U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
! i I ' 1 !
INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE NO.
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Other publications in the
FWPCA Publication No. I.
Industrial Waste Profile series
W.P.- 1:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 2:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 3:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 5:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 6:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 7:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 8:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.- 9:
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.-10:
and
and
Blast Furnace
Steel Mills
Motor Vehicles
Parts
Paper Mills
Petroleum Refining
Canned and Frozen
Fruits and Vegetables
Leather Tanning and
Finishing
Meat Products
Dairies
Plastics Materials and
Resins
FWPCA Publication No. I.W.P.-4
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THE COST OF
CLEAN WATER
Volume III
Industrial Waste Profiles
No. 4 - Textile Mill Products
U. S. Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.25
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iii
PREFACE
The Industrial Waste Profiles are part of the National Requirements and
Cost Estimate Study required by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
as amended. The Act requires a comprehensive analysis of the require-
ment and costs of treating municipal and industrial wastes and other ef-
fluents to attain prescribed water quality standards.
The Industrial Waste Profiles were established to describe the source
and quantity of pollutants produced by each of the ten industries stud-
ied. The profiles were designed to provide industry and government
with information on the costs and alternatives involved in dealing ef-
fectively with the industrial water pollution problem. They include
descriptions of the costs and effectiveness of alternative methods of
reducing liquid wastes by changing processing methods, by intensifying
use of various treatment methods, and by increasing utilization of
wastes in by-products or water reuse in processing. They also describe
past and projected changes in processing and treatment methods.
The information provided by the profiles cannot possibly reflect the1
cost or wasteload situation for a given plant. However, it is hoped
that the profiles, by providing a generalized framework for analyzing
individual plant situations, will stimulate industry's efforts to find
more efficient ways to reduce wastes than are generally practiced to-
day.
Commissioner
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS
Prepared for F.W.P.C.A.
FWPCA Contract Number 14-12-101
June 30, 1967
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
September 1967
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iv
SCOPE
The scope of material included in this profile report
conforms to the requirements of the United States Department of
the Interior Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
Contract Number 14-12-101. Within the available 90 day study
period, engineering and economic data has been critically studied
by means of a total industry approach. The relationship of the
product to the alternative sub-system manufacturing processes
has been reviewed in the field and office with responsible industry
representatives. The cognizent professional associations, and
industrial experts have presented their data and viewpoint, and
have reviewed our draft information. Key plant managers have
cooperated in allowing limited spot checks of their plant sub-
processes and waste sampling. The.literature has, of course,
been completely reviewed.
Because of the wide diversity of plants and processes,
we have attempted to achieve a comprehensive overview of the
approximate subprocesses. We have evaluated the total relationship
of products produced, waste pollution load, economics involved,
and long term environmental quality factors.
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page
1. PREFACE iii
2. SCOPE iv
3. TABLE OF CONTENTS v-xi
4. SUMMARY TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS 1
5. WOOL TEXTILE WEAVING AND FINISHING 8
INTRODUCTION 9
I. PROCESSES AND WASTES 10
A. Fundamental Processes 10
B. Significant Pollutants 13
C. Process Water Reuse - 1964 13
D. Subprocess Trends 13
E. Waste Control Problems 14
F. Subprocess Technologies 15
1. Older Technology 15
2. Prevalent Technology 16
3. Newer More Advanced Technology 17
4. Plant Classification 18
II. GROSS WASTE QUANTITIES 19
A. Daily Waste Quantities 19
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vi
(Table of Contents - Cont'd)
B. Wasteload Production Rates 21
C. Total Wasteload 21
D. Gross Wasteload Projections 21
E. Seasonal Variations 22
III. WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES 23
A. Processing Practices 23
B. Treatment Practices 25
1. Removal Efficiencies 25
2. Rates of Adoption 27
3. Discharge to Municipal Sewers 27
C. By-Production Utilization 28
D. Net Waste Quantities - 1963 28
E. Projected Met Wasteload 28
IV. COST INFORMATION 30
A. Existing Facilities Costs 30
B. Processing and Treatment Costs 30
V. LIST OF TABLES
1-1 Subprocess Trends 14
II-1 Daily Waste Quantities 20
III-l Process Pollution Reduction 24
III-2 Treatment Removal Efficiencies 26
III-3 Projected Net Wasteloads 29
IV-1 Small Plant, Old Technology Costs 32
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Vll
(Table of Contents - Cont'd)
IV-2 Medium Plant, Old Technology Costs 33
IV-3 Large Plant, Old Technology Costs 34
IV-4 Small Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs 35
IV-5 Medium Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs 37
IV-6 Large Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs 37
IV-7 Small Plant, New Technology Costs 38
IV-8 Medium Plant, New Technology Costs 39
IV-9 Large Plant, New Technology Costs 40
IV-10 Industry Wide Summary of Costs 41
VI. LIST OF PLATES
1. Plate One: Process Flow Chart 42
2. Plate Two: Waste Treatment Flow Chart 43
VII. SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY 44
7. COTTON TEXTILE FINISHING 45
INTRODUCTION 46
I. PROCESSES AND WASTES 47
A. Fundamental Processes 47
B. Significant Pollutants 51
C. Process Water Reuse - 1964 51
D. Subprocess Trends 52
E. Waste Control Problems 54
F. Subprocess Technologies 54
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viii
(Table of Contents - Cont'd)
1. Older Technology 54
2. Prevalent Technology 54
3. Newer More Advanced Technology 56
4. Plant Classification 57
II. GROSS WASTE QUANTITIES 59
A. Daily Waste Quantities 59
B. Wasteload Production Rates 61
C. Total Wasteload 61
D. Gross Wasteload Projections 62
E. Seasonal Variations 62
III. WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES 63
A. Processing Practices 63
B. Treatment Practices 65
1. Removal Efficiencies 65
2. Rates of Adoption 66
3. Discharge to Municipal Sewers 68
C. By-Product Utilization 68
D. Net Waste Quantities - 1963 68
E. Projected Net Wasteload 68
IV. COST INFORMATION 71
A. Existing Facilities Costs 71
B. Processing and Treatment Costs 71
V. LIST OF TABLES
1-1 Subprocess Trends 53
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IX
(Table of Contents - Cont'd)
II-1 Daily Waste Quantities 60
III-l Process Pollution Reduction 64
III-2 Treatment Removal Efficiencies 66
III-3 Projected Net Wasteloads 69
IV-1 Small Plant, Old Technology Costs 73
IV-2 Medium Plant, Old Technology Costs 74
IV-3 Large Plant, Old Technology Costs 75
IV-4 Small Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs 76
IV-5 Medium Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs 77
IV-6 Large Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs 78
IV-7 Small Plant, New Technology Costs 79
IV-8 Medium Plant, New Technology Costs 80
IV-9 Large Plant, New Technology Costs 81
IV-10 Industry Wide Summary of Costs 82
VI. LIST OF PLATES
1. Plate One: Process Flow Chart 83
2. Plate Two: Waste Treatment Flow Chart 84
VII. SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY 85
8. SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FINISHING 87
INTRODUCTION 88
I. PROCESSES AND WASTES 39
A. Fundamental Processes 89
B. Significant Pollutants 92
C. Process Water Reuse - 1964 95
D. Subprocess Trends 95
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(Table of Contents - Cont'd)
E. Waste Control Problems 97
F. Subprocess Technologies 98
1. Older Technology
2. Prevalent Technology
3. Newer More Advanced Technology
4. Plant Classification
II. GROSS WASTE QUANTITIES 99
A. Daily Waste Quantities 99
B. Wasteload Production Rates 100
C. Total Wasteload 101
D. Gross Wasteload Projections 102
E. Seasonal Variations 102
III. WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES 103
A. Processing Practices 103
B. Treatment Practices 104
1. Removal Efficiencies 104
2. Rates of Adoption 105
3. Discharge to Municipal Sewers 106
C. By-Product Utilization 107
D. Net Waste Quantities - 1963 107
E. Projected Net Wasteload 107
IV. COST INFORMATION 109
A. Existing Facilities Costs 109
B. Processing and Treatment Costs 109
V. LIST OF TABLES
1-1 Significant Pollutants 93
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(Table of Contents - cont'd)
1-2 Subprocess Trends 96
II-l Daily Waste Quantites 100
II-2 Average Wasteload Production Rates 101
III-l Process Pollution Reduction 103
III-2 Treatment Removal Efficiencies 105
III-3 Projected Net Wasteloads
IV-1 Small Plant, Old Technology Costs
IV-2 Medium Plant, Old Technology Costs 112
IV-3 Large Plant, Old Technology Costs H3
IV-4 Small Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs H4
IV-5 Medium Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs H5
IV-6 Large Plant, Prevalent Technology Costs
IV-7 Small Plant, New Technology Costs
IV-8 Medium Plant, New Technology Costs 118
IV-9 Large Plant, New Technology Costs H9
IV-10 Industry Wide Summary of Costs 120
VI. LIST OF PLATES
1. Plate One: Cellulose Fiber Process Flow Chart 121
2. Plate Two: Non-Cellulose Fiber Process Flow Chart 122
3. Plate Three: Waste Treatment Flow Chart 123
VII. SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY 12A
9- APPENDIXES
I. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 125
II. GLOSSARY 13°
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SUMMARY TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS
The textile industry as a. whole is a major factor in
the American economy. Approximately 900,000 people are employed
in over 7000 plants. According to the 1966 Statistical Abstract
of the United States, the industry has an invested capital of
over $10 billion, and spent over $1 billion on new plants and
equipment in 1966.
This Industrial Waste Profile is divided into three
major sections. The first section surveys the Wool Textile
Weaving and Finishing Industry; the second section, the Cotton
textile Finishing Industry; and the third section, the Synthetic
textile Finishing Industry. All of these industries are complex,
variable, and in constant transition. As research and develop-
ment provide new chemicals, processes, machinery, and techniques,
and as consumer demand for types of fabric and color varies, the
wastes generated by the industry change also. For this reason,
the study has emphasized the principal types of textiles produced.
Many less common products such as linen, olefins, etc. have not
been specifically described.
For the purposes of this study, it is important to
differentiate between the finishing process and the textile
operations preceding it. Except for the scouring of raw wool,
the making of raw fiber into unfinished cloth or yarn is essentially
a dry operation. The finishing operation is a large producer of
liquid wastes, however, and is the segment of the industry which
concerns us.
Cotton fiber is the single most popular and important
fiber in the American textile industry. Its excellent absorptive
and user characteristics, as well as reasonable price, contribute
to its stable market of about 7-9 million bales per year consumed
during the past decade; this quantity represents approximately
one-half of the total fiber used by our textile industry. The
wool and rayon market is also reasonably stable, approximating
10 and 16 percent respectively of the total decade's fiber con-
sumption. Non-cellulosic synthetic fibers have markedly increased
their annual domestic consumption from approximately 3 million
bales equivalent in 1957 to some 6 million bales equivalent in
1966. Natural fiber mixtures in blend with synthetics are becoming
increasingly popular because of cost, appearance and utility.
As a general rule, there are four basic subprocesses
involved in the finishing of textiles. These can be classified
as follows:
287-027 O - 68 - 2
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1. Scouring
2. Dyeing and/or Printing
3. Bleaching
4. Special Finishing
Special finishing (4) is meant to include all subprocesses which
cannot be classified in one of the preceding three categories.
Cotton and synthetic fibers are generally woven into cloth
before any finishing operations are applied. Wool is generally
washed (scoured) and dyed before being woven into cloth. In either
case, weaving contributes indirectly to the wasteload by the addition
of sizes, and anti-static lubricants which may be required to fa-
cilitate handling and use of the fiber or fiber blend.
Desizing and scouring of natural fibers - cotton and wool -
removes natives impurities such as dirt and grease as well as the
chemical additives mentioned above. In the wool industry, scouring
removes impurities approximately equal in weight to the residual
fiber weight, creating one of the strongest liquid wastes in terms
of BOD, of any industry. Synthetic fiber scouring wastes, on the
other hand, are relatively low in both pollution and volume due to
the lack of natural impurities and the small amounts of additives
used. The cotton finishing industry also commonly desizes woven
cloth for starch removal followed by a thorough scouring, for the
removal of impurities.
In both the cotton and wool industries, scouring and
washing is the major source of pollution, contributing 50 to 75
percent of the total plant BOD and solids. In the synthetic textile
industry, scouring and washing is not a major contributor to the
wastestream, generally producing less than half of the total plant
pollution measured as BOD.
The types of dyes employed by the textile industry in-
clude direct, acid, fiber reactive, vat, basic, naphthol, sulphur,
and acetate. Usage depends on the characteristics of the fiber,
the color, and the desired finish. Some synthetic textiles
require the use of special carriers to achieve satisfactory pene-
tration of the dye into the fiber. These carriers are very highly
polluting and present a major source of pollution in the finishing
of these synthetic fibers. In some cases, pressure dyeing at high
temperatures is an alternative method to the use of carriers in
dyeing. This method avoids both the cost and pollution of carrier
dyeing while allowing satisfactory dye penetration in a shorter
period of time.
Printing is almost invariably done by roller application
of various dye pastes. Chemical treatment follows to fix the
color, and a final wash and rinse removes any residue. Printing
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process waste pollution is usually not high.
The pollution load from the dyeing and printing sub-
processes is approximately 3 to 10 percent of total plant BOD and
solids in the wool industry. In cotton finishing the range is
15 to 35 percent, and for synthetics it is 5 to 80 percent. Acids,
salts, and organic dyes of many types are employed and then wasted
to the sewer after each dye cycle.
Bleaching is generally accomplished by soaking the cloth
in a standing bath containing an oxidizing agent in solution, or
in a continuous bleaching process. Nearly all of the cotton pro-
duced is bleached regardless of its final color using hypochlorite
or hydrogen peroxide. Wool is commonly bleached with hydrogen
peroxide, and acid. Synthetics are bleached with hydrogen peroxide,
sodium chlorite, peracetic acid, sodium chloride, or other chemicals,
Only a small percentage of wool and synthetic cloth
production is bleached white. Natural wool is yellow in color and
bleaching is required only when white or light colors are desired.
Synthetic cloth is bleached for the removal of stains or when a
translucent bluish-white color is desired.
Bleach wastes may be toxic and acidic but are not high
in pollutant concentration and generally do not contribute more
than 5 percent of the plant's organic wasteload.
Special finishes include waterproofing, moth-proofing,
fire-proofing, pre-shrinking, brightening, anti-wrinkling, etc.
In addition, wool is fulled to achieve a felt-like appearance
and cotton may be mercerized or causticized to smooth its surface.
Most of these special finishing processes involve chemical treat-
ment and removal of residue by washing and/or rinsing.
The pollution contribution of special finishing sub-
processes is in the range of 5 to 15 percent of the plant total.
It is evident that the wasteloads from each basic
subprocess vary over a wide range of values due to the large
number of different fibers produced, each having its own dis-
tinctive characteristics. However, variations also exist between
different plants processing the same fiber, due to technological
differences in production procedures and many other variables
which may exist. Additionally, many of the nation's textile mills
are involved in the production of cloth composed of a combination
of fibers requiring a variable process methodology dependent on
cloth composition.
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Although quantities may vary, the wasteload character-
istics are generally similar for all textile mills processing the
same fiber.
Wool wastes are characterized by high BOD, high solids
concentration, and high grease content. Dye wastes contain color
which is extremely difficult to remove by common waste treatment
methods. Wool grease presents an especially difficult problem
in that pre-treatment for removal may be necessary before efficient
biological treatment of the plant effluent is feasible. The cost
of grease removal is generally higher than the market value of
recovered wool grease.
Cotton finishing wastes are not nearly as strong as those
produced by the wool industry, having no grease and a relatively
low solids content. Other characteristics are high BOD (although
considerably lower than that found in wool wastes) and possible
high color content. The average pollutant quantities produced per
1000 Ib of finished cotton are 155 Ib BOD, 70 Ib suspended solids,
and 205 Ib total dissolved solids. Cotton finishing wastes can be
treated by common biological methods and do not present any special
problems.
Synthetic finishing wastes are generally lower than cotton
finishing wastes in pollutant quantities and characteristics. One
significant difference can be the toxicity of synthetic dye wastes
when metallic ion content carriers are used. Pollutant quantities
per 1000 Ib of finished cloth vary over a wide range of values due
to the many different types of fibers processed. The ranges are
20 to 250 Ib BOD, 20 to 160 Ib suspended solids, and 20 to 600 Ib
total dissolved solids. A breakdown of these quantities by type of
fiber is given in the text.
Toxicity of synthetic fiber dye wastes can retard or
prevent biological waste treatment when concentrations are signifi-
cant. In such cases chemical pre-treatment will be required prior
to biological treatment or discharge to municipal sewers.
Water usage in the textile industries is relatively high
due to the large amounts of water required in washing and rinsing
operations. Cotton and wool finishing mills use 30,000 to 70,000
gal of water per 1000 Ib of cloth. Synthetic finishing mills use
considerably less water, ranging from 3000 to 29,000 gal/1000 Ib cloth
This lower water requirement reflects the lack of natural impurities
on synthetic fibers, allowing less thorough washing as compared to
cotton or wool. Water reuse has not been practiced to a great
extent, however, it is expected that greater recirculation practices
will be adopted in the future as water costs and pressures from
regulatory agencies increase.
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The wastes from a textile mill come from two major sources:
(1) the natural impurities in the fiber such as dirt, grease, vege-
table matter, etc. and (2) the process chemicals used such as
detergents, dyes, sizes, oils, anti-stats, and lubricants. Signifi-
cant reductions in pollution have been achieved by the substitution
of low BOD chemicals for higher BOD chemicals. For example, the
substitution of synthetic detergents for soap in wool scouring may
decrease the BOD load by 25 percent. The use of continuous rather
than batch type manufacturing subprocesses has been found to reduce
both chemical and water requirements, reducing BOD loads by as much
as 20 percent. Some of the natural impurities can be recovered
from the waste and disposed as a solid waste or sold, as in the
case of wool grease. In general, reductions in waste generated may
result from substitution of process chemicals, more efficient
machinery, better process control and instrumentation, more efficient
housekeeping and recovery and reuse of chemicals.
When possible, industrial waste treatment methods currently
employ low cost processes developed for domestic sanitary sewage.
Additionally, screening and equalizing basins are used for pre-
treatment.
Textile finishing plant effluents contain waste materials
similar to the constituents of domestic sewage and can be effectively
treated to any degree desired within the constraints of process
technology and related treatment facility expenditures.
Segregation of types and concentrations of industrial
wastes and recycling of process fluids can reduce total water
consumed and solids generated. Pre-treatment of industrial wastes
containing chemical constituents that are complex, or not readily
bio-degradable, or are odorous, highly acidic, basic, or otherwise
toxic may require special additional costly pre-treatment plants.
Chemical-mechanical facilities involving such processes as pre-
cipitation, flotation, scrubbers, neutralization tank, and other
processes can be used to produce an effluent with more acceptable
bio-degradable characteristics. The conversion of wastes into a
useful resource, or alternatively, the modification of the waste
producing subprocess to reduce waste, is a generally desirable
goal.
Screening is usually used to remove fibers which may
hinder subsequent treatment operations. Equalization and holding
is generally necessary due to batch dumping of many of the process
wastes/which would otherwise create shock loads and intermittent
flows through the treatment system.
The percentage of textile wastes treated by municipal
plants is also increasing steadily with urbanization of formerly
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rural areas and construction of new plants in established communities.
Generally capital costs of manufacturing have increased
greatly since 1950, however, operating and maintenance costs have
decreased slightly allowing overall production costs to remain
fairly stable. The stability in production costs can be attributed
to the trend toward automation, thus avoiding the rising costs of
labor.
The total number of employees on textile mill payrolls
has decreased approximately 30 percent from 1950 to 1963. In this
same time period, production has increased approximately 22 percent.
A large portion of this increase can be attributed to synthetic
textiles since cotton and wool production has not increased to a
great extent. Total production per employee has increased approxi-
mately 57 percent in the time period of 1950 to 1963.
Costs of treatment in the textile industries are a small
fraction of the costs of production. The percentage of waste
treatment cost in total production cost is estimated at 2.0 percent
for wool, 1.7 percent for cotton, and 2.2 percent for synthetic
textiles. These percentages are for the entire industry. The main
body of the text covers costs throughly in section IV of each
textile study.
The cotton finishing industry is the largest producer of
wastes in the textile finishing field. It is estimated that the
net pollution reaching the nation's watercourses from cotton finish-
ing operations will be 270 million Ib of BOD in 1967. The contri-
bution of the wool industry is estimated at 130 million Ib and that
of the synthetic textile industry 106 million Ib of BOD in 1967.
These estimates represent the difference between the waste generated
and the waste removed by industrial and municipal waste treatment
plants.
By concurrently projecting the growth of the industries
and the rate of adoption of waste treatment practices, a projection
ot net waste quantities can be derived. In the cotton industry,
the net waste discharged is expected to decrease steadily to half
of the 1963 quantity in 1977. Net wool wastes discharged are also
expected to decrease steadily to 75 percent of its 1963 value in
1977. Due to the tremendous growth rate of the synthetic textile
industry, the net waste discharged is expected to increase, reaching
a peak in 1968, then decrease gradually returning to its 1963 level
in 1977. (A year by year breakdown of the above discussion can be
found in table form in the text.) The anticipated decrease is net
pollution reaching the nation's watercourses from the textile finish-
ing industry is based on the assumption that more efficient manu-
facturing processes will be utilized, a larger percentage of the
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waste will be treated, waste treatment facilities will achieve more
efficient pollution removal, increased pressure by regulatory
agencies on all levels, and the expected rapid increase in use of
synthetic fibers.
