channels
on Point Hennepin in the transport of contaminants from
these disposal sites should be investigated.
D. Management Strategy for Remedial Programs
25. Further regulatory actions in this Area of Concern must be
co-ordinated among the various agencies and governments
responsible. They should also be developed utilizing a
long-term planning framework.
26. Regulatory actions must take multi-media and synergistic
concerns into account with regard to contaminant management.
The correction of long-term contamination requires that contamin-
ant sources be significantly controlled by requiring a reduction
in the use of hazardous materials, or by ceasing to use hazardous
materials altogether. However, limited control provided by regu-
lation over many of the sources of contamination prevents this
encompassing approach. Although regulations provide limited
control over permitted discharges of industrial process and cool-
ing water, minimum or no legal control over sources such as
stormwater, combined sewer overflows, tributary loadings, con-
taminated groundwater, atmospheric deposition, contaminated sedi-
ments, spills from vessels, "midnight dumpers", hidden outfalls
and others, is provided.
In the past, attempts to control most contaminants originating
from point sources have relied upon NPDES permits, Certificates
of Approval, control orders, notices of noncompliance or court
orders, and have partially succeeded. For other chemicals,
elimination or restrictions on production, use or sales (e.g.,
PCBs, DDT) have been implemented. These control methods have
resulted in varying degrees of reduction of these chemicals in
the environment. Once persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals
are in the environment, options for control are limited to remed-
iation or isolation of the contaminated medium, and monitoring of
the environmental effects.
For the Detroit River and its tributaries, loading data dictate
that the highest priority for contaminant source control is the
direct regulation of point sources through NPDES permits and the
MISA program. More stringent and extensive effluent limits need
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to be placed upon those facilities impacting the Detroit River
system, to reduce the discharge of toxic chemicals, and should be
expressed in terms of both concentrations and mass loadings.
The second priority is urban combined sewer overflow (CSO) con-
trol, as CSOs discharge untreated industrial and sanitary waste
directly to sensitive areas of the river. Combined sewer systems
in the Detroit River area receiving industrial process wastewater
need to be controlled so that contaminants do not reach the river
untreated.
Containing, purging and treating contaminated groundwater before
discharge to the Detroit River or its tributaries is the third
priority. Groundwater contaminant loadings to the river were not
determined, but based on the number of Michigan contaminated
groundwater sites along the Detroit River and its tributaries,
Michigan is likely a major source of contaminants through ground-
water inputs. A plan must be developed to identify, isolate and
treat these contaminated groundwater discharges.
The fourth priority is identification and reduction of atmospher-
ic loadings of contaminants from all sources.
The remaining sources mentioned above (other than sediments) are
more difficult to control, since they are generally nonpoint in
origin, and are less amenable to immediate, regulatory control.
However, control of nonpoint sources of contaminants is an equal
priority.
The extent of contaminant transfer from sediments to the water
column and biota is unknown, since complex chemical, physical and
biological factors influence these interactions. However, ad-
verse impacts on biota have been shown. Remediation of contamin-
ated Detroit River sediments is a difficult task. Detroit River
depositional sediments have a pudding-like consistency and are
not amenable to burial or coverage. Solidification and chemical
treatment are also not practical alternatives for in-place sedi-
ment control. Although expensive and having the potential to
release contaminants to the environment during the process,
dredging of severely contaminated sediments may be the only
method to reduce sediment contaminant loadings to the water col-
umn and biota and to restore impaired use.s in the Detroit River.
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I. LONG TERM MONITORING
1. Purposes for Monitoring and Relation-ships Between UGLCCS and
Other Monitoring Programs.
The purposes for monitoring and surveillance are included under
Annex 11 of the GLWQA, and considerations are found in Chapter 7
of the Report of the Niagara River Toxics Committee (91). The
focus of the UGLCC Study was to determine where problems in the
ecosystem exist and how to remedy the problem. Long term moni-
toring recommendations focus on trends in environmental quality
to assess the effectiveness of remedial actions. Monitoring
should be sufficient to 1) detect system-wide trends noted by the
UGLCCS, and 2) detect changes resulting from specific remedial
actions.
The Great Lakes International Surveillance Plan (GLISP) and the
Remedial Action Plans (RAPs) also contain plans for long term
monitoring. The GLISP for the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Chan-
nels is incomplete, pending results of the UGLCC Study. The
Detroit River RAP being developed jointly by Michigan and Ontario
will list impaired uses, sources of contaminants, specific
remedial actions, schedules for implementation, resources per-
mitted by Michigan and Ontario, target cleanup levels and moni-
toring requirements. Results from this study will be incorpor-
ated into the RAP, and will influence state and provincial
Detroit River programs.
2. System Monitoring for Contaminants
Water
The principal Detroit River contaminants indicate general trends,
exposure levels and contaminant impacts on biota. Parameters to
be monitored include PCBs, chlorobenzenes (HCB), PAHs, oil and
grease, total phenols, total volatiles, mercury, cadmium, chrom-
ium, cobalt, copper, iron, nickel, lead, zinc, total phosphorus,
ammonia, suspended solids and chlorides. Monitoring stations
should be located where elevated concentrations are known or
predicted, including downstream of the Detroit WWTP, and Rouge
River, Little River, Turkey Creek, Canard River, Ecorse River and
within the Trenton Channel. Sampling locations may include hori-
zontal and vertical distributions. Sampling frequency should
bracket contaminant variability and flow fluctuations.
A mass balance approach will help identify changes in the con-
taminant masses over time, and target future remedial actions.
It should be conducted about once every five years, assuming
remedial actions have been implemented. Locations to be measured
should include:
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578
1) Head and mouth transects. The dissolved and particulate
fractions and quantity of suspended sediment flux should be
measured. Chemical water monitoring locations in the
Detroit River should be expanded as needed for conventional
pollutants, to isolate localized significant sources.
Metals and organic contaminants should be added to the list
of parameters measured, and appropriately low detection
levels should be used. Detroit River shorelines, beaches
and marinas should be monitored for evidence of human sani-
tary waste. The present human health sanitary waste in-
dicator is fecal coliform bacteria, but development of a
better indicator of human health wastes is needed.
2) Municipal and industrial point sources. Monitor frequently
enough to calculate accurate loadings from the major point
sources, including the Detroit WWTP, Wayne County-Wyandotte
WWTP, McLouth Steel, Rouge Steel, Ford Canada, General
Chemical, West Windsor WWTP, and Wickes Manufacturing.
3) Tributary monitoring efforts should focus on seasonal and
storm event loadings from the Ecorse, Rouge, Canard and
Little Rivers and Turkey Creek for dissolved and sediment
associated contaminants. Best management practices should
be initiated in the Detroit River tributary watersheds to
more effectively manage flow, contaminants and sediment
sources.
