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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring
A Methods Manual
Second Edition
The Ocean
Conservancy
&EPA
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FOR YOUR HEAL
nn MHT FAT
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring
A Methods Manual
Second Edition
The Ocean
Conservancy
&EPA
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring
A Methods Manual
Second Edition
Ronald L. Oh re I, Jr.
The Ocean Conservancy
Kathleen M. Register
Clean Virginia Waterways
and Longwood University
The Ocean
Conservancy
The Ocean Conservancy
2029 K Street, NW
Suite 500
Washington, DC 20006
Phone:202-429-5609
Fax:202-972-0619
Web: www.oceanconservancy.org
&EPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds
Volunteer Monitoring (4504T)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone:202-566-1200
Fax:202-566-1336
E-mail: OW-General@epamail.epa.gov
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This document was prepared under Cooperative Agreement #CX825019-01-3 from the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds to The Ocean Conservancy.
Second Reprint 2006, ©2002 The Ocean Conservancy.
NOTICE:
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved
for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
£J Printed on recycled paper using soy-based inks.
COVER PHOTOS:
Top row (I to r): The Ocean Conservancy, K. Register, The Ocean Conservancy, R. Ohrel
Row 2 (I to r): K. Register, S. Schultz, Weeks Bay Watershed Project, K. Register
Row 3 (I to r): L. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, S. Schultz, E. Ely
Row 4 (I to r): T. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, The Ocean Conservancy, R. Ohrel
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Project Officer: Joseph N. Hall, II
The Ocean Conservancy Project Director: Seba B. Sheavly
Editors and Primary Contributors:
Ronald L. Ohrel, Jr., The Ocean Conservancy
Kathleen M. Register, Clean Virginia Waterways and Longwood College
Proofreader: Elaine Hruska
Document Design and Graphics (except where indicated): Critical Stages
The author of the first edition of this document in 1993 was Nina A. Fisher.
The Ocean Conservancy is the nation's leading nonprofit organization dedicated solely to protecting
ocean environments and marine life in all its abundance and diversity. As part of a cooperative
agreement with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), The Ocean Conservancy conducted
a series of train-the-trainer workshops on monitoring estuary environments. Workshop attendees
provided valuable comments on the first edition of this manual, which helped guide the revision. We
thank them for their time and input.
In addition, the following estuary monitoring experts and volunteer monitoring program coordinators
contributed significantly to this project by submitting case studies and other information:
Charles Barr, The Ocean Conservancy; Peter Bergstrom, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(Chesapeake Bay Field Office); Eve Brantley, Weeks Bay Watershed Project; Amber Cornell,
Adopt A Beach; Carol Elliott, Alliance for a Living Ocean; Eleanor Ely, The Volunteer Monitor,
Jon Graves, Portland State University; Holly Greening, Tampa Bay Estuary Program; Kerry
Griffin, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project; Linda Hanson, Washington State Department
of Health; Paul Heimowitz, Oregon State University Extension Sea Grant; Philip L. Hoffman,
Tampa BayWatch, Inc.; Harold G. Marshall, Ph.D., Old Dominion University; Lisa Monk, The
Ocean Conservancy; Stacey Moulds, Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay; Bob Murphy, Alliance
for the Chesapeake Bay; Seba B. Sheavly, The Ocean Conservancy; and Esperanza Standoff,
University of Maine Cooperative Extension. Portions of this document were excerpted and
adapted from other authors, which are referenced in each chapter.
The editors also wish to thank the reviewers who offered valuable comments on this document:
Cathy Barnette, Dauphin Island Sea Lab/Alabama Department of Economic and Community
Affairs; Charles Barr, The Ocean Conservancy; Peter Bergstrom, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (Chesapeake Bay Field Office); Beth Biermann, The Ocean Conservancy; Eleanor
Bochenek, Ph.D., New Jersey Sea Grant; Eve Brantley, Weeks Bay Watershed Project; David
Buckalew, Ph.D., Longwood College; Barry Burgan, EPA; Diane Calesso, EPA Region 2; Kim
Donahue, Chesapeake Bay Foundation; Carol Elliott, Alliance for a Living Ocean; Eleanor Ely,
The Volunteer Monitor, Joe Farrell, Delaware Sea Grant; Iraida Garcia, Jobos Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve; Holly Greening, Tampa Bay Estuary Program; Dominic Gregorio,
California State Water Resources Control Board; Kerry Griffin, Tillamook Bay National Estuary
Project; Joseph N. Hall, II, EPA; Paul Heimowitz, Oregon State University Extension Sea Grant;
Mark Kutnink, EPA Region 9; George Loeb, EPA; Harold G. Marshall, Ph.D., Old Dominion
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Acknowledgements.
Acknowledgements continued
University; Alice Mayio, EPA; Gerri Miceli, Gordon Research Conferences; Clara Mojica,
Ph.D., Jobos Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve; Lisa Monk, The Ocean Conservancy;
Bob Murphy, Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay; Paul Pan, EPA; Jonathan Phinney, Ph.D.,
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography; Dominic Roques, California State Water
Resources Control Board; Tamara Saltman, EPA; Kathleen Sayce, ShoreBank Pacific;
Donald Schulz, Surfrider Foundation (Huntington/Seal Beach Chapter); Seba B. Sheavly, The
Ocean Conservancy; Linda Sheehan, The Ocean Conservancy; Frederick Short, Ph.D.,
University of New Hampshire; Esperanza Stancioff, University of Maine Cooperative
Extension; Edward Stets, EPA; Terry Tamminen, Environment Now; Marie-Francoise
Walk, Massachusetts Water Watch Partnership; Robert Warren, Columbia River Estuary Study
Taskforce (CREST); and Karen Font Williams, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality.
Finally, we would like to thank those individuals and organizations who provided photographs for
inclusion in this document:
Peter Bergstrom, Gerrit Carver, Eleanor Ely, Maine Department of Marine Resources, Lisa
Monk, Tim Monk, Bob Murphy, The Ocean Conservancy, PhotoDisc, Ronald Ohrel, M.
Redpath, Kathleen Register, Sheila Schultz, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and
Battelle Marine Science Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, University of Maine
Cooperative Extension, and Weeks Bay Watershed Project.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements iii
Table of Contents v
Executive Summary xi
Chapter 1: Introduction
Where Would Estuaries Be Without Volunteer Monitors? 1-1
About the Manual 1-1
Purpose of the Manual 1-2
Organization of the Manual 1-2
How to Use the Manual 1-4
References and Further Reading 1-4
Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries
Overview 2-1
The Science 2-2
The Problems 2-5
The Solutions 2-8
References and Further Reading 2-14
Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
Overview 3-1
Establishing Goals and Objectives 3-2
Insurance, Safety, and Liability—Risk Management 3-6
Paying for the Program—The Financial Side 3-7
Promoting the Program—Working with the Media 3-12
References and Further Reading 3-15
Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers
Overview 4-1
Recruiting Volunteers 4-2
Training Volunteers 4-3
Retaining Volunteers 4-11
References and Further Reading 4-14
Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
Overview 5-1
The Importance of High Quality Data 5-2
What Is a Quality Assurance Project Plan? 5-2
Why Develop a QAPP? 5-3
Basic Concepts 5-4
Quality Control and Assessment 5-10
Developing a QAPP 5-13
Elements of a QAPP 5-17
References and Further Reading 5-22
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Table of Contents.
Chapter 6: Sampling Considerations
Overview 6-1
Four Critical Questions 6-2
References and Further Reading 6-7
Chapter 7: In the Field
Overview 7-1
Fun in the Field 7-2
Before Leaving Home 7-3
Safety Considerations 7-3
What to Bring 7-9
Locating Monitoring Sites, or How Do I Get There from Here? 7-10
Making Field Observations: Visual Assessments 7-12
Helpful Field Measurements 7-14
How to Collect Samples 7-15
The Data Form 7-17
References and Further Reading 7-18
Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
Overview 8-1
After Data Collection: What Does it Mean? 8-2
Data Management 8-2
Data Interpretation 8-7
Data Presentation 8-10
References and Further Reading 8-18
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Chapter 9: Oxygen
Overview 9-1
Why Monitor Oxygen? 9-2
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 9-2
Sampling Considerations 9-4
How to Monitor Dissolved Oxygen 9-7
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 9-14
Sampling Considerations 9-14
How to Measure Biochemical Oxygen Demand 9-15
References and Further Reading 9-16
Chapter 10: Nutrients
Overview 10-1
Why Monitor Nutrients? 10-2
Sampling Considerations 10-5
How to Monitor Nutrients 10-8
Special Topic: Atmospheric Deposition of Nutrients 10-11
References and Further Reading 10-13
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity
Overview 11-1
Why Monitor pH and Alkalinity? 11-2
pH 11-2
Sampling Considerations 11-3
How to Measure pH Values 11-5
Total Alkalinity 11-6
Sampling Considerations 11-7
How to Measure Alkalinity 11-7
References and Further Reading 11-10
Chapter 12: Toxins
Overview 12-1
Toxins in Estuaries 12-2
Why Monitor Toxins? 12-2
The Role of Toxins in the Estuary Ecosystem 12-3
Sampling Considerations 12-7
Atmospheric Deposition of Toxins 12-8
References and Further Reading 12-8
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Chapter 13: Temperature
Overview 13-1
Why Monitor Temperature? 13-2
Sampling Considerations 13-2
How to Monitor Temperature 13-3
References and Further Reading 13-5
Chapter 14: Salinity
Overview 14-1
About Salinity 14-2
Sampling Considerations 14-3
How to Measure Salinity 14-5
References and Further Reading 14-7
Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Overview 15-1
Why Measure Turbidity and Total Solids? 15-2
Sampling Considerations 15-3
How to Measure Turbidity 15-7
How to Measure Total Solids 15-10
References and Further Reading 15-10
Table of Contents
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Table of Contents.
Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Overview 16-1
Why Monitor Marine Debris? 16-2
Sampling Considerations and Options 16-5
How to Conduct a Marine Debris Cleanup 16-7
References and Further Reading 16-13
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Overview 17-1
Why Monitor Bacteria? 17-2
The Bacterial Indicators 17-4
How Effective Are the Indicators? 17-6
Bacterial Sampling and Equipment Considerations 17-6
In the Field: Collecting Water Samples for Bacterial Analysis 17-8
In the Lab: Analytical Methods 17-10
Which Method and Which Medium Should You Use? 17-14
References and Further Reading 17-19
Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Overview 18-1
Why Monitor SAV? 18-2
Sampling Considerations 18-4
How to Groundtruth 18-10
References and Further Reading 18-14
Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
Overview 19-1
Why Monitor Other Living Organisms? 19-2
Macroinvertebrates 19-2
Shellfish Sampling Considerations 19-5
How to Collect Shellfish 19-5
Phytoplankton 19-7
Sampling Considerations 19-10
How to Monitor Phytoplankton 19-12
Special Topic: Chlorophyll Collection for Lab Analysis 19-16
Non-Indigenous Species 19-16
Sampling Considerations 19-18
How to Monitor Non-Indigenous Species 19-19
References and Further Reading 19-22
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Appendices
Appendix A: Sample Data Forms A-l
Appendix B: Resources B-l
Appendix C: Equipment Suppliers C-l
Glossary and Acronyms GA-1
Index 1-1
Table of Contents
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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X
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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, Executive Summary
Executive Summary
This manual focuses on volunteer estuary monitoring. As concern over the well-being of the
environment has increased during the past couple of decades, volunteer monitoring has become an
integral part of the effort to assess the health of our nation's waters. Government agencies, often
strapped by financial limitations, have found that volunteer programs can provide high-quality, reliable
data to supplement their own water quality monitoring programs.
It may seem obvious, but should nonetheless be stated: without individual volunteers who commit
their time and energy to the effort, there would be no volunteer monitoring programs. As people
learn more about how an estuary functions and come to recognize its signs of distress, their concern for
its future is increased. So too is their commitment to its protection.
Thus, volunteer monitoring of estuaries has grown significantly from the early programs that monitored
only a few simple parameters. As these monitoring programs have developed, so has the interest of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which has supported volunteer monitoring since 1987. The
EPA sponsors national symposia on volunteer monitoring, publishes a newsletter for volunteers, has
developed guidance manuals and a directory of volunteer organizations, and provides technical support
to volunteer programs. Through these efforts, the EPA hopes to foster the interest and support of state
and other agencies in these programs.
The EPA developed this manual as a companion to three other documents:
• Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers;
• Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual; and
• Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual.
This document presents information and methodologies specific to estuarine water quality. Both the
organizers of volunteer programs and the volunteers themselves should find it of use.
The first eight chapters of the manual deal with typical issues that a new or established volunteer
estuary monitoring program might face:
• understanding estuaries, what makes them unique, the problems they face, and the role of
humans in solving the problems;
• establishing and maintaining a volunteer monitoring program;
• working with volunteers and making certain that they are well-positioned to collect water
quality data safely and effectively;
• ensuring that the program consistently produces data of high quality; and
• managing the data and making it available to data users.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Executive Summary
The remaining chapters focus on several water quality parameters that are important in determining
the health of an estuary. These chapters are divided into three units, which characterize the
parameters as measures of the chemical, physical, or biological environment of the estuary.
The significance of each parameter and specific methods to monitor it are detailed in a step-by-step
fashion. The manual stresses proper quality assurance and quality control techniques to ensure that
the data are useful to state agencies and any other data users.
References are listed at the end of each chapter. Appendices containing additional resources are also
supplied. These references should prove a valuable source of detailed information to anyone
interested in establishing a new volunteer program or a background resource to those with already
established programs.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Introduction
The inspiration for this manual conies from the people who are dedicated to
monitoring estuaries and the environment around them. The people who create
volunteer monitoring programs and the people who serve as volunteer monitors
care deeply about their estuaries, are concerned about their watersheds, and want
the opportunity lor more community involvement.
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Photos (I to r): S. Schultz, T. Monk, S. Schultz
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Where Would Estuaries Be Without Volunteer Monitors?
Chapter 1: Introduction
The inspiration for this manual comes from
the people who are dedicated to monitoring
estuaries and the environment around them.
The people who create volunteer monitoring
programs and the people who serve as
volunteer monitors care deeply about their
estuaries, are concerned about their
watersheds, and want the opportunity for more
community involvement.
Estuary volunteer monitoring programs give
men, women, and children a priceless
opportunity to intimately know the many
spectacular riches of the estuarine
environment. As people learn more about how
an estuary functions and come to recognize its
signs of distress, their concern for its future is
increased. So too is their commitment to its
protection. The fact is, we will take care of
something when we value it.
Volunteer estuary monitoring programs can
create citizen leaders
who work to reduce
pollution, increase
education, and better
manage our coastal
areas, all with the
purpose of protecting
some very special
places.
By donating their
time and talents to a
monitoring program,
volunteers offer a
priceless, enduring
legacy to the future. We
Estuaries are homes for wildlife, food suppliers,
gateways of commerce, and cultural mainstays.
They are also imperiled. Volunteer monitors
help preserve our estuarine resources (photo
by S. Schultz).
are collectively responsible for the
preservation our natural world for the future
generations of people, animals and plants that
call an estuary "home." •
About the Manual
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods
Manual is a companion document to
Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for
State Managers, published in 1990 by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The guide describes the role of volunteer
monitoring in state programs and details how
managers can best organize and administer
these monitoring programs. This manual
focuses on the concepts and plans developed
by the EPA guide and places them in a nuts-
and-bolts context specifically for volunteer
estuary monitoring programs.
Two other EPA documents are also closely
allied with this manual: Volunteer Lake
Monitoring: A Methods Manual (1991) and
Volunteer Stream
Monitoring: A Methods
Manual (1997).
Together, these manuals
provide guidance on
volunteer water quality
monitoring in much of
our nation's watersheds.
This is the second
edition of Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring:
A Methods Manual.
It updates information
and adds new topics
that have emerged since the first manual was
introduced in 1993. •
Estuaries support a vast array of wildlife. Some
make estuaries their lifelong homes, while
others can be seen only during certain times
of the year or during particular periods of
their lives (photo by S. Schultz).