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Industrial Waste Profile
Wool Textile Weaving
and Finishing - SIC 2231
U. S. Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
I.W.P. Ho. 4 - Wool Textile Weaving and Finishing
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE STUDIES
TEXTILE INDUSTRY
SIC 2231. WOOL INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
Wool fiber is probably the most ancient and valuable cloth fiber used
by man. The American wool market is reasonably stable and approximates
about 400 million clean Ib or roughly 10 percent of the total fibers
consumed annually by our textile industry. Fine wool suiting, rugs,
blankets, sweaters, and other products are renowned for both their
beauty and utility. Wool mixtures in blend with synthetics and even
cotton are becoming increasingly popular because of their reduced cost,
improved weight, washability, and wear, and other characteristics. The
influence of recent synthetics competition has assisted in stimulating
some technological advancement into the wool processing industry. There
appears to be a trend toward larger plants to replace older, less
efficient operators. About 200 million clean Ib of fiber and 125 million
Ib of rugs are imported annually into the United States. Since raw
wool fiber finishing produces particularly strong waste pollution,
by-product reclamation and effective treatment control measures are
needed.
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INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE STUDIES
TEXTILE INDUSTRY
SIC 2231. WOOL INDUSTRY
I. PROCESSES AND WASTES
A. Fundamental Processes
Raw sheep wool receives a preliminary wash and rinse.
Then, the fairly clean wool is carbonized with acid and heating
to remove the residual waste. After another washing, the fibers
are ready for carding, fulling and weaving. They can be dyed
either before or after weaving.
The fundamental processes in the production of finished
wool are scouring, dyeing, carding, fulling, washing, carbonizing,
and bleaching. Although fulling discharges little direct waste,
it contributes to the total wasteload by the addition of bio-
degradable chemicals which are removed in the washing process.
Except for carding, all of the remaining processes are direct
sources of waste.
The following brief description of processes is a general-
ized summary based on industry practices over the past 20 years.
1. Scouring; Scouring is carried out in a series of 2 to
6 bowls of 1500 to 3000 gal capacity each (known as a scouring
train). A 4-bowl train is the type most commonly used for an
average typical plant. The first 2 bowls are filled with a detergent
solution generally composed of soap or synthetic detergent (often
non-ionic), alkali, and water. The third bowl is a standing rinse
and the last may be either a standing or overflowing rinse. In
many plants, a counterflow arrangement may be used where the
relatively cleaner waters at the end of the train flow backward for
reuse in the preceding bowls.
The temperature is usually maintained between 115° and 125eF
although temperatures as high as 150°F have been used, especially
with synthetic detergents. Mechanical rakes advance the wool through
the'bowls continuously, passing it through squeeze rollers between
bowls to remove most of the dirty scouring solution before admitting
it to the cleaner bath.
Many mills find it more economical to have their wool de-
greased by commission houses using the aforementioned processes*
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Scouring emulsifies the dirt and grease and produces a
brown, thickly turbid waste which is often covered with a greasy
scum and contains considerable settleable mineral matter. It is
strongly alkaline and very putrescible.
The bowls are generally dumped once at the end of each 8 hr
day at which time BOD concentration may reach 40,000 ppm in the
first bowl. The BOD concentration in each succeeding bowl is usually
about 10 percent of that in the previous bowl. The scouring process
contributes 55-75 percent of the total BOD. About half of the raw
wool weight is removed in scouring.
2. Dyeing; The wool may be dyed either before or after
the weaving process. If done before, it is called stock or yarn
dyeing. If done after, it is called piece dyeing. Because of the
current popularity of multi-color woven fabric, yarn or stock dyeing
is prevalently used.
Currently, stock and yarn are usually dyed in pressure
vessels with controlled liquid recirculation by pumping. Formerly,
older stock and yarn dyeing processes used open vats where paddles
moved the wool through the dye bath. Although spool and skein dye-
ing are both in current use, most wool is dyed in skeins, placed in
packages, and then rewound.
The dyeing and printing processes are very difficult to
classify or discuss because of the very great differences in the types
of dyes used and the manner in which any one type of dye is applied
to the goods. The dye wastes are all large in volume and high in
color, and many of them are toxic.
For wool, a dyeing assistant is generally used and often
is the source of an additional pollutional load.
3. Carding: The general process by which scoured wool
fibers are aligned for spinning into yarn is known as carding. This
process is a "Dry" process in that water is not used and therefore
no wastes are discharged. Wool fiber must be oiled before it is
carded, spun and woven to increase cohesion of the fibers and to
facilitate related processes. The carding oil remains on the wool
while it is being spun and woven into cloth on looms. It is washed
out following the fulling process.
4. Fulling; Fulling is a felting process which shrinks,
tightens, and smooths the wool either for non-woven felts or woven
cloth. No wasteload is generated directly, but subsequent washing
creates waste substances.
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The wool is first impregnated with a fulling agent which
may be soap, acid, or a synthetic chemical and subjected to heat
and pressure. The agent is added in amounts varying from 2 to 10
percent OWF (of weight fiber). The wool is then rotated in a full-
ing machine until the desired extent of shrinkage and felting are
achieved.
5- Washing; After fulling, the residual waste materials,
which may amount to about 10-25 percent OWF, are washed out of the
cloth, generally in a string or rope washer. The cloth is pulled
between the rollers of the washer, then its ends are sewn together
to form a string which circulates through the washer 10 to 20 times.
The bottom of the washer is filled with a detergent solution (soap
or synthetic) through which the cloth passes in its cycle. After
completing this initial wash cycle, the detergent solution is drained
and the cloth is circulated while being sprayed with clean water.
The rinse rate on most machines is usually 15,000 to 40,000 gal/hr.
In some plants, the cloth is re-cycled through a second wash and
rinse. In either case, the amount of water used per 1000 Ib of
wool averages about 40,000 gal and may reach 100,000 gal.
Washing after fulling is the second largest source of BOD,
contributing about 20 to 35 percent of the total. The volume of
wastewater discharged is about 65 percent of the total. The
concentration of BOD in the detergent solution varies from 4000 to
11,500 ppm.
6. Carbonizing: Carbonizing of fabrics is a common
finishing process which removes any traces of vegetable matter
remaining on the wool.
The wool is first wet out, then immersed in 4-6 percent
sulfuric acid. The wool is squeezed between rollers to remove excess
acid and heated to 212° - 220°F. At this temperature, the vegetable
matter is charred and loosened. The wool is again squeezed between
rollers and shaken in a duster to remove the charred particles.
Acid removal is achieved by preliminary rinsing and neutral-
ization in 2 1/2% sodium carbonate solution. The wool is then
subjected to a final running rinse to remove all traces of alkalinity.
The BOD comes entirely from the vegetable matter and the
amount contributed by this process is very small, usually less than
1 percent of the total.
7. Bleaching; The bleaching operation may be done after
the scouring process (often in the last bowl of the scouring train)
or it may be done after finishing. In either case the percentage of
wool bleached is very small and the contribution to plant BOD is low,
-------
13
-------
14
TABLE 1-1
SUBPROCESS TRENDS
Production Process and
Significant Subprocesses
Scouring
Soap/alkali
Syndet
Non- ionic syndet
Solvent
Dyeing
Sodium Sulfate
Sulfur Dioxide
Hydrogen Peroxide
Acetic Acid
Su If uric Acid
Carding
Olive Oil
Synthetic Oil*
Fulling
Soap
Synthetic Chemicals
Sulfuric Acid
Washing
Soap
Syndet
Carbonizing
Sulfuric Acid
Estimated Percentage of Plants
Employing Process in:
1950
80
0
0
20
100
40
40
20
100
20
80
95
0
5
100
0
100
1963
0
80
0
20
100
10
70
20
100
0
100
10
70
20
0
100
100
1967
0
50
40
10
100
5
75
20
100
0
100
0
80
20
0
100
100
1972
0
40
50
10
100
0
85
15
100
0
100
0
90
20
0
100
100
1982
0
30
65
5
100
0
95
5
100
0
100
0
100
0
0
100
100
* 20 percent BOD content by weight
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15
E. Waste Control Problems
Of all the textile wastes, wool scouring wastes are generally
considered the most difficult to treat. Raw wool contains an average
of about SO percent impurities and fibers. Approximately 50 percent
of these impurities are wool grease (lanolin) ,20 percent suint, 20
percent inert dirt, and 10 percent vegetable matter. The impurities
are easily dissolved in water, except for the grease. In an average
plant, 50 to 60 Ib of chemicals (detergents, alkali, softeners, etc.)
are used for each 1000 Ib of scoured wool. The total wasteload is,
therefore, composed of 1000 Ib of grease, suint, and dirt; plus 50 to
60 Ib of chemicals, or 1050 to 1060 Ib of total solids for each 1000
Ib of wool scoured.
Costs of treating this effluent by chemical means is re-
latively high and treatment by biological means is not feasible
without pretreatment for grease removal. Chemical or mechanical
methods can be used to remove grease. However, the process is an
economical burden due to the lack of a market for recovered grease.
Solvent scouring is a technically feasible method of grease
removal. In the solvent scouring method, the grease is removed in
the solvent distillery and the spent solvent is distilled and reused.
However, the lack of a market for grease creates a financial bias
against this process.
F. Subprocess Technologies
1. Older Technology; Older technology is the procedure
followed by the majority of wool mills in the year 1950.
Scouring: Grease wool is scoured in a 3 to 5 bowl
scouring train or in 3 to 5 separate bowls in which wool is washed
in batches. Soap and soda ash are used in the first 2 or 3 bowls
with clean water in the remaining bowls. The last bowl is a continu-
ously running overflow rinse which is not recirculated or reused in
any way.
Stock Dyeing: Dyeing is done in sunken open top kettles
containing acetic acid (62 percent BOD OWC) and dye solution. The
wool is placed in wire mesh baskets with slow moving paddles and
immersed in the solution.
Carding: Due to shortages, low BOD carding oils were
developed during World War II and were found to be as good as, or
better than, olive oil. Further improvements in these synthetic
oils had made their use normal practice by 1950.
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16
Fulling: Soap is generally used as a fulling agent,
often mixed with small amounts of soda ash. The cloth is immersed
in the fulling solution then passed through squeeze rollers which
remove any excess, allowing 5 to 10 percent OWF of the solution to
remain in the cloth.
Washing: Soap and soda ash plus softening agents are
used in the string washer in which approximately 46,000 gal of water
are used for each 1000 Ib of wool. Rinse water is generally not
reused.
Carbonizing: Carbonizing is done with a 6 percent
sulfuric acid solution and 212°F oven. Crushing and dusting are
done mechanically and neutralization is achieved by immersion in a
soda ash solution. The wool is rinsed before and after neutraliza-
tion with 16,000* gal of water/1000 Ib of wool.
Bleaching and Piece Dyeing: Bleaching is done in the
dye kettles generally using hydrogen peroxide. The latter usually
require heating to 115°F for at least 3 hours in order to obtain
a good bleach. Piece dyeing is rare, but the procedure and process
chemicals are similar to those used for stock dyeing of wool fibers.
2. Prevalent Technology; The production procedure followed
by typical plants in the base year (1963) can be broken down in the
following order:
Scouring: Depending on the size of the plant, grease
wool is initially scoured in a 5 to 5 bowl train using a low BOD
12 percent OWC (of weight chemical) synthetic detergent in the first
2 or 3 bowls. The rinse water from the last bowl (or bowls) is
recirculated in a counterflow operation.
Stock Dyeing: The scoured wool is normally stock dyed
in pressure kettles using ammonium sulfate or sulfuric acid and
sodium sulfates, plus dye solution. The type of dye used depends
on the color desired, fastness to light and water, and other
properties.
Carding: A low BOD oil (approximately 20 percent OWC)
is sprayed onto the fiber while it is being mixed, in amounts ranging
from 1 to 8 percent. The fiber is then drawn, spun,and woven into
cloth.
Fulling: The wool cloth is passed through an impregnat-
ing box containing a synthetic fulling agent of low BOD (about 12
percent OWC). The amount added (amount remaining in cloth) depends
on the degree of felting desired, and usually falls in a range of
5 to 10 percent OWC.
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17
Washing: A low BOD (12 percent OWC) synthetic detergent
is used in a string washer in which the entire wash-rinse cycle is
carried out twice to insure complete removal of the oil and fulling
agent. Some of the rinse water is recirculated and used to make the
detergent solution.
Carbonizing: The wool is carbonized with a 6 percent
sulfuric acid solution and oven heating to 212°F. It is neutralized
by soaking in a soda ash solution followed by a running rinse of
16,000 gal/1000 Ib of wool.
Bleaching and Piece Dyeing: The small percentage of
wool cloth which is to remain white is bleached with sulfur dioxide
or hydrogen peroxide in vats which are also used for dyeing. Some
plants may bleach in the last bowl of the scouring train before the
fiber is woven.
Optical brightening, using acetic acid and fluorescent
organic compounds,is used in many mills. Some mills may do a small
amount of dyeing in small dye becks following all finishing processes.
3. Newer More Advanced Technology:
Scouring: The grease wool is packed into large vacuum
kiers and scoured with methyl alcohol to remove suint salts. The
wool is then scoured with isopropyl or ethyl alcohol to remove grease.
The spent solvent can be distilled for reuse and grease recovery.
Finally, the wool is washed in water to remove dirt and other soluble
particles remaining on the fiber.
Stock Dyeing: Scoured wool is stock-dyed by a continuous
process using pressure equipment similar to a scouring train but with
8 compartments, and automatic controls to prevent or control felting.
Ammonium sulfate and dye solution are used in various concentrations
in the compartments.
Carding: Low BOD carding oils (less than 3 percent OWC)
are added in amounts of 1 to 8 percent OWF.
Fulling: The fulling agents used are either synthetic
chemicals or sulfuric acid -' hydrogen peroxide combinations. Fulling
is still done in tubs with beating-action rollers. This type of
equipment has been in use for many years.
The fulling solution is completely neutral and contributes
no BOD in itself. Spray rinsing with recirculation or a running rinse
in a continuous piece washer may be used.
287-027 O - 68 - 3
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18
Carbonizing: Traditional methods of carbonizing have
not been improved to the extent of reducing the pollution loads;
however, some water reuse in rinsing may be practiced.
Bleaching and Piece Dyeing: Traditional methods of
bleaching and piece dyeing are followed in newer, technologically
advanced plants.
4. Plant Classification
The percentage of plants falling into each of the three
technology levels is estimated as follows:
Older 20 percent
Prevalent 70 percent
Newer 10 percent
Plant sizes are classified as follows:
Small Less than 5,000 Ib/week
Medium 5,000 to 20,000 Ib/week
Large More than 20,000 Ib/week
The relative proportion of small,-medium and large plants
included in each technology level are estimated as follows:
Small
Medium
Large
Older
40%
15
10
Prevalent
587,
75
78
Newer
27,
10
12
-------
19
II. GROSS WASTE QUANTITIES
A. Daily Waste Quantities
The average production of wool scouring and finishing
mills has been estimated at 3000 Ib/day of finished wool cloth.
The following table is based on this estimate and assumes that
average production is identical for all 3 levels of technology.
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20
TABLE II-1
DAILY WASTE QUANTITIES
PLANT PRODUCING 3000 Ib/day
Scouring
Dyeing
Washing
Carbonizing
Total
TECHNOLOGY LEVEL
OLDER
BOD Ib
760
152
465
6.2
1,383.2
GAL
24,800
9,300
144,000
49,600
227,700
PREVALENT
BOD Ib
680
31
198
6.2
915.2
GAL
6,200
9,300
130,000
49,600
195,100
NEW
BOD Ibs
31
28
93
6.2
158.2
GAL
1,500-6,200
9,300
130,000
49,600
190,450-195,100
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21
This table indicates that BOD wastes will decrease
markedly with the introduction of each newer level of technology
in all processes except carbonizing. At present it also indicates
that there is little reduction in waste quantities except in the
scouring process where significant reductions may be achieved with
the solvent scouring method. Unfortunately, this process is not
in widespread use in the industry.
B. Wasteload Production Rates
Wasteload production rates for the wool finishing industry
were derived by averaging information from several published sources,
These averages are shown in the following tabulation:
TECHNOLOGY LEVEL
WASTE
BOD lb/1000 Ib
Gal/1000 Ib
OLD
451
73,700
PREVALENT
296
63,000
NEW
51
61,500-63,000
In the above table, BOD figures are provided by Masselli and
Burford^ '. The BOD reductions between older and prevalent technology
levels are due to substitution of process chemicals. The additional
BOD reduction between prevalent and new technology levels is due to
better recovery of grease and suint. According to the above refer-
ence, these methods produce up to 89 percent overall BOD reduction.
About 23 percent overall reduction in wastewater generated is
possible by means of current water reuse, conservation, and process
improvements. Further advances can be achieved with improved
technology.
C. Total Wasteload
Statistics provided by the U.S. Department of Commerce
reveals that 412 million Ib of wool (scoured basis) were consumed by
mills in 1963. Based on this data and wasteload quantities from
Section II B, we estimate that in the base year 1963, the wool weaving
and finishing industry discharged approximately 26 billion gal of
wastewater. The total BOD produced was approximately 132 million Ib,
at an average concentration of 565 ppm. In addition, approximately
310 million Ib of grease were removed from the raw wool.
D. Gross Wasteload Projections
The following projections assume a continuous adaptation
of new techniques as they are developed, resulting in lower water
requirements and less pollution.
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22
GROSS WASTELOAD PROJECTIONS
Item
BOD - Million Ib
Wastewater-Billion gal
1968
132.8
28.30
1969
132.9
28.32
1970
133.0
28.35
1971
133.2
28.40
1972
133.2
28.40
1977
134.2
28.60
1982
136.0
29.00
E. Seasonal Variation
There appear to be no significant seasonal variations in the wool
finishing industry. The raw wool is stored and used as required by the wool
finishing industry.
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23
III WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES
A. Processing Practices
The following Table III-l outlines the relative pollution
reduction potentials of the various alternative subprocesses used
in the industry. The "older" technological method in each case is
used as a base to which all others are compared.
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24
TABLE III-l
PROCESS POLLUTION REDUCTION
Process and
Subprocesses
Scouring
Soap/Alkali
Syndet
Solvents
Dyeing
Acetic Acid
Ammonium Sulfate
Su If uric Acid
Washing
Soap/Alkali
Syndet
Syndet
Carbonizing
Su If uric Acid plus
Sodium Carbonate
BOD lb/
1000 lb
250
221
10
49
10
70
150
64
30
2
Waste Reduction
Effectiveness
(7.)
0
11.6
96
30
86
0
0
57.3
80
0
Remarks
Syndet denotes
Synthetic Detergent
20 percent BOD oil used
for carding
BOD reduction due to
use of 3 percent BOD
oil in carding
-------
25
III. WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES (cont'd)
B. Treatment Practices
1. Removal Efficiencies
Table III-2 shows removal efficiencies of various
waste treatment methods. Based on a typical waste generated by
prevalent plants in the base year 1963, the removal efficiencies
are expressed in terms of percentage of gross wasteload removed
by the removal process.
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26
TABLE III-2
TREATMENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES
Treatment
Method
Grease Recovery
Acid Cracking
Centrifuge
Evaporation
Screening
Sedimentation
Flotation
Chem. Coagulation
CaCl2
Lime + CaCl2
C02- CaCl2
Alum
Copperas
H2SC>4+ Alum
Urea + Alum
H2S04+ FeCl2
FeS(>4
Activated Sludge
Trickling Filtration
Lagoons
Normal Reduction Percent
BOD
20-30
20-30
95
0-10
30-50
30-50
40-70
60
15-25
20-56*
20*
21-83*
32-65*
59-84*
50-80
85-90
80-85
0-85
Grease
40-50
24-45
95
0
80-90
95-98
97
0-15
0-10
0-10
Color
0
0
0
0
10-50
10-20
75
10-30
10-30
10-30
Alkalinity
0
0
0
0
10-20
10-20
10-30
10-30
10-20
SS
0-50
40-50
20
50-65
50-65
80-95
80-95
80-95
90-95
90-95
30-70
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27
2. Rate of Adoption
The most common practices of waste treatment in the
wool industry are biological methods,such as sedimentation, activated
sludge, trickling filtration, and lagooning. Screening is almost
universally used to remove fibers which may possibly damage
subsequent treatment facilities. Equalization and holding is
generally necessary due to batch dumping of many of the process
wastes creating shock loads and intermittent flows through the
treatment system.
In the past, wool wastes were treated by chemical pre-
cipitation without pre-treatment for grease recovery; however, the
present trend is towards biological oxidation and chemical pre-treat-
ment due to economic factors.
Work in recent years by Souther and others indicates
clearly that the activated sludge process with modifications
(primarily extended aeration time and influent pH adjustment) will
consistently produce BOD reductions on the order of 90 percent. As
the discharge requirements imposed upon the textile finishing plants
are upgraded, it is probable that future waste treatment facilities
will be predominately of the activated sludge type.
The percentage of wool finishing wastes treated by
municipal plants is also increasing steadily as costs of building and
maintaining in-plant treatment facilities increase. Newer finishing
mills are being built close to municipalities rather than in rural
areas to take advantage of the availability of municipal treatment.
