Summaries of Solid Waste Research
and Iraiaing Grants-1970
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ADDENDUM*
TO
"SUMMARIES OF SOLID WASTE RESEARCH AND TRAINING GRANTS-1970" - SW-5r.2
RESEARCH GRANTS ONLY
THROUGH JULY 31, 1971
STABILIZING SANITARY LANDFILLS BY INJECTION GROUTING
Dr. Lyle K. Moulton EP 00016-02
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $80,550
West Virginia University Terminates: January 1973
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
DESIGN OF A WATER DISPOSABLE PACKAGING CONTAINER
Dr. Samuel F. Hulbert
Division of Interdisciplinary Studies EP 00033-04 \
Clemson University Support to date: $219,982
Clemson, South Carolina 29631 Terminates: February 1972
UTILIZATION OF BROILER LITTER AS ANIMAL FEED
Dr. Joseph P. Fontenot EP 00034-03
Department of Animal Science Support to date: $102,247
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Terminated: May 31, 1971
Blacksburg, Virginia 24601
THE TREATABIHTY OF LEACHATE FROM SANITARY LANDFILLS
Dr. Robert K. Ham EP 00041-02
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $32,707
University of Wisconsin Terminates: May 1972
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
POLLUTION OF SUBSURFACE WATER BY SANITARY LANDFILL
Dr. Alex A. Fungaroli EP 00162-05
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $455,648
Drexel University Terminates: August 31, 1972
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION OF SOLID WASTES
Dr. Virgil H. Freed EP 00242-05
Department of Agricultural Chemistry Support to date: $176,695
Oregon State University Terminates: September 30, 1971
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
^Budget and administrative changes that have developed since printing of the
full text are reflected in this Addendum. Prefix "EC" automatically changed
to "EP" on all solid waste research grants active as of June 28, 1971.
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EFFECTS OF GARBAGE COMPOST ON SOIL PROCESSES
Dr. Charles C. Hortenstine EP 00250-05
Department of Soils Support to date: $89,423
University of Florida Terminates: November 30, 1971
Gainesville, Florida 32601
STUDIES OF MODIFICATIONS OF SOLID INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Dr. Cornelius S. Grove EP 00257-03
Department of Engineering Support to date: $157,518
Syracuse University Terminates: June 1971
Syracuse, New York 13210
COMPREHENSIVE STUDIES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Dr. Clarence G. Golueke EP 00260-05
University of California Support to date: $938,273
Richmond Field Station Terminates: May 31, 1972
Richmond, California 94720
STUDY OF INSTITUTIONAL SOLID WASTES
Professor Jerry C. Burchinal EP 00265-02
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $120,037
West Virginia University Terminated: June 30, 1971
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
ANIMAL WASTE COMPOSTING WITH CARBONACEOUS MATERIAL
Dr. William S. Caller EP 00270-03&S1
Department of Soil Science Support to date: $67,437
North Carolina State University Terminates: November 1971
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
WASTE COMPOSTS AS CHELATING AGENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION
Dr. Willard L. Lindsay EP 00273-03&S1
Department of Agronomy Support to date: $59,740
Colorado State University Terminates: September 1971
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
UTILIZATION OF FIBROUS WASTES AS SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS
Dr. James M. Leatherwood EP 00274-04
Department of Animal Science Support to date: $108,526
North Carolina State University Terminates: January 1972
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
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UTILIZATION OF BARK WASTE
Professor Raymond A. Currier EP 00276-04
Forest Research Laboratory Support to date: $212,478
Oregon State University Terminated: May 1971
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND BIRD HAZARD TO AIRCRAFT
Dr. Howard L. Cogswell EP 00277-03
Department of Biological Science Support to date: $63,123
California State College Terminates: November 1971
Hayward, California 94542
LASER MEDIATED LIGNIN SOLID WASTE FERMENTATION
Dr. Donald A. Klein EP 00278-03
Department of Microbiology Support to date: $48,303
Oregon State University Terminates: May 30, 1972
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
DECISION MAKING AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
Dr. John R. Sheaffer EP 00281-02
Center for Urban Studies Support to date: $201,008
University of Chicago Terminated: April 1971
Chicago, Illinois 60637
A RECIRCULATING WASTE SYSTEM FOR SWINE UNITS
Dr. Ronald J. Miner EP 00283-03
Department of Agricultural Engineering Support to date: $58,153
Iowa State University Terminates: November 1971
Ames, Iowa 50010
THERMOPHILIC METABOLISM IN SOLID SUBSTRATES
Dr. Marvin E. Stephenson EP 00292-03
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $105,625
Michigan State University Terminated: May 31, 1971
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
SURVIVAL OF PATHOGENS IN ANIMAL MANURE DISPOSAL
Dr. Stanley L. Diesch EP 00302-03
Dept. of Veterinary Microbiology Support to date: $116,208
and Public Health Terminates: May 1972
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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INCINERATION OF PLASTICS FOUND IN MUNICIPAL REFUSE
Dr. Richard W. Heimburg
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York 13210
EP 00304-03&S1
Support to date: $313,487
Terminates: February 1972
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF COMPACTED ASH FILLS
Dr. Donald H. Gray
Dept. of Civil Engineering
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
EP 00317-02
Support to date: $40,455
Terminated: April 1971
WOOD WASTE REUSE IN CONTROLLED RELEASE PESTICIDES
Dr. G. Graham Allan
Institute of Forest Products
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington 98105
EP 00319-03&02S1
Support to date: $116,644
Terminates: May 1972
FIRESIDE METAL WASTAGE IN MUNICIPAL INCINERATORS
Dr. Paul D. Miller
Department of Chemistry and Biology
Battelle Memorial Institute
Columbus, Ohio 43201
EP 00325-03&S1
Support to date: $342,964
Terminates: February 1972
CONVERTING INCINERATOR RESIDUE TO USEFUL MATERIALS
Dr. Peter E. D. Morgan
Franklin Institute Research Labs.
20th and Benjamin Franklin Parkway
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103
EP 00326-02
Support to date: $99,957
Terminated: April 30, 1971
SINGLE CELL PROTEINS FROM CELLULOSIC WASTES
Dr. Charles R. Dunlap
Department of Chemical Engineering
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
EP 00328-03
Support to date: $286,854
Terminates: February 1973
USE OF DOMESTIC WASTE GLASS FOR URBAN PAVING
Dr. Ward R. Malisch
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Missouri
Columbia, Missouri 65401
EP 00329-03
Support to date: $101,405
Terminates: May 1972
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CRITERIA FOR DESIGN AND CONTROL OF INCINERATORS
Dr. Adel F. Sarofim EP 00330-03
Department of Chemical Engineering Support to date: $193,192
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology Terminates: May 1972
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT CONFERENCE
Dr. H. Nugent Myrick EP 00331-01
Department of Environmental Support to date: $29,500
Science and Engineering Terminated: April 30, 1971
University of Houston
Houston, Texas 77004
STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
Dr. Russell H. Susag EC 00332-01
University of Florida Support to date: $38,887
Gainesville, Florida 32601 Terminated: May 31, 1971
REFUSE RECLAMATION BY SIZE REDUCTION AND SEPARATION
Dr. David G. Wilson EP 00333-03
Department of Mechanical Engineering Support to date: $218,748
Massachusetts Inst. of Technology Terminated: June 1973
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
RECLAMATION OF ENERGY FROM ORGANIC REFUSE
Dr. John T. Pfeffer EP 00364-02
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $75,850
University of Illinois Terminates: July 1972
Urbana, Illinois 61801
CHEMICAL CONVERSION OF WOOD AND CELLULOSIC WASTES
Dr. Fred Shafizadeh EP 00370-01
Department of Chemistry Support to date: $36,458
University of Montana Terminates: February 1974
Missoula, Montana 59801
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS FROM THE INCINERATION OF PLASTICS
Dr. Edward A. Boettner EP 00386-02
Department of Industrial Health Support to date: $82,711
University of Michigan Terminates: July 1972
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
MARINE DISPOSAL OF FINE-GRAINED WASTE SOLIDS
Dr. M. Grant Gross EP 00388-02
Marine Sciences Research Center Support to date: $176,151
State University of New York Terminates: January 1972
Stony Brook, New York 11790
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RESEARCH ON AN ANIMAL WASTE POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM
Dr. Elihu D. Grossman
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
Drexel Institute of Technology
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
EP 00390-02
Support to date: $91,373
Terminates: July 1972
PREVENTING LANDFILL LEACHATE CONTAMINATION OF WATERS
Mr. Eddie J. Wren
Dept. of Environmental Science
Plantation Park Laboratories
Baton Route, Louisiana 70808
EP 00393-02
Support to date: $95,790
Terminates: January 1972
HIGH ENERGY GAS FROM REFUSE USING FLUIDIZED BEDS
Dr. Richard C. Bailie
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
EP 00399-03
Support to date: $293,556
Terminates: June 1972
REUSE OF PLASTICS RECOVERED FROM SOLID WASTES
Dr. Donald R. Paul
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas 78712
EP 00411-01
Support to date: $23,342
Terminates: July 1973
SOLID WASTE CELLULOSE DEGRADATION BY THERMOACTINOMYCES
Dr. Fred J. Stutzenberger
Department of Microbiology
Weber State College
Ogden, Utah 84403
EP 00420-01
Support to date: $9,982
Terminated: November 1971
STUDY OF ECONOMICS OF HOSPITAL SOLID WASTES SYSTEMS
Dr. Richard G. Bond
School of Public Health
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
EP 00458-02
Support to date: $94,956
Terminates: May 1972
TIME-SETTLEMENT OF BEHAVIOR OF PROCESSED REFUSE
Dr. Arley G. Franklin
Department of Civil Engineering
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois 60201
EP 00466-01
Support to date: $32,886
Terminates: February 1973
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SCRAP RUBBER TIRE UTILIZATION IN ROAD DRESSINGS
Mr. Benson G. Brand EP 00500-01
Polymer and Paper Technology Division Support to date: $51,018
Battelle Memorial Institute Terminates: May 1974
Columbus, Ohio 43201
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL SITES
Mr. George M. Tomsho EP 00502-01
American Public Works Association Support to date: $32,355
Chicago, Illinois 60637 Terminated: June 30, 1971
SOLID WASTE CONVERSION: CELLULOSE LIQUEFACTION
Dr. Alvin H. Weiss EP 00516-01
Chemical Engineering Department Support to date: $75,901
Worcester Polytechnic Institute Terminates: February 1973
Worcester, Massachusetts 01609
FABRICATION OF SINGLE CELL PROTEINS FROM CELLULOSIC WASTES
Dr. William H. Daly EP 00524-01
Department of Chemistry Support to date: $14,888
Louisiana State University Terminates: July 1973
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
ANALYSIS MODELS FOR SOLID WASTE COLLECTION
Mr. David H. Marks EP 00552-01
Department of Civil Engineering Support to date: $38,615
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Terminates: May 1973
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
FORMATION OF SILICON CARBIDE FROM RICE HULLS
Dr. Ivan B. Cutler EP 00558-01
Materials Science Division Support to date: $21,621
University of Utah Terminates: May 1974
Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
SIZE REDUCTION IN SOLID WASTE PROCESSING
Dr. George J. Trezek EP 00570-01
Department of Mechanical Engineering Support to date: $20,316
Division of Thermal Systems Terminates: May 1973
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720
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BUSINESS ANALYSIS OF THE SALVAGE INDUSTRY
Mr. Robert M. Sontheimer
Resource Planning Institute, Inc.
Suite 7000
1 Broadway
Cambrdige, Massachusetts 02142
EP 00600-01
Support to date: $60,047
Terminates: May 1972
ROUTING OF SOLID WASTE COLLECTION VEHICLES
Dr. John C. Liebman
Department of Environmental Health
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland 21218
EP 00602-01
Support to date: $52,928
Terminates: May 1973
SANITARY LANDFILL STABILIZATION WITH LEACHATE RECYCLE
Dr. Frederick G. Pohland
Sanitary Engineering Laboratories
School of Civil Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332
EP 00658-01
Support to date: $24,739
Terminates: May 1973
THE METALLURGICAL UPGRADING OF AUTOMOTIVE SCRAP STEEL
Dr. Norman 0. Carlson
Ames Laboratory
c/o Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
EP 00667-01
Support to date: $39,998
Terminates: May 1973
AN INFRA-RED SPECTRAL SENSOR FOR REFUSE SORTING
Dr. Frank P. Winkler
Department of Physics
Middlebury College
Middlebury, Vermont 05753
EP 00682-01
Support to date: $20,735
Terminates: May 1973
AN EXPERIMENTAL HIGH ASH PAPERMILL SLUDGE LANDFILL
Dr. Orlando B. Andersland
Division of Engineering Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
EP 00685-01
Support to date: $89,616
Terminates: May 1973
ya72-l-14s
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Summaries of Solid Waste
Research and Training Grants-1970
This publication (SW-5r.2) was compiled by
Louis W. LEFKE, Sanitary Engineer, ALVIN G. KEENE, Sanitary Engineer.
RICHARD A. CHAPMAN, Sanitary Engineer, and HENRY JOHNSON, Research Chemist
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Solid Waste Management Office
1971
Environmental Protection Agency
Library, ~ : • : r.j /
1 North y:.,,;;cr Lr-ive
Chicago, Illinois 60606
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
An Environmental Protection Publication
This publication is also in the Public Health Service numbered series, as Public Health Service
Publication No. 1596 (1970). Its entry in two government publication series is the result of
a publishing interface reflecting the transfer of the Federal solid waste management program
from the U.S. Public Health Service to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 74-611512
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.25
Stock Number 5502-0030
DISCRIMINATION PROHIBITED—Title VI of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 states: "No person in the United States shall, on the
ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from paitici-
pation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subject to discrimination
under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assist-
ance." Therefore, projects supported by grants or awards from
the Solid Waste Management Office, like every program or activity
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, must be operated in
compliance with this law.
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FOREWORD
THIS PUBLICATION marks the third issuance of Summaries oj Solid Waste
Research and Training Grants. The purpose of this updated review is to
inform interested readers of completed and active solid waste research
projects and training programs. It is anticipated and hoped that this com-
pilation will assist competent researchers in determining gaps in solid waste
management knowledge and help to stimulate the conception of new
^_, approaches to or modifications of existing practices which will result in
%" improved overall solid waste management for the nation.
The Bureau of Solid Waste Management, the predecessor of the Solid
Waste Management Office (SWMO) was established under authority of the
'•* Solid Waste Disposal Act, Public Law 89-272. Prior to this Act, a modest
'- solid waste research effort (EF series) was supported by the former Division
of Environmental Engineering and Food Protection. The lack of and need
for an extensive and concerted research effort was recognized by the Congress
f in passing the 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act. The Act authorized initiation
-9 and acceleration of a national research and development program for new
l^ and improved methods of proper and economic solid waste management.
fO Grant, contract, and in-house efforts are coordinated to meet the Act
^ directives designed to conserve natural resources, to reduce the amount of
w wastes and unsalvageable materials, and to encourage the recovery and
utilization of potential resources in solid wastes.
There is probably no single approach applicable to the wide array of
solid wastes generated. Further, solid waste characteristics are continually
changing through product innovations, industrial process modifications, and
general population living habit evolution. Solid waste storage, collection,
transport, reuse, upgrading, and disposal practices have not kept pace with
these changes.
The objective of the SWMO is to develop efficient and economical
solid waste management practices to meet national needs. Extramural
research is supported in practically all phases of the problem, for example,
generation, collection, transport, reuse, health, and disposal. Research ef-
forts receive from one to six years support, with the majority being for
three years. Research results are beginning to accrue and this issuance is
indicative of this fact. A "Findings" writeup, which is included for the
first time, describes the major results. (Mention of commercial products
does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.) Additional detailed
information can be obtained from the publications listed for each grant.
To further inform the research community, the SWMO is planning to
publish comprehensive final grant reports that contain new and worthwhile
information.
The training grant program is an effort to develop personnel with
advanced technical know-how and interest in solid waste. Graduate-level
training is offered to qualified students in solid waste-oriented programs.
It is also the intent of the training program to produce professional workers
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in the solid waste field who will be qualified to utilize the recommendations
accruing from the research effort.
The research and training grants described in this publication have
produced worthwhile results that are being implemented, and the ongoing
and planned projects hold the promise of further aiding the Nation in
coping with its solid waste problems. The SWMO's grant support program,
integrated with its other efforts, provides a unified vehicle to solid waste
problem solutions.
—RICHARD D. VAUGHAN,
Assistant Surgeon General
Acting Commissioner
Solid Waste Management Office.
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Contents
PAGE
SECTION I: RESEARCH GRANTS '
Composts and Composting
Composting Fruit and Vegetable Refuse (T) 3
Conservation of Resources in Municipal Waste (T) 4
Nitrogen Cycle Ecology of Solid Waste Composting (T) 5
Animal Waste Composting with Carbonaceous Material (A) 6
Cellulose Degradation in Composting (A) 8
Effects of Garbage Compost on Soil Processes (A) 8
Fate of Insecticides in Composted Agricultural Wastes (A) 11
Waste Composts as Chelating Agents in Plant Nutrition (A) 12
Conferences and Symposiums
Conference of Institute for Solid Wastes (T) 13
National Conference on Packaging Waste Management (T) 14
National Conference on Solid Waste Management (T) 15
National Conference on Solid Waste Research (T) 15
National Symposium on Animal Waste Management (T) 16
National Industrial Solid Waste Management Conference (A) 16
Containers
Design of a Water-Disposable Packaging Container (A) 17
Farm and Field Wastes
A Study of Farm Wastes (T) 18
Disposal of Dairy Cattle Wastes by Aerobic Digestion (T) 19
Engineering Properties of Farm Wastes (T) 21
Handling, Treatment, and Disposal of Animal Wastes (T) 23
Identification of Odors in Feedlot Operations (T) 24
Livestock Waste Management and Sanitation (T) 25
Microbiological Stabilization of Animal Wastes (T) 27
Poultry Manure Disposal by Plow Furrow Cover (T) 27
Sanitary Engineering Applied to Livestock Manures (T) 29
A Recirculating Waste System for Swine Units (A) 30
Effects of Processing Poultry Manure on Disease Agents (A) 31
Research on Animal Waste Pollution Control System (A) 34
Survival of Pathogens in Animal Manure Disposal (A) 35
Hospitals
Bacterial Contamination from Hospital Solid Wastes (T) 36
Incineration of Infectious and Radioactive Solid Waste (T) 38
Hospital Solid Waste Disposal in Community Facilities (A) 39
Study of Institutional Solid Wastes (A) 40
(,T? Terminated 1 as of March 31, 1970
(A) Active f
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Incineration and Incinerators
A Study of Incinerator Residue (T) 41
Smokeless Incineration of Bulky Municipal Refuse (T) 42
Systems Analysis of Shipborne Municipal Incineration (T) 43
Combustion Products from the Incineration of Plastics (A) 45
Continuous-feed Incineration of Municipal Refuse (A) 46
Criteria for Design and Control of Incinerators (A) 47
Fireside Metal Wastage in Municipal Incinerators (A) 48
Incineration of Plastics Found in Municipal Refuse (A) 49
Insects and Insecticides
Fly and Economic Evaluation of Urban Garbage Systems (T) 50
Integrated Control of the Housefly (A) 51
Succession and Ecology of Diptera in Cattle Droppings (A) 52
Planning and Management
Dynamic Evaluation Procedure; Refuse-Handling System (T) 54
Mathematical Analysis of Solid Waste Collection (T) 55
Mathematical Simulation of Refuse Collection and Disposal Systems (T) 56
Optimal Policies for Solid Wastes Collection (T) 57
The Physical and Chemical Composition of Municipal Refuse (T) 58
Comprehensive Studies of Solid Waste Management (A) 60
Decision Making and Solid Waste Disposal (A) 63
Standard Test Procedures for Municipal Solid Wastes (A) 65
Phytotoxins
Biologic Consequences of Plant Residue Decomposition in Soil (A) 66
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis of Municipal Refuse (T) 68
Pyrolysis of Solid Municipal Wastes (A) 69
Reclamation and Reuse
Citric Acid from Citrus Wastes by Fermentation (T) 70
Garbage and Wastes for Mushroom Production (T) 71
Partial Oxidation of Solid Organic Wastes (T) 72
Useful Disposal of Auto Bodies and Discarded Tires (T) 72
Biological Conversion on Animal Wastes to Nutrients (A) 73
Biological Methane Formation (A) 74
Chemical Transformation of Solid Wastes (A) 76
Converting Incinerator Residue to Useful Materials (A) 77
Degradation of Waste Paper to Protein (A) 78
Engineering Properties of Compacted Ash Fills (A) 80
High-Eneigy Gas from Refuse Using Fluidized Beds (A) 81
Kinetics of Porteous Refuse Hydrolysis Process (A) 82
Laser-Mediated Lignin Solid Waste Fermentation (A) 83
Noncombustive Disposal of Solid Agricultural Wastes (A) 84
Photosynthetic Reclamation of Agricultural Solid and Liquid Wastes (A) 85
Poultry Offal Silage as a Feed Ingredient (A) 87
Radiolytic Hydrolysis of Cellulose (A) 87
Reclamation of Energy from Organic Refuse (A) 88
Refuse Reclamation by Size Reduction and Separation (A) 89
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1'AGE
Single-Cell Proteins from Cellulosic Wastes (A) 90
Studies on Modifications of Industrial Wastes (A) 92
Thermophilic Aerobic Process for Waste Treatment (A) 93
Use of Domestic Waste Glass for Urban Paving 94
Using Wastes Formed in Vegetable and Cheese Production (A) 95
Utilization of Bark Waste (A) , , , 96
Utilization of Broiler Litter as Animal Feed (A) 99
Utilization of Fibrous Wastes as Sources of Nutrients (A) 100
Wood Waste Reuse in Controlled-Release Pesticides (A) 102
Safety
Solid Waste Disposal and Bird Hazard to Aircraft (A) 102
Sanitary Landfill
Microbiology and Acid Production in Sanitary Landfills (T) 105
Sanitary Landfill Investigation (T) , 106
Special Studies of a Sanitary Landfill (T) 107
Pollution of Subsurface Water by Sanitary Landfill (A) 109
Preventing Landfill Leachate Contamination of Waters (A) Ill
Stabilizing Sanitary Landfills by Injection Grouting (A) Ill
Theimophilic Metabolism in Solid Substrates 112
Sea Disposal
Marine Disposal of Fine-Grained Waste Solids (A) 113
Transport
Pipe Transport of Domestic Solid Waste (A) 114
SECTION II: RESEARCH GRANT PROJECTS BY STATE AND PRINCIPAL
INVESTIGATOR 117
SECTION III: TRAINING GRANTS 121
SECTION IV: RESEARCH AND TRAINING GRANT PRINCIPAL
INVESTIGATORS 131
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SECTION I
RESEARCH GRANTS
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Composting Fruit and Vegetable Refuse
Mr. Walter A. Mercer
National Canners Association
Western Research Laboratory
Berkeley, California 94710
Grant No. Ul 00524-04
Funds Awarded: $102,346
Project Period: Apr. 1, 1963 to Mar. 31, 1968
OBJECTIVES: To develop a rapid, aesthetically
acceptable, reliable, and economic method
of disposing—through accelerated aerobic
composting—of high-moisture solid refuse
produced in harvesting and in the processing
of fruits and vegetables.
APPROACH: Pilot studies were conducted
using aeration bins in which mixtures of
fruit- and vegetable-canning wastes were com-
posted with dry, moisture-absorbing materials
such as redwood bark, straw, sawdust, rice
hulls, coffee grounds, and final compost from
the process. The effects of repeated additions
of fresh waste with intermittent or continuous
forced aeration were also investigated.
Using information obtained by these pilot
bin studies, and parallel to them, large-scale
windrow composting studies were made. The
compost material was turned and mixed on
a flexible schedule.
FINDINGS: Ground fruit waste required a
higher proportion of absorbent, but under
these conditions the time required for the
completion of a compost cycle was reduced
by 50 percent. Lags in the development of
desirable microflora and temperature were
overcome by the addition of lime, if caused
by a low pH of the initial compost mixture.
The addition of nutrients, such as a nitro-
gen source, stimulated microbial growth and
accelerated the compost cycle. Composted
municipal refuse and rice hulls were two
absorbent materials that performed satisfac-
torily without modification. Shredded red-
wood bark failed to absorb moisture ade-
quately and appeared to inhibit microbial
growth because of its high tannin content.
Evaporation during composting of fruit waste
(85 percent moisture) and microbial conver-
sion of sugar and acids to carbon dioxide and
water resulted in substantially reduced weight
and volume of the finished compost. Air-dried
compost could be recycled as the absorbent
for fresh waste. The weight and volume of
the finished compost increased only slightly
when it was recycled several times. Offensive
odors did not develop during the composting
process nor was fly breeding observed.
Use of the first open windrows, having
varied heights and volumes of rice hulls, in-
dicated that the height of the mass was im-
portant to efficient composting. Waste could
be frequently added without altering micro-
bial degradation. Thus, open windrows could
not provide the height required for efficient
composting, and it was necessary to contain
the compost mixture between permanent
walls. Forced aeration—injecting air up
through the compost mass—was superior to
strictly mechanical means of providing aerobic
conditions. Without forced aeration, anaero-
bic pockets developed within the windrow.
Thermophilic temperatures were sustained
throughout an operating season by applying
waste every day. Wastes were added and the
compost turned at 12-hr intervals; this in-
creased the quantity stabilized within a given
time. An automated means of turning the
windrow mass was developed. A quarry rock
and gravel removal machine was modified to
mix, turn, and aerate the windrows.
From a technologic standpoint, the com-
post process is a feasible method of stabilizing
high-moisture solid wastes such as those result-
ing from fruit and vegetable processing. Con-
tinuous thermophilic degradation of organic
waste, sustained over an operating season,
provides for the most efficient stabilization
of wastes with a given volume of absorbent
material. Equipment required to carry out
an automated composted process has been
developed and evaluated. Precise cost figures
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for the operation of full-scale units are not
yet available.
PUBLICATIONS
MERCER, W. A., W. W. ROSE, L. W. RECIER, and J. E.
CHAPMAN. Better washing of asparagus to improve qual-
ity and prevent spoilage. Research Laboratory Report No.
60—W—46. Berkeley, National Canners Association Research
Laboratories, Western Branch, Feb. 17, 1960.
ROSE, W. W., J. E. CHAPMAN, and W. A. MERCER. Com-
posting fruit waste solids. In Proceedings of the Eleventh
Pacific Northwest Industrial Waste Conference—1963,
Corvallis, May 9-10, 1963. Oregon State University. (En-
gineering Experiment Station Circular No. 29.)
MERCER, W. A. Industrial solid wastes; the problems of
the food industry. In Proceedings; National Conference
on Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 1963, University
of Chicago Center for Continuing Education. Special
Report No. 29. American Public Works Association, 1964.
p. 51.
ROSE, W. W., and W. A. MERCER. Treatment and dis-
posal of potato waste. In Proceedings; International
Symposium; Utilization and disposal of potato wastes,
Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, May 24—27, 1965.
New Brunswick Research and Productivity Council, 1966.
ROSE, W. W., J. E. CHAPMAN, S. ROSEID, A. KATSUYAMA,
V. PORTER, and W. A. MERCER. Composting fruit and
vegetable refuse. Compost Science 6(2): 13—25, Summer
1965.
Conservation of Resources in Municipal Waste
Dr. Clarence E. Scarsbrook
Department of Agronomy and Soils
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830
Grant No. EC 00243-03
Funds Awarded: $213,287
Project Period: Apr. 1, 1967 to Mar. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the use of com-
posted refuse for agricultural applications
ranging from its use as a source of nitrogen
for established grasses to its serving as an
organic additive for production of greenhouse
container and cut crops. Compost was also
evaluated for its use for woody plants, high-
way planting, and as a cover for revegetating
areas denuded of topsoil. Additional subjects
were the comparison between composted
refuse and peat, sawdust, and other materials
as sources of organic matter in establishing
grasses, and also the biological properties of
compost when added to soil. Composted gar-
bage was evaluated for its effect on the ameli-
oration of the toxicity of certain herbicides.
APPROACH: Processed municipal solid waste,
sawdust, and peat were compared in experi-
ments for use on highway median strips, high-
way backslopes and fills, strip mines, and
borrow areas. The effects of these materials
during the establishment of different types of
grasses were determined. The effects of in-
cluding processed garbage in a hydroseeding
operation and of including garbage and acti-
vated sludge with peat as a mulching agent
were evaluated. Experiments compared am-
monium nitrate applied at rates of 80 and
400 Ib of nitrogen per acre per year with
processed garbage.
Laboratory work involved incubating soil
samples with compost applied as a mulch and
as incorporated into the soil and determining
the release of CO2, N, P, and S. The C:N
ratio as well as the development of cation
exchange capacity were established.
FINDINGS: Garbage compost added at the
rate of 100 tons per acre to soils ranging in
texture from loamy sands to clays ameliorated
the toxicity to crops of certain herbicides
but had no effect on others. Fluometuron
and trifluralin (each at 30 Ib/acre) were toxic
to cotton without compost additions; how-
ever, with compost there was considerably less
toxicity of the herbicides on cotton. Compost
did not reduce the toxicity of bromacil (50
Ib/acre), picloram (30 Ib/acre), or simazine
(30 Ib/acre).
Garbage compost, when first applied to
soils, was often toxic to seedlings, but there
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was little injury wheti the -soil was reseeded
4 to 6 weeks after application of compost.
The two garbage composts used as received
from the supplier both require large amounts
of N and P for plant growth; however, as
the compost ages it becomes more nearly
satisfactory as a medium for plant growth.
The composts compare favorably with hay
and pine straw as a mulch for erosion control.
The garbage composts used do not appear
promising as a part of the growth medium for
ornamentals but may be satisfactory as
mulches.
PUBLICATIONS
ORR, H. P., K. C. SANDERSON, and \V. C. MARTIN, JR.
Compaiison of processed garbage, sawdust, and pine straw
in mulching garden chrysanthemums 1967. Research Re-
sults for Ninserymen, Auburn Univeisity Agricultural
Experiment Station, Horticultural Series No. 10:6, Aug.
1968. (Abstract.)
SANDERSON, K. C., H. P. ORR, and W. C. MARTIN, JR.
Compaiison of processed garbage, sawdust and pine straw
in mulching petunias 1967. Research Results for Nursery-
men, Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station,
Horticultural Series No. 10:6-7, Aug. 1968. (Abstract.)
SANDERSON, K. C., R. SELF, H. P. ORR, and W. C. MARTIN,
JR. Utilization of processed garbage-sludge as a media ad-
ditive in the production of woody plants in containers.
Research Results for Nurserymen, Auburn University
Agricultural Experiment Station, Horticultural Series No.
10:5-6, Aug. 1968. (Abstract.)
SANDERSON, K. C., H. P, ORR, and W. C. MARTIN, JR.
Utilization of processed garbage in the production of
selected ornamentals. Proceedings; Association of Southern
Agricultural Workers, 65:160-161, 1968. (Abstract.)
DICKENS, R., D. G. STURKIE, J. D. MILLER, and J. L.
MORGAN. Utilization of composted garbage for turf estab-
lishment. Proceedings; Association of Southern Agricul-
tural Workers, 66:87-88, 1969. (Abstract.)
SCARSBROOK, C. E. Fertility requiiements of municipal gar-
bage compost foi plant growth. Proceedings; Association
of Southern Agricultural Workers, 66:96, 1969. (Abstract.)
HILTBOLD, A. E., and G. A. BUCHANAN. Use of garbage
compost in reduction of toxic residues of herbicides in
soil. Proceedings; Association of Southern Agricultural
Workers, 66:102, 1969. (Abstract.)
Nitrogen Cycle Ecology of Solid Waste Composting
Dr. David T. Knuth
Institute of Environmental Studies
Gainesville, Florida 32601
Grant No. U1-00548-02
Funds Awarded: $47,540
Project Period: June 1, 1966 to Sept. 30, 1968
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the fate, re-
cycling, and use of nitrogen compounds in
the composting of solid waste. To investigate
the kinds of nitrogen bacteria present, and
to correlate nitrogen products present with
microbial activity. To predict and evaluate
the effect of environmental changes on com-
posting efficiency and on conditions necessary
for maximum nitrogen utilization.
APPROACH: Composting was done in the
laboratory to obtain good experimental con-
trol and reproducibility by using a specially
constructed fermenter to simulate the wind-
row method used in industrial operations.
The fermenter was used to obtain results
directly applicable to windrow operations run
on the batch basis, and, in some cases, re-
sults were applicable to continuous thermo-
philic composting systems. The mesophilic,
thermophilic, ambient, and curing stages of
composting were studied.
The nitrogen economy of each phase was
examined by using wet chemical, isotopic,
mass spectrographic, and gas chromatographic
methods. Microbial nitrogen activity in each
stage was determined by quantitating the
nitrifying, denitrifying, ammonifying, and
nitrate-reducing groups. The rate of the com-
posting process was measured in terms of CO2
production in the total system, whereas the
BOD approach was used to measure the de-
gree of stabilization.
FINDINGS: Some of the soil-nitrogen-cycle
transformations were detected in the meso-
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philic stage of composting. Inorganic nitrogen
compounds sometimes accumulated in con-
centrations representing nearly 20 percent
of the total nitrogen present. Organic nitrog-
enous compounds were hydrolyzed and am-
monified, even though other organic com-
pounds in the waste were not noticeably de-
composed. The results suggest that losses of
nitrogen that may follow ammonification in
subsequent stages of composting could be
prevented by equalizing the rate of ammoni-
fication and the rate of immobilization by
the composting microflora. No nitrogen was
lost either as gas or as nonexchangeable
nitrogenous compounds.
Microbial activity reached its maximum at
about 12 hours, declined rapidly to about
one-half maximum, and remained at almost
that level for up to 3 or 4 weeks. Microbial
activity did not correlate with the BOD re-
duction rate, which declined rapidly after
8 days.
Nitrogen transformations play a critical
role in the conservation and utilization of
nitrogen in the composting process. It is be-
coming increasingly evident that ammonifica-
tion and nitrification must be controlled or
regulated to ensure efficient utilization of
nutrient nitrogen. This may be a critical re-
quirement in substantially improving com-
posting rates and quality. Methods used to
control nitrogen conversions in the soil might
also be applicable in composting.
Animal Waste Composting with Carbonaceous Material
Dr. William S. Caller
Department of Soil Science
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
Grant No. EC 00270-02
Funds Awarded: $54,084
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To develop a process for com-
posting a combination of chicken manure as
a source of nitrogen and sawdust initially as
a source of carbon to produce a valuable soil
amendment.
APPROACH: Poultry manure and sawdust are
used as model organic waste materials repre-
senting both high and low nitrogen-contain-
ing wastes. The carbon-to-nitrogen ratios of
these materials are determined. Then the
materials are mixed to produce an initial
carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 25:1. The aerobic
composting characteristics of this composite
sample are studied under controlled condi-
tions of temperature to determine the opti-
mum temperature for rapid composting. The
C:N ratio is then varied to determine the
optimum mixture of manure to sawdust. The
moisture content of the mixture is then
varied to determine an optimum condition.
The experiments are conducted in a 45-cu-ft,
horizontal, rotating drum with provisions for
controlling airflow, adding raw material, and
removing finished compost.
The microflora found to be adapted to
these conditions are identified and studied
in terms of their physiologic and nutritional
requirements for ensuring maximum compost-
ing rates while an end product that is most de-
sirable as a soil amendment is being produced.
The final stages of this project involve de-
termining bulk handling characteristics and
field performance of several possible end prod-
ucts. The compost is being applied at several
rates to various soils, and the response of
high value crops is being determined.
FINDINGS: Batch composting. The mixture
of sawdust and poultry manure, blended in
carbon-to-nitrogen ratios (C:N) of 25:1 to
40:1, was analyzed chemically and found to
be nutritionally balanced for microbial
growth. Mixtures of sawdust and manure
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ranging from C:N of1 25:1 to 40:1 were then
composted batchwise in the drum composter
with varying moisture contents.
Maximum microbial activity was observed
at moisture levels of 55 to 60 percent. At
more than 65 percent moisture, the mixture
formed balls that hindered the aerobic ac-
tivity. The moisture content did not vary by
more than 1.2 percent during a given run.
The oxygen uptake rate for the C:N mix-
ture of 25:1 was almost 33 percent greater
than that of the 40:1 mixture (4.19 mg of
oxygen per g of volatile solids versus 3.3 mg
of oxygen per g of volatile solids). Tempera-
tures above 60 C were also sustained almost
three times longer for the C:N mixture of
25:1. Although at least 80 percent or more
of the carbon was supplied by the sawdust,
less than 25 percent of the reduction in vola-
tile solids could be attributed to the sawdust.
Thus, the available carbon during the com-
posting period was supplied by the manure.
The nitrogen loss during the high-rate
composting period averaged only 3.29 percent,
much less than anticipated.
The maximum time used in studying an
individual batch was about 5 to 7 days in
the composter. Sixteen batch studies were
performed.
After being removed from the composter,
the holocellulose decreased in content from
66 to 54 percent and became fairly stable
after 4 weeks. The cation exchange capacity
increased during this period to 69 meq/100 g.
The final compost has a blackish-white
color and an odor similar to that of fresh
humus soil. Moreover, the cation exchange
capacity is at a level characteristic of a de-
sirable soil conditioner.
Continuous composter operation. During
the period of continuous operation, poultry
manure was not available and swine manure
was substituted. A batch study showed that
swine manure was satisfactory, although the
mixture required a week to become thermo-
philic as opposed to 1 to 2 days for the poultry
manure.
A second batch was started. After the com-
posting mixture had been in the thermo-
philic region for 24 hours, one-third of the
mixture was replaced by a fresh manure and
sawdust mixture. The feeding process was
continued for 2 weeks, after which the process
was allowed to halt. After each feeding, the
temperature dropped from above 60 C to 45
to 50 C. The 60 C plus temperatures were
again reached after about 6 to 8 hours. The
product removed from the composter appears
similar to the poultry manure-sawdust end
product. Chemical analyses have not yet been
completed.
Plant growth studies. Initial studies were
made by spreading the compost as a mulch
on patches of grass at the composter site. The
area was divided into 1.35-sq-m units and
treated with 0, 3, 6, or 12 qt of compost. No
difference was found among the areas treated
with compost; however, the grass clipped
from the treated areas had a dry-weight in-
crease of 22 percent and a nitrogen content
30 percent greater than the untreated areas.
Greenhouse studies using the compost
mixed with otherwise untreated soil are being
conducted with tomatoes, millet, wheat, and
green beans. Ten applications of compost are
being used ranging from 0 to 100 percent
compost. When compared with the 0 percent
treatment, the 10 percent treatment was found
better for the tomatoes, millet, and wheat.
The beans showed the best growth at the 1
percent level. The increase in dry weight was
found to be 400 percent for the tomatoes,
354 percent for the millet, 238 percent for
the wheat, and 153 percent for the green
beans. The tomato yield was also greater at
the 10 percent level. The bean seed yield
was greatest at the 1 percent level as was the
nodule count on the bean roots.
Tissue studies are in progress. These studies
indicate that the compost is a valuable soil
conditioner.
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Cellulose Degradation in Composting
Dr. John S. Jeris
Department of Civil Engineering
Manhattan College
Bronx, New York 10471
Grant No. EC 00161-04
Funds Awarded: $125,872
Project Period: Aug. 1, 1966 to July 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To investigate and determine
the environmental conditions required for
accelerated cellulose and refuse degradation
by microorganisms by use of composting pro-
cedures. To translate the results into engi-
neering information so that urban refuse may
be treated more economically by use of the
compost process.
APPROACH: Laboratory studies used a bat-
tery of three continuously fed composters.
These bench-scale studies were designed to
determine the maximum rate of solid waste
stabilization under appropriate physical and
chemical environmental conditions. The
study materials included (1) municipal refuse;
(2) a synthetic refuse composed of paper,
vegetables, and meat scraps; and (3) paper
with nutrient additives. Cellulose and deg-
radation products were assayed so that a
measure of the system's efficiency and the
metabolic mechanisms could be obtained.
In conjunction with the bench-scale com-
posters, Warburg and shake flask apparatuses
were used to scan stabilization rates of the
solid waste materials over wide ranges of vari-
ous environmental parameters.
FINDINGS: The maximum rate of municipal
refuse composting obtained, as measured by
oxygen consumption, was approximately 50
percent greater than the highest rate reported
in the literature. At this high rate the signifi-
cant parameters included (1) a pH of 8 to
8.5, (2) a temperature of 58 to 62 C, (3) a
nitrogen-to-carbon ratio of 1 to 30, and (4)
a moisture content of 65 to 75 percent with
a minimum free-air space of 30 percent.
The rate of degradation obtained with
mixed refuse containing 60 to 70 percent
paper is about 10 times greater than with a
pure paper solid waste. In general, an in-
crease of paper content means a decrease in
stabilization rate owing to the nonbiodegrade-
able nature of paper.
The stabilization rate decreases significantly
during composting at a material turnover
rate greater than 4 days. Higher rates of
biological stabilization are maintained by re-
cycling composted material as a seed with
fresh refuse. A recycle rate of 50 percent has
given maximum results.
Effects of Garbage Compost on Soil Processes
Dr. Charles C. Hortenstine
Department of Soils
University of Florida
Gainesvile, Florida 32601
Grant No. EC 00250-04
Funds Awarded: $74,161
Project Period: Dec. 1, 1966 to Nov. 30, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects on struc-
ture, fertility, and biological activity of add-
ing municipal refuse compost to the soil. To
evaluate the use of compost as a plant nutrient
and to determine toxic or beneficial effects
of compost on soil when it is applied over
8
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short and long time periods. To evaluate the
water pollution potential of compost.
APPROACH: Laboratory, greenhouse, and
field studies are being conducted concurrently.
Laboratory studies have been undertaken to
isolate organisms effective in decomposing
organic refuse. The conditions of tempera-
ture and moisture content of the compost
that produce maximum composting rates are
being determined. The compost is being
analyzed for plant nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and copper as well as organic matter content.
Laboratory studies are also determining the
water-holding capacity, density, cation ex-
change capacity, and pH of the compost.
Leaching studies are being conducted to
determine the ground water contamination
potential of compost.
Greenhouse studies are being done to de-
termine the nutrient availability of compost
as compared with sewage sludge, mineral fer-
tilizers, and animal manures. The potential
of compost as a potting medium for orna-
mental plants is being thoroughly investi-
gated. Soil characteristics of compost and
compost-soil mixtures are being evaluated to
determine characteristics such as water-hold-
ing capacity, pH, aeration, and drainage
properties.
Field studies are being conducted through-
out Florida on major soil types to compare
compost with other fertilizers as a plant nutri-
ent. Field studies are also determining the
maximum amount of compost that can be
mixed with various soil types without pro-
ducing conditions toxic to various plants.
FINDINGS: Composting municipal waste
under controlled conditions is advantageous
from the following viewpoints: (1) Salvaging
of paper and metals is feasible. (2) There is
no air or water pollution hazard. (3) There
is no health hazard due to fly or rodent popu-
lations. (4) The composted material may be
used as a soil-improving amendment. Munic-
ipal refuse starts, however, as a waste prod-
uct and remains a waste product throughout
the composting operation. In other words,
the philosophy that a salable material is pro-
duced from composting municipal refuse is
not a valid premise.
Laboratory. Composted refuse is variable
in physical makeup and chemical constituents.
This variability is present between day-to-
day and season-to-season collections. A typical
sample of composted refuse from the Gaines-
ville plant contained 0.57 percent nitrogen,
0.26 percent phosphorus, 0.22 percent potas-
sium, 33 ppm boron, 24 ppm manganese, 606
ppm zinc, 1.88 percent calcium and 0.12 per-
cent magnesium. This sample was about 45
percent water on a wet-weight basis (79 per-
cent on dry-weight basis), 38 percent ash,
2.50 percent total soluble salts, and had a
pH of 6.85.
In a laboratory experiment where compost
was mixed with Arredondo fine sand, there
was a large increase in fungal populations.
Bacterial populations also increased after 4
days in soil containing 10 percent compost,
but these populations decreased again after a
few days. In carbon dioxide evolution, com-
post was intermediate between chicken ma-
nure (which was high) and cow manure (which
was low). Almost no nitrification occurred
where compost was added to the soil. This
was probably due to rapid immobilization of
nitrogen by the soil microflora. In applying
compost to the soil, this characteristic must
be compensated for either by applying addi-
tional nitrogen or by delaying planting until
the soil microorganisms release nitrogen. This
delay may be for a period of 3 to 4 weeks or as
long as 6 months, depending on the amounts
of compost applied and climatic conditions.
Of particular interest was the effect of
compost on nematode survival and motility.
Where sting nematodes, Belonolaimus longi-
candatus, were placed in compost extract,
motility ceased after 2.8 hours' exposure. This
was attributed to the organic fraction, since
nematodes placed in extract from which the
organic fraction was removed were unaffected.
In another experiment, survival of African
Giant earthworms in Arredondo fine sand
was increased by additions of compost. As
little as 2.5 percent compost was effective;
however, compost was not as good a medium
for earthworms as peat.
Greenhouse. In several experiments where
compost was added to soil, plant growth was
-------
enhanced. Generally, however, there was an
initial tieup of nitrogen by soil microorgan-
isms that was detrimental to the first crop
grown. Subsequent crop? showed increased
yields as compared with controls only where
large amounts (128 metric tons or more per
hectare) of compost were applied. In this re-
spect, compost could not compete with min-
eral fertilizer unless the compost was free.
Where compost was applied to soil at rates
of 128 or more tons/hectare, soil phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, pH, and total
soluble salts were increased greatly. Soil phos-
phorus was also increased at much lower
rates of compost (2 tons/hectare). Cation ex-
change capacity and water-holding capacity of
the soil were increased greatly where 128 or
more tons of compost were applied. Soil
aeration and granulation were also improved.
In one experiment where 2,048 tons of com-
post were applied per hectare, aeration was
improved to such an extent that manganese
was rendered unavailable for plant use. (Plant
roots absorb manganese as the Mn+2 state,
and oxidation changes it to the Mn+4 state.)
Moreover, at such high rates total soluble
salts became a problem, as was manifested
by phytotoxicity in one crop of radishes.
Germination. The effect of compost on seed
germination is of major concern. In one ex-
periment, compost was extracted in 500 ml
of water, and the extract was used as a mois-
tening agent for seed germination. Where
80 g of compost were extracted, radish seed
germination was reduced to 56 percent. Ex-
tract from 160 g of compost reduced radish
seed germination to 16 percent and turnip
seed germination to 40 percent. Extract from
320 g of compost reduced germination of all
seeds tested—radish to zero, turnip to zero, oat
to 41 percent, and pearl millet to 45 percent.
Seedlings that made any growth in the 320-g
extract showed evidence of phytotoxicity and
were much smaller than seedlings in the other
extracts. The phytotoxic effects were thought
to be the result of total soluble salts since
conductivity was increased greatly as the
amounts of compost extracted increased—
from 1.97 millimhos per cm in 10 g to 26.60
millimhos per cm in 320 g (more than 8 mil-
limhos per cm is considered a strongly saline
solution). This soluble salt effect is another
indication that there should be a time lapse
between applications of compost to seeding,
so that leaching of soluble salts below the
root zone can be allowed for.
Field experiments. A study was conducted
on Leon fine sand to determine the effects
of compost applications on nematode popu-
lations. Where 8, 16, and 32 tons of compost
per hectare were applied, spiral nematodes,
Helicotylenchus spp., were reduced in num-
ber as compared with lower compost rates
or mineral fertilizer. Ring nematodes, Cir-
conemoides spp., were also lower in plots
where 32 tons of compost per hectare were
applied. Dorylaims and Rhafditids were
significantly higher in soil from the 32-ton-
per-hectare plots.
An experiment initiated 2 years ago at
International Minerals Corporation, Bartow,
Florida, shows promise of yielding invaluable
information. This experiment was designed
to determine the effects of adding compost
to the sand fraction left as a waste product
after the flotation process, which removes
phosphorus from the matrix. Two rates (35
and 70 tons of compost/hectare) were ap-
plied to plots on this sand during April of
1968 and 1969. Mineral fertilizer (10-10-10)
was also applied to plots with no compost and
to plots where the compost was applied. Two
crops (sorghum and oats) were grown each
year.
Oats were not harvested in 1969. Oats are
growing, however, in the plots receiving com-
post only where there were no surviving
plants in 1968. There was undoubtedly a
residual effect from compost applied in 1968.
This was also shown by much larger sorghum
seedhead yields (272 g overall average in 1968
as compared with 669 g in 1969). In addition
to yield benefits, there was a small but highly
significant increase in cation exchange ca-
pacity and water-holding capacity of the sand
as the result of compost application.
Summary. Research to date has shown that
composted municipal refuse applied to soil is
beneficial both to plants and the soil. In order,
however, to reap any benefit from compost,
relatively large amounts must be applied to
the soil. In other words, the soil must be
considered as a solid waste disposal sink.
Any detrimental effects to the soil or plant
10
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life will soon dissipate «under .favorable clima-
tic conditions.
Laboratory research indicated that com-
post applied to the soil reduced nitrification
to almost zero. This may have great implica-
tions in the field in conjunction with animal
waste management. Of major concern where
animal wastes are applied to the soil is move-
met of nitrates into potable water supplies.
An experiment was recently initiated in which
various levels of compost were applied to
soil in small lysimeters. The objective is to
study the effects on nitrification when cow
manure is applied to the same soil. If com-
post does reduce or delay the movement of
NOa into ground water supplies, this will
certainly be a worthwhile finding.
PUBLICATIONS
ROTHWELL, D. F., and C. C. HORTENSTINE. Composted
municipal refuse: Its effects on carbon dioxide, nitrate,
fungi, and bacteria in Arredondo fine sand. Agronomy
Journal, 61 (6): 837-840, Nov.-Dec. 1969.
HORTENSTINE, C. C., and D. F. ROTHWEJL. Gaibage com-
post as a source of plant nutrients for oats and radishes.
Compost Science, 9(2):23-25, Summer, 1968.
HORTENSTINE, C C., and D. F. ROTHWELL. Utilizing
municipal refuse in reclaiming phosphate mining spoil
areas. Presented at Annual Meeting, Association of South-
ern Agricultural Workers, Memphis, Feb. 2—4, 1970.
ROTHWELL, D. F., and C. C. HORTENSTINE. Effect of com-
posted municipal refuse and other organic wastes on
microbial activity. Presented at Annual Meeting, Asso-
ciation of Southern Agricultural Workers, Memphis, Feb.
2-4, 1970.
Fate of Insecticides in Composted Agricultural Waste
Mr. Walter W. Rose
Western Research Laboratory
National Canners Association
Berkeley, California 94710
Grant No. EC 00264-04
Funds Awarded: $74,356
Project Period: May 1, 1966 to Aug, 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To determine the fate of in-
secticides in composting agricultural wastes
by isolation, separation, and identification of
residues of the original insecticide and its
major transformation products. Representa-
tive insecticides of the three major classes,
i.e., chlorinated hydrocarbon, organophos-
phate, and carbamate, were incorporated
singly and as mixtures in tomato, peach,
potato, and fresh produce market wastes be-
fore composting. The effect of both continu-
ous and batch-type composting operations on
the breakdown of insecticides was evaluated
by using pure cultures of microorganisms pre-
dominating in the aerobic compost process.
APPROACH: Wooden bins capable of hold-
ing 1 cu yd of compost material were filled
with the proper ratio of organic waste and
absorbent material. The waste material was
analyzed for field-applied insecticides, and
then purified insecticides were added in the
following concentrations: 7 to 20 ppm DDT,
1 to 5 ppm dieldrin, 2 to 10 ppm parathion,
1 to 5 ppm Diazinon®, 10 to 25 ppm Sevin®,
and 5 to 15 ppm zineb. Regularly scheduled
samples were taken during the composting
and curing periods and, after extraction and
purification, were analyzed by gas, paper, or
thin-layer chromatography with the addition of
infrared spectroscopy on unknown products.