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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I: Introduction.
Purpose of the Manual
The overriding purpose of Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: A Methods Manual is to serve as a
tool for volunteer leaders who want to launch a
new estuary monitoring program or enhance an
existing program. In the process, the manual
shows how volunteer groups can collect
meaningful data to assess estuarine health.
The manual is not intended to mandate new
methods or override those currently being
used by volunteer monitoring groups. Instead,
it presents methods that have been adapted
from those used successfully by existing
volunteer estuary monitoring programs
throughout the United States. The manual
describes methodologies and techniques for
monitoring water quality parameters, starting
and maintaining a volunteer estuary
monitoring program, working with volunteers,
ensuring high quality data, and analyzing and
presenting the data following collection. •
Organization of the Manual
This manual is organized into 19 chapters.
Chapters 1-8 provide information about
estuaries, volunteers and volunteer monitoring
programs, and ensuring and managing data of
high quality. Chapters 9-19 address specific
water quality variables that volunteer
monitoring programs may elect to measure.
These chapters are grouped into chemical,
physical, and biological units. Finally,
appendices supply additional information.
A summary of the manual's contents is
provided here.
Chapter 1: Introduction
The introduction outlines the purpose of
this manual and its relationship to other
documents published by the EPA. It also
provides information about how and by whom
the manual should be used and explains plans
for making updated materials available in the
future. Finally, the introduction summarizes
the contents of the manual.
Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled
Estuaries
This chapter introduces the concept of an
estuary and summarizes the major problems
plaguing our nation's estuarine waters. It also
discusses the reasons for monitoring estuarine
water quality and how monitoring data can
ultimately help provide solutions to these
diverse problems.
Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
This chapter covers the basics of planning,
implementing, and maintaining a volunteer
monitoring program so that it yields credible
data that will identify problems and assess
trends. Included in this chapter are
discussions on establishing goals, liability and
other risk management issues, and obtaining
financial support. This chapter also presents
guidance on developing a user-friendly data
form and working with the media to promote
your program activities.
Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and
Retaining Volunteers
This chapter discusses how to recruit, train,
and retain top-notch volunteers. It summarizes
potential sources of volunteers and provides
detailed information for volunteer
coordinators on training techniques that are
proven to produce knowledgeable and
enthusiastic volunteers.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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1: Introduction
Chapter5: Quality Assurance Project
Planning
This chapter addresses one of the most
difficult issues facing volunteer monitoring
programs: data credibility. It details the
importance of developing a quality assurance
project plan (QAPP) and summarizes the
steps involved.
Chapter 6: Sampling Considerations
This chapter reviews four critical questions
that a volunteer program must address before
taking a single water sample: (1) What
parameters will the program monitor? (2)
How will the selected paratmeters be
monitored? (3) Where will the parameters be
monitored? (4) When will they be monitored?
Chapter 7: In the Field
This chapter addresses what happens when
volunteers leave their homes for the
monitoring sites. It makes points about safety,
the right use of equipment, finding the
monitoring sites, making general observations
about the site, collecting data, and completing
the data form.
Chapter 8: Data Management,
Interpretation, and Presentation
This chapter discusses the elements of a
volunteer program that take place after
volunteers collect their data. It introduces data
management tools, discusses data
interpretation, and gives suggestions for
maximizing the distribution of your data.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
This unit describes several water quality
parameters that may be included in volunteer
monitoring programs. Water quality variables
highlighted include oxygen (Chapter 9),
nutrients (Chapter 10), pH and alkalinity
(Chapter 11), and toxins (Chapter 12). The
chapters supply information on sampling
considerations and guidance on monitoring.
Unit Two: Physical Measures
This unit provides monitoring guidance for
water quality variables that represent
measures of the estuary's physical
environment. Temperature (Chapter 13),
salinity (Chapter 14), turbidity and total solids
(Chapter 15), and marine debris (Chapter 16)
are included.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Living organisms can be useful indicators
of estuarine health. This unit includes
information about monitoring bacteria as
indicators of potential pathogens (Chapter
17), submerged aquatic vegetation (Chapter
18), and other biological parameters,
including macroinvertebrates, plankton, and
non-indigenous species (Chapter 19).
Appendices
Several appendices, referred to throughout
the manual, are also included. These sections
provide sample data forms (Appendix A),
additional resources not listed in the chapters
(Appendix B), and information on equipment
suppliers (Appendix C). A glossary and
acronyms section as well as an index are also
included. •
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 1: Introduction.
How to Use the Manual
Intended Audience
This manual is intended to be a resource for
leaders of volunteer estuary monitoring
programs. Such programs may be managed by
environmental groups, educational
institutions, or government agencies.
Individual volunteers will also find this
manual to be a valuable resource, although
some components may not apply to them.
Volunteer leaders may elect to photocopy and
distribute portions of the manual to volunteers
as educational supplements, training
reinforcement, or background materials.
Is the Manual the Answer to All Estuarine
Monitoring Needs?
Certainly not! It would be impossible to
provide monitoring methods that are
uniformly applicable to all estuaries or all
volunteer programs throughout the United
States. Factors such as geographic region,
program goals and objectives, and program
resources will all influence the specific
methods used by each group. This manual,
therefore, urges volunteer program
coordinators to work hand-in-hand with state
and local water quality professionals or other
potential data users in developing and
operating a volunteer monitoring program.
This manual is only one resource for
volunteer programs. Many other resources are
available from government agencies and
volunteer monitoring programs. Some are
listed at the end of individual chapters and in
Appendix B.
A Lot of Help from Our Friends
Some portions of this manual draw
heavily from other resources. The editors
wish to give these sources their due
recognition and have listed them at the end
of each applicable chapter, separate from
other references.
Updates to the Manual
This manual is available in hard copy and
on the Internet. It is anticipated that periodic
updates will be made. While the updates will
be included in future print versions, they will
also be made available for downloading from
the Internet. By making updates available on
the Internet, it is anticipated that volunteer
groups can access new information sooner
than having to wait for a new print version of
the manual. •
References and Further Reading
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods
Manual. EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 121 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
1-4
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries
To say that estuaries are valuable resources is a gross understatement. They are
among the most productive natural environments in the world and among the most
sought-after places for people to live. Estuaries support major fisheries, shipping,
and tourism. They sustain organisms in many of their life stages, serve as migration
routes, and are havens for threatened and endangered species. Associated wetlands
filter pollutants, dissipate floodwaters, and prevent land erosion.
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Photos (I to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, Weeks Bay Watershed Project, R. Ohrel
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Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries
Overview
To say that estuaries are valuable resources is a gross understatement. They are
among the most productive natural environments in the world and among the most
sought-after places for people to live. Estuaries support major fisheries, shipping, and
tourism. They sustain organisms in many of their life stages, serve as migration
routes, and are havens for threatened and endangered species. Associated wetlands
filter pollutants, dissipate floodwaters, and prevent land erosion.
Yet, despite their value, estuaries are in trouble.
Nearly half of the U.S. population lives in coastal areas, which include the shores
of estuaries. Unfortunately, this increasing concentration of people is upsetting the
natural balance of estuarine ecosystems and threatening their integrity. Pollution,
habitat destruction, overfishing, wetland loss, and the introduction of non-indigenous
species are among the consequences of many human activities.
As concern over the well-being of the environment has risen during the past several
decades, so has the interest in gathering information about the status of estuaries.
Government agencies have limited funds for monitoring. As a result, volunteer
monitoring has become an integral part of the effort to assess the health of our
nation's waters. Designed properly, volunteer programs can provide high-quality
reliable data to supplement government agencies' water quality monitoring programs.
This chapter discusses our troubled estuaries. The estuarine environment is
described and several problems relating human activities to estuarine degradation are
investigated. Finally, the role of volunteer monitoring in identifying, fixing, or
preventing problems is examined.
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Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries.
The Science
Figure 2-1. Three types
of estuaries: highly
stratified, moderately
stratified, and vertically
mixed (adapted from
Levinton, 1982).
Numbers refer to salinity
in parts per thousand.
What Is an Estuary?
Unlike many features of the landscape that
are easily described, estuaries are transitional
zones that encompass a wide variety of
environments. Loosely categorized as the zone
where fresh and salt water meet and mix, the
estuarine environment is a complex blend of
continuously changing habitats. To qualify as
an estuary, a waterbody must fit the following
description:
"a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which
has free connection with the open sea and
within which sea water is measurably diluted
with fresh water derived from land drainage"
(Pritchard, 1967).
Highly Stratified Estuary
Moderately Stratified Estuary
Vertically Mixed Estuary
p
Flood Tide t I Ebb Tide
The estuary itself is a rather well-defined
body of water, bounded at its mouth by the
ocean and at its head by the upper limit of the
tides. It drains a much larger area, however, and
pollutant-producing activities near or in
tributaries even hundreds of miles away may
still adversely affect the estuary's water quality.
While some of the water in an estuary flows
from the tributaries that feed it, the remainder
moves in from the sea. When fresh and salt
water meet, the two do not readily mix. Fresh
water flowing in from tributaries is relatively
light and overrides the wedge of more dense
salt water moving in from the ocean. This
density differential often causes layering or
stratification of the water, which significantly
affects both circulation and the chemical profile
of an estuary.
Scientists often classify estuaries into three
types according to the particular pattern of
water circulation (Figure 2-1):
• Highly Stratified Estuary
The layering between fresh water from the
tributaries and salt water from the ocean is
most distinct in this type of estuary, although
some seawater still mixes with the surface
freshwater layer. To compensate for this
"loss" of seawater, there is a slow but
continual up-estuary movement of the salty
water on the bottom.
• Moderately Stratified Estuary
In this intermediate estuary type, mixing of
fresh and salt water occurs at all depths. With
this vertical mixing, salinity levels generally
increase toward the estuary mouth, although
the lower layer is always saltier than the
upper layer.
• Vertically Mixed Estuary
In this type of estuary, powerful mixing by
tides tends to eliminate layering altogether.
Salinity in these estuaries is a function of the
tidal stage. This tidal dominance is usually
observed only in very small estuaries.
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Rivers flow in a single direction, flushing
out sediments and pollutants. In estuaries,
however, there is a constant balancing act
between the up-estuary saltwater movement
and down-estuary freshwater flow. Rather than
quickly flushing water and pollutants through
its system, an estuary often has a lengthy
retention period. Consequently, waterborne
pollutants, along with contaminated sediment,
may remain in the estuary for a long time,
magnifying their potential to adversely affect
the estuary's plants and animals.
Other factors also play a role in the
hydrology of an estuary. Basin shape, mouth
width, depth, area, tidal range, surrounding
topography, and regional climate combine to
make each estuary unique.
Why Are Estuaries Important?
Estuaries are critical for the survival of many
species. Tens of thousands of birds, mammals,
fish, and other wildlife depend on estuarine
habitats as places to live, feed, and reproduce.
They provide ideal spots for migratory birds to
rest and refuel during their journeys. Many
species of fish and shellfish rely on the shel-
tered waters of estuaries as protected places to
spawn, giving estuaries the nickname "nurseries
of the sea." Hundreds of marine organisms,
including most commercially valuable fish
species, depend on estuaries at some point dur-
ing their development.
Besides serving as an important habitat for
wildlife, the wetlands that fringe many estuaries
perform other valuable services. Water draining
from upland areas carries sediments, nutrients,
and other pollutants. But as the water flows
through wetlands, much of the sediments and
pollutants are filtered out. This filtration process
creates cleaner and clearer water, which bene-
fits both people and marine life. Wetland plants
and soils also act as natural buffers between the
land and ocean, absorbing floodwaters and dis-
sipating storm surges. This protects upland
organisms as well as valuable real estate from
storm and flood damage. Salt marsh grasses,
mangrove trees, and other estuarine plants also
prevent erosion and stabilize the shoreline.
Among the cultural benefits
of estuaries are recreation,
scientific knowledge,
education, and aesthetic
value. Boating, fishing,
swimming, surfing, and bird
watching are just a few of the
numerous recreational
activities people enjoy in
estuaries. They are often the
cultural centers of coastal
communities—focal points
for commerce, recreation,
history, customs, and
traditions. As transition zones
between land and ocean,
estuaries are invaluable
laboratories for scientists and
students, providing countless
lessons in biology, geology,
chemistry, physics, history,
and social issues. Estuaries
also provide a great deal of
aesthetic enjoyment for the
people who live, work, or
recreate in and around them.
Finally, the tangible and direct economic
benefits of estuaries should not be overlooked.
Tourism, fisheries, and other commercial
activities thrive on the wealth of natural
resources that estuaries supply. Protected
estuarine waters also support important public
infrastructure, serving as harbors and ports vital
for shipping, transportation, and industry. Some
attempts have been made to measure certain
aspects of the economic activity that depends
on America's estuaries and other coastal waters.
For example:
• Estuaries provide habitat for more than
75 percent of America's commercial fish
catch and for 80-90 percent of the
recreational fish catch (National Safety
Council's Environmental Center, 1998).
Commercial and recreational fishing
contribute about $4.3 billion annually to
the U.S. economy, while related marine
industries add another $3 billion
annually (ANEP, 1998).
Wetlands, like this one in Virginia, provide
many valuable services. They remove
pollutants, absorb floodwaters, dissipate
storm surges, stabilize shorelines,
and serve as habitat for many organisms
(photo by R Ohrel).
Commercial and recreational activities in
estuaries generate billions of dollars for local
economies (photo by USEPA).
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Importance of Estuaries
HABITAT: Tens of thousands of birds, mammals, fish, and other wildlife depend on
estuaries.
NURSERY: Many marine organisms, most commercially valuable fish species included,
depend on estuaries at some point during their development.
PRODUCTIVITY: A healthy, undisturbed estuary produces from four to ten times the
weight of organic matter produced by a cultivated cornfield of the same size.
WATER FILTRATION: Water draining off upland areas carries a load of sediments and
nutrients. As the water flows through salt marsh peat and the dense mesh of marsh grass
blades, much of the sediment and nutrient load is filtered out. This filtration process creates
cleaner and clearer water.
FLOOD CONTROL: Porous, resilient salt marsh soils and grasses absorb floodwaters and
dissipate storm surges. Salt marsh-dominated estuaries provide natural buffers between the
land and the ocean. They protect upland organisms as well as billions of dollars of human
real estate.
ECONOMY: Estuary-dependant activities—recreation, shipping, fishing, and tourism—
generate billions of dollars each year.
CULTURE: Native Americans and early settlers depended on productive estuaries for
survival. Sheltered ports were essential for the transfer of goods and information from other
continents. Today, estuaries support a way of life valued by many.
(Excerpted from NERRS Web site: http://inlet.geol.sc.edu/nerrsintro.html.)
Nationwide, commercial and
recreational fishing, boating, tourism,
and other coastal industries provide
more than 28 million jobs. Commercial
shipping alone employed more than
50,000 people as of January 1997
(National Safety Council's
Environmental Center, 1998).
There are 25,500 recreational facilities
along the U.S. coasts—almost 44,000
square miles of outdoor public recreation
areas (NOAA, 1990). The average
American spends 10 recreational days on
the coast each year. In 1993, more than
180 million Americans visited ocean and
bay beaches—nearly 70 percent of the
U.S. population. Coastal recreation and
tourism generate $8 to $12 billion
annually (National Safety Council's
Environmental Center, 1998).
In short, estuaries provide us with a whole
suite of resources, benefits, and services.
Some of these can be measured in dollars and
cents; others cannot. Estuaries are
irreplaceable natural resources that must be
managed carefully for the mutual benefit of
all who enjoy and depend on them.
Where Land Meets Ocean
You may have heard the saying, "We all
live downstream." This is a rather simple
statement intended to bring attention to
complex, intertwined processes affecting
water quality. Estuaries are the intermediary
between oceans and land (Figure 2-2);
consequently, these two factors influence their
physical, chemical, and biological properties.