Much of this industry's waste is discharged to municipal
sewers because they are often located adjacent to or within population
centers. As these population centers expand, more sewers become
available to the industry, as indicated below:
3. Discharge to Municipal Sewers
Percentage of Industry Waste
Discharged to Municipal Sewer
Year
Percent
1950
34
1963
40
1967
60
1972
70
1977
75
1982
80
Industry wastes are generally pretreated by grease
removal techniques and screening prior to discharge into a municipal
system. Municipal waste treatment plants are not equipped to easily
handle the large amounts of grease produced by wool mills. Screening
for removal of fibers is also necessary to prevent clogging of
-------
28
biological treatment equipment and to reduce the quantity of
suspended matter. Carrying rates of waste production require
holding tanks and surge basins to minimize peak discharge and
provide for more or less uniform rates of release to sewers.
Municipal treatment without pre-treatment may be feasible in the
case of high capacity chemical coagulation treatment plants.
C. By-Product Utilization
By-product utilization, as previously indicated, depends
on economic considerations. It is estimated that 50,000 to 100,000
tons of wool grease and 20,000 to 40,000 tons of suint could be
utilized if the market for these products made it economically
feasible. Lanolin is recovered from the wool grease and potash
from the suint.
D. Net Waste Quantities - 1963
It is estimated that the wool industry discharged 26 billion
gal of waste water in 1963. Of this amount, an estimated 5.5 billion
gal were treated by industry-owned and-operated waste treatment
facilities and an additional 10 billion gal were treated in municipal
facilities, totaling 15.5 billion gal treated.
In Section II.A, the gross BOD production was estimated at
132 million Ib during 1963. Based upon waste pretreatment processes
then in effect, it is estimated that BOD removal efficiencies by
industry-operated plants averaged 70 percent, and municipally-operated
plants averaged 85 percent. On this basis the net BOD pollution load
reaching water courses from the wool finishing industry in 1963 equaled
70 million Ib of BOD.
E. Projected Net Waste Quantities
Table III-3 is a summary of the projected net waste
quantities reaching watercourses. It is based upon the previously
projected gross waste produced, rate of construction of treatment
facilities by industry, higher percentage of waste going into municipal
sewers, and improved techniques of waste treatment by industry and
municipalities.
-------
29
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-------
30
IV. COST INFORMATION
A. Existing Facilities Costs
Most wool finishing mills have at least some waste treat-
ment facility. In the majority of cases it is grease removal and
screening prior to discharge into a sewer, lagoon, or watercourse.
We estimate that the replacement value of industry-owned
and-operated treatment facilities in 1966 was $9.0 million.
The operation and maintenance expenditures in 1966 are
estimated at $5.0 million.
It must be noted that the above values are for industry
owned and operated plants only. We estimate that in 1966 approx-
mately 40 percent of the waste flow was treated by municipal
facilities. Since industry pays taxes and surcharges to support
these facilities,the true industry cost exceeds the foregoing
amounts.
We estimate that the replacement value of that portion of
municipal treatment facility construction attributable to this
industry waste is $10 million. On the same basis the annual operating
and maintenance cost is estimated at $4.0 million.
Totals: Replacement Value: $19 million.
Operation & Maintenance $9.0 million.
B. Processing and Treatment Costs
This portion of the survey analyzes costs involved in
subprocesses and end of line treatment. These are further broken
down into size of plant and state of technology; i.e., older,
prevalent, and newer. Because of the wide ranges in the information
feedback from the wool finishing industry, we have inserted ranges
in the following tables.
It should be noted that new machinery for subprocesses is
usually purchased by the industry on the basis of increasing
production efficiency and product quality - not on the basis of
decreasing the pollution load produced by the subprocess. Any such
decrease is merely a bonus in most cases.
It should also be noted that the end of the line waste
treatment has virtually no relationship to the technology of the
process that created the waste or the size of the finishing plant;
i.e., an older technology plant may have an extremely efficient,
modern, waste treatment facility and a modern, efficient finishing
-------
31
plant may have no waste treatment facility at all. With few
exceptions the end of the line treatment is selected primarily on
the basis of requirements imposed by regulating agencies responsible
for the watercourses being affected.
It should also be noted that we are required to estimate
costs for plants incorporating pure states of technology; i.e.,
completely old, completely prevalent, completely advanced. Few
such plants exist. Most plants are mixtures of varied subprocess
technologies since they have been modernized in stages over a
relatively long period of time.
SEVERAL DEFINITIONS ARE NECESSARY TO UNDERSTAND THE
FOLLOWING TABLES.
Old technology -that technology new in 1950
Prevalent technology-that technology new in 1963
Advanced technology -that technology new in 1967
Small plant - processing less than 5000 Ib per week
Medium plant - processing from 10,000 to 20,000 Ib
per week
Large plant - processing over 20,000 Ib per week
Capital cost - same as original new cost
Annual Operating and Maintenance Cost - in 1966
Economic Life - the economic life is the length of
time the machine or structure can be expected to
compete with advancing technology. It is an
estimate of the length of time required for
economic obsolescence. This will vary greatly in
different industries depending upon the nature of
the product, dynamics of industry growth, etc.
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32
TABLE IV-1
Item
COSTS: SMALL PLANT (5000 Ib/week)
OLD TECHNOLOGY (1950)
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scour
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Fulling Wash
Bleach & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
50- 70
20- 30
30- 50
10- 20
5- 15
10- 20
75- 95
200-300
(§1000)
30- 40
15- 25
25- 40
10- 20
5- 10
15- 25
20- 40
120-200
(Years)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery 4.5-7.5
Screening 0.7-3.6
Sedimentation 1.6-4.5
Chemical Precipitation 3.6-7.2
Flotation 2-5.4
Trickling Filter 6.3- 14
Activated Sludge 8- 33
Lagooning .5-1.8
Sludge Disposal
2.0-4.0
0.2-0.4
0.3-0.7
1.8-3.6
0.4-0.9
0.9-2.2
1.3-3.6
0.1-0.2
0.7-2.5
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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33
TABLE IV-2 COST: MEDIUM PLANT, (20,000 Ib/week)
OLD TECHNOLOGY (1950)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scour
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Fulling Wash
Bleach & Piece
Dye ing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
130-170
55- 80
95-130
35- 50
30- 40
40- 70
270-370
655-910
$1000)
110-140
60- 90
90-120
40- 80
20- 40
60-100
120-130
500-700
(Years)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery 9-14
Screening 1.4- 7
Sedimentation 3.2- 9
Chemical Precipitation 7-14
Flotation 3.8-11
Trickling Filter 12-28
Activated Sludge 16-42
Lagooning 1-3.5
Sludge Disposal
3.9-7 7
0.3-0.7
0.5-1.4
3.5-7
0.7-1.8
1.8-4.2
2.4-7
0.2-0.4
1.4-4.9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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34
.TABLE IV-3 COSTS: LARGE PLANT (50,000 Ib/week)
OLD TECHNOLOGY (1950)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scour
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Fulling Wash
Bleach & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
280- 360
120- 200
200- 280
80- 120
60- 100
80- 160
580- 780
1400-2000
($1000)
250- 320
120- 200
200- 280
80- 160
40- 80
120- 200
190- 260
1000-1500
(Years)
8
8
8
8
8
8
10
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery 19-33
Screening 3.2-16
Sedimentation 7.2-20
Chemical Precipitation 16-32
Flotation 8.8-24
Trickling Filter 28-64
Activated Sludge 36-96
Lagooning 2.4-8
Sludge Disposal
8.6-17
0.8-1.6
1.2-3.2
8-16
1.6-4
4-9.6
5.6-16
0.4-0.8
3.2-11
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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TABLE IV-4
Item
35
COSTS: SMALL PLANT (5000 Ib/week)
PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY (1963)
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scouring
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Wash After Fulling
Bleaching & Piece
Dye ing
Rest of Plant
Total
End of Line
Treatment
($1000)
40-65
65-90
25-40
20-35
25-50
190-250
365-530
($1000)
(Years)
100-130 (Wool Purchased)
(Scoured)
13-22 7
22-32 7
10-18 5
4-10 6
13-22 8
18-36 10
180-270
Grease Recovery
Screening
Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
Flotation
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagooning
Sludge Disposal
0.7-3.3
1.5-4.2
,3-6.7
,8-5
,8-13
,5-20
3.
1.
5.
7.
0.5-1.7
0.1-0.4
0.2-0.7
1.7-3.3
0.3-0.8
0.8-2
1.2-3.3
0.1-0.2
0.7-2.3
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
1. Scoured Wool is Purchased from Commission Houses
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed'that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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36
TABLE IV-5 COSTS: MEDIUM PLANT (20,000 Ib/week)
PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY (1963)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scouring
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Wash After Fulling
Bleaching & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
170- 220
70- 105
125- 170
45- 65
40- 50
50- 90
350- 480
850-1180
($1000)
75- 95
40- 60
60- 85
25- 50
15- 25
40- 70
45- 95
(Years)
6
7
7
5
6
8
10
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery 8-13
Screening 1.3- 6
Sedimentation 2.9- 8
Chemical Precipitation 6.4-13
Flotation 3.5-10
Trickling Filter 11-26
Activated Sludge 14-39
Lagooning 1-3.2
Sludee Disposal
3.5-7.1
0.3-0.6
0.5-1.3
3.2-6.4
0.6-1.6
1.6-3.9
2.3-6.4
0.2-0.3
1.3-4.5
10
10
20
15
20
20
20
20
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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37
TABLE IV-6 COSTS: URGE PLANT (50,000 Ib/week)
PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY (1963)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scouring
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Wash After Fulling
Bleaching & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
365- 470
155- 260
260- 365
105- 155
80- 130
105- 210
750-1000
1820-2590
($1000)
165-220
85-135
105-130
50-105
•25-55
10-135
110-220
550-1000
(Years)
6
7
7
5
6
8
10
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery 19-31
Screening 3-15
Sedimentation 5.7-19
Chemical Precipitation 15-30
Flotation 8-22
Trickling Filter 26-59
Activated Sludge 33-89
Lagooning 2.2-7.4
Sludge Disposal
8-16
0.7-1.5
1.1-3
7.4-15
1.5-3.7
3.7-9
5.2-15
0.4-0.7
3-10
10
10
20
15
20
20
20
23
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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TABLE IV-7
Item
38
COSTS: - SMALL PLANT (5,000 Ib/week)
NEWER TECHNOLOGY (1967)
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scouring
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Wash After Fulling
Bleaching & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
$1000)
.1
50- 70
70-100
25- 45
20- 35
30- 55
205-270
($1000)
(Years)
110-140 (Wool Purchased
Scoured)
15- 20 7
20- 30 7
10- 15 7
5- 10 5
15- 25 8
15- 35 10
190-275
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery
Screening 0.6.-3
Sedimentation 1.4-3.8
Chemical Precipitation 3-6
Flotation 1.6-4.5
Trickling Filter 5.2-12
Activated Sludge 6.8-18
Lagooning .5-1.5
Sludge Disposal
0.2-0.3
0.2-0.6
1.5-3
0.3-0.8
0.8-1.8
1-3
0.1-0.2
0.6-2.1
10
20
15
20
20
20
20
1. Scoured Wool is purchased from Commission houses.
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 coses. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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39
TABLE IV-8 COSTS: MEDIUM PLANT (20,000 Ib/week)
NEWER TECHNOLOGY (1967)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scouring
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Wash After Fulling
Bleaching & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
180-
75-
140-
50-
40-
240
110
180
70
55
55- 95
380- 520
920- 1270
($1000)
70- 90
35- 60
60- 80
25- 50
15- 25
40- 65
45- 90
29Q-46U
(Years)
5
7
7
5
6
8
10
End of Line
Treatment
Grease Recovery 7.4-12 3.2-6.5 10
Screening 1.2-6 0.3-0.6 10
Sedimentation 2.7-7 0.4-1.2 20
Chemical Precipitation 5.9-12 2.9-5.9 15
Flotation 3.2- 9 0.6-1.5 20
Trickling Filter 10.3-24 1.5-3.5 20
Activated Sludge 13-35 2.1-5.9 20
Lagooning 0.9- 3 0.1-0.3 20
Sludge Disposal - 1.2-4.1
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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40
TABLE IV-9 COSTS: LARGE PLANT (50,000 Ib/week)
NEWER TECHNOLOGY (1967)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Scouring
Stock Dyeing
Carding
Fulling
Wash After Fulling
Bleaching & Piece
Dyeing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
390- 505
170- 280
280- 390
110- 170
80- 140
110- 225
810-1090
1950-2800
($1000)
155-210
80-130
130-180
55-105
25-55
80-130
105-210
630-1020
(Years)
5
7
7
5
6
8
10
End of Line
Treatment
7.4-15
0.7- 1.3
1- 2.7
6.7-14
1.3- 3.4
3.4- 8.1
4.7- 14
0.3- 0.7
2,7- 9.4
10
10
20
15
20
20
20
20
Grease Recovery 17-28
Screening 2.7-13
Sedimentation 6-17
Chemical Precipitation 13-26
Flotation 7.4-20
Trickling Filter 24-54
Activated Sludge 30-81
Lagooning 2-6.7
Sludge Disposal
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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41
TABLE IV-10
SUMMARY OF PRODUCTION AND WASTE TREATMENT COSTS
Wool Textile Weaving and Finishing*
Item Quantity
Total Production 412 Million Ib
Total value added in manufacture 392 Million $
2
Average unit value added in manufacture 0.95$/ Ib
Estimated replacement value of waste
reduction facilities 19 Million $
Annual amortized cost of facilities at
77» and 10 yr life3 2.7 Million $
Estimated annual waste reduction
operating and maintenance cost^ 5.0 Million $
1
Average industry cost of waste treatment
per unit of production .0194 $/lb
Total waste reduction costs as percent of
total production cost 2 Percent
The above table is a comparison of the total capital, operating,
and maintenance cost per year of end of the line waste treatment
to the total cost of production per year. These are industry-
wide estimates and individual plants may deviate considerably.
1. Not including grease recovery costs, which may increase total
waste reduction costs by 50 percent or more, depending upon the
prevailing market for wool grease.
2. From the Business and Defense Services Administration,
U. S. Department of Commerce, 1967.
3. Estimated replacement value, estimated amortization, and
estimated annual operating costs include an estimate of the
cost of municipal treatment facilities attributable to this
industry's waste.
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44
WOOL TEXTILE WEAVING AND FINISHING
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Masselli, J. W. and M. G. Burford, "A Simplification of
Textile Waste Survey and Treatment". New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission,
(July 1959).
2. Nemerow, N. L.,"Theories and Practices of Industrial
Waste Treatment". Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley,
1963, pp.277-290.
3. Eldridge, E. F., "Industrial Waste Treatment Practice".
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1942, pp.237-238.
4. 1963 Census of Manufactures, "Water Use in Manufacturing".
U. S. Department of Commerce.
5. Besselievre, Edmund B., "Industrial Waste Treatment".
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952, p. 111.
6. Gurnham, C. Fred, "Principles of Industrial Waste
Treatment". New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1955.
7. Masselli, J. W. and M. G. Burford, "Pollution Sources in
Wool Scouring and Finishing Mills and their Reduction
Through Process and Process Chemical Changes". New
England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission
(1954).
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45
Industrial Waste Profile
Cotton Textile Finishing - SIC 2261
U. S. Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
I.W.P. No. 4 - Cotton Textile Finishing
-------
46
INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE STUDIES
TEXTILE INDUSTRY
SIC NO. 2261. COTTON INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
Cotton fiber is the single most popular and important fiber in
the American textile industry. Its excellent absorptive and use
characteristics, as well as reasonable price, contribute to the
stable market of about 7-9 million bales per year consumed during
the past decade; this quantity represents approximately one-half
of the total fiber used by our textile industry. The wool and
rayon market is also reasonably stable, while non-cellulosics
synthetic fibers have markedly increased their domestic consumption
from approximately 3 million bales equivalent in 1957 to some
6 million bales equivalent annually in 1966. Cotton mixtures in
blend with synthetics are becoming increasingly popular because
of the resulting cost, appearance and utilitarian features.
Our cotton industry has been traditionally dependent on low labor
costs to meet competition from abroad. However, industry leaders
are developing newer, more efficient, larger production yield
equipment to replace the older, less efficient subprocess facilities
in order to overcome domestic labor problems, synthetic fiber and
expanding foreign competition. It is also interesting to observe
that cotton production has partially shifted from the southern
United States into the irrigated lands of the western United States.
The United States exported over 5 million bales of cotton in 1964
alone. The cotton industry is expanding in both research and
promotion in order to compete with the well publicized synthetic
fibers.
Cotton textile mills produce a strong waste, particularly from
sizing, dyeing and wet finishing operations. The highly mineralized,
toxic wastes of the cotton industry have proven partially amenable
to limited types of biological, chemical and mechanical treatment
processes. A few industry leaders in the eastern United States
have, in limited cases, installed and operated modern, complete waste
treatment plants which are doing an outstanding waste management
job at a reasonable cost.
-------
INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE STUDIES
TEXTILE INDUSTRY
sic 2261. comas INDUSTRY
I. PROCESSES AND WASTES
A. Fundamental Processes
1. Conversion to Cloth
2. Desizing
3. Scouring or Boil-off
4. Bleaching
5. Mercerizing or Causticizing
6. Dyeing
7. Finishing
Conversion to cloth is usually achieved in a weaving mill.
However, our primary interest lies in the finishing mill which is the
major source of wet wastes in the cotton processing industry. The
following outline describes industry practices over the past twenty
years.
1. Conversion to Cloth; All the processes involved
in converting raw cotton to woven cloth are "dry". However, they
interest the waste engineer because they add impurities to the fiber.
It is carded, spun, spooled and made into warp, slashed, drawn, and
woven or knitted into cloth before being sent to the finishing mill
as "grey goods". The slashing process is the only non-mechanical
operation. In slashing, the warp thread is sized to impart tensile
strength and smooth finish to prevent warp breaks. The size is dried
on the thread and remains as part of the cloth until removed in the
finishing mill. Although starch is usually used for sizing (especially
for the fine woven fabrics), other chemicals such as polyvinyl alcohol,
resins, alkali-soluble cellulose derivatives, gelatin glue, locust bean
gum, and gum tragacanth, have been used. One of these, sodium carboxy-
methylcellulose, or CMC, is finding some acceptance as a starch
substitute, showing its most rapid growth in the polyester blend sizing
area. Other chemicals, such as lubricants, softeners, emulsifiers,
humectants, preservatives (ZnCl2> phenol, etc.), penetrants, anti-foam
agents, and fillers, are often added to impart additional properties
to the film. The grey goods thus prepared usually contain about 10 to
15 percent add-on, mostly sizing.
"Grey goods" are brushed and sheared to remove lint, dust,
loose yams, loops and hanging ends. After inspection for defects,
the fabric is singed by passing it over a heated plate or roller or
between gas flames to remove fuzz and obtain a smooth surface. No
liquid wastes are involved.
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48
2. Desizing; Cloth is desized by either the enzyme
process, high temperature enzyme process, or simply water. Denim
and duck are generally not desized. The enzyme solution (usually
from 1/4 to 1 percent by volume), with about 0.4 percent NaCl and
0.3 percent penetrant, is allowed to remain in contact with the
cloth for 3 - 12 hr. The objective is to provide sufficient contact
time to convert by hydrolysis the starch to dextrins which can then
be washed out of the cloth. The waste is very strong, often about
50,000 ppm BOD, with a neutral pH. The rinse waters following desizing
will vary in strength depending upon the rinsing method. The desize
waste is the first real contaminated liquid discharged from the cotton
finishing mill. It is usually discharged in the rinse following the
grey bins as the cloth proceeds on its path to the scouring operation.
3* Scouring; Scouring removes the natural impurities
to the cloth (wax, pectins, alcohols, etc.) as well as the newly
acquired impurities (size holdover, dirt, oil, grease, etc.). The
fiber in the cloth is rendered whiter and more absorbent for future
bleaching and dyeing. In most modern plants, scouring is done in
conjunction with desizing rather than in the separate operation des-
cribed here. Caustic soda (NaOH) and soda ash (NA2C03> are used in
most scouring operations, the former in concentrations of 1 - 8 percent
of the cloth weight, the latter only 1-3 percent OWF. Sodium sili-
cate (Na2Si03) is generally used in smaller doses (0.25 to 1 percent
OWF). Pine oil soap to remove wax, and fatty alcohol sulfates to aid
in melting, are sometimes used in scouring. Although the fresh
scour solution is clear, after scouring under pressure (5 - 15 psi)
and at elevated temperature (200°F) for 2 - 12 hr, the scour liquid
is an opaque brown. Methods of scouring and dumping of the scour
waste vary from mill to mill; however, in all mills the cloth is rinsed
completely until no brown color is left in the rinse water. The pH is
approximately 12, hydroxide alkalinity usually is very high (10 -
20,000 ppm), and the BOD is high (about 10,000 ppm) in scour liquid
waste dumps. Subsequent boil-offs (if necessary) and/or rinses are
relatively weaker.
