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SMART GROWTH
WORK
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the efforts of Danielle Arigoni, Amber Levofsky, Lynn
Richards, Eric Sprague, and Brett VanAkkeren of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Without their efforts and teamwork, this primer would
not exist. Assistance was also provided by John Bailey, Charlie Bartsch, Constance
Beaumont, Scott Bernstein, Kathy Blaha, Don Chen, Jessica Cogan, Peter Dreier,
Will Fleissig, Martin Harris, Don Holligan, ICMA's Smart Growth Advisory Group,
John Kostyack, Scott Lazenby, Meg Maguire, Harrison Marshall, Richard Massie, Ed
McMahon, Joe Molinaro, Dominic Mouldoun, Shelly Poticha, liana Preuss, Harrison
Bright Rue, David Scheuer, Gene Schiller, John Slnrey, Paul Souza, Jeff Speck, Paul
Spoelhof, Ed Thompson, Betty Weiss, Paul Zykofsky all of whom provided excel-
lent insight and review of the document as it was being developed. Laura Otis, as
well as the many photographers cited throughout thi
provided valuable
assistance in collecting images for use in this document. Special thanks to Geoff
Anderson and other staff members of EPA's Development, Community, and
Environment Division for their role in providing comments and materials. Finally,
Joe Schilling and Nadejda Mishkovsky played a critical role in reviewing and draft-
ing text, coordinating the process, and bringing the document to publication. Finally,
Dharma Pachner provided valuable layout and design assistance.
Cover Credit
Peter Calthorpe Associates. Watercolor image of The Crossings developrm
About the Smart Growth Network
The Smart Growth Network is a network of private sector, public sector, and non-
governmental partner organizations seeking to create smart growth in neighbor-
hoods, communities, and regions across the United States. Partners in the network
include the American Farmland Trust, American Planning Association, Association of
Metropolitan Planning Organizations, Center for Neighborhood Technology, Congress
for the New Urbanism, Conservation Fund, Environmental Law Institute, George
Washington University Law School's Center for Sustainability and Regional Growth,
Institute of Transportation Engineers,
ational City/County
Association, Local Government Commission, Loca
Natives Support Coalition,
National Associj
States Conference of Mayors Joint Cente
/laryland, Multi-Family Housing Association
National Association of Counties, National Asso
cal Government
Professionals, National Association of Realtors, National Growth
Management Leadership Project, Nat
sighborhood Coalition, Nat
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Trust for Historic Preservation,
National Wildlife Federation, Natural Resources Defense Council, Northeast-
Midwest Institute, Rails
Conservancy, Scenic America, Surface
Transportation Policy Project, Sustainable Communities Network, Trust for Publ
Land, Urban Land
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
ibership information, publications and information about smart
growth are available online at www.smartgrow
International
City/County
Management
Association
icma.org
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value of its resources and capitalize on their advantages: access to a
ready market; working water, sewer, and road infrastructure; and
proximity to transit and existing transportation networks.
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housing.
Parts of a region that are home to an overwhelming number
jobs, but which suffer from a shortage of housing units, are id(
opportunities to create mixed-use development projects. In adc
tion to creating more vital, active communities, this approach c
help to mitigate the growth in traffic congestion from long coi
mutes by workers who do not live near their jobs. The effects
adapting communities to mixed-use development will be most &
dent in areas that are currently dominated by office, retail or lig
industrial properties.
States can encourage communities to create more mixed-u
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Smart growth encourages communities to determine how and
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high-cost homes and the increased t
the negative associations many peop
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where they want to grow. An important part of achieving smart
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America's favorite town centers a
places — such as downtown Annap(
plaza in Napa, California — would be
public becomes more informed aboi
can convey, the following policies m
compact building design into the Am
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amount of runoff pollution. Other benefits accrue as well.
Compact communities help achieve the density of population
needed to support viable transportation alternatives. It is estimat-
ed that people will willingly walk to destinations — services as well
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design and compact building
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the public will need to see how good
will create communities with conv
like water, sewer, electricity, phone service, and others — than dis-
persed communities do. As a result, local governments find that it
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Establish model state-level design standards and codes to
encourage compact building design that can be adopted by
local communities.
Developers and neighborhoods face enormous challenges whe
they seek to create more compact development. More often tha
not, current planning and zoning requirements set minimum k
sizes, setbacks, and parking requirements in a way that makes
illegal to construct compact buildings. Additionally, zoning stan
dards limit the density in many conventional neighborhoods an
business centers to a level that precludes development that woul
be considered compact. Rather than being encouraged, developei
who want to build compact smart growth communities are instea
forced to endure the time-consuming and expensive process c
securing variances to the prevailing code.