In the composting system whereby specific
insecticides are markedly degraded, the re-
sponsible organism was isolated and cultured.
These pure culture studies provided samples
from which degradation products of the in-
secticides could be readily isolated and iden-
tified. The pure culture studies also estab-
lished the ability of selected microorganisms
to attack the test insecticides under the pre-
vailing pH, temperature, and moisture con-
ditions of the compost mixture.
FINDINGS: The batch-type and continuous
thermophilic compost procedures effectively
reduced the levels of organophosphate- and
11
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carbamate-type insecticides. Degradation was
faster in the thermophilic process. For ex-
ample, to reduce the Diazinon concentration
by 50 percent it took 10 days at thermophilic
temperatures and 28 days in the batch-type
system.
Known degradation products for Diazinon
included oxodiazinon and sulphotepp. Break-
down products for parathion included amino
parathion, p-aminophenol, and p-nitro
phenol.
Results for the chlorinated hydrocarbons
support the finding by others in regard to
their long persistence. There was a gradual
loss of pp DDT during composting at 110
to 140 F. At lower temperatures there was
no loss, and this indicated that the observed
decline in DDT was probably due to volatili-
zation. Dieldrin was less persistent than DDT
and the batch-type process was more effective
than the thermophilic process. After 75 days
of composting, the dieldrin concentration ap-
proached a nondetectable level in the batch-
type process. For the same time interval the
thermophilic process showed a reduction of
50 percent. Known breakdown products for
DDT and dieldrin were not detected in the
compost samples.
The two carbamates, carbaryl and zineb,
disappeared very rapidly from both compost
systems. The persistence of carbaryl was
found to be highly dependent upon the pH.
Alkaline pH's accelerated its hydrolysis. Lab-
oratory studies with buffered insecticide so-
lutions confirmed the effect of pH on car-
baryl. At a pH of 8.0 or 9.0 the initial
concentration of 60 ppm was reduced to a
nondetectable level within 22 days. At pH
7.0 approximately 80 percent of trie carbaryl
was lost within 50 days. At pH 4.0 very little
change had occurred in the concentration
after 50 days of incubation.
Bacteria were the most predominant type of
microorganisms with both methods. Actino-
mycetes were next, followed by fungi. The
type of insecticide used apparently had no
influence on the microflora that developed
within the compost mass.
The total numbers of bacteria were about
equal with both processes. The numbers of
actinomycetes and fungi were higher with
the batch-type procedure. There was a slight
decline in the total numbers of each micro-
flora with time of composting.
Incubation of compost extract in a mineral
salts medium and in insecticide resulted in
the isolation of some microorganisms. By this
procedure six isolates have been obtained
that grow in the presence of Diazinon or
parathion. One isolate has been obtained
from the dieldrin extracts. Further work
should provide additional isolates for study
in determining a pattern of insecticide utili-
zation and degradation.
PUBLICATIONS
ROSE, W. W., W. A. MERCER, A. M. KATSUYAMA, S. ROSEID,
V. Y. PORTER, J. T. YAM ADA, J. A. HESP, and J. MARANO.
Fate of insecticides in composted agricultural wastes. Un-
published data. [1967.]
FARROW, R. P., E. R. ELKINS, W. W. ROSE, F. C. LAMB,
J. W. RALLS, and W. A. MERCFR. Canning operations that
reduce insecticide levels in prepared foods and in solic!
food wastes. Residue Reviews, 29:73-87, 1969.
Waste Composts as Cheiating Agents in Plant Nutrition
Dr. Willard L. Lindsay
Department of Agronomy
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
Grant No. EC 00273-02
Funds Awarded: $36,945
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that com-
posts and related organic materials either
contain or can produce organic compounds
capable of chelating insoluble nutrient ele-
12
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ments in the soil. The addition of such com-
posts would be beneficial in those soils that
show specific micronutrient deficiencies.
APPROACH: Solid waste compost and other
related organic materials are added to soils
known to be deficient in specific nutrients.
Plants are grown on these soils under care-
fully controlled greenhouse or growth cham-
ber conditions. Growth response to the added
compost is measured. Initially, a soil showing
zinc deficiency and another showing iron de-
ficiency were used in these studies. An in-
crease in plant growth, the nutrient uptake
by the plant and the nutrient composition of
the added organic material being known,
would indicate that the hypothesized metal
chelation may be a contributing factor. Period
of incubation, rate of application, and other
variables are being investigated in order to
consider a variety of experimental parameters.
The solubilization of micronutrient cations
in waste compost by the organic materials
from the decomposing compost is being
studied. Soluble metal complexes or chelates
in soil extracts are identified by using dial-
ysis, chromatography, and infrared absorption
techniques. Extracted organic matter from
soil-compost mixtures is being studied for
stability constants of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn
complexes.
FINDINGS: A series of greenhouse studies
showed that sewage sludge and garbage com-
post are somewhat beneficial for correcting
Zn and Fe deficiencies in high-pH soils. Ash-
ing the organic wastes greatly reduced their
effectiveness as Zn and Fe fertilizers. The
organic-matter fraction was beneficial in keep
ing those relatively insoluble nutrients solu-
ble and available for plants.
Sewage sludge initially contained a high
level of DTPA-extractable (available) Fe.
During incubation with soil, only a small
but significant fraction remained available.
Increased availability persisted for at least
three cropping cycles. On a dry-weight basis
sewage sludge was more effective than gar-
bage compost in correcting these micronu-
trient deficiencies. N, P, K, and S were ade-
quately supplied so that growth response
resulted primarily from added Zn or Fe.
Water-soluble extracts of sewage sludge,
garbage composts, and soils to which these
wastes were incubated were examined to iden-
tify possible chelating agents responsible for
the solubilization of metal ions in soil. Sepa-
rations of the water-soluble extracts on Sepha-
dex G-25 columns gave five molecular-weight
fractions. When 59Fe was added to the ex-
tracts, it was retained by the higher molec-
ular-weight fraction. Further separation and
identification of the functional groups re-
sponsible lor metal chelation are in progress,
by use of chromatographic and infrared ab-
sorption techniques.
The study indicates that solid waste prod-
ucts such as garbage composts and sewage
sludges are useful micronutrient fertilizers
on soils deficient in these nutrients. Identi-
fication of soluble metal cheiates arising from
decomposing organic residues is contributing
fundamental information on the beneficial role
of organic matter in restoring soil fertility.
Conference of Institute for Solid Wastes
Mr. Robert D. Bugher
Executive Director
American Public Works Association
Chicago, Illinois 60600
Grant No. SW 00023-01
Funds Awarded: $10,000
Project Period: June 1, 1966 to Dec. 31, 1966
These funds supported, in part, the first
annual meeting of the Institute for Solid
Wastes (ISW) of the American Public Works
Association (APWA), held in Chicago, Il-
linois, Sept. 10 to 15, 1966. The Institute
was formed Aug. 29, 1965, within the struc-
13
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ture of the APWA. The meeting was held
in conjunction with the 1966 Public Works
Congress and Equipment Show.
The funds helped to defray expenses in-
curred by specially invited representatives of
the International Association of Public
Cleansing (INTAPUC) in establishing an in-
ternational relationship within the national
framework. The participation of experts in
the field of solid wastes from other countries
enhanced the conference, which focused on
solid waste management research.
A summary of the Joint Meeting of the
Executive Councils of INTAPUC and ISW
was published in the 1966 Proceedings of
the APWA-ISW. The meeting prepared the
groundwork for the merger of INTAPUC
and the International Research Group for
Refuse Disposal. The two groups merged
into the International Solid Wastes Associa-
tion (ISWA) effective Jan. 1, 1970. ISWA
has as its purpose the development of inter-
national relations and the exchange of in-
formation on solid wastes and public cleans-
ing The APWA-ISW is the official national
representative for the United States and
Canada in the ISWA. Robert D. Bugher,
Secretary-Treasurer of the APWA-ISW and
Executive Director of the APWA, is currently
Vice President of the ISWA.
PUBLICATIONS
Proceedings; First Annual Meeting of the Institute for
Solid Wastes, Chicago, Sept. 13-15, 1966. American Public
Works Association. 78 p.
National Conference on Packaging Waste Management
Dr. George F. Stewart
Food Protection and Toxicology Center
University of California—Davis
Davis, California 95616
Grant No. EC 00324-01
Funds Awarded: $21,856
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1969 to Jan. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To ascertain the changing
nature and dimensions of the packaging
wastes problem and to explore avenues for
solutions to this problem, with due regard
for scientific and technologic aspects, economic
and sociologic factors, legal aspects, and pub-
lic information.
APPROACH: A conference on packaging and
waste management was held September 22 to
24, 1969, at the Sheraton-Palace Hotel, San
Francisco, California. Its purpose was to
bring together university, government, and
industry personnel to examine the magnitude,
complexity, and growth rate of packaging
waste material, and the technical and eco-
nomic factors related to its management. A
complete proceedings of the conference has
been published.
PUBLICATION
First National Conference on Packaging Wastes; pro-
ceedings, [San Francisco,] September 22-24, 1969. Wash-
ington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971. 242 p.
(In press.)
14
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National Conference on Solid Waste Management
Dr. Samuel A. Hart
Department of Agricultural Engineering
University of California—Davis
Davis, California 95616
Grant No. SW 00037-01
Funds Awarded: $24,069
Project Period: July 1, 1965 to Dec. 31, 1966
These funds supported, in part, a National
Conference on Solid Waste Management held
on Apr. 4 and 5, 1966, at Davis, California,
that explored operations research and sys-
tems analysis as possible tools in improving
the approach to the involved problems of
solid waste management in metropolitan
areas.
Approximately 350 persons attended the
meeting. Representatives from the U.S. Pub-
lic Health Service, universities, industry,
governmental agencies, and private institu-
tions presented papers that were published.
PUBLICATIONS
Solid Wastes Management; Proceedings; National Con-
ference, Davis Campus, April 4—5, 1966, University of
California. 214 p.
National Conference on Solid Waste Research
Dr. Ross E. McKinney
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66044
Grant No. EF 00549-01
Funds Awarded: $18,478
Project Period: July 1, 1963 to June 30, 1964
OBJECTIVES: These funds supported, in part,
a National Conference on Solid Waste Re-
search whose purpose was to stimulate re-
search in the field. The long-range aspects of
the solid waste management problem and
the urgency of working toward a solution
were recognized. The conference, held for
21/2 days in December 1963, in Chicago, re-
viewed the solid waste problem in the United
States. Some 36 papers and summaries were
presented by authorities in the field.
The conference covered research needs in
waste characterization, waste collection and
transportation, and waste treatment and
utilization. Efforts were directed toward en-
couraging young researchers to meet these
needs.
The budget covered mainly travel and per
diem expenses for program participants and
study section members. Travel for 30 young
researchers and for 3 foreign scientists, prepa-
ration and printing of the program, stenotype
recording, and transcription and publication
of the proceedings were also funded.
PUBLICATIONS
McKiNNEY, R. E. Proceedings; National Conference on
Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 1963, University
of Chicago Center for Continuing Education. Special
Report No. 29. American Public Works Association, 1964.
228 p.
15
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National Symposium on Animal Waste Management
Dr. E. Paul Taiganides
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43212
Grant No. SW 00026-01
Funds Awarded: $6,500
Project Period: Apr. 1, 1966 to Mar. 31, 1967
These funds supported, in part, a National
Symposium on Animal Waste Management
at Michigan State University, May 5 to 1,
1966. The conference was designed to ap-
praise animal waste management needs and
stimulate research on problems in the area.
Another objective was to provide a forum
for" teams of scientists, engineers, public health
officials, and others to exchange knowledge
on agricultural waste problems. More than
300 persons attended the conference, includ-
ing a number of foreign scientists.
PUBLICATIONS
Management of Farm Animal Wastes; Proceedings; Na-
tional Symposium on Animal Waste Management, East
Lansing, Michigan, May 5—7, 1966, Kellogg Center foi
Continuing Education, Michigan State University. ASAE
Publication No. SP-0366. St. Joseph, Mich., American
Society of Agricultural Engineers. 161 p.
National Industrial Solid Waste Management Conference
Dr. H. Nugent Myrick
Department of Environmental Science and
Engineering
University of Houston
Houston, Texas 77004
Grant No. EC 00331-O1
Funds Awarded: $29,500
Project Period: May 1, 1969 to August 31,
1970
OBJECTIVES: To develop and conduct a na-
tional conference on the management of in-
dustrial solid wastes. A multisession format
included coverage of technical information
on characterization, collection, processing, and
reuse. Economic aspects and aspects of second-
ary-industry technology were considered.
APPROACH: The program was developed by
a national task force committee representing
industrial, professional, governmental, and
research interests. The committee worked by
mail, for the most part, and at any major
technical meeting attended by a significant
number of the committee members. The
chairman made personal contacts with the
pertinent major professional societies and
trade associations to seek their support or
cooperation. All technical papers were by
request and represented the most rigorous
evaluation of the current technology and
state of the art. A conference proceedings
will be published.
16
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Design of a Water-Disposable Packaging Container
Dr. Samuel F. Hulbert
Division of Interdisciplinary Studies
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29631
Grant No. EC 00033-03
Funds Awarded: $163,500
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1968 to Feb. 28, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To develop a packaging con-
tainer that, after use, can be easily processed
to dissolve in water. The packaging con-
tainers being investigated consist of a water-
soluble superstructure with a thin, impervious
coating that resists corrosion by the environ-
ments commonly encountered in the packing
industry. After the container has been emp-
tied, it can be refilled if desired, or the
coating can be broken so that the water-
soluble superstructure can be dissolved.
Both organic and inorganic coatings are
being tested. Sodium silicate glasses, potas-
sium silicate glasses, alkali halides, peptide
crystals, and sugar derivative crystals are be-
ing investigated as water-soluble superstruc-
tures. A three-step procedure for solid waste
disposal is envisioned, as follows: crushing
or grinding followed by incineration, fol-
lowed by dissolution.
APPROACH: To accomplish these objectives,
kinetic studies of the interaction between
water-soluble glasses and aqueous solutions
are being done. Kinetic studies of the inter-
action between "coated" water-soluble glasses
and corroding media are also being made.
Physical properties such as tensile strength,
compressive strength, flexural strength, im-
pact strength, fatigue strength, elasticity, and
hardness of the "coated" water-soluble glasses
before and after the corrosion tests are being
investigated. The inorganic coatings are be-
ing applied by chemical vapor deposition and
ion exchange procedures. The organic coat-
ings are being applied by use of fluidized bed
procedures. The effect of the coatings and
water-soluble glasses upon the various bio-
logical systems of laboratory animals are be-
ing investigated to ensure that the container
materials developed are nondeleterious to
health.
FINDINGS: Soluble silicate glass compositions
are readily coated by chemical vapor deposi-
tion processes. Metallic oxides derived from
selected organic esters provide excellent coat-
ing materials for soluble glass substrates.
The high vapor pressure and chemical stabil-
ity of the mother liquid readily allow coatings
to be produced by pyrolysis reactions at the
heated substrate surface. Titanium oxide
coatings are readily produced over a wide
range of controlled conditions such as dep-
osition temperature, time, carrier gas flow
rate, reactant vapor concentration, substrate
orientation, and others. The coatings pro-
duced can be amorphous or crystalline, de-
pending upon conditions. These coatings are
chemically stable and form a chemical bond
with a glass substrate. Silicon oxide glass coat-
ings are produced under somewhat more re-
stricted conditions; however, the coatings
formed likewise possess excellent properties.
The problem of residual stress in the coated
samples is a greater hazard with SiO2 coatings
because of generally higher deposition tem-
peratures and a greater mismatch of thermal
expansion coefficients.
The rendering of sodium silicate glass in-
soluble with H2SC>4 in a displacement re-
action involving participation by the sodium
ions of the glass is a feasible method of pro-
ducing a water-soluble packaging container.
The H2SO4 treatment can be used to protect
complicated shapes because the procedure is
not critically sensitive to orientation of the
substrate and distance from the input vapors.
The resulting glass is transparent without
any appreciable birefringence. The glass has
an unusually high strength because of the
compressive surface resulting from the chemi-
cal treatment. The glass fragments are similar
to "safety" glass when mechanically ruptured
.and are thus readily dissolved when broken.
17
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Sodium silicate glasses in the composition
range 1.0 Na2O • 1.3 SiO2 to 1.0 Na2O 1.6
SiO2 possess adequate strength and ease of
workability to be used as materials of con-
struction for containers.
The engineering feasibility of a water-solu-
ble packaging container consisting of water-
soluble sodium silicate glass superstructure
with an inert barrier film deposited by either
a chemical vapor displacement reaction or
pyrolysis has been demonstrated. The feasi-
bility of ultimately applying the technology
derived from this investigation to the solu-
tion of container waste control problems is
bright; however, these three basic questions
have to be answered before the water-soluble
container can become a reality: (1) What is
the toxicology of the system? (2) What is the
effect of the system on water quality? (3)
What is the economic evaluation of process-
ing procedures?
PUBLICATIONS
HULBERT, S. F., and C. C. FAIN. Water disposable glass
container is a subject of Clemson U. research. Midwest
Engineer, 21(9):10-11, May 1969.
HULBERT, S. F., C. C. FAIN, M. M. COOPER, D. T.
BALLENGER, and C. W. JENNINGS. Improving package dis-
posability. In Proceedings; First National Conference on
Packaging Wastes, San Francisco, Sept. 22-24, 1969. Clem-
son, S.C., Clemson University, p. 147-179.
FAIN, C. C., S. F. HULBERT, and M. M. COOPER. Design of
water-disposable packaging container. ASME Paper No.
69-WA/PID-16. Presented at Winter Annual Meeting,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Los Angeles.
Nov. 16-20, 1969. 5 p.
A Study of Farm Wastes
Prof. Stanley A. Witzel
Agricultural Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Grant No. Ul 00556-04
Funds Awarded: $138,345
Project Period: June 1, 1964 to May 31, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To study farm animal wastes
in order to determine quality, physical char-
acter, chemical and biological composition,
and the effects of animal-housing practices.
To evaluate the economic value of farm
wastes to agriculture, and any adverse effect
such wastes may have on public health.
APPROACH: Wastes from dairy cows were
collected periodically, weighed, and analyzed.
Exploratory analyses of swine and poultry
wastes were made and bacteriologic charac-
teristics of fresh wastes from ruminating ani-
mals, lagoon waste input, and lagoon micro-
organisms were investigated. These studies
include liquid manure wastes being held in
below-ground storage tanks for removal to
fields. In soils, farm wastes receiving different
methods of treatment were compared by di-
rect field application and laboratory green-
houses for their value in stabilizing soil struc-
ture and for their contribution to the nutri-
tion of field crops. Sources and amounts of
pollution of surface and subsurface waters
resulting from various animal waste manage-
ment and farming practices were studied.
Odor abatement was investigated.
FINDINGS: Lagoons appeared to provide a
means of waste reduction. The final con-
clusions checked with the laboratory results
on this point. The reasons for less than 100
percent reduction became evident when
studies on Hgnin indicated the durability of
this type of compound.
The fate of intestinal-pollution types of
bacteria were studied and found to follow
the path of rapid reduction during waste
treatment, either aerobic or anaerobic. Re-
duction was not, however, complete unless
the effluent had been filtered through soil—
the ultimate place of safe disposal for farm
animal waste.
18
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PUBLICATIONS
WlTZEL, S. A., N. A. JORGENSEN, R. F. JOHANNES, H. J.
LARSEN, and C. O. CRAMER. For loose-cow housing: Cold
deep-bedded pack vs. cold free stalls. Agricultural En-
gineering, 48 (2):86-88, Feb. 1967.
WITZEL, S, A., E. McCov, and R. LEHNER. Chemical and
biological reactions from lagoons used for cattle. Trans-
actions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
8(3):449-451, Nov. 20, 1965.
WITZEL, S. A., E. McCov, L. B. POLKOWSKI, O. J. ATTOF,
and M. S. NICHOLS. Physical, chemical and bacteriological
properties of farm wastes (bovine species). In Manage-
ment of Farm Animal Wastes; Proceedings; National
Symposium on Animal Waste Management, East Lansing,
Michigan, May 5-7, 1966, Kellogg Center for Continuing
Education, Michigan State University. ASAE Publication
No. SP-0366. St. Joseph, Mich., American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, p. 10.
McCoY, E. Lagooning of liquid manure (bovine): Bac-
teriological aspects. Transactions of the American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, 10(6):784-785, Nov.-Dec. 1967.
HOADLEY, A. W., E. McCoY, and G. A. ROHLICH. Untei-
suchungen ueber Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Oberflae-
chengewaessern. I. Quellen. II. Auftreten und verhalten.
[Investigations on Pseudomonas aeruginosa in surface
waters. I. Springs. II. Occurrence and behavior.] Aichiv
fuer Hygiene und Bakteriologie, 152 (4):328-345, Aug.
1968.
HOADLEY, A. W., and E. McCoY. Some observations on
the ecology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its occurrence
in the intestinal tracts of animals. Cornell Veterinarian,
58(3):354-363, July 1968.
MINSHALL, M., M. S. NICHOLS, and S. A. WITZEL. Plant
nutrients in base flow of streams in southwestern Wis-
consin. Water Resources Research, 5 (3):706-713, June
1969.
McCov, E., and W. B. SARLFS. Bacteria in lakes: Popu-
lation and functional relationships. In Proceedings; In-
ternational Symposium on Eutrification: Causes, Conse-
quences, Correctives, National Academy of Sciences, Madi-
son, Wisconsin, June 11-16, 1967. Washington, 1969.
p. 331-339.
McCoY, E. Removal of pollution bacteria from animal
waste by soil peicolation. ASAE Paper No. 69-430. Pre-
sented at Annual Meeting, American Society of Agiicul-
tural Engineers, Lafayette, June 22-25, 1969. 8 p.
HENSLER, R. F., R. J. OLSEN, S. A. WITZEL, O. J. ATTOE,
W. H. PAULSON, and R. F. JOHANNLS. Effect of method
of manure handling on crop yields and runoff losses.
ASAE Paper No. 69-468. Presented at Annual Meeting,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Lafayette,
June 22-25, 1969 16 p.
GRAMMS, L. C., L. B. POLKOWSKI, and S. A. WIIZEL.
Anaerobic digestion of animal wastes (daily bull, poul-
try and swine). ASAE 1'apei No. 69-462. Presented at
Annual Meeting, American Society of Agricultural Engi-
neers, Lafayette, June 22-25, 1969. 26 p.
Disposal of Dairy Cattle Wastes by Aerobic Digestion
Dr. Alvin C. Dale
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Purdue University
Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Grant No. EC 00244-02
Funds Awarded: $113,098
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1967 to Dec. 31, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To determine the chemical
composition, physical characteristics, and bio-
degradability of dairy cattle waste and to
relate this information to the possible separa-
tion of various constituents of the waste so
as to render certain portions of the waste
more treatable by aerobic digestion. The
composition of dairy waste was related to the
rations of the cattle and in turn to the treat-
ability. The treatability of cattle waste was
determined with regard to loading rate, tem-
perature, oxygenation rate, and oxidation
characteristics.
APPROACH: Waste characterization and
treatability studies were done for the most
part in the laboratory. Field-acquired sam-
ples were diluted and put through a series
of screenings, sedimentations, and nitrations
with analysis of materials retained in each
step. Based on these results, methods of pre-
treatment of livestock waste, including grind-
ing, were developed. Subsequent to these
studies pretreated waste in the laboratory
was digested aerobically in chambers with the
removal of sludge as required. BOD, COD,
pH, volatile solids, and total solids were
measured as often as necessary while tempera-
ture was varied to determine its effect on
biodegradation rates. Concurrently, quanti-
ties of wastes produced were determined, and
biological analysis was made to determine
19
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what differences in microorganism content
of manures result from animals being fed anti-
biotics, stilbestrol, and other feed additives.
FINDINGS: A 74-day experiment conducted
at five different temperatures on blended
(ground) cow manure gave the following
reductions of volatile solids and CODs.
Percent reduction Percent reduction
Temperature, F of volatile solids
40.4
47.9
56.2
64.8
74.7
45.7
46.7
58.5
71.4
78.6
of COD
43.3
57.8
80.8
83.7
A sharp change in the rate of decomposi-
tion of the volatile solids and COD seemed
to occur between 45 F and 55 F. The chambers
at higher temperatures, 56.2 F and above, also
had smaller solids concentrations in the
settled supernatant liquid. In an experiment
on the aerobic storage of dairy cattle manure
for 28 days at 4 C and 24 C and four load-
ing rates, results were as follows. The holding
temperature had a marked effect upon the
degree of change that took place in the re-
actors. Approximately half as much of the
constituents as measured by the volatile
solids, COD, and Kjeldahl nitrogen were
lost in the 4 C reactor as were lost at the
higher 24 C temperature. The data show that
nitrogen was lost from practically all the
systems, but the concentration of nitrogen
per gram of volatile was higher in the systems
operated at both temperatures than at the
higher temperature above, and it was the
highest in the 4 C reactor. This indicates a
lesser reduction of nitrogenous compounds at
the lower temperatures.
In regard to the percent removals, the
results of all tests shows that at 24 C the
removals of volatile solids, COD, and Kjel-
dahl nitrogen were 42.3, 53.6, and 43.5 per-
cent, respectively, and for the 4 C tests the
removals of volatile solids, COD, and Kjel-
dahl nitrogen were 20.1, 24.5, and 15.9 per-
cent, respectively.
The manure, both that fresh from the
barnyard and that stored under refrigera-
tion, was odorous and somewhat objectionable
in the laboratory. • No dbjectionable odors,
however, were noted near the reactors at
either of the two temperatures. An "earthy"
odor, not unpleasant, was detectable within
a foot of the units.
Foaming of the aeration units was a con-
tinuous problem. The foam was very stable
and consequently difficult to control. More
foam was produced by the 4 C units than
by the 24 C units.
In another experiment the foaming char-
acteristics of dairy cattle manure were studied
during aerobic digestion. Both foaming tend-
ency and foaming stability of raw manure
slurries were significantly greater (99 percent
confidence) at 4 C than at 20 C. A linear
relationship was found between both foam-
ing tendency and foaming stability and solids
concentration of manure slurries ranging
from 1,000 to 30,000 mg/liter. Foaming tend-
ency increased with decreasing fineness
modulus (particle size distribution). Foam-
ing stability, however, was not affected by the
level of fineness modulus. Foaming tendency
increased with increasing solids concentration
up to 15,000 mg/liter but not thereafter.
Foaming stability was not affected by the
solids concentration. The percent reduction
in total volatile solids obtained in the di-
gesters at 20 C varied from 30.0 to 34.9 per-
cent for straight (nonblended) cow manure.
Another phase of the research investigated
the possibility of storing dairy cattle manure
at constant temperature (20 C) and loading
0.02 Ib volatile solids per cu ft per day in
a reactor with aerobic conditions in the top
part and anaerobic conditions in the bottom
part of the reactor. Results indicated the
following.
1. Hydrogen sulfide was not produced
during this type of storage.
2. Odors were minimized in aerobic-anaero-
bic storage of dairy cattle manure.
3. There were reductions of 26.2 percent
in total solids and of 29 percent in volatile
solids when unblended manure was used.
4. There were decreases in total Kjeldahl
nitrogen and in COD.
In an experiment studying the effect of
size of particles on decomposition rate of
volatile solids in dairy cattle manure, there
appeared to be a definite relation between
20
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them. The finer the particles the greater the
rate of decomposition.
In an 87-day experiment on the disposal
of dairy cattle manure by aerated lagoons
and irrigation, the system appeared to be an
excellent method for the disposal of dairy
cattle wastes. Some of the following factors
were evident in this experiment.
1. The system is essentially odorless (a
slight ammonia odor was detected during
loading).
2. The system provides a place to dispose
of wastes at all times.
3. A large part of the nutrients is returned
to the land.
4. With proper operation, runoff into
streams and ditches is minimized.
5. Pollutional characteristics of all wastes
are greatly lowered.
6. Costs of installation and operation do
not appear to be excessive.
7. Relatively small amount of labor is re-
quired.
Irrigation removed 9 percent of COD, 11
percent of BOD, 14 percent of the volatile
solids, and 23 percent of the total solids.
Settling and decomposition by oxidation re-
moved approximately 60 percent of COD, 70
percent of BOD, 55 percent of the volatile
solids, and 35 percent of the total solids from
the supernatant.
PUBLICATIONS
DALE, A. C. Aerobic treatment of animal wastes. ASAE
Paper No. 67-927A. Presented at Winter Meeting, Amer-
ican Society of Agricultural Engineers, Detroit, Dec. 12—
15, 1967. 7 p.
LUDINGTON, D. C., A. C. DALE, and D. E. BLOODCOOD.
Storage of poultry manure with minimum odor. ASAE
Paper No. 67-932. Presented at Winter Meeting, Amer-
ican Society of Agricultural Engineers, Detroit, Dec 12-15,
1967, 19 p.
NYE, J. C., A. C. DALE, and D. E. BI.OODOOOD. Effect of
temperature on aerobic decomposition of dairy waste.
ASAE Paper No. 69-926. Presented at Winter Meeting,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, Dec.
9-12, 1969. 10 p.
Engineering Properties of Farm Wastes
Dr. E. Paul Taiganides
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
Grant No. EC 00297-03
Funds Awarded: $50,093
Project Period: June 1, 1966 to Dec. 31, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To develop techniques for meas-
uring and evaluating some of the bio-engi-
neering properties of farm wastes useful in
the design of systems for the management of
animal manures without creating environ-
mental pollution or public nuisance.
APPROACH: Waste samples from chickens,
dairy cows, beef cattle, pigs, and sheep were
analyzed to determine pollution potential
parameters. Standard tests on BOD, COD,
moisture, and solids were made. In addition,
data on quantities excreted with different food
rations were determined. The composition of
gases emanating from manure pyrolysis and
also the odor characteristics of wastes under
various conditions of storage were determined.
FINDINGS:
1. Odor nuisance is one of the most critical
problems adversely affecting livestock and
poultry producers. By means of an equili-
bration sampling technique, volatiles from
dairy animal waste were concentrated into a
form suitable for gas chromatographic analy-
sis. An odor signature, the gas chromatogram
with an organoleptic evaluation indicated for
odorous peaks, was obtained for dairy waste
decomposing anaerobically. Compounds ten-
tatively identified as contributing to the odor
were hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, methyl
sulfide, ethyl sulfide, propyl acetate, and
n-butyl acetate.
2. Agricultural land is the best alternative
for the disposal of animal wastes. By use of
21
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a systems analysis approach, a scheduling
model was developed for studying long-term
scheduling decisions for removing animal
waste from storage and spreading it on agri-
cultural land. The maximum quantity that
can be disposed, in each time period, is con-
strained by storage capacity, quantity of
waste generated, and land area available for
spreading. An air quality model was devel-
oped for evaluating the odor nuisance po-
tential of animal wastes as a constraint on
land spreading operations. The principal
parameters affecting downwind ground level
concentration of odors are emission rate,
wind speed, diffusion coefficient, and turbu-
lence index.
3. A menace from noxious gases exists in
animal confinement units. It was determined
that under normal operating conditions gases
in confined animal houses do not reach toxic
or lethal levels. Toxic level may be reached
during failure of the forced ventilation sys-
tem or as a result of mismanagement prac-
tices, such as agitating liquid manure storage
under the building.
4. Combustion of animal manures is a pos-
sible unit operation in a waste management
system. Animal wastes were pyrolyzed, heated
to 800 C out of contact with air. Gases, water,
and organic liquids were evolved, leaving a
clear residue. The gases were analyzed for
the percentage of CO2, CO, H2, illuminants
(unsaturated hydrocarbon), methane, and
ethane.
5. In the design of biological treatment
units, values on the oxygen demand of the
waste are essential. In the determination of
the oxygen demand parameters of animal
wastes, seeding, temperature, method of de-
termination, and type of waste have a signifi-
cant effect. Storage of samples at below 2 C
does not have a significant effect.
6. In the design of waste management sys-
tems, a knowledge of the quantities of waste
excreted by animals is< essential. The quanti-
ties of the total excrement from animals are
significantly affected by the feed, the weight
of the animal, and the type of the animal.
The total daily manure excrement varied from
around 15 percent of body weight when cows
were fed silage to 6 percent when they were
fed corn and grass silage. Cow manure ranged
from 13 to 53 percent of the feed intake per
day.
PUBLICATIONS
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Waste problem recognized; research
help on manure disposal on the way. National Hog
Farmer, ll(7):22-23, July 1966.
TAICANIDES, E. P. The animal waste disposal problem. In
N. C. Brody, cd. Agriculture and the quality of our en-
vironment. Washington, American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1967. p. 385-394.
TAICANIDES, E. P., and T. E. HAZEN. Properties of farm
animal excreta. Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, 9 (3):374-376, 1966.
TAICANIDES, E. P. Modem methods of animal waste dis-
posal. In Proceedings; 27th Annual Meeting, Nutritional
Council of American Feed Manufacturers Association,
Chicago, May 22, 1967. p. 21-22.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. The battle of the forgotten end. ASAE
Paper No. 67—925. Presented at Winter Meeting, Ameri-
can Society of Agricultural Engineers, Detroit, Dec. 12-
15, 1967.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Farm-waste management in Europe and
India. Agricultural Engineering, 48 (12):710-713, Dec. 1967.
WHITE, R. K. Gas chromatographic analysis of odors from
dairy animal wastes. Ph. D. Thesis, Ohio State University,
1969. 143 p.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Mission impossible: dispose animal
wastes. Presented at 24th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste
Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, May 6-8, 1969.
13 P.
WHITE, R. K., and E. P. TAIGANIDES. Malodors from
dairy cattle wastes. ASAE Paper No. 69-425. Presented
at Annual Meeting, American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, Lafayette, June 22-25, 1969. 8 p.
TAICANIDES, E. P., and R. K. WHITE. The menace of
noxious gases in animal confinement units. Transactions
of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 12(3):
359-362, 367, May-June 1969.
22
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Handling, Treatment, and Disposal of Animal Wastes
Dr. Thamon E. Hazen
Agricultural Experiment Station
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
Grant No. SW 00040-03
Funds Awarded: $74,019
Project Period: June 1, 1963 to May 31, 1966
OBJECTIVES: To determine the physical,
chemical, and bacteriologic properties of hog
wastes and to test methods for the manage-
ment, treatment, and disposal of these wastes
in order to reduce any health hazards or po-
tential water pollution. Wastes from other
farm animals were also studied but in less
detail.
APPROACH: Lagoons and the resulting efflu-
ent received the greatest attention under
various liquid and solid waste loadings. An-
aerobic digesters and an oxidation ditch were
also studied. Properties of raw manures and
treated effluents were evaluated for total and
volatile solids; specific weight; BOD; COD;
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash content;
toxic substances; and other characteristics.
FINDINGS: An anaerobic lagoon loaded at a
rate of 3.5 to 5 Ib of volatile solids per 1,000
cu ft provided satisfactory preliminary treat-
ment to liquid swine manure. Total solids
were reduced by 75 to 80 percent; volatile
solids, 85 to 90; COD, 85 to 90; BOD, 60 to
70; and total nitrogen, 45 to 50. The pH of
this lagoon remained at 7.1 or above. Red-
pigmented bacteria became established each
summer, and this tended to reduce hydrogen
sulfide odors. In spite of the pollutant re-
moval, the effluent was unsuitable for dis-
charge to a receiving stream.
A series of experimental anaerobic lagoons
was used to determine the desirability of deep
(10 ft) lagoons. To avoid occasional mal-
functions, a swine manure loading rate of
5 Ib of volatile solids per 1,000 cu ft was
established. For swine wastes, a lagoon design
criterion of 1.42 cu ft/lb of animal weight
was proposed.
A heated-stirred anaerobic digester being
used to treat swine manure, loadings of 20 Ib
of volatile solids per 1,000 cu ft were found
operable. At higher loading rates, copper
appeared to inhibit digestion. Gas, 60 per-
cent methane, was produced at rates of 7.8 to
10.3 cu ft/lb of volatile solids. The digested
solids were not attractive to flies and were
free of offensive odors.
A mathematical model was derived and
verified to predict the performance of an
extended aeration plant treating lagoon efflu-
ent. BOD removal efficiencies in excess of 80
percent were obtained. The parameters of
importance in determining treatment efficien-
cies were mixed-liquor volatile suspended
solids, detention time, and influent quality.
In an evaluation of an oxidation ditch
rotor at immersions of 6, 9, and 12 in. and
speeds of 60 and 100 rpm, oxygen transfer
rates of 2.3 to 17 Ib/hr and 3.6 to 4.4 Ib of
oxygen per kw-hr were measured.
An exploratory study in which anaerobic
lagoon effluent was applied to soil columns
indicated the necessity for alternate periods
of wastewater application and nonapplication
to maintain acceptable permeability rates.
Soil temperature was important in determin-
ing the rate of recovery of soil permeability.
PUBLICATIONS
TAICANIDES, E. P., E. R. BAUMANN, H. P. JOHNSON, and
T. E. HAZEN. Anaerobic digestion of hog wastes. Journal
of Agricultural Engineering Research (London), 8(4):
327, 1963.
TAIGANIDES, E. P., E. R. BAUMANN, and T. E. HAZEN.
Sludge digestion of farm animal wastes. Journal Paper
No. J-4661, Iowa Agricultural and Home Economics Ex-
periment Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 1433. Pub-
lished, Compost Science, 4(2):26, Summer 1963.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Agricultural solid wastes. In Proceed-
ings; National Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chi-
cago, Dec. 1963, University of Chicago Center for Con-
tinuing Education. Special Report No. 29. American
Public Works Association, 1964. p. 39.
23
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TAIGANIDES, E. P., T. E. HAZEN, E. R. BAUMANN, and
H. P. JOHNSON. Properties and pumping characteristics
of hog wastes. Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, 7 (2): 123, 1964.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Disposal of animal wastes. In Proceed-
ings of the Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference, Pait
One, Purdue University and Indiana State Board of
Health, Lafayette, Indiana, May 5-7, 1964. In Engineering
Bulletin of Purdue University, Engineering Extension
Series No. 117, 49(la):281-290, Jan. 1965.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Disposal of animal wastes. Journal
Paper No. J-4876, Iowa Agricultural and Home Eco-
nomics Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, Project No. 1433,
1964.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Theoretical considerations of anaerobic
lagoons for poultry wastes. Journal Paper No. J-4889,
Iowa Agricultural and Home Economics Experiment
Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 1433, 1964. Published,
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on Poultry
Industry Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964,
University of Nebraska Center for Continuing Education.
p. 251.
TAIGANIDES, E. P., and -T. E. HAZEN. Piopeities of farm
animal excreta. Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, 9(3):374-376, 1966.
WILLRICH, T. L. Primary treatment of swine wastes by
lagooning. In Management of Farm Animal Wastes;
Proceedings; National Symposium on Animal Waste
Management, East Lansing, Michigan, May 5-7, 1966,
Kellogg Center for Continuing Education, Michigan State
University. ASAE Publication No. SP-0366. St. Joseph,
Mich., American Society of Agricultural Engineers, p. 70.
WALLIZE, J. The story of a 'model'; swine in confinement.
Iowa Farm Science, 22(1):3, July 1967.
MINER, J. R., and T. E. HAZEN. Alternatives to oxidation
ditches under slotted floors. In Proceedings; Tenth
National Pork Industry Conference, Lincoln, Nebr., Nov.
9, 1967.
TAIGANIDES, E. P. Anaerobic digestion of poultry manure.
World's Poultry Science Journal, 19(4):252-261, Oct.-Dec.
1963.
Identification of Odors in Feedlot Operations
Dr. Edgar R. Stephens
Statewide Air Pollution Research Center
University of California—Riverside
Riverside, California 92502
Grant No. Ul 00531-02
Funds Awarded: $49,329
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1967 to Apr. 30, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To identify the odors associated
with confinement livestock operations. To
provide the analytical means for assessing the
magnitude and possible effect of the odors
on a community and for evaluating the effec-
tiveness of modifying feedlot practices to
reduce odors.
APPROACH: Gas chromatography with flame
ionization or electron capture detection was
the principal method used. Since the intensity
of the odors from a real feedlot is heavily
dependent on weather and the state of the
feedlot, most of the analytical development
was carried out on laboratory mixtures. An
odor threshold test equipment was assembled
and used to assess the intensity of odors.
FINDINGS: Trimethylamine is a principal
substituent in cattle feedlot atmospheres in
concentrations well above its odor threshold
of 0.6 ppb. Several experiments, including a
simple odor comparison test, verified this.
Limited results show that ethylamine or
methylamine, propylamine, and butylamine
are also present in concentrations above their
odor thresholds. Ammonia and perhaps hy-
drogen sulfide or a mercaptan are present but
in concentrations below their odor thresh-
olds. Time did not permit a thorough analy-
sis of fatty acids or alcohols. Amines proved
especially difficult to handle in trace quanti-
ties because of their ready adsorption onto
surfaces, but useful chromatographic methods
were finally developed. Many techniques for
sample collection and additional techniques
such as paper chromatography were tested
briefly.
Future work should include research in
this area since acids are a product of decom-
posing protein as are amines. More informa-
tion concerning odor thresholds of these odor-
ants is also needed.
24
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Livestock Waste Management and Sanitation
Dr. Donald L. Day
Department of Agricultural Engineering
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Grant No. EC 00245-03
Funds Awarded: $96,894
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1966 to Feb. 28, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To refine knowledge of the
physical, chemical, and biological properties
of livestock wastes for the development of
methods of waste treatment and management
that meet the requirements of low labor and
odor abatement, and pollution abatement.
The project was principally concerned with
swine waste management, but cattle wastes
were investigated to a limited extent.
APPROACH: Primarily, field studies were con-
ducted on the University of Illinois swine
and beef farms equipped with liquid waste
facilities, oxidation ditches, sandbed filters,
and a series of lagoons. The buildings housing
the hogs and beef cattle have self-cleaning
slotted floors with liquid manure collection
gutters beneath the floor. Laboratory studies
supplemented the field studies when required.
The studies considered aspects of chemical
treatment of liquid manure and an aerobic
treatment process to suppress objectionable
gases and odors. In the chemical treatment
study, the type and amount of treating mate-
rials needed, and the management proce-
dures for removing and using these solids
were studied. In the aerobic biological study,
design and operating criteria were developed.
These included oxygeuation characteristics of
cage rotors, allowable concentrations of solids
in the liquid, BOD loading rates, liquid veloc-
ity requirements to prevent settling, and ulti-
mate disposal methods of surplus water and
solids.
FINDINGS: The main chemicals studied for
odor control were chlorine and lime. They
were used to prevent the otherwise untreated
anaerobic state of liquid manure beneath the
animals and the resulting objectionable gases
and odors. The chlorine acted as a bactericide
and was very effective, even in amounts less
than the organic matter's chlorine demand.
The lime acted to control the pH in the
9 to 11 range that was considered too high
for anaerobic bacterial action. This also
worked, but the resulting release of ammonia
at the high pH levels was very objectionable
in the buildings. However, the costs of chem-
ical treatment approached or exceeded esti-
mated costs of biological treatment, and the
organic matter was practically unchanged as
a potential water pollutant. Thus, the chemi-
cal treatment method was abandoned in favor
of aerobic biological treatment since the latter
method held promise not only for odor con-
trol but also for significant reductions in the
BOD.
The aerobic approach resulted in a live-
stock waste management system that very
nearly satisfies the criteria of low labor cost,
low odor, prevention of stream pollution,
simplicity of operation, and economic feasi-
bility. The system consists of an oxidation
ditch beneath self-cleaning slotted floors in
a confinement livestock building. Mixed
liquor from the oxidation ditch flows by
gravity to a nonoverflow aerobic lagoon (oxi-
dation pond or aerated lagoon) having a
fluctuating depth. Fields can be irrigated
by surplus water and solids from the lagoon
at a time that is convenient to the operator.
This results in a system that is very low in
labor cost and in odors from animal to field.
The in-the-building oxidation ditch is a
completely mixed aerobic method having a
long detention time (approximately 50 days).
It is a modified form of the odorless "Pas-
veer" oxidation ditch treatment plant that
was developed in the Netherlands.
Results of this project, both in laboratory
and field trials, have shown the operating
criteria of the in-the-building oxidation ditch
to be as follows.
1. A ditch liquid volume of 30 cu ft/lb
of daily BOD5. Note, the loading BOD5 is
25
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in a very concentrated form (30,000 to 50,000
mg/liter instead of 300 to 500 mg/liter as in
municipal oxidation ditches).
2. The liquid depth is shallow, usually
less than 2 ft, to keep the solids suspended.
3. The aeration rotor should have an oxy-
genation capacity (as measured in clean water
at standard conditions) twice that of the daily
BOD5 loading.
After coming to equilibrium, the ditch
mixed-liquor BOD5 will typically be 3,000
to 5,000 mg/liter, resulting in a 90 percent
reduction of the BOD5. Moreover, total vola-
tile solids are reduced by about 50 percent.
However, the effluent, even if the settleable
solids were removed from the supernatant,
is not suitable for direct discharge into a
stream because of the color (reddish brown),
the mineral content, and even the BOD. This
is the reason for the nonoverflow aerobic
lagoon and the irrigation system.
Several types of cage rotors were tested in
clean water for oxygenation output. A typical
value was 1.6 Ib O2/hr/ft at 6-in. rotor blade
immersion and 100 rpm. Moreover, a related
laboratory study resulted in establishing the
amount of aeration required for given levels
of odor production. The aeration rates ranged
from excessive for the BOD down to no air
in five steps.
Many livestock producers are adopting this
waste treatment system, and at least two com-
panies are manufacturing aeration rotors spe-
cifically for livestock oxidation ditches. The
method does, of course, have inherent costs,
the greatest being the power cost of operating
the rotor. This may, however, be an attrac-
tive alternative to the producer faced with
odor nuisance or complaints about stream
pollution.
PUBLICATIONS
HAMMOND, W. C., D. L. DAY, and E. L. HANSEN. Can
lime and chlorine suppress odors in liquid hog manure?
Agricultural Engineering, 49 (6):340-343, June 1968.
DAY, D. L., and J. C. CONVERSE. Oxidation ditch for
swine waste. In Engineering Foundation Research Con-
ference, Solid Waste Research and Development, Univer-
sity School, Milwaukee, July 24-28, 1967. Conference
Preprint No. E—5. 3 p.
DAY, D. L. Current status of the oxidation ditch; sum-
mary of United States and European research. Presented
at Tenth National Pork Industry Conference, Lincoln,
Nebraska, Nov. 9, 1967, 8 p.
JONES, D. D., B. A. JONES, JR., and D. L. DAY. Aerobic
digestion of cattJe waste. Transactions of the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, 11(6):757—761, Nov.—
Dec. 1968.
DALE, A. C., and D. L. DAY. Some aerobic decomposition
properties of dairy-cattle manure. Transactions of the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 10(4):546-548,
1967.
DAY, D. L. Oxidation ditches combine well with slotted-
floor hog setups. Prairie Farmer, 140(3):58, Feb. 3, 1968.
DAY, D. L., J. C. CONVERSE, and D. D. JONES. Rotor aera-
tion of swine wastes. Illinois Research, 10(2):16-17, Spring
1968.
JONES, D. D., B. A. JONES, JR., and D. L. DAY. Aerobic
digestion of cattle waste. Transactions of the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, 11 (6):757-761, Nov.-
Dec. 1968.
JONES, D. D., B. A. JONES, JR., and D. L. DAY. Aerobic
digestion of cattle wastes. Illinois Research, 10(3):8,
Summer 1968.
DAY, D. L., D. D. JONES, and J. C. CONVERSE. Field testing
the oxidation ditch for swine waste. Presented at Engi-
neering Foundation Research Conference, Solid Waste Re-
search and Development, II, Beaver Dam, Wis. July 22—26,
1968. Conference Preprint No. E-4.
DAY, D. L. Oxidation ditches for waste disposal. Inter-
national Journal of Farm Building Research, 3:2-7, Dec.
1968.
JONES, D. D., D. L. DAY, and J. C. CONVERSE. Oxygenation
capacities of oxidation ditch rotors for confinement live-
stock buildings. Presented at 24th Annual Purdue Indus
trial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, May
6-8, 1969. 15 p.
MUEHLING, A. J , and D. L. DAY. State regulation of
lagoons. Prairie Farmer, 144(10): 14, May 17, 1969.
DAY, D. L., D. D. JONES, J. C. CONVERSE, A. H. JENSEN,
and E. L. HANSEN. Oxidation ditch treatment of swine
wastes. ASAE Paper No. 69-924. Presented at Winter
Meeting, American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Chicago, Dec. 9-12, 1969. 15 p.
JONES, D. D., D. L. DAY, and U. S. GARRIOUS. Oxidation
ditch in a confinement beef building. ASAE Paper No.
69—925. Presented at Winter Meeting, American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, Dec. 9-12, 1969. 10 p.
26
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Microbiological Stabilization of Animal Wastes
Dr. Edward C. Berry
Department of Bacteriology
South Dakota State College
Brookings, South Dakota 57006
Grant No. Ul 00519-03
Funds Awarded: $67,355
Project Period: June 1, 1964 to Nov. 30, 1967
OBJECTIVES: To study the stabilization of
livestock wastes by microbial means and to
determine the physical, chemical, and micro-
biological characteristics of these wastes, and
the changes occurring to the point of stabili-
zation. To obtain information that will give
engineers design criteria for the kinds and
sizes of processing equipment needed to con-
vert this material into a less unsanitary state.
APPROACH: Measured quantities of animal
excreta were placed in a stainless steel di-
gester tank. Their stabilization was observed
while oxygen supply, pH, temperature, and
amounts of water were varied. The microbial
flora were also studied in order to improve
the stabilization rate. The biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) was determined at the start
and end of the biox process to give a measure
of the changes made and the degree of stabi-
lization. The various gases produced, CH4,
CO2, NH3, H2, and H2S, were collected and
measured.
FINDINGS: Anaerobic and aerobic microor-
ganisms are necessary to reduce the BOD of
animal waste to acceptable levels. Studies are
underway to determine the organisms and
their enzymes responsible for production of
hydrogen sulfide and thio-alcohol during
treatment of animal waste. Strength of animal
waste has been related to human wastes.
PUBLICATIONS
BULLERMAN, L. B., and E. C. BERRY. Use of cheese whey
for vitamin B,2 production. II. Cobalt, precursor, and
aeration levels. Applied Microbiology, 14(3):356, May
1966.
BULLERMAN, L. B., and E. C. BI.RRY. Use of cheese whey
for vitamin B12 production. III. Growth studies and dry-
weight activity. Applied Microbiology, 14(3):358, May
1966.
BERRY, E. C. Requirements for microbial reduction of
farm animal wastes. In Management of Farm Animal
Wastes; Proceedings; National Sympdsium on Animal
Waste Management, East Lansing, Michigan, May 5—7,
1966, Kellogg Center for Continuing Education, Michigan
State University, ASAE Publication No. SP-0366. St.
Joseph, Mich., American Society of Agricultural En-
gineers, p. 56—58.
Poultry Manure Disposal by Plow Furrow Cover
Professor Harry E. Besley
Bureau of Conservation and Environmental
Science
Rutgers—The State University
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903
Grant No. EC 00254-03
Funds Awarded: $192,570
Project Period: Dec. 1, 1966 to Mar. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To develop equipment and
techniques for disposing of poultry manure
in soil by the plow-furrow-cover (PFC)
method and to determine the amounts, fre-
quency of application, and length of time that
poultry manure may be so disposed of with-
out undesirable effects. To measure the chemi-
cal, physical, and biological changes occurring
in the soils used and to determine the pollu-
tional effects on the ground water.
27
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APPROACH: Equipment was developed to
permit the depositing of poultry manure in
the soil by the PFC method. Poultry manure
then applied to various experimental plots.
Numerous hybrid sudan grass crops were
grown in the second year. Lysimeters were
used to collect percolation water at a 4-ft
depth for analysis. In addition to the perco-
lation water collected by the lysimeters, soil
samples were taken at various times from
three intermediate depths, and the extract was
analyzed to determine the rate of percolation
of contaminants.