4. Bleaching; Bleaching of cotton cloth may be done
with many oxidizing agents, but either hypochlorite or hydrogen
peroxide is most common. It may be carried out immediately after the
scouring or after mercerizing. It may be done in bins, jigs, or on a
continuous basis. In hypochlorite bleaching, the cloth is rinsed
first, scoured with acid, H2S04 or HC1, and rinsed again. It is then
passed through a hypochlorite solution (about 0.25 to 0.50 percent
available chlorine) and squeezed lightly. The time of contact may
vary from a few hours to as long as 24 hours at room temperature.
The rinses following bleaching are usually neutral in pH, vary in
BOD depending upon the impurities in the fiber (such as penetrants)
and contain considerable amounts of either free chlorine or peroxide.
Continuous bleaching is done with hydrogen peroxide.
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49
5. Mercerizing: Mercerizing, or causticizing,
increases the luster, sheen, strength and dye affinity of cotton.
It may be done before or after bleaching. The cloth is saturated
with cold NaOH (15 - 30 percent) while being stretched on the tenter
frame which applies tension to the cloth for a few minutes. The
caustic is then thoroughly washed off, sometimes with the aid of an
intermediate acid wash. Generally, the caustic soda dragged out by
the cloth is recovered and reused for scouring or mercerization.
The mercerizing rinse wastes are alkaline, high in inorganic solids
and caustic alkalinity, and low in BOD. With the increasing trend
toward cotton-polyester blends, much less mercerizing is being done.
It is estimated that less than 30 percent of cotton is now mercerized
or causticized.
6- Dyeing; There are varied methods of dyeing
cotton and many types of dyes are used. Small volumes of cloth are
dyed in jigs - which are small, tapered, rhombus-shaped tanks with
the large surface area at the top. Larger volumes of cloth are
usually dyed in a continuous dyeing range, which consists of a number
of boxes through which the cloth passes to be dyed, oxidized, dried
and finished. The most important dyes are vat, direct, developed,
naphthol, sulfur, aniline black and fiber reactive. Of lesser im-
portance are the mineral and pigment dyes. In vat dyeing, the
insoluble dye (1/2 to 4 percent OWF) is made soluble by reduction
with 1-5 percent sodium hydrosulfite and 1-4 percent NaOH. The
cloth is impregnated with a vat dye which was reduced to its leuco
(colorless) form by passage through the reducing bath. The dye is
then re-oxidized back to the insoluble, highly-colored form directly
on the goods by 1 percent sodium perborate and steam, or 2 percent
sodium dichromate and 2 percent sodium dichromate and 2 percent
acetic acid. An acid rinse (usually acetic acid) is used to neutra-
lize the caustic soda. Vat dyes are rapidly replacing sulfur dyes
which are similarly applied. Sodium sulfide (1/4 - 8 percent), or
hydrosulfite is used to dissolve the sulfur dyes before impregnation
on the fiber. A considerable amount of salt (5 - 60 percent) is
used to exhaust the dyes. The final color, after thorough impreg-
nation, is developed by oxidizing with sodium perborate, HoC^, or
K2Cr20y and H2C2H302- A continuous oxidizing process using hydrogen
peroxide and producing no residues is also used.
Direct dyes (water soluble) are applied with or
without heat directly to cotton with salt (10 - 60 percent) and
N82C03 (1-5 percent). Some chemicals, such as acetic acid, copper
sulfate, or formaldehyde, may be used occasionally to modify the
shade or fastness.
Developed dyes are dyes which result from chemical
combinations which take place directly on the fiber. The dye (1/2 -
4 percent) is absorbed and changed to a chemically unstable diazo
287-027 O - [
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50
by nitrous acid treatment (40 percent H2S04 plus 8 percent NaN02)•
A developer, usually an alkaline solution of naphthol, converts the
unstable diazo to a stable azo dyestuff. The dyeing is followed by
rinsing.
Naphthol dyeing is developed dyeing in reverse. The
cloth is first impregnated with the developer (alkaline solution of
naphthol). The dye is then formed on the fiber in the diazotized
dye bath.
Aniline black dye is an insoluble pigment produced by
the oxidation of aniline. The cloth is passed through a dye bath
typically consisting of 90 Ib of aniline hydrochloride, 35 Ib of
sodium chlorate, and 13 Ib of CuS(>4 in 100 gal of water. After im-
pregnation, the cloth is passed over steam-heated rollers to develop
the black pigment. Soaping and washing complete the process. Since
the dye bath is costly, it is seldom dumped.
It is imperative to realize that dye wastes are ex-
tremely variable in contaminating matter. It is quite usual to
discharge about 3000 gal of waste from each bath for each 1000 Ib
of cloth dyed on jigs. Generally, wasteloads will be less in
continuous type dyeing. All of the contaminants in dye waste come
from chemicals added to the dye baths.
Colored patterns on cloth are usually printed. In
roller printing, the cloth is rolled around a large central cylinder
on top of a "dark" cloth used to absorb any printing paste which
may seep through. Copper rolls with engraved designs on the circum-
ference of the cylinder are padded with dye paste (from close-by
color boxes). These rolls, wiped free of excess paste by a "doctor"
blade, pass tightly against the cloth. Dye paste in the engraved
depressions is imprinted on the cloth. Steaming or aging treatments
finally fix the color prior to washing, rinsing, drying and finish-
ing. Pollution from color shops (where printing is usually done)
comes mainly from the washing of tubs, dippers, cloths, drums, and
any equipment used to make and carry the printing pastes. Washing
the printed cloth also contributes to pollution.
7. Finishing; Finishing imparts a smooth appearance
and certain rigidity to the cloth. Starch, dextrin, wax, tallow,
oil, clay, talc and other weighting compounds are typical finishing
compounds. In recent years, resins, cellulosic solutions, lacquers,
sulfonated compounds, and quaternary ammonium salts have been used.
Cotton is often waterproofed, fire-proofed, or
mildew-proofed. Starch may be a finishing compound. It is applied
by padding a 10 - 30 percent solution to the cloth followed by
calendaring and rolling. Other finishing processes, such as
leveling off (hot detergent) to produce a uniform appearance,
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51
softening (hot soap) to produce a soft feel to the goods, rust
stain removal (oxalic acid and sodium acid fluoride) to improve
color, and causticizing (NaOH) to remove the outer layer of resin
from resin-impregnated linen, are also used sometimes.
B. Significant Pollutants
The significant pollutants produced by cotton finishing
processes are:
1. Organic matter. This is usually expressed as BOD
or COD. It exerts an oxygen demand on the receiving watercourse and
may kill fish, produce taste and odor, form floating scum, and gener-
ally be detrimental to beneficial uses of the watercourse.
2- Chemicals. These normally consist of acids,
alkalis and inorganic salts. They may kill aquatic life, produce
taste and odor, inhibit municipal waste treatment processes, and
render the watercourse unfit for agricultural, municipal, and
industrial uses.
3. Dyes. These add esthetically objectionable color
to the watercourse and in addition contain detrimental chemical
constituents.
As shown later in this report, the gross quantities
of pollutants produced by this industry run into hundreds of
millions of pounds a year.
The major sources of the above pollutants in the cotton
finishing plant are the desizing, scouring, and dyeing operations.
Wasteloads from other operations are less significant in strength
and volume.
In cases where the waste discharge from the plant is
a significant portion of the water flowing in the watercourse,
thermal pollution will result. A temperature rise in the receiving
water may prove detrimental to beneficial uses downstream.
Apparently there is no significant air pollution
produced by the cotton textile finishing industry.
C. Process Water Reuse - 1964
We estimate that approximately 16 percent of the industry
process water was reused, and 84 percent u&ed only once-
It appears that the percentage of process water reused
will increase in the future because newer machinery is often of
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52
continuous or counter current design. In addition, because process
water is becoming more expensive in many areas, there will be in-
creased use of instrumentation to control processes more precisely.
D. Subprocess Trends
As previously indicated in the description of fundamental
manufacturing processes, there are often alternate methods to
accomplish a particular operation in the cotton finishing process.
Which method is used depends upon such factors as type and color of
cotton cloth being finished, type and size of process machinery
available, skill of available operating personnel, length of run,
and other factors. We have purposely left out the factor of waste-
load produced because this does not seem to strongly influence
subprocess selection. The plant manager is interested in increasing
his production efficiency and product quality and any decrease in
wasteload produced by the operation is merely a bonus. There are
exceptions of course, but they are isolated.
Table 1-1 which projects subprocess trends in the cotton
finishing industry is the result of information received from
operating plants, textile industry consultants, machinery manu-
facturers, chemical manufacturers, and a thorough survey of existing
literature on the subject. It is intended to show the direction of
the industry in 1967 on the basis of techniques now available.
Since techniques are used in 1967 that were unheard of in 1950, it
is entirely probable that scientific advances will make many of the
subprocesses shown obsolete in the next ten years.
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53
TABLE 1-1 SUBPROCESS TRENDS
Fundamental Process
and Subprocesses
Des izing
Enzyme
High T° Enzyme
Water (used with CMC)
Scouring
Boil-Off
Kier Boil
Cont. Scouring
Wet Out
Bleaching
Hypochlorite
Hydrogen Peroxide
Continuous
Mercerizing and
Causticizing
NaOH
Dyeing
Vat
Basic
Direct
Naphthol
Developed
Sulfur
Aniline Black
Fiber Reactive
Printing
Roller
Screen
Other
7. of Plants Employin
1950
80
20
0
15
70
-
15
50
50
-
40
90
10
70
60
70
90
5
10
95
4
1
1963
58
40
2
15
50
20
15
20
80
50
35
90
5
75
55
50
90
5
20
95
4
1
1967
15
80
5
15
20
50
15
20
80
60
30
90
0
80
50
30
90
5
40
95
4
1
f? Subprocess
1972
5
85
10
10
5
75
10
10
90
70
25
90
0
80
45
10
85
5
50
90
0
10
1982
0
85
15
5
0
90
5
0
100
80
20
80
0
90
35
0
75
5
70
90
0
10
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54
Analysis of Table 1-1 in light of wasteload reduction
shows that the industry in general is heading in the direction of
subprocesses using less process water and producing less wasteload.
There is a gradual trend toward the use of CMC sizing compound
which reduces the BOD of the desizing operation waste tremendously.
The rapid increase in the use of continuous scouring machines will
reduce the BOD of the scouring operation considerably. Bleaching
is also showing a strong trend toward continuous operation. Mer-
cerizing is no longer used to as large an extent. Continuous dye
machines will increase and tend to reduce pollution load produced.
The increasing use of fiber reactive dyes will probably tend to
increase the pollution load produced by the dyeing operation.
Interestingly, style trends in apparel have an influence
upon the wasteload produced by the industry. The type of fabrics
and colors popular in a particular style year help determine sub-
processes and dyes used.
E. Waste Control Problems
The subprocess wastes which are most likely to cause
difficulty in treatment come from desizing and dyeing, due to their
high concentrations of BOD chemicals and solids. Dyehouse wastes
often cause difficulty because the types and colors of dye solutions
from the same plant vary greatly at different times. In addition,
dye wastes may be toxic and either acidic or basic. Biological waste
treatment processes often do not operate efficiently when subjected
to wastewater influents that vary widely in chemical constituents
from day to day.
F. Subprocess Technologies
1. Older Technology; This series of subprocesses is
typical of the industry in the year 1950.
a* Desizing; Immediately following the singeing
process, the cloth is passed through a water box containing a
solution of commercial enzyme, although sulfuric acid is occasionally
used. In either case, the soaked cloth is stored in grey bins for
3 - 12 hr to allow conversion of the starch to dextrins. Upon com-
pletion of this conversion, the solution is rinsed out of the cloth
in a running rinse.
b. Scouring; Boil-off by pressure kier boil was
the standard method of scouring in the industry in years past. The
kier is a steel pressure tank 50 - 60 cu ft in volume into which
2-5 tons of cotton cloth are packed, after immersion in a caustic
bath (NaOH). The kier liquor, usually a solution containing caustic
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55
soda, sodium carbonate, sodium silicate and pine oil soap in variable
quantities, is pumped into the kier and boiled under pressures of
5-15 psi at temperatures approaching 240°F. During the boil, the
kier liquor is pumped from the reservoir at the bottom of the tank
to the top to circulate it through the cloth continuously. A thorough
scour generally requires 2 - 12 hr of boiling.
After the scouring has been completed, pressure is
released and the cloth is cooled and rinsed in the kier.
c. Bleaching; Bleaching is typically done in bins
using a hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide solution with a penetrant
to speed the process. H202 is the most common agent due to the
relatively simple procedure involved in its use. Peroxide boiling is
done without pressure at a temperature of approximately 190°F with
continuous recirculation through the cloth. The time of boil varies
from 1% - 6 hr, depending on the temperature and concentration of the
solution. The cloth is then rinsed with warm water in the bin and
run through a rope washer to insure removal of the bleach solution.
d. Mercerizing; Cotton is mercerized by treatment
with sodium hydroxide in a continuous mercerizer consisting of a train
of boxes with squeeze rollers between each box to maintain tension. A
tenter frame is used to stretch the cloth while being treated with
caustic. Several wash and rinse boxes follow in which water flows
countercurrently from the last rinse to the first wash before being
discharged.
e< Pyei"g: The majority of the plants use all of
the seven basic types of dyes to some extent. Direct dyes are used
on more than half of all cloth dyed. Sulfur and naphthol dyes have
better fastness when compared with direct dyes; however, when fast-
ness is the major consideration, vat dyes are generally used.
f. Printing: The majority of printed cotton is
processed on a roller printing machine. The cloth is wrapped around
a large padded central cylinder. Several smaller rollers with en-
graved patterns press tightly against the cloth and transfer the
pattern to it. Then the cloth is treated to fix the color and
finally washed and rinsed.
g. Final Finishing; Starch base finishing com-
pounds are generally applied to the cloth by padding in a mangle.
After impregnation, the cloth is passed through a calendar - a
series of heavy rollers - which, in effect, "iron" the cloth.
2. Prevalent Technology; Typical practices followed
by the industry in the base year (1963) are generally the same as
those outlined under "older technology" except where continuous
methods have replaced batch methods, to save time, labor, and process
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56
materials. The following outline describes only those subprocesses
\hich differ significantly from 1950 technology.
a. Scouring and Bleaching: Continuous methods
using "J11 boxes are used in most plants. This process generally
combines scouring and bleaching and may combine the entire series
of cotton finishing subprocesses in a single multi-stage continuous
train.
Two "J" boxes are used in series. Desized cloth
is saturated with a scouring solution similar to kier liquor. The
cloth then enters the top of the longer leg (called the Storage
Chamber) of the first "J" box and piles up for a detention period of
one hour during which it is heated with live steam at 210° - 215°F.
After leaving the first "J" box, the cloth is washed and rinsed in
either a slack or tight continuous washer. Following the wash, the
cloth is saturated in an alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution before
entering the second "J" box where it is retained and heated.
Temperatures range from 190° - 195°F for goods to be dyed, whereas
white goods are heated to a minimum of 212°F. Finally, the cloth is
washed, rinsed, and dried using weaker solutions and less time than
the first wash.
b. Mercerizing: The prevalent practice is to
recover the caustic soda from the first three to five rinse boxes
by concentration, evaporation, or dialysis, and reuse it in scouring
or mercerizing.
With the increasing trend toward cotton-polyester
blends, much less mercerizing is being done. It is estimated that
less than 30 percent of cotton is mercerized or causticized at
present.
c. Dyeing: The predominant dyes are vat, direct,
naphthol, sulphur and fiber reactive. Basic and developed dyes are
not used as much as formerly, many more continuous dyeing machines
are in use.
3. Newer More Advanced Technology: The series of
subprocesses in advanced technology are completely integrated into
a single, continuous multi-phase train starting with singeing and
ending with mercerizing. The following lists the individual phases
through which the cloth passes:
Singer
Quench Tank
Desize Scray (Small "J" Box)
Washer
Caustic Saturator
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57
Caustic "J" Box (Scouring)
Washer
Washer
Peroxide Saturator
Peroxide "J" Box (Bleaching)
Washer
Printing and/or Continuous Dyeing Machine
The singer is basically a gas burner over which the
cloth is passed at a rapid rate to remove fuzz. The singed cloth
is immediately passed through a quench tank to extinguish sparks
and cool the fabric. The quench tank also serves to saturate the
cloth with a desizing agent (enzymes). After saturation, the cloth
is detained in the desize scray, basically a simple "J" Box, for
approximately 30 min at a temperature of 180°F. Desized cloth goes
directly to a washing range for light cleansing prior to caustic
scouring.
Caustic saturator phase through final washer phase
are described in the previous section titled "Prevalent Technology".
In a continuous dyeing machine, the cloth is directed
through rollers into a dye bath and a series of washes and rinses.
Some machines use standing dye baths while others use recirculating
baths. Water usually flows countercurrently through the wash and
rinse baths.
4. Plant Classification; Our estimate of the percent-
age of plants which fall into the three technology categories
described in the preceding pages is:
Older: 50 percent Prevalent: 40 percent Newer: 10 percent
The range of plant sizes associated with these three
categories is estimated as follows:
Smaller, Under 20,000 Ib/day
Medium, 20,000-60,000 Ib/day
Larger, Over 60,000 Ib/day
Older
75
30
20
Prevalent
23
60
55
Newer
2
10
25
It must be emphasized that these estimates of the
relationship between plant size and state of the art technology
used by the plant is intended only to show an industry trend. In
general, the larger plants are better able to afford the expensive
new machinery and instrumentation associated with advanced tech-
nology than are the smaller plants. Also, because the new machinery
generally has much higher productivity than the old machinery, the
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58
new plants being built tend to be high production plants and to be
classified by the industry as large plants.
It should also be noted that when we speak of plant
age we mean the production machinery and techniques used by that
plant and not the age of the building shell. There are many in-
stances of very modern production lines installed in ancient
buildings.
When one attempts to classify the textile finishing
industry into technological categories by plant percentages it can
present a false picture. The fact is that approximately twenty
very large plants finish over half of the cotton cloth production.
On the other end of the scale are hundreds of small dye and finish
plants which are generally located near the apparel cutting houses.
These small plants have a limited number of old machines and operate
profitably on low volume special lots. These small plants are
classified technologically old but in the national picture contribute
a relatively small percentage of the pollution load. The large
plants, on the other hand, are high production relatively efficient
operations. They would be classified technologically prevalent or
newer but because of their high production volume they generate a
relatively high percentage of the pollution load.
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59
II. GROSS WASTE QUANTITIES
A. Daily Waste Quantities
As previously indicated in section I.D., daily wasteloads
and volumes per unit of product produced by the average cotton textile
finishing plant have decreased since 1950 and are expected to continue
to decrease in the future. In the following Table II-l, the extent
of the decrease is tabulated for a theoretical plant producing 20,000
Ib ot cloth per day. We arbitrarily have this fictitious plant using
a completely old technology (year 1950), completely prevalent tech-
nology (year 1963), and a completely newer technology (year 1967).
The theoretical daily average wasteloads and volumes are tabulated
for each technology. The possible ranges in wasteload production are
extremely wide and the values shown are an average only. A specific
plant on a particular day could deviate widely from the figures shown.
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60
TABLE II-1 DAILY WASTE QUANTITIES
Subprocess
of Older
Technology
Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Mercerizing
Dyeing
Printing
TOTAL
Subprocesses
of Prevalent
Technology
Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Mercerizing
Dyeing
Printing
TOTAL
Subprocesses
of Newer
Technology
Desizing
Scouring
Bleaching
Mercerizing
Dyeing
Printing
TOTAL
Approx.
% of Cloth
Treated
95
100
100
40
50
14
95
100
100
35
50
14
95
100
100
30
50
14
Wasteload-lb/day
for Average Size Plant
Producing 20,000 Ib/day
BOD
1,270
1,060
150
150
620
150
3,400
1,100
1,050
150
50
600
150
3,100
1,000
950
100
35
565
150
2,800
SS
665
500
100
40
250
45
1,600
570
431
100
15
250
34
1,400
500
400
100
10
200
30
1,240
TDS
1,100
1,300
800
700
800
200
4,900
1,000
1,300
700
200
700
200
4,100
950
1,250
600
130
620
200
3,750
Wastewater
Volume (mgd)
.06
.10
.10
.30
.40
.04
1.00
.05
.09
.09
.08
.40
.04
0.76
.05
.08
.08
.06
.38
.04
0.69
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61
B. Wasteload Production Rates
Following is the average wasteload production per 1000 Ib
of cloth produced, classified by state of technology.
WASTELOAD PRODUCTION RATES
Technology
Older
Prevalent
Newer
BOD (Ib)
170
155
140
SS (Ib)
80
70
62
TDS (Ib)
245
205
187
Volume (MG)
.05
.038
.035
C. Total Wasteload
Research in U.S. Department of Commerce statistics reveals
the following data for 1963:
Finished cotton fabric
Whites: 3,450 million yd
Colored: 3,510 million yd
Prints: 1,100 million yd
Total: 8,060 million yd
Extrapolated from per-
centages shown in U.S.
current industrial reports.
Converting to Pounds on Basis of 4 yd per Ib:
Whites:
Colored:
Prints:
Total:
862 million Ib
878 million Ib
275 million Ib
43 percent
43 percent
14 percent
2,015 million Ib » 100 percent
We assume from these figures and previous discussions that
95 percent of the cloth will be desized, 100 percent will be scoured,
100 percent will be bleached, 30 percent will be mercerized, 50 per-
cent will be dyed (assume half of printed is dyed first)* and 14
percent will be printed.