4) CSOs and urban runoff. Estimates of CSOs and contaminant
loadings from Detroit and Windsor urban runoff should be
repeated. Contaminant loadings should be estimated for the
Riverview and Trenton storm sewers; Sewer sediments should
be monitored to locate significant PCB sources to the
Detroit WWTP and CSOs. Track PCBs upstream within the
sewer system to isolate areas or facilities contributing
PCBs. Monitor outfalls and overflows to determine loading
reductions.
5) The quantity and quality of groundwater inflow from waste
disposal sites adjacent to the Detroit River and its tribu-
taries should be determined. The well drilling initiated
during the UGLCCS should be expanded to determine the
amount and severity of contaminated groundwater entering
the Detroit River from identified CERCLA and 307 sites.
The study should be designed to measure contaminated
groundwater entering the river without requiring access to
the shoreline property. Studies should be initiated to
determine the types and amounts of materials disposed of in
the Point Hennepin and Fighting Island sites, and their
effects on the Detroit River. Eliminate (excavate and/or
secure) the sources of ground and surface water contamin-
ation in these landfills.
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579
6) Studies indicate that bed load sediments carry contaminant
masses similar to other sources, and that mass flux should
be quantified. The quantity of contaminants being desorbed
from sediments should also be quantified.
7) Direct atmospheric deposition to the Detroit River is
minor, but deposition within the drainage basin could be an
important source of wet and dry contaminants, and estimates
should be made. Expand and enforce local air monitoring
efforts in the Detroit River watershed to isolate local
sources.
Sediments
Sediment monitoring should be conducted every five years in con-
junction with the biota survey to assess trends and movement of
contaminants within the river. Analyses should include bulk
chemistry for organic and inorganic contaminants and particle
size distribution. Particular attention should be given to PCBs,
PAHs, phenols, phthalates, oil and grease', and heavy metals.
Sediment stations at tributary mouths should be monitored for
organic and inorganic contaminants on a biannual basis if remed-
ial actions occur. A suite of bioassays should be performed in
conjunction with these chemical analyses to determine the impact
these sediments are having on Detroit River biota. A map of the
areal extent of Detroit River sediment contamination and one
characterizing areas that are or may be toxic to aquatic life
need to be developed. These maps will allow identification of
areas needing to be dredged.
Biota
Long term monitoring of contaminants in biota will track con-
taminants in representative organisms. Three programs already
exist in the Detroit River:
i) Sport fish monitoring
This program should focus on persistent, bioaccumulative chemi-
cals, such as PCBs, mercury and other contaminants (e.g. dioxins
and dibenzofurans) known or suspected of being human health
hazards. Important sport species that have an extended river
residence time should be sampled. Monitoring should continue
beyond the point that action levels are met. Monitoring of
chemical contaminants in fish livers and recording of tumors and
other deformities should be done while making fish community and
chemical contaminant assessments. Studies to determine the
causes of tumors and reproductive problems need to be initiated
for the Detroit River.
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580
ii) Spottail shiner monitoring
This program is designed to identify local sources of bioavail-
able contaminants. Where spottail shiners contained elevated
levels of contaminants, sources of the contaminants should be
identified. Spottails should also be used to demonstrate results
of remedial actions.
iii) Caged clams monitoring.
Caged clams should be used to monitor results of remedial ac-
tions. Clams may be located at tributary mouths and downstream
of suspected source areas. Repeated assays at the same locations
should confirm the results. A series of caged fish or clams
should be placed along the Detroit River to identify inputs of
persistent, bioaccumulative contaminants.
iv) Benthic Macroinvertebrate Community
The Detroit River benthic community should be quantitatively
assessed every five years to monitor results of remedial actions.
Sampling should be based on grid or sediment type patterns to be
consistent between years. Selected persistent compound levels in
benthic organisms should be monitored.
v) Waterfowl and Wildlife
Waterfowl and wildlife communities should be monitored for
lowered reproduction rates, tumors and other deformities. The
causes of any deformities or tumors need to be determined. Con-
taminant levels in flesh, livers, eggs and/or young should be
determined.
vi) Ecological Significance and Interaction
Biological surveys should be designed within each tributary
watershed or ecoregion to determine if there are ecosystem prob-
lems . Biological monitoring should be performed to isolate prob-
lem areas within the ecoregion, and efforts should be focused
where problems have been identified. Studies should be designed
to determine fish and wildlife species composition, life history,
habitat requirements, movement, and spawning and nesting sites
for fish and wildlife in the Detroit River ecosystem, and inter-
actions and interdependency among these communities should be
defined.
3. Habitat Monitoring
Habitat monitoring should detect and describe changes in the
Detroit River ecological characteristics through periodic analy-
sis of key ecosystem elements. The following items are recom-
mended :
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581
a) The abundance and distribution of Hexagenia should be
determined every five years. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service grid used during 1985 would be appropriate. Bulk.
sediment chemistry, organic and inorganic contaminants,
particle size analyses and a suite of bioassays should be
conducted on samples taken concurrently with the Hexagenia
survey.
b) Quantification of the extent of Detroit River wetlands
should be conducted every five years, along with the Hexa-
genia survey. Aerial photography or remote sensing could
discern emergent and submergent macrophyte beds important
to larval fish and wildlife. Verification of aerial data
should be conducted by inspection of selected transects for
plant species identification and abundance. Changes in
wetlands should be correlated with water level fluctuations
and other natural documentable influences so that long term
alterations in wetlands can be tracked and causes iden-
tified.
4. Sources Monitoring for Results of Specific Remedial Actions
Remedial actions intended to reduce contaminants from point
sources require compliance monitoring. Attention must be given
to sampling schedules and analytical methods. Nearfield monitor-
ing should be conducted regularly to document contaminant reduc-
tions and recovery of impaired communities. Monitoring may be
required for a "long time" in a limited area, depending on impact
severity and degree of contaminant reduction that is achieved.
The following ten specific sources are recommended for contamin-
ant monitoring:
Detroit WWTP (PCBs, heavy metals, volatile organics,
phenols, ammonia, oil and grease, cyanide, total phosphorus)
Wayne County-Wyandotte WWTP (PCBs, heavy metals, volatile
organics, ammonia, total phosphorus, total suspended solids,
fecal coliform bacteria)
City of Trenton WWTP (suspended solids, BOD, total phos-
phorus, dissolved oxygen)
West Windsor WWTP (total phosphorus)
McLouth Steel-Trenton (oil and grease, zinc, phenol, iron)
Great Lakes Steel-Ecorse Mill (oil and grease)
Ford Canada (phenols, heavy metals, PCBs)
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582
Wickes Manufacturing (chromium, nickel)
General Chemical (chloride, copper)
Rouge Steel (heavy metals, PAHs, phenols, oil and grease)
-------
583
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Water Quality Division Report.
77. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1985. Tennessee-Tombigbee
Corridor Study, Main Report. Mobile District, Mobile, AL.
78. Giesy, J.P., R.L. Graney, J.L. Newsted and C.J. Rosiu. 1987.
Toxicity of In-place Pollutants to Benthic Invertebrates.
Interim Report of U.S.EPA/LLRS, Grosse lie, MI. April 15,
1987. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
79. Giffels, Black and Veatch, 1980. Quantity and Quality of
Combined Sewer Overflows Volume II Report. CS-806, Final
Facilities Plan, Interim report, City of Detroit Water and
Sewage Department.
80. Marsalak, J. and Ng, H.Y.F.,1987. Contaminants in Urban
Runoff in the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Area.
National Water Research Institute, River Research Branch.
CCIW, Burlington, Ontario. NWRI #87-112.
81. UGLCCS Waste Disposal Sites andPotential Groundwater
Contamination -Detroit River. Nonpoint Source Workgroup
Report, January 1988 (see volume III this report).
82. U.S. Geological Survey, 1987. Interim Report on Groundwater
Movement Near the Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels,-
unpublished draft report, Lansing, Michigan, March 1987.
83. Mazola, A.J. 1969. Geology for land and groundwater
development in Wayne County, Michigan: Michigan Geological
Survey Investigation, No.3, 1984.
84. Intera Technologies Ltd., 1986. Detroit, St. Clair, St.
Marys Rivers Project Waste Site Ranking and Prioritization,
Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Sarnia, Ontario March,
1986.
85. Intera Technologies Ltd., 1986. Detroit, St. Clair, St.
Marys River Project Regional Characterization and Waste Site
Inventory, Volumes I and II, Ontario Ministry of the
Environment, Sarnia, Ontario, March 1986.
86. Edwardson D., Saada C., Pranckievicius P.E., Cummings T.R.,
Gillespie J., Dumouchelle D., Humphrey S., Sherbin G.,
Shanahan M., Jackson D. 1988. Upper Great Lakes Connecting
Channels Study, Waste Disposal Sites and Potential Ground-
-------
591
water Contamination - Detroit River, in Nonpoint Source
Workgroup Report (see volume III this report).
87. Teasell, S. 1986. Environmental Data on Fighting Island,
Ontario, 1982 - 1984. Environmental Protection - Ontario
Region, Environment Canada, unpub. rep.
88. Ribo, J.M., Zaruk, B.M., Hunter, H., and Kaiser, K.L.E.,
1985. Microtox Toxicity Test Results for Water Samples from
the Detroit River. J. Great Lakes Res. 11:297-304.
89. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1982. Reconnaissance report
for flood protection in the Ecorse Creek drainage basin,
Wayne County, Michigan. Appendix D, Environmental Considera-
tion, Detroit District, Detroit, MI.
90. Fontaine, T.D. 1988. Modeling Workgroup Geographical
Synthesis Report. Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels
Study (see volume III this report).
91. Report of the Niagara River Toxics Committee, 1984. N.Y.
State Dept Env. Cons., Env. Can., U.S.EPA, and Ont. Min.
Env. 630p.
-------
APPENDIX 1
Lists of Committee, Workgroup, Task Force
and Area Synthesis Team Members
Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study
1984 to 1988
-------
594
MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
United States
Mrs. Carol Finch, Co-chair*
Great Lakes National Program
Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Dr. Alfred M. Beeton**
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory
Mr. David Cowgill
North Central Division
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Mr. Richard Powers***
Surface Water Division
Michigan Department of
Natural Resources
Dr. Khalil Z. Atasi****
Detroit Water and Sewerage
Department
Mr. Larry Sisk
Fish and Wildlife Enhancement
Region, 3, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service
Canada
Mr. Ron Shimizu, Co-chair
Great Lakes Environment Office
Environment Canada
Mr. Tony Wagner
Inland Waters, C&P Ontario
Region, Environment Canada
Mr. Fred Fleischer*
Water Resources Branch
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Mr. Douglas A. McTavish
London Regional Office
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Mr. Ken Richards++
Intergovernmental Relations Office
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Mr. Kim Shikaze
Environmental Protection, C&P
Ontario Region Environment Canada
Mr. Dave Egar
National Water Research Inst.
Environment Canada
George Ziegenhorn+++
Great Lakes National Program Office - U.S.EPA
Technical Secretary to
the Management and Activities Integration Committees
International Joint Commission (IJC)
(Observer)
Frank J. Horvath
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
* * *
* * * *
Replaced Mr. Peter L. Wise
Replaced Dr. Eugene J. Aubert/
Dr. Brian J. Eadie
Replaced Mr. William D. Marks
Replaced Mr. Darrell G. Suhre and
Mr. James W. Ridgeway
+ Replaced Mr.
Schenk
++ Replaced Mr.
Moore
+++ Replaced Mr.
Burkhart
Carl F.
John
Lawrence
-------
595
ACTIVITIES INTEGRATION COMMITTEE
United States
Mr. Vacys J. Saulys, Co-chair
Great Lakes National Program
Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Mr. Tom Edsall
Chairperson-Biota Workgroup
Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory
Dr. Thomas Fontaine
Chairperson-Modeling Workgroup
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory
Mr. Paul Horvatin
Chairperson-Point Source
Workgroup, Great Lakes National
Program Office, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency
Mr. Richard Lundgren
Michigan Representative
Michigan Department of
Natural Resources
Canada
Mr. Daryl Cowell, Co-chair*
Great Lakes Environment Office
Environment Canada
Dr. Alfred S.Y. Chau
Chairperson-Data Quality
Management Workgroup, National
Water Res. Institute, Environment
Canada
Mr. Yousry Hamdy
Chairperson-Sediment Workgroup
Water Resources Branch
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Mr. Wayne Wager**
Detriot/St. Clair./St. Marys
Rivers Project
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Mr. Griff Sherbin
Chairperson-Nonpoint Source
Workgroup, Environmental
Protection (Ontario Region),
Environment Canada
Mr. Donald J. Williams
Chairperson-Water Quality Work-
group, Inland Waters, (Ontario
Region) Environment Canada
Scientific and Technical Co-ordinators
Mr. William Richardson
Large Lakes Research Station
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Dr. G. Keith Rodgers
National Water Research inst.