Laboratory studies determined the maxi-
mum concentration of chicken manure that
the soil could decompose without adverse
effects. A manure loading was applied to
the soil, and after a given percentage of
the manure had decomposed, another loading
of equal magnitude was applied, and so on,
until the relative merits of the different load-
ing regimes could be assessed. Selected soil
characteristics such as organic matter content,
texture, pH, fertility, exchange capacity, and
water-holding capacity were evaluated before
and after each experiment to provide infor-
mation on the changes occurring in the soils.
FINDINGS: To apply wastes by the PFC
method, various components of equipment
were developed and used in this project. In
this method of waste disposal, slurries and
semisolid wastes are incorporated into the
aerobic layer of the soil in a relatively odor-
free manner that does not attract flies and
other pests. It involves depositing the waste
in a 6- to 8-in.-deep plowed furrow and im-
mediately covering it. The covering operation
provides the next furrow into which the
waste is deposited.
Poultry manure was PFC applied into test
plots of Freehold loamy sand (B horizon of
20 percent clay) in amounts equivalent to
0, 15, 30, and 45 tons of dry solids per acre.
This is only half of the stated application
rate. An initial application of 0, 15, 30, and
45 tons was planned for the surface during
winter months; however, because of the dan-
ger of stream pollution from surface runoff,
this application was not made. Because of the
slow downward movement of the elements in
the soil, crops were not planted, and the
variable of plant takeup1 in observing the
rate of downward movement of elements was
thereby avoided. Soil water was sampled with
suction lysimeters, and soil samples were col-
lected. Samples collected 131 days and 17 in.
of rainfall after the PFC application showed
a downward movement of Ca, Cl, K, Mg, Na,
NO3 +NO2~N, and SO4 to a depth of 36 in.
Samples collected 391 days and 50 in. of
rainfall after the PFC application showed
considerable increase in element concentra-
tion at the 36- and 48-in. depths. The dis-
solved nitrogen (N) in the soil water, totaled
for the soil depth from 9 to 48 in., was 20,
186, 526, and 1,026 Ib/acre for the four ap-
plication rates of 0, 15, 30, and 45 tons of
dry solids per acre. The maximum concen-
tration was 700 ppm nitrogen (N). Disposal
of these large amounts of poultry manure in
soil caused large increases in the concentra-
tions of elements in the soil water down to a
depth of 48 in.
The pollution potential to ground water
was also investigated. Percolation water was
collected 48 in. below ground surface by
means of zero-tension lysimeters. Data for
fecal coliform and total organic carbon
(TOG) were obtained in addition to the
elements previously listed. After 7 months
there was no significant difference in the
TOG concentrations for the several applica-
tion rates (loadings). The lack of positive
fecal coliform tests with the relatively small
nitrate and sulfate concentrations tend to
indicate no detrimental effects to the ground
water 7 months after the PFC application.
However, 12 to 15 months after the applica-
tion some very large nitrate, sulfate, and
TOC concentrations were measured in the
ground water. This corresponds to the large
increase in the concentration of elements
noted in the soil water to a depth of 48 in.
Laboratory experiments were conducted to
evaluate the effect of variables on the rate
of decomposition (as measured by CO2
evolution) of excreta mixed with soil. The
absolute amount of CO2 evolved was greatest
at the higher loadings (up to soil:excreta=
1:1), but the percent decomposition of added
excreta was greatest at the lower loadings
(down to 10:1). Temperature (4, 12, and
20 C) had little effect on the rates of CO2
28
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evolution at the lower" loading regimens. Suc-
cessive increments of excreta decomposed
about as rapidly as the original addition. At
low loadings, soil texture had little effect,
but at higher loadings decomposition was
fastest in the lighter soils tested. A salt con-
centration equivalent to about eight excreta
applications at the low rate inhibited decom-
position only slightly.
Any method of disposing of chicken ex-
creta should take into account the possible
presence of substantial numbers of Salmon-
ellae, which are human pathogens. Approxi-
mately 30 percent of the excreta samples ob-
tained from commercial farms for these de-
composition studies contained Salmonella.
PUBLICATIONS
KRAFT, D. J., C. OLECHOWSKI-GERHARDT, J. BERKOWITZ,
and M. S. FINSTFIN. Salmonella in wastes produced at
commercial poultry farms. Applied Microbiology, 18(5):
703-707, Nov. 1969.
Sanitary Engineering Applied to Livestock Manures
Dr. Samuel A. Hart
Department of Agricultural Engineering
University of California—Davis
Davis, California 95616
Grant No. EF 00265-04
Funds Awarded: $59,875
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1961 to Aug. 31, 1965
OBJECTIVES: To develop sanitary and effec-
tive methods of processing and disposing of
the manure produced on concentrated live-
stock farms such as dairies, beef feed lots,
and poultry farms. To develop improved
methods of collecting and transporting ma-
nure from the point at which it is defecated
by the animal.
APPROACH: Extensive laboratory and pilot
plant operations of various processing and
stabilization techniques—solids digestion,
manure lagoons, algae ponds, composting, and
drying—were conducted to develop manure
management methods feasible at the farm
level. Ultimate disposal techniques and out-
lets were evaluated. The overall research con-
cept was that the most feasible end disposal
would be agricultural land.
FINDINGS: From the tanner's viewpoint, la-
goons can be made to work, but underground
water pollution is a definite hazard, odors
are likely, and costs are not as low as farmers
desire.
Research was also done on digestion of
manure, and its limitations of cost and ulti-
mate disposal of the digested sludge were
determined. Composting as a method of ma-
nure processing was found to be less than
satisfactory at the farm level.
The greatest potential for proper manage-
ment of most livestock manure appears to be
via variations in the natural drying process.
The summer-arid climate of California can
be taken advantage of, and systems of storing
manure during the winter are possible. Dry-
ing was accomplished by "thin spreading" or
by mechanically tilling and agitating foot-
deep beds of manure.
The results of this research have been ap-
plied by California farmers, and the state of
wastes management practices has benefited
from the research effort.
PUBLICATIONS
HART, S. A. Digestion tests o£ livestock wastes. Journal
of Water Pollution Control Federation, 35(6):748, June
1963.
HART, S. A. Fowl fecal facts. World's Poultiy Science
Journal, 19(4):262, Oct._Dcc. 1963.
OSTRANDER, C. E., and S. A. HARI. Degradation of manuie
collected in water under chickens. Poultry Science, 43(5):
1H4, Sept. 1964.
HART, S. A. Thin spreading of sluriied manures. Trans-
actions American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 7(1):
22, 1964.
29
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HART, S. A., and W. C. FAIRBANK. Disposal of perished
poultry. In Proceedings, Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19-
20, 1964, University of Nebraska Center for Continuing
Education, p. 213.
HART, S. A., and M. E. TURNER. Poultry manure lagoons.
In Proceedings, Second National Symposium on Poultry
Industry Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19—20, 1964,
University of Nebraska Center for Continuing Education.
HART, S. A., and M. E. TURNER. Lagoons for livestock
manure. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation,
37(11): 1578, Nov. 1965.
HART, S. A., and C. G. GOLUEKE. Producing algae in
lagoons. Transactions• of the'American Society of Agri-
cultural Engineers, 8:122, Nov. 1965.
HART, S. A., and M. E. TURNER. The design of waste
stabilization ponds for the treatment of agricultural
wastes. Paper presented at lecture series on Advances in
Water Quality Improvement, Austin, Apr. 4-7, 1966. The
University of Texas.
HART, S. A., J. A. MOORE, and W. F. HALE. Pumping
manure slurries. In Management of Farm Animal Wastes;
Proceedings; National Symposium on Animal Waste
Management, East Lansing, Michigan, May 5—7, 1966,
Kellogg Center for Continuing Education, Michigan
State University. ASAE Publication No. SP-0366. St.
Joseph, Mich., American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
p. 34.
A Recirculating Waste System for Swine Units
Dr. J. Ronald Miner
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa 50010
Grant No. EC-00283-02
Funds Awarded: $40,717
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To perfect a recirculating
water-waste-handling system using existing
facilities and consisting of an anaerobic la-
goon and an oxidation ditch. A laboratory
waste treatment pilot plant is being operated
in such a way as to simulate a recirculating
waste treatment plant so that operational and
design criteria can be determined. Manage-
ment implications such as cleanliness of pens,
growth rate of swine, and social order are
being studied as well as optimum method ot
operation so as to avoid adverse effects on
the animals' and the operators' health.
APPROACH: Samples of the influent and
effluent from the waste treatment systems (an
anaerobic lagoon and an aerobic oxidation
ditch) and the recirculating water are ana-
lyzed for their chemical, physical, and biologi-
cal properties, namely, COD, BOD, solids,
coliform, enterovirus, pH, and chlorides.
All the animals are examined routinely for
symptoms of disease related to the waste-
handling system. Specific animal tests, which
have previously been designed, are used to
determine the influence of the handling sys-
tem on the health and growth rate of the
animals. Odor, temperature, and humidity
are measured in the confinement area, and
the laboratory-scale waste treatment pilot
plant is operated so as to permit evaluation
of the overall effectiveness of the proposed
recycle-water carriage-manure system.
FINDINGS: A recirculating hydraulic manure
transport system is in operation. Manure is
removed from the 700-head swine confine-
ment building by hourly flushing 100 gal of
water into the two shallow gutters traversing
the animal pens. The water flows down 42-in.
wide by 2-in. deep gutters, carrying with it
manure accumulated since the previous flush-
ing. The animals have responded to this sys-
tem by depositing all feces and urine in the
gutter, and this keeps the remainder of the
pens dry and free of manure. When flushing
occurs, the pigs move to the gutter for diver-
sion and provide the necessary agitation to
suspend the manure solids in the flushing
water. The result is a confinement building
in which no manual manure removal is
necessary and in which there is a decidedly
lower odor level than in comparable build-
ings with other means ot manure collection.
30
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No pen washing or other cleaning efforts are
used.
From the building the manure and water
flow by gravity into an anaerobic lagoon that
effectively removes the solids and reduces the
organic content of the liquid wastes. Effluent
from the lagoon is pumped to an oxidation
ditch for further removal of organic matter
and control of odor. After settling to remove
solids, the oxidation ditch effluent is pumped
back to the flush tanks in the confinement
building for reuse. The waste treatment sys-
tem produces an effluent of acceptable quality
for reuse within the building, has not resulted
in disease problems within the building, and
has eliminated the need to haul manure or to
discharge effluent into the receiving stream.
Construction currently underway will al-
low wastewater from the building to be di-
verted directly to the oxidation ditch. In this
mode of operation, the lagoon will be used
as a disposal method for excess solids from
the oxidation ditch. Other aspects of the sys-
tem will be unchanged.
Soil used as a means of disposal for excess
lagoon effluent is applied at rates up to 3 in.
per application at intervals of 3 to 5 days. This
high loading rate is managed to promote maxi-
mum nitrogen removal and results in essen-
tially complete removal of organic matter,
phosphorus, and bacteria while removing 60
to 70 percent of the nitrogen. Detailed studies
of nitrogen transformations and changes in
the soil's organic matter are underway.
PUBLICATIONS
MINER, J. R. A review of the literature of 1967 on waste-
water and water pollution control. Industrial wastes.
Agricultural (livestock) wastes. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 40(6): 1150-1158, June 1968.
HAZEN, T. E. Wiles of wet wastes. ASAE Paper No. 68-
556. Presented at Winter Meeting, American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, Chicago, Dec. 10-13, 1968. 10 p.
KOELI.IKER, J. K., and J. R. MINER. Use of soil to treat
anaerobic lagoon effluent: Renovation as a function of
depth and application rate. ASAE Paper No. 69-460.
Presented at Annual Meeting, American Society of Agri-
cultural Engineers, Lafayette, June 22-25, 1969. 19 p.
HAZEN, T. E., and J. R. MINER. Waste-environment com-
plex in confinement production of swine. In Proceedings;
Seventh International Congress of Agricultural Engineer-
ing, Baden-Baden, Germany, Oct. 6-9 1969. [St. Joseph,
Michigan, American Society of Agricultural Engineers.]
p. 197-203.
WILLRICH, T. L., and J. R. MINER. Anaerobic lagooning
of swine wastes In Proceedings; Seventh International
Congress of Agricultural Engineering, Baden-Baden, Ger-
many, Oct. 6-9, 1969. [St. Joseph, Michigan, American
Society of Agricultural Engineers.] p. 287.
MINER, J. R. A review of the literature o£ 1968 on waste-
water and water pollution control. Industrial wastes.
Agricultural (livestock) wastes. Journal of the Water Pol-
lution Control Federation, 41(6):1169-1178, June 1969.
MINFR, J. R. The universities' role in feedlot pollution
control. In Proceedings; Animal Waste Management Con-
ference, Kansas City, Missouri, Feb. 1969. U.S. Fedeial
Water Pollution Control Administration, p. 23—25.
SMITH, R. ]., T. E. HAZEN, and J. R. MINER. Piggery
cleaning using lenovated wastes. Presented at Symposium
on Farm Wastes, University of New Castle Upon Tyne,
England, Jan. 7-8, 1970. 25 p. (Iowa Agriculture and
Home Economics Experiment Station Journal Paper No.
J6435, Iowa State University.) '
MINER, J. R., and T. L. WILLRICH. Livestock operations
and field-spread manure as sources of pollutants. Pre-
sented at Conference Concerning the Role of Agriculture
in Clean Water, Iowa State University, Ames, Nov. 18—20,
1969. (Iowa Agricultural and Home Economics Experi-
ment Station Journal Paper No. J-6378.)
MINER, J. R., E. R. BAUMANN, T. L. WILLRICH, and T. E.
HAZEN. Pollution control—feedlot operations. Journal of
the Water Pollution Control Federation, 42(3):391-398,
Mar. 1970.
Effects of Processing Poultry Manure on Disease Agents
Dr. James R. Howes
Poultry Science Department
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843
Grant No. EC 00316-02
Funds Awarded: $63,596
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the survival of
disease agents in composted and dried poul-
try wastes and the spread of the agents from
conventional versus composted and dried
31
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waste products removed from poultry houses.
To determine the effects of variants in man-
agement during the composting and drying
of poultry wastes of different origin on the
chemical, physical, and pathogenic nature of
the end products.
APPROACH: Manure produced by domestic
chickens, turkeys, and quail were studied to
determine the effects of species, sex, age,
management, nutrition, and environment on
the physical, chemical, and pathogenic nature
of the raw manure. The various types of ma-
nure were then either composted or dried by
using some of the major variations of manage-
ment in processing that are likely to affect
the end product. The physical properties
(particle size, density, storage stability, etc)
and chemical properties (pH, moisture, nitro-
gen, calcium, phosphorus, etc) of the treated
manure were determined. During the process-
ing several parameters such as temperature,
humidity, and an air pollution potential were
monitored. The use of various litter material
such as shavings, sawdust, rice hulls, corn
cobs, peanut hulls, and straw was studied to
determine their effect on the composted
product.
Litter scheduled for composting and ma-
nure scheduled for drying were seeded with
various pathogens associated with poultry to
determine the effect of the management of
the two processes on the survival of these
pathogens. Specific pathogens studied in-
cluded the following: Fowl pox virus, In-
fectious Brusal Agent, Clostridia sp, Pasteur-
ella Multocida, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
fumigatus Eimeria sp, Ascaridia sp, Raillie-
tina Cesticillus, Musca domestica, Bdellonys-
sus sylviarum, and Darlking beetle.
FINDINGS:
1. The limitations of laboratory composting
of poultry wastes have been clearly demon-
strated. It is necessary to have adequate vol-
ume in order to simulate field conditions.
The results obtained from small units are
highly suspect, at least 100 bird units being
necessary to provide adequate volume of
wastes for working each treatment.
2. Disease carryover in composted poultry
wastes. Studies with Coccidia, Salmonella, and
Newcastle virus seeded in litter prior to com-
posting indicate reduction in active patho-
gens. Owing to overlong composting resulting
from inadequately sized litter piles, the same
reductions in pathogen numbers were ob-
tained with time. It is essential therefore to
have sufficiently large piles of manure dur-
ing composting in order to obtain adequate
heating.
Results from the past 2 years' studies indi-
cate that several species of bacteria and viruses
are not suitable for a variety of reasons for
studying the carryover of disease agents in
poultry wastes. Coccidia and nematodes ap-
pear to be the best agents with which to
work, especially since these agents are not
highly contagious. Techniques developed to
control these agents would probably be effec-
tive for others since these organisms are rela-
tively difficult to control.
3. Ultraviolet irradiation of poultry manure
has been indicated to have distinct possibili-
ties in controlling the carryover of disease
organisms.
4. Poutry litter materials and composting.
It is possible to compost poultry litter con-
sisting of any organic matter that has been
tried including corn cobs, rice hulls, peanut
hulls, straw of various kinds, sawdust, hard
and soft wood shavings, and so forth. The
environmental conditions prevailing repre-
sent the main factor affecting speedy heating,
provided adequate air, moisture, and car-
bonaceous and nitrogenous materials are
present.
5. Physical properties of wastes in relation
to composting. The particle size must be
fairly uniform and small for the best com-
posting. Too fine particle size causes an-
aerobic compaction, and overly large particle
size permits too much air to penetrate the
pile. Mineral content of poultry manure
within the usual limits has no apparent effect
on composting, and pH is highly variable
within and between piles that have supposedly
been subjected to similar treatments.
6. Drying poultry wastes. Provided a tem-
perature of some 200 F is reached for a few
minutes, pathogens evaluated appear to be
destroyed. Incinerators therefore provide a
disease-free material but produce air pollu-
tion. Dryers usually well exceed 200 F and
32
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should therefore also provide disease-free
processed poultry wastes. Mork work is re-
quired to evaluate further the time-tempera-
ture factor with more pathogens.
7. Reduction in the volume of poultry
wastes. Traditionally all floor-raised com-
mercial poultry-broilers, turkeys, most re-
placement pullets, and many layer flocks are
raised on fresh floor litter. By composting the
litter between broods it has been demon-
strated that the heat treatment controls most
active pathogens, and the volume of litter
required by the poultry industry has there-
fore been greatly reduced. This is of economic
benefit to the poultry industry, especially as
competition increases for sugar cane wastes,
wood shavings, and other absorptive materials.
From the standpoint of the volume of poul-
try solid wastes it is estimated that 90 percent
of the broilers and many of the turkeys raised
during the past 2 years in the United States
have been raised on recycled litter, and the
volume of solid wastes for disposal has there-
by been vastly reduced. Furthermore, the re-
sulting stabilized organic wastes do not pol-
lute soil, water, and air when distributed on
the land as raw manure does.
8. Manure from caged poultry. Because of
labor shortages and economics many poultry-
men are presently being forced to automate
their layer operations by caging their birds.
Aerobic digestion of caged layer poultry ma-
nure has been economically established and
is now being used on a limited scale in the
United States to combat fly and odor prob-
lems. Aerobic digestion will control these
problems and has enabled some harassed
poultry operators to remain in business. In
addition the volume of the manure has been
greatly reduced, and furthermore stabilized
organic material eliminates soil, water, and
air pollution.
9. Cages for broilers. Classically, broilers
are raised on floor litter to avoid the develop-
ment of breast blisters and leg deformities.
Recent studies under this grant have shown
that broilers may now be raised successfully
in plastic-floored cages without these prob-
lems. If the cage system is adopted by the
poultry industry for raising broilers, and it
could well be the case, the volume of solid
wastes produced by broilers in the United
States could be further vastly reduced since
no litter would have to be used. The feces
could also be digested under these cages to
reduce volume, control fly and odor problems,
and stabilize the material in order to avoid
odor, fly, and pollution problems when the ma-
terial is used in horticulture and agriculture.
10. Composting of cattle feedlot wastes. Al-
though outside the limits of the grant, assist-
ance has been given to a feedlot operator
in Texas to compost feedlot wastes. A pilot
operation has been highly successful in pro-
ducing a reduction in volume and has resulted
in an odorless, stabilized agricultural fertilizer.
11. Composted garbage for poultry litter.
Garbage from which metal, glass, paper, rags,
and plastic had been removed was composted
by Lone Star Organics, Jnc, of Houston. The
resultant material has been evaluated as an
absorbent poultry litter and found to be
highly desirable. Large-scale field trials are
now in progress.
PUBLICATIONS
HOWES, J. R. Methods of disposal; poultry wastes. Texas
Agriculture Ptogtess, 14-22-23. 1968.
HOWES, J. R. Management and utilization of poultry
wastes. Feedstufjs, 40(50):22-23, 1968.
HOWES, J. R. The digestion of poultry feces under cages.
Poultiy Science, 47(5):682, Sept. 1968. (Abstract.)
HOWLS, J. R. How to manage poultry waste. Canadian
Poultiy Review, 93(3): 11-12, 38-39, Mar. 1969.
HOWES, J. R. A icview of available litter matciials and
their advantages and disadvantages. In Pioceedings, Third
National Poultiy Litter and Waste Management Seminar,
1969. p. 140-149.
HOWES, J. R. The composting of poultry manure and
litter and its use as a garden and feed fertilizer. Pre-
sented at Pennsylvania Ponltiy Waste Conxeision Sym-
posium, Lancaster, 1969.
HOWES, J. R., and J. W. BRADLI v. Composting gaibage
foi poultry litter. Proceedings; Association of Southern
Agricultural Woikcis, 66:257, 1969. (Abstiact.)
HOWFS, J. R., and J. W. BRADLEY. Littei materials and
management for broilers. Poulti\ Science, 48(5):1822, Sept.
1969. (Abstract)
HOWLS, J. R., IV C. Woimeli, and B. R. STEWART. Cages
as enviionment for broilers. Poultiy Science, 48(5):1822,
Sept 1969. (Abstiact.)
33
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Research on an Animal Waste Pollution Control System
Dr. John R. Thygeson
Department of Chemical Engineering
Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Grant No. EC-00390-01
Funds Awarded: $52,048
Project Period: Aug. 1, 1969 to July 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the possibility
of rendering animal wastes innocuous by
steam drying and to determine the nutritional
value of the dried wastes in hopes that they
can be used as animal feed.
APPROACH: Three areas of investigation are
associated with this research effort, as follows:
the drying of the animal waste, characteriza-
tion of the odors in the dried waste, and
toxicologic and nutritional studies of the
dried waste. The drying studies are being
conducted on 1- to 5-lb samples of manure.
Factors being determined include the effect
of moisture content of manure on drier op-
eration, the effect of mass velocity on both
heat transfer and mass transfer, the influence
of superheat in the drying medium (steam),
the mechanism of drying, the influence of bed
depth, effects of particle size and shape, and
the influence of nozzle orientation. Both or-
ganoleptic testing or subjective evaluations
and analytical testing by means of gas-liquid
chromatography, infrared spectroscopy, and
mass spectroscopy quantitatively and qualita-
tively define the odors present in the dried
manure and the liquid waste resulting from
the drying operation.
Toxicologic studies involve many chemical
tests, including pH and alkalinity, and the
contents of iron, phosphate, nitrate, sulfur,
chloride, water- and ether-soluble materials,
and nitrogen. Animal feedings are used to
determine the toxic effects of the dried ma-
nure. Those products found nontoxic are eval-
uated for nutritive value by being fed to rats.
FINDINGS:
1. Equipment. An apparatus for conducting
through-circulation drying tests with super-
heated steam or with mixtures of superheated
steam and an inert gas has been designed,
built, and put into operation. The equipment
is suitable for the following limits on the dry-
ing parameters:
bed depth up to 9 in.
superficial fluid velocity up to 1,000 ft/
min
gas temperature to 350 F
degrees of superheat to 140 F
any mixture of superheated steam with
an inert gas
Provision for measuring drop, flow, and
temperature, is incorporated in the system.
A Sanborn two-channel recording system pro-
vides for continuous record of gas and pellet
temperatures at several locations throughout
the bed. A two-stage electrical heater and
superheater supplies the energy for drying.
The exhaust vapor is continuously condensed
in a two-stage cooler-condenser system. Build-
ing supply steam, suitably reduced in pressure,
is the drying medium.
2. Experimental results. Preforming and
drying tests on cow manure obtained from
the University of Delaware Agricultural Sta-
tion are in progress. Results thus far indicate
that a suitable preformed particle for through
drying can be produced. Pressure drop and
viscosity studies ae likewise in progress.
3. Theoretical results. A general computer
simulation of the through-circulation drying
process has been developed. The mathematical
model considers the case in which a constant-
rate drying wave advances through the bed
in the direction of steam flow and is followed
by an expanding falling-rate drying zone. The
system of coupled nonlinear partial differ-
ential equations describing temperature and
moisture content distribution in fluid and
solid phases is solved by means of an explicit
finite-difference technique.
The results of the simulation study are
being applied to the optimization of the dry-
ing operation.
34
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Survival'of Pathogens in Animal Manure Disposal
Dr. Stanley L. Diesch
Dept. of Veterinary Microbiology and
Public Health
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
OBJECTIVE: To determine the survival and
subsequent public health hazards of patho-
genic bacteria in cattle manure when disposal
is by means of extended aeration. Laboratory
models are used to determine the effect of
specific field environmental conditions and
chlorination upon the survival of Leptospira
pomona and Salmonella typhimurium. Con-
currently, the detection methods for these
pathogens are being compared and evaluated.
APPROACH: Two laboratory-scale models of
the extended aeration ditch were designed and
constructed. One model is used for pathogen
survival studies and the other for establishing
engineering design criteria before its effect
on pathogen survival is evaluated. Field en-
vironmental conditions, including humidity,
dissolved oxygen, pH, and temperature, are
duplicated in the laboratory model for patho-
gen survival studies. Known amounts of L.
pomona and S. typhimurium are added to
the mixed fecal liquor in the laboratory-
model system, and samples of mixed liquor,
sludge, and effluent are collected during peri-
ods of seeding and postseeding to determine
the length of survival. Survival of pathogens
is also studied in chlorinated effluent and
holders immersed in the mixed liquor.
FINDINGS: The department is using a 1:10
laboratory-scale model of an operational field
ditch. In the field ditch the department of
agricultural engineering is studying the treat-
ment of manure from beef cattle, housed un-
der confined conditions. The field ditch is
used for storage and treatment and receives
manure from 36 beef cattle. After 6 months,
animals are removed, ditch residues pumped,
and new tests begun. Observed biological,
chemical, and physical data indicate a system
with a capacity of 50 cu ft per animal can
store and treat such wastes through the Min-
nesota winter period.
Grant No. EC 00302-02
Funds Awarded: $73,342
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
The operational laboratory model has been
developed and is being used to simulate field
environmental conditions in order to study
survival and detection of seeded pathogenic
bacteria in beef cattle manure obtained from
the field oxidation ditch. Improved methods
of measuring survival and detecting epto-
spires in the manure have been developed by
the use of fluorescent antibody and artificial
cultural isolation techniques. Repeated sur-
vival studies have been conducted in the
manure environment of Selas porcelain can-
dles, which allow a nutritional exchange with
the liquid media of the laboratory ditch.
Studies have been conducted under simulated
field conditions with varied pH, dissolved
oxygen, temperature, and total solids. Re-
covery of leptospires has been culturally made
up to several days following seeding. Lepto-
spires have been detected by the fluorescent
antibody techniques for longer periods of
time. Studies are being conducted in manure
effluents and sludge-scale models of settling
chambers under varying environmental con-
ditions. Leptospiral survival has been meas-
ured for several days and detection for longer
periods. These findings indicate that a defi-
nite potential health hazard exists for man
and animals.
The department of agricultural engineer-
ing is using another laboratory-scale model of
the oxidation ditch. Studies are being made
to define solid settlement patterns and the
feasibility of the ditch as a means of separat-
ing undigested feedstuffs having nutritional
value for reuse. The laboratory model has
been used as an effective tool on changes in
rotor design to control excessive foaming and
effect oxidation capacity.
PUBLICATIONS
SOLAC, R. B. Survival of pathogens in animal manure dis-
posal. Veterinary Medicine Reporter, No. 24:lf{., Dec.
1969.
35
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Bacterial Contamination from Hospital Solid Wastes
Prof. Richard G. Bond
School of Public Health
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
Grant No. EF 00007-04
Funds Awarded: $147,473
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1959 to Dec. 31, 1963
OBJECTIVES: To study the microbial hazards
involved in solid waste handling and associ-
ated housekeeping procedures in hospital
areas. To develop and demonstrate solid
waste-handling methods designed to minimize
airborne and contact contaminations in a
hospital environment.
APPROACH: The investigation was conducted
in a 753-bed teaching and research hospital
and a 265-bed private general hospital. De-
tailed surveys, made of 5 solid waste categories
at 15 service areas, provided information on
the types of materials in each waste category
and on generation, routes, and methods of
transport from source to ultimate disposal.
Waste-handling activities were simulated un-
der laboratory conditions where background
contamination could be controlled to measure
bacterial dissemination. Tracer organisms
were also used to determine actual distances
under which microorganisms could be trans-
ported through the hospital after dispersal
into the environment.
Air was extensively sampled in the 15 serv-
ices and in waste-handling areas such as trash
and laundry chute terminal points, trash and
laundry storage areas, laundries, and incinera-
tor rooms. Efforts were made to devise and
demonstrate remedial measures to reduce
bacterial contamination emanating from hos-
pital solid wastes.
FINDINGS: Perhaps the most revealing find-
ing was the great complexity of the total
waste-handling operation. The facts that han-
dling methods vary even within a particular
service and that usually no single person in
the hospital can detail all the waste-handling
procedures attest to this complexity. Never-
theless, the survey identified the types of
materials being discarded and helped to pin-
point some of the likeliest contamination-
generating activities for evaluation of micro-
bial dissemination. It also yielded a detailed
record of exactly how the various solid waste
materials are actually handled in a hospital,
pinpointed some basically unsound proce-
dures, and suggested improvements.
The need for a highly standardized method
of air sampling of microorganisms was dem-
onstrated for any attempt to compare areas
or situations. Ventilation patterns, movement
and direction of air, and details of tempera-
ture and humidity were all shown to be
necessary adjuncts to a sampling program.
Care in selecting the sampling location—pref-
erably locations—within an area, based on
knowledge of air movement, was indispensa-
ble. The sequential sampling technique (a
series of samples taken over an extended
period), together with a detailed record of
activities in the area, was shown to be neces-
sary for describing meaningfully the airborne
microbial pattern of any area. With this
method, it was possible to obtain quantita-
tive data comparing many areas of the two
hospitals and to demonstrate fluctuations in
these levels related to specific activities, ven-
tilation differences, and housekeeping proce-
dures. It was shown that airborne contamina-
tion levels could be kept low (less than IO/
cu ft) by strict attention to personnel and
traffic control, together with properly designed
ventilation systems and adequate housekeep-
ing practices. Sharp increases in air counts
were also detected, particularly those related
to soiled-laundry-handling procedures. By
means of microbial "tracers" the paths of dis-
semination of contamination related to waste
handling and to other activities were tracked
through the hospital.
It proved extremely important to standard-
ize the method of surface sampling of micro-
organisms. The very high variability on most
surfaces called for collection of very large
36
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sample sizes and the' randomization of sam-
pling sites to describe adequately the surface
contamination of any area at a given time.
The partial working out of a detailed method
as part of the project was a major step toward
adequately evaluating environmental surface
contamination.
Another achievement was the development
of a mass characterization procedure applica-
ble to microbes isolated from the environ-
ment. With this procedure, data were ob-
tained concerning types as well as numbers
of environmental organisms; this information
is of vital importance in determining the po-
tential significance of microbial contamina-
tion. Application of this procedure demon-
strated, for instance, that areas having the
smallest numbers of organisms tended to have
larger percentages of gram-positive cocci as-
sociated with dissemination from people;
"dirtier" areas had larger percentages of dust-
associated bacilli and molds.
Studies of remedial measures produced the
following with regard to:
1. Laundry handling practices. Airborne
contamination resulting from the emptying
of loose linen from chutes added an average
of 150 colonies/cu ft to the air near the chute
opening, and increased counts fourfold or
fivefold, even on the fourth floor (near the
chute door). It was found that this contribu-
tion of contamination could be reduced by
almost 75 percent by confining the linen in
impervious bags and by almost 50 percent by
adequate ventilation of the chute. It was also
found that dissemination on upper floors
could be prevented by ventilation that main-
tained negative pressure in the chute.
2. Environmental contamination in animal
surgery. A special area was set up in which
cleaning and disinfection, personnel dress,
and traffic (but not ventilation) were rigidly
controlled and compared with a similar area
where there were no such controls but where
the same surgical team could perform identical
procedures on dogs. The air-sampling data
collected for some 34 complete days in each
area revealed that, despite the lack of venti-
lation control, the "sterile" area maintained
a mean count of less than 20 colonies/cu ft
of air compared with more than 70 in the
other area. Autogenous factors in the dogs
themselves prevented an accurate determina-
tion of infection rates related to environ-
mental contamination. However, deaths from
infection among all dogs in the "sterile" area
approximated 24 percent compared with a
50 percent rate among dogs in the uncon-
trolled area. This suggests that a relationship
to environmental contamination exists.
None of the evaluated cleaning methods or
products consistently reduced the microbial
count by as much as 80 percent immediately
following the cleaning procedure. The count
on the floor built up in proportion to the
amount of new traffic and activity in the area,
regardless of method or product used, and
continued to rise until the day's activity
ended. No significant difference could be
determined between various germicidal prod-
ucts and control solutions using a nongermici-
dal detergent or ordinary hot tapwater. Wet-
vacuum pickup reduced the microbial count
slightly more than a standard mop-and-bucket
system did.
PUBLICATIONS
GREENE, V. W., R. G. BOND, and G. S. MICHAELSEN. Air
handling systems must be planned to reduce the spread
of infection. Modern Hospital, 95(2): 136, Aug. 1960.
GRFENE, V. W., D. VESLEV, R. G. BOND, and G. S.
MICHAELSEN. The engineer and infection control. Hospitals
(JAHA), 34(17):69, Sept. 1960.
GREENE, V. W. and L. G. HERMAN. Problems associated
with suiface sampling techniques and apparatus in the
institutional environment. Journal of Milk and Food
Technology, 24(8):262, Aug. 1961.
VESLEY, D. and M BRASK. Environmental implications
in the control of hospital-acquitcd infections. Nursing
Outlook, 9(12):742, Dec. 1961.
GRFENE, V. W and D. VFSLEY. Method for evaluating
effectiveness of suigical masks Journal of Bacteriology,
S3(3):663, Mar. 1962.
GREENE, V. W , D. VESLEY and K. M. KEENAN. New method
foi microbiological sampling of sin faces Journal of
Rnctejiology, 84(1): 188, July 1962.
GREENE, V. W., D. VESLEI , R. G. BOND, and G. S.
MICIIAFLSEN. Miciobiological contamination of hospital
aii. I. Quantitative studies. Applied Microbiology, 10(6):
561, Nov. 1962.
GRIFM-, V. W., D. VFSI.EY, R. G. BOND, and G. S.
MICHAFLSIN. Microbiological contamination of hospital
air. II. Qualitative studies. Applied Miaobiology, 10(6):
567, Nov. 1962.
MICIIAHSEN, G. S. Waste handling. In Proceedings; Na-
tional Confetcnce on Institutionally Acquired Infections,
37
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Minneapolis, Minnesota, Sept. 4-6, 1963. Public Health
Service Publication No. 1188. Washington, D.C., U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1964. p. 65.
VESLEY, D. Surface sampling techniques for the institu-
tional environment—present status. In Proceedings; Na-
tional Conference on Institutionally Acquired Infections,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, Sept. 4-6, 1963. Public Health
Service Publication No. 1188. Washington, D.C., U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1964. p. 101.
MICHAELSEN, G. S. and D. VESLEY. Industrial clean room
versus hospital operating rooms. Air Engineering, 5(9):24,
Sept. 1963.
VESLEY, D. and G. S. MICHAELSEN. Application of a sam-
pling technique to the evaluation of bacteriological effec-
tiveness of certain hospital housekeeping proceduics.
Health Laboratory Science, 1(2): 107, Apr. 1964.
BULLOCK, W. E., J. W. HALL, W. W. SPINK, L. J. DAMSKY,
V. W. GREENE, D. VESLEY, and H. BAUER. A staphylococcal
isolation service: epidemiologic and clinical studies over
one year. Annah of Internal Medicine, 60(5):777, May
1964.
MICHAELSEN, G. S. and D. VFSLEY. Dissemination of aii-
borne microorganisms in an institutional environment. In
Surface Contamination; Proceedings; Symposium, Gatlin-
burg, Tennessee, June 1964. B. R. Fish, ed. Oxford,
Pergamon Press, [1967]. p. 285
VESLEY, D., and G. S. MICHAELSEN. A technique for meas-
urement of microbial contamination on flat surfaces, hi
Surface Contamination; Proceedings; Symposium, Gatlin-
burg, Tennessee, June 1964. B. R. Fish, cd. Oxford,
Pergamon Press, [1967]. p. 321.
BOND, R. G., and G. S. MICHAELSEN. Bacterial contamina-
tion from hospital solid wastes. Minneapolis, University
of Minnesota, Aug. 1964. 160 p.
Incineration of Infectious and Radioactive Solid Waste
Dr. Leslie Silverman *
Department of Industrial Hygiene
Harvard University
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
Grant No. EF 00579-01 SI
Funds Awarded $52,122
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1964 to June 30, 1965
OBJECTIVES: To investigate and analyze the
performance characteristics of a new institu-
tional incinerator-boiler facility designed to
dispose of combustible, infectious, and low-
level-radioactive biological solid wastes from
research laboratories and hospitals.
APPROACH: Harvard University's incinera-
tor-boiler was used to investigate its use for
disposal of solid waste from research opera-
tions and hospitals. Low-level-radioactive
solid waste incineration and decontamina-
tion were also studied.
FINDINGS: The performances of a crematory-
type incinerator and a combination steam-
boiler incinerator were compared in the com-
bustion of difficult laboratory and hospital
wastes such as animals and cage litter. Be-
cause of excessive stack emissions of smoke,
fly ash, and malodorous gases and vapors, the
crematory type proved unsatisfactory. Under
* Deceased.
the most favorable operating conditions for
avoidance of air pollution and for production
of a good-quality residue, burning capacity
was only 2 to 3 Ib sq ft/hr. Higher burning
rates produced severe nuisances. The mecha-
nized steam-boiler incinerator, on the other
hand, provided a sanitary method of handling
and burning these wastes efficiently and
rapidly. A cyclone dust collector proved super-
fluous for use with gas or oil fuels; it could
be eliminated without decreasing the overall
collection efficiency of an electrostatic pre-
cipitator that served as a final cleaning stage.
Viable bacteria originating from the charge
placed on the hearth of a crematory-type in-
cinerator were recovered in the flue gases
whereas the flue gases from the combination
steam-boiler incinerator were always sterile.
PUBLICATIONS
FIRST, M. W., P. FILI.ES, and J. WALKI.EY. Disposal of low
level radioactive waste in commercial incinerators. In
Proceedings of the Ninth AEG Air Cleaning Conference,
Jan. 1967. p. 570-585.
38
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Hospital Solid Waste Disposal in Community Facilities
Professor Richard G. Bond
School of Public Health
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
Grant No. EC-00261-04
Funds Awarded: $110,630
Project Period: June 1, 1966 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVE: To define the solid waste prob-
lems of hospitals as they relate to design and
operation of hospitals, to determine the im-
pact of hospitals' solid waste on community
facilities and operation, and to identify en-
vironmental health and safety problems asso-
ciated with present practices in hospitals and
their host communities.
APPROACH: During the first year of this
investigation five hospitals were surveyed to
determine the waste disposal practices quali-
tatively and quantitatively. Two were in a
large city having a relatively sophisticated
method of waste collection and disposal. These
two were of different types and sizes to pro-
vide different Avaste characteristics. Another
two hospitals were selected from suburban
communities where waste collection and dis-
posal programs were less developed. These
two also were of different design and opera-
tion. The fifth hospital was in a rural area
where there were further differences in design
and operation and in the community's solid
waste management.
After survey techniques and investigative
procedures had been developed during the
first year, 25 hospitals of different sizes and
types in various communities around the
country were studied during the second year.
During the third year, the survey expanded
to about 100 hospitals. Again, these hospitals
were in different size communities and in dif-
ferent geographical locations, were of various
sizes, and provided various services. The
fourth year was devoted to the evaluation of
data, development of recommendations, and
publication of survey findings.
FINDINGS: Data are being analyzed, and dis-
cussion of specific findings would be prema-
ture. Findings are expected, however, to in-
clude the following:
An analysis of quantities of solid wastes
from hospitals, indicating relation to number
of beds, patient census, numbers of staff and
students, number of outpatients, hospital
facilities, community setting, and other
factors.
Classifications of quantities of solid wastes
from hospitals according to source within
the hospital, type of solid waste, and method
of disposal.
Listings of the problems arising at hospitals
from on-site solid waste storage, treatment,
and disposal, including compaction, incinera-
tion, grinding, bulk receptacles, and other
items.
Descriptions of conditions found at com-
munity facilities receiving hospitals' solid
wastes. The implications these conditions have
for hospitals' solid waste disposal.
PUBLICATIONS
BOND, R. G., and A. F. IOLAR. Hospital solid waste dis-
posal in community facilities. Presented at Engineering
Foundation Research Conference, Solid Waste Research
and Development, Milwaukee, July 24-28, 1967. Confer-
ence Preprint No. D_3.
MICHAELSEN, G. S., and A. F. IOLAR. Disposing of dis-
posables. Presented at Annual Meeting, American Hospi-
tal Association, Chicago, Aug. 21-24, 1967. 8 p.
39
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Study of Institutional Solid Wastes
Prof. Jerry C. Burchinal
Department of Civil Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
Grant No. EC 00265-02
Funds Awarded: $120,037
Project Period: Apr. 1, 1968 to Mar. 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To characterize solid wastes
qualitatively and quantitatively from the
West Virginia Medical School, which consists
of a general hospital, a basic sciences building,
and an animal quarters. In addition to the
usual parameters used to describe, classify,
and characterize solid wastes, considerable
attention is being given to the possible con-
tamination of such material by viruses and
bacteria. Sampling procedures were developed
to permit classification and identification of
the solid wastes according to source and to
the particular producing unit. It is believed
that such information will be useful in estab-
lishing safe procedures for the handling of
wastes exposed to pathogenic organisms and
in providing a basis for the design of han-
dling and disposal facilities.
APPROACH: The waste from the basic sciences
building is collected from each floor and each
significant unit and put into labeled bags.
The hospital waste is collected and identified
by grant personnel placed at the deposit
points on each floor. Waste brought to the de-
posit points is placed by the observer in a
properly tagged or colored bag and dropped
in a chute to the incinerator room. Carcasses
and combustible material in the animal quar-
ters are incinerated. Carcasses harboring
pathogenic organisms are autoclaved prior to
incineration. It is felt that with the exception
of a few microbiologic and virologic deter-
minations, a physical description of solid
waste from the animal quarters is adequate.
The waste from each unit is analyzed physi-
cally for weight, volume, and bulk density
and classified into 14 different categories such
as paper, cotton, and bottles. The waste is
chemically studied for carbon, protein, phos-
phorus, nitrogen, carbon-nitrogen ratio, sul-
fur, and hydrogen as well as for pH, moisture,
liquid content, volatile solids and ash, and
gross and net calorific values. Biological
studies include total count, total anaerobic
count, aerobic and anaerobic spore formers,
coliform count, staphylococci, beta hemolytic
organisms, enterococci, viruses, and fungi.
Survival of microorganisms in solid waste is
also studied by sampling composite waste held
at room temperature for different lengths of
time.
FINDINGS: The annual production of solid
wastes from the hospital and basic sciences
building is approximately 1,000 tons. This is
being classified according to the amount pro-
duced by departments, to the amount per bed
in the hospital, and to other unit quantities.
A cost analysis of waste handling gave a cost
of $77.30 per ton of waste handled.
A virologic study indicated that viruses
could live in solid waste materials for approxi-
mately 3 to 5 days.
PUBLICATIONS
ZEPEDA, F. Statistical analysis of institutional solid wastes.
Problem report submitted to the Graduate School, West
Virginia University, in partial fulfillment of the require-
ments for the degree of Master of Science in Civil Engi-
neering. Morgantown, 1969. 59 p.
ARMSTRONG, D. Refuse chute sanitation. Problem report
submitted to the Graduate School, West Virginia Univer-
sity, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering. Morgan-
town, 1969.
40
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A Study of Incinerator Residue
Dr. P. Walton Purdom
Department of Environmental Engineering
and Science
Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Grant No. Ul 00509-03
Funds Awarded: $226,000
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1965 to Dec. 31, 1968
OBJECTIVES: To study incinerator residue
of rotary kiln units and rocker-grate units, and
incinerator residue from municipalities not
having separate collection. To make a labora-
tory study by subjecting residue to tidal surg-
ing so that leaching and time release mecha-
nisms could be studied.
APPROACH: Residue samples were screened
to a 2-in. diameter and magnetically sepa-
rated, and the nonmagnetic portion was
shredded and milled. They were then ana-
lyzed for fats or oil-soluble fractions, water-
soluble fractions, ignition residue, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, and occasionally,
heavy metals. Odor, dust, and other nuisances
were observed as well as fly and rodent attrac-
tion and breeding.
The effects of altering operating parameters
such as feed rate, overfire and underfire air,
and rate of grate travel on residue were in-
vestigated. Bed temperature must be high
enough to decompose all organic material so
that rat and fly breeding is not supported. An
attempt was made to correlate stack gas tem-
perature, residue bed temperature, and the
organic content of the byproduct residue.
The effect of tidal surging through incin-
erated residue placed in a varying water
table was investigated to determine if residue
is suitable from a public health standpoint
for waterfront reclamation. The rilled area
was chemically analyzed for information on
the time release mechanism of leachable con-
taminants. Lysimeter studies and analysis of
water-soluble fractions were used.
FINDINGS: The character of incinerator resi-
due is determined by the degree of burnout,
which may be estimated by the weight loss
on ignition. Residue with greater than 90
percent burnout does not react biochemically,
and the major leaching problem is from inor-
ganic compounds. Major inorganics include
chloride in concentrations of 2,000 mg/liter,
sodium in concentrations of 3,500 mg/liter,
and phosphate in concentrations greater than
10 mg/liter. In addition, the total dissolved
solids are increased to 8,000 to 10,000 mg/
liter.
For a landfill receiving only residue of less
than 90 percent burnout, temperatures of de-
composition were 140 F. This indicates that
an incompletely burned residue will decom-
pose similarly to unburned refuse.
Rates at which leaching occur are deceptive
and vary with the component. For example,
iron is quickly oxidized, and the concentra-
tion of iron in landfill leachate decreases rap-
idly. Conversely, the chloride and sodium con-
centrations are slower to develop, but they
persist longer.
Effects of operation on character of residue
indicate that most incinerators are not con-
structed with sufficient operating flexibility.
Greater variation in total excess air and in
the overfire/underfire ratio should be in-
cluded. By altering retention time and bed
temperature the degree of burnout can be
increased.
PUBLICATIONS
PURDOM, P. W. Characteiistics of incinerator residue. In
1'iocecdiiigs of the First Annual Meeting of the Institute
for Solid Wastes of the American Public Works Associa-
tion, Chicago, Sept. 13-15, 1966. p. 38-43.
PURDOM, P. W., and R. J. SCHOENBERGER. Incinerator resi-
due. Limitations on use? Picsented at Meeting, American
Public Health Association, San Francisco, Nov. 2, 1966.
9 p.
SCIIOKNBERCER, R. J., and P. W. PURDOM. Classification of
incinciator residue. In Proceedings; 1968 National In-
cinerator Conference, New York, May 5—8, 1968. American
Society of Mechanical Engineeis. p. 237.
SciioKMiERCER, R. J., N. M. TRiEFF, and P. W. PURDOM.
Special techniques for analyzing solid waste or incinerated
41
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residue. In Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Con-
ference, New York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, p. 242.
SCHOENBF.RGER, R. J., and P. W. PURDOM. Residue charac-
terization. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division,
Proc. ASCE, 95 (SA3):387-397, June 1969.
SUFFET, I., A. A. FUNGAROU, R. J. SCHOENBERGER, and
S. J. LEVY. Specific ion electrodes analysis of wastewaters
from solid waste disposal. In Proceedings; Third Mid-
Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference, College Park, Md.,
Nov. 12-14, 1969. University of Maryland, p. 279-303.
SCHOENBERGER, R. ]., P. W. PURDOM, S. J. LEVY, and
H. I. HOLLANDER. Characterization and treatment of in-
cinerator process waters. In Proceedings; 1970 National
Incinerator Conference, Cincinnati, May 17-20, 1970.
New York, American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
p. 204-215.
Smokeless Incineration of Bulky Municipal Refuse
Mr. Elmer R. Kaiser
Department of Chemical Engineering
New York University
Bronx, New York 10453
Grant No. EC 00248-05
Funds Awarded: $163,984
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1964 to Jan. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To develop engineering data
necessary for the design of incinerators for
burning oversize solid waste. To determine an
optimum time for consumption along with
minimum emission of smoke, fly ash, and
noncombustible residue.
APPROACH: An existing experimental bulky
waste incinerator was modified and tested to
determine optimum conditions for combus-
tion of oversize wastes. Factors determined
included the temperature of inlet air, refrac-
tories, and exit gases; drafts and draft losses;
exit gas composition; capacity of exit gases;
and airfknv rates. The weight losses of the
charges, gas composition, heat releases, and
drafts were then plotted for the entire burn-
ing cycle. The volumes and densities of the
initial charge and final residue were deter-
mined and weight and volume reduction ra-
tios established.
A number of bulky waste incinerators
around the country were studied in less de-
tail and their characteristics evaluated with
respect to performance.
Recommendations were prepared for the
sizes of flue gas passages, volume and configu-
ration of the primary and secondary cham-
bers, types and thickness of refractory, and
optimum width and height of the charging
door.
FINDINGS: A simple incinerator furnace has
been evolved, without moving grates or stok-
ing mechanism, and without the need for
shredding the refuse. Bulky waste is deposited
by dump truck in front of the charging door
and charged by tractor.
The charges are burned on a refractory
floor in a firebrick chamber. Air is supplied
through ports in the floor, side walls, and
arch. Logs, tires, demolition lumber, furni-
ture, mattresses, and other materials burn
until consumed in minutes or hours, depend-
ing on their thickness. Additional charges
can be added as space becomes available by
the burning down of previous charges. Sim-
plicity permits use of semi-skilled labor. Fif-
teen to eighteen Ib are burned hourly per sq
ft of hearth area.
Combustion of gases and smoke from the
primary furnace is completed in the secondary
chamber. Although the amount of fly ash
(dust) in gases is small because of conserva-
tive rates of burning, flue gas-cleaning equip-
ment (scrubber, electrostatic precipitator)
can be added to clean gases to any degree
required.
The final report (in preparation) will pro-
vide basic design information and perform-
ance to be expected. At least two full-scale
bulky refuse incinerators based in part on
these principles have been built (Stamford
42
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and Norwalk, Connecticut) since preliminary
findings became available.
The findings are expected to result in more
installations across the country, at consider-
able saving over other types of incinerators.
Landfill volume for residue is less than 10
percent that for unburned refuse.
PUBLICATIONS
KAISER, E. R. The incineration of bulky refuse. In Pro-
ceedings; 1966 National Incinerator Conference, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, May 1-4,
1966. p. 39-48.
KAISER, E. R. A new incinerator control meter is needed.
In Proceedings; 1966 National Incinerator Conference,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
May 1-4, 1966, p. 176-182.
KAISER, E. R. The incineration of bulky refuse. II. Jn
Proceedings; 1968 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p. 129-135.
KAISER, E. R. Successful incinerators are not cheap.
Power, 113(9):78-79, Sept. 1969.
KAISER, E. R. The mounting problem of solid wastes.
Power, 113(10):62-63, Oct. 1969.