Based upon the foregoing data and a mixture of plant tech-
nologies of 50 percent older and 50 percent prevalent in 1963 we
project the following gross wasteload quantities produced by the
cotton finishing industry in 1963.
BOD 528 million Ib
SS 166 million Ib
TDS 498 million Ib
Volume 97.6 billion gal
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62
D. Gross Wasteload Projections
On the basis of the technological advances anticipated in
the cotton textile finishing industry and the projected growth of
the industry,we have projected gross wasteloads produced through
1982.
Gross Wasteloads and Wastewater Volume Projected
on Basis of Product Values Supplied by FWPCA and
Predicted Subprocess Mix for Year:
Year
1963
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1977
1982
Value
Added
(Million $)
347.5
383.0
386.0
391.0
395.0
400. 0
405.0
437.0
469.0
BOD
(Million Lb)
528
534
534
531
529
528
526
516
502
SS
(Million Lb)
166
168
167
166
165
164
163
160
154
IDS
(Million Lb)
498
500
499
498
497
496
495
494
483
Volume
(Billion Gal)
97.6
97.9
97.9
99
99
100.1
100.1
102.3
105.6
The gross pollution load produced by the industry will de-
crease slowly in the coming years in spite of a gradual increase in
production. The industry generally purchased new machinery during
1965 and 1966 at an accelerated rate, and this trend toward increased
capital expenditure is expected to continue. As previously discussed,
the new machinery tends to produce less pollution per unit of cloth
production than the older machinery. In addition, the trend in
process modifications, new chemicals, and better housekeeping are all
favorable toward reducing pollution.
E. Seasonal Variations:
Since cotton is easily stored and non-perishable,
seasonal variations are primarily the result of variable demand for
cloth by the industries using textiles to make apparel, blankets, etc.,
there are no significant variations in textile finishing waste volume
over the year.
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63
III. WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES
A. Processing Practices
Table III-l, outlines the relative pollution reduction
potentials of the various alternative subprocesses used in the
cotton industry. The "older" technological method in each case
is used as the basis for comparison. The values shown are
generally the highest reported reductions for a particular alternate
subprocess.
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64
TABLE III-l
POLLUTION REDUCTION BY
ALTERNATE SUBPROCESSES
Fundamental Processes
and Subprocess
Desizing:
1 . Enzymes
2. Water CMC/
Starch Formulation
Scouring ;
1. Boil-off
2. Contin. Scour
Bleaching;
1. Bins
2. Continuous
Mercerizing and
Caustlcizing
1. Continuous
2. Cont. in Recovery
of NaOH
Dyeing;
1. Batch
2. Continuous
Syn. Det.
Printing;
1. Roller w/soap wash
2. Roller with
Syndet wash
3. Soap & Syndet
BOD
Lb/1000 Lb
67
20
53
42
4
3
15
6
10 - 60
5-32
5-8
43
19
30
process Reduction
Efficiency
(7.)
0
70
0
21
0
25
0
60
0
50
80
0
53
30
Remarks
BOD Reduction due
mainly to use of
CMC/Starch Formu-
lation in weaving
mill.
NaOH used in both
cases but cont.
process allows use
of less solution.
H202 used
predominantly
Synthetic detergents
used in wash after
dyeing.
In Prevalent tech.,
both soap and
synthetic detergents
are used.
Table III-l indicates the potential pollution reduction by
substitution of alternate manufacturing subprocesses. In most cases,
the reduction is associated with high speed continuous machines or
substitution of alternate chemicals. The economic feasibility of
purchasing new machinery or substituting alternate chemicals is, of
course, an individual decision for each finishing plant. It is anti-
cipated that pollution reduction will become an increasingly important
factor in future management decisions.
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65
B. Treatnent Practices
1. Removal Efficiencies
Table III-2 sho^s removal efficiencies of various
waste treatment methods. Based on a typical waste generated by
prevalent plants in the base year 1963, the removal efficiencies
are expressed in terms of percentage of gross wasteload removed
by the removal process.
287-027 O - 68 - 6
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66
TABLE III-2 TREATMENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES
Removal Method
Screening
Plain Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagoon
Aerated Lagoon
Removal Efficiency (Percent)
BOD
0-5
5-15
25-60
40-85
70-95
30-80
50-95
SS
5-20
15-60
30-90
80-90
85-95
30-80
50-95
TDS
0
0
0-50
0-30
0-40
0-40
0-40
In Table III-2 it is assumed that the auxiliary units normally
associated with the removal method are included. For example, the
removal efficiencies for the activated sludge process and trickling
filter process assume that the primary and secondary sedimentation
tanks are included in the process.
2. Rates of Adoption
The rate of adoption of waste treatment practices in
the textile finishing industry has paralleled, to some extent, the
trends in the municipal sewage treatment area. As technology has
advanced, the attainable standards of pollution reduction have
increased also.
Work in recent years by Souther and others indicates
clearly that the activated sludge process with modifications
(primarily extended aeration time and influent pH adjustment) will
consistently produce BOD reductions on the order of 90 percent. As
the discharge requirements imposed upon the textile finishing plants
are upgraded, it is probable that future waste treatment facilities
will be predominately of the activated sludge type.
Generally, the textile cotton finishing waste treatment
process should begin with a holding and equalization basin. This will
level out the volume of flow and pollution strength to the following
treatment units. A reasonably uniform waste can be treated biologically
with much greater success than can a widely fluctuating waste.
Since the waste is relatively low in suspended solids
and high in dissolved solids, it is often feasible to skip the primary
settling step and begin directly with the aeration tank. In some
cases where the pH is too high, toxic elements or some other factors
inhibiting to the biological treatment may be present, making chemical
pretreatment necessary prior to the aeration tank.
The activated sludge process for cotton textile waste
is often modified by increasing the aeration time and carrying a
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67
higher concentration of mixed liquor suspended solids in the
aeration tank. With careful operation this process will produce
excellent reduction of BOD and suspended solids. If some domestic
sewage is available to mix with the textile waste, the efficiency
of the plant is generally increased.
To lower construction costs, an aerated lagoon is
sometimes substituted for the activated sludge process. Properly
operated, it is capable of closely approaching the pollution re-
moval efficiency of the conventional activated sludge process.
The trickling filter biological treatment is widely
installed, but the trend is away from its use in recent years. It
cannot reach the removal efficiencies of the activated sludge process
and generally lacks operational flexibility.
Where cheap land is available, an inexpensive tertiary
treatment is simply storage in a pond of the secondary effluent from
the biological treatment process. Simple storage will often reduce
the effluent pollution load an additional 50 percent, for example,
increasing removal from 90 to 95 percent.
In order to project percent reduction of waste in
treatment facilities in Part III.E., it is necessary to predict
rate of increase in percentage of waste volume treated and average
reduction of pollution in treatment. These predictions follow:
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1977
1982
Percent Waste
Treated
Municipally
35
36
37
38
39
40
43
45
Average
Reduction
(Percent)
85
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
Percent Waste
Treated By
Industry
25
27
29
31
33
35
40
45
Average
Reduction
(Percentl
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
Total
Reduction
(Percent!
49.5
52.0
54.5
57.5
60.0
62.5
69.5
75.0
This predicted rapid increase in treatment is based on
continued strong pressure by regulatory agencies upon industry to
reduce pollution discharged, continued large capital investment to
build new plants and phase out old ones, continued tendency to locate
new plants where a municipal sever is available for waste discharge,
and advancing technology in waste treatment processes.
-------
68
3. Discharge to Municipal Sewers
Percentage of wastes discharged to municipal sewers is
estimated for the past and present, and projected to the future as
shown below.
Many municipal waste treatment methods will be suscepti-
ble to shock loads from the mills and, therefore, pretreatment should
include flow regulation and equalization holding procedures to insure
waste uniformity. In a large municipality the mill waste would be
diluted sufficiently before reaching the treatment facility and would
not harm the operation. Even so, most large municipalities require
finishing plants to provide screening and constant discharge holding
basins. Normally, a cotton finishing plant waste is easily handled
by conventional municipal treatment methods.
C. By-Product Utilization
There is no significant by-product use of wastes in the
cotton textile finishing industry. Various researchers have attempted
to develop economically feasible methods for recovery of the expensive
dyeing compounds, but were unsuccessful. We cannot foresee future by-
product use on any significant scale.
D. Net Waste Quantities -..1963
The net waste quantities equal the gross quantities
produced less the pollution removed by industry-operated and
municipally-operated waste treatment facilities. For the base year,
we estimate 30 percent of the waste volume was treated by municipal
facilities with an average pollution reduction of 85 percent. We
further estimate that 20 percent of the waste volume was treated by
industry-operated facilities, with an average pollution reduction of
80 percent. On this basis, net pollution reaching water courses in
1963 from the cotton textile finishing industry approximated:
BOD 309 million Ib
SS 96.8 million Ib
Total Dissolved Solids 423 million Ib
E. Projected Net Wasteloads
It is expected that the quantity of pollution load
reaching the nation's watercourses from the cotton textile finishing
industry will decrease greatly in the future. This will be the
-------
69
result of reduced gross pollution produced, a larger percentage of
waste treated, and increased removal efficiencies of waste treatment
methods. Table III-3 projects net wasteloads through the year 1982.
TABLE III-3 PROJECTED NET WASTELOADS
Year
1963
19*7
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1977
1982
Waste
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
Gross Produced
Waste
Million Lb
528
166
498
535
168
500
534
167
499
531
166
498
529
165
497
528
164
496
526
163
495
516
160
494
502
154
483
Percent
Removed
41
41
15
49
49
16
52
52
16
54
54
16
57
57
17
60
60
12
62
62
18
69
69
20
75
75
22
New Waste
Quantity Discharged
Million Lb
309
96
423
271
84
420
255
80
419
242
75
418
224
70
412
221
66
411
197
60
406
157
48
391
125
38
377
-------
70
Table III-3 reflects the anticipated increased emphasis
on clearing up rivers and streams throughout the country. Con-
sidering the federal and state pollution abatement programs now
being effected, it is probable that within the next 15 years no
textile finishing plant will be allowed to discharge untreated
waste into a waterway. In addition, it is probable that the pol-
lution reduction efficiency required of the treatment will be much
higher than now required.
The IDS (dissolved solids) will not be significantly
reduced because most conventional waste treatment methods have
little effect on this waste constituent. Certain advanced
tertiary treatment methods are being developed to remove dissolved
inorganic solids! however, it appears doubtful that there will be
significant use of these methods before 1982.
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71
IV. COST INFORMATION
A. Existing Facilities Costs
We estimate that the replacement value of total cotton
textile finishing industry owned and operated waste reduction
facilities in 1966 was $9.5 million. We estimate that the annual
operating and maintenance cost of cotton textile finishing industry
owned and operated waste reduction facilities in 1966 was $1.4
million.
It must be noted that the above values are for industry
owned and operated plants only. We estimate that in 1966 approximately
34 percent of the waste was discharged into and treated by municipal
systems. Since industry pays taxes and surcharges to support these
facilities, the true industry cost exceeds the foregoing amounts.
We estimate that the replacement value of that portion of
municipal facilities construction attributable to this industry waste
is $15 million. On the same basis, the annual operating and mainten-
ance cost is estimated at $2.4 million.
Totals: Replacement Value - $24.5 million in 1966.
Operating & Maintenance - $3.7 million in 1966.
B. Processing and Treatment Costs
This portion of the survey analyzes costs involved in sub-
processes and end of line treatment. These are further broken down
into size of plant and state of technology; i.e., older, prevalent
and newer. Because of the wide ranges in the information feedback
from the textile industry, we have inserted ranges in the following
tables. In addition, we have added a table which gives cost data
on the entire cotton textile finishing industry and relates costs of
waste treatment to cost of production. We believe this latter table
gives a much more accurate picture of the present industry cost
situation than do the tables preceding it.
It should be noted that new machinery for subprocesses is
purchased by the industry on the basis of increasing production
efficiency and product quality - not on the basis of decreasing the
pollution load produced by the subprocess. Any such decrease is
merely a bonus in most cases.
It should also be noted that the end of the line waste
treatment has virtually no relationship to the technology of the
process that created the waste or the size of the finishing plant;
i.e., an older technology plant may have an extremely efficient,
modern, waste treatment facility, and a modern, efficient finishing
plant may have no waste treatment facility at all. With few ex-
ceptions, the end of the line treatment selected is primarily on
the basis of requirements imposed by regulating agencies responsible
for the water courses being affected.
-------
72
It should also be noted that we are required to estimate
costs for plants incorporating pure states of technology; i.e.,
completely old, completely prevalent, completely advanced. Few
such plants exist. Most plants are mixtures of varied subprocess
technologies, since they have been modernized in stages over a
relatively long period of time.
Several definitions are necessary to understand the following
tables:
Old Technology - That technology new in 1950.
Prevalent Technology - That technology new in 1963.
Advanced Technology - That technology new in 1967.
Small Plant - Produces less than 5000 Ib cloth/day.
Medium Plant - Produces from 5000 to 40,000 Ib cloth/day.
Large Plant - Produces over 40,000 Ib cloth/day.
Capital Cost - Equivalent 1966 cost.
Annual Operating and Maintenance Costs - Equivalent 1966
cost.
Economic Life - The economic life is the length of time
the machine or structure can be expected to compete
with advancing technology. It is an estimate of the
length of time required for economic obsolescence.
This will vary greatly in different industries de-
pending upon the nature of the product, dynamics of
industry growth, etc.
-------
73
TABLE IV-1 COTTON FINISHING - SMALL PLANT (15,000 Ib/day)
OLDER TECHNOLOGY (1950)
Item
Capital Annual Operating &
Costs Maintenance Costs
Economic
Alternative
Subprocesses
Enzyme Desizing
Batch Scour
Batch Bleaching
Causticizing
Batch Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
15
25
40
15
80
80
40
205
20
35
60
20
110
110
60
285
($1000)
10
15
30
10
75
75
25
90
15
25
35
20
105
105
35
140
(Years)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
500 - 700
330 - 480
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 2.8 - 14
Sedimentation 6.6 - 18
Chemical Precipitation 14 - 30
Trickling Filter 26 - 58
Activated Sludge 32 - 88
Lagoon 2.2 - 7
Aerated Lagoon 7.2 - 22
0.8 -
1.0 -
7.2 -
3.6 -
5.0 -
0.4 -
2.2 -
1.4
2.8
15
8.8
15
0.8
6.6
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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74
TABLE IV-2 COTTON FINISHING - MEDIUM PLANT (50,000 Ib/day)
OLDER TECHNOLOGY (1950)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Enzyme Deal zing
Scour
Bleaching
Mercerizing
Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
35
60
95
35
195
195
95
510
1220
- 50
90
- 150
- 50
- 265
- 265
- 150
- 690
- 1710
($1000)
30
45
90
40
225
225
70
275
1000
- 45
- 70
- 110
- 65
- 320
- 320
- 110
- 430
- 1470
(Years)
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
2.2 -
3.4 -
24 -
12 -
16 -
1.2 -
7.0 -
5
5
46
28
46
2.4
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 7-35
Plain Sedimentation 15 - 44
Chemical Precipitation 35 - 69
Trickling Filter 62 - 140
Activated Sludge 78 - 209
Lagoon 5-18
Aerated Lagoon 18 - 52
Special wotes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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75
TABLE IV-3 COTTON FINISHING - LARGE PLANT (100,000 Ib/day)
OLDER TECHNOLOGY (1950)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Enzyme Desizing
Scour
H202 Bleaching
Causticizing
Batch Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
55
95
155
55
310
310
160
810
75
138
235
75
430
430
234
1100
($1000)
1950 - 2720
45 -
70 -
140 -
60 -
360 -
360 -
115 -
430 -
1580 -
75
115
170
85
505
505
170
675
2300
(Years)
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 10 - 49
Plain Sedimentation 22 - 62
Chemical Precipitation 49 - 99
Trickling Filter 87 - 20
Activated Sludge 110 - 296
Lagoon 7-25
Aerated Lagoon 25 - 74
3.2 -
4.8 -
32 -
16 -
22 -
1.7 -
9.7 -
7
13
65
39
65
2
29
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
-------
- 76-
TABLE IV-4 COTTON FINISHING - SMALL PLANT (15,000 Ib/day)
PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY (1963)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Enzyme Desizing
Batch Sour
Batch Bleaching
Batch Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
20
30
50
105
105
50
270
25
25
80
145
145
80
370
($1000)
10
10
25
65
65
20
80
15
20
35
90
90
35
125
(Years)
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
630 - 870
280 - 410
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 2.4 - 12
Plain Sedimentation 5.4 - 15
Chemical Precipitation 12 - 24
Trickling Filter 20 - 48
Activated Sludge 26 - 72
Lagoon 2-6
Aerated Lagoon 6-18
0.7 -
1.2 -
7 -
3.6 -
5
0.2 -
2.4 -
1.4
2.9
14
8.6
14
0.7
6.5
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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77
TABLE IV-5 COTTON FINISHING - MEDIUM PLANT (50,000 Ib/day)
PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY (1963)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Enzyme Desizing
Continuous Scour
Continous
Bleaching
Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
45
75
130
255
255
130
660
60
110
190
350
350
190
900
($1000)
1550 - 2150
20 - 30
30 - 50
65 - 75
160 - 225
160 - 225
75 - 115
280 - 440
790 -1160
(Years)
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 6 - 30
Plain Sedimentation 14 - 38
Chemical Precipitation 30 - 60
Trickling Filter 53 - 120
Activated Sludge 68 - 180
Lagoon 5 - 15
Aerated Lagoon 15 - 45
2 -
3 -
20 -
10 -
14 -
1 -
6 -
5
8
40
24
40
2
18
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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78
TABLE IV-6 COTTON FINISHING - LARGE PLANT
(100,000 Ib/day) - PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY (1963)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Enzyme Desizing
Continuous Scour
Continuous
Bleaching
Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
70 .
120 -
205 -
405 -
405 -
205 -
1050 -
2460 -
100
180
305
560
560
305
1430
3440
($1000)
40
65
130
325
325
100
385
1370
- 65
- 105
- 155
- 455
- 455
- 155
- 610
- 2000
(Years)
6
6
6
6
6
6
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening
Plain Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagoon
Aerated Lagoon
12
27
61
107
138
9
31
«
.
.
-
-
-
-
61
77
122
245
367
31
92
3
5.
36
18
26
2
11
7
14
72
44
72
4
32
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment proces'ses.
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79
TABLE IV-7 COTTON FINISHING - SMALL PLANT (15,000 Ib/day)
NEWER TECHNOLOGY (1967)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Desizing
Batch Scour
Bleaching
Batch Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
20
35
55
115
115
55
295
30
50
85
145
145
85
400
($1000)
10
15
25
65
65
20
80
- 15
- 2(>
- 40
- 90
- 90
- 35
- 120
-(Years)
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 2.4 - 12
Plain Sedimentation 5.4 - 15
Chemical Precipitation 12 - 24
Trickling Filter 20 - 48
Activated Sludge 26 - 72
Lagoon 2-6
Aerated Lagoon 6 18
0.6 -
1
6 -
3
4.2 -
0.2 -
2
1.2
2.4
12
7.2
12
0.6
5.4
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
pro'cess in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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80
TABLE IV-8 COTTON FINISHING - MEDIUM PLANT (50,000 Ib/day)
NEWER TECHNOLOGY (1967)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Desizing
Scouring
^2Q2 Bleaching
Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
50
80
135
275
275
135
710
70
125
205
375
375
205
970
($1000)
25
40
80
95
95
65
240
35
65
95
280
280
95
370
(Years)
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
1660 - 2330
640 - 1220
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 6 - 30
Plain Sedimentation 14 - 38
Chemical Precipitation 30 - 60
Trickling Filter 53 - 120
Activated Sludge 68 - 180
Lagoon 5 - 15
Aerated Lagoon 15 - 45
2
3
20
10
14
1
6
4
8
40
24
40
2
18
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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81
TABLE IV-9 COTTON FINISHING - LARGE PLANT (100,000 Ib/day)
NEWER TECHNOLOGY (1967)
Item
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Costs Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Desizing
Scouring
H20£ Bleaching
Dyeing
Printing
Final Finishing
Rest of Plant
Total
($1000)
80 - 110
130 - 190
210 - 320
435 - 600
435 - 600
210 - 320
1140 - 1550
2640 - 3690
($1000)
40
60
125
315
315
100
375
1330
- 65
- 100
- 150
- 435
- 435
- 150
- 585
-1920
(Years)
6
6
6
6
6
6
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 12 - 58
Plain Sedimentation 26 - 73
Chemical Precipitation 58 - 116
Trickling Filter 102 - 231
Activated Sludge 129 - 347
Lagoon 9-29
Aerated Lagoon 3 9
3
5
34
17
24
2
10
7
14
68
40
68
4
30
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment faciTity is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
287-027 O - 68 - 7
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82
TABLE IV-10
SUMMARY OF PRODUCTION AND WASTE TREATMENT COSTS
Cotton Textile Finishing
Item
Quantity
Total Production
1
Total Value added in manufacturer
Average unit value added in manufacturer
Estimated replacement value of waste
reduction facilities
Annual amortized cost of facilities at
7% and 10 yr life2
Estimated annual waste reduction^
operating and maintenance cost
Average industry cost of waste treatment
per unit of production
Total waste reduction costs as percent of
total production cost
2015 Million Ib.
328 Million $
0.16 $/lb
24.5 Million $
3.5 Million $
2.2 Million $
.003 $/lb
1.7 Percent
From the Business and Defense Services Administration,
U. S. Department of Commerce, 1967.
Estimated replacement value, estimated amortization,
and estimated annual operating costs include an estimate
of the cost of municipal facilities attributable to this
industry's wastes.