Estuaries are part of a larger collection of
geographic features that make up a watershed,
an area that drains surface bodies of water.
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Watersheds generally include lakes, rivers,
wetlands, streams, groundwater recharge
areas, and the surrounding landscape, in
addition to estuaries.
Tributaries flow downstream through the
watershed for up to hundreds of miles. In
their journey, they pick up materials that
wash off the land or are discharged directly
into the water by land-based activities.
Eventually, the materials that the tributaries
accumulate are delivered to estuaries.
The types of materials that eventually enter
an estuary largely depend on how the land is
used. Undisturbed forests, for example, will
discharge considerably fewer pollutants than
an urban center or cleared agricultural field.
Surrounding land uses and land use decisions,
then, can have significant effects on an
estuary's overall health. •
Figure 2-2. Estuaries
are transitional zones
between land and the
ocean (redrawn from EPA
Web site: http://www.epa.
gov/owow/oceans/factshe
ets/fact5.html).
The Problems
Changes to the coastal landscape have had
serious implications for estuarine health.
Estuaries are bombarded by several pollutant
sources, and their impacts can be severe.
Pollutant Sources
Wherever there is human activity, there is
usually a potential source of pollutants. Table 2-
1 and Figure 2-3 summarize some common
estuarine pollutants and their potential sources.
Estuarine pollution is generally classified as
either point source pollution or nonpoint
source pollution. Point source pollution
describes pollution that comes from a
discernible source, such as an industrial
discharge or wastewater treatment plant. Point
source pollution is usually identified as coming
from a pipe, channel, or other obvious
discharge point. Laws regulate point sources,
with limits placed on the types and quantities of
discharges to estuaries and other waterways.
Nonpoint source pollution (NFS), on the
other hand, comes from a variety of diffuse
sources that do not have
a single discharge point.
Examples include
storm water runoff from
urban areas, marina
operations, farming,
forestry, and construction
activities; faulty or
leaking septic systems;
and atmospheric
deposition originating
from industrial
operations or vehicles. NPS pollution, which is
often hard to identify and quantify, is generally
more difficult and expensive to regulate and
control than point source pollution.
Pollutant Impacts
Many of our nation's more than 100
estuaries are also under siege. Historically,
estuaries and other waterbodies have been the
receptacles for society's wastes. Human
sewage, industrial byproducts, and runoff
Point sources deliver pollutants to estuaries
through a pipe or other discharge point Here, the
pipe is located under a pier (photo by R Ohrel).
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Table 2-1. Common pollutants and impacts associated with selected coastal land uses (adaptedfrom USEPA, 1997; Maine DEP, 1996; USEPA, 1993).
Source
Cropland
Grazing land
Forestry
Mining
Industrial/commercial
discharge
Sewage treatment
plants
Construction
Urban runoff
Lawns/golf courses
Septic systems
Marinas/boat usage
Common Pollutants
Sediments, nutrients,
pesticides
Fecal bateria, sediments,
nutrients
Sediments
Acid discharge, sediments
Sediments, toxins
Nutrients, suspended
solids, fecal bacteria
Sediments, toxins,
nutrients
Sediments, nutrients,
metals, petroleum
hydrocarbons, bacteria
Toxins, nutrients,
sediments
Fecal bacteria, nutrients
Toxins, nutrients, bacteria
Possible Impacts
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, toxicity to organisms,
excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen, water temperature changes
Possible introduction of pathogens, reduced water clarity, smothered benthic
habitat, excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen, water tempterature
changes
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, water temperature changes
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, impacts on pH and alkalinity
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, impacts on pH and alkalinity,
toxicity to organisms
Reduced water clarity, excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen/higher
biochemical oxygen demand, water temperature and pH changes, possible
introuction of pathogens
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, excessive algal growth,
reduced dissolved oxygen, water temperature changes, toxicity to organisms
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, excessive algal growth,
reduced dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygen demand, water
temperature changes, toxicity to organisms, possible introduction of pathogens
Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, excessive algal growth, reduced
dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygen demand, toxicity to organisms
Excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygen
demand, water temperature changes, possible introduction of pathogens
Excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygen
demand, toxicity to organisms, possible introduction of pathogens
Improperly managed construction sites
can clog estuaries with tons of
sediments (photo by R Ohrel).
from farming operations
disappeared as they mixed with
receiving waters and washed into
the nation's fragile estuaries.
Over the past several decades,
however, the signs of estuarine
decline have become increasingly
apparent. Many fish and shellfish
populations hover near collapse.
Although we have recognized the
problems and have generally
reduced the pollutants entering our waters, the
sheer numbers of people living near the coasts
continue to stress our estuaries, lagoons, and
other coastal waters.
No coastal areas, estuaries included, are
immune to the threat of pollution; they all
share common problems. Many are often
subject to seasonal depletion of dissolved
oxygen, particularly in their deeper waters.
Accelerated eutrophication—a condition in
which high nutrient concentrations stimulate
excessive algal blooms, which then deplete
dissolved oxygen as they decompose—often
threatens the character of the natural system.
Across the country, estuaries are vulnerable
to assault from a wide variety of toxic
substances, which menace the health of
humans and wildlife. While sources of these
substances may be relatively scarce in the
more pristine areas surrounding an estuary,
industrialized areas often lead to "hot spots"
in the adjacent estuary, with toxins
concentrating in the water, sediment, and
local aquatic plants and animals. Stormwater
runoff from urban and rural areas can also
deliver toxic materials to estuaries. Metals,
pesticides, and automotive fluids are
frequently washed from lawns, agricultural
fields, parking lots, marinas, and a myriad of
other sources to estuarine waters.
Bacterial contamination is yet another
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Animal/Pet
Waste
Agricultural
Runoff
Forestry
Wastewater
Treatment
Plant
Septic
Systems
Lawn Fertilizing
Figure 2-3. Potential sources of estuarine pollution.
Golf
Courses
problem prevalent in many estuaries.
Inadequately treated sewage released to the
estuary threatens recreational water users and
contaminates local shellfish. States often
monitor shellfish or the waters overlying
shellfish beds for bacterial contamination.
occasionally shutting down contaminated areas
to recreational and commercial fishermen until
bacteria numbers drop to safe levels.
Sediments from construction sites.
agricultural activities, forestry operations, and
dredging activities, among other sources, can
be another concern. Sediments washing into
estuaries or resuspended from dredging can
carry a host of additional environmental
problems with them. These sediments cover
critical benthic, or bottom, habitat for
numerous species and smother plants and
animals. They cloud waters, preventing
sunlight from reaching submerged plants.
Metals and other toxic materials are
frequently attached to sediments, and it is
often through this affiliation that toxic
materials are delivered to the estuary.
Attached to sediments, they make their way to
the benthic zone, where they accumulate
within organisms and become introduced to
the food web. Under certain environmental
conditions, toxins may also be released from
sediments into the water column.
Other areas suffer from large quantities of
marine debris. Storm sewers, combined sewer
overflows, and carelessly dropped litter are
among the sources of these eyesores. Marine
debris found on estuarine shorelines and
underwater pose a health hazard to marine
animals and humans.
Whether the problems are unique to one
estuary or common to many, several have
worsened over recent decades. Simulta-
neously, however, the interest of a few
concerned citizens has grown into a nation-
wide awareness that the environment is a
necessary national priority.
Along with this growing recognition, the
means to assess the health and status of our
nation's waters has also evolved. While
scientists provided many early clues to the
deterioration of estuarine water quality,
citizens have become important contributors
in the long-term effort to identify and address
water quality problems. •
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Examples of Water Quality Degradation
• The Petaluma River, a tributary to San Francisco Bay, has experienced seasonal algal blooms, low oxygen
levels, and fish kills resulting from municipal waste discharges.
• Low dissolved oxygen levels are problematic in Corpus Christi Bay and Galveston Bay in Texas and in Mobile
Bay, Alabama. Low oxygen levels are especially prevalent where wastewater discharges and surface runoff go
to areas that are poorly flushed or have little circulation.
• In 1990, nitrogen levels in Sarasota Bay, Florida, were estimated to be three times greater than predevelopment
levels.
• Pollution from surface runoff has been implicated in nearly 30 percent reduction in seagrass coverage that
occurred in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, between 1970 and 1990. If no action is taken, it is estimated that
pollution from surface runoff will increase by more than 30 percent by the year 2010 due to increasing human
population.
• Runoff from the land contributes more than 50 percent of nitrogen loadings to Maryland's coastal bays, with 50
percent of these loadings coming from agricultural feeding operations (primarily poultry), which make up less
than one percent of the watershed.
• A citizen-based water quality sampling effort in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, reports that nine of the Bay's 30
embayments experience poor water quality (primarily from nutrient over-enrichment) during the summer
months. Another eight embayments are in transition from good to poor water quality. At least 50 percent of all
the embayments have shown a slight to moderate decline in water quality during four years of monitoring.
• From mid-July through September each year, up to half of Long Island Sound in New York experiences
dissolved oxygen levels insufficient to support healthy populations of marine life. Nitrogen loads are estimated
to be more than twice those of pre-colonial times with 57 percent of the nitrogen entering the Sound each year
attributable to human activities.
(Source: ANEP, 1998.)
The Solutions
Clarifying and characterizing the problems
unique to an estuary help clear the path toward
potential solutions. The first step in solving
each problem is defining it. One should ask:
• Is there a problem?
• If so, how serious is it?
• Does the problem affect only a portion
of the estuary, or the entire body of
water?
• Does the problem occur sporadically,
seasonally, or year-round?
• Is the problem a naturally occurring
phenomenon, or is it caused by human
activities?
The Importance of Monitoring
A systematic and well-planned monitoring
program can identify water quality problems
and help answer the questions critical to their
solutions. Useful monitoring data will
accurately portray the current chemical,
physical, and biological status of the estuary.
This type of information, collected
systematically over time, can establish a
record of water quality conditions in an
estuary.
If reliable historical data exist for
comparison, current monitoring data can also
document changes in the estuary from the past
to the present. These data may serve as a
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warning flag, alerting managers to the
development of a water quality problem. Or, on
the positive side, data comparisons may indicate
improvements in estuarine water quality.
Thus, monitoring programs can perform a
variety of functions. The most effective
monitoring program, however, resolves the use
of the data early on so that the program design
best addresses the defined problems. Most
citizen monitoring programs serve to:
• supplement federal, state, and local
monitoring efforts;
• educate the public;
• obtain data from remote areas;
• obtain data during storms or other unique
events;
• bring a problem area to light; and/or
• document the illegal discharge of waste.
Citizen monitoring data, collected accurately
and systematically, can be an important
supplement to data collected by professionals.
Accurate data often have far-reaching uses that
the organizers may not have anticipated at the
outset of their program. Indeed, these data have
the potential to influence management actions
taken to protect the waterbody Further uses of
the data include:
• providing a scientific basis for specific
management decisions and strategies;
• contributing to the broad base of
scientific information on estuary
functions and the effects of estuary
pollution;
• determining multiyear water quality
trends;
• documenting the effect of nonpoint and
point source pollutants on water quality;
• indicating to government officials that
citizens care about their local waterways;
• documenting the impacts of pollution
control measures; and
• providing data needed to determine
permit compliance.
Assessing water quality should not be con-
ducted purely for the sake of monitoring itself.
Ultimately, the protection and restoration of an
estuary's wildlife, natural functions, and compat-
ible human uses is of greatest concern. To restore
an estuary, we must ensure that water quality
conditions remain within the optimal range for
the health and vitality of native species. As scien-
tists discover the ideal habitat conditions for each
species, monitoring data will be instrumental in
judging how often conditions are suitable for the
survival and propagation of these species.
Measures of Environmental Health
and Degradation
Estuaries are complex systems with a large
assortment of habitats, animal and plant
species, and physical and chemical conditions.
As a result, there are dozens—perhaps
hundreds—of monitoring parameters being
used to evaluate the health of estuaries.
Several parameters describe the basic
chemical, physical, and biological properties
of an estuary. These traits determine the
estuary's fundamental nature. They form, in
essence, the ABCs of estuarine water quality
and set the stage for selecting the
environmental parameters that will indicate
estuarine health.
Warning: It's All Connected!
Simply measuring a chemical concentration or locating a particular
organism does not necessarily tell the full story of an estuary's health.
Several factors may interact to influence your data.
To facilitate discussion of different monitoring parameters, this
Methods Manual addresses monitoring topics according to chemical,
physical, or biological properties. However, it is important to
recognize that one environmental parameter may influence another
(Figure 2-4). Temperature, for example, largely governs the rate of
chemical reaction and biological activity. The pH affects the solubility
of certain chemicals in the water. Nutrient concentrations influence
algal growth, which ultimately affects dissolved oxygen
concentrations. Turbidity controls the amount of sunlight that can
reach underwater plants.
Chapter 7 describes several environmental factors that could
influence your monitoring results.
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Fresh-saltwater transition
(maximum turbidity zone)
Point sources
sewage treatment
plants (N + T) N +•
Nonpoint sources
farm & urban runoff,
groundwater (S + N + T)
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Figure 2-4. Schematic diagram of physical, chemical, and biological processes interacting in estuaries (redrawn
from USEPA, 1987).
Chemical Measures
Chemical parameters are the main focus of
many volunteer estuary monitoring programs,
which concentrate on pollutants that arrive in
the estuary from point and nonpoint sources
(e.g., nutrients, toxins). Other chemical
measurements serve as indicators of problems.
Low dissolved oxygen concentrations, for
example, can be disastrous for many estuarine
organisms.
Unit 1 highlights some of the common
estuarine chemical monitoring parameters and
techniques.
Physical Measures
Some parameters are neither biological nor
chemical in nature; they represent measures of
the physical environment. Sediment and
marine debris are examples of natural and
manmade materials, respectively, that can
affect estuarine organisms' living environment
and health.
Unit 2 discusses some measures of the
physical environment employed by many
volunteer estuary monitoring programs.
Biological Measures
Living organisms can reveal a great deal
about an estuary's health. In some cases, their
presence can be a good sign. For example, the
widespread distribution of submerged aquatic
vegetation (SAV) can suggest that turbidity or
excessive nutrients may not be problems in
the area. Other organisms, however, can be
causes of concern. High bacteria levels can
indicate the presence of pathogens in the
water—a potential human health risk. The
presence of non-indigenous species can
threaten native organisms and disrupt a
delicate ecological balance.
Biological monitoring is discussed in
greater detail in Unit 3.
Peculiarities of Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring
You may be thinking, "I know how to
monitor streams, so I know how to monitor
estuaries." In many respects, you are correct.
Basic monitoring techniques are similar for
streams, lakes, rivers, and estuaries. However,
estuaries have several, often unique,
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properties that must be considered when
conducting monitoring efforts. As one
volunteer leader wrote, "Estuary monitoring
can be characterized as a mixture of river and
lake monitoring techniques—liberally salted"
(Green, 1998).
Two main influences that make estuary
monitoring unique are tides and salinity.
Volunteers are strongly recommended to learn
proper techniques for monitoring in an
estuarine environment.
Tides
Estuaries differ from streams and lakes in
several respects. First and foremost, they are
subject to tides and the accompanying mixing
of salt and fresh water. Any successful estuary
monitoring program must take into account
the tidal stage when scheduling training
sessions and sampling times. Tidal stages can
mean the difference between using a boat
and trudging across mudflats to get to a
sampling spot.
The fact that high tide occurs at different
times in different parts of the estuary
undeniably complicates scheduling. Some
monitoring groups schedule sample collection
for low and high tides at each station on each
monitoring date—which translates into
different sampling times for each location!
Estuaries are complex, with a wide variety
of environments that are constantly changing.
When the tide is rising, incoming salt water
does not mix uniformly with fresh water.
Fresh water is lighter (less dense) than salt
water and tends to stay nearer the surface. The
result is layering, or stratification, which
may necessitate sampling at several depths—
particularly for dissolved oxygen, nutrients,
plankton, and salinity. On the other hand,
tides of sufficient magnitude are effective
mixers of estuarine waters and may break
down stratification.