Systems Analysis of Shipborne Municipal Incineration
Dr. Melvin First
Department of Industrial Hygiene
Harvard University
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
Grant No. Ul 00557-04
Funds Awarded: $455,163
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1965 to June 30, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the scientific
and technical aspects of ocean burning of
municipal solid wastes, including demolition
materials, and the disposal of residues at sea.
The effect of residue disposal upon the chemi-
cal water quality, as well as upon living
things, was considered as well as the effect of
such incineration on the air.
APPROACH: Incinerator residues from land-
based operations were chemically and biologi-
cally analyzed to establish their composition
and their beneficial and detrimental effects
on marine life. The deposition', distribution,
and floating characteristics of ash released on
surface water over a 1- to 2-sq-mi dumping
area were investigated. An ecologic study was
made to establish the effects of continuous
shipborne incinerator operations on marine
life. Moreover, meteorologic studies in the
coastal area determined diffusion of stack
discharges.
Methods of stabilizing solid wastes for stor-
age up to 7 days were studied so that small
coastal communities could collect and store
refuse in a sanitary manner until sufficient
quantities have accumulated to warrant an
incinerator ship stop. Systems analysis was
used to establish optimum refuse collection,
location of dockage areas, quantity of refi'-e
to be transferred per ship stop, and the op-
timum balance among the incinerator ship's
burning, traveling, and loading times.
FINDINGS: Typical municipal incinerator
residues contain 23 to 52 percent by weight of
particles less than i/4> in. in size. Larger par-
ticles are mostly metal cans and other large
metal objects, glass bottle fragments, and
stones. The biologically more active i/£-in. or
less fraction was used for bioassay studies, and
the more visible, larger fraction for studies
of residue stability on the ocean floor. Heavy-
metal concentrations in the less than \/2-'m.
fraction of residue ranged from 10 ppm for
Cd and 60 ppm for Cr to 40,000 ppm for
Fe. Lead content was 700 to 10,000 ppm with
an average of 4,000 ppm for six different in-
cinerator residues, but the fraction soluble
in sea water was less than 1 percent of the
total and often below detectable levels.
Bioassays conducted with winter flounder,
quahaug, mummichog, shrimp, menhaden,
lobster and lobster larvae, mullet, and sea
43
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scallops failed to demonstrate acute toxicity
associated with incinerator residues when
marine organisms were exposed to residue
concentrations of 1 percent by weight or less
in sea water. Twice weekly additions of resi-
dues to harbor pens containing quahaug for
37 months showed lower mortality and higher
growth rates for residue-treated clams and
more favorable responses from those treated
with larger applications. The explanation is
believed to be related to a coarsening of the
silty bottom and the addition of nutrients
from the residue. Similar long-term studies
on winter flounder showed no excess mor-
tality after 7 months. No concentration of
heavy metals was observed in any species.
Direct observations of residue behavior on
the ocean bottom at depths up to 200 feet
over periods of many months while it was
under the continuing influence of open ocean
currents and wave action generated by storms
indicated extreme stability of the deposited
material. Following a violent autumnal storm,
the maximum distance a half-gallon can was
observed to have moved was 50 ft from its
original deposition site after having re-
mained motionless for the entire summer and
early fall. Repeated surveys indicated that fish
life was markedly attracted to the experi-
mental dump sites.
Meteorologic studies have shown the great
steadiness of the wind over the coastal waters
even when wind speed is moderately high
and have demonstrated the probability that
for any weather pattern at least one satisfac-
tory burning site can be found within a 10-
mile run from shore that will not produce
air pollution on land. Climatologic studies
indicate that the annual frequency of days
unsuitable for sailing an incinerator vessel
having the characteristics of a Liberty ship is
5, whereas for a towed-barge operation the
number of unsuitable days approaches 20.
Waste management during periods of unfa-
vorable weather can be by central storage at
dockside, on-site storage by waste producers,
dockside incineration using gas-cleaning de-
vices and tall stacks, or land burial sites re-
served for these periods.
The New York City Planning Commission
has been studying ship incineration and has
come to the conclusion that costs will be only
slightly greater than for current disposal prac-
tices. Engineering studies of burning equip-
ment and materials-handling equipment suit-
able for seagoing incinerator vessels indicate
that the limitless oceanic heat sink may be
utilized as a basis for designing alloy steel
water-wall burning chambers without heavy
and fragile refractory linings that might be
damaged by the constant motion of a ship.
The principles of containerized handling of
ship's cargo appear to be suitable for waste
handling and easily adaptable to incinerator
ship requirements.
Manpower requirements will be a major
cost item in the operation of a seaborne in-
cinerator, even with a towed incinerator ves-
sel. Recent developments in on-line computer
operation of chemical and petrochemical
manufacturing plants and electrical generat-
ing stations suggest the application of this
concept to the operation of an incinerator
with a minimum number of men. It would
be possible to place incinerators on unmanned
towed vessels or barges, and the associated
automatic control systems on the tow vessel.
PUBLICATIONS
SILVERMAN, L. Incineration of solid wastes at sea. APWA
[American Public Works Association} Reporter, 31:2, 4,
July 1964.
OVIATT, C. A. The effects of incinerator residue on selected
marine species. In Proceedings of the Annual Eastern
Regional Antipollution Conference, Kingston, July 22-24,
1968. University of Rhode Island, p. 108-110.
FIRST, N. W. Waste incineration at sea and ocean disposal
of non-floating residues. Presented at 62nd Annual Meet-
ing, Air Pollution Control Association, New York, June
8-12, 1969. Paper No. 69-33.
44
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Combustion Products from the Incineration of Plastics
Prof. Edward A. Boettner
Department of Industrial Health
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
Grant No. EC 00386-01
Funds Awarded: $40,452
Project Period: Aug. 1, 1969 to July 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To analyze the combustion
products of various polymers, and formula-
tions made from these polymers, under a va-
riety of conditions of temperature and air
supply. Of primary interest are polystyrenes,
polyethylenes, polysulfones, and polycarbo-
nates. In addition, previous work, on poly-
vinyl chloride, polyphenylene oxide, and
polyimide is being reported from the stand-
point of incineration problems. Some com-
bustion runs are being done with secondary
burning so that both complete and incom-
plete incinerator conditions are approximated.
APPROACH: A study of the mechanism of
thermal decomposition of a plastic is being
undertaken by using differential thermal anal-
ysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA). From this information it is being
determined whether the plastic breaks down
in one continuous step or in a series of steps
and also whether the reactions involved are
exothermic or endothermic.
A combustion furnace with controlled tem-
perature and air supply is being used to gen-
erate decomposition products for qualitative
and quantitative analysis. The products are
being collected and analyzed by gas chroma-
tography, infrai'ed and mass spectrometry,
and other analytical methods. Temperature,
airflow, heating rates, and open flame are be-
ing investigated as variables in the amount of
products obtained from certain plastic
formulations.
FINDINGS: Research on combustion products
of plastics since July 1969 has included con-
tinuation of work on two plastics, polypheny-
lene oxide and polyimide, which was under-
way before the start of this grant, as well as
preliminary studies on two new plastics, poly-
carbonate and polysulfone.
On thermal decomposition polyphenylene
oxide was found to give large amounts of
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and
straight-chain and aromatic hydrocarbons as
volatile products. In addition, under our
combustion conditions, a large amount of
residue (~50 percent) as a viscous liquid con-
taining high-boiling phenols and water was
formed.
Polyimide undergoes the most nearly com-
plete combustion of any plastic material
tested under the research project's combustion
conditions. Seventy percent of the plastic is
converted to carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide on heating to 800 C. Water, am-
monia, oxides of nitrogen, cyanogen, hydro-
gen cyanide, benzonitrile, and benzene have
also been identified. Current work is on quan-
titatively accounting for the nitrogen in this
plastic, which, because of the toxicity of the
cyanides and nitrogen oxides, is extremely im-
portant. No single analytical technique has
proved suitable for quantitation of these prod-
ucts, and a combination of gas chromatog-
raphy and wet methods is being used.
Work on polycarbonate includes differen-
tial thermal analysis and thermogravimetric
analyses showing a two-step decomposition,
the first corresponding to a depolymerization
and the second to formation of carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide from the remaining
carbon skeleton. In addition to these two
major products, methane, benzene, and to-
luene have been identified. Many more vola-
tile compounds are unidentified. As with
polyphenylene oxide, polycarbonate forms a
viscous liquid residue accounting for about
50 percent of the weight of plastic burned.
In addition to water, the major components
of this residue are phenol, p-cresol, and p-
ethylphenol.
We have also analyzed the combustion prod-
45
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ucts of two plasticizers, diisodecyl phthalate
and dioctyl phthalate, commonly used in
PVC. Pyrolysis of these plasticizers results in
breakdown into a solid, liquid, and gas phase.
The gas phase consists of COz, CO, hydro-
carbons through the butanes, and some oxy-
genated compounds. The liquid phase repre-
sents nearly pure plasticizer, which boils off,
plus some water. The solid phase, composed
of long, white, needle-like crystals, has been
identified as phthalic anhydride, water, and
the chain of the ester that is further decom-
posed into hydrocarbon fragments.
A modified combustion tube has been de-
signed to allow insertion of two small flames
at the outlet of the combustion furnace to
provide secondary burning and to parallel
more closely some types of incinerator com-
bustion. This modification is being evalu-
ated, especially with respect to its ability to
combust the large amounts of liquid residue
from polyphenylene oxide and polycarbonate.
Continuous-Feed Incineration of Municipal Refuse
Mr. Elmer R. Kaiser
Department of Chemical Engineering
New York University
Bronx, New York 10453
Grant No. EC 00251-04
Funds Awarded: $154,221
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1965 to Aug. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To obtain fundamental engi-
neering data needed for better design of con-
tinuous-feed solid waste incinerators. Test
methods were developed to determine the
variability of refuse composition; to determine
the optimum proportions of overfire and
underfire air; to determine heat release and
transfer in the burning refuse, furnace, and
waste heat boiler; to evaluate the refractory
surfaces; and to determine the types and
amounts of air and water pollution resulting
from the operation of the Oceanside Refuse
Disposal Plant in Hempstead, Long Island.
APPROACH: Full-scale tests were undertaken
on the Oceanside Refuse Disposal Plant. Test
methods were generally adopted from those
used in the combustion of fuels and water
analysis, or were developed in other cases.
Samples of refuse taken at random intervals
were reduced in size and analyzed. The varia-
tion in moisture in the flue gas was monitored
and related to the moisture total in the refuse.
The undergrate airflow was measured for each
of the three windbox zones. The flow rate
through each of the numerous overfire air
nozzles was determined, and the optimum
proportion of overfire air to underfire air was
determined over a period of time at given
loads by general performance, such as good
burnout of the residue, balanced furnace
temperatures, and freedom from smoke. The
items for the heat balance were determined
by measurement and calculation, both input
and output. Residue output was determined
on a total weight basis, and samples were
analyzed for completeness of burning. Ther-
mocouples in the furnace walls and gas-sam-
pling probes were used to gather pertinent
information. Gas samples were generally ana-
lyzed by Orsat apparatus, occasional samples
being analyzed by mass spectroscopy and other
techniques to determine the presence of minor
constituents.
FINDINGS: Typical compositions and analyses
of household refuse were determined for
winter and summer conditions. Paper and
paper products comprise almost 50 percent
of the total, while glass/ceramics and metals
are each about 9 percent. The average refuse
is 28 percent moisture, 22 percent noncom-
bustibles, and 50 percent combustibles, mainly
cellulose. Detailed chemical analyses were
run. The calorific value, averaging 4,500
Btu, results from partial oxidation of metals.
46
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The combustion process is'only partly com-
pleted in the fuel level; hydrocarbons evolved
from the refuse must be burned in the furnace
space. Overfire air jets are essential for this
purpose. New design data on nozzle sizing,
air pressure, and jet penetration have been
reported in the publications listed below.
A simple system for calculating the heat
and material input and output of incinera-
tion has been developed that is useful in cal-
culating performance, heat losses, and so on.
By tests on a 300 ton-per-day furnace the
temperature limits and mechanism for slag
adhesion on refractory walls were established,
as well as the means for preventing slag
buildup. The refractory wall must be cooled
to 1,200 F or lower to prevent glass from
adhering.
Incinerator boiler tubes were eroded be-
cause fly ash acted as an abrasive when mov-
ing more than 20 ft/sec through a boiler tube
bank. Corrosion of boiler tubes was also ob-
served as the result of deposits on the tubes
as well as of flame impingement. The mech-
anisms of fireside boiler tube wastage will
be summarized in the final report. Waste heat
boilers out of view of the flames at other in-
cinerators have operated for years without
these problems.
Recommendations for furnace design to
achieve more nearly complete combustion are
being formulated as a result of the project.
Implementation of these recommendations
will reduce smoke emission, carbon in fly
ash, and emissions of unburned gases, vapors,
and particles to the atmosphere.
PUBLICATIONS
KAISER, E. R. A new incinerator control meter is needed.
In Proceedings; 1966 National Incinerator Conference,
New York, May 1—4, 1966. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p. 176-182.
KAISER, E. R. The sulfur balance of incinerators. Journal
of the Air Pollution Control Association, 18(3):17I-174,
Mar. 1968.
KAISER, E. R., and W. B. TRAUTWEIN. Prevention of fused
deposits on incinerator lower side walls. In Proceedings;
1968 National Incinerator Conference, New York, May
5-8, 1968. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p.
136-141.
KAISER, E. R., C. D. XEIT, and J. B. MCCAFFERY. Municipal
incinerator refuse and residue. In Proceedings; 1968
National Incinerator Conference, New York, May 5-8,
1968. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, p. 142-
153.
KAISER, E. R., and J. B. MCCAFFERY. Overfire air jets for
incinerator smoke control. Presented at Annual Meeting,
Air Pollution Control Association, New York, June 26,
1969. Paper 69-225.
KAISER, E. R. Incineration of packaging wastes with mini-
mal air pollution. In Proceedings; First National Confer-
ence on Packaging Wastes, San Francisco, Sept. 22-24,
1969. Clemson, S.C., Clemson University, p. 181-190.
Criteria for Design and Control of Incinerators
Or. Adel F. Sarofim
Department of Chemical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Grant No. EC 00330-01
Funds Awarded: $68,672
Project Period: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: Primarily to design a labora-
tory-scale experimental and theoretical pro-
gram that will yield data pertinent to the
control of conventional-design incinerators.
Models utilizing combustion on grates useful
for extrapolating existing data to new condi-
tions and for optimizing incinerator design
are being developed. Alternative schemes for
burning refuse are also being evaluated.
APPROACH: A number of design and oper-
ating variables are being investigated in an
attempt to find a variable that can be related
to the quality of the residue and used to
activate corrective action when the unburned
fraction in the residue or in the stack gases
becomes excessive. Included in these varia-
bles are excess air, fraction of air overtired,
longitudinal distribution of air above and
47
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below the grate, air preheat, refuse bed
height, and grate speed.
An experimental study of combustion is
being made on a stationary fuel bed simulat-
ing a section of a traveling-grate stoker. Com-
positions and temperatures in and above the
burning fuel bed, and infrared transmittance
across the top of the bed are being measured
in detail. Concurrently, a semiempirical
mathematical model is being designed to
extrapolate existing data to new conditions
of operation or design so that operating con-
ditions of the incinerator can be adjusted
to accommodate changes in the quality of the
refuse.
FINDINGS: Efficient and clean incineration of
refuse requires dynamic control responsive to
the wide variations in the size and composi-
tion of the refuse. The theoretical and experi-
mental programs in progress have been de-
signed to provide a quantitative measure of
the effect of random variations in the quality
of the refuse. The computational model in-
cludes consideration of the drying, transient
heating, pyrolysis, and residue burnout in
addition to the complex interaction of the
elements in a bed. The overbed reactions
have been found to be controlled by mixing,
and this suggests that considerable reduction
in overbed volume should be achievable by
more effective use of overfire jets. A labora-
tory-scale incinerator under construction, in-
cluding continuous, detailed monitoring of
bed height, gas composition, and temperature
distribution, is being used to test the findings
of the computations and to explore different
methods of automatic control of incinerators.
PUBLICATIONS
SAROFIM, A. F. Combustion reactions in overfire volumes.
Presented to Grates and Combustion Committee, Incineia-
tor Division, Ameiican Society of Mechanical Engineers.
[New Yoik], Jan. 15, 1970. (Unpublished manuscript.)
Fireside Metal Wastage in Municipal Incinerators
Dr. Paul D. Miller
Department of Chemistry and Biology
Battelle Memorial Institute
Columbus, Ohio 43201
Grant No. EC 00325-02
Funds Awarded: $257,859
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1969 to Feb. 29, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To identify the conditions lead-
ing to fireside metal wastage in solid waste
incinerators, to determine the mechanisms by
which metal loss occurs, and to devise correc-
tive measures for this situation. Both field
and laboratory studies are being conducted to
provide data on the environmental conditions
to which metal surfaces are exposed in in-
cinerators and the effect of these conditions
on metal wastage.
APPROACH: Flue gas temperature, composi-
tion and velocity, heat transfer rates, metal
temperatures, dust loading, and composition
of deposits on metal surfaces are being meas-
ured. This information is being related to
the characteristics of the refuse being burned,
the rate of incineration, the conditions of
combustion, and the design of incinerators.
A special probe comprising specimens of
several types of materials has been designed
and inserted into an operating municipal in-
cinerator. The probe was designed so that a
combination of water and air cooling pro-
vides controlled temperatures. A thorough
physical and chemical examination is being
made on the metals and deposits after their
removal from the incinerator.
The laboratory studies help define corrosion
mechanisms and specific corrodents. Based on
these studies, several means of alleviating
metal wastage are being investigated. These
include changes in construction materials and
in furnace design, modification of combustion
48
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procedures, burning of supplementary fuels,
and modification of solid waste fuel.
FINDINGS: The presence of lead, zinc, and
chloride in specimens of boiler tube deposits
is the most significant difference noted to
date between the deposits from incinerators
and those commonly encountered in coal- or
oil-fired boilers.
Flue-gas samples taken in the New York
incinerator over a period of 24 hr showed
wide variations in the amount of corrosive
gases present. The chloride concentration
varied from 2.5 to 350 ppm, the fluoride from
0.27 to 3.3 ppm, and the sulfur dioxide from
0 to 100 ppm.
The most striking difference in the flue
gas from an operating municipal incinerator
in Ohio as compared with a power station
was the presence of significant quantities of
HC (up to 115 ppm), which probably re-
sults from the burning of certain types of
plastic materials.
The first corrosion probe study was carried
out for a period of 507 hr, including 312 hi-
nt operating temperatures and 195 hr of shut-
down. Significant corrosion was noted on the
34 individual specimens. For the most part
the carbon steels exhibited general attack
while the stainless steels showed some inter-
granular corrosion. The Type 304 stainless
steel was the most corrosion resistant of the
alloys evaluated.
Analyses of deposits built up on the cor-
rosion probe during this 507-hr exposure
period revealed a change in composition with
probe temperature. As the average tempera-
ture of the probe increased from 350 to 1,250
F and higher, the concentrations of aluminum,
silicon, magnesium, and calcium in the de-
posits increased. At the same time the con-
centrations of iron, lead, zinc, and potassium
decreased. The sulfate concentration along the
probe was found to be fairly uniform regard-
less of temperature while the chloride con-
centration was less at the higher temperatures.
Laboratory studies designed to provide con-
trolled conditions for investigating corrosion
of boiler tube materials by flue-gas mixtures
and boiler deposit components have been con-
ducted. Synthetic flue gases consisting of typi-
cal mixtures encountered in incinerators are
being used with SO2 and HC1 to study cor-
rosion of the same metals used in the probes.
The metal specimens are in contact with
compounds suspected of being the corrosive
agents. Experiments to date have demon-
strated that the corrosion by the flue gases
alone is slight. When, however, the metal is
in contact with a boiler deposit component
such as lead chloride, corrosion is accelerated
(lead and chloride have been found in boiler
tube deposits). When the temperature is high
enough to melt the lead chloride, the cor-
rosion of the steels becomes severe.
Incineration of Plastics Found in Municipal Refuse
Dr. Richard W. Heimburg
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York 13210
Grant No. EC-00304-02
Funds Awarded: $187,350
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1969 to Feb. 29, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To study systematically the de-
sti action of plastics and plastic-rich refuse
by direct burning and by anaerobic heating
followed by burning the volatile matter. Of
particular interest are the chemical and toxi-
(ological nature of stack effluent and the inter-
action of the residue with water.
APPROACH: Various plastic materials com-
monly found in domestic solid waste, e.g.,
sheet goods, foams, castings, or paper-sup-
ported films, are being evaluated for combus-
tion performance. Each material is tested for
percentage moisture, volatile matter, fixed
carbon and ash, and heat of combustion. The
49
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gaseous products of both combustion proc-
esses, direct burning and anaerobic degrada-
tion followed by combustion of the volatile
components, are being analyzed and com-
pared. If warranted, gas liquid chromatog-
raphy, spectrophotometry, and other more
definitive procedures are employed. Toxicity
studies are made by exposing rats and plants
to the gaseous effluent of the two combustion
methods. In addition to percent reduction,
the interaction of the various residues with
water is being determined for reduction of
BOD and for effect on water ecology.
FINDINGS: The first year of the grant was
devoted to building a flexible model incinera-
tor, developing the necessary analytical pro-
cedures, and setting up equipment and pro-
cedures for the toxicity studies.
The model incinerator can be either batch
fed or continuous; a wide variety of primary
chamber and afterburner conditions is availa-
ble. A movable probe in the afterburner per-
mits GC analysis "on-line" to trace the de-
struction of the more refractory compounds.
The sample is'continuously drawn into the
stainless steel tip of the probe and cooled im-
mediately to a predetermined temperature
between the ice point and 200 C. The high-
boiling fractions are immediately condensed
in the tip of the probe. (These are later ex-
tracted and analyzed separately.) The remain-
der of the inducted gas is now available to
a total-hydrocarbon detector and a concen-
trator. After a given period of time a con-
centrated sample can be fed either to the
total-hydrocarbon detector, a thermocouple
detector, or a GC column. Our greatest dif-
ficulty has been that gas mixtures have been
too dilute for our apparatus. We have only
recently rectified this with the adoption of
a different concentration technique.
The gas that does not enter the probe is
cooled to just above the dew point of its
water. The fly ash is then collected and
analyzed by size and composition.
Finally, the effluent is introduced to vari-
ous plant and animal exposure chambers. By
dilutions with clean, dry air, it is possible to
subject these organisms to various humidity
conditions and temperatures.
Fly and Economic Evaluation of Urban Garbage Systems
Mr. Dean H. Ecke
Vector Control Specialist
Santa Clara County Health Oept.
San Jose, California 95128
Grant No. Ul 00690-01
Funds Awarded: $45,879
Project Period: May 1, 1966 to Apr. 30, 1967
OBJECTIVES: To compare entomologic and
economic evaluation of once-a-week garbage
can service; twice-a-week garbage can service;
once-a-week pickup from suspended paper
bag containers; and twice-a-week service with
paper bag containers.
APPROACH: Four economically comparable
residental areas of approximately 500 homes
each were studied in the city of Santa Clara,
California, an area for each of the four sys-
tems. Paper bag containers were installed in
two areas and use of standard garbage cans
continued in the other two areas. Collection
service was altered so that both once- and
twice-a-week service could be compared be-
tween areas for each system. The new pickup
schedules started about 1 month before the
collection of data began so that residents and
the collection company could become familiar
with the new systems. Maggot traps were in-
stalled under 40 representative units in each
area from which all migrating fly larvae were
collected. Adult fly density was detected by
using 20 standardized attraction stations in
each of the four areas. The entomologic evalu-
50
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ation was determined from the combined
adult and larval fly counts as they related to
fly densities and fly problems during 8 weeks
in August and September 1966.
The economic evaluation was primarily a
time and motion study that compared the
various aspects of the pickup service among
the areas.
FINDINGS: The study indicated that the fre-
quency of collection was probably more im-
portant than the type of system or container
used, and although there was a reduction in
fly numbers from once-a-week paper over once-
a-week cans, the reduction was not enough
to suggest adequate fly control. Both of the
twice-a-week systems showed substantial re-
duction in fly production, but the twice-a-
week can system would probably require con-
siderable follow-up to achieve satisfactory
control. Twice-a-week paper bags did achieve
satisfactory fly control.
It was also found that as much as 30 per-
cent savings in manpower could be achieved
by substituting paper bags for metal cans
but that unless the collection system was ac-
tually engineered around the paper bag con-
cept the saving in time would probably not
be sufficient to pay for the additional cost
of the bags.
In conclusion, the following findings were
made.
1. Once-a-week can containers produced
excessive numbers of flies in about 67 percent
of the containers, while 10 percent of twice-
a-week cans produced significant numbers of
green blow flies. The once-a-week paper con-
tainers produced flies in 20 to 25 percent of
the containers while the twice-a-week paper
containers had no containers with consistently
high fly production.
2. Frequency of garbage service was an
important control factor, since neither of the
once-a-week systems achieved satisfactory con-
trol, whereas the twice-a-week systems did
produce substantial control.
3. Individual garbage containers are inde-
pendent fly sources with little or no depend-
ence on nearby sources for their productivity.
4. Twice-a-week garbage service to sus-
pended paper bag containers could achieve
control of green blow flies provided that the
community would be willing to bear the
increased costs of the paper sacks and that
100 percent of the residences were included
in the service.
PUBLICATIONS
ECKE, D. H., and D. D. LINSDALE. Fly and economic evalu-
ation of urban refuse systems. I. Control of green blow
flies (Phoenicia) by improved methods of residential
refuse storage, and collection. California Vector Views,
14(4):19_27, Apr. 1967.
ROGERS, P. A., and G. L. BELLENCER. Fly and economic
evaluation of urban refuse systems. II. An efficiency
analysis of paper bag containers. California Vector Views,
14(5):30-37, May 1967.
Integrated Control of the Housefly
Dr. Richard C. Axtell
Department of Entomology
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
Grant No. EC 00246-06
Funds Awarded: $77,203
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1963 to June 30, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To explore factors affecting the
attractiveness of houseflies to various preda-
ceous, manure-inhabiting mites and to study
the susceptibility of these mites to insecticides
commonly used for houseflies.
APPROACH: Two specific studies were con-
ducted. In one study, mixed populations of
manure mites were examined to determine
if the combination of different species results
in higher frequency of predation and phoresy.
51
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Further work was carried out to isolate the
pheromones present in manure and in house-
flies responsible for the attraction of mites.
Microsurgery techniques with a laser beam
were used to investigate in greater detail the
role of certain sensory areas in the mite for
attraction.
In the other study, 16 compounds were
laboratory tested to determine the compara-
tive toxicities of various insecticides for
housefly larvae and predaceous mites. Ad-
ditional insecticides were screened for toxic-
ity, and promising compounds underwent
field evaluation.
FINDINGS: An integrated fly control program,
based on selective application of insecticides
to the resting sites of the flies and encourage-
ment of manure-inhabiting predaceous mite
populations, has been developed for caged-
poultry houses. This program reduces the
amount of insecticide usage and cost.
The sensory structures of the housefly and
a predaceous macrochelid mite have been de-
termined and examined by electron micros-
copy. It is possible now to study the behavior
of these insects in more detail and develop
methods of increasing the predation rate and
altering the habitat to reduce the survival of
fly larvae.
PUBLICATIONS
AXTELL, R. C. Phoretic relationship of some common
manure-inhabiting Macrochelidae (Acarina: Mesostigmata)
to the house fly. Annals of the Entomological Society of
America, 57(5):584-587, Sept. 1964.
O'DONNELL, A. E., and R. C. AXTELL. Predation by Fus-
curopoda vegetans (Acarina: Uropodidae) on the house
fly (Musca domestica). Annals of the Entomological
Society of America, 58 (3):403-404, May 1965.
FARISH, D. J. Some aspects of the sensory and phoretic
behavior of Macrocheles muscaedomesticae (Scopoli, 1772)
(Acarina: Macrochelidae) with a consideration of phoresy
as a phenomenon. M.S. Thesis, North Carolina State
University at Raleigh, 1965. 151 p.
FARISH, D. J., and R. C. AXTELL. Sensory functions of
the palps and first tarsi of Macrocheles muscaedomesticae
(Acarina: Macrochelidae), a predator of the house fly.
Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 59(1):
165-170, Jan. 1966.
AXTELL, R. C. Comparative toxicities of insecticides to
house fly larvae and Macrocheles muscaedomestica, a
mite predator of the house fly. Journal of Economic
Entomology, 59 (5): 1128-1130, Oct. 1966.
AXTELL, R. C. Integrated house fly control: Populations
of fly larvae and predaceous mites, Macrocheles muscae-
domesticae, in poultry manure after larvicide treatment.
Journal of Economic Entomology, 61(l):245-249, Feb. 1968.
WILLIS, R. R., and R. C. AXTELL. Mite predators of the
house fly: A comparison of Fuscuropoda vegetans and
Macrocheles muscaedomesticae. Journal of Economic En-
tomology, 61 (6): 1669-1674, Dec. 1968.
AXTELL, R. C. Macrochelidae (Acarina: mesostigmata) as
biological agents for synanthropic flies. In G. O. Evans,
ed. Proceedings of the Second International Congress of
Acarology, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington,
England, July 19-25, 1967. Budapest, Akademiai Kiado,
1969. p. 401-416.
PARISH, D. J., and R. C. AXTELL. Phoresy redefined and
examined in Macrocheles muscaedomesticae (Acarina:
Macrochelidae). Acarologia. (In press.)
AXTELL, R. C. Integrated fly-control program for caged-
poultry houses. Journal of Economic Entomology, 63(2):
400-405, Apr. 1970.
Succession and Ecology of Diptera in Cattle Droppings
Dr. John R. Anderson
Department of Entomology
and Parasitology
University of California—Berkeley
Berkeley, California 94720
Grant No. EC 00252-05
Funds Awarded: $77,326
Project Period: Oct. 1, 1963 to Sept. 30, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To study cattle droppings as
ecologic units and to examine the extent to
which the inhabitant organisms contribute to
the breakdown and recycling of individual
droppings.
APPROACH: The cowpat habitat is being
studied, under both undisturbed pasture and
experimental conditions, to determine the
succession and density of various Diptera
species that inhabit the droppings. The time,
52
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place, and pasture habitat in which individ-
ual cowpats are dropped are being assessed
to determine how these factors affect surface
succession and the subsequent fauna that de-
velop in and emerge from such pats. Both
naturally dropped and experimentally exposed
pats of known sizes are being studied.
The interrelationships between fauna are
being assessed by standardized sampling meth-
ods to determine the relationships among
numbers and species of arthropods, the rate
of cowpat degradation, the recycling of nu-
trients, and the effects of natural enemies on
pests such as horn and face flies. Because
the face fly, Musca autumnalis, is not yet
present in California, another aim is to study
the impact of an exotic species on the native
fauna (or vice versa).
FINDINGS: The feces of larger animals, es-
pecially ruminant herbivores, are utilized as
food and shelter by a large number of animal
species, especially arthropods. There is a dif-
ference between the habitat of undisturbed
cattle droppings as they lie in pastures and—
as in a feederlot—that of cattle dung dis-
turbed by man and heaped into manure piles
or trampled by cattle in close confinement
and mixed with urine. In California pastures,
109 different species of flies visited fresh cattle
droppings, and at least 50 are known to have
developed therein. By contrast, larvae of only
seven fly species have been found in droppings
in feederlots. The next largest order of arthro-
pods collected in pastures was the Coleop-
tera, of which 35 species of beetles occurred
in droppings in both the adult and larval
stages. Most of the fauna of undisturbed cat-
tle droppings also inhabit the feces of native
wild herbivores such as bison and moose, but
the pellet droppings of deer, elk, and wild
and domesticated sheep are unsuitable for
this fauna.
Publication of the first key to the families
and major genera of flies that breed in un-
disturbed cattle droppings, including 18 fami-
lies and 24 genera and annotations for most
of the 50 species, filled a void. Since the
faunae of undisturbed cowpats generally are
widely distributed wherever there are cattle,
the key and the accompanying description and
discussion of these faunae serve as a basic
guide to the insects associated with fresh,
undisturbed cattle droppings in California
and elsewhere in the United States.
In pasture situations, cattle feces are not
likely to contribute to disposal or pollution
problems, because of the role the indigenous
arthropod faunae play in the biodynamics of
individual droppings—the flies, beetles, and
other inhabitants constitute important com-
ponents of the pasture ecosystem because of
the part they play in the breakdown and re-
cycling of individual droppings. Most faunal
members of the pasture community are bene-
ficial and unobtrusive species; few persons
even know they exist. The only pests associ-
ated with pasture feces are the obligate, host-
specific parasites of cattle and bison—the horn
fly, H. irritant, and the face fly, M. autumnalis.
Only the face fly is an occasional pest of other
animals (and sometimes of man when it is
hibernating in houses).
Under range of pasture conditions, neither
the house fly or the stable fly, 5. calcitrans,
oviposits or develops in the individual live-
stock droppings. On the other hand, house
and stable fly larvae become the predominant
species in droppings when cattle are confined
in feederlots. When large numbers of cattle
are confined in feederlots, horn and face fly
populations are reduced to insignificant num-
bers because droppings are rarely left undis-
turbed, and almost all other "unobtrusive
pasture flies" are excluded from this "un-
natural habitat." In place of the two host-
specific pest species mentioned, the feederlot
frequently produces immense populations of
house and stable flies. These two very noxious
pests affect a wide range of animals and can
and do affect man directly. The stable fly ob-
tains blood from all types of domesticated
mammals and is often a more serious pest of
cattle than the horn fly. The feederlot is, then,
a prime ecologic example of how catastrophic
fluctuations in densities of certain insects
(usually pest species) occur when man changes
complex ecosystems into simple ones,
In pastures, the faunal composition on and
within each fresh pat varies considerably;
among other things, this depends upon when
and where the pat is dropped. Pats dropped
at night or on cold days form a crust before
the usual early-stage inhabitants are active
53
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and are, therefore, excluded. Pats dropped in
the shade may have distinctly different faunae
than those in sunny locations, especially in
hot weather. The factors determining the
faunal composition of individual fresh pats
derive from the fact that populations of
different species are confined to various pre-
ferred local habitats or activity areas in a
pasture. Each area has constantly shifting
boundaries, and each species has different
characteristic environmental requirements
and powers of dispersal. In addition, the
number of pats dropped in a specific locale
at or near the same time and diurnal fluctua-
tions in insect activity influence the numbers
and kinds of insects that will eventually reach
and colonize a fresh pat.
Each dropping is a discrete habitat unit,
and the numbers of larvae of coprophagous
and predaceous species of insects interacting
with each other as they develop are deter-
mined by the number of larvae hatching from
eggs laid by females on each dropping in the
first few hours; after that, essentially no more
prey or predators are introduced. Experi-
mental studies reveal that larvae of the copro-
philic Diptera have a remarkable ability to
complete their growth from egg to pupa
under a wide variety of physical conditions.
Competition for food or space seems rarely,
if ever, to be a mortality factor to larvae of
the coprophagous species. In general, after
the female lays her eggs in a dropping, the
hatched larvae in an undisturbed dropping
are quite certain of completing their growth
to pupation unless killed by a predator or
parasite. Other studies reveal that under nat-
ural field conditions, the mortality of copro-
phagous species of Diptera reared from
droppings is correlated with the numbers of
predators in each dropping.
The elimination of the normal faunae of
individual cattle droppings in pastures by
mechanical means or treatment with insec-
ticides results in a prolonged period's being
required for pat degradation and a consequent
loss of usable acreage for grazing.
PUBLICATIONS
ANDERSON, J. R. Biological interrelationships between
feces and flies. In Management of Farm Animal Wastes;
Proceedings; National Symposium on Animal Waste Man-
agement, East Lansing, Michigan, May 5-7, 1966, Kellogg
Center for Continuing Education, Michigan State Uni-
versity. ASAE Publication No. SP-0366. St. Joseph, Mich.,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, p. 20-23.
ANDERSON, J. R. Recent developments in the control of
some arthropods of public health and veterinary impor-
tance. Muscois flies. Bulletin Entomological Society of
America, 12(3): 342, 1966.
FOSTER, W. A. Co-operation by male protection of ovi-
positing female in the Diptera. Nature (London), 214
(5092):1035-1036, June 3, 1967.
POORBAUCH, J. H., J. R. ANDERSON, and J. F. BURGER.
The insect inhabitants of undisturbed cattle droppings
in Northern California. California Vector Views, 15(3):
1-36, Mar. 1968.
ANDERSON, J. R., and J. H. POORBAUGH. New livestock fly
moves toward state. California Agriculture, 22(3):406,
Mar. 1968.
FosrER, W. A. Predatory behavior of Scatophaga ster-
coraria (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) in California. Annals
of the Entomological Society of America, 63(l):338-339,
Jan. 1970.
Dynamic Evaluation Procedure; Refuse-Handling System
Dr. Bobby C. Spradlin
School of Industrial Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332
Grant No. Ul 00513-02
Funds Awarded: $58,823
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1966 to Feb. 28, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To detail a descriptive simula-
tion model of a solid waste management sys-
tem in a cooperative study with the city of
Atlanta, Georgia. To evaluate the effects of
changes made in the system as a result of the
study.
54
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APPROACH: The perspective used in this
study is called industrial dynamics (J. W.
ForresterJ), which grows out of four lines
of earlier development: information feedback
theory, automatized military tactical decision
making, experimental design of complex sys-
tems by use of models, and digital computers
for low-cost computation. This concept may
be used to treat the interactions among the
flows of information, money, orders, materials,
personnel, and capital equipment in an in-
dustrial system.
This study used the solid wastes system
of the city of Atlanta to collect data. Using
this information, the research called for de-
signing a model to portray systems behavior,
providing a procedure for evaluating various
proposals as potential system improvements
from a standpoint of economy and efficiency,
1 FORRESTER, J. W. Industrial dynamics, Cambridge,
M.I.T, Press, 1961, 464 p.
providing insight into the basic nature of
the variables inherent in a solid waste sys-
tem, and possibly disclosing new important
variables.
FINDINGS: Long-term control of solid waste
pollution must be obtained by controlling
the generating source of the problem—at
manufacture.
Short-term waste treatment costs over a
given period of time for a given level of
problem seem to vary widely depending on
the rate at which resources are spent to ac-
quire the treatment capacity.
Considerable savings can probably be made
on short-term treatment costs by focusing on
the accumulations in the system. Application
of the research grant findings was determined
capable of reducing by 50 percent the annual
operating costs of a major Florida city, if
implemented.
Mathematical Analysis of Solid Waste Collection
Dr. Jon C. Liebman
Department of Geography and Environmental
Engineering
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland 21218
Grant No. EC 00309-01
Funds Awarded: $15,190
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1969 to Feb. 28, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To determine optimal location
of transfer stations and other facilities by use
of a mathematical model, to investigate the
effect of parameter changes on optimal poli-
cies, and to determine optimal routing of
collection vehicles.
APPROACH: This research effort is an ex-
tension of the work done under research
grant UI-00539-02 "Optimal Policies for
Solid Waste Collection." An analytical model
to determine the optimal location, type, and
size of transfer stations was developed to
minimize the overall cost of transportation
and facilities. The values of the various em-
pirical costs and coefficients included in the
model were determined from data already
gathered in the previously mentioned grant.
Included were the cost of transportation as
a function of collection frequency, crew size,
vehicle type, household density, haul dis-
tance, and amortization policies.
Sensitivity analysis to show how the opti-
mal location and cost are affected by changes
of parameters was carried out for variables
such as household density, frequency of col-
lection, haul distance, crew size, type of ve-
hicle used, pay scales, overtime pay con-
straints, land value constraints, equipment
and facility amortization policy, and social
and esthetic considerations.
FINDINGS: A practical model for facility lo-
cation has been developed and used to de-
termine optimal locations. Investigation of
sensitivity shows little change in results due
55
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to most parameter variations but a very great
sensitivity to volume of waste generated.
A model for optimal vehicle routing has
also been developed. This model is not prac-
tical for realistic routing problems.
PUBLICATIONS
REVELLE, C., D. MARKS, and J. C. LIEBMAN. An analysis
of private and public sector location models. Manage-
ment Science, 16(11):692-707, July 1970.
Mathematical Simulation of Refuse Collection and Disposal Systems
Dr. Abraham Charnes
Department of Geography and
Northwestern University
Evanston, Illinois 60201
Grant No. Ul 00699-04
Funds Awarded: $75,067
Project Period: Sept. 1, T962 to Sept. 30, 1967
OBJECTIVES: To develop a mathematical
model to simulate municipal refuse collection
and disposal practices. It will enable an en-
gineer to predict the behavior of a wide
variety of proposed designs quickly and ac-
curately and thus to predict an optimum
solution based upon more complex criteria
than have been possible.
APPROACH: Data were first collected and
analyzed in relation to costs of refuse col-
lection and disposal unit operations and the
expected type and amount of pollution re-
sulting from these operations. From this, a
comprehensive cost function for each of the
operations involved was determined. Mathe-
matical models were then formulated to de-
scribe current refuse collection and disposal
practices. Variables incorporated into the col-
lection system model .included the physical
characteristics of the refuse, storage facilities,
frequency and type of pickup, capacity of the
collection vehicles, collection time and labor
costs, characteristics of the haul to the dis-
posal site, and the overnight garage location
of the collection vehicles. The use of transfer
stations was considered as well as the use of
more than one disposal operation. Variables
included in the disposal operation model in-
cluded the possibility of salvage operations,
reclamation possibilities, direct cost factors,
the contribution of the disposal practices to
air and water pollution and to reduction in
land values, and benefits derived from re-
claimed land.
FINDINGS: Part 1 of this research began with
consideration of problems, called "location-
allocation" problems, in which several disposal
sites were physically located with simulta-
neous allocation of refuse sources to disposal
sites. The disposal sites were located any-
where in a plane, and the measure of effec-
tiveness was minimization of aggregate haul
distance. By measuring distance with the el-
metric three things were accomplished, as
follows.
1. It was possible to reduce these ei-metric
location-allocation problems to mixed-integer
programming problems.
2. Using the mixed-integer programming
formulation, one may add constraints that
prescribe certain areas for the placement of
disposal sites.
3. The single-site location problem has a
closed-form solution related to the geometric
median of the source points. By using this
property, a Theory of Median Sets was es-
tablished and an alternating location-alloca-
tion algorithm was constructed for the multi-
site problem.
A second class of problems called "selection-
allocation" problems was denned. Here the
set of eligible disposal site locations was
known, and one picked a proper subset of
these and a refuse source allocation that mini-
mized the aggregate haul distance or cost.
These problems were characterized as mixed-
integer programming problems with a coupled
network analog and an approximating al-
gorithm, and the Minimum Elimination Gain
56
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Algorithm was established.' This algorithm
was extended to consider weighted sources
and site acquisition costs. The network analog
was extended to consider site acquisition,
facility development, and operation costs as
well as aggregate haul cost.
Part 2 of this research traced the develop-
ment of two computer simulation models.
The first model was based on the daily route
method of refuse collection practiced in the
village of Winnetka, Illinois. With data rele-
vant to Winnetka, a series of simulation runs
was made to delineate the interdependencies
of parameters involved in the functioning of
a refuse collection system. In particular, the
percent of truck capacity used, the number
of daily trips, the overall collection efficiency,
the length of workday, the haul efficiency,
and the haul time as a percentage of total
time were measured as functions of the co-
efficient of variability of refuse production,
the refuse assignment, and one-way haul dis-
tance. A further set of runs studied the effect
of the number of unloading platforms on
average and maximum waiting times at the
disposal site. The interpretation of the re-
sults presented in tables and graphs allowed
numerical bounds on the usefulness of the
daily route method to be established regard-
ing the coefficient of variability, the refuse
assignment, and haul distance.
The second model was based on constant-
length workday rules found in Chicago, Il-
linois. With data relevant to Chicago, a series
of runs was made to measure the quality of
service and cost effectiveness of different com-
binations of overtime, last-load relay, and
assignment policy. Here assignment means
both the average daily number of truckloads
and the average daily number of 8-hour shifts.
The results presented in a series of tables
show as one example that the use of overtime
is most cost effective when combined with a
reasonable time assignment.
PUBLICATIONS
QUON, J. E., A. CHARNES, and S. J. WERSAN. Simulation
and analyses of a refuse collection system. Journal of
the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of
Civil Engineers, 91 (SA5):17-36, Oct. 1965.
QUON, J. E., M. TANAKA, and A. CHARNES. Refuse quan-
tities and frequency of service. Journal of the Sanitaiy
Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, 94(SA2):403-420. Apr. 1968.
CHARNES, A., and W. M. RAIKE. One-pass algorithms for
some generalized network problems. Operations Re-
search, 14(5):914-924, Sept.-Oct. 1966.
CHARNES, A., and K. KORTANEK. A note on the discrete
maximum principle and distribution problems. Journal
of Mathematics and Physics, 45 (1):121-126, Mar. 1966.
QUON, J. E., M. TANAKA, and S. J. WERSAN. Simulation
model of refuse collection policies. Journal of the Sani-
tary Engineering Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 95 (SA3):575-592, June 1969.
Optimal Policies for Solid Waste Collection
Dr. Cornelius W. Kruse
Department of Geography and
Environmental Engineering
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland 21205
Grant No. Ul 00539-01
Funds Awarded: $56,018
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1967 to Dec. 31, 1968
OBJECTIVES: To study the feasibility and
economics of establishing transfer points in
waste collection systems of large cities. To
devise, through a computer-oriented systems
analysis study, more efficient use of manpower
and equipment.
APPROACH: This study developed informa-
tion concerning the characteristics of optimal
policies for use in urban decisions by engi-
neers and municipal decision and policy
makers. A mathematical model based on data
available from the city of Baltimore was
simulated to investigate the location and spac-
ing of transfer stations. Problems such as
crew size, frequency of collection, vehicle
routing, and type of equipment were analyzed.
The study prepared and programmed three
57
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mathematical models of FORTRAN IV for
use in digital computers. The models simu-
lated the operations of solid waste collection
systems in urban residential areas using com-
pactor trucks. Proposed policy changes in
a system can be evaluated by use of the
model rather than by changes in actual field
operations.
The system variables that can be controlled
in some or all of the models are the follow-
ing: density of households per acre, haul dis-
tances from neighborhoods to disposal site,
truck crew, crew size, collection frequency,
pay scales, overtime policy, amortization
policy, season, use or nonuse of a transfer
station, size of transfer station trailers, use
or nonuse of transfer station compaction ap-
paratus, haul distances from transfer stations
to disposal site, and use or nonuse of queues
at transfer stations.
The relative efficiencies of the systems be-
ing compared were measured in dollars-
per-ton-costs. Costs of residential triweekly
collection versus biweekly collection were com-
pared. For a particular urban tract with the
controllable variables defined, the model gen-
erated the number of collection trucks by
number and by days to areas within the tract.
The combinations of variables that make
the use of a transfer station economically
desirable were investigated.
FINDINGS: The final model (Model III) is
suitable for use by any city in investigating
system changes.
For the area of Baltimore investigated, the
break-even haul distance for a transfer station
is about 8 miles. Auxiliary compaction is a
marginal operation. Increasing collection fre-
quency from two to three per week results
in a 10 to 15 percent cost increase.
PUBLICATIONS
TRUITT, M. M., J. C. LIEBMAN, and C. W. KRUSE. Simula-
tion model of urban refuse collection. Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 95(SA2):289-298, Apr. 1969.
The Physical and Chemical Composition of Municipal Refuse
Prof. Don t. Bloodgood
Department of Civil Engineering
Purdue University
Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Grant No. EF 00146-05
Funds Awarded: $84,165
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1957 to Dec. 31, 1962
OBJECTIVES: To develop physical and chemi-
cal methods of sampling and analyzing mu-
nicipal refuse. To determine the amount of
solid waste generated and its characteristics.
APPROACH: Field studies were conducted in
seven major Midwestern cities to obtain sam-
ples of refuse for laboratory analysis and to
determine the amounts generated from differ-
ent socioeconomic neighborhoods. The sam-
pling methodology was evaluated.
Laboratory studies were conducted to de-
termine the error due to two necessary sam-
pling stages of the collected refuse before
chemical analyses. Laboratory studies included
the development of reliable methods of de-
termining the following tests on municipal
refuse: moisture, lipids, carbon, nitrogen,
K2O, P2Os, sulfur, and calorific value.
FINDINGS: The determination of the param-
eters of Ib per capita per day, Ib per house-
hold per day, cu ft per capita per day, and
bulk density for a "homogeneous" residential
area within a community required a sample
of approximately 175 households for obtain-
ing accuracies within 10 percent of the mean
from the mean at a confidence level of 95
percent.
On the basis of more than 2,400 samples ob-
58
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tained from Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Toledo,
Ohio; and Bloomington and Indianapolis,
Indiana, it was determined that significant
differences exist in the quantity and quality
of the refuse produced in high, medium, and
low socioeconomic sections of the cities.
On the basis of more than 65 separate
studies in these four cities, the following
logarithmic relationship was found between
the sampling ratio (population of sample
areas divided by total city population) used
and the percent sampling error (percent error
between extrapolation of sample data to esti-
mate total city production and actual total
city production):
-°-781x
where Y resampling ratio, expressed as
a decimal
X— percent sampling error
e —base of natural logarithm
NOTE: It is recommended that at least
400 people be used as a total sample
population when a refuse sampling study
is conducted.
The following procedure for processing
samples of refuse before laboratory analysis
is recommended:
Shred combustible portion of the refuse
with a forage harvester to a maximum
size of 2 to 3 in. Select a "representative"
sample of from 1,000 to 3,000 g and de-
termine the moisture content by drying
in a forced-air oven at 70 C. Grind dried
material in a standard laboratory-type
Wiley Mill to a maximum size of 2 mm.
Store in an airtight, labeled can until
needed for subsequent chemical analysis.
This sampling step, plus the sampling of
the material in the airtight can for as little as
2 g in some cases, was found to have the
following overall sampling error:
1. One has 95 percent confidence that, if
only one sample is selected from the initially
shredded paper material, and this sample is,
in turn, subsampled after drying and grinding
to obtain a final aliquot for a chemical deter-
mination, the overall sampling error will not
exceed 10.3 percent.
2. One has 95 percent confidence that, if
only one sample is selected from the initially
shredded garbage material, and this is, in
turn, subsampled after drying and grinding
to obtain a final aliquot for a chemical deter-
mination, the overall sampling error will not
exceed 7.2 percent.
Recommended methods of chemical anal-
yses for the combustible portion of refuse
were developed during the project for mois-
ture, volatile solids, ash, lipids, liquid con-
tent, sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, C/N,
P2O5, K2O, and calorific value.
The following "empirical factors" were de-
veloped for the determination of carbon and
hydrogen of garbage, remaining combustibles,
and total combustibles of a refuse:
Raw garbage: % C = (100—% Ash)/1.97
% H = (100-% Ash)/12.8
Remaining % C = (100—% Ash)/2.18
combustibles: % H = (100—% Ash)/14.7
Total % C = (100—% Ash)/2.08
combustibles: % H = (100—% Ash)/14.4
A special study in Indianapolis, Indiana,
where the people do a great deal of backyard
incineration, showed the following findings.
1. If the people were asked to put out all
their refuse, an increase from 3.4 to 8.3 mil-
lion Ib and from 4.0 to 5.2 million Ib of
refuse per week could be expected in Decem-
ber and August, respectively.
2. If the people were required, by ordi-
nance, to put out all their refuse, an increase
from 3.4 to 10.6 and from 4.0 to 7.4 million
Ib of refuse per week could be expected in
December and August, respectively.
The results of a questionnaire in the 119
cities having a population of more than
100,000 in the United States (1958) indicated
that:
1. Only 3.3 percent of 95 of the larger cities
in the United States conduct refuse-sampling
procedures on a routine basis.
2. Only 19 percent of 95 of the larger cities
in the United States have their own laboratory
facilities for determining either ash content
or moisture content.
3. Only 9.5 percent of 95 of the larger cities
in the United States have their own laboratory
facilities for refuse grinding or determination
of calorific value.