-------
RAW
COTTON
H
L 7
CONVERSION It
TO CLOTH
PRINTING 1
CHARACTERISE
OF WET WASTES
ft
FINISHING
CARDING
SPINNING
SPOOLING
& WARPING
SLASHING-
DRAWING
WEAVING
TIT
ROLLER OR
MACHINE METHOD
ACCOUNT FOR
90-95% OF
ALL PRINTING
BOD 1.9-4.2%
OWF
SIZE APPLICATION
CARE IN DUMPING
RESULTS IN
NEGLIGIBLE BOD
CONTRIBUTION
WATER-PROOFING
LEVELLING OFF
BOD 0.67. OWF
CAUSTICIZING
BOD 2.0% OWF
SOFJENING
BOD 1.37. OWF
o
2;
Prepared for F.W.P.C.A.
I.W.P. NO. 4
COTTON TEXTILE FINISHING
PROCESS FLOW CHART - SIC 2261
PLATE 1
-------
-------
DESIZING
REPLACE
SLASHING
SIZES W/
LOW POL-
LUTION
COMPOUNDS
ANAEROBIC
DIGESTION
SEEDED
PLUS
AERATION
REPLACE
SOAP W/
SYNTHETIC
DETERGENTS
IN WASH-
OPERATIONS
2
KIERING
AERATION &
NEUTRALIZA-
TION KLER
WASTES
BLEACHING
COUNTERFLOW
& CONTINUOUS
MOVEMENT
HEAT RECOVERY
FOR DYE
HOUSE
STRC
WASH
TO MAKE
KIERING B
RECOVERY
DIALYSIS
EVAPORA
EQUALIZA:
MUNICIPAL
TREATMENT
CHEMICAL
COAGULATION
TRICKLING
FILTER
SLUDGE HANDLI]
1. DK
2. OK
3. VAC
Prepared for F.W.P.C.A
-------
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85
COTTON TEXTILE FINISHING
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Masselli, J. W. and M. G. Burford, "A Simplification of
Textile Waste Survey and Treatment". New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, 1959.
2. Sevdel, P. V., "Warp Sizing", W. R. C. Smith Publishing
Co., Atlanta, Georgia, 1958.
3. Hamby, Dame S., "The American Cotton Handbook". New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Volumes I & II, 1966.
4. 1963 Census of Manufactures, "Water Use in Manufacturing".
U. S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Census.
5. Snyder, Duane W., "Pollution Abatement Resulting from the
Practical use of Synthetic Compounds in Cotton
Slashing". Fifth Southern Municipal and Industrial
Waste Conference, p. 157, Waynesboro, Virginia;
April 5-6, 1956.
6. "Business Statistics, 1965". U. S. Department of Commerce.
7. Souther, R. H., "Research in Textile Waste Problems".
Greensboro, N.C., First Southern Municipal and
Industrial Waste Conference, p. 102, March 13-14,
1952.
8. "Chemical and Physical Properties - Sodium Carboxymethyl
Cellulose". Hercules Inc., Wilmington, Delaware.
9. Eldridge, E. F., "Industrial Waste Treatment Practice".
New York and London, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1942.
10. Dickerson, B. W., "A Solution to the Cotton Desizing Waste
Problem". Fourth Southern Municipal and Industrial
Waste Conference, Wilmington, Delaware, (1955).
11. Nemerow, N. L., "Oxidation of Cotton Kier Wastes". Sewage
and Industrial Wastes, 25, 9, p. 1060 (Sept. 1953).
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86
12. Gurnham, C. Fred, Editor, "Industrial Wastewater Control".
New York: Academic Press, 1965.
13. Williams, Samuel W-, Jr.; George A. Hutto, Jr., "Treatment
of Textile Mill Wastes in Aerated Lagoons". Engineering
Bulletin of Purdue University, Proceedings of the 16th
Industrial Waste Conference, (1961), Engineering
Extension Series No. 109, pp. 518-529.
14. "The American Cotton Handbook". Textile Book Publishers, Inc,
(1949).
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87
Industrial Waste Profile
Synthetic Textile Finishing - SIC 2262
U. S. Department of the Interior
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
I.W.P. No. 4 -'Synthetic Textile Finishing
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88
INDUSTRIAL WASTE PROFILE STUDIES
TEXTILE PRODUCTS
SIC 2262. SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FINISHING
INTRODUCTION
Synthetic fibers, namely those fibers which are man-
made and not found in nature, fall into two main groups: those
produced from cellulose and those produced synthetically from
organic materials. The cellulosic fibers are principally rayon
and acetate. The organic fibers are principally acrylics,
polyesters, and nylon. The organic synthetic fiber industry is
the most rapidly growing segment of the textile industry and is
continually creating new and varied fibers to add to the already
large number of synthetic fibers now on the market.
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89
I. PROCESSES AND WASTES
A. Fundamental Processes
Process Description: There are generally three key waste-
producing steps in the series of finishing processes for synthetic
textiles ^.
1. Scouring
2. Dyeing or Bleaching
3. Special finishing (optional)
There are two main variations of the basic finishing process,
1. Rayon and acetate finishing usually includes:
a. Chemical preparation
b. Scouring and dyeing
c. Salt bath (rayon only)
d. Special finishing (optional)
2. Nylon, acrylic and polyester usually includes:
a. Scouring
b. Dyeing or bleaching
c. Scouring (acrylic and polyester only)
d. Special finishing (optional)
Scouring; Because chemical impurities are virtually absent
in synthetic textiles, only relatively light scouring is needed to
prepare them for dyeing. Scour baths usually contain weak alkalis,
anti-static agents, lubricants, and soap or detergents, totaling
approximately 5 percent OWF (Of weight of Fiber).
When cloth is received at the finishing mill, it contains
sizing which was applied to improve weaving characteristics. These
sizes are removed in the scour, thereby contributing to the pollution
load. Because of the relatively low moisture regain of most synthetic
fibers, the amount of size used and removed is very small 1/2 to 3
percent OWF •
There are two principal scouring processes. Acetate may
be scoured and dyed in one bath; rayon, nylon, acrylic, and poly-
ester are scoured independently of, and preceding, the dyeing
operation.
Rayon, nylon, polyester, and acrylic receive a scour of
weak alkalis (such as tetrasodium pyrophosphate), anti-static
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90
lubricants (such as alcohol phosphates), and soap. This operation
may be done by a variety of equipment including the following:
Beam dyeing equipment
Rope soaper
Jig scour
Beck scour
Drum or paddle scour
After scouring, the material is rinsed to remove excess material in
preparation for the dye bath. Nylon scour and rinse wastes have an
average BOD of 1360 ppm of which 40 to 50 percent is anti-static
lubricants, 40 to 50 percent is soap and 10 to 20 percent is fatty
esters. Acrylic scour and rinse wastes average 2190 ppm BOD (6.6
percent OWF) of which 30 to 50 percent is due to anti-static lubri-
cants and 50 to 70 percent is due to soap. The pH averages 8.8.
Scour and Dye; Rayon and acetate may be dyed and scoured
concurrently. Scour materials are oils and synthetic detergents.
Most conventional dyes may be used with rayon; acetate generally
requires special dyes. Dyeing is often followed by one rinse for
rayon and two rinses for acetate. Scour and dye wastes usually
contain 5 to 6 Ib BOD/1000 Ib finished textile.
The pH is near neutral, but color is a problem with these
wastes.
Scour and Bleach; Rayon and acetate cloths require little
bleaching because of their inherent whiteness. Sodium chlorite is
the usual bleaching agent. Hydrogen peroxide may also be used at
the rate of 0.15 lb/1000 Ib cloth. Chlorine may be used to remove
soil from acetate. The chlorine bath should be cold, slightly acidic,
and not over 1000 ppm strength. These weak bleaches are sufficient
because the textiles contain very little impurity. Scour and bleach
wastes may be either high or low pH.
Dyeing; Dyeing is the most varied and difficult part of
the finishing-process. An important variable is the ability of the fiber
to absorb water. Rayon is hydrophilic, that is, it absorbs moisture
readily. Acetate and nylon absorb 4 to 6 percent moisture after
drying and are called "intermediate" fibers. Acrylic and polyester
are hydrophobia, resisting water absorption almost completely. Acrylic
and polyester present special difficulties. They commonly require the
use of carriers or high temperatures and pressure to swell and soften
the fibers enough for dye to penetrate. Dyeing of acrylic and poly-
ester is the most difficult aspect of synthetic textile finishing.
Nylon and acetate are dyed by conventional dyeing methods,
such as acid, direct, vat or dispersed. The dispersed method is
normally used to get black and some navy blues.
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91
The following is the normal procedure in dispersed-
developed dyeing of acetate:
Dye bath
Na2N02+ HC1 bath
Rinse
Development bath
Rinse
Waste from this process contains from 300 to 456 ppm BOD. Acid,
chrome or dispersed-developed dyes are used on nylon.
There are several alternate methods of dyeing acrylics .
The two most prevalent methods are acid dye with cationic assistant
and cuprous ion dye with phenol and aromatic amines. The cuprous
ion method also uses glyoxol, hydroxyammonium sulfate, sodium
bisulfate, and formic acid. Wastes from the cuprous ion method
average 0.5 percent BOD OWF by test, but should be 5.7 percent
based on chemical analysis. This discrepancy illustrates the in-
hibiting effect of phenol on biological action.
A group of carriers, used mostly in the dispersed and acid
dyeing of polyesters' ), produce varying estimated dye waste BOD
loadings as follows:
Carrier Waste BOD
Chlorinated Benzenes As low as 480 ppm
Ortho-phenyl-phenol 6,060 ppm
Phenylmethylcarbinol 19,000 ppm
Benzoic or Salicylic Acid 25,000 ppm
Recovery of these carriers is an important part of synthetic textile
waste treatment. Chlorinated benzenes are extremely toxic to humans
and require special vented equipment. They have the advantage of
low BOD's.
High temperature and pressure are sometimes used with
dispersed and acid dyes on acrylic and polyester. Temperatures of
212° to 250°F eliminate the need for carriers by softening and
swelling the fibers so dyes can penetrate. This method produces high
temperature wastes with no BOD.
Thermosol padding is an alternate means of dyeing which
produces only occasional batches of soap and rinse water. This
method involves oven drying at 175° to 200°C and is a potential
source of air pollution.
Carrier dyeing may be a potential source of process problems,
such as color inequalities, toxicity, and odor. As better dyeing
equipment becomes available, however, carrier dyeing seems to be
gaining popularity.
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92
Bleach; Bleaching of synthetic textiles is not normally
a source of organic or suspended solids pollution. However, the
process will generate dissolved solids, such as chlorides.
Final Scour; Acrylic and polyester receive a final scour
and rinse. The raw waste products are synthetic detergent and pine
oil for acrylic and antistatic lubricants and non-ionic syndet for
polyesters. The pine oil and non-ionic syndet produce over 90 per-
cent of the waste BOD in each case. Acrylic scour wastes average
700 ppm BOD; polyester wastes range from 500 to 800 ppm BOD.
Salt Bath: Rayon receives a salt bath and rinse after
dyeing with direct dyes. The bath consists of 0 - 5 percent OWF
detergent and 10 - 30 percent OWF salt. Wastes from this process
are all due to hold-up from the salt bath and range from 400 to
12,000 ppm salt. Approximately 60 ppm BOD is produced.
Heat Setting; Dye take-up and shrinkage of synthetic
fibers can be effected by heat-setting up to 450 F. Once this is
done, the dimensional stability of the cloth cannot be changed
without repeating the process at a higher temperature. Heat-
setting is widely practiced and may occur at any of several
places in the series of finishing processes. The most usual point
of application is before dyeing. This may be a dry process using
hot air, radiant heat, or a hot roll. Steam under pressure and hot
water are also used. The two most prevalent methods in 1963 were
hot air and steam. Wastes from this process are in the form of hot
air, hot water, or steam.
Finishing; The last part of the overall finishing
process may include such processes as:
Water proofing
Water-repellent treatment
Oil-repellent treatment
Resin finishing
Latex backing
Water retardant treatment
Modification of fabric hand
Drying
Any other minor specialized treatment falls into this
category. These processes may contribute wastes, but the effect is
generally not significant.
B. Significant Pollutants
Significant pollutants produced by synthetic fiber
finishing are shown on Table i-l.
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93
TABLE 1-1 SIGNIFICANT POLLUTANTS
FIBER
PROCESS
LIQUID WASTE
POLLUTANT
POSSIBLE AIR
POLLUTION
Rayon
Chemical
Preparation
Scour
Scour and
Bleach
Salt Bath
Anti-static lubricants,
Oil, Dye,
Syndet (Synthetic Deter-
gent)
Oil, Syndet,
Anti-static lubricants
Syndet
H202
Syndet, Chloride or
Sulfate
Vapors
Acetate
Chemical
Preparation
Scour and Dye
Scour and
Bleach
Oil, Dye, Syndet,
Anti-static lubricants
Anti-static lubricants,
Sulfonated Oils, Esters
Syndet,
H202, or Chlorine
Vapors
Nylon
Scour
Developed
Dispersed Dye
Bleach
Anti-static lubricants,
Soap, Tetrasodium
Pyrophosphate, Soda,
Fatty Esters
Dye, NaN02, HCl (dilute),
Developer, Sulfonated Oils
Peracetic Acid
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94
TABLE 1-1 SIGNIFICANT POLLUTANTS (cont'd)
FIBER
PROCESS
LIQUID WASTE
POLLUTANT
POSSIBLE AIR
POLLUTION
Acrylic
Cuprous ion,
Phenol Dye
Thermosol
Padding Dye
Bleach
Scour
Dye, Formic Acid
Wetting agent, Phenol,
Aromatic Amines,
Glyoxol,
Sulfates
Acid
Chlorite
Syndet, Pine Oil
Fumes
Polyester
Scour
Thermosol
Padding
Dye w/carrier
High Temp. &
Press. Dye
Bleach
Anti-static lubricants,
Chlorite or Hypochlorite,
Non-ionic Syndet
Acid
Monochlorobenzene, Hot
Water, Dye
or Orthochlorobenzene, Dye>
Hot Water
or Phenymethylcarbinol,
Hot Water, Dye
or Salicylic Acid, Hot
Water, Dye
or Benzoic Acid, Hot
Water, Dye
or Orthophenylphenol, Dye
Hot Water, Dye
Chlorite ,
NaN02, Acetic Acid,
Oxalic Acid,
Nitric Acid,
Bisulfite ,
Proprietary Bleaches
Toxic Fumes &
Odor
Odor & Fumes
Odor & Fumes
Odor & Fumes
Odor & Fumes
Odor & Fumes
Steam
Fumes
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95
Table 1-1 which projects subprocess trends in the
synthetic finishing industry is the result of information
received from operating plants, textile industry consultants,
machinery manufacturers, chemical manufacturers, and a thorough
survey of existing literature on the subject. It is intended to
show the direction of the industry in 1967 on the basis of
techniques now available. Since techniques are used in 1967
that were unheard of in 1950, it is entirely probable that
scientific advances will make many of the subprocesses shown
obsolete in the next ten years.
C. Process Water Reuse - 1964
It is estimated that this synthetic textile finishing
industry reused approximately 10 percent of its process water
in 1964, and 90 percent was used only once.
D0 Subprocess Trends
As previously indicated in the description of fundamen-
tal manufacturing processes there are often alternate methods to
accomplish a particular operation in the synthetic textile finishing
process. Which method is used depends upon such factors as type
and color of cloth being finished, type and size of process
machinery available,skill of available operating personnel, length
of run, and other factors. We have purposely left out the factor
of wasteload produced because this does not seem to strongly
influence subprocess selection. The plant manager is interested
in increasing his production efficiency and product quality and
any decrease in wasteload produced by the operation is merely a
bonus. There are exceptions of course, but they are isolated
Trends in the rise of subprocesses are shown in Table
1-2 for 1963 through 1982. No information is shown for 1950 due
to the many major changes in the industry that have taken place.
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96
TABLE 1-2 SUBPROCESS TRENDS
Textiles and Processes
Chemical Preparation
rayon & acetate
1 . Scour
Scour: nylon, acrylic, polyester
1. Soda Ash
2. Caustic Soda
3. Ammonium Hydroxide
4. Sodium Carboxymethyl
Cellulose
Scour and Dye: rayon
1. Direct
2. Naphthol
3. Developed
4. Vat
Scour and Bleach: rayon & acetate
1. Hydrogen Peroxide
2. Hypochlorite
3. Sodium Chlorite
Dye Nylon:
1. Dispersed
2. Acid
3. Direct
Dye Acrylic:
1. Cationic w/cationic retarder
2. Cationic w/anionic retarder
3. Disperse
4. Basic
Dye Polyester:
1. Conventional
2. w/Orthophenylphenol
3. w/Chlorinated benzenes
4. Benzoic or Salicylic Acid
5. Phenylmethyl carbinol
6. High Temp. & Pressure
7. Thermos ol Padding
Estimated Percentage of Plants
Employing Process
1950
1963
100
10
10
60
50
100
30
40
60
50
50
80
60
20
20
50
10
60
60
5
3
2
40
40
5
5
1967
100
5
15
65
60
100
30
50
60
55
45
70
60
20
20
45
10
70
70
5
20
10
20
20
15
10
1972
100
5
20
70
70
100
20
60
70
60
40
60
70
10
20
40
5
80
80
5
20
15
10
10
25
15
1982
100
2
20
70
70
100
20
65
70
65
35
50
70
10
20
30
5
90
90
-
20
25
-
-
35
20
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97
(Table 1-2 Cont'd)
Textiles and Processes
Bleach: nylon, acrylic, polyester
1. Sodium Chlorite
2. Peracetic Acid
3. Hydrogen Peroxide & Sodium
Hypochlorite
Final Scour: acrylic & polyester
1. Soda Ash
2. Caustic Soda
3 . Ammonium Hydroxide
4. Sodium Carboxymethyl
Cellulose
Heat Set: all fibers
1. Optional
Finishing: all fibers
1. Optional
Estimated Percentage of Plants
Employ
1950
1963
30
50
20
10
10
70
30
80
70
ring Process
1967
20
50
30
5
10
70
40
85
75
1972
10
50
40
2
20
80
50
90
80
1982
10
40
50
2
30
85
60
95
95
E. Waste Control Problems
Dyeing of polyester and acrylic presents a particularly
difficult waste problem due to:
1. Odors of carriers
2. Toxic vapors of carriers
3. High BOD of carriers
4. Hot waste water
Use of pressure dyeing is increasing as machinery such as
Burlington's Hy Press dye machine comes into use. Where carriers
continue to be used, monochlorobenzene has the advantage of very low
BOD in comparison to other carriers. It has the disadvantage of
requiring venting facilities due to its toxic fumes.
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98
F. Subprocess Technologies
This section of the report concerns itself with
"typical" series of subprocesses representative of older
(1950), prevalent (1963) and newer (1967) production process
technology. It was hoped that such "typical" series could be
described and further, that estimates of percentage of total
plants and range of plant sizes could be associated with these
production process technologies. It was possible to do this
in a meaningful manner for the natural fibers, cotton and wool,
but the synthetic textile finishing industry could not provide
adequate data. The information appears to be simply not
available on a national scale.
The reasons for this are many but most significant is the
great variety of synthetic fibers being produced, the phenomenal
growth of the industry, the recent development of the industry,
the wide spread use of synethic-natural fiber blends, and
the lack of a strong national manufacturers organization to
collect and disseminate information.
As a typical example of the problems involved in
deriving meaningful information about subprocess technologies,
there are over 200 different dyes currently being used on
nylon alone. Each of these dyes may require a different series
of steps in preparing, dyeing and finishing the cloth. If the
cloth is a blend with wool or cotton, this will introduce
additional changes in the processes required for a particular dye
operation. Since the dyeing operation is usually the major
step, on a cost basis, in the production process, it is obvious
that synthetic textile subprocess technology virtually defies
precise analysis.
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99
II. GROSS WASTE QUANTITIES
A. Daily Waste Quantities
The field of synthetic textiles is extremely complex be-
cause of the great number of different fibers being used, the fact
that a significant proportion of synthetic fibers are blended with
cotton and wool, and the industry is relatively new. The following
Table II-1 provides ranges of quantities of pollutants produced for
an average size plant arbitrarily given a production rate of
10,000 Ib/day of cloth.
Since many of the fibers currently popular were not in
use in 1950, we have not listed wasteload quantities for older
technology. It was felt the industry has changed so drastically
that such a listing would be meaningless.
Changes in subprocess chemistry and techniques in the
synthetic textile industry are dictated largely by the few large
manufacturers of synthetic fibers who maintain large research
and development facilities. As a result this is a rapidly changing
industry relative to the natural fiber (cotton and wool) industry.