Tide charts are readily available and should
be a standard part of any program
coordinator's tool kit. Programs studying
highly stratified estuaries or estuaries with
tidal ranges over a few feet may want to
measure tidal stage. Even if tidal stage data
are not included at the beginning of the
sampling effort, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
publishes tide tables for most of the U.S.
This information can be obtained and
applied after the fact, if the monitoring
station is reasonably close to one of the
published tide table sites.
Salinity
Salinity, the concentration of salts in
water, isn't usually monitored in streams,
rivers, or lakes, unless there is a connection
with salt water or concerns about excessive
winter season road salting. Salinity changes
with the tides and the amount of fresh water
flowing into the estuary. It is often the major
determinant of what lives where.
Salinity is often a factor in monitoring many
key water quality variables. For example:
• To properly calibrate most dissolved
oxygen meters, knowledge of salinity
concentration is necessary.
• If you are interested in converting the
dissolved oxygen concentration to
percent saturation (the amount of
oxygen in the water compared to the
maximum it could hold at that
temperature), you must take salinity into
account. As salinity increases, the
amount of oxygen that the water can
hold decreases.
• If you use a meter to measure pH, the
techniques are the same whether you are
testing salt or fresh water. However, if
you use a colorimeter, you must use a
correction factor (available from the
manufacturer) to compensate for the
effects of salinity.
• Although macroinvertebrates (e.g.,
insects, worms, shellfish, and other
animals that lack a spinal column) live
in estuaries, using them as indicators of
ecosystem health is more problematic
than in streams. Estuaries support
Bornegot Boy in New Jersey
(photo by S. Schultz).
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Various land uses, including agricultural,
residential/urban, forestry, mining, and
marinas, can be sources of estuarine pollution
(photo by Weeks Bay Watershed Project).
different invertebrate
communities than freshwater
systems, and many of the
key freshwater indicators are
not present in estuaries. In
addition, collection is more
difficult, given the tidal
fluctuations and the muddy
bottom. Finally, data
analysis tools for relating
macroinvertebrate
communities to ecosystem
health have not been as well developed
for estuaries as for streams.
The Human Element
As mentioned previously, a number of
estuary health problems can be traced to human
activities. Humans also hold the key to finding
their solutions. Many organizations and
individuals are working to restore and protect
estuaries, and volunteer monitoring is one
essential aspect of the effort.
Each player has a different role in volunteer
monitoring efforts, but all must work together to
ensure efficient use of time, resources, and data.
The Role of Government Organizations
On the federal, state, and local levels, a
myriad of government agencies are involved in
volunteer estuary monitoring. Each government
level has a different degree of involvement,
summarized below:
• Federal
Several federal agencies and programs are
involved to some degree in volunteer estuary
monitoring. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), for example, has
supported volunteer monitoring since 1987.
The EPA has sponsored national symposia on
volunteer monitoring, publishes a newsletter
for volunteers, developed guidance manuals
and a directory of volunteer organizations,
and provides technical support to the
volunteer programs (see Appendix B for
resources).
The EPA also administers the National Estuary
Program (NEP). Unlike traditional regulatory
approaches to environmental protection, the
NEP targets a broad range of issues and
engages local communities in the process.
The NEP encourages local communities to
responsibly manage their estuaries. Each NEP
is made up of representatives from federal,
state, and local government agencies, as well
as members of the community—citizens,
business leaders, educators, and researchers.
These stakeholders work together to identify
problems in the estuary, develop specific
actions to address those problems, and create
and implement a formal management plan to
restore and protect the estuary.
To help in their tasks, NEPs work with
volunteer groups and federal, state, and local
agencies to gather critical data about their
estuary. Many NEPs host informational
workshops for volunteer monitors.
Another federal program interested in
volunteer data is the National Estuarine
Research Reserve System (NERRS), which
is administered by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
NERRS sites monitor the effects of natural
and human activities on estuaries to help
identify methods to manage and protect
coastal areas. Volunteer groups are often
engaged to help collect valuable data about
estuarine health.
State
Depending on the state, several agencies may
be involved with volunteer estuary
monitoring. Agencies responsible for water
quality, coastal and/or environmental
management, fish and wildlife, public health,
and other areas have shown interest in
supplementing the data they regularly collect
with information gathered by volunteers.
State agencies play a major role in volunteer
efforts. Many offer training opportunities,
provide sampling equipment, and compile
and distribute volunteer data. Occasionally,
state laboratories may offer their services to
process samples.
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Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries
Some states are reluctant to fully use volun-
teer data, which can be a sore point with vol-
unteer groups. To remedy such conflicts,
many states establish quality assurance/quali-
ty control (QA/QC) requirements (see
Chapter 5) to ensure that volunteer data can
be used. They may also train volunteer
groups on setting up a quality assurance pro-
ject plan (QAPP). States can also work with
volunteer groups to identify data needs, key
sampling sites, and formats for submitting
data. Such cooperation maximizes monitor-
ing efficiency and data usefulness.
• Local
Local agencies can get involved with volun-
teer monitoring in a number of ways. When
considering development plans, they can use
volunteer data to assess baseline water quality
conditions and follow estuarine health as the
development proceeds. Data can also be used
to identify especially sensitive areas, which
can then be designated for special protection.
Volunteer data can also be helpful for locat-
ing local pollutant sources. For example,
local governments are primarily responsible
for septic system permitting, inspections,
maintenance, and enforcement. Particularly
in rural areas where septic systems are com-
mon, local agencies may not have enough
staff to sample for bacteria and other indica-
tors of failing systems. By working with vol-
unteer groups, local agencies are tapping into
a valuable resource.
The Role of Non-Government Organizations
With few exceptions, non-government orga-
nizations do the bulk of hands-on volunteer
monitoring program planning and implementa-
tion. Such organizations can include environ-
mental, school, community, and civic groups.
Their membership is comprised largely of local
citizens.
A major responsibility of non-government
groups is to work with government agencies
and other non-government organizations.
Collaboration is important to coordinate moni-
toring activities and identify priority areas in
the estuary. By coordinating with other organi-
zations, volunteer monitors can also improve
the likelihood that groups other than their own
will utilize their data. For example, by working
together with state agencies to develop a QAPP
and determine which data the agencies are most
interested in, volunteer organizations can
become a valuable partner in estuary monitor-
ing efforts.
Of course, the volunteer organization may
elect to gather other data that may not be high
on government agencies' priority lists. This
information still has value! It can be used to
guide local management decisions, educate the
public, establish a baseline, and serve as an early
warning of potential water quality problems.
Besides working with government agencies,
non-government organizations do grassroots
work. Among other things, they:
• recruit, train, and motivate volunteers;
• supervise monitoring activities;
• procure monitoring equipment;
• raise funds to support monitoring efforts; and
• work with local media to inform the public
of their activities and findings.
The Role of Individuals
It may seem obvious, but should nonetheless
be stated: Without individual volunteers who
commit their time and energy to the effort,
there would be no volunteer monitoring
programs.
Besides actually monitoring the estuary, vol-
unteers are valuable resources for other reasons.
They generally monitor close to their homes
and are familiar with the area. Because of their
knowledge of local land uses, environmental
issues, and history of the monitoring area, vol-
unteers can provide valuable anecdotal informa-
tion that can help explain data.
Individual volunteers can also assist
with other non-monitoring activities, such
as fundraising, writing press releases,
educating the public, and helping with admin-
istrative work.
Chapter 4 goes into greater detail about the
role of volunteers in monitoring programs. •
A volunteer takes a
Secchi disk reading
from Puget Sound
(photo by E. Ely).
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Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries.
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Green, L. 1998. "Let Us Go Down to the Sea—How Monitoring Changes from River to Estuary."
The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 1-3.
National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS)
Web site: http://inlet.geol.sc.edu/nerrsintro.html
National Estuary Program (NEP) Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/aboutl.htm
Other references:
Association of National Estuary Programs (ANEP). 1998. Preserving Our Heritage, Securing Our
Future: A Report to the Citizens of the Nation. Washington, DC. 49 pp.
Levinton, J. S. 1982. Marine Ecology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 526 pp.
Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996. A Citizen's Guide to Coastal
Watershed Surveys. 78 pp.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1990. Estuaries of the United States:
Vital Statistics of a Natural Resource Base. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Ocean
Service.
National Safety Council's Environmental Center. 1998. Coastal Challenges: A Guide to Coastal and
Marine Issues. Prepared in conjunction with Coastal America.
Web site: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/guidebooks/coasttoc.htm
Pritchard, D. W 1967. "What Is an Estuary: A Physical Viewpoint." In: Estuaries. G. H. Lauff (ed.).
American Association for the Advancement of Science. Publication No. 83. Washington, DC. 757
pp.
Stancioff, E. 1994. "Changing Tides: Special Challenges of Estuary Monitoring." The Volunteer
Monitor 6(2).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1987. The State of the Chesapeake Bay, Second
Annual Monitoring Report. Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1993. Guidance Specifying Management
Measures for Sources ofNonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters. EPA 840-B-92-002. January.
Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods
Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Web site:
Restore America's Estuaries: http://www.estuaries.org/estuarywhat.html
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring Program
Establishing goals, objectives, timelines, and strategies are important steps in
creating an estuary monitoring program. People starting a monitoring program must
also face questions about liability and other risk management issues. Another
important component to a successful program is ongoing financial support. Finally,
the program should be promoted regularly throughout the community.
-------
Photos (I tor): G. Carver, K. Register, PhotoDisc, K. Register
-------
3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
Overview
Volunteer data contributes in many important ways to our understanding of the
magnitude and extent of estuarine impairment. Therefore, it is important to ensure
that a volunteer monitoring program is effectively and efficiently designed.
Planning, implementing, and maintaining a volunteer monitoring program requires
organization, time, resources, and dedication. However, the payoffs can be great.
A well-organized, properly maintained volunteer monitoring program can yield
credible water quality data that will enhance capabilities to identify problems,
assess trends, and find solutions to water quality problems. The basic ingredients
for success are outlined in this chapter.
Establishing goals, objectives, timelines, and strategies are important steps in
creating an estuary monitoring program. People starting a monitoring program
must also face questions about liability and other risk management issues. Another
important component to a successful program is ongoing financial support.
Finally, the program should be promoted regularly throughout the community. All
of these topics are reviewed in this chapter.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
Establishing Goals and Objectives
No step is more critical in the planning
process than establishing the goal or goals of
your estuary monitoring program. Every phase
that follows will depend upon this initial deci-
sion. These all-important goals are best deter-
mined by the people who will be using the vol-
unteer data. Once the program is established,
volunteers can also help shape future goals. So,
the first step is to identify the people and orga-
nizations that will use your data.
Identifying Data Uses and Users
The best-designed volunteer monitoring pro-
grams always begin with a clear understanding
of how the data will be used (see Chapter 5 for
more information). Potential data users should
be identified and asked to serve on the project's
planning committee. This committee will devel-
op and articulate a clear purpose for the use of
the data. The committee should include mem-
bers of the scientific research community, local
and regional officials who will play a part in
resource policymaking, representatives of other
monitoring groups, and citizen leaders who are
potential volunteer monitors or who represent
groups from which volunteers will be recruited.
Determining Goals and Planning
for Quality
In addition to understanding who will use the
volunteer data, the broad overall goals for the
program should be determined. Is the primary
goal to collect data that will supplement gov-
ernment monitoring? Or is the main goal of the
program to educate the public? For a list of
common program goals, see page 3-5.
Determining the goals of the program goes
hand-in-hand with creating a plan that can
deliver the level of data needed. As you will see
in Chapter 5, many of these early decisions will
play a critical role in developing a quality
assurance project plan (QAPP). This plan con-
tains details on all the methods you expect your
volunteers to use. Careful planning ensures that
your data will be consistent and of the desired
level of quality.
The perception that amateurs cannot collect
good quality data is the most common reason
professional water quality managers decline to
take advantage of volunteers as a resource.
However, by preparing a QAPP and adhering to
its elements, your volunteers will produce "data
of known quality" that meet the stated data
quality objectives of your program.
After establishing primary goals, the plan-
ning committee should go on to answer, in
detail, the following questions:
• What are the major problems and
priorities in the specific estuary or sam-
pling area?
Planning an effective monitoring project
Benefits of Partnering
Partnering with data users when planning a monitoring project has several benefits. Examples are
provided below:
• Their input on sampling parameters and methodologies will improve the likelihood that they
will accept and use your data.
• The participation of regulatory agencies in the process will better ensure that they will be
responsive to potential problems identified by the data.
• They can guide data management practices to maximize their access to the data (e.g., using
compatible databases, reporting methods, etc.).
• They can help interpret the data.
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
Prospective Users of Volunteer Data:
• state environmental protection or management agencies
• state conservation and recreation agencies
• state and local health departments
• water quality analysts
• land use planners
• fisheries biologists
• environmental engineers
• educational institutions, including elementary, middle, and high schools
• state, regional, and local park staff
• local government planning and zoning agencies
• university researchers
• environmental groups
• soil and water conservation districts
• U.S. Geological Survey
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
• Soil Conservation Service
requires that you learn everything you can
about potential monitoring sites by contacting
programs and agencies that might already
monitor in your area. As you identify the most
critical problems of the estuary, include the
perceptions and values of community leaders,
residents, and community organizations.
Selection of priorities will help you determine
what water quality parameters you need to
monitor.
• What sampling parameters or conditions
will you monitor to characterize the status
of the estuary? What methods or protocols
will you use for collecting and analyzing
samples? How will you pick your sampling
sites, and how will you identify them over
time?
An important part of developing a
monitoring program is selecting monitoring
sites, parameters to be monitored, and a
monitoring schedule. Also, there are
sometimes several different methods or
protocols that can be used to monitor each
parameter. Considerations on selecting the
"what, how, where, and when" to monitor can
be found in Chapter 6.
• How large a monitoring program should be
attempted?
What is the capacity of the planning com-
mittee to raise funds and organize a program?
Do you have the skills, staff time, financial
resources, and community support needed to
reach your program's goals? If not, the plan-
ning committee may need to improve its orga-
nizational capacity by creating or strengthening
relationships with community leaders, environ-
mental interest groups, and community agencies
such as local conservation districts and colleges.
Alternatively, your organization may need to
revisit its goals to set something more realistic.
Always keep in mind that small programs done
well are far better than larger efforts done poor-
ly. Small programs that are well-run can grow
over time.
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3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
• How will volunteers be recruited and trained,
and how often will they receive refresher
courses?
As you develop your new estuary monitoring
program, you will need to determine who will
recruit and train the volunteers. The initial train-
ing of the volunteers is a crucial part of devel-
oping a water quality monitoring program.
Without such training, usable, high-quality data
cannot be obtained, and volunteers will soon
grow frustrated. In addition to initial training,
refresher courses for volunteers should be
planned. Some practical considerations on suc-
cessfully recruiting, training, and retaining vol-
unteers can be found in Chapter 4.
• How will you manage your data and
ensure that your data are credible?
How will the results of the program
be presented?
Understanding how the data will be used will
lead you to answers about how the data will be
managed and how reports will be generated to
best fit users' needs. Choosing a data manage-
ment approach early on in program develop-
ment is critical if the hard work of the volun-
teers is to be meaningful. To take information
from data sheets and convert it to something
that makes sense to your audience requires sev-
eral elements, which are summarized in
Chapter 8.
Not only is it important to manage and pre-
sent data according to users' needs, but every
volunteer monitoring group should also address
early in the planning process how the data
analysis will be communicated back to the vol-
unteers, who should see the tangible benefits of
their work. This requires planning, since the
data may need to be summarized and some
general conclusions prepared for a non-techni-
cal audience. Chapter 5 provides more informa-
tion on this topic.
• How should the program be evaluated? What
outcomes will you measure to determine if
your program is "successful"?
Success, especially at the beginning of a pro-
ject, can be measured in many ways. The first
time your volunteers take to the field and col-
lect samples can rightfully be considered a suc-
cess. Proving that it can be done is an extreme-
ly important step. Later, success may be mea-
sured by whether your data is used in local land
use decisions or leads to actions that improve
the health of the estuary.