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PUBLICATIONS
BELL, J. M. The physical and chemical composition of
municipal refuse. The APWA Reporter, 29(1):11, Jan.
1962.
ETZEL, J. E., and J. M. BELL. Methods of sampling and
analyzing refuse. The.APWA ^Reporter, 29(ll):2-4, 18-21,
Nov. 1962.
BELL, J. M. Characteristics of municipal refuse. In Pro-
ceedings, National Conference of Solid Waste Research,
Chicago, Dec. 1963, University of Chicago Center for
Continuing Education. Special Report No. 29. American
Public Works Association, 1964. p. 28.
Comprehensive Studies of Solid Waste Management
Dr. Clarence G. Golueke
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory
University of California—Berkeley
Berkeley, California 94720
Grant No. EC 00260-04
Funds Awarded: $792,822
Project Period: June 1, 1966 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To develop an overall system
by which the economic, administrative, plan-
ning, land use, logistic, technologic, engineer-
ing, health, and waste-generating aspects of
the solid waste problem of a community or
region can be evaluated in designing a waste
management scheme for that area.
APPROACH: A number of research teams in-
vestigated the various aspects of solid waste
management, including operations research,
planning and economics, public health, and
technology.
The operations research team developed an
overall solid wastes generation and evaluation
model. This model included constituent sub-
models that interrelated land use, technologic,
economic, population, transport, and all other
aspects of solid waste management. The time
horizon for the overall model was 20 to 50
years. The planning and economics team re-
lated land use to the nature and volume of
refuse materials to be handled, with major
emphasis on the ultimate disposal of wastes.
The public health team evaluated the rela-
tionship between solid waste management
procedures and health dangers to the public
and advised the other research teams on the
possible public health implications of their
alternate proposals for waste management.
The research teams concerned with tech-
nology, investigated many processes, includ-
ing anaerobic digestion and sludge processing,
and pyrolysis—combvistion, wet oxidation,
and biological fractionation. The underlying
principle of the anaerobic digestion and
sludge-processing scheme was the assumption
that various organic fractions of solid waste
can conceivably be transported to a sewage
treatment plant either via water carriage or
by trucks. If this mixed organic matter could
be digested anaerobically, it would be re-
duced in volume and at the same time condi-
tioned so as to minimize its insult to receiving
land. A pilot plant was built to digest anaero-
bically a solid waste-sewage sludge mixture,
and the operational parameters developed in
laboratory studies were refined. The pyrolysis-
combustion process is one in which organic
matter is converted to combustible gases, and
the gases are, in turn, burned to produce heat.
Pilot-plant studies developed techniques for
using various types of wastes as a fuel for the
pyrolysis-combustion process. The pyrolytic
gases produced were used for sustaining the
process and as a source of energy to be re-
cycled to the industry and community pro-
ducing the wastes. Laboratory and pilot-scale
research investigated the possibility of using
a wet-oxidation process to convert all but the
most exotic synthetic organic compounds to
simple oxidation products having industrial
value. Organic chemical yields were deter-
mined and the various chemicals produced
were identified. Biological fractionation stud-
ies centered around the enzymatic hydrolysis
of the cellulosic portion of solid waste to form
glucose. Laboratory and pilot-scale investiga-
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tions were made to optimize the glucose
production.
FINDINGS: In the first stages of the research
an overall waste management model was de-
veloped in which the final output was a "waste
collection, treatment, and disposal" compo-
nent. Components of the model serving as
inputs to the final component were "regional
economic," "waste generator," "interregional
analysis," "national economic," "population,"
"process technology," "spatial distribution of
wastes," "land use," and "public health." The
framework of the model having been estab-
lished, the subsequent efforts were devoted
to collecting data and formulating inputs for
the various components of the model. Major
progress was made in establishing the waste
generator, spatial distribution of wastes, land
use, process technology, and public health
models.
Public health. By means of five extensive
tables, data on the types and composition of
solid wastes and the fate of the components
of their breakdown products were screened
and evaluated; as a result of this activity, the
fractions of the solid waste stream that might
have public health significance were identi-
fied. The public health significance and en-
vironmental fate of the various fractions in
relation to wastes processing or disposal were
evaluated. Means were suggested for keeping
those components shown to constitute a sig-
nificant hazard from entering the environ-
ment in such a manner as to come in contact
with man. One of the major conclusions of
the public health aspects of the research was
that at present there is more need for research
teams on which public health specialists are
prominent contributors along with scientists
and technologists than for specific health-
oriented studies.
Planning and economics. The planning and
economics study led to the development of
the concept of functional boundaries and to
the formulation of waste multipliers based on
type of economic and demographic activity.
In line with this approach, it was found that
the traditional 4 to 6 Ib/capita waste figure
was far below the amount of wastes actually
generated. The research team showed that
the amount of solid wastes handled at landfill
disposal sites was only about 50 percent of
the total solid wastes production. This finding
was confirmed later by studies conducted by
the California State Department of Health.
The work was later expanded to include a
study of related aspects of the solid wastes
management problem, such as the questions
of local versus regional solution, alternate
pricing systems, and development of efficiency
versus equity criteria. During the research,
network flow models were developed for the
efficient rerouting of solid wastes from origin
to sites; an economic survey was made of
engineering aspects of current and experi-
mental technologies' disposal costs.
Operations research. The operations re-
search group developed a solid waste regional
forecasting model in which the 28 sectors in
the 9-county San Francisco Bay region were
recognized. One of the novel features of the
model is its ability to forecast waste genera-
tion for large communities. The procedure
used in developing the model was based on
the Leontief input-output model.
This portion of the study was concerned
with the development of a model showing
optimal service policies for solid waste treat-
ment facilities. In the approximate version of
the problem, the cost structure was described
by a quadratic processing cost rate charged at
the end of each period, and a linear holding
cost charged at the end of each period. The
arrival stream was considered to be period-
ically interrupted and divided into alternat-
ing "on" and "off" intervals of fixed length.
The distribution of the cumulative quantity
of waste that arrives during each "on" interval
was represented by its first two moments. No
wastes were assumed to come into the proc-
essing facility during each "off" period. The
optimal service rates were found to be linear
in the waste level at the start of each "on"
interval and piecewise linear in the quantity
of waste present at the start of each "off"
period.
Anaerobic digestion. In accordance with
the exploratory nature of objectives of the
anaerobic digestion studies, experiments were
concerned with the effect on the digestion
process of adding the various ingredients of
typical refuse to the input to the digester.
Thus, it was found that once a digester cul-
61
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ture is adapted to using green garbage as a
substrate, it can digest the garbage as effi-
ciently as it does raw sewage sludge, and at
about 90 percent of the gas production from
sludge digestion. More than 90 percent of
the cellulose added as Kraft paper was di-
gested. Newspaper (as found in domestic
wastes) was only about one-half as digestible
as Kraft or raw sewage sludge. Garden debris
was digested at a rate and extent equivalent
to those of garbage or sludge but with a gas
production equal to only 75 percent of the
latter. Wood was virtually unchanged in the
digestion process. A composite of all the in-
gredients of domestic refuse was digested at
solids destruction efficiency of about 65 per-
cent. Gas production was about 63 percent of
that obtained from digesting an equal amount
of sewage sludge. During the study, a kinetic
model of the anaerobic biologic hydrolysis of
cellulose was developed by one of the re-
searchers as a part of his work on a doctoral
dissertation. An economic analysis showed
that the total costs (1960 dollars) for digesting
municipal refuse would be about $2.18/ton
for a city of 300,000, and 0.78/ton for a city
of 1 million.
Wet oxidation. A wet-oxidation unit ca-
pable of treating 40 liters of slurry on a
"batch" basis or of being operated on a con-
tinuous basis was constructed and used in pre-
liminary experiments. In these experiments,
the reaction temperature was varied from 160
to 220 C in 20-degree increments, and air was
applied at 1 to 2 cu ft/min. Air (partial)
pressure was raised to 180 psia. Under these
conditions maximum dissolved solids yield
(i.e., maximum total organic chemical yield)
was about 35 percent of the total solids input.
Residual solids yields decreased to some ex-
tent and volatized carbon yields increased
with temperature increase; dissolved solids
yields increased with temperature until a max-
imum was reached, after which they began
to decline. Residual solids and volatilized
carbon yields were smaller and dissolved solids
yield was greater for every 2 cu ft of air per
minute at every reaction temperature. The
cellulosic fraction of wood is preferentially at-
tacked under acidic conditions. Organic chem-
icals produced in the reactions were those
from oxidative degradation of the component
pentose and lexose manomers of wood, e.g.,
acetic, formic, lactic, glycolic, and other acids.
Pyrolysis combustion. Work in the pyrol-
ysis-combustion studies was concerned mostly
with the design and construction of a reactor
capable of handling 200 Ib of refuse per hour.
The design of the reactor departs from the
usual pyrolysis reactor in that a limited
amount of combustion is provided to bring
the temperature of the pyrolysis-produced
gases to 800 to 1,200 C. These gases are used
to bring the wall temperature of the pyrolysis
chamber to 800 to 1,200 C. The operation of
the unit is sufficiently flexible to permit the
production of useful intermediate breakdown
products or to carry the destruction process to
a point at which only CO2, H2O, and inert
ash need be discharged to the environment.
Biofractionation. The work done on bio-
fractionation led to the development of a
fermentation geared to the optimum condi-
tions for the biological hydrolysis of cellulose
to glucose and the culture of a potential feed-
stuff on the glucose. A number of organisms
were surveyed. The one found most suited to
the process was the fungus Tricho derma
viride.
General. During the research period, the
pertinent literature was extensively covered—
more than 700 publications were reviewed
and abstracted. This activity led to the pub-
lication of two highly useful reports. A third
is being compiled. When it is finished, the
number of publications thus reviewed will
number more than 1,000.
PUBLICATIONS
GOLUEKE, C. G., and P. H. MCGAUHEY. Future alterna-
tives to incineration and their air pollution potential. In
Proceedings; Third National Conference on Air Pollution,
Washington, D.C., Dec. 12-14, 1966, National Center
for Air Pollution Control, Public Health Service, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1967. p. 296.
MCGAUHEY, P. H. Living with our wastes. In J. E. Flack,
and M. C. Shipley, eds. Proceedings; Ninth Western Re-
sources Conference, Man and the Quality of His Environ-
ment, University of Colorado, Boulder, July 5, 1967.
University of Colorado Press, 1968.
GOLUEKE, C. G. Comprehensive studies on waste manage-
ment. Presented at Engineering Foundation Research
Conference, Solid Waste Research and Development, Uni-
versity School, Milwaukee, July 24-28, 1967. Conference
Preprint No. A-l. 3 p.
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GOLUEKE, C. G., and P. H1. MCGAUHEY. Comprehensive
studies of solid waste management; first and second an-
nual reports. Public Health Service Publication No. 2039.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970. 245 p.
GOLUEKE, C. G. Solid waste management: abstracts and
excerpts from the literature, v. 1 and 2. Public Health
Service Publication No. 2038. Washington, U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1970. 147 p.
ANDERSON, L. E. Comprehensive studies of solid wastes
management; a mathematical model for the optimization
of a wastes management system. Rev. by A. K. Nigam.
SERL Report No. 68-1. Berkeley, University of California,
Feb. 1968. 63 p.
STERN, H. I. Comprehensive studies of solid wastes man-
agement; optimal service policies for solid waste treat-
ment facilities. SERL Report No. 69-6. Berkeley, Uni-
versity of California, May 1969. [139 p.]
GOLUEKE, C. G. Chemical and microbial characteristics of
urban solid wastes. [Presented at Annual Meeting, Amer-
can Society for Microbiology, Miami Beach, May 4—9,
1969.] 17 p.
BRINK, D. L., P. K. BASU, and J. F. THOMAS. Pyrolysis—
combustion: a new type of recovery system. Unpublished
data, Department of Forestry and Conservation, Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, 1970.
Decision Making and Solid Waste Disposal
Dr. John R. Shectffer
Center for Urban Studies
University of Chicago
Chicago, Illinois 60637
Grant No. EC 00281-02
Funds Awarded: $201,008
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1969 to Feb. 28, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To measure the influences of
economics in solid waste disposal and to for-
mulate methods of using economic analysis as
a guide in designing facilities, including at-
tention to costs of alternative technologies.
To identify the factors initiating, supporting,
opposing, and negotiating refuse disposal de-
cisions and to classify and analyze areas of
interaction. To determine the nature and
extent of short-run opinion changes by local
people and to develop education approaches
that may be desirable to decrease aversions to
location of facilities.
APPROACH: Various solid waste management
methods, i.e., landfills, incineration, compost-
ing, and so forth, are being compared to
determine conditions under which different
cities may find cost advantages in particular
technologies. An attempt is being made to
understand cost variations and to separate
out the extent to which these are due to dif-
ferences in land and labor costs, differences
in techniques of disposal used, and differ-
ences in efficiency. The efficiency of private
companies and of public agencies is being
compared. The effect of existing regulations
on private waste disposal is being evaluated.
Hypotheses are being formulated and investi-
gated about policy approaches involving regu-
lation, financing, pricing, and other measures
aimed at ensuring arrangements that will be
conducive to waste disposal procedures per-
mitting maximum attainment of goals.
A decision-making framework was formu-
lated from empirical data and theoretical con-
cepts. Selected decisions about the location
of solid waste disposal sites were analyzed to
provide basic empirical data. Physical and
social factors, including those often termed
political, were considered. Eighteen requests
for permission to operate sites for the disposal
of solid wastes were analyzed. Of the 18 cases,
5 are instances of rail haul while the others
involve truck transfer to sanitary landfills.
The significant factors were identified and re-
lated to the socioeconomic situations of the
community in which the decisions were made.
At the same time, two rail haul proposals
were analyzed with an emphasis on under-
standing the social psychologic factors that
affect protest. Ethnographic information and
personality factors leading to certain attitudes,
attitude changes, and willingness to act are
being investigated.
FINDINGS: Much progress has been made in
the development of an economic framework
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for analyzing solid waste disposal consistent
with a constructive use of resources instead
of a negative destruction and riddance ap-
proach. Major components of the economics
of solid wastes as a field of inquiry have been
identified, including classification of various
waste disposal activities and delineation of
subjects of inquiry ranging from elementary
cost comparisons, to more sophisticated com-
parisons, to the analysis of solid waste dis-
posal systems, to the economic evaluation of
institutional arrangements, and to legal and
policy areas. For all but the legal and policy
areas, substantial progress has been made in
developing conceptual frameworks to guide
our own and other people's efforts. This work
is being continued. Also being continued is
the empirical work on demand for disposing
of wastes; on the analysis of cost function,
including design of needed data collection
systems; and on the evaluation of entire waste
disposal systems.
An important factor in planning future
solid waste management is the volume of
refuse expected to accrue in later periods, as
well as its composition. To obtain estimates
of future solid waste figures, one could simply
extrapolate the trend observed in the past.
One might, however, be caught by surprise
when so doing, since new trends become pre-
dominant that were not apparent in global
figures but that would have been detected by
a more careful analysis of the data.
For a statistical cost analysis of solid waste
disposal, multiple regressions were based on
National Survey data. Although this approach
was successful in depicting cost functions for
municipal incinerators, it did not do very
well for small incinerators and landfills. This
is probably due to data deficiencies, and one
main conclusion from our work so far is that
a major effort must be undertaken to collect
better data. In view of this, normative cost
accounting sheets have been developed. If
adopted by managerial personnel, they would
ensure that cost items would be reported in
a standardized way to yield meaningful cost
information. These are prerequisite for a
rigorous economic analysis as needed for plan-
ning future solid waste management.
From the site proposals studied a number
of important factors were found. By construct-
ing a series of matrices, factors such as visibil-
ity of a site, lower status of the community
involved, the mayoral form of government,
and reclamation were found to be positively
related to acceptance of sites. Factors such as
a perceptible reclamation, site size, and dis-
tance from a site to the nearest residence were
found to involve some important qualifica-
tions. Reclamation was found to be positively
related to acceptance of a site but apparently
had little effect on whether or not significant
protest took place. Size of a site and its dura-
tion were not found to be positively related
to acceptance of a site. Factors such as dis-
tances were found to vary considerably. A
community typology consisting of four types
was developed.
Type I—incorporated area for a single
community—three proposals—all suc-
cessful
Type II—outside the region for a single
community—five proposals—all unsuc-
cessful
Type III—incorporated area for multi-
ple communities—one proposal—suc-
cessful
Type IV—within the region for multiple
communities—nine proposals—six suc-
cessful, three unsuccessful
If one considers the eight communities with
urban settings and middle to high status, pro-
test was significant after the public hearing
in only three, and seven of the eight proposals
were ultimately implemented. In the remain-
ing seven communities with lower status or
with rural or isolated settings, only three of
the proposals succeeded and all were pro-
tested. But protest is most effective in cases
of the Type II variety where a single commu-
nity transports its refuse outside the region.
Although there is a tendency to go toward
the areas where there is a great deal of open
space with as few residents as possible, per-
haps more is lost in this strategy than gained.
Because of the township system there is no
area in which the local community gives up
its jurisdiction except for those without zon-
ing and zoning ordinances. As was very clear
in the rural or isolated communities studied
thus far, the proportion of citizens protesting
in these areas was vastly more significant than
in urban areas. In fact, their absolute num-
64
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her was almost always high'er. Not only did
such communities see themselves as highly
self-sufficient with regard to disposal, but also
some economic changes that were likely to
occur there would be significantly different
than they might have been elsewhere.
In Denver, San Francisco, and possibly in
Milwaukee, rail haul does not appear to be
able to compete with systems incorporating
truck transfer. Intergovernmental arrange-
ments are indicated as having added to the
planning problems—it is difficult to get all
necessary contracts in line in a metropolitan
area. Finally, the specific problems of rail
haul parallel the general problem of misin-
formation that has characterized solid waste
disposal efforts. For example, Philadelphia
was cited in the San Francisco proposal as
evidence of the success of the rail haul con-
cept. Its concept has not yet, however, gone
into operation. Another example of misinfor-
mation is that the published cost estimates of
rail haul systems indicate that some are going
to reap unbelievably large profits or that
others are going to sustain colossal losses.
In the social psychology work, personality
factors leading to certain attitudes, attitude
changes, and willingness to act were investi-
gated. Sex differences were observed; women
changed more often and to a greater extent
than males. In addition, a number of factors
such as trust in public officials, trust in the
private operators, and previous community
changes were identified as important in the
decision. Other factors such as distrust toward
outside agents were also found to be impor-
tant. Among those who are more fearful and
apprehensive and who tend to avoid risks (the
harm-avoidance scale), those who favored the
proposal before the discussion were more
willing to act than those who opposed it,
while those xvho favored the proposal after
the discussion were less willing to act than
those who opposed it. In other words, the
propensity to take risks was associated with
willingness to act if one was negative to the
landfill before the discussion and if one was
positive to the landfill after the discussion.
This suggests either that individuals who
were originally riskier and more willing to
act shifted from a negative to a positive atti-
tude or that the discussion made the risks in-
volved in the landfill more salient and thus
increased the negative relation between will-
ingness to act in favor of the landfill and
harm avoidance and the amount of attitude
change, whether positive or negative. These
findings are not satisfactorily explained, but
they do suggest that distinctive appeals will
be successful in motivating opposing groups
in a landfill controversy.
PUBLICATIONS
HAVLICEK, J., JR., G. S. TOLLEV, and Y. WANG. "Solid
wastes"—a resource? American Journal of Agricultural
Economics, 51(5):1598-1602, Dec. 1969.
Standard Test Procedures for Municipal Solid Wastes
Dr. Russell H. Susag
Department of Environmental Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32601
Grant No. EC 00332-01
Funds Awarded: $38,887
Project Period: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To develop standard test pro-
cedures for the physical, chemical, and bio-
logical characterization of municipal solid
wastes. This information will implement bet-
ter design, operation, and environmental con-
trol of the collection, storage, transport, proc-
essing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes.
APPROACH: Presently used test procedures
for the examination of municipal solid wastes,
as well as recommendations for other desired
analysis, are being investigated by means of a
questionnaire survey sent to people and agen-
cies involved in solid waste management. An
Advisory Committee on Test Procedures for
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Municipal Solid Wastes is being formed from
representatives of the agencies surveyed and
through technical associations and societies.
This committee would provide the broad
base for direction in standardization of test
procedures and dissemination of information
through the constituent societies. Personal
contact and an extensive literature search are
also being made.
These existing procedures will be evalu-
ated through consultation with the agencies
and actual performance of the test for ac-
curacy, precision, reproducibility, and appro-
priateness. Sampling procedures and sample
preparation are also being investigated so
that the representativeness of samples taken
from extremely heterogeneous municipal solid
waste can be ascertained.
As a result of this work, shortcomings of
existing methods and recommendations for
improving them can be delineated.
FINDINGS: A survey of the State's solid waste
planning directors indicated that their activi-
ties have been confined to solid waste plan-
ning and quantitative data gathering. Very
little qualitative analysis is being performed.
The need for a set of standard test procedures
for solid waste analysis was, however, recog-
nized and encouraged. A literature review in-
dicates that test procedures for the examina-
tion of refuse have been borrowed from
Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater, ASTM, and AOAC.
Researchers at several universities have de-
veloped or revised existing analysis proce-
dures to meet project objectives, the most
extensive work being in the area of incinera-
tor residue characterization at Drexel Univer-
sity, Harvard University, and New York Uni-
versity. The BSWM intramural forces have
done extensive work in the area of sampling
and sample preparation as well as in the
development of specific analytical procedures.
These methods are being compiled for
evaluation.
Biologic Consequences of Plant Residue Decomposition in Soil
Dr. William C. Snyder
Department of Plant Pathology
University of California—Berkeley
Berkeley, California 94720
Grant No. EC 00267-06
Funds Awarded: $211,779
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1964 to Mar. 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To investigate and determine
the nature and action of phytotoxic substances
released into soils during plant residue deg-
radation. To assess the biologic consequences
arising from the decomposition products on
succeeding crops and their diseases. To as-
certain the relationships between decompo-
sition products and types of plants and en-
vironmental factors. To evaluate the role of
degradation products in the survival of patho-
gens in soil and to determine the nutritional
requirements for pathogenicity and the role
of crop residues in providing such nutrients.
APPROACH: The plant organic-residue sources
are barley, rye, soybean, timothy, and other
common plants—all of which are known
phytotoxin producers upon decomposition.
Phytotoxins are obtained by extractive pro-
cedures, and isolation and identification are
attempted by use of chromotographic and
chemical techniques. Phytotoxicity assays are
run at the analytical separation stages by eval-
uation of seed germination and root elonga-
tion. After identification, plant evaluation
studies are made in nutrient culture and
nonsterile soil growth conditions. The per-
sistence and prevalence are determined for
the identical compounds in nature. Fusarium
and Thielaviopsis organisms are used to de-
termine the effect of phytotoxins on their
parasitic activity in laboratory and whole-plant
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greenhouse studies. Soybean and barley tis-
sue at various stages of decomposition in
natural soil under controlled conditions is
assayed for the appearance and duration of
production of these compounds.
FINDINGS: Bioassays, using lettuce and to-
bacco seed germination and root-elongation,
demonstrated the phytotoxicity of water ex-
tracts of barley, rye, broccoli, and vetch resi-
dues decomposing in the field. Four phenyl
acids were identified that accounted for much
(50 to 60 percent) of the phytotoxicity of the
extracts.
In the laboratory studies these phytoxins
were shown to predispose hosts to Thielaviop-
sis root rot. During the work with Thielaviop-
sis the process of chlamydospore germination
was demonstrated. Residue-related damage to
lettuce seedlings in fields in the Salinas Valley
was not correlated with the phytotoxicity of
extracts from decomposing residues in these
fields. Field and greenhouse studies showed
that incorporation of barley, rye, or broccoli
residues into field soils consistently increased
the population density of Pythium ultimum.
In the first 3 to 4 weeks following residue
incorporation the increased population of
Pythium ultimum caused significantly more
damping off and root injury to lettuce seed-
lings. Subsequently, even though the P. ulti-
mum population remained greater in residue-
amended soils, the degree of damage to lettuce
seedlings was less than that observed in non-
amended soils. The residue-related damage
observed in the field was due to the effect of
the residue on pathogen populations, par-
ticularly its utilization as a substrate by P.
ultimum.
PUBLICATIONS
PATRICK, Z. A., T. A. TOUSSOUN, and L. W. KOCH. Effect
of crop-residue decomposition products on plant roots.
In Annual Review of phytopathology, v. 2. Palo Alto,
Calif., Annual Reviews, Inc., 1964. p. 267.
PATRICK, Z. A., T. A. TOUSSOUN, and H. J. THORPE.
Germination of chlamydospores of Thielaviopsis basicola.
Phytopathology, 55(4):466-467, Apr. 1965.
PATRICK, Z. A., R. M. SAYRE, and H. J. THORPE. Nema-
tocidal substances selective for plant-parasitic nematodes
in extracts of decomposing rye. Phytopathology, 55 (6):
702-704, June 1965.
SAYRE, R. M., and Z. A. PATRICK. Selective toxicity of
some volatile fatty acids to plant-parasitic nematodes.
Phytopathology, 55(10):1074, Oct. 1965. (Abstract.)
LINDERMAN, R. G., and T. A. TOUSSOUN. Behavior of
chlamydospores and endoconidia of Thielaviopsis basicola
in nonsterilized soil. Phytopathology, 57(7):729, July 1967.
LINDERMAN, R. G., and T. A. TOUSSOUN. Pathogenesis of
Thielaviopsis basicola. Phytopathology, 57(10):1007, Oct.
1967. (Abstract.)
LINDERMAN, R. G., and T. A. TOUSSOUN. Predisposition
to Thielaviopsis root rot by phytotoxins obtained from
decomposing plant residues. Phytopathology, 57(8):819,
Aug. 1967. (Abstract.)
TOUSSOUN, T. A., A. R. WEINHOLD, R. G. LINDERMAN, and
Z. A. PATRICK. Identification of phytotoxins obtained
from plant residues decomposing in soil. Phytopathology,
57(8):834, Aug. 1967. (Abstract.)
LINDERMAN, R. G., and T. A. TOUSSOUN. Breakdown in
Thielaviopsis basicola root rot resistance in cotton by
hydrocinnamic (3-phenylpropionic) acid. Phytopathology,
58(10):1431-1432, Oct. 1968.
LINDERMAN, R. G., and T. A. TOUSSOUN. Predisposition
to Thielaviopsis root rot of cotton by phytotoxins from
decomposing barley residues. Phytopathology, 58(11):
1571-1574, Nov. 1968.
LINDERMAN, R. G., and T. A. TOUSSOUN. Pathogenesis of
Thielaviopsis basicola in nonsterile soil. Phytopathology,
58(12): 1578-1583, Dec. 1968.
WEINHOLD, A. R., T. BOWMAN, and R. L. DODMAN.
Virulence of Rhizoctonia solani as affected by nutrition
of the pathogen. Phytopathology, 59(11): 1601-1605, Nov.
1969.
67
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Pyrolysis of Municipal Refuse
Mr. Elmer R. Kaiser
Department of Chemical Engineering
New York University
Bronx, New York 10453
Grant No. EC-00253-06
Funds Awarded: $126,728
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1963 to Feb. 28, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To determine the nature and
quantity of the volatile matter resulting from
the pyrolysis of refuse components. To in-
vestigate the possibility of recovering and
using the combustible gases produced.
APPROACH: Initially, a small laboratory fur-
nace was used to heat a closed retort charged
with a small amount of refuse components
such as paper, garbage, plastics, fats, oils,
waxes, wood, leaves, and sewage sludge. The
resulting products were analyzed both quali-
tatively and quantitatively. The calorific
values of the refuse input and pyrolytic out-
puts were determined.
Later, a 13.5-in. diameter by 5-ft gasifier
was built and used to investigate the pyrolysis
process. About 200 Ib of refuse per hr was
pyrolyzed, and the output gases were collected
and analyzed. The variables studied included
feeding rate, rate of residue removal, rate
of air supply, temperature and humidity of
the air, depth of refuse bed, and refuse
composition.
FINDINGS: By heating to 1,800 F, refuse or-
ganic matter is converted into almost equal
weights of a char (carbon), combustible gas
and CO2, water, and organic liquids. The
last is a complex mixture and is suitable as
a low-sulfur fuel or chemical raw material.
Sewage sludge, rubber, and plastics are rich
in combustible gases and liquids.
The yields depend on the rate of heating;
fast heating increases the yield of gas, while
slow heating increases that of char. The char
has properties of activated carbon, and these
properties could be enhanced by further treat-
ment with steam, CO2, or air.
The organic liquids produced are 85 per-
cent of the heavy (viscous) oil variety; 15
percent is a mixture of methyl alcohol, acetic
acid, butyric, and propionic acids, methyl-
ethylketone, furfural, and others. Acetic acid
is the major one of this group.
The gases consist principally of COa, CO,
H2, CH4, C2H4, and C2H6. By removing the
COs, a gas of about 700 Btu scf is produced.
By catalysis, the gas can be upgraded to ap-
proach 1,000 Btu pipeline gas.
The gas producer has been built and pre-
liminary trials have been made, but test data
are not yet available. Experience and the pre-
liminary trials indicate that a hot, combust-
ible gas can be produced continuously by
burning refuse with a restricted air supply, if
the fusion (clinkering) of the ash at the grate
can be controlled.
PUBLICATIONS
KAISER, E. R. Combustion and heat calculations for in-
cinerators. In Proceedings; 1961 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 18-20, 1964. American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, p. 81-89.
KAISER, E. R. Prospects for reducing paniculate emis-
sions from large incinerators. Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, 16(6):324, June 1966. (Condensation.)
KAISER, E. R. A new incinerator control meter is needed.
In Proceedings; 1966 National Incinerator Conference,
New York, May 1-4, 1966. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p. 176-182.
KAISER, E. R. Chemical analyses of refuse components. In
Proceedings; 1966 National Incinerator Conference, New
York, May 1-4, 1966. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, p. 84-88.
KAISER, E. R., and S. B. FRIEDMAN. The pyrolysis of
refuse components. Combustion, 39 (ll):31-36, May 1968.
KAISER, E. R. Refuse reduction processes. In Proceedings;
the Surgeon General's Conference on Solid Waste Man-
agement for Metropolitan Washington, July 19-20, 1967.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1729. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 93-104.
KAISER, E. R. Successful incinerators are not cheap.
Power, 113(9):78-79, Sept. 1969.
KAISER, E. R. The mounting problem of solid wastes.
Power, 113 (10).-62-63, Oct. 1969.
68
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Pyrolysis of Solid Municipal Wastes
Mr. Donald A. Hoffman
Utilities Department
City of San Diego
San Diego, California 92101
Grant No. EC 00266-04
Funds Awarded: $96,280
Project Period: June 1, 1965 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the feasibility
of pyrolysis as an economic method of decreas-
ing the volume of solid municipal wastes and
of producing useful byproducts. To deter-
mine the effect of temperature, initial mois-
ture content, and various types of refuse on
the production of pyrolysis gases, liquids, and
solids.
APPROACH: 4-in.-diameter pyrolytic converter
was constructed and fitted with appropriate
temperature and pressure monitors and load-
ing and sampling openings. Several categories
of refuse—paper, leaves, wood, glass, metals,
etc.—were pyrolyzed separately and together
to determine the effect of temperature, pres-
sure, and waste composition on the produc-
tion of gases, liquids, and solids. The Btu
yield of the various pyrolytic products was
determined at the different temperatures and
pressures. The chemical composition of the
various products was also determined.
After the performance of the 4-in.-diameter
pyrolytic converter had been evaluated, larger
converters, as much as 18-in. in diameter,
were constructed and evaluated. In addition
to the effects of temperature, pressure, and
refuse composition, the effects of bulk density
of the refuse and residence time in the py-
rolyzer on the production of the various py-
rolytic products were determined.
FINDINGS: Pyrolysis is technically feasible as
a method of processing solid municipal wastes.
The energy content of the products of pyrol-
ysis—the char and the "crude vapor" (non-
condensable gases, tars, and liquid organics)
—is more than sufficient to sustain the process
once it has been raised to the selected tem-
perature. In equipment having the proper
overall thermal efliciency, the process may be
sustained by the combustion of the "crude
vapor" only. The sulfur content in the tars
of this vapor indicates that combustion of
this vapor to sustain the process would give
stack emissions well within Rule 53(a) of the
San Diego County Air Pollution Control Dis-
trict governing such emissions (0.2 percent by
volume as SO2). The optimum temperature of
pyrolysis with the minimum pyrolyzing time
occurs at 1,500 F with material having a bulk
density of around 15 to 20 Ib/cu ft in both
a 4-in.-diameter and 18-in.-diameter retort.
The liquid fraction from pyrolysis is suf-
ficiently complex to warrant a detailed and
extensive investigation. Although the esti-
mated retail market dollar value of the liquid
organic compounds in this fraction is impres-
sive, it may well be that the cost of processing
and separating this fraction to prepare the
organic compounds for marketing would be
so great as to render them noncompetitive.
The carbonaceous residue from the pyrol-
ysis of municipal-waste combustibles repre-
sents a rich and reasonably easily transport-
able source of energy. The Btu yield of the
carbonaceous residue from the pyrolysis of
1 to 1.25 tons of "typical San Diego com-
bustibles" is equivalent to that of 1 barrel
(42 gal) of Bunker "C" fuel oil. Moreover,
the carbonaceous residue, when properly
handled and activated, provides a material
whose adsorptive potential is equal or su-
perior to some activated carbons now mar-
keted commercially.
Most plastic materials when pyrolyzed at
1,500 F depolymerize the carbon (plus inert
fillers) and gas and thus present no operating
problems. Glass softens during pyrolysis at
1,500 F but not to the extent that it becomes
fluid. Thus glass should not present an oper-
ating problem. Iron and steel are unaffected
by pyrolysis except that the solders used in
fabrication of some cans melt and run. The
69
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quantity of metals so affected is so small as
not to cause operating problems. Aluminum
cans at 1,500 F behave much the same as glass.
Use of pyrolysis by any community whose
solid waste classification approximates that of
San Diego (i.e., by volume, 26 percent non-
combustibles and 74 percent combustibles)
would result in a significant reduction in the
sanitary landfill space used annually. This
potential annual reduction could reach as
high as 70 percent, depending upon the char-
acter of the community's noncombustibles and
the disposition of the char.
Pyrolysis of solid municipal wastes is a new
and unique approach to this problem, but no
capital and operating costs are available. It is
estimated, however, that the overall unit cost
of waste processing by pyrolysis would not
exceed that encountered with incineration
and could possibly be lower. Until such a
time as an adequately sized pyrolysis unit is
constructed and operated, the economic feasi-
bility of this prdcess when applied to solid
municipal wastes will remain a matter of
conjecture.
PUBLICATIONS
HOFFMAN, D. A. Burns refuse without a flame. The
American City, 82 (2): 102-104, Feb. 1967.
HOFFMAN, D. A. Pyrolysis of solid municipal wastes. Sum-
marized in Engineering Foundation Research Conference,
Solid Waste Research and Development, University School,
Milwaukee, July 24-28, 1967. Conference Preprint No.
F_l. 2 p.
JERMAN, R. I., and L. R. CARPENTER. Gas chromotographic
analysis of gaseous products from the pyrolysis of solid
municipal waste. Journal of Gas Chromatography, 6(5):
298-301, May 1968.
HOFFMAN, D. A., and R. A. FITZ. Batch retort pyrolysis of
solid municipal wastes. Environmental Science and Tech-
nology, 2(11):1023-1026, Nov. 1968.
HOFFMAN, D. A. Processing of solid municipal wastes by
pyrolysis. ASME. Paper No. 69-WA/PID-10. Presented at
Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Los Angeles, Nov. 16-20, 1969. 8 p.
Citric Acid from Citrus Wastes by Fermentation
Dr. Sterling K. Long
Citrus Agricultural Experiment Station
University of Florida
Lake Alfred, Florida 33850
Grant No. EC 00258-03
Funds Awarded: $43,803
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1967 to Dec. 31, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To develop a procedure for con-
verting the waste products of citrus-processing
plants and citrus molasses into useful prod-
ucts, such as citric acid.
APPROACH: Selected canning plant waste
waters having a high biochemical oxygen de-
mand (BOD) content were used to dilute citrus
molasses to the optimum sugar concentration
for citric acid fermentation. Tapwater was
used for the dilutions in preliminary studies.
The latter determined the conditions and
additives required to make the substrate suit-
able for the production of citric acid by
strains of Aspergillus niger.
Three different sizes of fermenters were
used for these studies. Fernbach Shake Flasks
(0.3 liter) were used to determine the opti-
mum concentration of molasses, the possible
effects of interfering ions, and the optimum
environmental conditions for citric acid pro-
duction in shake cultures. In a 13.5-liter
fermenter, the effects of aeration, stirring,
pH, and temperature were studied. For the
final phases, results from the first two studies
were scaled up for pilot plant experiments
with a 100-liter fermenter.
FINDINGS: Aspergillus niger NRRL 567 was
used for the shake flask and pilot fermenta-
tion studies. Efforts are continuing toward
obtaining cultures with higher and more spe-
cific acid production capabilities.
Stock inoculum cultures of A. niger NRRL
70
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567 are maintained bn Potato Dextrose Agar
Slants. Inoculum culture is built up by trans-
fer to shake flasks containing 10° Brix citrus
molasses. The flasks are shaken for 3 days at
150 rpm, 28 C. An additional transfer is per-
formed under the same conditions. The final
inoculum is used at 3 to 5 percent of the total
substrate volume in the pilot fermenter.
The most satisfactory medium was deter-
mined to be citrus molasses diluted to 20°
Brix (approximately 9.5 percent total sugars)
to which is added 1.65 percent (w/v)
K.4Fe(CN)6. Anti-foam is added to prevent
foaming during sterilization. The total pilot
plant volume is 100 liters. Sterilization is ob-
tained at 121 C for 1 hr.
The best pilot fermentation results have
been obtained by allowing growth to develop
for the first 18 to 24 hr with stirring at 150 to
200 rpm, but without sparging air. The op-
timum temperature is 28 C and the pH is
maintained at 4.5. After the initial growth
period, sterilized air sparging at 0.5 scfm is
employed for 24 hr at the same stirring rate.
At the 48-hr point, aeration is increased to
1.0 scfm. Foaming is controlled by automatic
anti-foam addition. Total fermentation varies
from 76 to 86 hr and is dependent upon aera-
tion and stirring rates.
The maximum citric acid yield obtained
so far was 58 percent of theoretical and aver-
ages at 49 percent. Citric, succinic, and malic
acids are the primary acidic fractions ob-
tained in the fermented beer. These acids are
generally obtained in ratios of 3 parts citric:
2 parts succinic: 1 part malic. Work is con-
tinuing to maximize citric acid production.
Garbage and Wastes for Mushroom Production
Dr. Seymour S. Block
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32601
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the production
of compost material from municipal and in-
dustrial wastes capable of yielding mushrooms
for human consumption and producing pro-
tein- and vitamin-rich fungus mycelia for ani-
mal feed and humus fertilizer.
FINDINGS: When properly blended, fortified,
and composted, municipal and selected indus-
trial solid waste materials will support mush-
room growth and produce mushrooms in good
yield and flavor. Analysis of the spent resi-
due, composed largely of mushroom mycelia,
showed it to contain more than 15 percent
nitrogen. The residue was shown to have po-
tential as a feed ingredient for ruminant
animals. The following publications contain
detailed results gained from this research
project.
PUBLICATIONS
BLOCK, S. S. Developments in the production of mush-
room mycelium in submerged liquid culture. Journal of
Grant No. EF 00085-05
Funds Awarded: $79,740
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1959 to Dec. 31, 1964
Biochemical and Microbiological Technology and Engi-
neering, 2(3):243, Sept. 1960.
RAO, S. N., and S. S. BLOCK. Experiments in small-scale
composting. Developments in Industrial Microbiology,
3:326, 1962.
BLOCK, S. S., and S. N. RAO. Sawdust compost for mush-
room growing. Mushrom Science, 53:14, 1962.
BLOCK, S. S. Effect of casing soils on the shape of the
mushrooms. Mushroom Science, 5:321, 1962.
AMMERMAN, C. B., and S. S. BLOCK. Feed from wastes:
feeding value of rations containing sewage sludge and
oakwood sawdust. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 12(6):539, Nov.-Dec. 1964.
BLOCK, S. S. Composting conversion of solid wastes for
mushroom growing. Biotechnology and Bioengineering,
6(4):403, Dec. 1964.
BLOCK, S. S. Garbage composting for mushroom produc-
tion. Applied Microbiology, 13(1):5, Jan. 1965.
BLOCK, S. S., and S. N. RAO. Small-scale composting for
mushroom growing studies. Developments in Industrial
Microbiology, 6:284, 1965.
71
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Partial Oxidation of Solid Organic Wastes
Dr. William W. Shuster
Bio-Environmental Engineering Division
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York 12181
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the possibility of
converting organic solid refuse and sludges
into useful products through a mechanism of
partial combustion using limited quantities
of oxygen in a fluidized bed.
APPROACH: Major components of domestic
waste, such as paper and leaves, as well as
dried sewage sludge, were studied as sources
of useful products. These materials were
finely divided and supported in an air-nitro-
gen stream containing less oxygen than re-
quired for complete combustion. Reaction
was carried out in a vertical tubular reactor
heated electrically.
Gaseous products of reaction evolved from
the reactor were condensed and collected in
a series of traps held at progressively lower
temperatures. Analytical methods applied and
utilized in the examination and identification
of major components in the complex mixtures
included wet chemical methods, gas chroma-
tography used in conjunction with peak at-
Grant No. EC 00263-03
Funds Awarded: $63,510
Project Period: May 1, 1966 to Apr. 30, 1969
tenuation and a syringe reaction technique,
infrared spectroscopy, and mass spectroscopy.
FINDINGS: Runs were made in a tempera-
ture range of 250 C to 1,000 C and with air-
nitrogen mixtures ranging from zero to 100
percent air. Products obtained and identified
included water, acetic acid, formic acid, for-
maldehyde, methanol, acetone, toluene, acet-
aldehyde, methyl acetate, ethyl vinyl ether,
methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
propylene, ethylene, ammonia, ammonium
carbonate, and hydrogen. In general, runs
with high air-nitrogen ratios favored the
formation of more highly oxygenated com-
pounds, while a low air-nitrogen ratio pro-
moted the formation of hydrocarbons.
PUBLICATIONS
SHUSTER, W. W. Partial combustion of solid organic
wastes. Presented at Engineering Foundation Research
Conference, Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. Conference Preprint
No. C_4.
Useful Disposal of Auto Bodies and Discarded Tires
Mr. Eddie J. Wren
Department of Environmental Sciences
Gulf South Research Institute
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808
Grant No. EC 00275-01
Funds Awarded: $44,374
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1968 to Dec. 31, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To develop an effective method
of compacting auto bodies and discarded tires
into levee and foreshore protection materials
with an interlocking configuration and a shape
to permit optimum weight and cost per square
foot coverage ratios. To design a complete
facility to compact the discarded autos and
tires and to develop suitable methods of pre-
venting potential stream pollution resulting
from their use.
APPROACH: A study of various configura-
tions of compacted bodies was conducted to
determine which configurations provided the
72
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maximum area of protection- per ton of auto
bodies and tires. Dies were constructed and
incorporated into a portable car crusher to
determine their effectiveness in producing
suitable interlocking bales. In addition to
compacting the auto bodies, attempts were
made to incorporate discarded tires in the
bales. The effect of heating the tires before
incorporation into the bales was studied to
determine if the softened tires help hold the
bales together and provide some protection
against stream pollution by partially coating
the metal. Finally, the economics of a com-
plete compacting operation was developed.
FINDINGS: The conclusions reached as a re-
sult of this study are as follows:
1. The use of compacted automobile bodies
for large-scale Mississippi River levee protec-
tion is not economically feasible or practical,
because of the vast quantities required in
contrast to the relatively small tonnage of
available automobile bodies within reason-
able hauling distances.
2. The density of compacted automobile
bodies (even with asphalt sand mixes added)
is much too small (light) to replace the much
denser riprap (broken stone) presently being
used for construction work in the relatively
high-velocity currents of the Mississippi River.
3. Compacted automobile bodies can be
economically used (disposed of) in certain
small-scale applications such as the hypothet-
ical marshland shoreline erosion control work.
4. An observation based on the research
team's association with this work indicates
that some form of bounty or subsidy should
be provided in the original purchase price of
all metal products (not just automobiles) to
assist in the economics of recycling all metals
to the scrap processors in the interest of con-
servation of natural resources.
Biological Conversion of Animal Wastes to Nutrients
Dr. Byron F. Miller
Department of Poultry Science
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
Grant No. EC 00262-02
Funds Awarded: $41,634
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the digestion of
poultry manure by flies and establish hus-
bandry procedures for caring for fly larvae on
a manure medium. To measure changes ac-
complished in poultry manure by these or-
ganisms, and their efficiency. To determine
the value of the protein material as a feed-
stuff for poultry.
APPROACH: Fresh raw poultry manure was
"seeded" with fly eggs to convert the manure
energy into useful animal protein. Samples
of the manure were analyzed for composition
and nutritive value before and after digestion
with fly larvae. Environmental conditions
such as temperature, moisture content of the
manure, humidity, and ratio of eggs to ma-
nure conducive to optimum conversion of
the manure to pupal protein were studied.
The protein material was analyzed for nutri-
tive content, metabolizable energy, and abil-
ity to support growth in young chickens.
FINDINGS: Five species of Diptera (flies)
were screened as potential means of convert-
ing poultry manure to high-quality protein
for animal feed. Musca domestica (housefly)
was selected because it reproduced in large
numbers and required a minimum of time
(5 to 10 days) to reach pupal stage. It was
found that 3 g (about 60,000) of fly eggs to
4 kg of manure gave optimum yield of pupae.
The fly larvae effectively reduced the prob-
lem of manure disposal by eliminating 60 per-
cent of the moisture and 80 percent of the
organic matter during the digestion period.
73
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In addition, the wet, pasty, odoriferous ma-
nure was converted to a granular, stabilized,
inoffensive product that was easily dried.
About 2 percent of fresh manure weight
was harvested as dried fly pupae. These pupae
continued 60 percent protein, comparable to
fish meal as a protein supplement for starting
chickens. The pupae are a good source of
minerals and of some vitamins.
Since the housefly feeds on a wide variety
of waste materials it may prove useful in solv-
ing other waste disposal problems. Through
the controlled production of fly pupae, the
number of wild flies would be reduced be-
cause their breeding sites are eliminated.
While helping to solve a very difficult waste
problem the housefly can be used as a protein
supplement and aid in the control of wild,
disease-carrying flies. Most of the fertilizer
value is retained in the manure residue.
A poultry operation of 40,000 laying hens
would produce 1,600 Ib of dried fly pupae
daily. At a price of 10 cents/lb, this would
amount to $160/day. In addition, the manure
residue could be used as fertilizer.
Feeding trials with growing broiler stock
indicated that pupal protein can be used
readily as the primary protein supplement in
broiler diets. Pupae were used to replace soy
bean oil meal, fish meal, meat and bone scraps,
trace minerals, and B vitamin supplements
in a standard broiler diet. The control diet
resulted in slightly greater body weight, which
was not, however, significant at the 5 percent
level. The pupae diet resulted in slightly
better feed efficiency, which again was not
significantly different. Normally fly pupae
would be included in poultry diets at about
5 percent of the diet instead of 30 percent
as used in this study. The metabolizable
energy of the pupae was found to be 1,149
cal/lb.
PUBLICATIONS
MILLER, B. F., and J. H. SHAW. Digestion of poultry
manure by diptera. Poultry Science, 48 (5): 1844-1845,
Sept. 1969. (Abstract.)
MILLER, B. F, Biological digestion of manure by diptera.
Feedstuffs, 41(51):32, Dec. 1969. Presented at Pacific South-
west Animal Industry Conference, Fresno, Nov. 17, 1969.
Sacramento, California Grain and Feed Association.
Biological Methane Formation
Dr. Marvin P. Bryant
Department of Dairy Science
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61803
Grant No. EC 00289-04
Funds Awarded: $169,517
Project Period: June 1, 1966 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To obtain fundamental eco-
logic, nutritional, and biochemical informa-
tion applicable to a general understanding of
the process of methane formation from or-
ganic matter in natural systems. Special em-
phasis was given to those habitats, e.g., sewage
sludge digesters and the digestive tracts of
ruminants, in which anaerobic decomposition
of organic wastes leads to methane formation.
APPROACH: Characterization of isolated meth-
ane bacteria included nutritional studies to
establish the relationship of the nutrient re-
quirements of the organism to the chemical
composition of the natural habitat. The bio-
chemistry of methane formation was studied
in the Methanobacillus omelianskii, as well as
in other methane bacteria of quantitative sig-
nificance in natural environments, in order
to compare the mechanism of methane pro-
duction in various bacteria that produce
methane from organic substrates, hydrogen,
and carbon dioxide. Other aspects of the bio-
chemistry of methane bacteria, e.g., electron
transport systems and biosynthesis of cell con-
stituents, were also studied.
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FINDINGS: Our work'has resulted in great
modification of theory about the bacteria con-
cerned and intermediary metabolism involved
in degradation of organic wastes by methane
fermentation. Earlier studies indicated that
methane-forming bacteria produced methane
by degradation of acids, alcohol, and hydrogen
produced from organic wastes by nonmeth-
anogenic bacteria. We showed, however, that
ethyl alcohol is not fermented by the meth-
anogenic species Methanobacillus omelianskii.
This species was shown to be a symbiotic
association of two species. One species is
nonmethanogenic and produces acetate and
hydrogen from alcohol but cannot carry this
out as a pure culture because the hydrogen
produced inhibits its growth. The other spe-
cies utilizes hydrogen produced by the first
species to obtain energy for growth via reduc-
tion of carbon dioxide to methane. The main-
tenance of the low partial pressure of hydro-
gen allows the alcohol-degrading species to
grow. Several species of bacteria have been
shown to oxidize alcohols and lactic acid when
grown in association with the hydrogen-utiliz-
ing methane bacteria. The work indicates that
similar symbiotic associations of hydrogen-
utilizing methane bacteria with nonmethano-
genic species is probably responsible for deg-
radation of fatty acids other than formate
and acetate, and emphasizes the importance
of methane bacteria, serving as hydrogen
sinks, in allowing other bacteria to oxidize
organic wastes more efficiently.
Studies have confirmed other recent work
indicating that the hydrogen- carbon dioxide-
and formate-utilizing species Methanobac-
terium ruminantium and M. formicicum are
among the most numerous methane-forming
species in sludge. Two new species utilizing
these energy sources have been isolated. These
studies demonstrated the great diversity of
species of methane bacteria that utilize hydro-
gen-carbon dioxide and formate.
Studies on nutrients essential or stimula-
tory to growth of two of the more impor-
tant hydrogen-utilizing methanogenic species
showed the great importance of acetate as a
major carbon source, ammonia as the major
nitrogen source, and sulfide as sulfur source.
These bacteria are unable to utilize amino
acids or peptides effectively either as carbon
or nitrogen sources. Some strains require an
unidentified growth factor in very small
amounts. We previously developed methods
for isolation of the factor from sewage sludge
or rumen contents but could not obtain large
enough amounts of factor for definite charac-
terization. We now find that it is produced
by other methanogenic species in amounts
that should make identification feasible. Es-
tablishment of nutrient requirements of meth-
ane bacteria may give information of value
to development of methods for more rapid
anaerobic degradation of organic wastes.
Methods were developed, for the first time,
for pure, large-scale cultures of methanogenic
bacteria in culture media with hydrogen-
carbon dioxide as energy source. This has
made it possible to study effectively the bio-
chemistry of these bacteria.