Local governments may be unaware of the extent to which thei
current planning documents prevent compact communities. The
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have been ill conceived and underutilized. Explicit design stan-
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Rezoning existing commercial strips to require taller buildings o
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rebuilding declining commercial strips into vital town center;
Not only does this strategy transform inhospitable pedestria
environments, but it also creates more space for office, residentia
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create smart growth communities. This practice of state-generat-
ed model codes is not uncommon; many states have developed
codes (which generally reflect conventional suburban develop-
ment standards) that can be directly adopted by small communi-
ties. States that want to encourage smart growth may offer smart
growth model codes that localities can adopt as easily as they can
adopt conventional development codes. The state of Oregon pro-
vides a useful example with its publication Model Development Code
and Users Guide for Small Cities,10 and with its dedicated state staff
to help educate and assist local governments that want to develop
codes to promote compact communities.
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scale, a community can encourage more compact communitie
and, as a result, can better absorb new growth and development.
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may also lack the resources necessary to modify their zoning and
building codes once they have recognized the need to do so. State
governments can help by creating model codes that specify the
design standards, zoning requirements, and codes necessary to
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Smart Grou th Network and National Neighborhood Coalition's Affordable
Housing and Smart Growth: .Making the Connection (Washington, D.C.:
Smart Growth Network, 2001).
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of communities to invest in projects that improve the safety and
practicality of bicycling and walking for everyday travel. Bicycle
local governments can identify and develop mixed-use overlay
zones to enhance the mixed-use and compact nature of new and
portation mainstream. More importantly, it enhances the ability
There are several mechanisms for addressing these barriers. First,
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many communities lack or have inadequate street standards that
provide the needed connectivity between mixed-use neighbor-
hoods, the street network, and existing transit routes.
improved planning, pedestrian-friendly retrofits, and transit-ori-
ented development.
land uses, which limit the location of public and private services
within walking distance of home, work, and transit. Furthermore,
improve the walkability of local streets and streetscapes through
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Melrose Park, and Western Springs) are using state funds to
ownership rates. However, in most communities, local zoning
ture planning efforts. Several of the awarded grantees (Berkeley,
to a greater propensity to walk or use transit and to lower auto
promoting coordinated land use, transportation, and infrastruc-
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tive, recentiy awarded $3.7 million in grants to assist localities in
more activity, interest and security with having more people
Tomorrow: Balanced Growth for a Better Quality of Life" initia-
tance of transit stops and stations. It also means that streets have
Provide grants or other financial assistance to local communi-
ties to retrofit existing streets and sidewalks to promote more
walkable communities.
As with any construction activity, retrofitting streets and sidewalks
and adding pedestrian-friendly amenities to existing develop-
ments costs money. In today's fiscal climate, where communities
sometimes omit sidewalks, landscaping, crosswalks, and other fea-
tures that support walkability, the importance of additional
sources of funding for these changes cannot be understated. State
governments can play a powerful role by directing financial
resources and technical support to aid local efforts. Targeted use
of state and federal transportation funds can assist communities in
initiating or completing pilot retrofitting projects, thus demon-
strating the benefits of improved walkability and generating fur-
ther support for expanded local financing of pedestrian-friendly
retrofits. The state of Illinois, for example, under the "Illinois
almost all the major federal transportation programs, including
highway, transit, and safety. In the years before passage of the
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1 99 1 (TEA-
2 1 's predecessor), federal spending on bicycling and walking facil-
ities was approximately $4 to 6 million per year. Since then,
spending of federal funds by states has grown to more than $296
million in fiscal year 2000.
2.
Concentrate critical services near homes, jobs, and transit.
Developments or communities that have medium to high densi-
ties and mixed land uses bring destinations and origins closer
together and provide more incentives for people to walk.
Research has demonstrated the importance of densities in pro-
moting walking and transit use. Higher densities and a mix of
uses mean more residents or employees are within walking dis-
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and walkways. In contrast, traditional street networks typically
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resulted in a street network with minimal or no through streets
for yard maintenance, debris clearance, and bush and tree trim-
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growth principles can direct investment and development into
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Create active and secure open spaces.