287-027 O - 67 - 8
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100
TABLE II-1 DAILY WASTE QUANTITIES
Subprocess
Scour
Scour & Dye
Dye
Salt Bath
Final Scour
Special
Finishing
(optional)
Total
Fiber
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Thousand
Gal
60 - 80
60 - 80
30 - 50
20 - 40
40 - 60
20 - 40
20 - 40
20 - 40
5-15
80 - 100
20 - 40
5-15
30 - 50
40 - 60
50 - 70
10 - 30
30 - 70
70 - 110
120 - 180
210 - 290
80 - 160
Lb BOD
300 - 380
450 - 900
100 - 200
480 - 730
410 - 590
70 - 130
20 - 400
230 - 1380
0 - 30
120 - 250
150 - 250
20 - 800
20 - 800
20 - 800
20 - 800
20 - 800
140 - 2400
140 - 2400
140 - 2400
170 - 2900
420 - 7800
Lb SS
200 - 400
250 - 500
50 - 150
0 - 30
10 - 200
20 - 420
50 - 200
-
20 - 60
30 - 70
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
200 - 3000
200 - 3000
200 - 3000
250 - 4000
300 - 6000
TDS
300 - 500
120 - 200
250 - 350
250 - 390
200 - 340
60 - 90
300 - 2000
200 - 2000
40 - 120
100 - 500
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
30 - 1000
200 - 3000
200 - 3000
200 - 3000
250 - 4000
300 - 6000
B. Wasteload Production Rates
The following Table II-2 estimates average quantities
of wastes produced per 1000 Ib of cloth finished. Due to the great
number of variations, ranges of values are given which are intended
to include most common variations.
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101
TABLE II-2 AVERAGE WASTELOAD PRODUCTION RATES
PER 1000 LB OF CLOTH PRODUCED
Subprocess
Scour
Scour & Dye
Dye
Salt Bath
Final Scour
Special
Finishing
Total
Fiber
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Volume Gal.
6,000 - 8,000
6,000 - 8,000
3,000 - 5,000
2,000 - 4,000
4,000 - 6,000
2,000 - 4,000
2,000 - 4,000
2,000 - 4,000
500 - 1,500
8,000 - 10,000
2,000 - 4,000
500 - 1,500
3,000 - 5,000
4,000 - 6,000
5,000 - 7,000
1,000 - 3,000
3,000 - 7,000
7,000 - 11,000
12,000 - 18,000
21,000 - 29,000
8,000 - 16,000
BOD Lb
30 - 40
45 - 90
15 - 25
50 - 70
40 - 60
5-20
2-40
15 - 800
0 - 3
10 - 25
15 - 25
20
40
10
60
2-80
20 - 40
40 - 50
35 - 55
100 - 150
120 - 250
SS Lb
20 - 40
25 - 50
5-15
0 - 3
1-20
2-42
5-20
-
2 - 6
3 - 7
3-50
3-50
3-50
3 - 50
3-50
20 - 90
20 - 60
20 - 40
25 - 150
30 - 160
TDS Lb
30 - 50
12 - 20
25 - 35
25 - 39
20 - 34
6 - 9
30 - 200
20 - 200
4 - 12
10 - 50
3 - 100
3 - 100
3 - 100
3 - 100
3 - 100
20 - 500
20 - 300
20 - 300
25 - 400
30 - 600
C. Total Wasteload
Research in U.S. Department of Commerce statistics
reveals the following data for 1963:
Finished Synthetic Fabric
Cellulosics: 505 million Ib
Non-cellulosics: 470 million Ib
Based upon this data and the wasteload quantities from
Table II-2, we estimate the following gross wasteload quantities
produced in 1963.
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102
Textile
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic
Polyester
Volume
(Billion Gal)
4.8
2.2
6.1
1.8
2.3
17.2
BOD
(Million Ib)
59
12
20
9
77
177
SS
(Million Ib)
65
13
20
5
75
178
TDS
(Million Ib)
34
26
42
40
150
292
D. Gross Wasteload Projections
The following projections are based upon the projected
value added in manufacture figures provided by FWPCA, estimate
of increase in percentage of waste treatment techniques, and re-
duction of waste generated per unit of production.
Wastewater (Billion Gal)
BOD (Million Ib)
SS (Million Ib)
TDS (Million Ib)
1968
25
264
266
524
1967
27
278
280
563
1970
28
288
291
584
1971
29
301
304
608
1972
30
314
316
633
1977
36
375
379
760
1982
39
409
412
827
E. Seasonal Variations
There are no significant seasonal variations.
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103
III. WASTE REDUCTION PRACTICES
A. Processing Practices
Table III-l, outlines the relative pollution reduction
potentials of the various alternative subprocesses used in the
synthetic textile industry. The "older" technological method in
each case is used as the basis for comparison. The values shown
are generally the highest reported reductions for a particular
alternate subprocess.
TABLE III-l PROCESS POLLUTION REDUCTION
Textiles & Processes
Chemical Preparation:
Rayon and Acetate
Lower BOD Chem.
Scour: Nylon, Acrylic
and Polyester
Continuous Scour Machine
Scour and Dye:
Rayon and Acetate
Continuous Machines
Scour and Bleach:
Rayon and Acetate
Continuous Machines
Dye: Nylon
Dye: Acrylic
Dye: Polyester
High temp, pressure dye
machine
Bleach: Nylon, Acrylic*
Polyester
Continuous Bleaching Machine
Final Scour:
Acrylic and Polyester
Continuous Scour Machine
Special Finishing:
All Fibers, Optional
Older
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Prevalent
2
10
10
10
Depends
on
Dye
80
5
10
Newer
5
15
15
15
Depends
on
Dye
80
10
20
Depends on Finish
Percent Reduction
-------
104
Sequences in which subprocessing techniques affecting
wasteload production must be applied due to technological consider-
ations are as follows:
1. First scour must precede or be concurrent with
dye or bleach to remove sizes remaining from the weaving operation.
2. Final scour or salt bath must follow dye to
remove excess dye and other materials.
3. Special finishing if applied must follow all other
processing.
Interdependencies among processing techniques which
affect wasteload removal efficiencies or cost are as follows:
1. Any heavy metal ions in the waste will normally
inhibit biological treatment such as trickling filters or activated
sludge. If toxic ion is present, it may have to be removed
chemically prior to further treatment or discharge.
2. Toxic carriers, such as chlorinated benzenes>may
inhibit bacterial growth in biological treatment. These carriers
might be removed and reused because of their high cost as well as
their toxic effect.
3. Introduction of subprocesses which produce little
or no waste will affect wasteload removal cost. The thermosol
dyeing process is an example in that it produces little liquid
waste. Some special finishing processes use padding to apply the
finish and therefore produce little waste.
B. Treatment Practices
1. Removal Efficiencies
Efficiencies of treatment processes with synthetic
textile wastes are essentially the same as with other wastes of
similar strength. Typical wasteload removal efficiencies are
shown in Table III-2.
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105
TABLE III-2 TREATMENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES
Treatment Method
Screening
Plain Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagoon
Aerated Lagoon
Removal Efficiency (Percent)
BOD
0 - 5
5-15
25 - 60
40 - 85
70 - 95
30 - 80
50 - 95
SS
5-20
15 - 60
30 - 90
80 - 90
85 - 95
30 - 80
50 - 95
TDS
0
0
0 - 50
0-30
0-40
0-40
0-40
2. Rates of Adoption
The tremendous growth rate of the synthetic textile
industry is expected to continue and increase as various new
materials (modifications of existing fibers) and new fibers are
introduced to the public. Concurrent with this growth, a nearly
equal increase in wasteload seems imminent. This, along with
pressures by regulatory agencies regarding stream pollution, will
lead to an increased rate of adoption of waste treatment practices
in the future.
Synthetic textile wastes have generally been treated
by biological methods with good removal efficiency at reasonable
cost. In the future, it is expected that water requirements per
unit production will be reduced resulting in a plant effluent which
will be higher in pollution concentration and lower in volume.
Therefore, the adoption of more elaborate waste treatment facilities
utilizing pretreattnent and tertiary polishing can be expected.
Toxic metallic ions in dye wastes can retard
biological oxidation when present in high concentrations. Chemical
pretreatment may therefore become a requirement, or the industry
may choose to adopt treatment by chemical coagulation as the
principal method.
The following estimates are based on the above assump-
tions and industry growth projections provided by the FWPCA.
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106
Year
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1977
1982
Municipally
Treated
Waste
Percent
50
51
52
53
54
55
68
71
Avg BOD
Reduction
Percent
85
85
85
86
86
86
87
88
Industry
Treated
Waste
Percent
25
26
27
28
29
30
32
34
Avg BOD
Reduction
Percent
65
66
67
68
69
70
73
76
Total
Reduction
Percent
58
60
62
64
66
68
82
88
Sequences of treatment due to technical considerations are:
(a) pH adjustment may precede other chemical treatment to
reduce use of costly chemicals.
(b) Normally,suspended solids removal precedes biological
treatment methods such as activated sludge or trickling
filter. Lagooning, oxidation ponds, and certain acti-
vated sludge modifications may not require SS removal.
(c) Sludge treatment and ultimate disposal follow sludge
producing processes, such as settling.
Substitute techniques may be:
(a) Biological and chemical treatments are, under certain
circumstances, substitutes for each other. In other
situations they may be part of the same waste treatment
process.
(b) Sometimes fine screening may be substituted for sedimen-
tation basins.
(c) Normally the activated sludge and the trickling filter
process are not used together in the same system.
3. Discharge to Municipal Sewers
PERCENTAGE OF INDUSTRY'S WASTE
DISCHARGED TO MUNICIPAL SEWER
Year
Percent
1950
35
1963
45
1967
50
1972
55
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107
It should be noted that much of the synthetic textile
production is used in blends with cotton and wool. In addition
most finishing plants are equipped to finish either natural or
man-made fibers. For these reasons it is extremely difficult
to separate out wastes from synthetic textiles and arrive at an
estimate of the percentage being discharged to municipal sewers.
The above is our best estimate based on overall industry data
and trends.
Problems associated with treating textile wastes in
municipal facilities are dependent primarily on the volume ratio
of the domestic sewage to the industrial waste. If the textile
waste is only a small percentage of the total volume entering
the municipal plant no problems are encountered. If, however,
the textile waste constitutes a significant percentage of the
total volume it may be necessary to make special provisions.
These would normally include holding and equalization at the
textile finishing plant, pH control, chemical precipitation of
any toxic constituents and possibly chemical treatment for color
removal.
C. By-Product Utilization
There would be an adequate market for wastes reclaimed
in synthetic fiber finishing if economically feasible methods were
developed. This is due to the fact that all liquid wastes contain
chemicals used in the finishing (or sizing) itself and could be
reused if reclaimed. (The one exception to this is the one per-
cent OWF Nylon extracted in the scour). All carriers presently
recovered are reused. It is not economical to reclaim the other
chemicals, such as spent developed dye bath. Thermal wastes can
be reused by heat transfer methods.
D. Net Waste Quantities - 1963
BOD - 96 million Ib
SS - 71 million ib
TDS - 322 million Ib
E. Projected Net Wasteload
It is expected that the gross pollution load produced
by the synthetic textile finishing industry will increase
significantly because of rapidly increasing production.
It is anticipated, however, that the organic and
suspended solids pollution reaching the nations' watercourses
will remain essentially constant because of greater percentage
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108
of waste treated and higher waste treatment efficiencies. This
is not true of the dissolved inorganic matter since most
prevailing waste treatment methods do not significantly reduce
dissolved minerals. Tertiary treatment techniques capable of
removing dissolved inorganic matter are currently under extensive
study,but it is unlikely that they will come into significant use
prior to 1982.
TABLE III- 3 PROJECTED NET WASTELOADS
Year
1963
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1977
Waste
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
BOD
SS
TDS
Gross Produced
(million Ib)
177
178
358
252
254
i 510
264
266
524
278
280
563
288
291
584
301
304
608
314
316
633
375
379
760
Removed
(percent)
54
60
10
58
69
10
60
67
10
62
69
10
64
71
11
66
73
11
68
75
12
75
83
15
Net Reaching
Watercourses
(million Ib)
96
71
322
106
89
459
106
88
472
105
87
507
103
85
520
102
82
541
100
79
557
94
64
645
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109
IV. COST INFORMATION
A. Existing Facilities Costs
We estimate that the total replacement value of synthetic
textile finishing industry-owned and-operated waste reduction
facilities was $6 million in 1966 and that the total annual operating
and maintenance cost was 0.5 million dollars.
The above values are for industry owned and operated plants
only. We estimate that in 1966 approximately 50 percent of the waste
was discharged into and treated by municipal systems. Since industry
pays taxes and surcharges to support these facilities, the true
industry cost exceeds the foregoing amounts.
We estimate that the replacement value of that portion of
municipal facilities construction attributable to this industry's
waste is $10 million. On the same basis, the annual operating and
maintenance cost is estimated at $1.0 million.
Totals: Replacement Value - $16 million in 1966.
Operating & Maintenance - $1.5 million in 1966.
B. Processing and Treatment Costs
This portion of the survey analyzes costs involved in
subprocesses and end of line treatment. These are further broken
down into size of plant and state of technology; i.e., older,
prevalent and newer. Because of the wide ranges in the information
feedback from the textile industry, we have inserted ranges in the
following tables. In addition, we have added a table which gives
cost data on the entire synthetic textile finishing industry and
relates costs of waste treatment to cost of production. We believe
this latter table gives a much more accurate picture of the present
industry cost situation than do the tables preceding it.
We have found that new machinery for subprocesses is
purchased by the industry on the basis of increasing production
efficiency and product quality - not on the basis of decreasing
the pollution load produced by the subprocess. Any such decrease
is merely a bonus in most cases.
It should also be noted that the end of the line waste
treatment has virtually no relationship to the technology of the
process that created the waste or the size of the finishing plant;
i.e., an older technology plant may have an extremely efficient,
modern, waste treatment facility, and a modern, efficient finishing
plant may have no waste treatment facility at all. With few
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110
exceptions, the end of the line treatment selected is primarily on
the basis of requirements imposed by regulating agencies reponsible
for the water courses being affected.
It should be noted also that we are required to estimate
costs for plants incorporating pure states of technology, i.e.,
completely old, completely prevalent, completely advanced. Few
such plants exist. Most plants are mixtures of varied subprocess
technologies, since they have been modernized in stages over a
relatively long period of time.
Several definitions are necessary for the following
tables:
Old Technology - That technology new in 1950.
Prevalent Technology - That technology new in 1963.
Advanced Technology - That technology new in 1967.
Small Plant - Produces 10,000 Ib cloth/day.
Medium Plant - Produces 20,000 Ib cloth/day.
Large Plant - Produces 60,000 Ib cloth/day.
Capital Cost - Equivalent 1966 cost.
Annual Operating and Maintenance Expenditure -
Equivalent 1966 cost.
Economic Life - The economic life is the length
of time the machine or structure can be expected
to compete with advancing technology. It is an
estimate of the length of time required for
economic obsolescence. This will vary greatly
in different industries depending upon the nature
of the product, dynamics of industry growth, etc.
-------
Ill
TABLE IV-1
INDUSTRY
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - SMALL PLANT - OLDER TECHNOLOGY
1950 Technology
10.000 Lb/Day Plant
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses ($1000)
Chemical Preparation 4-9
Scouring 11-23
Dyeing 80-160
Bleaching 11-23
Final Scouring 11-23
Salt Bath 7-14
Heat Set 7-14
Special Finishing 4-9
Rest of Plant 90-185
TOTAL 225-460
($1000)
3- 6
8- 15
55-105
8- 15
8- 15
5- 9
5- 9
3- 6
60-135
155-315
(Years)1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 0.3-2.6
Sedimentation 1.0-3.2
Chemical Precipitation 1.3-4.9
Trickling Filter 2.2-9.8
Activated Sludge 2.8-15
Lagooning 0.2-1.3
Aerated Lagoon 0.7-3.7
0.1-0.3
0.1-0.5
0.7-2.6
0.4-1.6
0.5-2.6
0.1-0.2
0.2-0.6
* Approvimate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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112
INDUSTRY
TABLE IV-2
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - MEDIUM PLANT - OLDER TECHNOLOGY
1950 Technology Capital
20,000 Lb/Day Plant Costs
Annual Operating & Economic
Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses ($1000)
Chemical Preparation 10-15
Scouring 20-^0
Dyeing 140-290
Bleaching 20-40
Final Scouring 20-40
Salt Bath 10-25
Heat Set 10-25
Special Finishing 10-15
Rest of Plant 160-350
TOTAL 400-840
($1000)
5- 10
15- 30
100-210
15- 30
15- 30
10- 20
10- 20
5- 10
115 -240
290 -600
(Years)'
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 0.5-5.0
Sedimentation 1.2-9.1
Chemical Precipitation 2.5-9.7
Trickling Filter 4.3-20
Activated Sludge 5.5-30
Lagoon 0.4-2.6
Aerated Lagoon 1.2-7.4
0.1-0.9
0.2-1.0
1.3-9.0
0.7-3.0
0.9-5.0
0.1-0.3
0.4-2.2
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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113
TABLE IV-3
INDUSTRY SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - LARGE PLANT - OLDER TECHNOLOGY
1950 Technology Capital
60,000 Ib/Day Plant Costs
Annual Operating & Economic
Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Chemical Preparation
Scouring
Dyeing
Bleaching
Final Scouring
Salt Bath
Heat Set
Special Finishing
Rest of Plant
TOTAL
($1000)
20 - 40
50 -100
350 -700
50 -100
50 -100
30 - 60
30 - 60
20 - 40
400 -800
1000 -2000
($1000)
10- 30
30- 70
210- 500
30- 90
30- 70
20- 40
20- 40
10- 30
240- 570
600-1420
( Years)'
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 1.5 - 15
Sedimentation 3.4 - 19
Chemical Precipitation 7.3 - 30
Trickling Filter 13 - 58
Activated Sludge 16 - 87
Lagoon 1.2 - 7
Aerated Lagoon 3.7 - 22
0.4
0.6
3.7
1.9
2.6
0.2
1.2
- 1.5
- 3.0
-15
- 9.0
-15
- 0.8
- 6.7
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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114
INDUSTRY
TABLE IV-4
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - SMALL PLANT - PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
1963 Technology
10,000 Lb/Day Plant
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses ($1000)
Chemical Preparation 5-10
Scouring 10-30
Dyeing 100-210
Bleaching 15-30
Final Scouring 15-30
Salt Bath 10-20
Heat Set 10-20
Special Finishing 5-10
Rest of Plant 120-240
TOTAL 290-600
($1000)
3- 6
8- 15
45-105
8- 15
8- 15
5- 9
5- 9
3- 6
53-120
138-300
(Years)'
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 0.2 2.4
Sedimentation 0.5- 3.0
Chemical Precipitation 1.2-4.8
Trickling Filter 2.1-9.6
Activated Sludge 2.7-14
Lagoon 0.2-1.2
Aerated Lagoon 0.6-3.6
0.1-0.2
0.1-0.5
0.6-2.4
0.3-1.4
0.4-2.4
0.1-0.2
0.2-0.5
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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INDUSTRY
115
TABLE IV-5
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - MEDIUM PLANT - PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
1963 Technology
20,000 Lb/Day Plant
Capital
Costs
Annual Operating &
Maintenance Expenditures
Economic
Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
($1000)
($1000)
(Years)'
Chemical Preparation
Scouring
Dyeing
Bleaching
Final Scouring
Salt Bath
Heat Set
Special Finishing
Rest of Plant
TOTAL
End of Line
Treatment
10- 20
25- 50
180- 370
25- 50
25- 50
15- 30
15- 30
10- 20
215- 420
520-1040
5- 10
15- 30
90-190
15- 30
15- 30
10- 20
10- 20
5- 10
100-220
265-560
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
Screening 0.5- 4.8
Sedimentation 1.1- 9.0
Chemical Precipitation 2.4- 9.6
Trickling Filter 4.2-19
Activated Sludge 5.4-29
Lagooning 0.4 2.4
Aerated Lagoon 1.2- 7.2
0.1-0.5
0.1-1.0
1.2-4.8
0.6-2.9
0.8-4.8
0.1-0.3
0.4-2.2
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1956 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used).