Knowledge of biochemical mechanisms by
which a hydrogen-utilizing methane bacterium
reduces carbon dioxide to methane has been
increased. It has been shown that ATP in
catalytic amounts and a low-molecular-weight,
unidentified methyl carrier, present in ex-
tracts, are essential for methane formation
from either carbon dioxide or methyl cobala-
min. Studies on identity of the methyl carrier
are in progress. The bacterivun contains large
amounts of a compound involved in electron
transport that is fluorescent and dialyzable in
the oxidized state but is bound to the non-
dialyzable fraction of the extract and is not
fluorescent when extracts are reduced by
hydrogen. The compound has been isolated,
and studies on its identity and function in
electron transport are underway. The cell
extracts produce methane from the one car-
bon of pyruvate, the three carbon of serine,
and from the one-carbon derivatives of N10
formyl-, N5, N10-methenyl-, N5, N10-methylene-,
and N5 methyl-tetrahydrofolate, and from
methylcobalamin, but it is not yet known
whether these compounds are significant in-
termediates in reduction of carbon dioxide to
methane.
PUBLICATIONS
BRYANT, M. P., E. A. WOLIN, M. J. WOLIN, and R. S.
WOLFE. Methanobacillus omelianskii, a symbiotic associa-
tion of two species of bacteria. Archiv fuer Mikrobiologie,
59(l-3):20-31, Aug. 1967.
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BRYANT, M. P., B. C. MCBRIDE, and R. S. WOLFE.
Hydrogen-oxidizing methane bacteria. I. Cultivation and
methanogenesis. Journal of Bacteriology, 95(3)1118-1123,
Mar. 1968.
LANGENBERC, K. F., M. P. BRYANT, and R. S. WOLFE.
Hydrogen-oxidizing methane bacteria. II. Electron micros-
copy. Journal of Bacteriology, 95(3):1124-1129, Mar. 1968.
MCBRIDE, B. C., J. M. WOOD, J. W. SIDERT, and B. N.
SCHRAUZER. Methylcobalt derivatives of vitamin Bs,12s,
model compounds as substrates in enzymatic methane
formation. Journal of the American Chemical Society,
90(19):5276-5277, Sept. 11, 1968.
WOOD, J. M., F. S., KENNEDY, and C. G. ROSEN. Synthesis
of methyl-mercury compounds by extracts of a methano-
genic bacterium. Nature, 220:173-174, Oct. 12, 1968.
ROBERTON, A. M., and R. S'. WOLFE. ATP requirement
for methanogenesis in cell extracts of Methanobacterium
strain M. O. H. Biochimica et Biophysica Ada, 192(3):
420-429, Dec. 30, 1969.
ROBERTON, A. M., and R. S. WOLFE. Adenosine triphos-
phate pools in Methanobacterium. Journal of Bacteriology,
102(1):43-51, Apr. 1970.
KENNEDY, F. S., T. BUCKMAN, and J. M. WOOD. Carbenoid
intermediates from the photolysis of haloalkylcobalamins.
Biochimica et Biophysica Ada, 177(3):661-663, May 6,
1969.
WOOD, J. M. Environmental pollution by mercury. In
R. R, Metcalf, and J. Pitts, eds. Advances in environ-
mental science, v. 2. New York, John Wiley 8c Sons, Inc.
(In press.)
Chemical Transformation of Solid Wastes
Dr. Virgil H. Freed
Department of Agricultural Chemistry
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
Grant No. EC 00242-04
Funds Awarded: $136,562
Project Period: Oct. 1, 1966 to Sept. 30, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To classify and identify the
chemical constituents of municipal and agri-
cultural field solid wastes, to investigate meth-
ods of chemical transformation of these solid
wastes to products of useful value, and to
follow the development of suitable laboratory
procedures with additional studies at the
pilot-plant scale.
APPROACH: Initially, the chemical composi-
tion of the various portions of solid waste was
determined. Efforts were then directed to the
chemical transformation of the components
of various wastes into useful products. Re-
actions being studied for the chemical
transformation of cellulose include catalytic
destructive distillation, high-pressure hydro-
genation, and ether and ester formation. Ex-
periments involving ether and ester formation
are being conducted to unite nitrogen and
phosphorus chemically to the cellulosic struc-
ture and, thus, to form a usable soil additive
from the cellulose. In another series of ex-
periments, cellulose is being extracted from
waste materials by xanthate formation and
the extract evaluated as a raw material for
the commercial production of plastics.
The chemical transformation of plastic
wastes to usable products through high-pres-
sure hydrogenation, oxidation, destructive dis-
tillation, and extraction is being investigated.
Metal extraction procedures are also being
investigated to determine the feasibility of
recovering various metals either as salts or
in a pure state from solid waste.
The last phase of this study involves the
application of useful transformation reactions
to the solution of solid waste problems on a
larger scale. The most promising chemical
transformation reactions being studied in the
laboratory will lead to studies of pilot-plant
operation and associated engineering prob-
lems, and to an evaluation of economic factors.
FINDINGS: Information about the chemical
composition of most wastes is available in
the literature. Municipal refuse, straw, bark,
wood, and paper contain high percentages of
cellulose.
Destructive distillation and high-pressure
hydrogenation of organic wastes produce a
combustible gas, a heterogeneous liquid, and
a carbon/ash solid residue. The liquid pro-
duced by hydrogenation of bark, for example,
76
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contains about 65 percent aromatic com-
pounds and 35 percent aliphatic compounds.
The use of a catalyst or chemical reactant
during destructive distillation affects the com-
position of the products.
The formation of cellulose esters and ethers
from waste cellulose is a practical means of
producing usable products. The cellulose in
paper or straw can be acetylated by one of
three processes (solution, fiber, or vapor) to
produce cellulose acetate, which can be formed
into a solid sheet under pressure and elevated
temperature. Such a solid sheet should have
applications as a construction material, lami-
nate, container, and so forth.
Purified cellulose from wastes can be used
as the raw material for the production of
derivatives such as cellulose nitrate, methyl
cellulose, and cellulose butyrate.
The cellulose of a complex waste such as
municipal refuse can be partially purified by
acid washing to remove the available metals
and salts. Glass, rocks, and other dense mate-
rials can be separated by settling in a liquid
medium. The metal content of straw can also
be reduced by acid washing.
Straw pulp (cellulose) can be purified by
using any of several techniques, including the
nitric acid-pulping process and the soda
process.
Waxes, fats, and oils can be removed from
solid wastes by solvent extraction.
Cellulose xanthate can be formed from the
cellulosic component of solid wastes. This
compound is soluble in sodium hydroxide.
Cellulose can be precipitated upon neutrali-
zation or derivatives such as zinc xanthate
can be produced.
Phosphoric acid and urea can be used to
form cellulose derivatives that are water in-
soluble. The ammonium salt of cellulose
phosphate, or the amide, contains two plant
nutrients that are not leached out by water.
A greenhouse soil test indicates that this
material is effective in stimulating plant
growth when applied in the same nitrogen
concentration as a commercial fertilizer.
The nitrogen content of cellulose can be
increased by up to 12 percent by reaction
with urea through the formation of cellulose
carbamate.
The wide range of plastics being used today
makes a single chemical treatment process
most unlikely; however, some plastic mate-
rials can be dissolved in organic solvents and
others can be degraded by acid or base treat-
ment. Hydrogenation of plastics is a promis-
ing potential means of converting plastics to
oil, but the appropriate reaction conditions
and catalysts have not yet been defined.
The most promising chemical treatment
processes for further study appear to be the
use of waste cellulose by ester and ether for-
mation, the hydrogenation of wastes to oil,
and the nitrogen and phosphorus enrichment
of wastes. Plans for economic evaluation and
larger scale studies are underway.
Some industrial interest in waste utiliza-
tion has been received, especially for cellulose
utilization and plastic production.
Converting Incinerator Residue to Useful Materials
Dr. Peter E. D. Morgan
Department of Materials Science and
Engineering
Franklin Institute Research Laboratories
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103
Grant No. EC 00326-01
Funds Awarded: $50,734
Project Period: May 1, 1969 to Apr. 30, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the possibility
of developing a process for the direct con-
version of incinerator residue by calcining,
melting, and slagging to a dense aggregate
useful for road building or road surfacing or
as a filler material for concrete. Because most
municipalities are involved both in waste dis-
posal and in road-building programs, a direct
77
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path to recycling and effective utilization of
this waste product is envisioned.
APPROACH: A laboratory experimental eval-
uation of the thermochemistry of processes
designed either to melt down, slag, or con-
solidate incinerated waste residues has been
undertaken. From this investigation, param-
eters are emerging to permit recommenda-
tions for optimum burning and calcining
conditions for waste products.
After the laboratory studies, preliminary
design and cost estimates for a system to per-
form the needed thermochemical operation
were made. A small pilot plant has been de-
signed and constructed to handle a sidestream
of ash from an existing municipal incinerator
so that the final design criteria and economics
for a full-scale plant can be developed.
FINDINGS: Philadelphia incinerator ash has
been ground, fired, and milled to produce a
ceramic oxide powder. An analysis for im-
portant elemental content has been made; it
has been shown that this powder has thermal
properties expected for the analyzed composi-
tion in terms of sinterability, fluxing behavior,
etc., both alone and with additives. It has
been possible, by these studies, to produce a
very high-grade ceramic material that might
be used for bricks or as a facing material.
For example, nonporous samples have been
made with densities reproducibly at 2.90 g/cc
and tensile strengths of 7,000 to 15,000 psi.
Crushing strength (not measured) may be ex-
pected to be around at least 50,000 psi, and
the material would fulfill any ordinary build-
ing requirements. Little modification of a
brickworks would be necessary for the adapta-
tion to a raw material of this type rather than
to the ordinarily used clays.
Extensive firings with additions of lime
have demonstrated the feasibility of turning
the solid waste ash into cement powder and
ultimately into some form of concrete. At
present it appears that a composition allow-
ing the formation of 2CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.
Fe2O3 during firing at 1,350 C produces the best
cement powder. Further study is rapidly con-
tinuing in this area. More importantly, the
incinerator waste cannot only form a concrete
mix but can also be used as an aggregate filler.
Ash has been given three different thermal
treatments to produce aggregates for possible
road use in both concrete and bituminous
surfaces.
Both the Pennsylvania and Federal high-
way authorities have agreed to test aggregates
produced, and it is hoped that they can
proceed eventually to the actual laying of
stretches of highway. Preliminary tests for
friability, abrasion resistance, and chemical re-
sistance are all encouraging. This area prom-
ises the most immediate use because cities
that produce the solid wastes are also in the
business of road building and topping; there-
fore, problems of logistics and economics are
minimal, and this use involves probably the
fewest changes in present policies. It is hoped
that, later, the more remote possibilities can
be brought to fruition once at least one
scheme for usage is under way.
PUBLICATIONS
New twist in waste use. Chemical Week, 106 (2):58, Jan.
14, 1970.
Degradation of Waste Paper to Protein
Dr. David M. Updegraff
Denver Research Institute
University of Denver
Denver, Colorado 80210
Grant No. EC-00271-02
Funds Awarded: $165,160
Project Period: June 1, 1967 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To evaluate a fermentation
method of converting waste paper to a protein
supplement for livestock feed, the specific ob-
jective being to obtain an extremely fast-
78
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growing, cellulose-digesting organism having
a high nutritional/protein value.
APPROACH: The initial effort included isola-
tion and screening of microbes to find suit-
able strains for rapid digestion of cellulose in
a water medium enriched with hydrocarbons,
oxygen, and nitrogen. The work centered on
the isolation of hydrocarbon-utilizing, cellu-
lose-digesting organisms by employing enrich-
ment, sprinkle plate, percolation, and garden-
ing isolation techniques. These organisms
were purified and screened for growth. Cell
yield, hydrocarbon utilization, cellulose deg-
radation, and amino acid profiles were de-
termined. The next phase involved the
optimization of the fermentation process with
a selected optimum growth organism. These
studies investigated the following variables:
pH, temperature, aeration, CO2 requirements,
trace elements, nitrogen sources, stimulators,
and the effects of certain fractions of waste
paper. A comparison of a batch versus a con-
tinuous fermentation investigated the effects
of each on product quality and toxicity.
FINDINGS: The initial phase isolated 367
pure cultures on n-hexadecane media from
more than 70 different inocula of soil, com-
post, sewage sludge, and forest litter; 28 of
these were found to be capable of attacking
sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and lowering
its viscosity. Only one proved to be capable
of attacking purified cellulose, ball-milled
newspaper, or newsprint. This culture is a
fungus that grows well at up to 45 C, identi-
fied as Aspergillus fumigatus. Unfortunately,
this organism is a known pathogen, and so
cultivation on a large scale is believed to be
not advisable.
More than 300 enrichment cultures were
also developed on cellulosic substrates from
similar inocula. These were tested in shake
flask fermentations for ability to produce pro-
tein and utilized the aforementioned sub-
strates. Only 10 enrichment cultures yielded
greater than 0.2 mg of protein per ml in 5
days. Five of these, all fungi, were studied
in shake flask fermenters in an effort to
achieve optimum conditions for protein syn-
thesis and cellulose utilization. The organisms
isolated, Myrothecium verrucaria, Tricho-
derma viride, Aspergillus fumigatus, and
Cellulomonas are from genera long known to
be actively cellulolytic.
Myrothecium verrucaria gave the highest
rates of protein synthesis of the fungi studied;
therefore, scaled-up studies using 14-liter
stirred-jar fermenters concentrated on this or-
ganism. Protein yield on ball-milled news-
paper increased with substrate concentration
up to the maximum used. A very simple
medium containing dibasic ammonium phos-
phate, urea, and yeast autolysate proved op
timal for protein synthesis and cellulose
utilization. At a concentration of 4 g ball-
milled newspaper per 100 ml medium, the
maximum rate of cellulose consumption was
5.4 g per liter per day and the rate of protein
synthesis was 0.3 g per liter per day. The
maximum yield of protein obtained was 1.42
g/liter by a highly specific modified Biuret
method, or 3.3 g/liter by the usual method of
multiplying the total organic (Kjeldahl) nitro-
gen by 6.25. The amount of cellulose con-
sumed under these conditions was 12.7 g/liter
from an original 20.4 g/liter contained in
40 g/liter of ball-milled newspaper.
Chemical analysis of the dried final prod-
uct indicates it may be a nutritious animal
feed. The literature does not list Myrothe-
cium verrucaria among the mycotoxin-pro-
ducing fungi; however, preliminary feeding
studies with mice and rats would be desir-
able before proceeding with pilot-plant con-
struction in order to obtain some evaluation
of its toxicity and dietary value.
The work accomplished was nearly suffi-
cient to permit the design and construction
of a pilot plant, although a few more stirred-
jar runs using larger concentrations of ball-
milled paper and perhaps larger concentra-
tions of ammonium phosphate and urea may
be desirable.
PUBLICATIONS
UPDEGRAFF, D. M. Semimicro determination of cellulose
in biological materials. Analytical Biochemistry, 32:420-
424, 1969.
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Engineering Properties of Compacted Ash- Fills
Dr. Donald H. Gray
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
Grant No. EC 00317-02
Funds Awarded: $40,455
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1969 to Feb. 28, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To determine the physical and
engineering properties of both compacted
fly ash and incinerated sewage sludge and
to determine any environmental or health haz-
ards associated with the use of these mate-
rials for fill purposes. Once the properties
of the ash material are determined, decisions
about their use as fills to support heavy loads
can be made,
APPROACH: The engineering properties of
fly ash and incinerated sewage sludge are
being determined. The index properties and
composition of ashes are being defined by
various methods, including grain size dis-
tribution, specific gravity, grain shape, and
ignition loss tests among others. The com-
paction characteristics are determined by im-
pact compaction and kneading compaction
tests. Strength properties of compacted fly
ash are denned by unconfined compaction
tests, CRB tests, triaxial compression tests,
and ash-hardening tests. The settlement and
compressibility behavior are determined by
an in situ measurement of the coefficient of
compressibility of the ash fills by the use of
a Dutch cone penetrometer. Frost susceptibil-
ity is determined by standard grain size analy-
sis and frost heave tests. The effect on strength
and frost susceptibility of low-level additions
of cement, lime, and asphalt is also being
determined.
The hazards associated with the implace-
ment of ash fills are being investigated. Anal-
ysis of the ash leachate reveals the pH, BOD,
COD, total soluble salt content, major ions,
and toxic compounds. The corrosiveness of
the compacted ash is determined by its bulk
electrical resistivity, redox potential, and
weight loss coupon analysis. Ash fill aggres-
siveness toward vegetation and moisture reten-
tion characteristics are also being determined.
FINDINGS: The fly ash under investigation
was obtained from four coal-fired stations in
Michigan. The fly ashes were selected as rep-
resentative of the typical range of ashes pro-
duced by coal-fired power stations. The
sewage sludge ashes were obtained from 10
treatment plants scattered all over the nation.
The sewage sludge ashes were likewise se-
lected to provide a range of possible ash
types.
The fly ash study is focusing primarily on
the compressibility and frost susceptibility
of this material, because these are the two
properties about which least is known and
the ones that might preclude its use as a
structural fill material in engineering prac-
tice. The sewage sludge ash study, on the
other hand, is attempting to characterize this
since there is no published information on it
at all.
Index property tests and chemical compo-
sition analyses have been completed on both
types of ashes. Both the sewage ash and the
fly ash are predominantly silt-size material.
Strength-compaction tests have also been
completed on all ashes in addition to age
hardening tests and lime-cement stabiliza-
tion tests. Strength falls off markedly for
samples compacted wet of optimum; this
trend is even more pronounced with com-
pacted fly ash. Most ashes, particularly the
sewage ashes with large free-lime contents,
exhibit as much as a twofold increase in un-
confined compressive strength with time. The
addition of as little as 3 percent cement by
weight to nearly all the sewage sludge ashes
is sufficient to give them enough strength
when compacted to meet easily minimum
strength requirements for subbases in road
construction.
When mixed with the right amount of
water and about 10 percent cement by
80
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weight and then compacted statically to
about 5,000 psi, some of the sewage ashes
approach the strength of a lean concrete. As
a result we are preparing now to manufac-
ture some trial building blocks for experi-
mental purposes from sludge ash supplied by
the Pontiac, Michigan, plant.
A frost heave testing facility has been de-
signed and constructed; experiments are
presently under way on various compacted
ashes. The pH of all the sewage ashes has
been measured and found to be quite alka-
line (pH 10 to 12). One of the sewage ashes
(from Pontiac, Michigan) is quite corrosive
when it comes in contact with metal.
PUBLICATIONS
GRAY, D H. Properties of a compacted sewage ash. Journal
of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, Ameri-
can Society of Civil Enginecis, 96 (SM2):439-451, Mai.
1970.
High-Energy Gas from Refuse Using Fluidized Beds
Dr. Richard C. Bailie
Department of Chemical Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
Grant No. EC 00399-02
Funds Awarded: $272,556
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1969 to Dec. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To investigate several possibili-
ties in the operation of a fluidized bed of
sand for the disposal of solid waste. Complete
combustion, incomplete oxidation, and pyrol-
ysis are the three alternative processes availa-
ble for the recovery of energy content of
refuse in a fluidized bed.
APPROACH: Cellulose and other polymeric
materials are contacted with air, inert gas,
steam, and combinations of these gases in a
fluidized bed. This results in oxidation, pyrol-
ysis, and anaerobic decomposition reactions.
For each type of operation, an attempt is
made to recover evolved heat or organic com-
pounds, or both, and gaseous hydrocarbons
in varying amounts. Maximizing the yields
of hydrogenated gas of high heating value
is emphasized. Temperatures of 1,300, 1,500,
and 1,700 F and pressures from atmospheric
to 100 psi are used together with several
homogeneous semifluid feeds and several
feed rates. Fluidization variables of particle
size and gas velocity are investigated, and
the product is analyzed for heating values
and carbon-hydrogen ratios. Residues are
analyzed for ash, sand, and unburned solids.
FINDINGS: Investigations have shown that the
gaseous products resulting from the thermal
decomposition of cellulosic materials are
sensitive both to the rate of heat transfer to
the sample and to the temperature of the
surroundings. At high heat transfer rates the
cellulose polymer decomposed to hydrogen-
ated gases and at low rates more oxygenated
gases were formed. The fluidized bed results
in rapid heat transfer, and this leads to higher
yields of hydrogenated materials. The quan-
titative values have not been established.
A mathematical model developed to de-
scribe the pyrolysis or pyrolysis-combustion
of cellulosic material takes the following fac-
tors into consideration: (1) heat transfer by
conduction, (2) heat transfer by radiation,
(3) sample geometry, and (4) bulk flow of
pyrolysis out of sample. The model is useful
in explaining many experimental observations
appearing in literature as well as the unique
effects contributed by the fluidized bed.
Steady-state experiments have been per-
formed on the conversion of an aqueous
slurry containing 20 percent solids in the
fluidized bed. These solids were mainly 1-
methylaminoanthraquinone or other insolu-
81
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ble organic dyes. Experimental parameters
were airflow rate, bed height, and bed tem-
perature. It was observed that the organic
dye compounds readily underwent pyrolytic
decomposition owing to the high heat trans-
fer rates present. At temperatures of 1,600 F
oxidation followed within the bed in a smooth
manner. At lower temperatures a noticeable
fraction of the decomposition products
emerged from the bed, especially at low air
rates. This latter material underwent oxida-
tion in the free-board space or was elutriated.
Kinetics of Porteous Refuse Hydrolysis Process
Dr. Hans E. Grethlein
Thayer School of Engineering
Dartmouth College
Hanover, New Hampshire 03755
Grant No. EC 00279-02
Funds Awarded: $70,348
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To determine the reaction kine-
tics for the formation of glucose from cellu-
lose-containing materials found in solid
wastes, and the subsequent decomposition of
the glucose in a high-temperature, low-acid-
concentration hydrolysis process. To conduct
a process design and economic evaluation of
the hydrolysis process for the fermentation
production of ethanol from cellulose found
in solid wastes.
APPROACH: The rate at which glucose forms
and decomposes at various temperatures and
acid concentrations was determined experi-
mentally in a small batch reactor. Once the
reaction rates were known, the time to opti-
mum glucose yield could be calculated by
using the relationship for consecutive first-
order reactions. Next a reaction vessel was
designed and constructed to permit the sepa-
rate heating of a cellulose slurry and an acid
solution. Once the desired reaction tempera-
ture was obtained, the reagents flowed through
a mixing tee and a reaction chamber. The
reaction was then quenched, and the amount
of glucose produced was determined to con-
firm the reaction rates found in batch opera-
tion. Once reaction rates were accurately
known, a full-size hydrolysis plant was de-
signed and an economic evaluation performed
to determine the cost of producing glucose
for a fermentation process.
FINDINGS: The acid hydrolysis of cellulose
in paper follows a sequential, first-order, kine-
ki k2
tic model, namely, cellulose —> sugar —>
decomposed sugars. The rate constants ki
and k2 have been determined as a function of
temperature, in the range of 180 to 230 C,
and acid concentration, in the range of 0.2
to 1.0 percent. The reaction time for maxi-
mum sugar yields was determined from the
model.
A plant design for the hydrolysis and an
economic analysis based on the kinetic model
indicate that sugar can be produced for be-
tween 1.8 to 3.0 cents/lb. This is in the range
to be competitive with sugar from molasses.
The major factors affecting the economics
are the plant capacity, the percent cellulose
in the refuse, the dumping fee, and the solid-
to-liquid ratio of the paper slurry feed to the
reactor.
A small, tubular, continuous, isothermal
reactor was constructed to study the operat-
ing parameters and further improve the eco-
nomics of the final plant design. The effect
of impurities in the refuse on the hydrolysis
and the fermentation of the sugar to alcohol
was studied.
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Laser-Mediated Lignin Solid Waste Fermentation
Dr. Donald A. Klein
Department of Microbiology
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
Grant No. EC 00278-02
Funds Awarded: $33,689
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of
laser and irradiation energy sources on the
configuration of lignin substrates and to eval-
uate biologic effects of such modification proc-
esses. Process are being developed by which
the lignin polymer can be degraded com-
pletely for use as a carbon source or be
modified by microbial transformations to
yield chemical intermediates of commercial
interests.
APPROACH: Initial studies were concerned
with photolytic effects on microbial fermen-
tation of model compounds of which it is
thought that lignin is composed. The photo-
lytic irradiation interaction with model sub-
strates was conducted with mercury arc photo-
lytic energy. Areas of the ultraviolet, visible,
and near infrared spectrum, were investigated
by the use of appropriate filters. After treat-
ments at various times and temperatures,
analytical procedures were used to detect pos-
sible changes in configuration, linkages, and
sulfur state. After this treatment, enrichments
from soils, sewage, and rotted woods were
used to develop competent cultures, followed
by fermentation and chemical analysis.
In the next phase, a laser unit producing
energy at the wavelength determined opti-
mum in the study with mercury arc lamps
is being used. The laser energy source is
coupled with a fermentation vessel and used
for the study of batch fermentation by specific
organisms, to allow study of the physiologic
aspects of use of photolysis product.
FINDINGS: During this research period, defi-
nite improvement in biological availability of
lignin-sulfonate by use of photooxidative
modification has been shown.
Work with both fungal and bacterial
growth systems in pure cultures indicated that
photolysis during low or high pH conditions,
in comparison with pH 7.0, permits retention
and utilization of a greater portion of lignin-
sulfonate carbon. By use of varied photooxi-
dative conditions, it has been possible to
render residual ligninsulfonate carbon as
much as 60 percent bioutilizable in one proc-
ess step. Without photolytic modification
negligible bioutilization is observed. Maxi-
mum bioutilizability is observed after de-
coloration of the ligninsulfonate solution.
Research of this period has also given in-
formation germane to the present and future
design of lasers to be used in such processes.
Light wavelengths of less than 210 mm are
required, and as little as 0.5 watt of output
power should give the potential for an efficient
single-pass treatment system.
Information on the nature of biologic re-
sponses to photooxidized ligninsulfonates has
also been obtained. Fungi appear to utilize
lower weight polymeric products from earlier
photomodification as well as aromatic lignin
subunits, while bacterial responses appear to
be related primarily to the utilization of
aromatic subunits produced in later stages of
the photooxidation process. Microbial eco-
nomic utilization coefficients with photolyti-
cally produced ligninsulfonate fragments can
be equated to use of conventional carbon
sources at the beginning and end of the photo-
lysis period.
Judged on presently available information,
further applications of this research can be
considered. These biologically improved
ligninsulfonates will be amenable to efficient
degradation in waste treatment plant and
lagoon systems and also will be available for
production of single-cell protein. In addition,
this treatment approach can be applied to
diverse lignin-containing materials and also
to pesticides and chemical wastes. This solid
83
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waste utilization approach can become a ma-
jor factor in creative management of recalci-
trant waste products.
PUBLICATIONS
KLEIN, D. A., J. P. ELDRIDCE, and R. C. ROCKHILL. Photo-
fermentation of recalcitrant molecules: Initial studies
with lignin sulfonate , and lignin model compounds.
Bacteriological Proceedings, 69:16 (A105), 1969, (Abstract.)
KLEIN, D. A. New weapon for anti-pollution arsenal.
Oregon's Agricultural Progress, 16(l):6-7, 1969.
KLEIN, D. A., R. C. ROCKHILL, J. P. ELDRIDGE, and J. E.
PARK. Fungal and bacterial responses to photooxidized
lignin sulfonate substrates. Tappi, 53 (8): 1469-1472, Aug.
1970.
Noncombustive Disposal of Solid Agricultural Wastes
Dr. Ellis F. Darley
Statewide Air Pollution Research Center
University of California
Riverside, California 92502
Grant No. EC 00255-03
Funds Awarded: $216,339
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1967 to July 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To determine the feasibility of
shredding woody wastes and incorporating
them into the soil and to evaluate the re-
sulting effect of this practice on soil-borne
plant pests, soil properties, and eventual plant
growth. Specifically, to determine whether
adding wood chips to the soil in various
orchards increases the inoculum potential of
the root rot fungi Armillaria mellea and
Phytopthora spp. and of the wilt fungus
Verticillium alho-atrum and favors the re-
production of the shot-hole borer, soil struc-
ture alteration, and water penetration.
APPROACH: Mechanical shredding operations
were carried out at several demonstration
plots, the time and costs of these operations
and the effect on soil chemistry being em-
phasized. Laboratory and field experiments
were performed to determine the effect of the
addition of the shredded waste on fungi and
diseases in the vegetation and to investigate
their control by chemicals. Special attention
was given to the effects of climate, differences
in plant species, and the rate of decay of the
shredded material.
FINDINGS: Shredding experiments were es-
tablished in 21 orchards representing the
major fruit crops in central portions of Cali-
fornia. The biological processes evaluated
after incorporation of waste into the soil
require considerable time before changes can
be noted. Only two seasons' wastes have been
chipped and turned into the soil, and no con-
clusive results are yet available. Certain trends
have, however, been noted.
Most of the incorporated waste is found
in the top 4 to 5 in., but occasionally pieces
are found as deep as 8 to 10 in. A few pieces
the size of a man's thumb have been found
to be infested with Armillaria, and the fun-
gus was viable. Although the numbers in-
volved were small, the results indicate that
such pieces can be infested and thus present
a potential threat in increasing rate of spread
of the fungus. No fine chips have ever be-
come infested, either in field trials or in
special experiments where the material was
buried by hand and inoculated with the
fungus. In the latter experiments, Armillaria
easily infested pieces 4 in. long and varying
from yz to 2 in. in diameter.
While laboratory studies have shown that
Phytophthora can infest nonsterile wood chips,
isolations to date from field plots have not
shown any significant change, either an in-
crease or a decrease in the inoculum potential.
A significant preliminary result with Verti-
cillium is that when infected olive branches
were chipped and added to the soil, no con-
tamination of the soil occurred.
One aim of the insect studies was to pre-
84
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vent the generation 'of orchard wastes, as
would be the case when borers attack healthy
tree branches. Preliminary work has shown
that latex paint applied to branches prevents
the insects from laying eggs.
An interesting observation has been made
on soils contained in large cylinders, some of
which have received shredded wastes. Follow-
ing heavy rains, soils without chips had water
standing on the surface for at least 24 hr.
No water was standing on treated soils. In
other experiments, differences in water re-
lease properties and hydraulic conductivity
indicate that a change in irrigation practice
may be needed to manage properly fields
treated with wood waste additions.
Photosynthetic Reclamation of Agricultural Solid and Liquid Wastes
Dr. William J. Oswald
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory
University of California—Berkeley
Berkeley, California 94720
Grant No.: EC 00272-03
Funds Awarded: $93,838
Project Period: June 1, 1967 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To study the application of an
integrated system involving an anaerobic di-
gestion phase and an algae production phase
to the disposal of agricultural wastes, espe-
cially animal manures, and to the reclamation
of the plant nutrients and water contained
in the waste.
APPROACH: A plant consisting of a digester,
algae pond, equipment for harvesting algae,
and necessary ancillary equipment was assem-
bled at the University of California, Rich-
mond Field Station. Animal wastes were fed
to a 150-gal concrete anaerobic digester and
fermented. The effects of solids content, pH
of the waste, temperature, detention period,
loading, and method of operation on the di-
gestion process were determined with animal
wastes. Wastes were characterized not only
on the basis of origin but also on that of
C/N ratio, nitrogen content, pH, and total
and volatile solids content. The digester was
operated both as a batch process and as a
continuous process to determine digestion
efficiencies under both conditions. Digester
performance was judged on the basis of gas
production, extent of volatile solids destruc-
tion, pH, volatile acid concentration of the
sludge, and the physical characteristics of the
sludge.
The effluent from the digester was fed di-
rectly into a 5,500-gal variable-depth algae
pond. The effects of temperature, detention
time, culture depth, mixing time, type of
waste effluent, and CO2 concentration on algae
growth were determined. The performance of
the pond was evaluated on its overall con-
version efficiency and by its effluent quality
after the algae had been removed. The algae
were harvested by methods proved practical
and economical in previous research, i.e.,
initial concentration, dewatering, and final
drying.
FINDINGS: In choosing a subject for the first
phase of the research project from among
the various solid waste producers in food
production, it was decided to select chickens,
i.e., egg production hens, because of the rel-
ative ease of housing and rearing them, and
equally importantly, because the disposal of
chicken manure constitutes a major problem
not only in California but also in many other
States. Accordingly, the objectives and proce-
dures outlined in the previous section were
directed toward the management of chicken
wastes.
Early in the study, it became apparent that
to ensure a reliable and uniform source of
manure for experimentation, it would be
necessary to install a colony of egg layers at
the site of the study. Therefore, a 14- by 14-ft
poultry enclosure was designed and con-
structed and was stocked with 113 20-week-
85
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old white leghorn pullets caged in batteries,
each of which held four hens (0.45 sq ft/hen).
A Fiberglas-coated trough was placed below
each row of batteries to catch the chicken
excreta. Once each hour a tipping bucket
(8.3-gal capacity) mounted at the end of each
of the troughs discharged its contents (water
from the algae pond) into the trough to flush
the excreta down the trough and into a sedi-
mentation tank. It was important that the
wet weight of manure solids in the slurry
discharge into the sedimentation tank be less
than 3 percent of the slurry weight (manure
plus water). At this or smaller concentrations,
more than 70 percent of the solids settle out
of suspension in less than 15 minutes. A sub-
merged sump pump moved the supernatant
from the sedimentation tank to the algae
pond, and a slude pump moved the settled
solids to an anaerobic digester. Supernatant
from the digester was discharged into the
algae pond, while the digested sludge periodi-
cally was wasted to the environment. Pond
culture either was recycled directly to the
tipping buckets or was first processed for
algae removal and then discharged into the
tipping buckets. Provision was made for dis-
charging the overflow when necessary. Tap-
water served as drinking water for the hens.
The overflow from the drinking water troughs
was discharged into the manure troughs and
thereby served the dual purpose of keeping
the troughs moist and of constituting makeup
water. During the winter months, when algal
growth was negligible, a sump pump with
an above-the-surface discharge served as an
aerator to keep the pond aerobic and thereby
prevent the development of odor nuisances.
At the time of this writing, the indicated
required pond area per bird was 2 sq ft. With
the pond depth at 12 in. or less, and water
being allowed for in the digester, sedimenta-
tion tank, and tipping buckets, the water
needed to establish the overall system would
be about 15 gal/hen. The amount of water
needed to maintain the system, once it was
established, would be a function of evapora-
tion plus spillage minus overflow from the
drinking water troughs.
At an average detention time of 23 days,
gas production was about 12 cu ft/lb volatile
solids introduced. Although low at first, the
methane content of the gas steadily increased
until at the time of this writing it constituted
from 50 to 60 percent of the gas. Overall
volatile solids destruction was about 55 per-
cent. Of the total solids input, approximately
70 percent was converted to digester gas.
Only a fraction of the algae growing in the
pond was harvested. Harvesting was done by
"natural" settling and by centrifugation. The
potential algal yield in the pond was equiva-
lent to 30 to 40 tons (dry wt) of algae/acre-
year. Overall photosynthetic conversion of
visible light energy to algal cellular material
ranged from 0.64 to 2.8 percent.
An analysis of the integrated system indi-
cated that biological activity in the sedimen-
tation tank, digester, and algae pond decreased
the total solids by 60 percent; the volatile
solids by 62 percent; the total unoxidized
nitrogen by 45 percent; and the energy input
(exclusive of light) by 56 percent.
An economic evaluation based on an inte-
grated system of 100,000 egg layers and the
application of the low loadings and the high
cost and overdesigned components used in
the research indicated that the waste-handling
costs of the system would be at the most 2
cents per dozen eggs. If the value of the algal
crop were credited to the operation, the net
waste-handling cost would be 1 cent or less
per dozen eggs.
PUBLICATIONS
GOLUEKE, C. G., and S. A. KLEIN. Treating combined
liquid and solid wastes. Presented at 1968 Conference of
California Water Pollution Control Association, Santa
Rosa, April 24-25, 1968. 15 p.
ICHIKAWA, K., C. G. GOLUEKE, and W. J. OSWALD. Bio-
treatment of Steffen House waste. Journal of the Amer-
ican Society of Sugar Beet Technologists, 15(2):125-150,
July 1968.
DUCAN, G. L., C. G. GOLUEKE, and W. J. OSWALD. Photo-
synthetic reclamation of agricultural solid and liquid
wastes. Presented at Engineering Foundation Research
Conference, Solid Waste Research and Development, II,
Beaver Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. Conference Pre-
print No. E—1.
DUCAN, G. L., C. G. GOLUEKE, and W. J. OSWALD. Photo-
synthetic reclamation of agricultural solid and liquid
wastes. Presented at 42nd Annual Conference, Water Pol-
lution Control Federation, Dallas, Oct 5-10, 1969. 13 p.
GOLUEKE, C. G. Chemical and microbial characteristics of
in ban solid wastes. [Presented at Annual Meeting, Amer-
ican Society for Microbiology, Miami Beach, May 4-9,
1969.] 17 p.
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Poultry Offal Silage as a Feed Ingredient
Dr. Charles H. Hill
Department of Poultry Science
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
Grant No. EC 00269-02
Funds Awarded: $32,991
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To develop a method of pro-
ducing and using silage from poultry offal
(slaughtering wastes including intestines and
contents, the feet, and the head) as a feed for
chickens.
APPROACH: Poultry offal silage is presently
prepared by mixing ground offal with a source
of carbohydrate, usually corn meal, and water
and letting it sit for 1 week. No specific at-
tention is paid to the kinds of organisms
present. This research effort investigated the
possibility of improving the nutritive value
of the silage. One approach was to investigate
the effect of various carbohydrate sources and
the resulting predominance of particular or-
ganisms that utilize them. When a particular
organism was found to be well suited to the
production of a good silage, that organism
was isolated, developed, and inoculated into
a sterilized mixture before fermentation to
determine if uniformly superior silage could
be produced from a nutritive standpoint.
The criterion of nutritive quality was the
performance of the silage in feeding experi-
ments. A standard soybean meal-corn ration
enriched with all the known required vita-
mins and minerals was added to this ration
at the expense of corn, since the silage and
corn have approximately the same protein
content. Attention was paid to keeping the
energy levels of both diets equal by adding
fats to the basic diet to offset the extra fat
contained in the silage. Chicks were fed
both diets from the day of hatching, and
the growth rates of the chicks were used as
an evaluation of nutritive quality. As prepara-
tions of the silage were made, samples were
taken, and the value as a feed ingredient was
assessed from its content of known nutrients.
FINDINGS: When poultry offal silage is used
as a part of the corn-soybean meal basal, a
growth response of 5 to 10 percent has been
obtained. Supplementing the diet with anti-
biotics, zinc, and molybdenum or increasing
the known vitamin levels do not increase
chick growth under these conditions. In a field
trial with chicks raised under practical con-
ditions a growth response of 6.8 percent was
obtained. The chicks were raised to market
weights at 8 weeks of age. The growth stimu-
lant is water soluble, but efforts to extract it
with organic solvents have been unsuccessful.
It is stable to autoclaving at 15 Ib pressure
for 30 min.
Radiolytic Hydrolysis of Cellulose
Dr. James L. Kelly
Nuclear Engineering Department
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia 22901
Grant No. EC-00362-01AI
Funds Awarded: $25,707
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1970 to Jan. 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of
gamma radiation on the hydrolytic conversion
of cellulose to fermentable sugars. To deter-
mine the feasibility of using radioactive wastes
87
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as intense gamma radiation sources for large-
scale irradiations of cellulosic materials.
APPROACH: Initially a gamma radiation
chamber will be designed and constructed to
facilitate the study of irradiation hydrolysis.
The effects of irradiation dose, dose rate,
chemical environment, and temperature on
the hydrolysis of various types of cellulose
to produce fermentable sugars will be deter-
mined. The effects of these parameters on
the rate of decomposition of the fermentable
sugars produced in the hydrolysis reaction
will also be determined. The effect of irradia-
tion on the hydrolysis reaction will also be
determined and related to the time at which
it is applied—before or during the chemical
hydrolysis reaction. As a result of these deter-
minations, conditions for optimum sugar pro-
duction will be denned. The second portion
of this project is related to solving problems
associated with the use of radioactive wastes
as the gamma radiation source. The amounts
and associated activities of the various radio-
isotopes produced as fission products in the
nuclear power industry in years to come will
be estimated. The most practical form of the
gamma radiation source is being determined,
and a facility will be designed in accordance
with Atomic Energy Commission criteria for
the storage and use of these wastes.
FINDINGS: This grant was awarded on Feb.
1, 1970, and findings are not yet available.
Reclamation of Energy from Organic Refuse
Dr. John T. Pfeffer
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Grant No. EC-00364-01
Funds Awarded: $40,390
Project Period: Aug. 1, 1969 to July 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To determine the operating
parameters for the biologic conversion of
organic solid waste to methane by use of
anaerobic digesters. To evaluate the potential
operating problems associated with the pro-
posed process and determine the potential for
energy reclamation.
APPROACH: The effects of operating tem-
peratures, retention times, and solids content
are being determined and related to the
energy yield from the methane fermentation,
the reduction in quantity of organic refuse,
and the characteristics of the residue. Fifteen-
liter plexiglass digesters will be used for the
laboratory study. Digester temperature will
be closely controlled, and mixing will be pro-
vided by mechanical stirrers. Residential
refuse will be used as collected with no sepa-
ration of the noncombustibles, plastics, and
rubber before it is placed in the digester.
Initial runs will be made at 35 C to determine
the solids content in the feed required for
the optimum production of methane. Similar
studies will be conducted at temperatures up
to 60 C.
Control of the digestion process will be
based on the pH, the concentration of vola-
tile acids, and the gas production. Daily gas
production will be measured and the com-
position of the gas determined. The pH will
be maintained in the optimum range of 6.6
to 7.6. No attempt will be made to control the
volatile acids, except during the startup
period, at which time the loading will be
controlled to keep the volatile acid concen-
tration less than 2,000 mg/liter.
Process evaluation will be based on the
efficiency of the conversion of the organic
solids to methane gas and on the energy value
of the resulting gas mixture. Solids balances
will be run on the systems and correlated
with methane production.
88
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FINDINGS: Progress to date has been limited
to constructing the laboratory units, obtain-
ing the shredded domestic refuse from the
BSWM's Center Hill Laboratory, and analyz-
ing the chemical characteristics of this refuse
prior to starting the experimental runs.
Refuse Reclamation by Size Reduction and Separation
Dr. David G. Wilson
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Grant No. EC 00333-01
Funds Awarded: $62,685
Project Period: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To demonstrate the feasibility
of separating refuse into several components
in an automated manner partially through
the use of a vortex classifier mill to effect
both size reduction and coarse separation. A
subsidiary aim is to determine which com-
ponents of refuse may be separated with
maximum benefit-cost ratio.
APPROACH: This project consists of seven
phases of research, some of which run con-
currently. The first phase, which runs for
the 2 years of the project, will investigate a
vortex classifier and its ability to provide
partial size reduction and coarse classification
of refuse components. During the second
phase, salvageable refuse components will be
identified and listed with present typical
gross salvage values. The various refuse com-
ponents' properties will be identified during
the next phase of the project. Among these
are density or specific weight, thermal con-
ductivity, radiation emissivity, dielectric con-
stant, paramagnetism, gamma-ray absorption,
and drag coefficient. A search will be con-
ducted to find the minimum number of
sensors that positively identify all the com-
ponents of refuse listed in phase two. A
preliminary design of a hypothetical separa-
tion system will be made in phase four.
The plant will be designed to pass the
refuse through a series of sensors and pro-
vide a means of removing the refuse com-
ponents into various categories. During phase
five a cost benefit analysis of various systems
designed to remove different refuse compo-
nents is being made.
Phases six and seven deal with the design
and construction of a 75 ton/day pilot plant
to accommodate virtually all the types of trash
currently found in municipal refuse. These
phases are not part of the currently funded
effort. It is envisioned that a maximum num-
ber of categories of refuse will be separated
in the pilot plant so that each sensor and
removal device can be evaluated.
FINDINGS:
1. The vortex device does not seem to be
of much value as a pulverizer of general mixed
refuse. It does seem to work well with brittle
materials, e.g., glass, or with paper or tex-
tiles. We believe from our model tests that
its value will be greater as a classifier, and
we are designing a test rig to investigate the
flow patterns of the air and the particles
(modeling these as the flow of dense particles
in water) so that we may later design a half-
or full-scale classifier.
2. We believe that we have two promising
approaches to mechanized sorting. One is the
method suggested in our proposal, whereby
shredded refuse would be scanned by a series
of sensors and a decision would be made on
the basis of the readings obtained about which
of several categories the material would be
switched to. We have found that microwave
and infrared sensing shows promise, and we
are investigating further. The second method
is applied to unshredded single items of refuse,
e.g., a bottle, or a newspaper, or a can. A
signature is obtained from a sensor that reads
a mix of properties and characteristics. We
89
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have found that the readings from an acceler-
ometer attached to a ball dropped onto each
item gives enough information to permit cod-
ing of most useful and nonuseful items. We
are pursuing this line of approach vigorously.
3. We have made a preliminary economic
analysis, which seems to indicate that a rec-
lamation plant should be a favorable al-
ternative to an incinerator when the alterna-
tive costs of disposal are high, e.g., $10. This
figure will come down when mechanized sort-
ing is available and will come down more
when governmental action prevents wild fluc-
tuations in the price of secondary materials.
Single-Cell Proteins from Cellulosic Wastes
Dr. Clayton D. Callihan
Department of Chemical Engineering
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
Grant No. EC 00328-02
Funds Awarded: $190,157
Project Period: Mar. 1, 1969 to Feb. 28, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To isolate and identify cellu-
lose-digesting organisms, to study the growth
of these organisms in the presence of cellu-
lose, and to investigate the optimal conditions
for enzyme production during growth of the
various cellulosic wastes. Once suitable or-
ganisms were isolated, a chemical-microbial
pilot plant was operated to convert various
cellulosic wastes to single-cell proteins. The
nutritional value, digestibility, and toxicity of
the single-cell protein are being determined.
APPROACH: Before the research grant award
an organism was isolated that is capable
of breaking down cellulose. This organism
was used as the model organism for designing
the initial stages of the pilot-plant studies. A
search is being made to isolate other or-
ganisms capable of utilizing cellulose. These
organisms are grown in the presence of sub-
strates prepared from cellulosic wastes such
as bagasse, rice straw, wheat straw, and paper
wastes so that the organisms capable of metab-
olizing the various wastes can be determined.
With use of BSWM contract funds, a con-
tinuous chemical-microbial plant was designed
and constructed for the production of single-
cell protein. The process consists of an initial
size reduction unit, a mixing area where the
cellulosic wastes are pretreated with sodium
hydroxide, an oxidation step whereby the
lignin is deploymerized, a sterilization step,
an acid neutralization step, and finally fermen-
tation. Techniques for refining and processing
the cell yield are being developed and de-
signed with the necessary amount of flexibility
to ensure optimum conditions.
The untreated whole cells, disrupted cells,
and various protein fractions derived from the
cell are evaluated both chemically and bio-
logically. Chemically, the nitrogen content,
protein content, amino acid composition,
lipid composition, and vitamin and mineral
content of the cells are determined. A study
with rats is determining the toxicity, digesti-
bility, and nutritional value of the harvested
cells.
The chemical-microbial pilot plant has
been constructed and is being operated at
NASA's Mississippi Test Facility.
FINDINGS: A cellulose-decomposing aerobic
and mesophilic bacterium has been isolated
from the soil of a sugar cane field and identi-
fied as a member of the genus Cellulomonas.
This bacterium produces the cellulase en-
zymes that cause subsequent hydrolysis of the
cellulose to simple sugars. These hydrolytic
products then serve as the substrate for micro-
bial growth. The microbial cells are harvested
for their protein, and this product is usually
referred to as single-cell proteins. The enzy-
matic hydrolysis of cellulose is not new. E. T.
Reese and R. G. H. Siu, as well as others,
90
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have studied fungal cellulases extensively,
but the growth rates of fungi are many orders
of magnitude slower than those of bacteria
and furthermore, the amount of protein is
considerably less in fungal products. Since
production costs vary directly with growth
rates this would indicate that the use of bac-
teria to dispose of cellulosic wastes may be a
more practical approach.
When bagasse, the residue from sugar cane
after the sugar is extracted, is used as the
sole carbon source for the growth of Cellu-
lomonas, a yield of 20 Ib of cell product is
obtained for each 100 Ib of feed. About 50
percent of the bagasse is cellulose. Approxi-
mately 75 to 80 percent of this cellulose is
solubilized by the microorganisms. Of this
37.5 to 40 Ib of cellulose consumed from the
initial 100 Ib, about 50 percent is used to
satisfy the metabolic requirements of the liv-
ing cells. The remainder is converted to cell
mass.
The harvested cells are about 50 percent
protein, and the amino acid analysis shows
that this protein is high in lysine and other
essential amino acids that are usually deficient
in vegetable proteins. A comparison of the
amino acid pattern of Cellulomonas with the
ideal amino acid profile recommended by
FAO shows that our product compares quite
favorably.
Feeding studies on male weanling rats have
shown that the limiting amino acid in our
cells is 1-methionine. When the rats were fed
ad libitum or an otherwise adequate but pro-
tein-free diet or the same basal diet contain-
ing various amounts of these intact cells, they
showed definite weight gains above the 20
percent level of supplementation. Rats fed
with cells enriched with 0.5 percent 1-methi-
onine showed improved growth rates. Rats
fed for several weeks at the 70 percent cell
level showed none of the toxic responses
normally associated with high nucleic acid
levels. Prehydrolysis of the cell walls or cell
wall rupture by homogenization improved the
overall digestibility of the protein product.
Other feeding studies on rats, chicks, swine,
and cattle are now underway.
The economic feasibility of producing pro-
teins from the cellulosic portion of urban
solid waste depends to a large extent on the
growth rate of the microorganisms. To im-
prove this aspect of the problem, a study is
underway on methods of improving the kine-
tics of cell growth. Initial results of this study
have shown what was known all along, that
very few natural processes occur rapidly with
a single pure organism but instead proceed
by using several organisms, each with a func-
tion that hastens the overall process.
In this work it was found that the rate of
cell production was being limited by a build-
up of cellobiose in the menstrum. This was
apparently giving feedback inhibition or allo-
steric inhibition as it is sometimes called. A
second organism was then found that was
quite specific for ft glucosidase. This bacter-
ium, genus Alcaligenes and species Faecalis,
was grown symbiotically with Cellulomonas.
The end result has been a nearly five-fold
increase in growth rates. Surprisingly, the Al-
caligenes does not propagate itself to a large
extent and is found to represent only about
7 to 8 percent of the final cell mass.
A chemical microbial pilot plant was de-
signed and built to produce proteins by this
technique and to check our laboratory find-
ings on a larger scale. Considerable operating
information is being obtained from this unit.
The large unit was built at NASA's Missis-
sippi Test Facility. Since the facility is large,
we can check out much more precisely the
important economic aspects of our process.
Several difficulties have been observed that
were not apparent in laboratory research.
One of the most difficult problems en-
countered in the pilot plant has been the
metering of dry solids into the continuous
system. Very precise metering is necessary to
obtain careful material balances that will
help determine the economics of the process.
Difficulty has also been encountered in the
large unit, cell concentrations being much
smaller than expected. We are obtaining only
about 1 g of dry cells per liter of effluent
from the fermenter. This is considerably less
than the design concentration of 6 to 7 g/
liter.
A careful analysis of the cause of the small
cell concentrations has led us to believe that
the Ci enzymes are induced and not con-
stitutive as originally presumed. If one ex-
amines the growth curves of Cellulomonas,
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they show a distinct log phase of cell growth
that does not reach a completely stationary
phase as most cells do but instead gradually
increases with time.
During the initial alkali pretreatment of
waste cellulose, about 20 percent of the
original cellulose is solubilized. We have in-
terpreted this information to mean that the
cells are feeding on this product during the
log phase of cell growth and that only after
most of the soluble carbohydrates have been
consumed do the Ci and Cx enzymes become
very active. The gradual increase of cell
growth during the stationary phase is the
result of the gradual induction of the com-
plete enzyme system.