Ongoing evaluation of the program is critical.
The planning committee should meet periodi-
cally to evaluate the program, update objec-
tives, and refine the monitoring process. You
may decide to improve on sampling techniques,
site selection, lab procedures, or any of the
other elements of your monitoring project
design. These periodic reviews should help
ensure that the volunteer monitoring program
will continue to produce high quality and useful
data for those who require information concern-
ing the estuary.
Be sure to document the important contribu-
tions of the monitoring group to community
leaders, legislative bodies, and the community.
This may help establish program credibility
with funders and aid volunteer recruitment
efforts. •
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
Common Goals of Citizen Monitoring Programs:
• To supplement water quality data collected by professional staff in water quality agencies and scientific institutions.
• To educate the public about water quality issues.
• To build a constituency of citizens to practice sound water quality management at a local level and build public
support of water quality protection.
• To obtain data from remote areas during storms or during unique events in the watershed.
• To increase awareness about a problem in the estuary, such as the documentation of illegal discharges into the water.
• To establish baseline conditions where no prior information exists.
• To determine water quality changes through time.
• To identify current and emerging problems, such as pollution sources, habitat loss, or the presence of non-
indigenous species.
Designing a Data Collection Form
Most monitoring data, including those collected by volunteer programs, are stored and managed by computer. Data users
and the database manager should be involved in the development of the data collection form to be sure that it clearly
identifies the information to be collected and that the information can be easily and accurately entered into the database.
Consideration should also be given to the ease with which the form can be filled out and understood by the volunteers.
Several suggestions for consideration when developing a data collection form are as follows:
• Print the form on waterproof paper, if possible.
• Keep it simple for volunteers to fill out.
• If many of your volunteers are over 40 years of age, consider using larger type sizes (12 point and larger).
• If possible, keep your data form to one side of an 8 1/2" x 11" piece of paper so that it can fit on a clipboard.
• Ask your volunteers for input on how the form can be improved.
• Remind volunteers that pencils are best when filling out the forms.
• Always include the full address and contact phone numbers of your program.
• On the back of the form, include:
- emergency phone number and notes about safety;
- a chart showing the expected ranges for each parameter that is tested (this can help volunteers verify that they are using
the monitoring equipment correctly or determine whether their chemicals need to be examined for accuracy);
- steps to remember for collecting the sample or data; and
- an identification key of organisms (e.g., phytoplankton, SAV or macroinvertebrates).
• Specify on the form what units should be reported with the data. For example, if Secchi depth is measured in
centimeters, then put "cm" on the line where volunteers write their Secchi depth data.
• Include on the data form any equations needed to convert measurements. This will minimize the chance of error.
• Put a reminder that a value of zero should not be reported. Remind volunteers to report the value as less than the
lowest value that can be read with the equipment (Miller, 1995). For example, if the range of a test is 0-1 mg/1, the
smallest increment is 0.01 mg/1, and the test result is zero, report the value as "less than 0.01 mg/1" or "<0.01 mg/1."
Appendix A contains several examples of data forms.
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3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
Insurance, Safety, and Liability—Risk Management
Questions of insurance, safety, and liability
are always important considerations when
starting any program that will place
volunteers in the field. Insurance issues are
rarely the favorite topic of volunteer
monitoring programs. In fact, many programs
may not be fully aware of what their
insurance policies cover. Some may not even
have liability insurance.
If people are confused about issues of
insurance, safety, and liability (collectively
termed risk management), there is good
reason; this whole field is a tangle. To make
matters worse, laws differ dramatically from
state to state. For example, the interpretation
and validity of waivers depends to a large
degree on what state you are in. Workers'
compensation is another case in point: some
states allow volunteers to be covered while
others do not.
So, what is a volunteer monitoring
organization to do? The following sections
offer answers to some of the most common
questions. This is basic information; volunteer
groups are encouraged to seek legal advice
regarding any risk management issues.
Liability Insurance
Liability insurance protects you if you are
sued. The most common type is "general
liability," which covers most bodily injury
and property damage claims. A liability policy
covering an organization does not necessarily
cover its volunteers in case they are sued
personally. You can get your organization's
liability coverage extended to your volunteers,
but beware: once volunteers are added to the
list of insured, they are excluded from
collecting medical benefits under the policy if
they are injured. A general liability contract
protects the organization against claims
brought by a third party, and once a volunteer
is listed as an "insured" he or she is no longer
a third party. In other words, you cannot sue
yourself for damages.
Individual volunteers can also get liability
coverage under their own homeowners'
policies. It is especially important for each of
your organization's board of directors to do
this, since by law they can be held personally
liable for damages caused by the organization.
Note, however, that most homeowners'
policies do not provide protection if someone
sues you for a purely financial loss.
Injuries to Volunteers
How can you protect your volunteers in
case they are injured "on the job"? In some
states, volunteers can be covered by workers'
compensation; call your state Department of
Employment for information about applicable
laws and the cost of covering volunteers. If
workers' compensation is unavailable or very
expensive, your organization may want to buy
a separate accident and injury policy for
volunteers. For a "supplemental" policy (one
that takes effect only after the individual's
own medical coverage is exhausted), the cost
is usually only a few dollars per year per
volunteer. Another option is to include
volunteers in the medical payments portion of
your general liability policy; however, the
dollar amount of medical coverage in such
policies is usually fairly limited.
Insurance Through Partnering
Teaming up with a partner who has good
coverage is popular among volunteer
monitoring groups. In some cases, volunteers
sign a partner's form, after which they are
covered by workers' compensation. This is
easier and less expensive to do in some states.
For programs associated with a university,
participants may be considered university
volunteers and covered by the university's
insurance policy. Student monitors may also
be organized under a larger umbrella
organization that affords coverage. The Boy
Scouts of America, for example, has a
division known as Explorer Posts, which
allow boys and girls to participate. Each Post
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3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
focuses on a specific activity (in this case, the
water monitoring project). The group must
abide by all Explorer Post regulations, and
participants are eligible for low-cost insurance
coverage through the Boy Scouts.
Waivers
A carefully worded waiver can protect you if
you are sued for negligent (unintentional) acts.
Waivers are best suited for adults; those signed
by minors (persons under 18) usually do not
hold up in court.
It is important to make sure your waiver
clearly spells out all the risks involved in an
activity. Because states interpret waivers differ-
ently, it is impossible to design a standard form
that can be used in all jurisdictions. Consult a
lawyer for the best wording to use in your state.
Risk Reduction
Prevention, as always, is the best medicine.
Volunteers should be trained to look for and
avoid hazards at sampling sites, to use the
buddy system, and to take appropriate precau-
tions when handling chemical reagents. Above
all, monitoring groups should stress that volun-
teer safety is always more important than the
data and that volunteers should never put them-
selves at risk to obtain a measurement. See
Chapter 7 for a discussion of volunteer safety.
Equipment Insurance
Volunteer groups may also wish to consider
insuring their monitoring equipment for damage.
This is especially true for expensive gear. •
Paying for the Program—The Financial Side
Volunteer monitoring is cost-effective, but
not free. Depending on the equipment and
monitoring methods you choose, outfitting a
team of monitors can cost several hundreds or
thousands of dollars. Paying a salary (either
part- or full-time) to one or more volunteer
coordinators is also a critical component to
many water quality monitoring programs.
Dedicated staff members are needed to ensure
program continuity, train volunteers, manage
data, and ensure that data quality goals are
being met. The following sections offer
guidelines for finding the funds that will help
your program to grow and flourish.
Funding Sources
Fundraising is an important component of
running a successful volunteer monitoring
program. Without funding to cover program
costs, a program simply could not exist. The
principal sources of funding for volunteer
monitoring programs are government funds
and private contributions.
Government Funds and Support
Federal grants are sometimes available to
public or nonprofit non-governmental
organizations to initiate and maintain citizen
monitoring programs. Usually, these funds are
distributed through grants given by the state.
National Estuary Programs are eligible for
combined federal and state funds to support
research and public participation projects that
can include volunteer monitoring. Some
federal funding for volunteer monitoring
programs is also routed to state universities
from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Sea Grant Program
and the Coastal Zone Management Program.
State and local funding sources may also
exist to implement and maintain volunteer
monitoring programs. Some state funding is
distributed only to state agencies, while other
programs provide funding to private organiza-
tions. Call your state and local agencies that
are responsible for water quality, coastal,
and/or environmental management to learn
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
about resources and support they offer to volun-
teer monitoring programs.
States vary in the amount of support they
offer to volunteer monitoring programs. For
example, in Oregon, interested citizens are
trained in water quality monitoring techniques
by the Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality and supplied with all necessary equip-
ment. Alabama has an extensive statewide mon-
itoring effort that offers training, equipment,
and quality assurance procedures through
Alabama Water Watch, which is supported by
state and federal funds. Other states may not
provide equipment, but offer valuable assis-
tance in developing quality assurance project
plans and in selecting monitoring sites.
Private Funds and Support
Private contributions to fund your program
can come from corporate sponsorships, founda-
tion grants, individual contributions, fundraising
events, civic organizations, board members, and
even the program volunteers.
Foundations
Grants from foundations are very important
for volunteer monitoring programs throughout
the United States, and many resources list
sources of foundation grants.
A great way to begin your funding search is
by visiting Web sites. One site run by The
Foundation Center (http://fdncenter.org/) com-
piles information on more than 37,500 active
U.S. private foundations and corporate giving
programs. This resource, and others like it, can
help you identify appropriate funders. Ask your
local library or university if they have directo-
ries of foundations that you can review. Be sure
to read the description of each foundation care-
fully to learn if their funding goals are a good
match for your program.
Check also to see if your state has a nonprofit
statewide organization devoted to water quality
or environmental issues. Many of these organi-
zations provide research grants and offer fund-
ing that is available only within the state.
What's in a Budget?
Budgets for volunteer water quality monitoring programs include some or all of the
following:
• staff salaries and fringe benefits;
• equipment and refilling chemical supplies;
• laboratory analysis;
• office overhead (phone, postage, duplicating, etc.);
• data management (software program, data entry, storage and retrieval);
• data analysis (including cost of a statistical software package);
• travel expenses (to train volunteers, perform quality assurance checks, attend local and
regional conferences, and promote the program);
• printing costs for annual reports and newsletters; and
• other expenses (conferences, Web site maintenance, etc.).
(Adapted from USEPA, 1990.)
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3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
Local Sponsors
To find the initial funding that is needed to
start a volunteer monitoring project, many
groups also seek local supporters to underwrite
postage, printing, and equipment purchases.
The first step in this process is to identify
potential donors through research. Talk to the
leaders of other local nonprofits and ask them
about their supporters. While some nonprofits
may not want to let you know where they get
their funding, others will be willing to give you
helpful sources. Make a list of all the people,
local businesses, and other organizations that
share an interest in the water quality of the estu-
ary.
Prepare a brief, focused statement outlining
what the volunteer estuary monitoring program
hopes to accomplish. Make appointments to
meet with prospective supporters, and let them
know how their support will benefit the com-
munity. Ask for a specific amount of funding.
Corporations have to be convinced that part of
their advertising budget should be spent on
your program, so be sure to let them know how
you will acknowledge their support.
Keep in mind that local sponsors may fund
what is important to them and their employees.
If their employees can and want to participate
in the project, the employer is more likely to
help fund the project.
Special Events
Another fundraising strategy is to plan a spe-
cial event. In addition to raising funds, this
approach can generate publicity about your vol-
unteer monitoring program, help educate the
citizens in the estuary watershed, and recruit
new volunteers. In fact, many events may focus
less on fundraising than on gathering new sup-
porters.
Special events can take a great deal of effort
to plan, so be sure this goal is achievable. Some
special event ideas include: a concert on a
beach, a festival or fair, a dinner with a guest
speaker, or an auction of donated items. Local
businesses, newspapers, and radio stations are
important partners to line up early in the plan-
ning process. The publicity offered by local
media will help ensure good attendance for
your event (see "Promoting the Program—
Working with the Media" in this chapter for
more information). Also consider "tagging"
your fundraising event onto an established com-
munity event. For example, if your community
has an annual festival, your group could plan
one aspect of the festival and keep the pro-
ceeds.
Board Members
hi addition to contributing time, professional
knowledge, and expertise, the board members
of some volunteer organizations are also
responsible for giving and getting financial sup-
port. If your program decides to have a board
and if fundraising is to be one of the board
responsibilities, prospective board members
need to understand this expectation.
Membership Support
There are pros and cons to having a dues-
paying membership as part of your monitoring
program. On one hand, the people who live
near the estuary and in its watershed are often
interested in the water quality data that will be
generated; as a result, they may be willing to
help financially support your volunteer moni-
toring program. But maintaining membership
records will take time and effort on the part of
program staff. All donors must be thanked
promptly, and records must be kept so that
members can be billed when their memberships
have expired. Members will also expect to be
kept informed of program accomplishments,
which might require the development of a
newsletter or Web site.
In-Kind Donations
Many people and companies cannot con-
tribute cash to your program, but would be will-
ing and able to lend their support with in-kind
gifts. In-kind donations of goods and services
can offer tremendous support to a volunteer
monitoring program. A graphic designer can
donate time and expertise to develop a
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
Fundraising Is About Relationships
To develop funding, develop relationships. Fundraising is a long-term process; you need to
build a relationship that benefits all involved. Establishing relationships with multiple funders
will help you to ensure that you are not too dependent on one funding source.
After identifying funding sources, make personal contact with them. Call the contact person at
a funding organization and ask a few questions about how your proposal can be targeted to
the organization's funding goals. Your best chance to receive funding will be from
organizations whose philanthropic philosophies match your program goals. For example, if
potential funders are mainly interested in education, then highlight the educational aspects of
your water quality monitoring project.
In order to survive as an economic entity, integrate fundraising into everything you do as an
organization. Your program volunteers can also be valuable fundraising assets, as they can
promote the program with others in the community.
brochure. A local printer or truck company can
donate printing or hauling services. Individual
volunteers can also assist with other non-moni-
toring activities, such as fundraising, writing
press releases, educating the public, and doing
administrative work.
Other volunteer monitoring programs can be
another source of valuable support. Several
non-government organizations around the U.S.
conduct volunteer estuary monitoring (see Ely
and Hamingson, 1998), and have gained knowl-
edge and skills that they can share with newer
programs. Conversations with these other envi-
ronmental, school, community, and civic groups
can greatly shorten your learning curve.
Writing a Successful Proposal
When writing a funding proposal, make your
project sound exciting and focus the project
description so that it appeals to the funder.
Written proposals are sometimes the only
opportunity you will have to present your pro-
gram to funders. It is your chance to show them
that your organization is credible, has a strong
structure, and will be a valuable asset. Funders
need to be convinced that your program will be
successful and worth the investment. They want
to feel as if they will be part of a successful
project that will lead to tangible results.
Make sure that the proposal is professional
and complete, and that it "sells" the importance
of the project. A successful proposal should
contain the following:
• cover letter (brief summary of the project,
amount of funding requested, signature of
top staffer, and contact person's name and
phone number);
• introduction (description of organization,
mission, population served, why your
organization is best suited to do the pro-
ject);
• project goal (and how it fits in with your
mission);
• project objectives (specific measurable
steps to meet the goal);
• request (specific dollar amount
requested); and
• expected results.
When presenting a funding proposal:
• read the foundation's or grant's guidelines
carefully and follow them exactly;
• ask for the right amount (know the foun-
dation's limits);
• be succinct;
• do not misrepresent a "partnership" or
exaggerate any aspect of your goals; and
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
• highlight the expertise that the program
leaders bring.
It is critical to make your issue relevant and
understandable to funders. Be careful to use
layperson's terms in your writing, and do not
assume that the person reading your proposal
knows acronyms or technical terms. After you
have written your proposal, ask someone who
is unfamiliar with your program's goals to read
the proposal. If your reader is unclear about any
aspects of your proposal, your prospective fun-
der will likely be unclear as well; a rewrite is
necessary.