Environment Canada
* Replaced Mr. Gregory Woodsworth
** Replaced Mr. John Moore
-------
596
BIOTA WORKGROUP
United States
Canada
Thomas A. Edsall, Chairperson
Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
David Kenaga
Water Quality Surveillance
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Thomas Nalepa
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory
Peter B. Kauss
Water Resources Branch
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Joseph Leach
Lake Erie Fisheries Station
Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources
Mohinddin Munawar
Great Lakes Fisheries Research
Branch, Department of Fisheries
Oceans
Dr. G. Keith Rodgers
National Water Research Ins.
Environment Canada
Stewart Thornley
London Regional Office
Ontario Ministry of Environment
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597
DATA QUALITY MANAGEMENT WORKGROUP
United States Canada
James H. Adams, Jr. A.S.Y. Chau, Chairperson
Quality Assurance Office National Water Research Inst.
U.S. Environmental Protection Environment Canada
Agency
Warren R. Faust Peter Fowlie
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental Waste Water Technology Centre
Research Laboratory Environmental Protection
Environment Canada
George Jackson Donald King
Environmental Services Division Laboratory Services Branch
Michigan Department of Natural Ontario Ministry of Environment
Resources
James J. Lichtenberg
Environmental Monitoring and Support
Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Michael Mullin
Large Lakes Research Station
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Godfrey Ross
Analytical Laboratory
Detroit Water and Sewerage
Department
CONSULTANTS
Jerry Zar Keijo I. Aspila
Biology Department National Water Institute
Northern Illinois University Environment Canada
Abdel El'Shaarawi
National Water Research Inst.
Environment Canada
-------
598
POINT SOURCE WORKGROUP
United States
Canada
Paul Horvatin, Chairperson
Great Lakes National Program
Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Khalil Z. Atasi
Detroit Water and Sewerage
Department
Richard Lundgren
Surface Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
William Stone
Surface Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
James Young
Surface Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Dean C. Edwardson
Detroit/St. Clair/St. Marys
Rivers Project
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Lawrence King
Environmental Protection
(Ontario Region)
Environment Canada
-------
599
NONPOINT SOURCE WORKGROUP
United States
Canada
Frank Belobraidich
Ground Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
James H. Bredin
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Ralph Christensen
Great Lakes National Program
Agency, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
T. Ray Cummings
U.S. Geological Survey
Thomas Davenport
Planning and Standards Section
Water Quality Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
T.J. Millar
East Lansing Field Office
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Pranas Pranckevicius
Great Lakes National Program Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Griff Sherbin, Chairperson
Environmental Protection
(Ontario Region)
Environment Canada
Dean C. Edwardson
Detroit/St. Clair/St. Marys
Rivers Project
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Greg Wall
Land Resource Research Inst.
Agriculture Canada
-------
600
MODELING WORKGROUP
United States
Canada
Thomas Fontaine, Chairperson
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory
Khalil Z. Atasi
Detroit Water and Sewerage
Department
William L. Richardson
Large Lakes Research Station
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Jeff Weiser
Detroit District, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers
Richard Hobrla (Observer)
SWQ/WQSC, Michigan Department
of Natural Resources
Paul Rodgers (Observer)
Ann Arbor, Michigan Office
Limno-Tech Inc.
Dave Dolan
Great Lakes Regional Office
International Joint Commission
Efraim Halfon
National Water Research Inst.
Environment Canada
John A. McCorquodale
Great Lakes Institute
University of Windsor
Peter Nettleton
Water Resources Branch
Ontario Ministry of Environment
-------
601
SEDIMENT WORKGROUP'
United States Canada
David C. Cowgill Yousry Hamdy, Chairperson
North Central Division Water Resources Branch
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Ontario Ministry of Environment
Nathan Hawley Barry Oliver
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental National Water Research Inst.
Research Laboratory Environment Canada
Robert Hessleberg Ian Orchard
Great Lakes Fisheries Lab Environmental Protection
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Ontario Region)
Environment Canada
Anthony Kizlauskas
Great Lakes National Program Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
John Robbins
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory
-------
602
WATER QUALITY WORKGROUP
United States
Canada
Khalil Z. Atasi
Detroit Water and Sewerage
Department
Paul Bertram
Great Lakes National Program
Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Peter Landrum
NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental
Research Laboratory
Richard Lundgren
Surface Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Michael Mullin (Pro Tern)
Large Lakes Research Station
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Donald Williams, Chairperson
Inland Waters
(Ontario Region)
Environment Canada
Klaus Kaiser
National Water Research Inst,
Environment Canada
Peter B. Kauss
Water Resources Branch
Ontario Ministry of Environment
OBSERVERS
Frank J. Horvath
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Trefor B. Reynoldson
Great Lakes Regional Office
International Joint Commission
-------
603
LONG TERM MONITORING WORKGROUP
United States Canada
Paul Bertram, Co-chairperson Peter Nettleton, Co-chairperson
Great Lakes National Program Water Resources Branch
Office, U.S. Environmental Ontario Ministry of Environment
Protection Agency
Frank J. Horvath
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
-------
604
REGULATORY TASK FORCE
United States
Canada
Cynthia Fuller*
Great Lakes National Program
Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Frank Baldwin
Michigan Department of Natural
Resources
Susan Humphrey*
Environmental Protection
(Ontario Region)
Environment Canada
Ray E. Bowen
Southwest Region
Ontario Ministry of Environment
CO-ORDINATORS
Paul Horvatin
Great Lakes National Program
Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Griff Sherbin
Environmental Protection
(Ontario Region)
Environment Canada
Replaced Larry Fink
Replaced Mary Shanahan
-------
605
AREA SYNTHESIS TEAM MEMBERS
United States Canada
ST. MARYS RIVER
Diana Klemans Yousry Hamdy
Michigan Department of Natural Water Resources Branch, Ontario
Resources Ministry of Environment
ST. CLAIR RIVER++
Pranas Pranckevicius* Griff Sherbin
Great Lakes National Program Environmental Protection
Office, U.S. Environmental Environment Canada
Protection Agency
LAKE ST. CLAIR
Paul Bertram Paul Hamblin*
Great Lakes National Program National Water Research Inst.
Office, U.S. Environmental Environment Canada
Protection Agency
DETROIT RIVER
David Kenaga Klaus Kaiser
Water Quality Surveillance National Water Research Inst.