Open spaces, whether built or natural, active or passive, help cre-
ate distinctive communities. Pocket parks, playgrounds, plazas,
squares, social gathering places, and other publicly accessible
open spaces contribute to the aesthetic quality of the surrounding
area and to the feeling of "community" that fosters a strong sense
of place. Open spaces may also provide environmental benefits as
hosts to trees and penetrable ground surfaces that filter air and
water, respectively, and mitigate stormwater runoff. These spaces
must be managed and designed in a way that ensures the safety of
their users so that the public spaces remain viable and desirable
medians, sidewalks, and embankments serve to filter noise and
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be incorporated into the design process and placed in a manner
that ensures maximum access and use by area residents. In existing
neighborhoods, street ends, abandoned lots, brownfields, or dete-
riorated houses may provide opportunities for small, scattered
parks or community gardens. In bustling commercial centers,
plazas, parks, and public squares can serve as prominent visual
cues for business districts, provide amenities for employees and
shoppers, and add value to nearby buildings. Finally, each of these
settings can serve as a venue for engaging the public in festivals,
community gardening activities, sports events, or other civic
activities that help to galvanize the sense of community among
members, and that create places in which people have a vested
interest to preserve and protect.
Through collaborative efforts, neighborhoods and the public and
private sectors can be engaged to preserve and add to the tree
stock in a community. In existing communities, tree planting pro-
grams undertaken by schools and civic associations can increase
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tree planting or reduced zoning requirements, can encourage
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appearance, and design can improve the process of expanding
telecommunication networks for all involved.
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spires. Documenting these guidelines in ordinances that clearly
spell out the community's requirements for tower location,
of a given community, and can create opportunities for distinctive
traditions from which all residents and visitors can derive enjoy-
towers along ridgelines, or to incorporate them into existing fea-
tures such as water tanks, electric-transmission towers, or church
celebrate local produce, historical events, or cultural traditions
can become a vibrant and ongoing reminder of the unique nature
tower height equal to the nearby tree canopy, to locate towers on
downslopes rather than summits to reduce visual impact, to limit
or markets, and parks and plazas become open-air theaters for
music or performances. Offered on a regular basis, festivals that
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strengths of each sector to enhance the physical environment for
begin by instituting a moratorium on all new billboards and then
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regulatory incentives to focus development in areas where ade-
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The state of Wisconsin supports regional planning to ease devel-
opment pressures on fringe areas by providing state funding pri-
ority to local governments that address the needs of adjacent com-
munities in their development plans, instead of just pursuing
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example, provides
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ultifaceted approach to land conservation and park
erving both recreational and conservation functions.
tion program.
Gathering information on the status of land use and environmen-
tal characteristics throughout a region is a critical component for
determining which lands are more important to preserve and
which lands can be developed with minimal impacts to the envi-
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such as land ownership, protected areas, biodiversity needs, exist-
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etwork supports native species, maintains natural
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political jurisdictions among communities and population centers
to amplify the availability and recreational use of these lands. 16
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attention for a variety of reasons. Most of the land that is under
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mechanisms to preserve farmland.22 Places such as Lancaster
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tlon plant, if 5 www.greenmfrastructure.net/Intro/Mission-WorkmgGroup.htm.
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For example, the cost to New York City of building a
www.co.dane. wi,us/parks/open%20space/body.htm#past plans.
billion. This is
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the watershed '' Kathy Blaha and Peter Harmk, Opportunities for Smarter Growth: Parks,
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significantly higher than the cost of buying and prese
Poole, The Greenspace and Land Conservation, Translation Paper no. 3 (Miami: Funde
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lands, estimated at $1.5 billion. Steve Lerner and Wil
ation Helps Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, 2000), 6.
onserv
Economic Benefits of Parks and Open Space: How Land C
ngton, D.C.: is , , , , , , ,
www.co.dane.wi.us/parks/parkhome.htm.
Randall Arendt, '"Open Space Zoning': What It Is and Why It Works,"
Planning Commissioners Journal, no. 5 (1992)- 4. Available at www.planner
: Brookings
sweb.com/articles/are01 5.html.
J5
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Communities Grow Smart and Protect the Bottom Line ('
Trust for Public Land, 1999).
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Phyllis Myers and Robert Puentes, Growth at the Balk
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Shape of Communities m November 2000 (Washington,
o
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Institution, Center on Urban and Metropolitan Pohc
p. i "° Dan Benson, "Motivating Developers to Maintain Countryside,"
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 10 March 2001.
o
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Edward Thompson, telephone conversation with autl
2001.
is Growth -with Tom Daniels and Deborah Bowers, Holding our Ground Protecting Amencb
^
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Robert Marriott, Charles Loehr, and Karl Montz, Mi
nners Advisory Farms and Farmland (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1997).