Keep Funders Happy!
No matter what your source of funding, it is
important to keep your supporters happy!
Remember: The same people who make
decisions to support your program need to
feel that their support is appreciated.
Be sure to acknowledge and thank your fun-
ders every time they provide any support.
Keep them informed about the progress of
the program and invite them to attend your
receptions, banquets, workshops, training
sessions, or demonstrations. Companies,
foundations, and individuals often hope to
increase their visibility within the communi-
ty in return for their cash or in-kind dona-
tion. You can acknowledge their support by
including their names and/or logos in press
releases, brochures, reports, or even T-shirts
made for the volunteer monitors. Make sure
to get approval from the funders before
using their names or logos; some donors pre-
fer to remain anonymous.
Forming Partnerships
Being part of a partnership with other organi-
zations can help your chances of getting a
grant. Funders like to see that your program is
in a partnership, as this shows that your pro-
gram is supported by others in the community.
Partnerships also convey that the expertise of
many people will be contributing to the pro-
gram. Many foundations like regional efforts
and prefer to make larger grants, so partnering
with other groups to make joint applications is
very beneficial.
Some funders require nonprofit tax status
[called 501(c)3 status] from the Internal
Revenue Service. Obtaining this tax status is an
important step for a nonprofit group, but the
process can be lengthy and requires a fee of up
to $500. If you do not have this tax status, then
maybe you can partner with a group that does
have it.
Partnerships have additional benefits. A vol-
unteer program should look for other groups in
the area doing similar projects in adjacent or
complimentary waterways. Partnering with
these groups could lead to cost savings on sup-
plies (buying in bulk is cheaper than buying in
small volumes) or hiring consultants or staff
(one person could work on several projects).
Your monitoring program can also gain
strength by taking advantage of opportunities
provided by government agencies. Several
agencies are involved in volunteer estuary mon-
itoring on the federal, state, and local levels.
Federal agencies, such as the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), sup-
port volunteer monitoring by sponsoring sym-
posia on volunteer monitoring, publishing
newsletters, and developing guidance manuals
(see references at the end of each chapter and in
Appendix B).
Another federal program interested in assist-
ing volunteer monitoring programs is the
National Estuarine Research Reserve System
(NERRS), which is administered by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). Also, learn if your
estuary is part of the National Estuary Program
(NEP). This program, administered by the EPA,
targets a broad range of estuary-related issues
and engages local communities in the process.
NEPs work with volunteer groups and federal
and state agencies to gather critical data about
their estuary. Many NEPs host informational
workshops for volunteer monitors and support
volunteer groups in other ways. •
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
Some Funding Challenges
Many funders insist that all grants go toward direct project expenses and will not allow any
money to go to administrative or overhead costs (e.g., rent, phone bills, electricity). This restric-
tion can be a challenge, given that there are administrative overhead costs associated with run-
ning any program. There are other terms you can use in your budget instead of "administrative":
for example, you may use phrases like "contacting volunteers" and "program development
costs" to cover some phone calls, photocopying, etc. Developing a partnership with other like-
minded groups can also help defray some of these overhead costs.
Some grants are paid on a reimbursement basis. For new monitoring groups, this necessitates
finding a source of money to pay the bills while waiting for the reimbursements.
Promoting the Program—Working with the Media
Now that you have clearly established the
primary goal or goals and know the program
priorities, your challenge is to meet your objec-
tives by focusing your resources and mobilizing
the community. Publicizing a volunteer moni-
toring program through the television, radio, or
newspaper media is an effective, cost-efficient
method to reach citizens in the watershed. The
rewards of successful press coverage can be
high as the public will learn about the estuary
and the efforts of your group.
Working with the media requires logistical
planning. Create a communications strategy
that is an integral part of the monitoring pro-
gram; make communications a priority and
allow time to prepare press releases and meet
press contacts.
People are interested in reading or hearing
about their local environment—it is a quality-
of-life issue to readers. Yet getting the press to
pay attention to a volunteer monitoring program
is sometimes a challenge. Reporters look for the
"big story," but many of our current environ-
mental woes are accumulative problems from
what we do on a daily basis and have done for
years. Onetime specific events, such as a sewer
overflow, will usually receive coverage and can
be good opportunities to include information
about the bigger problems of water pollution.
Many reporters want to write about community
groups and environmental issues, but their first
and most pressing concerns are breaking news.
Press Releases
To help get the word out about your
program, press releases are priceless! A press
release is a one- or two-page document that
informs newspaper and electronic media
about your program and its goals, findings,
upcoming events, need for volunteers, and
other topics of interest. Writing one press
release and sending it to many local news
outlets is a cost-efficient and effective method
to inform the community about your program.
As you write a press release, know what
you want to say, whom you want to reach,
and what you want the reader or viewer to
"take away." Think about why the health of
the estuary is important to the readers or
viewers.
To increase chances of getting an article in
a newspaper, do your best to write the story
for the reporter. A well-written press release
stands a better chance of getting published
without many modifications, thereby reducing
the likelihood that your message gets
presented incorrectly. You have to anticipate
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
how the press would present the topic. Frame
the issue the way a journalist would, and
think about what would be their lead. Give to
the press the "who, what, where, when, why,
and how." Remember: You often have to
educate reporters and inform them why they
should care about your issue.
Make it easy for reporters to contact you if
they have questions or want to interview you.
At the top of the press release, provide a
contact person for the press to call for more
information. You may also want to include at
the end of the press release a contact name
and number for the public to use (this may be
a different number from the press contact).
The timing of press releases is important.
Press releases are best sent to newspapers
about two weeks before the event to allow
photographers and writers to be scheduled.
Television stations should receive your press
release one to two weeks prior to the event. It
is best to mail or fax press releases, then call
the reporter to see if he or she has any follow-
up questions. Take time to call reporters and
give them "background" information about
your organization.
When writing a press release, it helps to
have a bold, recognizable masthead on your
stationery. For other professional touches,
contact a local advertising agency to learn if it
would donate the time of its professional staff
to assist you. Also, check with your local
library for books with specific examples of
model press releases.
Press Conferences
A press conference should be
an organized event that has
been well thought out and
delivers specific news. In other
words, press conferences must
have substance. If your
program has discovered an
issue that is of interest to the
community or if findings from
your volunteer monitors have
led to a significant event, hold
a press conference. For good
visuals, invite the press to
cover a real activity (not a
posed shot) and let volunteers
know that they will be
photographed. Also, prepare
good charts or graphics to
show the data you have
collected. Local maps showing water
conditions are also effective. Press
conferences that merely announce upcoming
events are seldom attended by busy reporters,
and if the reporters show up and are
disappointed by the lack of content, they may
not come again to more "worthy" press
conferences.
The timing and location for a press
conference are important. Early in the day is
preferred, as it allows plenty of time for TV
stations to edit the tape before the noon and
evening news broadcasts. Choose a place that
has good visuals, such as a location along a
waterbody that you have been studying or at
your headquarters where volunteers can be
shown working in the background. •
When working with the media, always be
prepared for an interview. Have your
facts together and use humor, analogies,
and inspiration whenever possible (photo
by PhotoDisc).
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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
Tips for Working Successfully with the Media:
• Develop long-term professional and personal relationships with reporters, editors, and
producers at your local news stations and newspapers. Reporters value contacts with
reliable, credible non-government groups like volunteer monitoring programs.
• Write a short fact sheet about your program.
• Create media materials that are clear, concise, and understandable to the general public.
Edit and format materials so that reporters under deadline can read them quickly and
easily.
• Localize. Make the issues into stories that address the local community.
• Use humor, analogies, and inspiration in your interviews.
• Include graphics, charts, and visuals, which draw the attention of reporters.
• Highlight citizen and student involvement.
• People are more interesting than facts, and animals are more interesting than people. Use
animals, protesting citizens, or interested students as a "hook" with the press.
• Write a short summary of your group's findings (two pages with one visual aid) and send
it out with a press release.
• If a reporter wants information over the phone, ask if you can return the call in five
minutes. Take those five minutes to write down the major points you want to make, then
call the reporter back. This way, you will be focused on the two or three most important
points you want to make in the interview.
• Know reporters' deadlines. They tend to be busiest in the afternoon trying to meet
deadlines, so call them in the morning.
• Always cover the important details: who, what, when, where, why, and how.
• Give good directions to the event or field site.
• Explain the topic in simple terms. Avoid terms like "nonpoint source pollution"; instead,
show how people and animals will be impacted.
• Be flexible in scheduling the media. Understand that "late-breaking" stories may require
you to reschedule an interview.
• Designate spokespeople and have them practice their communication skills.
• Always say the full name of your organization—not an acronym. In fact, avoid using
acronyms altogether, since most people are unfamiliar with them and will not understand
what you are talking about.
• Remember that television stations have broader geographical areas of interest than
newspapers.
• Plan to have interesting visuals, an articulate spokesperson, and video to illustrate a
point. These are required if you want to get television coverage.
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3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Ely, E. 1996. "Are You Covered?" The Volunteer Monitor 8(1).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
Other references:
Chabot, W 1999. "Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting
Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation
(CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA:
February 22-24, 1999.
Courtmance, A. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.
Ellett, K. 1993. Introduction to Water Quality Monitoring Using Volunteers. 2nd ed. Alliance for
the Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore, MD. 26 pp.
Ely, E. and E. Hamingson. 1998. National Directory of Volunteer Environmental Monitoring
Programs. 5th ed. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetland, Oceans, and
Watersheds. EPA-841-B-98-009. Web site: http://yosemite.epa.gov/water/volmon.nsf
Finch, B. 1999. "Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.
Fritz, P. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:
Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.
Hines, M. 1999. "Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Hubbard, M. 1999. "Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Jordan, B. 1999. "Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.
Larson, J. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:
Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.
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3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program.
Moore, K. 1999. "Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.
Rodgers, E. 1999. "Media, Outreach, Publicity." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.
Steiner Blore, V. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Sterling, J. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:
Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA: February 22-24, 1999.
Tamminen, T. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:
Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA: February 22-24, 1999.
Thompson, D. 1999. "Fundraising." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:
Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (USEPA) 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods
Manual. EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 121 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (USEPA) 1992. Proceedings of Third National Citizens'
Volunteer Water Monitoring Conference. EPA 841-R-92-004. Washington, DC. 183 pp.
Web sites:
Fundraising Information
Catalogue of Federal Domestic Assistance: http://www.gsa.gov/fdac
Environmental Grantmaking Foundations—Resources for Global Sustainability:
http://www.environmentalgrants.com
The Foundation Center: http://www.fdncenter.org/. Phone: 212-620-4230.
Foundations and Grantmakers Directory: http://www.foundations.org/grantmakers.html
GrantsNet: http://www.hhs.gov/grantsnet
River Network: http://www.rivernetwork.org/library/libsou.cfm
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Recruiting, Training, and Retaining
Volunteers
Volunteers are the basic ingredient of a successful volunteer monitoring program.
These citizens bring more than just manpower to the monitoring program—they
also bring a passion to understand, protect, and/or restore the estuary. Trained
volunteers can serve an irreplaceable role as community educators as they
conduct their monitoring duties and share their knowledge with others.
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Photos (I to r): K. Register, E. Ely, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy
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4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers
Overview
Not surprisingly, volunteers are the basic ingredient of a successful volunteer
monitoring program. These citizens bring more than just manpower to the
monitoring program—they also bring a passion to understand, protect, and/or
restore the estuary. Trained volunteers can serve an irreplaceable role as
community educators as they conduct their monitoring duties and share their
knowledge with others.
Although states monitor water quality and other environmental parameters of
estuaries, there are limits to the coverage they can provide. Volunteers can
supplement this work by monitoring in areas where officials are not sampling.
State officials can then use this information to screen for areas of possible
contamination, habitat loss, or other conditions that impact the health of the
estuary.
This chapter discusses how to recruit, train, and retain top-notch volunteers.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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4; Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
Recruiting Volunteers
As you recruit volunteers, it is helpful to
understand what motivates people to donate
their time and energy to a volunteer effort.
Citizens may commit not only because of
their conviction in the merits of the cause, but
also because they will personally benefit from
the experience. Many people volunteer for
service reasons; they believe in the cause and
want to help. Others hope for new friendships
and enjoy the social interaction with like-
minded individuals. People are also interested
in personal and career growth, and enjoy
meaningful work that gives them new skills
and knowledge.
In addition to reasons why people initially
volunteer for a project, there are important
reasons why they continue with the program
year after year—recognition, respect, and a
sense of accomplishment. Volunteers must
feel that their efforts are appreciated and
recognized, that the group respects their skills,
and that their work produces results. Keep
these motivational factors in mind as you
create your recruitment materials and as you
develop a plan to recognize the efforts of
long-term volunteers.
Before you recruit volunteers, you must first
know how many the program requires in its
"start-up" phase. For example, if you have
enough monitoring equipment for 10 teams of
volunteers and each team is to be comprised of
2 or 3 people, then your recruitment goal
should be 20 to 30 volunteers. Some programs
start with a small number of people who are
invited personally to serve as volunteer
monitors. Later, as the program grows and
needs more assistance, all interested citizens
can be invited to join the effort.
A first step in finding volunteers is to
identify all organizations and individuals in
the area who might want to participate in the
project. Likely groups include civic associa-
tions, watershed associations, environmental
advocacy groups, and government agencies.
Individuals interested in volunteering might
be waterfront property owners or commercial
and recreational users of the estuary. Retired
citizens and disabled individuals can make
outstanding volunteers. Schools in the
watershed are also potential sources of
volunteers. Speak with teachers at local
elementary, middle, and high schools,
community colleges, and universities.
Strive to recruit volunteers from a wide
range of backgrounds. This diversity helps
establish the credibility of the program,
ensures cooperation within the community,
and provides the bonus of educating a greater
variety of citizens in the community.
Certain types of individuals or groups may
be more suitable than others for your
particular project. If a primary goal of your
monitoring program is education, then
integrating students and youth groups into
your program will help meet that goal.
However, if your goal is year-round data
collection using expensive and precise
equipment, retired citizens may be more
suitable and reliable. Some programs report a
failure to integrate students and youth groups
into long-term monitoring programs because
of the commitment required and the need for
summertime sampling.
Many towns and cities have volunteer
centers or "hotlines" which serve to connect
potential volunteers with programs. Inquire
with towns located within the monitoring area
to see if such volunteer centers exist. Other
ways to reach potential volunteers are through
your program Web site or sites managed by
local communities. Local newspapers often
will publish a "call for volunteers" as a
community service.
A press release to local newspapers is an
effective method to let the public know of
your need for volunteers. See Chapter 3 for
information on working with the media to
publicize your program and its need for
volunteers. An attractive brochure or flier
describing the overall volunteer monitoring
program can also be an effective recruitment
tool.
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers
Whether you promote by using a press
release, brochure, or other method, be sure to
include information on the objectives of the
program and describe the benefits to the
volunteer and to the estuary. Also explain
what will be expected of recruits. Potential
volunteers will need to know:
• monitoring site locations;
• project duration and length of
commitment required;
• sampling frequency;
• required equipment (e.g., car, boat,
sampling gear, etc.); and
• volunteer qualifications, if any (keep in
mind that setting specific volunteer
qualifications will limit participation in
the program, possibly below an
effective minimum level).
Short slide presentations that describe the
program and show some of the sampling
equipment and techniques can be a very
effective recruitment tool. This will make it
easier for potential volunteers to determine if
they would be interested in volunteering and
if they are capable of carrying out the
activities requested of them. •
Training Volunteers
A successful monitoring program requires
well-trained volunteers. Few other aspects of
the program are more important, so adequate
time and money should be budgeted annually.
Without volunteer training, usable, high-quality
data cannot be obtained and volunteers will
soon grow frustrated. Proper training provides
the common ground necessary for a well-
designed and scientifically valid data collection
effort. Your program's volunteer coordinator
plays an important, key role in the success of
the entire effort.