Section, Michigan Department Environment Canada
of Natural Resources
* Replaced Larry Fink * Replaced G. Keith Rodgers
++ St. Clair River (level 3) geographic report was written by
B. G. Oliver and W. R. Swain, ECO Logic Inc.
-------
APPENDIX II
GLOSSARY AND UNITS OF MEASURE
-------
608
MEASUREMENTS & UNITS
mg/L
ug/L
ng/L
pg/L
ug/g
mg/kg
ug/kg
ng/kg
L/d
m3/d
mgd
cfs
m3/s
kg/d
Ibs/d
kg/yr
t/yr
uS/cm
milligram per liter = part per million (ppm)*
microgram per liter = part per billion (ppb)*
nanogram per liter = part per trillion (ppt)*
(one trillenth part of a gram)
picograms per litre = part per quadrillion (ppq)
microgram per gram = part per million (ppm)
milligram per kilogram = part per million (ppm)
microgram per kilogram = part per billion (ppb)
nanogram per kilogram = part per trillion (ppt)
liter per day
cubic meters per day
millions of gallons per day
cubic feet per second
cubic meters per second
kilograms per day
pounds per day
kilograms per year
tonnes per year
microsiemens per centimeter (conductivity)
-------
609
EQUIVALENT UNITS
meter = m
kilometer = km
gram = g
tonne = t
liter = L
(Can.)
1m =3
1 km = 0
1000 g = 1
It =2
1 L = 0
.281 feet
. 621 miles
kg = 2.205 pounds
,205 pounds
.2642 gal (U.S.) = 0.2200 gal
CONVERSION TABLES
To Convert
acres
acres
centimeters
centimeters
Multiply By To Obtain
4.047
4.047
3.937
1.094
x 10"1 hectares
x 103 sq. meters
x 10~1 inches
x 10"~2 yards
feet
gallons (Imp.)
gallons (U.S.)
gallons (U.S.)
gallons (Imp.)
grams
grams
grams
hectares
inches
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
3.048 x 10"1
1.20095
8.3267 x 10"1
3.785
4.542
1.0 x 10~3
3.527 x 10~2
2.205 x 103
2.471
2.540
1.0 x 103
2.2046
3.5274 x 101
6.214 x 10"1
1.0936 x 103
3.2808 x 103
meters
gallons (U.S.)
gallons (Imp.)
liters
liters
kilograms
ounces
pounds
acres
centimeters
grams
pounds
ounces
miles
yards
feet
-------
610
To Convert
liters
(U.S.liquid)
liters
meters
meters
meters
miles
milligrams/liter
ounces
ounces (fluid)
parts/million
gal.
pounds
pounds
square
square
square
square
square
square
feet
inches
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
meters
temperature °C
temperature °F
yards
yards
yards
Multiply By
2.642 x 10"1
2.201 x 10-1
3.281
6.214 x 10~4
1.094
1.609
1.0
2.8349 x 101
2.957 x 10~2
8.354
4.5359 x 102
4.536 x 10"1
9.29 x 10~2
6.452 x 102
2.471 x 102
1.076 x 107
3.861 x 10'1
2.471 x 10~4
x 9/5)+32
(°F-32) x 5/9
9.144 x 101
9.144 x 10~4
9.144 x 10"1
To Obtain
gallons
gallons (Imp)
feet
miles
yards
kilometers
parts/million
grams
liters
pounds/million
grams
kilograms
sq. meters
sq millimeters
acres
sq. ft.
sq. miles
acres
temperature °F
temperature °C
centimeters
kilometers
meters
-------
611
ACRONYMS
ADI Acceptable Daily Intake: The dose that is
anticipated to be without risk to humans when taken
daily. It is not assumed that .this dose guarantees
absolute safety. The determination of the ADI is
often based on the application of laboratory animal
toxicity data concerning chronic (long-term) doses to
the environmental doses to which humans are exposed.
AOC(s) Areas of Concern: Geographic locations recognized by
the International Joint Commission where water,
sediment or fish quality are degraded, and the
objectives of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
of local environmental standards are not being
achieved.
BaP Benzo-a-Pyrene
BAT Best Available Technology/Treatment
BATEA Best Available Technology/Treatment Economically
Achievable
BCF Bioconcentration Factor; the ratio of the
concentration of a particular substance in an
organism to concentration in water.
BCT Best Conventional Technology.
BEJ Best Engineering Judgement.
BHC Benzene Hexachloride or Hexachlorocyclohexane. There
are three isomers; alpha, beta, and gamma. Gamma-BHC
is the insecticide lindane.
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand: The amount of dissolved
oxygen consumed during the decomposition of organic
nutrients in water during a controlled period and
temperature.
COA Canada-Ontario Agreement Respecting Water Quality in
the Great Lakes.
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand: The amount of oxygen
required to oxidize completely by chemical reagents
the oxidizable compounds in an environmental sample.
CofA Certificate of Approval
-------
612
CSO
DCB
ODD
DDE
DDT
HCE
IJC
Combined Sewer Overflow; combined storm and sanitary
sewer systems.
Dichlorobenzene
A natural breakdown product of DDT.
Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene. A natural
breakdown product DDT.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane: A widely used, very
persistent chlorinated pesticide (now banned from
production and use in many countries).
Department of Fisherie's and Oceans (Canada)
Department of Agriculture (Canada)
Department of Environment/Environment Canada
Effective concentration of a substance producing a
defined response in 50% of a test population. The
higher the EC-50, the less effective the substance is
because it requires more material to elicit the
desired response.
Environmental Protection, Ontario Region, Environment
Canada
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes International Surveillance Plan. It
provides monitoring and surveillance guidance to U.S.
and Canadian agencies responsible for implementing
the provisions of the GLWQA that include general
surveillance and research needs as well as monitoring
for results of remedial actions.
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
Hexachlorobenzene
Hexachlorobutadiene
Hexachloroethane
International Joint Commission: A binational
organization established in 1909 by the Boundary
Waters Treaty. Through the IJC, Canada and the
United States cooperatively resolve problems along
their common border, including water and air
pollution, lake levels, power generation and other
issues of mutual concern.
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613
LC50
MDNR
MISA
NOAA
NPDES
PAH
PBB
PCB
Lethal concentration (by volume) of a toxicant or
effluent which is lethal tp 50% of the test organism
over a specified time period. The higher the LC$Q,
the less toxic it is because it takes more toxicant
to elicit the same response.
Lethal dose which is lethal to 50% of the test
organism over a specified time period. The higher
the LD5Q, the less toxic it is because it takes more
toxicant to elicit the same response.
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Municipal-Industrial Strategy for Abatement: The
principal goal of this program is the virtual
elimination of toxics discharged from point sources
to surface waters in Ontario.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System; a
permit system limiting municipal and industrial
discharges, administered by U.S.EPA and the states.
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
Octachlorostyrene
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Ontario Ministry of the Environment/Environment
Ontario
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, also known as
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons or Polyaromatic
Hydrocarbons. Aromatic Hydrocarbons composed of at
least 2 fused benzene rings, many of which are
potential or suspected carcinogens.