Edward Thompson, Agricultural Sustamabihty and Smart Growth: Saving
Urban Influenced farmland, Translation Paper no. 5 (Miami: Funders
Network for Smart Growth and Livable Communities, 2001). Available
s -S
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Performance Standards m Montgomery County, Marylan
Service, no. 461 (Chicago, 111.: American Planning As
21.
www.state.nj.us/pmelands/density.htm.
i#Introduction online at www.rundersnetwork.org/usr_doc/agriculture%20paper%2.pdf
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www.governor.state.ut.us/planning/CriticalLands/whi
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walks, and water and sewer services in the urban center and older new construction must complement and a relative absence of resi-
suburbs, only to rebuild them further out. dents who may object to the inconvenience or disruption caused
by new construction. Finally, the cost of greenfield development is
Smart growth directs development towards communities already ,.,.,,, , ,. r i , • • r
often subsidized by the public sector through the provision or
served by infrastructure, seeking to utilize the resources that
road, sewer, and water networks and through the use ot average-
existing neighborhoods offer and to maintain the value of public .
cost pricing, which can underestimate the true per-unit cost ot
and private investment. By encouraging development in existing
. . expansion.
areas, communities benefit trom a stronger tax base, closer prox-
imity of jobs and services, increased efficiency of already devel- A range of options exists to begin to "level the playing field"
oped land and infrastructure, reduced development pressure in between greenfield and infill development and to help direct new
fringe areas, and preservation of farmland and open space. In investment dollars to strengthen existing neighborhoods. Efforts
addition, the process of increasing development in existing com- to increase development in existing communities must be imple-
munities can maximize the use of existing impervious surfaces, mented with an eye to creating growth that improves the quality
thereby improving local and regional water quality, and can create of life for existing residents as well as creates benefits for new
opportunities for more transportation options, which lower vehi- investors. As more developers learn of the profitable experiences
cle miles traveled and ultimately improve regional air quality. that their counterparts have had through infill development, the
Often existing neighborhoods can accommodate much of the private market will increasingly identify ways to redirect resources
growth that communities require through infill development, to existing neighborhoods. The following policies are designed to
brownfields redevelopment, and the rehabilitation of existing address some of these issues and to provide state and local govern-
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Use the split-rate property tax to encourage development on
vacant or blighted pieces of land in existing communities.
Property tax structures diat assess land and improvements in die
same way can act as an impediment to upgrading existing struc-
tures or adding buildings to currently vacant infill parcels.
house. Furtherm
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greenfield areas.
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Idings in existing communities rather than in
diat encourage low-density development.5 Texas also offers a vari-
ation on tax sharing in which districts witii high-value business
property are given five options to share resources. These include
directly sharing their property tax revenues widl other districts,
or agreeing to send surplus revenues to die state for distribudon
to poor school districts." In Colorado, die neighboring towns of
Windsor and Severance have agreed to share revenues from com-
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crisis in die area's declining communities. Tax-base sharing also
relieves the pressure that growing communities feel to spread
consequences ass
It also raises die
iociated with making improvements on the land.
tax consequences associated with leaving vacant
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can create a more attractive investment climate for smart growth
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While many aspects of smart growth offer the opportunity to
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infrastructure. Alleys to allow parking in the rear, structured or
underground parking lots, sidewalks and bicycle lanes, and parks
and other useful open space often add to the cost of a smart
growth projects. While these costs are often reflected in the final
price of the projects or may be offset by the lower land costs due
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Despite the many barriers, developers have been suo
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process of creating such places, however, frequently i
to get variances to zoning codes — a process that is
tain, time-consuming, and therefore costly. Creati;
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takes to get approval for building, the longer the de\
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many areas helps to explain why developers conti
conventional suburban developments, even though
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2 Mark Epph and Charles Tu, Valuing the New Urbamsm (Washington, DC.:
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' For more information on federal funding for smart growth see EPA's smart
growth Web page funding sources guide at
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/funding.htm, as well as the Association of
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Transportation Fund's at http://smartgrowth.org/pdf/brownfields_tea2 1 ,pdf.
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involvement in the initial phases of development. However, the
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implementation. This citizen involvement is most effectively
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public opinion on an ongoing basis into the development process.
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communities use Web sites to increase the availability of informa-
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