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of the
line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same in
compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
287-027 O - (
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116
TABLE IV-6
INDUSTRY SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - LARGE PLANT - PREVALENT TECHNOLOGY
1963 Technology
60,000 Ib/Day Plant
Capital Annual Operating & .Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses
Chemical Preparation
Scouring
Dyeing
Bleaching
Final Scouring
Salt Bath
Heat Set
Special Finishing
Rest of Plant
TOTAL
($1000)
25 - 50
65 - 130
455 - 910
65 - 130
65 - 130
40 - 80
40 - 80
25 - 50
520 -1040
1300 -2600
($1000)
10- 25
30- 70
200-470
30- 70
30- 70
15- 40
15- 40
10- 25
230-540
570-1350
(Years)
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
15
1.4
3.3
7.2
13
16
1.1
3.6
- 14
- 18
- 29
- 58
- 86
- 7
_ 22
.2
0.4
0.5
3.6
1.8
2.5
0.2
1.1
- 1.4
- 2.9
-14
. 9
-14
- 0.7
- 6.5
End of Line
Treatment
Screening
Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagoon
Aerated Lagoon
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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INDUSTRY
117
TABLE IV"7
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - SMALL PLANT - NEWER TECHNOLOGY
1967 Technology
10,000 Lb/Day Plant
Capital Annual Operating & Economic
Costs Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses ($1000)
Chemical Preparation 5- 10
Scouring 15- 35
Dyeing 110-220
Bleaching 15- 35
Final Scouring 15- 35
Salt Bath 10- 20
Heat Set 10- 20
Special Finishing 5- 10
Rest of Plant 125-255
TOTAL 310-640
($1000)
3- 6
6- 14
45-100
6- 14
6- 14
3- 8
3- 8
3- 6
55-120
130-290
(Years)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
15
End of Line
Treatment
Screening 0.2- 2.4
Sedimentation 0.5- 3-0
Chemical Precipitation 1.2- 4.8
Trickling Filter 2.1- 9.6
Activated Sludge 2.7-14
Lagoon 0.2- 1.2
Aerated Lagoon 0.6- 3.6
,1-0.3
,1-0.5
6-2.4
0.3-1.4
0.4-2.4
0.1-0.2
0.2-0.6
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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118
TABLE IV-8
INDUSTRY SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - MEDIUM PLANT - NEWER TECHNOLOGY
1967 Technology Capital
2Q.OOO Lb/Day Plant Costs
Annual Operating & Economic
Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses ($1000)
Chemical Preparation 10- 20
Scouring 30- 60
Dyeing 195-400
Bleaching 30- 60
Final Scouring 30- 60
Salt Bath 15- 35
Heat Set 15- 35
Special Finishing 10- 20
Rest of Plant 225-460
TOTAL 560-1150
5- 10
15- 30
90-190
15- 30
15- 30
5- 15
5- 15
5- 10
105-210
260-540
(Years)
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
15
*
End of Line
Treatment
Screening
Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagoon
Aerated Lagoon
0.5- 4.8
1.1- 9.0
2.4- 9.6
4.2-19
5.4-29
0.4- 2.4
1.2- 7.2
0.1-0.5
0.2-1.0
1.2-4.8
0.6-2.9
0.8-4.8
0.1-0.3
0.4-2.2
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
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119
TABLE IV-9
INDUSTRY SYNTHETIC TEXTILE - LARGE PLANT - NEWER TECHNOLOGY
1967 Technology Capital
60,000 Ib/Day Plant Costs
Annual Operating & Economic
Maintenance Expenditures Life
Alternative
Subprocesses ($1000)
Chemical Preparation 30 - 55
Scouring 70 - 140
Dyeing 490 - 980
Bleaching 70 - 140
Final Scouring 70 - 140
Salt Bath 40 - 85
Heat Set 40 - 85
Special Finishing 30 - 55
Rest of Plant 560 -1120
($1000)
10 - 25
25 - 65
200 - 475
25 - 65
25 - 65
15 - 40
15 - 40
10 - 25
235 - 530
(Years)
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
15
TOTAL
560 - 1330
1.4
3.3
7.2
13
16
1.1
3.6
- 14
- 18
- 29
- 58
- 86
- 7
- 22
0.4
0.5
3.6
1.8
2.5
0.2
1.1
- 1.4
- 2.9
-14
- 8.7
-14
- 0.7
- 6.5
End of Line
Treatment
Screening
Sedimentation
Chemical Precipitation
TricUtLng Filter
Activated Sludge
Lagoon
Aerated Lagoon
* Approximate
Special Notes:
1. All costs are equivalent 1966 costs. (To determine actual costs for
an earlier year, an appropriate engineer construction cost factor
may be used.)
2. Percentage of pollution reduction achieved by a particular end of
the line treatment process is simplified and assumed to be the same
in compared years. For example, it is assumed that the screening
process in 1950 would achieve the same efficiency of pollution
reduction as screening in 1963 and 1967.
3. The end of the line treatment does not include any sewer collection
system costs. It is assumed that the waste treatment facility is
located adjacent to the industrial waste source.
These assumptions were considered necessary to comply with the contract
while permitting comparison of waste treatment costs achieved, first,
by lesser waste volume and strength generated by a plant per unit of
product and secondly, by increased efficiency in certain end of the
line waste treatment processes.
287-027 O - 68 - 10
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120
TABLE IV-10
SUMMARY OF PRODUCTION AND WASTE TREATMENT COSTS
Synthetic Textile Finishing
item
Total Production
Total value added in manufacture
Average unit value added in manufacture
Estimated replacement ^alue of waste
reduction facilities
Annual amortized cost of facilities at
7% and 10 yr life 2
Estimated annual waste reduction
operating and maintenance cost
Average industry cost of waste treatment
per unit of production
Total waste reduction costs as percent of
total production cost
Quantity
975 Million Ib
179 Million $
.18 $/lb
16 Million $
2.3 Million $
1.5 Million $
.004 $/lb
2.2 Percent
The above table is a comparison of the total capital, operating,
and maintenance cost per year of end of the line waste treatment
to the total cost of production per year. These are industry-
wide estimates and individual pJLants may deviate considerably.
1. From the Business and Defense Services Administration,
U. S. Department of Commerce, 1967.
2. Estimated replacement value, estimated amortization, and
estimated annual operating costs include an estimate of the
cost of municipal facilities attributable to this industry's
wastes.
-------
NYLON (POLYAM
IN1EBMEDUT
4-6% MOISTU
ACRYLICS
HYDROFBOBIC
SPOH-OTED
MODACRTULC
POLYESTERS
1.6Z HOIS",
d
ta
Prepared for F.W
-------
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CHEMICAL
PREPARATION
DN)
SPECIAL
FINISHES *
LOW pH
IGENT 0-5% OWF
10-30% OWF
3.37= SOLIDS
BOD
2#/1000#
PH 3.9 :
MIX
BOIL
>pm.
0.1% OWF
ppm
5007. COMBINED
I & SCOUR
>m
(HYDROPHILIC) RAYO1000
INCLUDE
WATER PROOFING
VATS* REPEl-LENT TREATMENT
MOTH-PROOFING
OIL REPELLENT TREATMENT
HESIN FINISHING
LATEX BACKING
M1X
.•27.
BOIL
SKIMOFF
o
(ACETATES)
RAYON
RAYON:
AVG.BOD= 1.9% OWF
AVG BOD* 3.8^ OWF
"
r
— •
••'
t
— »
*
— «•
••*»
L»«
t
iM«B
WATER PROOFING
WAX SOLVENT
OILS, FATS, WAXES L.
W /SOLVENTS |^»
SOLVENT
GELATIN
PROTEIN (GELATIN)!*.
(OLDER) |— •
ACETIC ACTD
ESTERIFICATION [*"
NEWER PROCESSES i**
' ! ,
•M_^.
Prepared for F.W
'.W.P. NO. 4 , CEttUtOSE
SYNTHETIC TEXT/IE FINISHING
o n ^^ ** H ^ _
-s/c
Purt 2
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-------
CHEMICAL
PREPA-
RATION
SCOUR
DYE
BLEACH
SCOUR
HEAT
SETTING
SPECIAL
FINISHES
EQUAM2ATJCB AND HOLDING
PLAIN
SEDIMENTATION
_£
ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
LAGOONING
SCREENING
CHEMICAL
PRECIPITATION
TRICKLING FILTER
TO
WATERCOURSE
pH CORRECTION
1
FLOTATION
OXIDATION POND
Prepared for F.W.P.C.A.
I.W.P. NO. 4
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FINISHING
WASTE TREATMENT FLOW CHART-SIC 2262
PLATE 3
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124
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FINISHING
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Masselli, J. W. and M. Gilbert Burford, "Pollution Sources
from Finishing of Synthetic Fibers". Boston, Mass.,
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control
Commission, June, 1956.
2. "Dyeing and Finishing DuPont Nylon". Wilmington, Delaware:
E. I. DuPont de Nemours, Co., Inc., Dec. 1965.
3. "Dyeing and Finishing Orion Staple and Tow". Wilmington,
Delaware: E. I. DuPont, de Nemours Co., Inc., June
1967.
4. "Dyeing and Finishing Filament Yarn and Fabric of Dacron".
Wilmington, Del., E.I. DuPont de Nemours Co., Inc.,
Dec. 1966.
5. Moncrief, R. W., "Man-Made Fibres". London: Heywood &
Company Limited, 1963.
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125
APPENDIX I
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alspaugh, T.D., "Interrelationships Among Water Resources,
Pollution Control and Growth of the Textile Industry in
the Southeast1'. Proceedings - 13th Southern Municipal and
Industrial Waste Conference (April and May 1964), PP- 178-179.
Alspaugh, T. A., "Textile and Tannery Wastes"(literature review).
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, (June 1967).
Alspaugh, T. A., "Tannery, Textile, and Wool Scouring Wastes"
(literature review). Journal Water Pollution Control Feder-
ation, (June 1965).
"An Industrial Waste Guide to the Cotton Industry". Washington,
D. C.: U.S. Public Health Service, 1943.
"An Industrial Waste Guide to the Cotton Textile Industry". U.S.
Public Health Service, 1959.
Anon., "Is Waste Treatment a Business Expense or Capital Investment",
Wastes Engineering,No.32, Vol. 6, p. 290 (June 1961).
Besselievre, Edmund B., "Industrial Waste Treatment'1. New York:
Mc-Graw Hill Book Co., Inc., 1952.
Bogren, George G., "Treatment of Cotton - Finishing Waste Liquors".
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 42, No. 4 (April
1950), p. 619.
Bogren, George C., "A Plant for De-Greasing Wool Scouring Wastes".
Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 13,
No. 1, p. 18.
Brown, John L., "Combined Treatment of Textile Waste and Domestic
Sewage". Kannapolis, N.C.. Sixth Southern Municipal and
Industrial Waste Conference, p. 179, April 1-2, 1957.
Burford, Masselli, Snow, Campbell, and De Luis, "Industrial Waste
Surveys of Two New England Cotton Finishing Mills, Sewage
and Industrial Wastes". 25, 9; 26, 9, New England Interstate
Water Pollution Control Commission, June 1953.
Buswell, A. M., et. al., "Anaerobic Digestion Treats Cotton Mill
De-Size Wastes". Wastes Engineering. Vol. 33, No. 8, p. 402
(Aug. 1962)
-------
126
Buswell, A. M. and H. F. Mueller, "Treatment of Wool Wastes".
Proceedings of the llth Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue
University, (May 1956) p. 160.
Coburn, Stuart E., "Treatment ot Cotton Printing and Finishing
Wastes". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 42, 4, 621
(April 1950).
Caldwell, D. H., "Sewage Oxidation Ponds-Performance, Operation
and Design". Sewage Works Journal; Vol. XVIII,(May 1946),
No. 3.
Cawley, W. A. and C. C. Wells, "Lagoon System for Chemical Cellulose
Waste". Industrial Wastes. 4, 3, 37,(May 1959).
"Dyeing and Finishing Fabrics Containing Dacron Staple Combined with
Other Fibers". Wilmington, Del.: E. I. DuPont de Nemours &
Co., Inc., Feb. 1967.
"Dyeing and Finishing Filament Yarn and Fabric of Dacron". Wilming-
ton, Del.: E. I. DuPont de Nemours fit Co., Inc., Dec. 1966.
Geyer, John C., "Textile Industry". Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry, Vol. 39, No. 5,(May 1947)-
Geyer, John C. and W. A. Perry, "Textile Waste Treatment & Recovery".
Wash., D. C., The Textile Foundation, Inc., (1938).
Gurnham, C. F., "Industrial Wastewater Control". New York: Academic
Press, pp.375-393, 1965.
Gurnham, C. Fred, "Principles of Industrial Waste Treatment". John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1955.
Hughes, J. W., ''Industrial Waste Treatment at a Viscose-Rayon
Factory". Surveyor, 110, 3118, 781, (December 1951).
Jacobs, H. L., "Rayon Waste Recovery and Treatment". Sewage and
Industrial Wastes. 25, 3, 296, March 1953.
Jones, E. L., T. A. Alspaugh, and H. B. Stokes, "Aerobic Treatment
of Textile Mill Waste". Journal. Water Pollution Control
Federation, Vol. 34, No. 5.
McCarthy, J. A., ''Use of Calcium Chloride in the Treatment of
Industrial Wastes". Sewage and Industrial Wastes. 24, 4,
273, (April 1952).
McCarthy, J. A., "What do you know about Textile Wastes". Raleigh,
N.C.; First Southern Municipal and Industrial Waste Conference,
p. 91, March 1952.
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127
Mann, Uhl T., "Plain Aeration of Sewage". Sewage Works Journal,
Vol. XVIII, No. 3,(Kay 1946).
Masselli, Joseph W. and Gilbert Burford, "Pollution Reduction
Program for the Textile Industry". Sewage and Industrial
Wastes, Vol. 28, No. 10 (October 1956).
Masselli, J. W. and M. G. Burford, "A Simplification of Textile
Waste Survey and Treatment". Boston, Mass,; New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, July 1959.
Masselli, J. W. and M. G. Burford, "A Survey of Three Textile Mills
in Connecticut". New England Interstate Water Pollution Con-
trol Commission. 1951.
Masselli, Joseph W. and M. Gilbert Burford, "Pollution Reduction in
Cotton Finishing Wastes through Process Chemical Changes".
Sewage and Industrial Wastes, September 1954.
Masselli, Joseph W., Nicholas W. Masselli and M. Gilbert Burford,
"Textile Waste Survey and Treatment: A Simplified Approach".
Ninth Southern Municipal and Industrial Waste Conference, p. 80;
Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University, April 7-8, 1960.
Mauersberger, H. R., "Mathew's Textile Fibers". New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1948.
Neas, G. M., "Treatment of Viscose Rayon Wastes" . Proceedings of
14th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, May 1959,
p. 450.
Nemerow, Nelson L., "Theories and Practices of Industrial Waste
Treatment". Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.,
1963.
Nemerow, N. L., "Oxidation of Enzyme Desize and Starch Rinse Textile
Wastes". Sevage on Industrial Wastes, 26, 10 (Oct. 1954), p. 1231,
National Stream Sanitation Committee of the American Association of
Textile Chemists and Colorists in cooperation with the National
Technical Task Committee on Industrial Wastes, "Cotton Textile
Industry". U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Public
Health Service, Bureau of State Service, Div. of Water Supply
and Pollution Control, 1959.
Oakun, D. A., et al, "Textile and Wool Scouring Wastes" (literature
review). Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, June 1963.
-------
128
Palmer, C. W., "Wool Scouring Wastes". Transactions of American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, 12, Part 1 (1919), p. 113.
Roetman, E. T., "Viscose Rayon Mfg. Wastes and Their Treatment".
Waterworks and Sewage, 91, 7, 265-8,(August 1944).
Rudolfs, W., "Industrial Waste Developments". Sewage Works Journal,
9, 5, 998 (September 1937).
Ryder, L. W., "The Design and Construction of the Treatment Plant
for Wool Scouring and Dyeing Wastes at Manufacturing Plant,
Glasgow, Va.". Journal of Boston Society of Civil Engineers,
37 (April 1950), p. 183.
Sadow, R. D., "The Treatment of Zefran Fiber Wastes". Proceedings
of 15th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, (May
1960) p. 359.
Schroepfer, George J., "Determination of Fair Sewage Service Charges
for Industrial Wastes". Sewage and Industrial Wastes; Vol. 23,
(December 1951), Number 12.
Smith, Arthur L. and John C. Grey, ''The Evolution of a Waste Treatment
Scheme at Chatham Manufacturing Company". Elkin, North Carolina:
Ninth Southern Municipal and Industrial Waste Conference, p. 105-
131, April 7-8, 1960.
Smith, Arthur L., "Waste Disposal by Textile Plants". Journal,
Water Pollution Control Federation,(November 1965).
Smith, A. L., et al, "Finding the Best Way to Treat Waste from a
Blanket Mill". Wastes Engineer. 32, 230 (1961).
Snell, F. D., "Chemical Treatment of Trade Waste". Industrial ana
Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 21, No. 3, p. 210 (March 1929).
Snyder, Duane W., "Pollution Control in the Textile Industry by
Process Change". Second Southern Municipal and Industrial
Waste Conference, (1953).
Souther, R. H. and T. A. Alspaugh, "Treatment of Mixture of Textile
Waste and Domestic Sewage". American Association of Textile
Chemists and Colorists, November 14, 1957.
Souther, R. H. and T. A. Alspaugh, "Current Research on Textile Waste
Treatment". Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 30, No. 8
(August 1958) •
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129
Souther, R. H., "Uater Conservation and Pollution Abatement".
American Dyestuff Reporter, (April 30, 1962).
"Synthetic Textile Industry, An Industrial Waste Guide". Washington,
D. C.: Public Health Service Publication No. 1320, 1965.
Turnbull, S. C., Jr., "Waste Problems Associated with the Dyeing
and Finishing of Synthetic Fibers". Proceedings of the 5th
Southern Municipal and Industrial Waste Conference, April 1956,
p. 170.
Willis, Charles A., "Developing Patterns for Efficient Water Utiliza-
tion Textile Dyeing and Finishing Industries". Proc. 14th
Southern Water Resources and Pollution Control Conference, 1965,
pp. 100-104.
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130
APPENDIX II
GLOSSARY
Aeration - The act of supplying with oxygen.
Aerobic - Living or active in the presence of oxygen.
Acetate - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance
is cellulose acetate.
Acid Cracking - A process in which complex chemical structures are
broken up by the action of acid.
Acrylic - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance
is any long chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85
percent by weight of acrylonitrile units.
Activated Sludge - A process for treating liquid waste by aeration
and recirculation of biologically active sludge.
Anaerobic - Living or active in the absence of oxygen.
Beck Dyeing - A continuous process for dyeing cloth by moving it
through a large vat containing the dye bath and rollers.
Bleaching - The procedure, other than by scouring only, of improv-
ing the whiteness of a textile material by oxidation or
reduction of the coloring matter.
BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand - The weight of oxygen required
to biological oxidize an organic waste over a specified
period of time.
Carbonizing - To convert to residue of carbon, as by fire or
chemical action, to char.
Carding - The separation and partial cleaning by processing of a
tangled or matted mass of fibers to a flimsy web by working
the fibers between two closely spaced, relatively moving
surfaced, clothed with sharp points.
Cationic - Containing positively charged particles or ions,
usually applied to an electrolyzed solution.
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131
Causticizing - Treating with a corrosive chemical capable of
eating or destroying.
Coagulation - The change from a liquid to a thickened, curd-like
state.
COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand - A measure of the organic pollution.
Copperas - Crystalized ferrous sulfate.
Counter-Current - Flow of wash water in opposition to flow of
product such that the product encounters increasingly cleaner
water.
Dacron - A registered trademark of E. I. duPont de Nemours and
Company identifying a particular synthetic fiber.
Desizing - Removal of sizing, anti-static compounds and lubricants.
Drawing - Stretching freshly spun synthetic fibers to several times
their original length.
Effluent - Polluted water discharged from a process.
Equalization - The process of combining two or more dissimilar
wastes to produce a uniform composite.
Filament - A variety of fiber having an extreme length, not readily
measured.
Filler - Nonfibrous material, such as insoluble clays or gypsum,
together with starches, gums, etc., added to a fabric to
increase its weight or to modify the appearance or handle
of the fabric; also referred to as back-sizing.
Full - To thicken by moistening, heating and pressing, as cloth;
to scour, cleanse, and thicken cloth in a mill.
Gray Goods - Woven or knitted fabrics which have received no
bleaching, dyeing or finishing treatment.
Hydrophobic - Resistant to the absorption of water, "water hating"-
Hydrophilic - Easily absorbs water, "water friendly".
Lagooning - A liquid waste treatment process of holding the waste
in shallow ponds for a period of several hours to allow
absorption of oxygen.
-------
132
Moisture Regain - The moisture in a material determined under
prescribed conditions and expressed as a percentage of the
weight of the oven-dried specimen.
Neutralize - To adjust the pH of a solution to seven (neutral) by
the addition of an acid or a base.
Nylon - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance
is any long chain synthetic polyamide having recurrent amide
groups as an integral part of the polymer chain.
Olefin - A newly developed synthetic fiber.
Orion - A registered trademark of E. D. duPont de Nemours and
Company identifying a particular synthetic fiber.
Polyamide - See "Nylon".
Polyester - A manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance
is any long chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85
percent by weight of an ester of a dihydric alcohol and
terepthalic acid.
Process - A series of actions or operations defintely conducting
to an end; continuous operation or treatment, especially as
in manufacture.
Raw Wool - Wool as taken from sheep, containing approximately 50%
grease and dirt.
Rayon - A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, as
well as manufactured fibers composed of regenerated cellulose
in which substitutes have replaced not more than 15 percent of
the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.
Scour - To rub hard for the purpose of cleansing; to make clean
and bright by friction.
Screening - Separation of solid material from liquid waste by
passing the waste through screens.
Sedimentation - The act or process of settling matter to the bottom
of a liquid.
Singe - To remove the nap of cloth by exposing it to scorching heat.
Sizing - A generic term for compounds which, when applied to yarn
or fabric, form a more or less continuous solid film around
the yarn and individual fibers.
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133
Skin - A continuous strand of yarn in the form of a flexible coil
having a large circumference in proportion to its thickness.
Slashing - To cut by sweeping strokes, to cut in long slits.
Sludge - The precipitated solid matter produced by water and sewage
treatment processes.
Steep - To soak in a liquid.
Subprocess - An alternate method of conducting a process.
Suint - Excretions from the sweat glands of sheep, principally potash
salts.
Trickling Filtration - A liquid waste treatment process involving
trickling the waste through a bed of stone or other inert
material.
Yarn - A generic term for a continuous strand of textile fibers,
filaments or material in a form suitable for knitting, weaving,
or otherwise intertwining to form a textile fabric.
Yield - The number of finished square yards per pound of fabric.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1968 O - 287-027
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