Polybromated biphenyl; used primarily as a fire
retardant.
Polychlorinated biphenyls; a class of persistent
organic chemicals with a potential to bioaccumulate
and suspected carcinogens; a family of chemically
inert compounds, having the properties of low
flammability and volatility and high electric
insulation quality. Past applications include use as
hydraulic fluids, heat exchange and dielectric
fluids; plastisizers for plastics.
-------
614
RAP
SPDES
STP
TCB
TCDD
TCDF
TOTAL DDT
UGLCCS
U.S.EPA
WHO
WWTP
The negative power to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion
concentration. A measure of acidity or alkalinity of
water on a scale from 0 to 14; 7 is neutral; low
numbers indicate acidic conditions, high numbers,
alkaline.
Pentachlorobenzene
Publicly Owned Treatment Works
Persistent Toxic Substance: Any toxic substance with
a half-life in water of greater than eight weeks.
Remedial Action Plan: This is a plan to be developed
with citizen involvement to restore and protect water
quality at each of the 42 Areas of Concern in the
Great Lakes Basin. The RAP will identify impaired
uses, sources of contaminants, desired use goals,
target clean-up levels, specific remedial options,
schedules for implementation, resource commitments by
Michigan and Ontario as well as by the federal
governments, municipalities and industries, and
monitoring requirements to assess the effectiveness
of the remedial options implemented.
State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System; a state
administered permit limiting municipal and industrial
dischargers.
Sewage Treatment Plant
Trichlorobenzene
Tetrachlorodiebenzo-p-dioxins
Tetrachlorodibenzofurans
Sum of DDT isomers and metabolites
Upper Great Lakes Connecting Channels Study
United States Environmental Protection Agency
World Health Organization
Water Pollution Control Plant
Water Treatment Plant (for drinking water)
Waste Water Treatment Plan
-------
615
ABSORPTION
ACCLIMATION
TERMINOLOGY
Penetration of one substance into the body of
another.
Physiological and behavioural adjustments of an
organism in response to a change in environment.
See also Adaptation.
ACCLIMATIZATION Acclimation of a particular species over several
generations in response to marked environmental
changes.
ACCUMULATION Storage and concentration of a chemical in tissue
to an amount higher than intake of the chemical.
May also apply to the storage and concentration of
a chemical in aquatic sediments to levels above
those that are present in the water column.
ACUTE Involving a stimulus severe enough to rapidly
induce a response; in bioassay tests, a response
observed within 96 hours is typically considered
an acute one.
ACUTE TOXICITY Mortality that is produced within a short period
of time, usually 24 to 96 hours.
ADAPTATION
ADSORPTION
AEROBIC
ALGA(E)
ALGICIDE
ALKALINITY
AMBIENT
AMBIENT WATER
Change in the structure forms or habits of an
organism to better fit changed or existing
environmental conditions. See also Acclimation.
The taking up of one substance at the surface of
another.
The condition associated with the presence of free
oxygen in the environment.
Simple one celled or many celled micro-organisms,
usually free floating, capable of carrying on
photosynthesis in aquatic ecosystems.
A specific chemical highly toxic to algae.
Algicides are often applied to water to control
nuisance algal blooms.
A measurement of acid neutralization or buffering
capability of a solution (See pH).
An encompassing atmosphere.
The water column or surface water as opposed to
groundwaters or sediments.
-------
616
AMPULES A sealed glass container of a know concentration
of a substance.
ANADROMOUS Species which migrate from salt water to fresh
water to breed.
ANAEROBE An organism for whose life processes a complete or
nearly complete absence of oxygen is essential.
ANOXIA The absence of oxygen necessary for sustaining
most life. In aquatic ecosystems this refers to
the absence of dissolved oxygen in water.
ANTAGONISM Reduction of the effect of one substance because
of the introduction or presence of another
substance; e.g. one substance may hinder, or
counteract, the toxic influence of another. See
also Synergism.
APPLICATION FACTOR A factor applied to a short-term or acute
toxicity test to estimate a concentration of waste
that would be safe in a receiving water.
AQUATIC Living in water.
ASSIMILATION The absorption, transfer and incorporation of
substances (e.g. nutrients by an organism or
ecosystem).
ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY The ability of a waterbody to transform
and/or incorporate substances (e.g. nutrients) by
the ecosystem, such that the water quality does
not degrade below a predetermined level.
BENTHIC Of or living on or in the bottom of a water body;
benthic region, benthos.
BENTHOS Bottom dwelling organisms, the benthos comprise:
1) sessile animals such as sponges, some of the
worms and many attached algae; 2) creeping forms
such as snails and flatworms, and 3) burrowing
forms which include most clams and worms, mayflies
and midges.
BIOACCUMULATION Uptake and retention of environmental substances
by an organism from both its environment (i.e.
directly from the water) and its food.
BIPASSAY A determination of the concentration or dose of a
given material necessary to affect a test organism
under stated conditions.
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617
BIOCONCENTRATION The ability of an organism to concentrate
substances within its body at concentrations
greater than in its surrounding environment or
food.
BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR The ratio of the measured residue within
an organism compared to the residue of the
substance in the ambient air, water or soil
environment of the organism.
BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION The concentration of a chemical up the
food chain,
BIOMASS Total dry weight of all organisms in a given area
or volume.
BIOMONITORING The use of organisms to test the toxic effects of
substances in effluent discharges as well as the
chronic toxicity of low level pollutants in the
ambient aquatic environment.
BIOTA
CARCINOGEN
CHIRONOMID
CHRONIC
Species of all the plants and animals occurring
within a certain area or region.
Cancer causing chemicals or substances.
Any of a family of midges that lack piercing mouth
parts.
Involving a stimulus that lingers or continues for
a long period of time, often one/tenth of the life
span or more.
CHRONIC TOXICITY Toxicity marked by a long duration, that
produces an adverse effect on organisms. The end
result of chronic toxicity can be death although
the usual effects are sublethal; e.g. inhibits
reproduction or growth. These effects are
reflected by changes in the productivity and
population structure of the community. See also
Acute Toxicity.
COMMUNITY
CONGENER
Group of populations of plants and animals in a
given place; ecological unit used in a broad sense
to include groups of various sizes and degrees of
integration.
A member of the same taxonomic genus as another
plant or animal: Also a different configuration
or mixture of a specific chemical usually having
radical groups attached in numerous potential
locations.
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CONTAMINANT
618
A substance foreign to a natural system or present
at unnatural concentrations.
CONTAMINATION The introduction of pathogenic or undesirable
micro-organisms, toxic and other deleterious
substances which renders potable water, air,
soils, or biota unfit for use.