We have finally concluded that the best
way to induce fully the Ci and Cx enzyme
system in a continous process is to go to a
two-stage fermentation. In this system all the
soluble carbohydrates should be consumed in
the first fermenter, and the second fermenter
should then contain a well-developed cellulase
system of enzymes that should lead to utiliza-
tion of the remainder of the cellulose.
An economic analysis has been projected
based on a plant, to produce 100 tons of
protein product per year for recycle through
animals. This analysis shows that the product
cost should be competitive with soy bean pro-
tein if the cell concentration can be increased
to 6 to 7 g/liter and if the two-stage fer-
mentation gives the anticipated growth rates.
PUBLICATIONS
HAN, Y. W., and V. R. SRINIVASIN. Isolation and charac-
terization of a cellulose-utilizing bacterium. Applied
Microbiology, 16(8):1140-1145, Aug. 1968.
CALLIHAN, C, D., and C. E. DUNLAP. The economics of
microbial proteins produced from cellulosic wastes. Com-
post Science, 10(l-2):6-12, Spring-Summer 1969.
DUNLAI", C. E., and C. D. CALLIHAN. Fermentative utiliza-
tion of sugar cane bagasse. Unpublished data, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge. [Presented at Meeting,
American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, June 5,
1969.]
HAN, Y. W., H. A. SHUYTEN, JR., and C. D. CALLIHAN.
The combined effect of heat and alkali for sterilizing bac-
terial spore in sugar cane bagasse. Presented at South
Central Branch Meeting, American Society for Micro-
biology, New Orleans, Nov. 21-22, 1969. [24 p.]
HAN, Y. W., and V. R. SRINIVASIN. Purification and char-
acterization of Beta-glucosidase of Alcaligenes faecalis.
Journal of Bacteriology, 100(3):1355-1363, 1969.
Studies on Modifications of Solid Industrial Wastes
Dr. Cornelius S. Grove Jr.
Civil Engineering Department
Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York 13210
Grant No. EC 00257-02
Funds Awarded: $157,518
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1969 to Jan. 31, 197T
OBJECTIVES: To determine the physical and
chemical properties of major process chemical
industries' solid wastes and to study modifica-
tions of these properties that will permit re-
habilitation and beautification of the pres-
ently barren land areas covered by deposition
of these wastes.
APPROACH: To meet the objectives the fol-
lowing coordinated program is being carried
out: (1) Collect and collate the available in-
formation on the physical and chemical prop-
erties of various solid industrial wastes from
chemical process industries to determine com-
mon characteristics and variants; choose a
typical solid industrial waste for analysis and
classification of the physical and chemical con-
stituents and determine their consistency. (2)
Study methods and rates of infiltration, per-
colation, and leaching, under simulated nat-
ural conditions, for removal of chemical con-
stituents known to be harmful to desirable
vegetation. (3) Investigate modifications of
solid industrial wastes by mechanical manip-
ulation and by chemical treatments to alter
the "soil" properties so that desirable vegeta-
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tion can be grown; tes,t optimal modifications
in small "flats" in the laboratory and in small
plots in situ.
FINDINGS: Evaluation and summarization of
the accumulated data have shown the exceed-
ingly broad scope of the solid wastes problem.
It has been demonstrated that personal solici-
tation through letters and interviews is very
frequently necessary to obtain adequate re-
sponse, not only from individual industries,
but also from national organizations. Signifi-
cant data reinforce conclusions that the scope
of the total solid waste problem in quantity is
7 to 10 times the quantity of municipal solid
wastes (frequently quoted as 2 to 1) and that
the varied quality of solid wastes necessitates
a multifold approach to handling and dis-
posal methods. Too little attention is cur-
rently being paid to reclamation values and
reuse possibilities of many varieties of solid
wastes.
The specific solid waste chosen for initial
experimentation arises from Solvay process
productions of soda ash (sodium carbonate)
utilizing raw materials of limestone and salt.
In various localities, large areas of land have
been used for deposition of the solid wastes
from this chemical process. Removal of solu-
ble salts is slow (many years—20 to 100); re-
habilitation is inhibited by the salt content's
preventing growth of suitable cover vegeta-
tion and by the lack of suitable load-bearing
characteristics, which causes settling of struc-
tures, noticeable even under reinforced high-
ways. The major conclusions from present
experimental studies are as follows: (1) Leach-
ing of the soluble salts is feasible but slow,
even if the necessary subsurface drainage sys-
tem is provided. (2) Vegetation will develop
in top soil placed over the waste bed material
if proper drainage is maintained so that leach-
ing continues to overcome capillarity.
Research studies are being continued on
this waste, and definitive investigations on the
chemical and biochemical reactions leading to
the so-called coal mine drainage and the
leaching of synthetic fertilizing elements from
farm lands are being initiated.
PUBLICATIONS
GROVE, C. S., JR., M. L. KESTNER, and N. L. NEMEROVV.
Rehabilitation of solid industrial wastes disposal sites.
Presented at 24th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Con-
ference, Puidue University, Lafayette, May 6-8, 1969. 28 p.
Thermophilic Aerobic Process for Waste Treatment
Dr. John F. Andrews
Environmental Systems Engineering
Department
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29631
Grant No. EC 00268-03
Funds Awarded: $89,738
Project Period: Aug. 1, 1967 to July 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To study the application of a
thermophilic aerobic-digestion process lead-
ing to the treatment of organic wastes, par-
ticularly ground solid wastes containing 3 to
5 percent garbage solids and primary and
waste-activated sewage treatment sludges. To
develop a theoretical mathematical model for
the process that expresses temperature of the
reactor and concentration of the effluent sub-
strate as a function of the concentration, de-
tention time, and oxygen supply rate of the
input substrate.
APPROACH: Ten-liter continuous-flow reac-
tors with provisions for mixing, flow varia-
tion, air injection, pH determination, and
effluent measurement were used. The effects
of temperature and detention time were
studied. The reactor effluent was studied by
analysis for substrate, cell mass, and carbon-
hydrogen-nitrogen content of the washed cells;
by photomicrograpy of the cells; and by anal-
ysis for COD, effluent gas composition, and
dissolved oxygen as close to steady-state con-
ditions as possible. The last phase of this
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project determined the effect of rapid changes
in the reaction mixture temperature on the
process.
A mathematical model for the process that
expresses production of the effluent substrate
as a function of concentration, detention time,
and oxygen supply rate of the substrate was
developed, initially from theoretical knowl-
edge and, as research progressed, from experi-
mental results. Computer simulation studies
were made to guide model development and
experimental planning and to indicate the
direction of future pilot-plant research.
FINDINGS: Computer simulation studies in-
dicate that the process would be feasible for
the treatment of mixtures of organic solid
wastes and primary and waste-activated
sludges. Sufficient heat would be generated
internally in the process to make it self-
sustaining at temperatures of 100 to 130 F.
The process would have the advantage over
other biologic processes of increased reaction
rates and increased destruction of organic
solids.
The parameters for use in the model have
been determined experimentally for simple
substrates. The experimental results prove
that the advantages claimed are true for sim-
ple substrates. Preliminary results from exper-
iments and modeling efforts to determine the
effect of rapid changes in reaction mixture
temperature on the process indicate the vari-
ables (airflow rate and solids content) that
have the greatest influence on reaction mix-
ture temperature and that should, therefore,
be controlled during process operation.
The process is now ready for field studies at
a pilot scale with a mixture of garbage and
domestic sewage sludge.
PUBLICATIONS
KAMBHU, K., and J. F. ANDREWS. Aerobic thermophilic
process for the biological treatment of wastes—simulation
studies. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federa-
tion, 41 (5, pt. 2, Research Supplement):R127-R141, May
1960.
KAMBHU, K., and J. F. ANDREWS. Mathematical model for
mixed cultures of thermophilic micro-organisms. Presented
at 62nd Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, Washington, Nov. 16-20, 1969.
Use of Domestic Waste Glass for Urban Paving
Dr. Ward R. Malisch
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Missouri—Rolla
Columbia, Missouri 65201
Grant No. EC 00329-01
Funds Awarded: $32,653
Project Period: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To establish that waste glass
can be used as an aggregate in bituminous
mixtures for street maintenance and to illus-
trate this potential use as a method of solving
urban glass waste disposal problems. To ac-
quire engineering data on bituminous-glass
mixtures with respect to suitable gradation
ranges for the glass aggregate, proper grade
and type of asphalt to be used, and the range
of asphalt contents satisfying stability, dura-
bility, and workability requirements.
APPROACH: The first of the two project
phases consists of laboratory studies to deter-
mine the properties of the glass aggregate and
bituminous materials that produce suitable
paving mixtures. The mixtures investigated
include aggregates consisting entirely of glass
as well as combinations of conventional min-
eral aggregates and glass. Also included in
this phase is an investigation of the degrada-
tion occurring during compaction of bitumi-
nous mixtures containing the glass aggregates.
Investgation of the type and grade of bi-
tuminous material to be used centers upon
adhesion or stripping tests and qualitative
evaluation of the mixture's workability. The
effect of variations in glass composition upon
adhesion is being studied. Specimens are
fabricated at several asphalt contents and
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tested for stability, flow, compression strength,
void ratio, and stripping resistance.
Phase two of the study will be a field test-
ing program in which large batches of the
bituminous-glass mixture will be mixed and
placed in patches or overlays by the city of
Rolla, Missouri. Observation during this phase
may suggest modifications in the normal plac-
ing and compacting procedures that would
facilitate placing the bituminous-glass mix-
ture. Various tests will be conducted to com-
pare the glass-containing asphalt with other
types of asphalt mixtures.
FINDINGS: Bituminous mixtures satisfying
Marshall design criteria recommended by the
Asphalt Institute can be designed by use
of penetration-grade asphalts and aggregates
composed entirely of crushed glass.
Although some degradation of the glass
aggregate does occur under laboratory mix-
ing, compacting, and testing conditions, it is
not considered to be severe enough to affect
pavement performance.
Severe stripping occurs when a bituminous
concrete using dense graded glass aggregates
and asphalt cement is subjected to a standard
laboratory water immersion procedure. By
the addition of commercial antistripping
agents, this stripping is appreciably reduced.
Using Wastes Formed in Vegetable and Cheese Production
Dr. Amihud Kramer
Department of Horticulture
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742
Grant No. EC 00256-03
Funds Awarded: $142,126
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1967 to June 30, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To study the chemical, nutri-
tional, and microbiological composition of
waste materials occurring during the manu-
facture of processed fruits, cheeses, and vege-
tables. To investigate the possibility of using
these waste products as food or feed for man,
farm animals, plants, or soils.
APPROACH: During the first year of the
study, the composition of various tomato
wastes was determined in the fresh stage as
well as in various stages of silage fermenta-
tion alone, under varying moisture condi-
tions, and mixed with an equal amount of
corn cobs. Ensiling consisted of placing the
material in a heavy-duty polyethylene bag
and sealing the bag to promote anaerobic
fermentation. At various times during the
ensiling process samples were analyzed for
nitrate, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, mag-
nesium, copper, zinc, and manganese content.
The presence of selected vitamins and organic
acids was also determined. During the second
year, various tomato wastes were placed in
10-ft-high by 6-ft-diameter silos, and after ap-
propriate ensiling times, feeding studies were
conducted on sheep to determine the poten-
tial of feeding tomato wastes to ruminants.
When problems were encountered with the
palatability of tomato waste products, studies
were conducted to determine the effect of mix-
ing tomato wastes with other plant materials
to make them more palatable to ruminants.
During the second and third years of the
study fresh, fermented, dried, and fermented-
dried wastes were also fed to poultry. The
fresh wastes were also applied to different
soil types. Depending on the analytical-chemi-
cal determinations, nutrients or other sub-
stances found in quantity were extracted by
various methods.
Cottage cheese and cheddar cheese wheys
were studied, and their applicability as human
foods was determined. The wheys were con-
centrated to various solids concentrations by
different drying methods. The concentrated
wheys were then evaluated for nutritional
value, and feeding studies of selected whey
concentrations were made on chicks and rats.
In the second and third years of the study
95
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attempts were made to use wheys collected and
treated by different methods as components
of new or modified foods.
FINDINGS: Chemical analyses revealed that
tomato wastes, although high in moisture,
contain a good proportion of protein. An
alkaloid, tomatin, was found in quantities
up to 1/2 percent dry-weight basis in leaves
to practically zero in the fully ripe tomatoes.
The vines and stems were also high, par-
ticularly in SiC>2 with a protein content of
12 to 16 percent dry-weight basis. The ripe
fruit waste, on the other hand, contained
practically no SiO2 and had 20 to 22 percent
protein dry-weight basis.
Feeding studies with ruminants indicated
that ensiled vines and stems are acceptable
to sheep provided they are compressed so
that anaerobic lactic fermentation develops.
Corn cobs and molasses made the silage even
more palatable. There was little problem
with feeding ripe fruit wastes directly to
sheep. The value of these wastes as feed was
proportional to their protein content, being
better than corn but not equal to alfalfa.
Dried tomato waste could be fed to poultry
up to 25 percent of their total feed intake
without reducing egg production. When green
tomato wastes were fed at higher levels there
was a decrease in the cholesterol level of the
egg yolk. At this level, however, total egg
production was decreased.
A process for totally using tomato cannery
waste was developed whereby the waste was
compressed, and the pr'esscake containing
two-thirds of the solids, 10 percent protein,
could be used as cattle feed, and one-third
of the solids, 60 percent protein, was pre-
cipitated as a tomato protein concentrate.
This concentrate can be extracted with ace-
tone to form an 85 percent protein isolate
plus a tomato flavor and pigment residue.
This tomato protein concentrate has unusu-
ally good functional properties and a protein
efficiency ratio superior to that of soy.
Application of the wastes to soils indicated
that ripe tomato fruit waste had a temporary
phytotoxic effect. Green tomato waste could
be added directly with little or no phyto-
toxicity.
The cheese wheys contain approximately
1 percent protein, and this causes problems
when the whey is used as a component or an
ingredient in processed foods. It was found
that the protein of the whey could be stabi-
lized by high-temperature, short-time heating.
Whey thus prepared could be used success-
fully as a milk replacement at levels of 25 to
50 percent in the manufacture of sherbet,
ice cream, or pudding. It may be mixed with
tomato or other fruit juices as a "fully nutri-
tious drink." When it was fermented with
the appropriate microorganisms, acceptable
vinegar, beer, and wine were produced.
PUBLICATIONS
BEN-GERA, I., and A. KRAMER. The utilization of food
industries wastes. Advances in Food Research, 17:77-152,
1969.
Utilization of Bark Waste
Prof. Raymond A. Currier
Forest Research Laboratory
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
Grant No. EC 00276-02
Funds Awarded: $132,906
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To implement a program in
which chemical and physical sciences are co-
ordinated to promote economic use of waste
bark and thus decrease environmental pollu-
tion caused by present practices. The for-
mation of pellets from waste bark was studied
as a model system for the preparation of
other molded products such as particle boards
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and cups. To obtain a detailed chemical de-
scription of bark for carbohydrates, poly-
phenolic polymers, phlobaphenes, tannins,
and "bark lignin."
APPROACH: The preparation of pellets from
bark was investigated in a series of experi-
ments controlling species of bark, moisture
content, particle size, and hardness of pellet
formation. Information obtained from pellet-
ing bark was used to prepare molded or ex-
truded products from bark or bark and plas-
tics combined. Samples of waste bark in vari-
ous comminuted forms were prepared for
experimental use by companies in the forest
products, adhesives, or plastics field, or other
public agencies.
Chemical composition was determined on
natural bark, bark that had been ammoniated
to contain 4 percent nitrogen, and bark that
had been broken down into smaller particles
and molded into pellets. By means of column,
thin layer, and gas chromatography, natural
bark was analyzed for wax, low-molecular-
weight phenolics, and polymeric phenolics in
"extractive-free" bark groups. The "extrac-
tive-free" bark groups are obtained by se-
quentially extracting bark with hexane, ben-
zene, ethyl ether, ethyl alcohol, and hot water.
An attempt was made to isolate and char-
acterize lignin and cellulose fractions from
the "extractive-free" bark group. Conven-
tional methods were used to characterize new
compounds and polymers where possible.
FINDINGS: Physical utilization.
1. Pelleting trials have been conducted on
15 different species of bark, or mixtures of
bark and woody residues. Other variables
have included bark moisture content, bark
particle size, pellet diameter, and degree of
pellet densification. Most species of bark pel-
let easily, but significant problems have been
discovered with a few species. The densifica-
tion factor during pelleting is 2.5 to 3.0; this
offers a practical application in transporting
bark wastes.
2. Molding of bark has been investigated
in several ways: (a) Planter blocks compres-
sion molded or extruded from bark contain-
ing fertilizer and fungicides were used to
grow tomatoes and pansies from seed, and
then the blocks plus plants were field planted
with success, (b} Another investigation in-
volved a three-way cooperative study with
industry. The Forest Research Laboratory
prepared dry comminuted bark, and a lumber
company provided the raw bark and financed
experimental time on molding machines at a
plastics producer. Several types of extruded,
sheet-formed, and injection-molded products
have been produced, with bark extension of
the plastic of about 40 to 60 percent. Pre-
liminary economic analyses appear favorably
inclined toward commercial application, (c)
Douglas fir bark has been prepared for a com-
pany interested in extrusion of a fuel log.
Trial runs have indicated a log containing
largely bark can be formed by this particular
process.
3. Samples of bark or bark fractions have
been prepared for several companies inter-
ested in potential use of bark in their prod-
ucts. In particular, one concern is interested
in chemically extracted bark as an extender
for wood adhesives. A cooperative project
with the Agricultural Engineering Depart-
ment of Oregon State University has re-
sulted in exploratory research on use of bark
in a trickling filter system for disposal of
animal wastes.
Chemical utilization. The chemical in-
vestigation of bark has involved the areas of:
(1) hexane solubles, (2) benzene solubles, (3)
bark carbohydrates, and (4) ammoniated bark.
The hexane- and benzene-soluble fractions
are mostly of the "vegetable wax" type, and
the research has concerned the chemical com-
position of these waxes. The bark carbohy-
drate studies have involved isolation proce-
dures. The separation has resulted in frac-
tions containing the polyphenolic polymers,
the phlobaphenes, the tannins, the bark lig-
nins, and finally the insoluble carbohydrates.
The "ammoniated bark" has been prepared
by treatment of natural bark with gaseous
ammonia to a nitrogen content of about 4
percent. For comparison purposes the experi-
mental procedure on this treated bark has
been similar to that on "natural bark."
1. Hexane-soluble wax fraction, (a) Analy-
ses by spectral methods have indicated that
this wax contains two long-chain fatty al-
cohols that may be behenyl (€22) and ligno-
97
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ceryl (C^) esters of ferulic acid. Gas chroma-
tographic methods have been developed to
separate these alcohols for analytical purposes.
(b) Column chromatographic separation of
the whole hexane wax shows two bright yel-
low-green bands that are incompletely re-
solved. After elution from the column, these
bands have been shown by thin-layer chro-
matography to contain at least 10 components.
The main fraction from the thin-layer sepa-
ration has been further resolved into three
components by gas-liquid chromatography.
The major fraction from the gas chromato-
gram was collected and its structure deter-
mined by infrared, ultraviolet, and nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy. (c) Quali-
tative analyses of the alcohol fraction (neutral
fraction) and the acid fraction of the hexane
wax were made by gas-liquid chromatography.
2. Benzene-soluble wax fraction. Separa-
tion of two compounds that appear as yellow
bands on column chromatographic separation
of the entire benzene wax has been accom-
plished. These compounds are highly (and
pleasantly) aromatic. Resolution of this mix-
ture into their pure compounds is under
investigation by both thin-layer chromatog-
raphy and gas-liquid chromatography.
3. Bark carbohydrates, (a) The inner bark
was collected from a standing Douglas-fir tree
135 years old. (b) The inner bark was suc-
cessively extracted with 80/20:: ethanol/
water, 2/1: :benzene/ethanol, hot water, di-
lute ammonium oxalate, and acidified sodium
chlorite, (c) The 80/20: :ethanol/water ex
tract (15.4 percent of the inner bark) con-
tained a trace of free glucose, as shown by
paper chromatography. (d) The 2/l::ben-
zene/ethanol extract (3.0 percent of the
inner bark) contained no free sugars, as tested
by paper chromatography. (e) The water ex-
tract (8.6 percent of the inner bark) con-
tained a trace of free glucose, as shown by
paper chromatography. Preliminary experi-
ments after acid hydrolysis showed glucose
and several amino acids. Color tests also in-
dicated the presence of starch in this fraction.
(/) The ammonium oxalate extract (3.8 per-
cent of the inner bark) contained no free
sugars. After acid hydrolysis the fraction was
shown to contain glucose, arabinose, and
trace amounts of other sugars, (g) The holo-
cellulose (46.2 percent of the inner bark)
resulting from delignification with acidified
sodium chlorite represented the major part
of the carbohydrates of inner bark. Acid hy-
drolysis and paper chromatography showed
glucose, mannose, galactose, arabinose, and
xylose. Elemental tests showed no nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, or halogens.
Future research on the carbohydrates of
Douglas-fir bark will be centered on this im-
portant fraction that makes up 40 to 50 per-
cent of the inner bark. The holocellulose
will be separated into its component polysac-
charides, and their structures and properties
will be determined.
This investigation will allow a close com-
parison between the carbohydrates in Doug-
las-fir bark and those utilized commercially.
Since the inner bark is composed of more than
50 percent carbohydrates (water extract, am-
monium oxalate extract, holocellulose), it is
conceivable that a commercially useful car-
bohydrate will be isolated.
4. Ammoniated bark, (a) Untreated-bark
characterization. A large sample of Douglas-
fir bark was collected and ground to a size
suitable for research investigation. The bark
sample had an overall nitrogen content of
0.46 percent nitrogen. The bark was succes-
sively extracted with hexane (4.6 percent
solubilized), benzene (2.70 percent solubi-
lized), ether (1.81 percent solubilized), 95
percent ethanol (6.38 percent solubilized),
and hot water (2.20 percent solubilized). (b)
A sample of this bark was treated with gase-
ous ammonia under laboratory-controlled
conditions of temperature, moisture content,
flow rate, and pressure. The nitrogen con-
tent of the treated bark was 4.08 percent.
The treated bark was successively extracted
with hexane (4.63 percent solubilized), ben-
zene (2.95 percent solubilized), ether (2.21
percent solubilized), 95 percent ethanol (7.13
percent solubilized), and hot water (7.60
percent solubilized). (c) A sample of the
original untreated bark was ground to pass
a 32-mesh screen. The ground bark was
treated with gaseous ammonia as in "b." The
nitrogen content was 2.34 percent. The
treated bark was successively extracted with
hexane (4.16 percent solubilized), benzene
(3.92 percent solubilized), ether (1.19 per-
98
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cent solubilized), 95 percent ethanol (6.06
percent solubilized), hot water (7.00 percent
solubilized) . (d) Detailed chemical analysis of
the bark and the bark fractions is in progress.
PUBLICATIONS
LEHMANN, W. F. Molding compounds from Douglas-fir
bark. Forest Products Journal, 18(12):47-53, Dec. 1968.
Utilization of Broiler Litter as Animal Feed
Dr. Joseph P. Fontenot
Department of Animal Science
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
Grant No. EC 00034-02
Funds Awarded: $68,668
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To develop a satisfactory steri-
lization method to destroy pathogenic or-
ganisms in poultry litter and thus convert
the litter into a useful product as animal
feed. The sterilized litter is being tested for
nutritive value, palatability, and possible toxi-
cologic effects. The cattle and sheep used for
the feedings are being tested for organoleptic
qualities, wholesomeness of meat, and possi-
ble take-up of drug or pesticide residues.
APPROACH: Different litter sterilization tech-
niques are being examined, such as auto-
claving at 116 C under steam pressure for
30 to 120 min, heating in a forced-draft oven
at 100 and 150 C for 4 to 48 hr, fumigating
with ethylene oxide, sterilizing with beta pro-
piolactone from periods of 30 min to 24 hr
and, finally, piling in deep stacks for 30 to
120 days to encourage normal heating of the
litter. Anaerobic organisms are being counted
by use of PRAS media. Approximately 150
samples are being used to check for sterility.
Litter from sterilization methods proving to
be successful are being analyzed for proxi-
mate components, true protein, uric acid, Ca,
P, NH3, drugs, and pesticides.
Litter is secured from various producing
areas to ensure that representative samples
are being obtained. Short- and long-term feed-
ing experiments are being carried out to
determine if toxic factors are present. For
the short-term experiment, castrated male
sheep are fed rations containing 0, 25, 50,
and 75 percent sterilized litter for 80 days.
The test animals are checked daily for water
intake and urine volume, and urine is ana-
lyzed for protein, sugar, ketone bodies, biliru-
bin, crystals, occult blood, and specific gravity.
Blood is analyzed for urea and NH3, total
red and white cell counts, and differential
white cell count. Rectal temperatures are
recorded daily. At the end of the feeding
period, the sheep are sacrificed, and a de-
tailed necropsy is made, including the prepa-
ration of histologic sections of the kidneys.
For long-term studies, breeding ewes are used.
They are fed dry-lot for 3 years; control and
experimental diets contain 25 and 50 percent
replacement. The ewes are bred once a year
and are frequently examined as in the short-
term experiments.
Nitrogen utilization and energy values are
determined. The palatability of the litter for
cattle and sheep when feedings are on a
free-choice basis is being observed. One group
of cattle and one group of sheep are used
for meat evaluation trials such as carcass
conformation scores, maturity, marbling, final
grade, and organoleptic quality. All trials
are analyzed by accepted statistical procedure.
FINDINGS: It has been found that heating
broiler litter in a forced-draft oven at 150 C
for 4 hr or longer is effective in sterilizing
the litter. None of the other procedures have
been effective.
Autoclaving or treatment with chemical
sterilizing agents has had no consistent effect
on chemical composition of the litter. The
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use of dry heat at 100 or 150 C for 4 to 48
hr resulted in about a 20 percent loss in crude
protein. The protein level of the sterile prod-
uct is still, however, very high, about 32 per-
cent, dry basis, which compares favorably
with the protein level of many commercial
protein supplements for livestock. The pH of
unprocessed litter was found to be about 8.
Acidifying the litter prior to dry heat process-
ing by the addition of dilute hydrochloric or
sulfuric acid to a pH of about 6 resulted in
a nitrogen loss of only about 8 percent.
Considerable variation in chemical com-
position of samples has been obtained from
different areas of Virginia, especially for crude
protein, ash and gross energy, but all sam-
ples have contained substantial nutrient
levels. This variation in nutrient level would
not preclude the use of poultry litter as ani-
mal feed, since certain other feedstuffs on
the market also show considerable variation.
The only pesticide residues detected in the
poultry litter have been low levels of DDT
and its breakdown products. Since DDT had
not been used in any of the broiler houses
from which the samples were obtained, the
residues probably originated from the feed
supplied the birds.
In the 80-day feeding experiment, in which
sheep were fed diets containing up to 75
percent sterilized broiler litter, no gross toxi-
cologic effects were observed. There were no
feed refusals when the ration contained up
to 25 percent litter. Feed intakes were de-
pressed at the higher litter levels, especially
when the ration contained 75 percent litter.
Feeding litter had no consistent effect on
various physiologic parameters such as rectal
temperature; water intake; urine volume;
blood ammonia, blood urea, total red blood
cell numbers, and total and differential white
blood cells; and urinary pH, specific gravity,
glucose, ketones, bilirubin, protein, and oc-
cult blood. At slaughter none of the organs
showed any gross abnormalities. Studies of
histologic sections of brain, lungs, liver,
spleen, and kidney indicated that feeding
high levels of sterile litter for as long as 80
days did hot produce any pathologic effects.
In the long-term experiment with breed-
ing ewes, thus far, feeding up to 50 percent
sterile litter has not produced any deleterious
effects. Lambing of the ewes is essentially
complete and, at this point, it does not appear
that litter feeding has affected performance.
PUBLICATIONS
FONTENOT, J. P., R. E. TUCKER, B. W. HARMON, K. G.
LIBKE, and W. E. C. MOORE. Effects of feeding different
levels o£ broiler litter to sheep. Journal of Animal Science,
30:319, 1970. (Abstract.)
Utilization of Fibrous Wastes as Sources of Nutrients
Dr. James M. Leatherwood
Department of Animal Sciences
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
Grant No. EC 00274-03
Funds Awarded: $80,555
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1968 to Jan. 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To develop a biologic tech-
nique for the conversion of natural cellulosic
wastes to products that can be utilized as
nutrients by animals. Particular emphasis is
given to the optimization of biologic systems
that can effectively degrade cellulosic wastes
and to the evaluation of the degradation
products as a source of animal feed.
APPROACH: Anaerobic bacteria are used as
hydrolytic agents in batch-, semicontinuous-,
and continuous-fermenter systems employing
initially either cotton linters or newspaper
as substrates. The products from the fer-
menters, which include volatile fatty acids,
soluble carbohydrates, residue, bacterial cells,
100
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and protein, are evaluated 'as nutrients for
animals.
Cellulose-utilizing bacteria are isolated
from natural habitats of sewage, rumen, and
soil and from cellulose enrichment cultures.
The effects of pH, temperature, substrate
composition and concentration, and other
environmental factors on the effective level
of cellulolytic activity are determined. The
effects of various agents on the synthesis and
activity of the cellulose-degrading enzymes
produced by the bacteria are being investi-
gated. The development of mutants by means
of chemical mutagens is being investigated
as a method of increasing the effectiveness
of the bacteria.
Apparently, there are controls within the
biologic systems that alter the rate and ex-
tent of cellulose utilization. A better under-
standing of the biochemical mechanism of
cellulose hydrolysis will allow more effective
application in the fermenter system. These
controls and mechanisms are being investi-
gated. The co-inoculation of methanogenic
and proteolytic bacteria along with the cellu-
lolytic bacteria is being tried as a means of in-
creasing the efficiency and rate of degradation.
The nutritional evaluation of the end prod-
ucts of fermentation is based on the response
of animals to diets containing such products.
Rats are used as the test animals in initial
studies. Diets containing the concentrated cul-
ture effluents from the fermentation process
are compared with diets containing the un-
treated cellulosic material and with a posi-
tive control diet containing a carbohydrate
known to be utilized well by the rat. The
nutritive biologic value of the bacterial pro-
tein that is synthesized from inorganic nitro-
gen is being evaluated in similar feeding trials
with rats. When sufficient progress has been
made to permit operations on a larger scale,
the end products will be fed to either sheep
or swine in feeding trials.
FINDINGS: Several cellulolytic strains of
Bulyrivihrio fibrisolvens, Ruminococcus al-
bus, and R. flavcfacieiis were isolated from
the bovine rumen. Two of the new strains
ol R. jltivcfaf iens were compared with known
strains isolated by other investigators at Belts-
ville, Maryland, and Ohio State University.
There were no significant differences in the
ability of the bacteria to degrade cellulose.
There was some similarity among the par-
tially purified hydrolytic enzymes on an im-
munochemical basis.
Cellulolytic enzyme synthesis in several
strains of R. flavejaciens and R. albus was
repressed by moderate levels of cellobiose,
as shown by the decrease in clear-zone for-
mation on cellulose-agar roll tubes. These
experiments demonstrated a natural control
on enzyme production and therefore a limit
on the rate of cellulose degradation. There
was no inhibition of the hydrolytic enzyme
by cellobiose. Attempts to eliminate this re-
pression by means of chemical mutation have
not succeeded. Further studies along this line
are, however, in process since this is one of
the standard techniques used in industrial
microbiology to improve efficiency and yield.
An apparent protein-protein interaction
has been observed in cultures of Rumino-
coccus that results in the formation of an
enzyme complex that degrades cellulose. Two
different components diffuse from different
colony types on cellulose-agar roll tubes to
form a single enzyme complex that degrades
cellulose. A new mechanism for cellulose deg-
radation has been postulated that is based
on the combination of an affinity factor and
a hydrolytic factor to form a complete cellu-
lase that can hydrolyze native cellulose to
cellobiose. The previously held hypothesis on
the mechanism of cellulose degradation re-
quired two separate enzymes for the degrada-
tion of native cellulose. This new mechanism
has been considered in relation to the general
phenomena of resistance, extent, and nature
of cellulose hydrolysis. Experiments are being
conducted to elucidate this new mechanism
further.
Small fermenters (700-ml Kelly infusion
bottles) were used to study parameters of
fermenter operation. Cotton linters were used
as substrate and Ruminococcus albus was
used as the hydrolytic agent in a semicon-
tinuous operation with a cycle every 3 to 5
days. Fermenter effluents were analyzed for
volatile tatty acids, bacterial protein, soluble
101
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carbohydrates, and total organic matter. Gas
analysis from the fermenter showed consider-
able hydrogen production. Methanogenic bac-
teria were added to the system to remove
the hydrogen, a possible inhibitor.
PUBLICATIONS
LEATHERWOOD, J. M. Cellulase complex of Ruminococcus
and a new mechanism for cellulose degradation. In Cel-
lulases and their applications. Washington, American
Chemical Society, 1969. (Advances in Chemistry Series,
95). p. 53-59.
Wood Waste Reuse in Controlled-Release Pesticides
Dr. G. Graham Allan
College of Forest Resources
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington 98105
Grant No. EC 00319-01
Funds Awarded: $37,437
Project Period: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To enhance the effectiveness of
pesticides by chemically bonding certain pes-
ticides to solid waste so that the pesticide is
released slowly over a long period of time by
breakdown of the pesticide-solid waste com-
bination. Pulping wastes and screenings,
lignin, sawdust, and solid wood waste such
as bark are used as the substrates to which
the pesticides are chemically bonded and thus
an inactive solid waste-pesticide combination
is afforded.
APPROACH: A few representative pesticides,
such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
(2,4-D); at 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
(2,4,5-T); and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxybutyric
acid (2,4,5-TB), contain a functional group
that possesses a replaceable hydrogen. A hy-
drolyzable ester-type linkage could be formed
between the hydroxyl group in the wood waste
and the carboxyl group in the pesticide. Re-
lease of the pesticide from the solid waste-
pesticide combination is being studied in soil
under laboratory and field conditions.
FINDINGS: Several methods for the attach-
ment of carboxyl-containing pesticides to
wood wastes are being studied and compared.
A number of pesticide-solid waste combina-
tions have been prepared in amounts suffi-
cient for testing and analyzed for their pesti-
cide content. Greenhouse experiments to
assess the ability of these combinations to con-
trol deciduous growth in the presence of
conifer seedlings are now underway. Another
preliminary series of tests designed to measure
the durability of these solid waste combina-
tions in preventing the germination of weed
seeds has also been initiated.
Solid Waste Disposal and Bird Hazard to Aircraft
Dr. Howard L. Cogswell
Department of Biological Science
California State College, Hayward
Hayward, California 94542
Grant No. EC 00277-02
Funds Awarded: $77,427
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To study the factors emanating
from solid waste disposal by various landfill
methods that have significant influence on
the kind, the degree, and the daily and sea-
102
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sonal timing of hazard .to aircraft through
collision with birds. To survey bird popula-
tions and movements for 1 year at most of the
disposal sites and airports about San Francisco
Bay, with particular attention to flight routes
to and from the disposal sites near major
airports. An intensive analysis is being made
of the number of birds and their regularity
of travel between major disposal sites on
opposite sides of the bay and on either side
of particular airports. A less intensive com-
parison is being made near airports on the
rest of the West Coast, and on the Gulf and
Atlantic Coasts, in order to evaluate applica-
bility of the findings in the San Francisco
Bay area.
APPROACH: From September 1968 through
April 1969, semimonthly surveys of bird popu-
lations were made at the major disposal sites
and at all airports around San Francisco Bay
proper and less frequently at such disposal
site-airport combinations as are available near
San Pablo and Suisun Bays. Monthly sur-
veys were then made from May through
August 1969 at all the disposal sites and
airports, and this schedule of population es-
timates is being largely continued in 1970.
Counts are made by observers in ground ve-
hicles and by a small airplane; this permits
coverage of areas not accessible by car, and
rapid inventory of large areas. Populations
thus surveyed include all birds attracted to
the disposal sites that could potentially fly
through the danger zone near airports going
to and from dumps, but most attention is
given to gulls, which constitute the major
hazard near salt water. Maps of the whole
bay area at the scales of 1:24,000 and 1:62,500
showing detailed habitat features and loca-
tion numerals are used for noting the posi-
tion and numbers of birds and for showing
flight routes.
During the seasons when bird populations
reach a high level, several hundred gulls are
captured at selected disposal sites and marked
with plastic back tags for subsequent identi-
fication. A few are marked and relocated
with small radio telemetry devices.
As the pattern of bird movements to and
from disposal sites and airports in the San
Francisco Bay region becomes apparent, the
principal investigator is expanding the study
by comparing bird habitats and movements
at other disposal sites and major airports else-
where in the country, particularly near the
coasts.
FINDINGS: In the San Francisco Bay region,
where the intensive field work of this study
is concentrated, there were in 1968 and 1969
a total of 7 major airports (4 military, 3
civil) and 13 smaller airfields located within
5 miles of the bay shore or its tributary tidal
channels. In the same belt of mostly low-lying
lands about the bay there were 37 solid waste
disposal sites, 31 of which were found to at-
tract birds in considerable numbers.
From five to seven species of gulls are
attracted regularly to disposal sites in this
region. Of all factors associated with the
disposal operations, the daily cycle of gull
movements creates by far the greatest hazard
to the safety of aircraft operations at the
nearby airports. Starlings, blackbirds of four
species, and in some locations, crows, ravens,
and occasional herons, vultures, or hawks
constitute the remaining species using dis-
posal sites that also contribute to the bird-
strike problem because of their size and/or
habit of long distance flights,- or both.
When on a disposal site, gulls feed almost
entirely in the freshly deposited refuse con-
taining significant amounts of garbage, par-
ticularly closely around the bulldozers. Most
of these gulls do not feed elsewhere than at
the refuse, and so it is thought that the food
supplied by garbage is a significant factor in
supporting the large populations of fall, win-
ter, and spring.
From combined ground and aerial observa-
tions, total numbers of gulls in the vicinity of
the bay south of the San Francisco and Oak-
land-Alameda harbor areas were computed
at about 80,000 in October and 85,000 in
mid-December 1968. Only 53,000 were located
in January, 55,000 in March, and these figures
dwindled to 16,000 by May and 3,600 at the
low point in June 1969 (more than half of
these being in one unit at the southeast end
of the bay). Early returnees from breeding
grounds had increased the total population
again to 25,000 by late July.
In the north bay, censuses of gull popu-
103
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lations were less nearly complete, but fairly
thorough air counts showed 30,000 to 34,000
from early October to mid-February, total
numbers declining to 6,300 by late April,
4,300 by late May, and to less than 2,000 in
mid-June.
Peak numbers arrived at the core area in
various seasons close to 7:30 a.m., at which
time bulldozing of refuse was beginning. De-
parture, hoxvever, took place within about
1 to 2 hours before sunset, or in accordance
with diminishing light, even though disposal
operations had ceased long before. These
flights to roosting and feeding areas would
present a significant hazard to aircraft if
they were across an airport or its approach
and takeoff corridors.
The gull population unit north of the
Hayward area contains three disposal sites,
two of them accommodating a high volume
of garbage daily. The Metropolitan Oakland
International Airport lies between these two
sites, some of the core area activities of gulls
taking place within its boundaries. On roost-
ward flights from the Davis St. site large
numbers of gulls travel nearly due westward
(usually at 100 to 300 feet high) directly
across the jet runway 11-29 or its southeast
approach. These gulls apparently go to roosts
in the middle of or on the western shore of
the bay, but tracing them to their destinations
has not yet been possible. At the peak of
this flight in November 1969, about 4,000
gulls flew within 10 minutes through the air-
space normally used by jet aircraft in the last
mile of final approach to landing (1 mile
from the disposal site). Although this mass
exodus is rather unusual, gulls arriving at
this core area in the early morning and de-
parting in the afternoon commonly showed
densities of 150 to 500 birds per 1,000 ft of
flight "front" per 10 minutes, at distances
of 1 to 2 miles from the disposal site. Peak
hazard times for aircraft close to ground level
at Oakland thus coincide with these flights
of gulls to and from roosts.
In the entire region, gulls fly from one
disposal site to another and to distant reser-
voirs. On such "commutes" large numbers
pass through air traffic patterns at Moffett
and Alameda Naval Air Stations, Palo Alto,
Oakland, Fremont, and Skysailing Airports,
and at Travis Air .Force. Base. Numbers of
gulls noted on our visits to other airports
were much lower.
The marking and subsequent recognition
of individual gulls have as shown that there
is much more shifting from one disposal site
to another than was expected from the rather
stable numbers present.
This considerable fluctuation of member-
ship in a particular population adds further
complication to the problem of altering solid
waste disposal methods or locations so as to
reduce bird-strike hazards to aircraft. Merely
improving one dump, or controlling the birds
at it by various alarm, repellent, or poison
methods will be no more than a temporary
aid. When food is again available and the
flocks resting in a core area are not often
disturbed, a population buildup through
"around the bay" wanderers would take place.
Indications are, therefore, that it will be
necessary to institute region-wide improve-
ment in solid waste techniques or to carry out
intensive and expensive repellent or control
methods indefinitely.
In June and September 1969 the principal
investigator visited major and medium-sized
air terminals on and near the Atlantic coast
from Portland, Maine, to Norfolk, Virginia.
Discussions with airport staff, and in many
cases visits to nearby disposal sites, led to
better understanding of the possible influence
of solid waste disposal operations on bird
presence and movements at the airports. The
following three areas bore remarkable resem-
blance to the situation in the bay region of
California: Boston, New York, and Norfolk.
In each of these cases, the airports are on or
close to bays or tidal marshes—natural high-
ways for gulls—and there are disposal sites
handling large volumes of garbage and rub-
bish within a few miles. Different jurisdic-
tions are also involved in the seeming inabil-
ity to plan for correcting the situation. At the
Logan International Airport, Boston, and at
Kennedy, La Guardia, and Newark Airports,
operated by the Port of New York Authority,
the airport management is both aware of the
problem and attempting to discourage birds
that constitute hazards. The nearby disposal
sites, documented as the focal points of gull
activity in the region, are not, however, under
104
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their control. The indicated ultimate solution
in these areas, and even more so in the San
Francisco Bay area with its 9 counties and
more than 50 cities, is regional control of the
solid wastes operation.
PUBLICATIONS
COGSWELL, H. L. Gulls and solid waste disposal in the San
Francisco Bay area, California. In Proceedings; World
Conference on Bird Hazards to Aircraft, Queen's Univer-
sity, Kingston, Ontario, Sept. 2-5, 1969. [Ottawa], National
Research Council of Canada, [1970].
Microbiology and Acid Production in Sanitary Landfills
Professor Jerry C. Burchinal
Department of Civil Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
Grant No. EC 00249-03
Funds Awarded: $77,029
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1967 to Dec. 31, 1969
OBJECTIVES: To determine how decomposi-
tion in sanitary landfills may be speeded or
slowed through the judicious use of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium, under varying
conditions of moisture, temperature, and
compaction. To determine the succession ot
microorganisms during the decomposition of
municipal refuse, the order of occurrence of
organic acids and the species of microor-
ganisms responsible for their formation, and
the rate and quantity of gas produced per
unit of refuse.
tempt was made to determine the substrate
from which the organic acids were formed.
Once the growth of various organisms on the
various refuse components had been deter-
mined, decisions concerning the addition of
potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorus to
hasten the microbial metabolism were made.
The gases produced in a simulated landfill
were analyzed, and the effect of different types
of refuse and moisture content of the refuse
determined.
APPROACH: Fresh household refuse was
placed in simulated landfills consisting of
cylinders ranging in size from 12 to 36 in.
in diameter and from 4 to 16 ft high. Repre-
sentative samples of fresh household refuse
were ground and analzed for nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium by using standard
methods of analysis. The microorganisms of
a large uniform sample of fresh household
refuse were isolated and identified. The re-
mainder of the refuse was then placed in a
simulated landfill. To determine the succes-
sions of microorganisms as decomposition
proceeded, subsamples of the decomposing
refuse were taken, microbial isolations were
made, and the isolates were identified.
Organic acid determinations were made by
using gas chromatographic techniques. A
search was then made to identify the or-
ganisms producing the various acids. An at-
FINDINGS: The following fatty acids were
produced in refuse decomposition: acetic,
propionic, iso-butyric, n-butyric, iso-valeric,
n-valeric, iso-caproic, and n-caproic; acetic
and n-butyric were the most plentiful. Or-
ganisms likely to have been responsible in-
clude Clostridia and E. Coli, CO2, N2, and
NH4. Protein yielded larger acid concentra-
tions than carbohydrates or fats did. Opti-
mum temperature range for acid production
was 30 to 55 C. Optimum moisture for acid
production was 60 to 80 percent. Better deg-
radation in refuse occurs with 1.86 percent
organic nitrogen as N, 0.31 percent phos-
phorus as P and 0.23 percent potassium as K
than at higher or lower values. In general,
decomposition of refuse in landfills is related
to the level of nitrogen, the nature of nitro-
gen (organic is better than inorganic), mois-
ture, temperature, and time. Bacilli and
105
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Clostridia appear to be the most common
genera in refuse incubated at 25°C and Lacto-
bacilli, bacilli, and Clostridia at 55°C. Iden-
tified isolates of bacteria, obtained from
incubated refuse, produced fatty acids in
media containing glucose or amino acids as
the sole source of carbon,
• PUBLICATIONS
DOBSON, A. L., H. A. WILSON, and J. C. BURCHINAL. Fac-
tors influencing decomposition in sanitary landfills. Bac-
teriological Proceedings, A77, 1965. (Abstract.)
QASIM, S. R., and J. C. BURCHINAL. Leaching of pollutants
from refuse beds. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, 96(SA1):
49-58, Feb. 1970,
Sanitary Landfill Investigation
Prof. Jerry C. Burchinal
Department of Civil Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
Grant No. SW 00038-03
Funds Awarded: $87,337
Project Period: June 1, 1962 to May 31, 1966
OBJECTIVES: To identify the groups of mi-
croorganisms active in refuse decomposition.
To study oxidation conditions of buried ref-
use and the effects of moisture, temperature,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on ref-
use decomposition. To investigate gas pro-
duction and its composition. To obtain basic
chemical and bacteriologic data concerning
water pollution emanating from solid waste
landfills.
APPROACH: To accomplish these objectives,
fresh household refuse and material retrieved
from landfills were studied in parallel. In
addition, the effects of different strip-mine
spoils on refuse, either mixed or in layers,
were evaluated. Generally, laboratory inves-
tigations were done under controlled condi-
tions, various test cylinders being used for
simulated landfills. In some cases, sampling
pits were constructed in operating landfills at
Morgantown, along with observation and
sampling wells.
FINDINGS: Sanitary landfills can seriously
damage underground water by causing an
appreciable increase in hardness, iron, solids,
and various forms of nitrogen and sulfur.
Methods of limiting gas penetration into the
aquifer are desirable. Volatile acids intensify
the leaching of fill materials. Large popula-
tions of aerobic mesophilic bacteria were
found in exterior seepage from the landfills.
Coliform bacteria were found in both fresh
household refuse and in sanitary landfills.
PUBLICATIONS
DOBSON, A. L., and H. A. WILSON. Refuse decomposition
in strip-mine spoils. Proceedings of the West Virginia
Academy of Science, 35 (Series 64 No. 7-4):59, Jan. 1964.
DOBSON, A. L., H. A. WILSON, and J. C. BURCHINAL.
Factois influencing decomposition in sanitary landfills.
Bacteriological Pioceedings, A77, 1965. (Abstract.)
COOK, H. A., D. L. CROMVVFLL, and H. A. WILSON. Micro-
organisms in household refuse and seepage water from
sanitary landfills. Pioceedings of the West Virginia Acad-
emy of Science, 39:107-114, 1967.
QASIM, S. R., and J. C. BURCHINAL. Leaching of pollutants
from refuse beds. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, 96(SA1):
49-58, Feb. 1970.
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Special Studies of a Sanitary Landfill
Prof. Robert C. Merz
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California 90007
Grant No. U1-00518-08
Funds Awarded: $191,436
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1960 to Dec. 31, 1968
OBJECTIVES: In the first 3-year period, to
study the effects of physical and chemical phe-
nomena on the decomposition rate of organic
matter in a landfill and the resulting effect on
volume reduction through field and labora-
tory efforts. During the next 2 years, to con-
tinue the initial objectives and add artificial
rainfall plus aerated, irrigated, and gas col-
lection test cells. During the final 3-year
period, to continue the previous 5 years' work
to permit long-term evaluation and quantita-
tive data collection.
APPROACH: Test sanitary landfill cells were
constructed at a Los Angeles County Sanita-
tion District disposal site. The field tests
considered the influence of moisture, soil ad-
mixture, depth of fill, type of soil, aeration,
and temperature on degradation of organic
matter in sanitary landfill and on fill settle-
ment. At the site, temperature, humidity, and
gas composition were measured automatically.
The second project period continued the
study of the first six cells and added four to
investigate the effects of forced aeration, ar-
tificial rainfall typical of a humid area, field
crop irrigation, and total gas collection and
analysis. The final 3-year period continued
detailed data collection and evaluation. To
ensure maximum control of the study each
load of refuse was weighed and categorized.
FINDINGS: During the first 3-year period, the
following was observed.
1. Compared with the landfill constructed
in the usual anaerobic manner, which uses
4-ft lifts separated by 1-ft-thick earth covers,
the initial in-place density of refuse (a) was
increased by about 20 percent in a similarly
constructed landfill through the addition of
sufficient water to maintain a moisture con-
tent of approximately 40 percent; (b) was in-
creased by about 35 percent through the use
of an 18-ft lift, the addition of sufficient water
to maintain saturation, and the providing of
good compaction; (c) was approximately the
same in the landfill built with continuous
admixture of earth plus the addition of suffi-
cient water to maintain a moisture content of
approximately 35 percent; (d) was increased
from about 6 to 35 percent by the particular
and varied methods of construction used.
2. The landfill constructed in an anaerobic
manner with a total depth of 20 ft provided
an initial in-place density from about 5 to 15
percent more than that obtained at the 9-ft
depth.
3. Normal compaction procedures used in
landfill construction provided initial in-place
densities of refuse from about 15 to 50 per-
cent more than the delivered truck density,
depending upon the method of construction
used.
4. The landfill constructed in an aerobic
manner, by using 18-ft lifts and added water,
maintained an active composting environ-
ment with high temperatures and with settle-
ment rates as much as 3 times that of a
corresponding anaerobic landfill, but a fire
hazard existed.
5. The 20-ft-deep landfill, regardless of its
method of construction, had the greatest
shrinkage in the first month following its
completion. After the sixth month, the rates
of settlement of all the landfills were gen-
erally less than 0.05 ft per month.
6. Total settlement within the two landfills
arranged for study increased with total depth;
in this investigation, doubling the depth re-
sulted in an average increase in total settle-
ment of about 40 percent.
7. The gases produced within the an-
aerobic landfills consisted chiefly of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. The concentration of
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methane depended upon the moisture con-
tent and varied from little more than a trace
in the landfill constructed without the addi-
tion of water to that of a major component
(greater than 50 percent) in the saturated
landfill. Hydrogen was not present except
occasionally in very small amounts.
8. The gases produced within the aerobic
landfill consisted chiefly of carbon dioxide
and nitrogen. The concentration of oxygen
generally did not exceed 10 percent.
9. The production of methane was mark-
edly increased by surface irrigation of a
landfill.
10. The gases produced within the four
landfills arranged for study diffused laterally
and vertically downward into the surround-
ing ground, as well as upward through the
top cover.
11. The initial peak temperature within
all landfills was reached within 3 months fol-
lowing the start of construction and occurred
at varying depths; no significantly higher
temperatures were reached thereafter.
12. The initial temperatures in the aerobic
landfill greatly exceeded those in the anaero-
bic landfills.
13. Grasses, shrubs, and trees were satis-
factorily grown on the surface of a landfill.