Training citizen volunteers is time
consuming and demanding. Nevertheless,
successful training sessions are key to a long-
term and effective monitoring program. It is
well worth the effort to devote this time to the
volunteers.
Introductory training ensures that all
volunteers learn to collect and analyze
samples in a consistent manner. This training
will also introduce new volunteers to the
program and its objectives, and will create a
positive social climate for the volunteers.
Such a climate enhances the exchange of
information among participants and the
volunteer coordinator. Training provides the
volunteer with the critical
information necessary to "do the
job right."
Continuing education and
retraining sessions, in which the
volunteer coordinator reintroduces
standard methodologies and
presents new information,
equipment, data results, or
informative seminars, are also
extremely useful. Such sessions:
• reinforce proper procedures;
• correct sloppy or imprecise
techniques;
• facilitate resolution of
equipment or logistics
problems;
• allow volunteers to ask
questions after familiarizing
themselves with the field
techniques;
• encourage a "team effort"
attitude;
• make experienced volunteers feel
integral to the program by encouraging
A volunteer collects a sample for
bacteria testing. Practicing sampling
techniques in the field is an effective
way to reinforce what is learned in
the classroom (photo by E. Ely).
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
Volunteers receive sampling
instructions aboard a boat in
California's Los Angeles River
(photo by R. Ohrel).
Sample Job Description: Volunteer Monitoring Coordinator
The Volunteer Monitoring Coordinator has the following responsibilities:
• In consultation with state agency personnel and other interested parties,
determine which waterbodies and which parameters in these waterbodies
will be monitored.
• Recruit volunteers for each project. This will involve contacting interested
groups, elected officials, and possibly businesses and industries in the area.
• Make arrangements for a place to conduct a training session and arrange a
time to suit a majority of volunteer monitors. Train any volunteers who are
unable to attend the training session.
• Keep in close touch with individuals at the beginning of project. Answer
any questions volunteers may have. Read over each data sheet as it comes
in and contact any monitors who seem to be having trouble. Send refill
reagents and replacement equipment upon request.
• If required, enter all data in a suitable computer filing system. Carry out
documentation and verification on the data. Provide plots of data to
monitors and to data users. Carry out preliminary data interpretation. (Other
staff or volunteers may carry out these management activities. If so, the
volunteer monitoring coordinator will assume an advisory role.)
• Provide feedback to participants and data to users. This will involve writing
progress reports and articles for publication in the program newsletter.
• Plan for and carry out quality control sessions.
• Prepare quarterly reports for the sponsoring agency.
(Excerpted and adapted from USEPA, 1990.)
them to supply valuable feedback to the
instructors; and
• provide educational opportunities to the
participants.
Volunteer training can be divided into three
broad categories. Each has a different
purpose, but together they should complement
one another and make the training program
well-rounded.
The categories are:
• introductory training to describe the
program, teach standard methods, and
motivate the volunteers;
• quality assurance and quality control
(OA/OC) training to ensure consistency
and reliability of data collection; and
• motivational sessions that encourage
information exchange, identify
problems, and provide a social
atmosphere for participants.
Although the different sessions will vary in
content, the procedures necessary to present
the material are fairly constant. Volunteer
training may be broken down into five
separate steps, which are described below.
Step 1: Describing the Volunteers' Duties
Prior to citizen involvement, the program
manager must develop a detailed blueprint of
each volunteer monitoring task. This "job
description" spells out in sufficient detail
every step a volunteer must complete to col-
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers
lect data for each parameter.
The job description standardizes the data col-
lection process and ensures that each volunteer
samples in a consistent and acceptable manner.
Consistency allows for comparisons of one sec-
tion of an estuary to another section or between
estuaries. Additionally, when the sampling
methods are consistent, managers can more eas-
ily identify data outside the norm and evaluate
whether they result from unusual conditions or
faulty collection techniques.
There are some critical questions that need to
be answered as you create standard operating
procedures (SOPs), or written protocols to be
used by the volunteers for each parameter that
your program will monitor. The questions
include what water quality parameters are to be
tested and what level of quality is required for
each parameter sampled. These questions are
discussed in detail in Chapters 3, 5, and 6.
Many programs provide their volunteers with
a handbook or manual that has been written
specifically for their program and details the
program SOPs. This written description pro-
vides each volunteer with a readily available
reference that clearly describes how to sample
while serving as a reminder of the correct
methodology. Additionally, it helps to minimize
the number of times the volunteer coordinator
has to answer the same questions. Throughout
the handbook, safety should be stressed (see
Chapter 7 for information on volunteer safety).
The handbook should include the steps for
each sampling task. Many of the sampling pro-
tocols summarized in this manual are suitable
as basic task descriptions. The author of your
program handbook can excerpt the descriptions
from these chapters and embellish them with
information unique to your program and its data
collection tools and methods. A separate proto-
col should be drafted for each major parameter
being measured.
Volunteer coordinators can also use their
handbook to:
• recruit new volunteers;
• evaluate the ability of volunteers to
complete the monitoring tasks
accurately; and
• assist new programs
in developing their
own protocols.
Writing the monitoring
tasks provides volunteer
coordinators with the
opportunity to fully
evaluate the job at hand
and improve potentially
troublesome areas. Once
the handbook is com-
pleted, volunteer coordinators and a few
volunteers should test and refine the protocols
under field conditions. Volunteer coordinators
and key volunteers should reevaluate the
handbook regularly—especially as the
monitoring program expands to include more
environmental parameters.
Step 2: Planning the Training
With a completed volunteer handbook,
training sessions can be designed. Usually,
programs will find that group sessions are the
most cost-effective means of training the
volunteers. In some situations, however,
individual instruction may be the only feasible
option.
Group sessions are preferred for all training
classes because they are generally
inexpensive, efficient, encourage interaction
among the volunteers, and foster enthusiasm
for the program. The training sessions should
be scheduled according to the needs and
availability of your volunteers. If your
volunteers are mainly people who work
during the day, schedule training sessions in
the evenings or weekends. A better option
would be to offer a variety of training times
and let your volunteers pick the time that fits
best into their schedules.
Training sessions are also the ideal time to
outfit each new volunteer with a complete set
of the required sampling equipment.
Established volunteers may require additional
equipment, blank data sheets, and refills of
the reagents for their analysis kits.
Volunteers review laboratory techniques (photo
by The Ocean Conservancy).
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
Training Sessions
A training session agenda should include:
• A presentation on goals and objectives of the project. The presentation should include
the reasons for monitoring, historical information on the estuary, the problems it faces,
expected uses of the volunteer data, and how the project will benefit volunteers, the
community, and the state. Let volunteers know how the monitoring program will make
differences in the region and throughout the watershed.
• A review of what is expected of the participants including how long the training
session will last and the proposed length of the entire volunteer effort.
• Distribution of all equipment, a general explanation of its use, and a discussion of what
equipment is particularly fragile, what constitutes equipment abuse, the replacement
policy and cost, and the return of equipment at the end of the project.
• A thorough overview of all necessary safety requirements.
• An overview of the monitoring procedures, preferably with an accompanying slide
show.
• A demonstration of proper use of monitoring equipment and sampling techniques. The
trainer should demonstrate the proper methods and then circulate among the
participants as they practice the procedures.
• An overview of proper preparation of samples for shipment.
(Excerpted and adapted from Ellett, 1993.)
A volunteer coordinator reviews instructions
with a team of volunteers (photo by
K. Register).
If each volunteer is
expected to monitor many
parameters, the instructor
may need to schedule more
than one session. Too much
information presented at a
single session may
overwhelm and eventually
discourage the volunteers.
Training volunteers for
field sampling ideally takes
place in the field. Group
field trips, either for
advanced training or special educational
sessions, are wonderful means of motivating
volunteers while teaching them additional
skills. Furthermore, problems that might not
arise during training conditions in a classroom
may emerge under less predictable field
conditions. Most volunteers are quite
enthusiastic about getting onto the water or
seeing a new area of the estuary and they
often approach their sampling with renewed
enthusiasm after participating in a field trip.
When volunteers live over a widely
scattered area, require assistance for a special
problem, or are unable to attend a group
session because of work or family obligations,
a volunteer coordinator may need to meet
with them individually. One-on-one training is
certainly more time consuming and
expensive, but it allows the instructor to focus
on the particular problems or needs of a single
volunteer. In return, this individual attention
may help maintain the volunteer's dedication
to the program.
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers
Understanding Adults as Learners
Unlike schoolchildren who are trained by adult teachers, adults require a different tact when
it comes to education. If some or all of your program volunteers are adults, then the trainer
needs to appreciate the learning process for adults and design training programs accordingly.
Four pertinent characteristics of adult learners are listed below, accompanied by suggested
ways to address them during the training process.
• Adults are mature and need to control their learning.
Traditional classroom learning gives the teacher the power while the student is passive,
but adult training should allow the students to have a key role in directing the learning
process. When beginning a training session, present your objectives and session agenda to
the volunteers. Give them an opportunity to discuss and adjust the plan. Get to know your
volunteers before or during the training. Find out why they are participating in the
monitoring program and try to design their "job" to satisfy their interests.
• Adult learning requires a climate that is collaborative, respectful, mutual,
and informal.
Adults bring vast personal experiences to the learning process. It is essential that the
trainer recognize and use this experience. Minimize lectures. Retention is increased when
we become actively involved in the learning process. Training sessions should be paced to
allow time for volunteers to hear about the monitoring program, perform the techniques
themselves, and then reflect on the learning by asking and answering questions. Provide
opportunities for group work. Use your experienced volunteers to mentor newer
volunteers. Reinforce your instruction by designing problem-solving exercises for groups
to work on. Traditional classroom teaching assumes that students learn well by listening,
reading, and writing, but in reality people have a variety of learning styles. Some people
learn best through logic and problem solving; others prefer to learn through pictures,
charts, and maps. Some work best on their own, while others work best in groups.
Learning styles are very individualized, and group exercises can be designed to provide a
variety of learning environments. Encourage volunteers to share experiences and
expertise, and provide them with additional learning materials.
• Adults need to test their learning as they go along, rather than receive background
theory and general information.
Adults need clear connections between content and application so that they can anticipate
how they will use their learning. Start your training session with kits and techniques, and
save the lecture on ecology for later. Let them know how their data will be used, and ask
them what they think needs to be done to improve the estuary. Have them discuss how the
monitoring will help them achieve project and personal goals. Provide time in the training
to discuss how the volunteers will use their new knowledge. Remember that when
volunteers are in the field, curious onlookers may ask them questions about what they are
doing and why. Use role-playing to build their confidence so that they can educate their
communities about the resources they are monitoring. Use other volunteers as trainers,
and provide opportunities for volunteers to take on new challenges.
(continued)
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
(Understanding Adults . . . continued)
• Adults expect performance improvements to result from their learning.
Adult learning needs to be clearly focused in the present and be "problem centered" rather
than "subject centered." Help volunteers evaluate your training and their own
performance. Train volunteers in groups. Encourage them to set goals for themselves and
then mentor each other to achieve those goals.
(Excerpted and adapted from Kerr, 1997.)
Step 3: Presenting the Training
A well-conceived plan for instruction along
with simple handouts is key to a useful
training presentation. Instructors should make
the most effective use of participants' time.
Volunteers, like most students, appreciate a
well-organized and smoothly paced class.
Four major steps constitute an effective and
lively training session: preparation,
presentation, demonstration, and review.
Preparation
Preparation for class is critical. The
sampling protocols provide a basic framework
for the initial training session. With the basic
information in hand, the instructor must then
tailor the lesson to the audience. The
instructor should try to anticipate those
portions of the lesson that may cause
confusion and be prepared to clarify these
areas. Volunteers should be invited to ask
questions throughout the session.
Instructors should make appropriate use of
audiovisual materials to enhance the
presentation. All equipment should be in the
room at the start of the session, in good
working condition, and ready for use. Slides
of the estuary and of volunteers in action are
a good teaching device and tend to hold an
audience's attention.
Presentation
Knowing the material thoroughly and
having the information well-organized are
critical to an effective presentation. Ensure a
successful session by using these tips:
• Be enthusiastic about the subject!
Enthusiasm inspires dedication.
• Establish a good rapport with the
audience.
• Get the audience involved in the talk
and keep the presentation lively.
• Utilize visual aids.
• Speak loudly enough to be heard
throughout the room and enunciate
clearly.
• Be humorous.
• Use eye contact.
• Encourage questions and comments.
• Use anecdotes throughout the
presentation.
• Maintain good posture and positive
body language.
Volunteers with no background in science
may require additional explanation or
assistance so that they understand the
importance of high quality data collection
methods and the proper use of scientific
equipment. Although separate sessions for
experienced and untrained volunteers are
preferable, some instructors may elect to have
a single session with experienced volunteers
helping those who are new to the program.
If the pace drags because one or two
volunteers are slow, the rest of the volunteers
may quickly become annoyed and bored.
Slower students may require individualized
attention at a later date.
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4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers
Demonstration
Two types of demonstration are effective
training tools: one in which the instructor
shows the techniques to the volunteers and
another in which the students practice the
outlined procedures under the watchful eye of
the instructor. An effective teacher can
incorporate both into a training session.
The instructor should demonstrate the
sampling protocols. Viewing the execution of
a procedure is more meaningful than simply
reading the instructions. Once the volunteers
are familiar with the techniques, they can then
repeat the procedures under the tutelage of the
instructor. These practice sessions can take
place in the field or classroom and give
volunteers the confidence to transfer these
newly learned skills to their own monitoring
site.
Review
A good learning session should end with a
review of the material. Summarizing
reinforces the salient points and assists the
volunteers in retaining the information. As in
the training exercise, volunteers should be
invited to ask questions during the review. At
the close of the session, the instructor can
inform participants about upcoming events
and future training opportunities and reiterate
the importance of citizen monitoring and data
collection.
Step 4: Evaluating the Training
High quality data reflect successful
volunteer training. To ensure that the sessions
are effective and successful, include written
evaluations as an integral part of the training
process. While an instructor may feel that the
sessions are adequate, only the volunteers
know how much they have learned and
retained.
Evaluation of the training should include an
assessment of:
• training techniques and style;
• information presented;
• classroom atmosphere; and
• use of handouts and audiovisual aids.
Volunteers may provide feedback at the end
of the sessions. The true test of an effective
session, however, is how well the volunteers
perform in the field. A follow-up evaluation
form, sent to participants after a few weeks of
sampling, may pinpoint any weaknesses in the
presentation.
Members of the monitoring program may
also want to accompany volunteers into the
field and examine their sampling techniques
as they work unassisted. Such spot checks can
identify areas in which the volunteers are
encountering difficulties. It is important to
explain to volunteers that these observation
sessions are an important part of the quality
control that is needed for high quality data.
If large numbers of volunteers are
experiencing problems in carrying out the
sampling protocols, you may want to revise
the format of the training sessions or have a
new instructor take over. The evaluation
process should be ongoing to ensure that all
the sessions consistently meet a high standard.
Step 5: Follow-Up Training/Providing
Motivation and Feedback
While the initial training sessions are
designed to give volunteers all the basic skills
to successfully complete their sampling,
training does not stop there. Follow-up
advanced training sessions, either through
one-on-one interaction or with a group of
volunteers, is imperative to keep volunteers
enthusiastic, motivated, and collecting good
data. In some monitoring programs, volunteer
coordinators conduct site visits shortly after
the training session in order to spend time
with each volunteer personally. In addition to
building a closer relationship between the
volunteer and the coordinator, these visits can
answer questions about the monitoring
protocol.
One focus for advanced training sessions
should be quality control (QC), which is
extremely important in all monitoring
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4; Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
programs. The challenge of volunteer
program managers is to carry out QC
exercises that assess the precision and
accuracy of the data being collected, but are
also fun and interesting for the volunteers.
Experienced volunteer coordinators
recommend turning these quality control
sessions into educational and social
opportunities for the volunteers, while making
sure that volunteers understand why QC is
important. For more on QC, see Chapter 5.