CONTROL ORDER/REQUIREMENT AND DIRECTION ORDER
in Ontario.
Enforceable orders
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANT A term which includes nutrients,
substances which pollutant consume oxygen upon
decomposition, materials which produce an oily
sludge deposit, and bacteria. Conventional
pollutants include phosphorous, nitrogen, chemical
oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, oil and
grease, volatile solids, and' total and fecal
coliform, chlorides, etc.
CRITERIA
CRITERION,
Numerical limits of pollutants established to
protect specific water uses.
WATER QUALITY A designated concentration of a
constituent based on scientific judgments, that,
when not exceeded will protect an organism, a
community of organisms, or a prescribed water use
with an adequate degree of safety.
CRITICAL LEVEL See Threshold.
CRITICAL RANGE In bioassays the range of magnitude of any factor
between the maximum level of concentration at
which no organisms responds (frequently mortality)
to the minimum level or concentration at which all
organisms respond under a given set of conditions.
CUMULATIVE
Brought about or increased in strength by
successive additions.
CUMULATIVE ACTION Increasingly severe effects due to either
storage or concentration of a substance within the
organism.
DENSITY
DETRITUS
DIATOM
Number of individuals in relation to the space.
A product of disintegration, defecation,
destruction, or wearing away.
Any of a class of minute planktonic unicellular or
colonial algae with silicified skeletons.
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619
DIOXIN A group of approximately 75 chemicals of the
chlorinated dibenzodioxin family, including 2, 3,
7, 8 - tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin (2,3,7,8 -
TCDD) which is generally considered the most toxic
form.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN The amount of oxygen dissolved in water.
DRAINAGE BASIN A waterway and the land area drained by it.
DREDGE SPOILS The material removed from the river, lake, or
harbour bottom during dredging operations.
DREDGING GUIDELINES Procedural directions designed to minimize
the adverse effects of shoreline and underwater
excavation with primary emphasis on the
concentrations of toxic materials within the
dredge spoils.
ECOSYSTEM The interacting complex of living organisms and
their non-living environment; the biotic community
and its abiotic environment.
Contaminated waters discharged from facilities to
either wastewater sewers or to surface waters.
All the biotic and abiotic factors that actually
affect an individual organism at any point in its
life cycle.
A plant that grows, flowers, and dies in a few
days.
Invertebrates (mayflies) that live as adults only
a very short time.
The warm, upper layer of water in a lake that
occurs during summer stratification.
The wearing away and transportation of soils,
rocks and dissolved minerals from the land
surface, shorelines, or river bottom by rainfall,
running water, wave and current action.
EUTROPHICATION The process of nutrient enrichment that causes
high productivity and biomass in an aquatic
ecosystem. Eutrophication can be a natural
process so it can be a cultural process
accelerated by an increase of nutrient loading to
a waterbody by human activity.
EFFLUENT
ENVIRONMENT
EPHEMERAL
EPHEMERA
EPILIMNION
EROSION
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EXOTIC SPECIES Species that are not native to the Great Lakes
and have been intentionally or inadvertently
introduced into the system.
FACULTATIVE
FOODCHAIN
GOAL
Exhibiting a broad lifestyle which allows it to
survive under a broad range of environmental
conditions.
The process by which organisms in higher trophic
levels gain energy by consuming organisms at lower
trophic levels; the dependence for food of
organisms upon others in a series, beginning with
plants and ending with the largest carnivores.
An aim or objective towards which to strive; it
may represent an ideal condition that is
difficult, if not impossible to attain
economically.
GREAT LAKES BASIN ECOSYSTEM The interacting components of air,
land, water and living organisms, including man,
within the drainage basin of the St. Lawrence
River at or upstream from the point at which this
river becomes the international boundary between
Canada and the United States (from Article 1 of
the 1978 GLWQ Agreement).
GREAT LAKES WATER QUALITY AGREEMENT (GLWQA) A joint agreement
between Canada and the United States which commits
the two countries to develop and implement a plan
to restore and maintain the many desirable uses of
the waters in the Great Lakes Basin. Originally
signed in 1978, the Agreement was amended in 1987.
GROUNDWATER
GUIDELINES
HALF-LIFE
Water entrained and flowing below the surface
which may supply water to wells and springs.
Any suggestion or rule that guides or directs;
i.e. suggested criteria for programs or effluent
limitations.
The period of time in which a substance loses half
of its active characteristics (used specifically
in radiological work); the amount of time
required for the concentration of a pollutant to
decrease to half of the original value through
natural decay or decomposition.
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Chemicals considered to be a threat to man
in the environment, including substances which
(individually or in combination with other
substances) can cause death, disease (including
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cancer), behavioural abnormalities, genetic
mutations, physiological malfunctions or physical
deformities.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE The natural cycle of water on earth, including
precipitation as rain and snow, runoff from land,
storage in groundwaters, lakes, streams, and
oceans, and evaporation and transpiration (from
plants) into the atmosphere to complete the cycle.
HYPOLIMNION
ICHTHYOLOGY
The cold, dense, lower layer of water in a lake
that occurs during summer stratification.
A branch of zoology that deals with fishes.
INCIPIENT LCgn The level of the toxicant which is lethal for 50%
of individuals exposed for periods sufficiently
long that acute lethal action has ceased.
Synonymous with lethal threshold concentration.
INCIPIENT LETHAL LEVEL That concentration of a contaminant
beyond which an organism could no longer survive
for an indefinite period of time.
INSECTICIDE
LACUSTRINE
LEACHATE
LETHAL
LIPOPHILIC
LITTORAL
LOADINGS
MACROPHYTE
Substances or a mixture of substances intended to
prevent, destroy or repel insects.
Formed in, or growing in lakes.
Materials dissolved or suspended in water that
percolate through solids such as soils, solid
wastes and rock layers.
Involving a stimulus or effect directly causing
death.
Having an affinity for fats or other lipids.
Productive shallow water zone of lakes, rivers or
the seas, with light penetration to the bottom;
often occupied by rooted aquatic plants.
Total mass of pollutant to a water body over a
specified time; e.g. tonnes per year of
phosphorus.
A member of the macroscopic plant life (i.e.
larger than algae) especially of a body of water.
MACROZOOBENTHOS The distribution of macrozoobenthos in an
aquatic ecosystem is often used as an index of the
impacts of contamination on the system.
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MALIGNANT
MASS BALANCE
622
Resistent to treatment, occurring in severe form
and frequently fatal.
An approach to evaluating the sources, transport
and fate of contaminants entering a water system,
as well as their effects on water quality. In a
mass balance budget, the amounts of a contaminant
entering the system less the amount leaving the
system. If inputs exceed outputs, pollutants are
accumulating and contaminant levels are rising.