During the second phase of this project,
landfill cells having a depth of approximately
20 ft were constructed and studied. The fol-
lowing was observed.
1. Initial landfill compaction ratios from
2.1 to 2.2, and an in-place density of 1,000 lb/
cu yd were achieved .for the three test cells
A, B, and C. The in-place density for cell D
was 634 Ib/cu yd.
2. Cell A, receiving the Seattle rainfall
equivalent of 184 in. plus an extra 30 in. (for
a total of 214 in. of water), exhibited some
percolation into the subgrade as evidenced by
a 7 percent increase in the moisture of the
subgrade over that of undisturbed soil at
similar depth. At the close of the project, the
differential was 12.5 percent.
3. Cell B, receiving 392 in. of applied ir-
rigation water, exhibited greater percolation
into the subgrade as evidenced by a 15 per-
cent increase in moisture content of the sub-
grade over that of undisturbed soil at similar
depth. At the close of the 'project, the differ-
ential was 41 percent.
4. The growth of Bermuda grass was suc-
cessfuly maintained on an anaerobic landfill
with a top earth cover of 2 ft especially pre-
pared to favor turf growth.
5. The greatest settlement (4.25 ft) oc-
curred in aerobic cell C. The two anaerobic
cells each settled 2.20 ft.
6. In anaerobic cells A and B, after aging
2 years, the major gas constituents by volume
were carbon dioxide and methane in almost
equal amounts (nearly 50 percent). Oxygen
and nitrogen were present in small, varying
amounts.
7. Cell C was aerobically operated, and the
gas composition was dependent upon the
duration of the blower operation. The gas
samples obtained during aeration were char-
acteristically high in nitrogen and oxygen
and low in carbon dioxide and methane.
8. The maximum temperature reached in
anaerobic cell A was 108 F after 79 days.
Over the final 2 years of the more than 4-
year study the temperature ranged between
53 and 88 F.
9. The maximum temperature reached in
cell B was 120 F after 31 days. Over the final
2 years of the study the temperature ranged
between 60 and 90 F. Although intended to
be an anaerobic cell, its performance was
influenced by the passage of air from aerobic
cell C notwithstanding a 5-ft-wide, contin-
uous adobe-shale barrier.
10. The maximum temperature reached in
cell C was 193 F after 174 days. Over the
final 2 years of the study the temperature
ranged between 90 and 164 F. Bottom tem-
peratures reached peaks high enough to de-
stroy thermistors. Smoke emanations with fire
were noted on a few occasions. The cell tem-
perature was affected by the aeration cycle.
11. A cell similar in construction to cell A
or B but smaller, intended for quantitative
studies of gas production, was unsuccessful
although constructed with extreme care by
professional plastic fabricators. The polyethy-
lene envelope was not able to store gas.
12. The maximum temperature reached in
cell D was 117 F after 368 days. Over the
final 2 years, the temperature ranged be-
tween 67 and 120 F.
108
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13. Seventy-three cu' yd of refuse packed
into an underground sealed and instru-
mented steel tank produced 2,027 cu ft of
gas, or 27.7 cu ft/cu yd of refuse, over 907
days. Virtually all the gas was produced be-
tween the 230th and 600th day.
14. Final examination of the cell materials
during the coring operation showed the ref-
use of aerated cell C to be well decomposed
except for plastics and other inerts. In con-
trast, the refuse of anaerobic cells A and B
was easily identifiable.
15. Based on the original cell depth of 20
ft, the volume reduction achieved through
aeration amounted to 21.5 percent. The vol-
ume reduction achieved in the anaerobic cells
was 11.5 percent.
16. Epoxy-coated leads, galvanized pipe,
and asphalt-coated steel were found to be in-
adequate for this type of investigation. All
seriously deteriorated or failed because of
high temperatures, corrosion, or strain ex-
erted by differential settlement.
PUBLICATIONS
MERZ, R. C., and R. STONE. Landfill settlement rates.
Public Works, 93(9): 103, 106, 210, 212, Sept. 1962.
MERZ, R. C., and R. STONE. Gas production in a sanitary
landfill. Public Works, 95(2):84-87, 174-175, Feb. 1964.
MERZ, R. C., and R. STONE. Sanitary landfill behavior in
an aerobic environment. Public Works, 97(1):67, Jan.
1966.
MERZ, R. C., and R. STONE. Progress report on study
of percolation through a landfill. Public Works, 98(12):
86, Dec. 1967.
MERZ, R. C. and R. STONE. Quantitative study of gas
produced by decomposing lefusc. Public Works, 99(11):
86-87, Nov. 1968.
Pollution of Subsurface Water by Sanitary Landfills
Dr. A. A. Fungaroli
Advanced Study Group for Soil, Water &
Urban Engineering
Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Grant No. EC 00162-04
Funds Awarded: $324,268
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1966 to Aug. 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To provide criteria for the de-
sign of sanitary landfills in given areas and
under conditions so as to minimize the pos-
sible pollution of subsurface water.
APPROACH: By use of a controlled labora-
tory sanitary landfill, a controlled field
sanitary landfill, and several active landfills,
located in southeastern Pennsylvania, models
are being developed to describe the behavior
of sanitary landfills. The models are being
used to predict landfill behavior under vari-
ous environmental conditions. The specific
data being collected are lor landfills located
in legions underlain by the Wissahicken
Schist formation.
The hydraulics of landfills are being de-
termined with respect to the bulk movement
of water through them and into underground
soils and water bodies. A computer model is
being developed to describe the macroscopic
functioning of the landfills and the under-
ground flow systems. These models will pro-
vide the necessary data to predict bulk
movement of leachate through and away from
the landfills. Parameter influences on leach-
ate movement are being studied by use of the
models. Among the parameters being consid-
ered are landfill geometry, refuse character-
istics, soil properties, and ground water levels.
The experimental investigations place ma-
jor emphasis on the character of the pollu-
tants carried by the leachate and on the
influence of leachate quantity on concentra-
tion of various ions. Because of the complex
functioning of landfills, special emphasis is
placed on relationships among the various
ions present.
The models are being developed so that
they can be applied to landfills outside the
109
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investigation area. It is expected that final
models will be used in the determination of
optimum landfill dimensions, soil cover thick-
ness, potential remedial procedures for exist-
ing leaching landfills, and associated studies.
FINDINGS: The most advanced portion of
this study consists of the data being collected
from the laboratory lysimeter. The moisture-
routing model for predicting the appearance
of leachate has been completed and tested by
the lysimeter. The difference between pre-
diction time and leachate appearance is con-
sidered minimal. The model is currently
being tested on the field installation. If com-
parison is again favorable, the model will be
ready for more general application.
The lysimeter has provided information in-
dicating that the leachate-carrying pollutants
begin to move out of a landfill as soon as it
is started. Although the initial quantity of
leachate generation is low for landfills with
low moisture contents at placement, it can-
not be considered negligible. Further, ion
concentrations in the initial leachate have
been shown to be substantial.
The lysimeter results have shown that once
the refuse system reaches field capacity, the
total amount of pollutants removed increases
rapidly. The particular parameters evaluated
are:
LIQUID: pH, hardness, dissolved oxygen,
phosphate, chloride, sodium, suspended solids,
total residue (total dissolved solids), nitrogen
(ammonia, organic), nitrate, chemical oxygen
demand, biochemical oxygen demand, iron,
zinc, copper, nickel, and sulfate.
GAS: carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen,
methane, hydrogen ' sulfide, and carbon
monoxide.
Temperature data gathered in the lysim-
eter indicate that the system was initially
aerobic and reached temperature levels as
high as 150 F shortly after activation. A
comparison of lysimeter temperature data and
data gathered from the field installation in-
dicates that initial temperature behavior may
be a function of unit weight of refuse place-
ment. In the field, where the refuse was
placed at higher unit weight, temperatures
did not reach the lysimeter levels and the
refuse was anaerobic almost immediately.
PUBLICATIONS
REMSON, I., G. H. EMRICH, A. A. FUNGAROLI, and A. W.
LAWRENCE. Pollution of subsurface water by sanitary
landfill. Presented at Engineering Foundation Research
Conference, Solid Waste Research and Development, Uni-
versity School, Milwaukee, July 24-28, 1967. Conference
Preprint No. B-2.
REMSON, I., A. A. FUNCAROLI, and A. W. LAWRENCE.
Water movement in an unsaturated landfill. Journal of
the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of
Civil Engineers, 94(SA2):307-317, Apr. 1968.
SOWERS, G. F. Foundation problems in sanitary landfills.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 94(SA1):103-116, Feb. 1968.
Discussion. Fungaroli, A. A., and R. L. Steiner. Founda-
tion problems in sanitary landfills. Journal of the Sani-
tary Engineering Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 94(SA4): 764-766, Aug. 1968.
STEINER, R. L., and A. A. FUNGAROLJ. Construction of
laboratory and field facilities for the investigation of
leaching from sanitary landfills. In Proceedings; Second
Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference, Philadelphia,
Nov. 18-20, 1968. Drexel Institute of Technology, 1969.
p. 301-324.
SUFFET, I., A. A. FUNGAROLI, R. J. SCHOENBERGER, and
S. LEVY. Specific ion electrodes analysis of wastewaters
from solid waste disposal. In Proceedings; Third Mid-
Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference, College Park, Md.,
Nov. 12-14, 1969. University of Maryland, p. 279-303.
110
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Preventing Landfill Leachate Contamination of Waters
Mr. Eddie J. Wren
Department of Environmental Science
Gulf South Research Institute
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808
Grant No. EC 00393-01
Funds Awarded: $56,550
Project Period: Aug. 1, 1969 to July 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To develop sealant liner ma-
terials that will prevent the escape of leachates
to the surrounding soil and ground waters
when the leachates are applied to sanitary land-
fills. The use of low-cost, readily available
waste byproducts as liners is being evaluated.
APPROACH: A direct-contact survey is being
made of industries concerning their byprod-
uct waste to determine the location and quan-
tities of these potential barrier materials. Some
of the criteria used for selection of materials
are particle and liquid permeability, inert-
ness, availability, cost, and handling and
storage problems. Laboratory test cells have
been constructed for testing and evaluating
the effectiveness of the selected barrier prod-
ucts by use of a glass tube and by observation
of cell activities such as moisture gradient and
volumetric changes. Leakage through the cell
liner material into the soil layer beneath will
be monitored by frequent analysis of the soil
beneath the liner with a water-soluble dye
and a radioactive tracer placed in the cell
above the sealer.
Laboratory results will lead to investiga-
tions on a small-scale outdoor sanitary land-
fill where water levels and drainage patterns
are well established. A liner material indi-
cated as suitable by laboratory studies will be
used to set up field cells. A water-soluble
fluorescent dye, not radioisotopes, will be
added during the filling operation in order
to check for leaching in these field studies.
Other parameters for checking leachate loss
as well as contamination of ground water by
the barrier material, will be pH, alkalinity,
suspended solids, nitrogen compounds, COD,
BOD, DO, sulfates, sodium, chlorides, TDS,
hardness, phosphates, nitrate, calcium, mag-
nesium, iron, and infrared scanning.
FINDINGS: The initial screening of some 29
industrial products (waste, in most instances)
that seemed to be likely candidates for soil
sealants resulted in 18 of these being retained
and tested for permeability. All these prod-
ucts are nonbiodegradable.
The nonpermeable materials will be tested
in laboratory cells simulating elemental cores
of field landfills.
Stabilizing Sanitary Landfills by Injection Grouting
Dr. Lyle K. Moulton
Department of Civil Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia 26506
Grant No. EC 00016-01
Funds Awarded: $38,929
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1970 to Jan. 31, 1973
OBJECTIVES: To determine the effectiveness
of injection grouting of waste material in ac-
celerating the stabilization of sanitary land-
fills so that landfill sites can be reclaimed and
put to use in the shortest possible time. It is
anticipated that grouted landfills can be used
not only for parks and playgrounds but also
for industrial, commercial, and residential
development.
APPROACH: Various grouting materials with
emphasis on fly ash, bottom ash, and other
111
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wastes with cementaceous characteristics will
be studied to determine their effect on land-
fill stabilization. Different grout-refuse com-
binations are being studied to determine
their effect on landfill strength and settlement
characteristics. The influence of various types
of grouts on biological decomposition and
long-term landfill stabilization is also being
determined.
Landfill settlement characteristics will be
studied in the laboratory by use of large con-
solidometers whereby refuse cells will be
loaded to simulate various applied surface
loads. Time settlement data will be recorded
and leachate analyses performed. The influ-
ence of grouting on the strength of compacted
refuse will be evaluated by use of a triaxial
compression apparatus. Samples of refuse will
be compacted into cylindrical molds 6 in. in
diameter and 12 in. long and grouted. At
various intervals the samples will be tested
for strength and then microbiologically
analyzed to determine the effect of grouting
on biological decomposition.
After the laboratory tests, a limited field
evaluation will be performed. Two small ref-
use cells, about 50 cu ft, will be constructed.
One is grouted and one is not. Settlement
records will be kept and periodic sampling
and analyses of leachate and gases will be per-
formed to evaluate the effect of grouting.
FINDINGS: This grant was awarded Febru-
ary 1, 1970, and findings are not yet available.
Thermophilic Metabolism in Solid Substrates
Dr. Marvin E. Stephenson
Department of Civil Engineering
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 90007
Grant No. EC 00292-02
Funds Awarded: $72,440
Project Period: June 1, 1968 to May 31, 1971
OBJECTIVES: To investigate the principal
variables affecting the decomposition of bio-
degradable solid waste by thermophilic
aerobic organisms. Both macro and micro
components of the decomposition products
are measured by using a laboratory model of
the reacting system. The study also provides
for the development or evaluation, or both,
of analytical methodology necessary for the
physical and chemical characterization of
constituents related to the decomposing
material.
APPROACH: Laboratory studies are being
carried out in a replicate series of 1.5-cu-ft-
capacity reactors housed in a controlled-
temperature module. Suitable analytical
methods and monitoring systems have been
instituted to assay the reactants and products
continuously during the decomposition
process.
The samples of municipal refuse used in
this project are collected locally, sorted to
remove glass and metal materials, and then
pulverized to particle sizes of less than 1/4
inch. During the decomposition process, the
influent and exhaust gas streams are moni-
tored chromatographically on a semicontin-
uous basis. Samples of the decomposing mass
are removed periodically and analyzed for
organic and inorganic carbon, organic nitro-
gen, and moisture content. Analytical deter-
minations, including pH and nitrate-nitrogen,
are also performed on the liquid fraction of
the sample. The environmental variables that
are controlled or otherwise adjusted are tem-
perature, moisture content, and air supply.
FINDINGS: Studies of the assay of solid munic-
ipal refuse indicated that a measure of total
organic carbon, rather than the separation of
the organic carbon complex into constituent
112
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series such as holocellu-lose, crude starch, and
reducing sugars and lipids, provided a more
satisfactory estimate of reactive carbon. Ac-
cordingly a wet-combustion method for or-
ganic and inorganic carbon was developed to
permit the analysis of large (1- to 10-g)
samples.
Preliminary results of the project indicate
that the organic carbon-nitrogen ratio is a
useful parameter of biologic stability and
suggest its employment in conventional sani-
tary landfill practices. Generally, biological
activities resulting in carbon and nitrogen
losses from the decomposing mass were com-
pleted within 30 days of the initiation of the
experiment at all levels of moisture content
and temperature set. In certain cases signifi-
cant formation of nitrate-nitrogen in the
leachate (<700 mg/liter) were recorded.
The practical indications of this study sug-
gest the possibility of certain changes in pres-
ent sanitary landfill practices.
1. Comminution of the refuse before dep-
osition would increase in-place densities and
provide a more suitable substrate for the
promotion of biologic activity necessary for
rapid stabilization of the fill material.
2. Further consideration of the develop-
ment of economical methods of landfill aera-
tion and moisture control should be
instituted.
3. Practical methods for the establishment
of lower carbon-nitrogen ratios in raw refuse
would increase the rate of aerobic decompo-
sition of this material.
4. Formation of significant amounts of ni-
trate-nitrogen during the stabilization process
should be considered, and methods should be
instituted for the control of liquid passing
through the fill.
Marine Disposal of Fine-Grained Waste Solids
Dr. M. Grant Gross
Marine Sciences Research Center
State University of New York
Stony Brook, New York 11790
Grant No. EC 00388-01
Funds Awarded: $89,885
Project Period: Feb. 1, 1970 to Jan. 31, 1972
OBJECTIVES: To study the fine-grained waste
solids that constitute about 95 percent of all
waste presently dumped in the coastal waters
of the New York Bight and in the estuarine
waters of Long Island Sound. The long- and
short-term physical and chemical effects of
these wastes on the ocean water and ocean bot-
tom near the disposal site are being determined.
APPROACH: A detailed study is being made
on source, physical, chemical, and mineral
composition of the fine-grained wastes prior
to dumping. The selected disposal site is
being studied for mixing of other types of
sedimentary materials, for physical and bio-
logical processes in changing the character-
istics of the original wastes, and for the effects
of currents and other processes on the final
distribution and amount of material depos-
ited. Individual waste disposal operations are
being investigated by pumping water, down
current from the disposal operation, through
an instrumental chamber where salinity, depth
of sample intake, light transmission, dissolved
oxygen, pH, and chlorophyll are measured.
FINDINGS: This grant was awarded on Feb.
1, 1970, and findings are not yet available.
113
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Pipe Transport of Domestic Solid Waste '
Dr. Iraj Zandi
Towne School of Civil and Mechanical
Engineering
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Grant No. EC-00259-04
Funds Awarded: $184,234
Project Period: Sept. 1, 1966 to Aug. 31, 1970
OBJECTIVES: To examine the applicability
of the technology of bulk solid transport in
pipelines to the collection, removal, and treat-
ment of municipal solid wastes.
APPROACH: Various concentrations and sizes
of ground solid waste were transported, under
pressure, through different size pipes. Opti-
mum particle size and concentration were
determined with respect to both the engineer-
ing and economic aspects.
The stochastic processes governing the gen-
eration of solid wastes were determined, and
their implications on the design of a pipe sys-
tem evaluated. The cost of pipeline collec-
tion of solid waste was evaluated with respect
to many factors including population density,
size of collection area, distance of transport
and type of disposal. Domestic solid waste
services were economically evaluated, and
analytical economic decision models for solid
waste systems were constructed to allow mean-
ingful comparisons of pipe systems and con-
ventional systems.
From the outset it was recognized that for
pipeline collection and removal to be con-
sidered a viable solution and an attractive al-
ternative tool for management of solid waste,
the following four distinctly different ques-
tions need to be answered.
1. Is the collection and removal of
solid waste via pipeline technologically
feasible?
2. If "solid waste pipeline" is techno-
logically feasible, then how does it eco-
nomically compare with the present
truck collection system?
3. If "solid waste pipeline" is techno-
logically feasible and economically at-
tractive, then what method of treatment
and disposal should be used?
4. What sociopolitical implications
may be expected? What governmental in-
strument is required to implement this
new technology? What would happen to
present labor force when solid waste col-
lection and removal becomes automatic?
Most efforts were directed toward answering
the first two questions in the first 31/g years
of the project. Only in the last year was at-
tention given to the third question.
FINDINGS: In regard to the first question, on
the basis of laboratory experimentation, anal-
ysis of the data, and field observations, it is
concluded that with present technology both
pneumatic and slurry transport of domestic
solid waste is feasible. As far as slurry trans-
port is concerned it has been established ex-
perimentally that municipal solid wastes can
be presized by presently available shredding
equipment to render them suitable for slurry
transport. It was also established that slurries
up to 12 percent solid wastes (paper, cans,
glass, etc.) can be pumped readily. Pressure
loss data were collected for different com-
binations of pipe diameter, mean velocity,
and slurry concentration. A prediction equa-
tion was found that permitst he prediction of
pressure losses with reasonable accuracy.
Based on information obtained so far, the de-
tails of which are reported in the publications
listed, one may conclude that the goals of the
project in regard to laboratory experimenta-
tion on pressurized solid waste pipeline have
been achieved. The next logical step in the
study of pipeline under pressure seems to be
a pilot study in the form of a demonstration
project. Not much useful information more
than what is presently available for pressure
solid waste pipeline can be obtained in the
laboratory.
In regard to economical comparison, two
separate decisions had to be made: (1) What
would be the level of services, that is, fully
automatic (all pipeline, pneumo-slurry sys-
114
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tern) or semi-automatic (truck-pipeline com-
bination)? (2) What type of community
would be selected for comparison? In order
to obtain conclusive information it was de-
cided to select two extreme types of com-
munities, one a core of a large metropolitan
area (center city of Philadelphia) and another
a residential, essentially a bedroom, com-
munity (Radnor, Pennsylvania, population
30,000), and provide fully automatic services
with access at each point of solid waste gen-
eration. In addition, it was decided to assume
no new technologic innovations. All equip-
ment required could be obtained on the mar-
ket. A detailed, conservative economic analy-
sis found the following, (1) For center city
of Philadelphia the pneumo-slurry (combina-
tion of pneumatic and slurry pipeline) sys-
tem would be less expensive than truck collec-
tion over a period of 50 years, if solid waste
has to be transported a distance of more than
50 miles. (The city of Philadelphia is inves-
tigating the possibility of transporting its
solid waste much further.) (2) For Radnor the
fully automated pneumo-slurry system that
originates from each house would cost con-
siderably more than present truck collection
(slightly more than triple). If, however, a
point of entry should be provided for a group
of houses, say each four houses, the cost would
compare favorably with truck collection. In
the economic study all components of the cost,
that is, installation, operation, maintenance,
and amortization are included. Intentionally
all calculations are biased in favor of truck
collection in order to establish the real econ-
omy of pipeline collection and removal.
In regard to the third question the con-
struction of an experimental facility is near
completion for investigating the possibility
of using pipeline as a biological reactor to
treat the solid waste during conveyance.
PUBLICATIONS
ZANDI, I. Solid waste pipeline. Presented at Engineering
Foundation Research Conference, Solid Waste Research
and Development, University School, Milwaukee, July 24-
28, 1967. Conference Preprint No. D-4. 3 p.
ZANDI, I. Collection and removal of municipal solid wastes
by pneumo-slurry system. Compost Science, 9(2):7-ll,
Summer 1968.
ZANDI, I., and G. GOVATOS. Pipeline transport of solid
waste. In I. Zandi, ed. Advances in solid-liquid flow in
pipes and its ^plications. New York, Pergamon Press.
(In press.)
ZANDI, I. Pipeline Collection and removal of solid waste.
Presented at Engineering Foundation Research Confer-
ence, Solid Waste Research and Development, II, Beavei
Dam, Wis., July 22-26, 1968. Conference Preprint No.
A-2.
ZANDI, I., and J. A. HAYDEN. Are pipelines the answer to
waste collection dilemma? Environmental Science and
Technology, 3(9):812-819, Sept. 1969.
YEN, J. G., and I. ZANDI. Transport of slurries in
heteiogeneous regime. Presented at Annual Meeting, So-
ciety of Mining Engineers, Washington, Feb. 16-20, 1969.
Conference Preprint No. 69-B-70. 28, p.
HAYDEN, J. A., P. SEIDENSTAT, and 1. ZANDI. Solid waste
generation and cost in Center City Philadelphia. Journal
of the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of
Civil Engineers. (In press.)
HAYDLN, J. A. Slurry flow—solids transport for the futuie.
Pennsylvania Triangle, 57(2):22-26, Nov. 1969.
115
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SECTION II
RESEARCH GRANT PROJECTS
STATE AND PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS
-------
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RESEARCH GRANT PROJECTS
STATE AND PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS *
State
Alabama (1) .
Alaska (0)
Arizona (0)
California (15)
Colorado (3)
Connecticut (0)
Delaware (0)
Florida (5) . .
Georgia (1)
Hawaii (0)
Idaho (0)
Illinois (6)
Indiana (2)
low a (2)
Kansas (1) .
Kentucky (0)
Louisiana (3)
Maine (0)
Mar>land (3) . .
Massachusetts (4)
Michigan (3) . .
tatus
(T)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
Principal Investigator
Scarsbrook, Clarence E.
Anderson, John R. .
Cogswell, Howard L. .
Barley, Ellis F. . . .
Ecke, Dean H. . . .
Golueke, Clarence G. .
Hart, Samuel A. ...
Hart, Samuel A. ...
Hoffman, Donald A. .
Mercer, Walter A. . .
Merz, Robert C. . .
Oswald, William J.
Rose, Walter A. ...
Snyder, William C. . .
Stephens, Edgar R. . .
Stewart, George F. .
Lindsay, Willard L.
Miller, Byron F. . . .
Updegraff, David M. .
Block, Seymour S. . .
Hortenstine, Charles C.
Knuth, David T. . .
Long, Sterling K. . .
Susag, Russell H. . .
Spradlin, Bobby C. . .
Bryant, Marvin C.
Bugher, Robert D. . .
Charnes, Abraham . .
Day, Donald L. . . .
Pfeffcr, John T. . . .
Sheaffer, John R. . .
Bloodgood, Don E. . .
Dale, Alvin C. . . .
Hazen, Thamoii E. . .
Miner, J. Ronald . .
McKinney, Ross E. . .
Callihan, Cla)ton D. .
Wren, Eddie J. . . .
Wren, Eddie J. . . .
Kramer, Amihud . .
Kruse, Cornelius W. .
Liebman, Jon C. . . .
Fiist, Melvin W. . . .
Saiofim, Adcl F. . . .
Silvciman, Leslie . . .
Wilson, David G. . .
Bocttner, Edward A. .
Gray, Donald H. . . .
Page
4
52
102
84
50
60
15
29
69
3
107
85
11
66
24
14
12
72
78
71
8
5
70
65
54
74
13
56
25
88
63
58
19
23
30
15
90
72
111
95
57
55
43
47
38
89
45
80
State
Minnesota (3) . .
Mississippi (0)
Missouri (1) . . .
Montana (0)
Nebraska (0)
Nevada (0)
New Hampshire (1)
New Jersey (1) . .
New Mexico (0)
New York (8) . .
North Carolina (4) .
North Dakota (0)
Ohio (3) . . . .
Oklahoma (0)
Oregon (3) ...
Pennsylvania (5) . .
Rhode Island (0)
South Carolina (2) .
South Dakota (1) .
Tennessee (0)
Texas (2) ....
Utah (0)
Vermont (0^
Virginia (2) ...
Washington (1) . .
West Virginia (5)
Wisconsin (1) ...
W)oming (0)
Status
(A)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
\ /
(A)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
(T)
(T)
(A)
(T)
Principal Investigator
Stephenson, Marvin E. .
Bond, Richard G. . .
Bond, Richard G. . .
Diesch, Stanley L. . .
Malisch, Ward R. . .
Grethlein, Hans E. . .
Besley, Harry E. . . .
Gross, M. Grant . . .
Grove, Cornelius S.
Heimburg, Richard W.
Jeris, John S
Kaiser, Elmer R. . . .
Kaiser, Elmer R. . . .
Kaiser, Elmer R. . . .
Sinister, William W. .
Axtell, Richard C. . .
Caller, William S. . .
Hill, Charles H. . . .
Leatherwood, James M.
Miller, Paul D. . . .
Taiganides, E. Paul .
Taiganides, E. Paul .
Currier, Raymond A. .
Freed, Virgil H. . . .
Klein, Donald A. .
Fungaroli, A. Alexander
Morgan, Peter E. D. .
Purdom, P. Walton .
Thygeson, John R. .
Zandi, Iraj
Andrews, John F. . .
Hulbert, Samuel F. . .
Berry, Edward C. . .
Howes, James R. . .
Myrick, H. Nugent . .
Fontenot, Joseph P.
Kelly, James L. . . .
Allan, G. Giaham
Bailie, Richard C. . .
Buichinal, Jerry C. . .
Burchinal, Jerry C. . .
Burchinal, Jerry C. . .
Moulton, Lyle K. .
Witzcl, Stanley A. . .
Page
112
36
39
35
94
82
27
113
92
49
8
42
46
68
72
51
6
87
100
48
16
21
96
76
83
109
77
41
34
114
93
17
27
31
16
99
87
102
81
40
105
106
111
18
* See page 131 for complete listing of research and training grant principal investigators.
("I") Terminated
(A) Acti\e
as of March 31, 1970.
119
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SECTION III
TRAINING GRANTS
-------
-------
Dr. William W. Shuster
Department of Civil Engineering
Rennselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York 12181
Grant No. EC 00005-03
Funds Awarded: $131,088
Project Period: July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1972
PROGRAM: This training program estab-
lishes an area of specialization, primarily at
the M.S. level, in solid waste disposal within
the existing programs in environmental engi-
neering. It is aimed at providing personnel
trained to assume responsibilities in the su-
pervision, planning, and administration of
solid waste management facilities. The study
plan for each student is arranged by the stu-
dent advisor in consultation with the student.
Course requirements are flexible, and every
effort is made to satisfy the interests and ob-
jectives of the candidate consistent with his
background and degree of preparation.
Courses initiated under this grant and re-
quired of the students participating in this pro-
gram include one entitled Solid Wastes and
one entitled Solid Wastes Laboratory. The
Solid Wastes course deals with the prepara-
tion of refuse for collection, costs of collec-
tion, collection methods and equipment, spe-
cial refuse problems, disposal and treatment
methods, and diseases associated with garbage
and refuse. The Solid Wastes Laboratory
course covers experiments in solid wastes dis-
posal, techniques for sampling and methods of
analysis of solid wastes, chemical and physical
changes in composting, leach studies, meth-
ods of odor control, and landfill and incinera-
tion procedures. Other courses, including
Unit Processes, Atmospheric Pollution, and
Planning for Waste Disposal and Pollution
Abatement, cover subjects related to solid
waste management.
A thesis or project is required of candidates
for a degree in solid wastes. The thesis or
project is expected to be related to solid waste
management.
To date, 11 students have completed solid
waste courses and 6 have been supported by
traineeships.
Dr. P. Walton Purdom
Center for Study of the Environment
Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Grant No. EC 00006-04
Funds Awarded: $176,789
Project Period: July 1, 1966 to June 30, 1971
PROGRAM: This program provides profes-
sional education at the masters level for stu-
dents concerned with the solution of prob-
lems associated with solid wastes. The
instructional plan produces graduates
equipped to manage the local government
units that collect and dispose of solid wastes,
to organize and administer State and Federal
programs for the promotion of acceptable
solid waste collection and disposal practices,
and to staff other agencies and consulting
engineering offices.
The educational program is designed to
cover in depth the characteristics of wastes,
systems for collection and disposal, theories
that form the basis of design of disposal fa-
cilities, pertinent management techniques,
and the relationships of solid wastes to other
environmental problems. Faculty members
from the various engineering and science de-
partments participate in this program. On the
successful completion of course requirements,
participating students receive a master's de-
gree in environmental engineering, science,
or civil engineering, depending upon the elec-
tives selected and prior education.
Specific courses directly related to solid
waste management being offered are: Solid
123
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Waste Analysis, Solid Waste Systems, Com-
bustion Theory, Incinerator Design, and En-
vironmental Systems Analysis. Other courses
offered that have some relationship to solid
waste management practices include air pol-
lution, water pollution, and microbiology.
To date, 18 students have been supported
by solid waste traineeships. Five of the train-
eeship-supported students are currently en-
rolled in graduate programs at Drexel.
Dr. Russell H. Susog
Department of Environmental Engineering
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32601
Grant No. EC 00007-03
Funds Awarded: $131,094
Project Period: July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1972
PROGRAM: This program is designed to pro-
vide training of field personnel for design and
operation of solid waste programs as well as
training of research personnel for the devel-
opment of basic data needed to design well-
functioning solid waste management systems.
The board of regents has given the university
the responsibility to provide technical assist-
ance to city, county, and regional planning
agencies; health departments; governmental
units; private companies; and individuals.
Through the training program, a reservoir
of trained personnel will be developed to
meet these needs.
It is anticipated that the solid waste trainees
will be from the engineering and life sciences
disciplines. They will be supported at the
M.S. level and major in environmental engi-
neering with a specialization in solid waste
management with thesis or special problem
work in solid waste research.
Special problem courses and two specific
solid waste courses are offered. One course
entitled Solid Wastes covers the following
subject areas: quantities and characteristics
of municipal refuse; collection methods,
equipment, and costs; refuse disposal prac-
tices; and regional planning and manage-
ment. To date this course has been offered
six times with a total enrollment of 52 stu-
dents. The other course, Analysis of Solid
Wastes has been recently offered with an en-
rollment of three students. Subject areas cov-
ered in this course include: physical and
chemical analysis of refuse, calorific value,
organic content, biodegradability, oxygen
and nitrogen requirements, and identifica-
tion of flora and fauna associated with com-
posting. A third course offering, Design of
Solid Waste Management Systems, is being
developed. Three students have been sup-
ported by solid waste traineeships to date.
Prof. Eugene A. Glysson
Civil Engineering Department
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104
Grant No. EC 00008-04
Funds Awarded: $144,857
Project Period: July 1, 1966 to June 30, 1971
PROGRAM: This solid waste training pro-
gram is designed to attract and train profes-
sional personnel who will be better able to
apply up-to-date knowledge needed to man-
age solid waste material properly. The pro-
gram, administered through the civil engi-
neering department, includes participation
from other disciplines such as the environ-
mental health department of the school of
public health to provide for an interdisci-
plinary approach to the solution of solid waste
management problems. Students enrolled in
124
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the courses come from the .college of engi-
neering and the school of public health as
well as the school of natural resources.
Two solid waste courses are offered. One,
entitled Solid Wastes Engineering, deals with
the engineering and design of methods for
collection and disposal of the solid wastes of
urban communities and the related effects of
such collection and disposal on the environ-
ment. The other course, Special Problems in
Solid Wastes Engineering, covers the applica-
tion of principles presented in the Solid
Waste Engineering course to engineering and
environmental health problems in the col-
lection and disposal of solid wastes. Compre-
hensive analyses and reports are assigned on
an individual student basis. Typical special
problems include studies related to refuse
collection, refuse characteristics, incinerator
emissions, landfill stability, incinerator
quench water characteristics, and regional
solid waste management.
To date the Solid Waste Engineering
course has been elected by 54 students over
a 6-year period. The Special Problems in
Solid Waste Engineering course has been
elected by 26 students over the last 4 years.
There has been a total of 16 graduates from
this program, 9 being supported by this train-
ing grant.
Professor Raul Zaltzman
Department of Civil Engineering
West Virginia University
Morgantown, West Virginia
Grant No. EC 00009-03
Funds Awarded: $181,854
Project Period: Jan. 1, 1967 to June 30, 1972
PROGRAM: One purpose of this program is
to provide the student with an understanding
of the needed design engineering aspects both
of existing methods of solid waste manage-
ment and of methods that are relatively new
in application. Another purpose is to intro-
duce improved design criteria and disposal
methods that will optimize current opera-
tions and provide for adequate disposal of
solid wastes resulting from other waste treat-
ment systems.
Three courses are offered by the civil en-
gineering program dealing with solid waste
management problems; two of them deal ex-
clusively with solid wastes and the third offers
the students an opportunity to integrate the
information gained throughout their study
program in one major interdisciplinary exer-
cise of total environmental planning. This
last course is conducted by the solid waste
management and the urban transportation
staff with assistance of most of the civil engi-
neering staff on consulting and guest lecture
basis. Two other courses, Design of Dynamic
Material Systems and Design of Solids Han-
dling Systems, offered by the Departments of
Industrial Engineering and Chemical Engi-
neering, respectively, include various aspects
of solid waste management as the major por-
tion of the subject matter. The Elements of
Solid Waste Management course offered by
the Civil Engineering Department covers basic
solid waste material, including the study of
traditional patterns and problems of solid
waste storage, transport, and disposal; a dis-
cussion of field evaluation techniques for
existing systems and facilities; an examina-
tion of engineering alternatives with appro-
priate consideration for air pollution control
and land reclamation; analytical approaches
to recovery, conversion, and reuse of mate-
rials; and the application of systems analysis
concepts to solid wastes handling and disposal
systems. Sixty-two students have completed
this course through the fall of 1969. The
other course offered by the Civil Engineering
Department related to solid waste manage-
ment is Municipal and Industrial Design of
Solid Wastes Disposal Operations. This course
includes a comprehensive study and review
of design criteria for the existing methods
and equipment used for the disposal of solid
wastes generated by industry and municipali-
125
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ties. The operations studied are subdivided
into those accomplishing on-site preparation,
volume and density modification, and salvage
or reclamation (or both) of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals and other marketable mate-
rials. Also included are studies of the storage
and handling practices and equipment in-
volved in these operations. This course is
being offered during the spring of 1970 for
the third time with a total enrollment of 29
students for this lapse. In addition to the
courses offered, 48 guest speakers have pre-
sented their views of solid waste management
practices to interested, students and faculty.
The guest speakers have come from private
industry, governmental agencies, and other
universities.
With the assistance of this grant, 12 stu-
dents have been directly supported, and 4
others have received partial support through
assistantships. There are 11 students currently
enrolled in a graduate study program with
emphasis on solid waste management; of
these, 5 are being supported with traineeships
provided by this grant and 1 is receiving par-
tial support.
Dr. Joseph F. Molina, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas 78712
Grant No. EC 00010-04
Funds Awarded: $235,313
Project Period: July 1, 1966 to June 30, 1971
PROGRAM: This training grant has provided
a basis for the development of an environ-
mental health engineering program with spe-
cial emphasis on solid waste management. A
multidisciplinary program with specific em-
phasis on the application of new engineer-
ing principles and processes to the solution
of solid waste problems, as well as an aware-
ness of the significance of proper planning
management and sociological considerations,
particularly in the case of municipal solid
waste systems, has evolved. This program in-
cludes the training of graduate students by
course work and research to solve real prob-
lems, the development of a competent health-
related teaching and research training pro-
gram, and the opportunity for both faculty
and students to study new approaches to the
disposal of solid wastes resulting from mu-
nicipal and industrial activities. Participation
of students and faculty of the Chemical En-
gineering Department is providing the means
for the exchange of information related to
the development of new processes or to the
application of existing processes to systems
of recycling components of the refuse or to
disposal systems.
The objectives of this program are being
satisfied by formal courses, special seminars,
and particular research projects that deal
with a broad spectrum of solid waste manage-
ment, collection, and disposal problems.
Trainees sponsored under the auspices of this
project at present are all master of science
candidates who are pursuing program-pre-
scribed course work in environmental health
or in civil or chemical engineering. A thesis
related to solids problems is required of each
trainee.
The course initiated under this grant, en-
titled solid waste disposal, deals with the
production, collection, and disposal of munic-
ipal waste. To date, 33 students have com-
pleted this course and 11 trainees have been
supported by this grant.
PUBLICATIONS
Environmental Health Engineeiing Research Laboratory.
Unpublished data. [EHE 01-6801, CRWR-24], [Jan. 1968],
Austin, Texas.
Environmental Health Engineeiing Research Laboratoiy.
Unpublished data. [EHE 08-6801], [Aug. 1968], Austin,
Texas.
Environmental Health Engineering Research Laboratory.
Unpublished data. [EHE 10-6801, CRWR-30], [Oct. 1968],
Austin, Texas.
126
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Environmental Health-Engineering Research Laboratory.
Unpublished data. [EHE 11-6801, CRWR-32], [Nov. 1968],
Austin, Texas.
Environmental Health Engineering Research Laboratory.
Unpublished data. [EHE 69-02, CRWR-35], [Nov. 1968],
Austin, Texas.
Environmental Health Engineering Research Laboratory.
Unpublished data. [EHE 68-13], [Apr. 1969], Austin,
Texas.
Environmental Health Engineering Research Laboratory.
Unpublished data. [EHE 70-01], [Jan. 1970], Austin,
Texas.
Dr. Ross McKinney
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66045
Grant No. EC 00011-03
Funds Awarded: $116,705
Project Period: July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1972
PROGRAM: This training program provides
graduate engineers at the M.S. level with a
background in solid waste management for
employment in State health departments,
county sanitation districts, municipalities,
consulting engineering firms, and Federal
agencies. Graduate engineers at the Ph.D.
level are trained to conduct research in solid
waste management and to teach. Graduate
trainees come from the various engineering
departments and from the science depart-
ments. Each trainee is expected to complete
a research thesis related to some aspect of
solid waste management.
Presently one solid waste management
course, entitled Solid Waste Disposal, is of-
fered. This course covers most aspects of
solid waste management, including charac-
teristics of solid wastes, storage, collection,
sanitary landfilling, incineration, composting,
salvage and reclamation, and organizational
structure of various local, State, and Federal
agencies involved in solid waste management.
Special problems courses are also offered
wherein students are encouraged to make
special investigations into a particular solid
waste-related problem. The special problems
permit the student to expand his knowledge
in specific areas of interest.
During the past 3 academic years the solid
waste disposal course has been offered once
each year. Thirteen students have completed
this course and 9 are about to complete it.
During these 3 years, six students have taken
the special problems course and conducted
individual research in countywide collection
and disposal, routing of collection vehicles,
and chemical analysis of refuse. To date three
trainees have been supported by this grant,
one at the master's level and two at the Ph.D
level.
This program has assisted in> the establish-
ment of a cooperative arrangement with the
city of Lawrence. Currently, a Ph. D. student
is supported one-half time by the city as a
special assistant for solid wastes in the de-
partment of public works.
PUBLICATIONS
TILSWORTH, T. Garbage, ten million pounds a day and
growing. In Proceedings; Governor's Conference on En-
vironmental Problems, Topeka, Dec. 11, 1969. Kansas
State Department of Health, 1970. p. 39-47.
Dr. H. Nugent Myrick
Cullen College of Engineering
University of Houston
Houston, Texas 77004
Grant No. EC 00012-02
Funds Awarded: $103,959
Project Period: July 1, 1968 to June 30, 1971
PROGRAM: This grant ensures the develop-
ment of a high-quality educational and re-
search program in the monitoring, collection,
and conversion of solid wastes in the' urban
127
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environment. The breadth of the program
includes training and research for biologists,
chemists, and all types of engineers; however,
particular concern is given to ensure the
continued in-depth study in the trainees'
initial or desired basic scientific or engineer-
ing study discipline. Research undertaken by
the trainees is related to the solution of
problems of highly industrialized urban
environments.
Trainees supported by this grant are re-
quired to complete a thesis related to some
aspect of solid waste management and to com-
plete the solid waste courses offered by the
University of Houston. The titles of the solid
waste courses to be offered and a summary
of course content follows: Solid Wastes and
Measurements, lecture and laboratory experi-
ments related to the monitoring and measure-
ment of solid wastes and their residues in
the environment and on the conversion of
solid wastes by conventional and advanced
technology; Solid Wastes Conversion Processes,
lectures on the theory of • conversion process
units, process design, economic analysis of
processes, and model assimilation of solid
waste conversion systems; Solid Waste Collec-
tion System Analysis, lectures on conventional
practice and advanced technology of solid
waste collection, including model assimilation
of the generation and collection of solid
wastes; Environmental Sciences and Engineer-
ing Seminar, seminars on the various perti-
nent topics or the technology, management,
and science of air, water, and terrestrial pollu-
tion of urban environments.
Through the academic year of 1968-1969,
only the Solid Waste Conversion and Process-
ing course was offered. The total enrollment
in this course was nine students, including
seven part-time students from industry and
consulting offices. To date, two students have
been supported by traineeships from this
grant. Both are expected to graduate with an
M.S. degree in 1970.
Dr. Richard S. Engelbrecht
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois 61801
Grant No. EC 00032-02
Funds Awarded: $85,458
Project Period: July 1, 1968 to June 30, 1973
PROGRAM: This training program provides
graduate students the opportunity of becom-
ing knowledgeable about solid waste problems
and solutions so that they may be prepared
to make a contribution to the field of solid
waste management. This training program
embraces an interdepartmental approach in-
volving sanitary engineering, food science,
and agricultural engineering. The program is
limited to the M.S. level, and trainees re-
ceive a degree in one of the participating de-
partments. All candidates for work in this
area are expected to fulfill requirements in
their own discipline, but as an integrating
force, these same aspirants will be expected
to complete the following three common
courses: (1) Sources and Characteristics of
Solid Waste, (2) Solid Waste Management
and (3) Environmental Health Engineering,
and to show necessary orientation in the area
by virtue of submitting an approved thesis
or independent study related to a solid waste
problem. A special and separate seminar will
be developed that will serve also to knit the
program together. Outside speakers whose
work relates directly to this area will further
stimulate interest and challenge the progress
of the student.
An interdepartmental approach to this
problem was used because of the close re-
lationship of the respective departments to
the solid waste problem. The participation
of the Department of Agricultural Engineer-
ing in this approach is desirable owing to
the tremendous solid waste problems created
by the agricultural community and their de-
sire to solve these problems.
128
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The food processing industry, from canning
to the frozen food operations, produces many
wastes of various types that need to be prop-
erly managed. Therefore the participation of
the department of food science is important
in the success of this training program. The
participation of the Department of Civil En-
gineering in this program is needed to pro-
vide an integrated approach in enhancing
municipal, agricultural, commercial, and in-
dustrial waste management.
The two solid waste courses have had an
average enrollment of eight students each. So
far, four students have been supported by this
grant, two working toward their M.S. in sani-
tary engineering, one toward an M.S. in agri-
cultural engineering, and one toward an M.S.
in food science.
Dr. Frederick G. Portland
School of Civil Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332
PROGRAM: This program provides specialized
interdisciplinary training in solid waste tech-
nology founded upon the basic and applied
sciences associated with present and proposed
methods of solid waste collection, transporta-
tion, and treatment. The training includes
emphasis on pertinent unit processes and
operations, system analysis and optimization,
economic analysis and financing, and program
administration. This emphasis is accentuated
by a core curriculum in solid waste technol-
ogy, by suggested graduate curricula in each
contributing discipline, and by the use of
seminars and special workshops. Solid waste
trainees come from various schools, including
those of civil engineering, industrial engineer-
ing, social sciences, and city planning, and will
receive degrees from their respective schools.
Three solid waste courses are offered at
Georgia Institute of Technology, Solid Waste
Technology I and II plus a Special Problems
course. Solid Waste Technology I is an in-
troduction to the fundamentals of solid waste
characterization, handling and disposal sys-
Grant No. EC 00033-04
Funds Awarded: $139,679
Project Period: July 1, 1966 to June 30, 1974
terns, physical and chemical methods of solid
waste analysis, treatment methods, manage-
ment and design principles, environmental
impact, and control procedures. This course
has been offered three times with a total en-
rollment of 21 students. Solid Waste Tech-
nology II is related to the evolution of typical
solid waste problems, the application of de-
sign and management principles, case studies
of operational solid waste systems, and the
study of new methods and advanced topics.
This course has also been offered three times
and has had a total enrollment of 19 students.
In addition to formal classes, students are ex-
posed to solid waste management practices
by special seminars with guest speakers. About
20 different guest speakers have addressed
seminars to date.
During the four years of this grant, eleven
students have been supported by traineeships.
Of the six students that have graduated, five
are now employed by governmental agencies
and one by private industry.
Dr. Nathan C. Burbank Jr.
Department of Environmental Health
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
PROGRAM: This grant provides the means
for the introduction of three major new
Grant No. 00038-01
Funds Awarded: $49,223
Project Period: July 1, 1969 to June 30, 1972
courses related to solid waste management for
students of environmental sanitation into the
129
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curriculum of the Department of Environ-
mental Health of the School of Public Health.
The course provides comprehensive instruc-
tion in the technical, economic, and geogra-
phic factors of importance to the design and
management of solid waste systems. Student
trainees have the option of working toward
a master of public health or a master of sci-
ence degree. Trainees who wish to obtain
an M.S. degree must do a thesis related to a
solid waste management problem. Those
working toward an M.P.H. degree are not
required to submit a thesis but will be re-
quired to obtain field experience in solid
wastes, e.g., work with personnel of the State
health department. Further, they will be re-
quired to organize, prepare, and submit docu-
ments describing and commenting on their
field experience.
The new courses in solid waste manage-
ment and a brief description of each follows:
Solid Waste Management and Control, covers
the necessity of proper solid waste manage-
ment from a public health standpoint as well
as an introduction of waste generation, stor-
age, collection, utilization, and disposal of
solid waste. The Sampling and Analysis of
Solid Wastes course introduces the student
to physical and chemical methods of solid
waste analysis. The course Design of Solid
Waste Disposal Facilities incorporates the
solution of problems associated with incinera-
tion, sanitary landfilling, composting, reclama-
tion, and the various aspects of refuse
collection and transportation.
PUBLICATIONS
BURBANK, N. C., JR. The importance of sanitation as
applied to the tourist industry in Hawaii. Professional
Sanitation Management, l(4):55-59, Jan. 1970.
MCCAULEY, R. F., N. C. BURBANK, JR., and R. H. F.
YOUNG. Production of charcoal from bagasse. Presented at
National Industrial Solid Waste Management Conference,
University of Houston, Mar. 24-26, 1970.
130
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SECTION IV
RESEARCH AND TRAINING GRANT
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS
-------
-------
RESEARCH AND TRAINING GRANT
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS
Principal Investigator
Page Principal Investigator
Allan, G. Graham 102
Anderson, John R 52
Andrews, John F 93
Axtell, Richard C 51
Bailie, Richard C 81
Berry, Edward C 27
Besley, Harry E 27
Block, Seymour S 71
Bloodgood, Don E 58
Boettner, Edward A 45
Bond, Richard G 36, 39
Bryant, Marvin C 74
Bugher, Robert D 13
Burbank, Nathan C 129
Burchinal, Jerry C 40, 105, 106
Callihan, Clayton D 90
Charnes, Abraham 56
Cogswell, Howard L 102
Currier, Raymond A 96
Dale, Alvin C 19
Darley, Ellis F 84
Day, Donald L 25
Diesch, Stanley L 35
Ecke, Dean H 50
Engelbrecht, Richard S 128
First, Melvin W 43
Fontenot, Joseph P 99
Freed, Virgil H 76
Fungaroli, A. Alexander 109
Caller, William S 6
Glysson, Eugene A 124
Golueke, Clarence G 60
Gray, Donald H 82
Grethlein, Hans E 82
Gross, M. Grant 113
Grove, Cornelius S 92
Hart, Samuel A 15, 29
Hazen, Thamon E 23
Heimburg, Richard W 49
Hill, Charles H 87
Hoffman, Donald A 69
Hortenstine, Charles C 8
Howes, James R 31
Hulbert, Samuel F 17
Jeris, John S 8
Kaiser, Elmer R 42, 46, 68
Kelly, James L 87
Klein, Donald A 83
Knuth, David T 5
Kramer, Amihud 95
Kruse, Cornelius W 57
Leatherwood, James M 100
Liebman, Jon C 55
Lindsay, Willard L 12
Long, Sterling K 70
McKinney, Ross E 15, 127
Malina, Joseph F., Jr 126
Malisch, Ward R 94
Mercer, Walter A 3
Merz, Robert C 107
Miller, Byron F 73
Miller, Paul D 48
Miner, J. Ronald 30
Morgan, Peter E. D 77
Moulton, Lyle K Ill
Myrick, H. Nugent 16, 127
Oswald, William J 85
Pfeffer, John T. ' 88
Pohland, Frederick G 129
Purdom, P. Walton 41, 123
Rose, Walter A 11
Sarofim, Adel F 47
Scarsbrook, Clarence E 4
Sheaffer, John R 63
Shuster, William W 72, 123
Silverman, Leslie 38
Snyder, William C 66
Spradlin, Bobby C 54
133
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Stephens, Edgar R 24 Updegraff, David M. . • 78
Stephenson, Marvin E 112 Wilson, David G 89
Stewart, George F 14 Witzel, Stanley A 18
Susag, Russell H 65, 124 Wren, Eddie J 72, 111
Taiganides, E. Paul 16, 21 Zaltzman, Raul 125
Thygeson, John R 34 Zandi, Iraj 114
U.S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1971 O - 4I3-24O
134
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Envirsnm,~.*r;"r:.l ?rrt3ction Agency
Lil.r:,.-.;, . . • '
1 Iforoh w;.c .v jl-rive
Chicago, Illinois 60606
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U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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