Once a mass balance budget has been established
for a pollutant of concern, the long-term effects
on water quality can be simulated by mathematical
modelling and priorities can be set for research
and remedial action.
Any substance or effect which alters genetic
characteristics or produces an inheritable change
in the genetic material.
The ability of a substance to induce a detectable
change in genetic material which can be
transmitted to progeny, or from one cell
generation to another within an individual.
NONPOINT SOURCE Source of pollution in which pollutants are
discharged over a widespread area or from a number
of small inputs rather than from distinct,
identifiable sources.
MUTAGEN
MUTAGENICITY
NUTRIENT
A chemical that is an essential raw material for
the growth and development of organisms.
ORGANOCHLORINE Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
PATHOGEN
PERIPHYTON
A disease causing agent such as bacteria, viruses,
and parasites.
Organisms that live attached to underwater
surfaces.
PERSISTENT TOXIC SUBSTANCES Any toxic substance with a half-life
in water and greater than eight weeks.
PESTICIDE
PHENOLICS
Any substance used to kill plants, insects, algae,
fungi or other organisms; includes herbicides,
insecticides, algicides, fungicides.
Any of a number of compounds with the basic
structure of phenol but with substitutions made
onto this structure. Phenolics are produced
during the coking of coal, the distillation of
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wood, the operation of gas works and oil
refineries, from human and animal wastes, and the
microbiological decomposition of organic matter.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS A process occurring in the cells of green plants
and some micro-organisms in which solar energy is
transformed into stored chemical energy.
PHYTOPHAGOUS Feeding on plants.
PHYTOPLANKTON
POINT SOURCE
Minute, microscopic aquatic vegetative life; plant
portion of the plankton; the plant community in
marine and freshwater situations which floats free
in the water and contains many species of algae
and diatoms.
A source of pollution that is distinct and
identifiable, such as an outfall pipe from an
industrial plant.
POLLUTION (WATER) Anything causing or inducing objectionable
conditions in any watercourse and affecting
adversely the environment and use or uses to which
the water thereof may be put.
POTABLE WATER Water suitable, on the basis of both health and
aesthetic considerations, for drinking or cooking
purposes.
PRECAMBRIAN
The earliest era of geological history.
PRIMARY TREATMENT Mechanical removal of floating or settable
solids from wastewater.
PUBLIC
RADIONUCLIDE
RAPTORS
RAW WATER
RESUSPENSION
RIPARIAN
Any person, group, or organization.
A radioactive material.
Birds of prey.
Surface or groundwater that is available as a
source of drinking water, but has not received any
treatment.
(of sediment) The remixing of sediment particles
and pollutants back into the water by storms,
currents, organisms and human activities such as
dredging.
Living or located on the bank of a natural
watercourse.
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SCAUP
A diving duck.
SECONDARY TREATMENT Primary treatment plus bacterial action to
remove organic parts of the waste.
SEDIMENT
SEICHE
SELENIUM
SESSILE
The fines or soils on the bottom of the river or
lake.
An oscillation in water level from one end of a
lake to another due to wind or atmospheric
pressure. Most dramatic after an intense but
local weather disturbance passes over one end of a
large lake.
A nonmetallic element that chemically resembles
sulfur and is obtained chiefly as a by-product in
copper refining, and occurs in allotropic forms of
which a gray stable form varies in electrical
conductivity with the intensity of its
illumination and is used in electronic devices.
An animal that is attached to an object or is
fixed in place (e.g. barnacles).
SIGMOID CURVE S-shaped curve (e.g. the logistic curve)
SLUDGE
SOLUBILITY
STABILITY
The solids removed from waste treatment
facilities.
Capability of being dissolved.
Absence of fluctuations in populations; ability to
withstand perturbations without large changes in
composition.
STRATIFICATION (or layering) The tendency in deep lakes for
distinct layers of water to form as a result of
vertical change in temperature and therefore, in
the density of water.
SUBACUTE
SUBCHRONIC
SUB-LETHAL
Involving a stimulus below the level that causes
death.
Effects from short-term multiple dosage or
exposure; usually means exposure for less than
three months.
Involving a stimulus below the level that causes
death.
SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS Particulate matter suspended in water.
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SYNERGISM The joint action of two or more substances is
greater than the sum of the action of each of the
individual substances. The improvement in
performance is achieved because two agents are
working together. See also Antagonism.
SYNERGISTIC Interactions of two or more substances or
organisms producing a result such that the total
effect is greater than the sum of the individual
effects.
SYNTHESIS The production of a substance by the union of
elements or simpler compounds.
TAXA A group of similar organisms.
TAXONOMICALLY To identify an organism by its structure.
TERATOGEN A substance that increases the incidence of birth
defects.
TERATOGENICITY The ability of a substance to produce
irreversible birth defects, or anatomical or
functional disorders as a result of an effect on
the developing embryo.
THERMOCLINE
THRESHOLD
A layer of water in lakes separating cool
hypolimnion (lower layer) from the warm epilimnion
(surface layer).
The chemical concentration or dose that must be
reached before a given reaction occurs.
TOXIC SUBSTANCE As defined in the Great Lakes Agreement, and
substance that adversely affects the health or
well being of any living organism.
TOXICITY
TRANSLOCATION
Quality, state or degree of the harmful effect
resulting from alteration of an environmental
factor.
Movement of chemicals within a plant or animal;
usually refers to systemic herbicides and
insecticides that are moved from the point of
contact on the plant to other regions of the
plant.
TROPHIC ACCUMULATION Passing of a substance through a food chain
such that each organism retains all or a portion
of the amount in its food and eventually acquires
a higher concentration in its flesh than in its
food. See also Biological Magnification.
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TROPHIC LEVEL Functional classification of organisms in a
community according to feeding relationships; the
first trophic level includes green plants, the
second level includes herbivores; etc.
TROPHIC STATUS A measure of the biological productivity in a
body of water. Aquatic ecosystems are
characterized as oligotrophic (low productivity),
mesotrophic (medium productivity) or eutrophic
(high productivity).
TUBIFICID
TURBIDITY
Of aquatic oligochaete or sludge worms which is
tolerant to organically enriched waters.
Deficient in clarity of water.
WATER QUALITY OBJECTIVES Under the Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement, goals set by the Governments of the
United States Agreement, goals set by the
Governments of the United States and Canada for
protection of the uses of the Great Lakes.
WATER QUALITY STANDARD A criterion or objective for a specific
water use standard that is incorporated into
enforceable regulations.
WIND SET-UP
A local rise in water levels caused by winds
pushing water to one side of a lake. (See Seiche)
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