The first QC session should be held about
3-4 months after sampling begins to make
sure that all monitors are sampling and
analyzing in a consistent fashion and to
answer any questions. Thereafter, two QC
sessions should be held each year if sampling
goes on year-round. If sampling is carried out
on a seasonal basis, training sessions for new
monitors and retraining for program veterans
can be held at the beginning of the sampling
period, with a QC session scheduled for the
middle of the season.
Volunteers should be expected to attend all
scheduled sessions. If a volunteer cannot
attend at least one session a year, the
volunteer coordinator (or a trained assistant)
should make a site visit and evaluate the
sampling procedures of the volunteer.
Quality control exercises should be as
interesting as possible. As two options,
attendees can:
• carry out the tests on the same water
sample with their own equipment the
way they do it at their site, filling out
and submitting a data collection form
with their results; or
• read and record results from previously
set up laboratory equipment and kits,
similar to a classroom laboratory
practical exam.
Data collection forms with the recorded
results are submitted independently. The
results can then be compared to determine
bias. Results from these sessions also measure
how well the group members perform and
how precisely they measure the characteristics
and constituents required.
In addition to ongoing training sessions that
stress quality control, monitoring programs
should offer individualized training to
volunteers who require it. Though less time
efficient than training a group of people, it has
many other benefits. For example, an
individual session:
• permits the volunteer to ask questions
particular to a site;
• allows the instructor to solve specific
problems in the field;
• indicates to the volunteer that his/her
data are important;
• gives the instructor feedback on training
effectiveness;
• enhances communication between the
volunteer coordinator and the volunteer;
• motivates the volunteer; and
• provides a forum for introducing new
methods.
Continuous communication with volunteers
is critical. In addition to going into the field
with specific volunteers, the volunteer
coordinator should also consider phoning
other volunteers who may not require face-to-
face contact. A phone call lets volunteers
know that the volunteer coordinator is
interested in their progress and gives them an
opportunity to ask questions. Informal
gatherings, such as potluck dinners and slide
shows, also give volunteer coordinators an
opportunity to check on the progress of the
participants and answer questions.
Newsletters or updates by way of e-mail are
also excellent ways to keep volunteers
informed.
The success of the program is highly
dependent on maintaining volunteer
motivation and enthusiasm. An apathetic
volunteer will likely not collect good data and
may drop out of the program. The next
section provides suggestions for retaining
volunteers. •
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Backup Monitors
A program should have a backup monitor policy in place to assure data collection continuity.
A backup volunteer can sample at a site when the primary monitor is sick, on vacation, or
for some other reason unable to sample.
The backup should be trained as rigorously as the primary volunteer so that the data meet
high quality standards. Many programs have strict backup policies in place, with
requirements similar to the following:
• The backup monitor must be trained by the volunteer coordinator and attend a
minimum of one quality control session every six months.
• The backup volunteer must be familiar with all the sites that he or she will monitor.
• The backup may monitor at any site but must use the proper data sheet and the kit
assigned to the primary volunteer of the site.
Retaining Volunteers
Finding qualified volunteers and training
them takes work, so losing volunteers on a
regular basis can be a drain on resources.
Your group should have a plan to ensure that
volunteers continue to feel that supporting
your efforts are worth their time. Show them
that the benefits of volunteering outweigh the
costs. Satisfied volunteers will become
advocates for your mission and will help
recruit additional support. Successful
monitoring programs devote significant
resources to activities designed to motivate
their volunteers.
Communicate
Keep direct lines of communication open at
all times using the telephone, personal
memos, and/or some form of newsletter.
Some monitoring groups use e-mail or Web
sites to keep volunteers informed. Be easily
accessible for questions and requests. Give
volunteers a phone number where they can
always leave a message, then respond to calls
promptly. Ask for their advice on general
administrative issues, bring them into the
proofreading process, and help them develop
a sense of shared ownership of the program.
Recognize the Effort
Give volunteers praise and recognition—it
is the psychological equivalent of a salary!
Recognize their accomplishments through
awards, letters of appreciation, publicity, and
certificates. If at all possible, recognize the
expertise of experienced volunteers by
encouraging them to shoulder increased
responsibilities such as becoming team
leaders or coordinators, carrying out more
advanced tests, or helping with data analyses.
Also, as you keep the local media abreast of
the findings of the monitoring effort, be sure
to include the names of key volunteers.
Offer Educational Opportunities
Provide volunteers with educational
opportunities so that they can continue to
"grow." Have meetings and regular
workshops where guest speakers can explain
environmental sampling techniques or provide
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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
information on environmental policies
pertinent to the sampling effort.
Use the Data Your Volunteers Collect
Nothing discourages volunteers more than
seeing that their data are not being used.
Simple analyses and attractive displays of
volunteer data should be prepared and sent to
volunteers as well as to the data users. A Web
site is an excellent place to present volunteer
data.
Keep volunteers informed about all uses of
their data. If they are contributing to a long-
term database, prepare annual data summaries
showing the current condition of the estuary
compared to its previous condition. If the data
are used for acute problem identification, send
the volunteers information on areas where
problems have been identified. If the data are
being used to supplement state reports, send
volunteers copies of the report. These actions
will foster continued interest in the program
and serve to educate and inform the
volunteers about the conditions of the estuary.
For more information on using data, see
Chapter 8.
Be Flexible, Open, and Realistic
Start with a small program that you can
easily handle. Synchronize the monitoring
period to coincide with the period you can
commit to supporting the volunteers. When
starting a program, be frank about the chances
for continued support and inform the group if
resources disappear, or might disappear soon.
Work with the strengths and interests of your
volunteers and search for ways to make the
most of your available resources. Talk with
volunteer coordinators of similar programs
elsewhere to learn new ways to handle
obstacles. •
Tips on Volunteer Motivation and Incentives
Successful monitoring programs have developed many methods to motivate both new and
long-term volunteers. The following are tips and hints for increasing volunteer participation
and keeping volunteers motivated:
• Remember that you are competing with other organizations for volunteers
and their time.
• Volunteers need a sense of fulfillment. Match volunteer interests and skills with
appropriate jobs. Invite top volunteers to take on leadership responsibilities.
Experienced volunteers can become "captains" to help with training and organization.
Create different "layers" of volunteers.
• Make person-to-person contact.
• Make it easy.
• Make it fun (for example, send a thank-you note saying, "You are a lifesaver!"
and include some Lifesavers candy).
• If recruiting volunteers from schools or colleges, the key is getting a committed
teacher to help coordinate.
• Tell volunteers "what's in it for them." Inform them about local water quality problems
and their ownership in the problems/solutions. Show the human connection, and how
their efforts are helping to solve problems.
(continued)
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(Tips. . . continued)
• Present certificates to volunteers when they complete technical training in
monitoring procedures.
• Be prepared for your volunteers. Have training sessions organized and
equipment ready.
• Don't sign up volunteers if you don't have work or equipment for them.
• Recruit and train backup volunteers. Some programs recommend having three
volunteers per team, plus backup volunteers.
• Re-certify volunteers every year.
• Get emergency contact information for all volunteers.
• Recognize that volunteers know their communities. Encourage them to share what
they have learned with schools, press, etc.
• Conduct regular orientation and training sessions.
• Know that some volunteers have skills beyond serving as monitors (e.g., graphic
design, public relations, making other contacts). Ask them what other talents they
would be willing to share.
• Have your own liability waivers and keep in mind that some state parks, etc. require
that their waivers also be signed. (See Chapter 3 for more information on waivers.)
• Keep equipment in backpacks, boxes, or fabric tote-bags for volunteers to use.
• Build into your volunteer program the capacity for feedback and true volunteer
involvement.
• Reward volunteers after work sessions, sampling seasons, or other milestones with
a party or other celebration, canoe trips, certificates, etc.
• Show volunteers and board members the impact their efforts have made by taking
them on boat trips or field trips.
• Some communities sponsor awards, banquets, and other events to recognize
outstanding volunteers. Nominate your volunteers for these honors.
• Thank the volunteers, then thank them again.
(Excerpted and adapted from Calesso, 1999; Closson, 1999;Davies, 1999; Fitzgibbons, 1999; Gerosa,
1999; and Sims, 1999.)
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4; Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers.
References and Further Reading
Portions of this and from:
Ellett, K. 1993. Introduction to Water Quality Monitoring Using Volunteers. 2nd ed. Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay, Baltimore, MD. 26 pp.
Ken, M. 1997. "Designing Effective Adult Training." In: Proceedings of Fifth 'National Volunteer
Monitoring Conference—Promoting Watershed Stewardship. Aug. 3-7, 1996. University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Madison, WI. EPA Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-97-007.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/momtoring/vol.htnl
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A (hade for
State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
Other
Calesso. D. 1999. "'Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.'" In: Meeting Notes—U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16. 1999.
Closson, J. 1999. "Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives:' In: Meeting Notes—U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Ccntcr for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Cook, J.S. 1989. The Elements ofSpeechwriting and Public Speaking. MacMillan Publishing
Company. New York. 242 pp.
Davies, B. 1999. '"Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives." In: Meeting Notes—U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Ccntcr for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Ely, E. 1992. "Training and Testing Volunteers." The Volunteer Monitor 4(2): 3-4.
Fitzgibbons, J. 1999. "Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives." In: Meeting Notes—U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.
Gcrosa, A. 1999. "Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives." In: Meeting Notes—U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of (he Future. San Pedro, CA: February 22-24, 1999.
Sims. G. 1999. "Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives." In: Meeting Notes—U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods
Manual EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 121 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Proceedings of Fifth'National Volunteer
Monitoring Conference-Promoting Watershed Stewardship. Aug. 3-7, 1996. University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Madison, WI. EPA Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-97-007.
Web site: http ://www.epa.gov/owow/nionitoring/vol.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods
Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
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Quality Assurance Project Planning
While information about an estuary's health is valuable, many government
agencies, universities, and other groups are reluctant to use volunteer data.
Why? Volunteer monitoring organizations sometimes overlook a critical fact:
reliable data means everything. Unless data are collected and analyzed using
acceptable methods, potential users are less likely to employ the data. A quality
assurance project plan (QAPP) is vital to overcoming this obstacle.
-------
Photos (I tor): Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Science Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
While information about an estuary's health is valuable, many government
agencies, universities, and other groups are reluctant to use volunteer data. Why?
Volunteer monitoring organizations sometimes overlook a critical fact: reliable
data means everything. Unless data are collected and analyzed using acceptable
methods, potential users are less likely to employ the data. A quality assurance
project plan (QAPP) is vital to overcoming this obstacle.
This chapter examines the elements of a QAPP. In the process, it reviews basic
concepts that must be understood before developing any QAPP.
For comprehensive instructions and useful examples for creating a QAPP, along
with a sample QAPP form, the reader should refer to The Volunteer Monitor's
Guide to Quality Assurance Project Plans (USEPA, 1996).
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
The Importance of High Quality Data
Although the goals and objectives of
volunteer projects vary greatly, virtually all
volunteers hope to educate themselves and
others about water quality problems and
thereby promote a sense of stewardship for
the environment. Many projects, in fact,
establish these as their goals. Such projects
might be called primarily education-oriented.
Other projects seek a more active role in the
management of local water resources and
therefore strive to collect data that can be
used in making water quality management
decisions. Common uses of volunteer data
might include local planning decisions (e.g.,
identifying where to route a highway); local
priority setting (e.g., determining which
seagrass beds require restoration); screening
for potential pollution problems (which might
then be investigated more thoroughly by
water quality agencies); and providing data
for state water quality reports (which might
then be used for statewide or national priority
setting). Projects doing this type of
monitoring are called primarily Jato-oriented.
One of the most difficult issues facing data-
oriented volunteer monitoring programs today
is data credibility. Some potential users of
volunteer data mistakenly believe that only
professionally trained scientists can conduct
sampling and produce accurate and useful
results. Potential data users are often skeptical
about volunteer data—they may have doubts
about the goals and objectives of the project;
how volunteers were trained; how samples
were collected, handled, and stored; or how
data were analyzed and reports written. Given
proper training and supervision, however,
dedicated volunteers CAN collect high
quality data that is:
• consistent over time throughout the
project's duration, regardless of how
many different monitors are involved in
collecting the data;
• collected and analyzed using
standardized and acceptable techniques;
and
• comparable to data collected in other
assessments using the same methods.
The quality assurance project plan is a key
tool in breaking down this barrier of
skepticism. •
What Is a Quality Assurance Project Plan?
The QAPP is a document that outlines the
procedures necessary to ensure that collected
and analyzed data meet project requirements.
It serves not only to convince skeptical data
users about the quality of the project's
findings, but also to record methods, goals,
and project implementation steps for current
and future volunteers and for those who may
wish to use the project's data over time.
Volunteer monitoring projects must adopt
protocols that are straightforward enough for
volunteers to master, yet sophisticated enough
to generate data of value for resource
managers. This delicate and difficult path
cannot be successfully navigated without a
QAPP that details a project's standard
operating procedures (SOPs) in the field and
lab, outlines project organization, and
addresses issues such as training
requirements, instrument calibration, and
internal checks on how data are collected,
analyzed, and reported. Just how detailed
such a plan needs to be depends to a large
extent on the goals of the volunteer
monitoring project. For example, if you want
to use your data to screen for problems so that
you can alert water quality agencies, you may
need only a basic plan. If, however, you want
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
your data to support enforcement, guide
policy decisions, or survive courtroom
scrutiny, then a detailed plan is essential
(Mattson, 1992).
Developing a QAPP is a dynamic,
interactive process that should ideally involve
quality assurance experts, potential data users,
and members of the volunteer monitoring
project team. The process is most effective
when all participants fully contribute their
talents to the effort, know their individual
responsibilities for developing the QAPP, and
understand the group's overall purpose and
goals.
While it is a challenging and somewhat
difficult process, the successful development
and institution of a QAPP can be extremely
rewarding. This chapter encourages and
facilitates the development of volunteer
estuary QAPPs by presenting explanations
and examples. Readers are urged to consult
the resources listed at the end of this chapter
and to contact their state or U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
regional quality assurance staff for specific
information or guidance on their projects. •
Why Develop a QAPP?
The QAPP is an invaluable planning and
operating tool that should be developed in the
early stages of the volunteer monitoring
project.
Any monitoring program sponsored by EPA
through grants, contracts, or other formal
agreement must have an approved QAPP. The
purpose of this requirement is to ensure that
the data collected by monitoring projects are
of known and suitable quality and quantity.
Even if a volunteer monitoring project does
not receive financial support from government
agencies, the coordinating group should still
consider developing a QAPP. This is
especially true if it is a data-oriented project
and seeks to have its information used by
state, federal, or local resource managers. Few
water quality agencies will use volunteer data
unless methods of data collection, storage,
and analysis have been documented.
Clear and concise documentation of
procedures also allows newcomers to the
project to quickly become familiar with the
monitoring, using the same methods as those
who came before them. This is particularly
important to a volunteer project that may see
volunteers come and go, but intends to
establish a baseline of water quality
information that can be compared over time.
Finally, written procedures in a QAPP can
help ensure volunteer safety (Williams, 1999).
Field safety requirements can be made part of
standard operating practices, and proper
training for equipment operation—a key
element in any QAPP—takes user safety into
account. •
QAPPs and STORE!
An updated, user-friendly version of EPA's
national water and biological data storage
and retrieval system, STORET, is now
available. With STORET, volunteer
programs can "feed" data to a centralized
file server which permits national data
analyses and through which data can be
shared among organizations. A specific set of
quality control measures is required for any
data entered into the system to aid in data
sharing. For more information, see the EPA
Web page at www.epa.gov/storet.
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Basic Concepts
Inaccurate and Precise
Accurate and Precise
Accurate and Imprecise
Inaccurate and Imprecise
Figure 5-1. Accuracy
and precision.
The coordinator of a volunteer monitoring
program is likely to be involved in many
aspects of project planning, sample collection,
laboratory analysis, data review, and data
assessment. The coordinator should be
considering quality assurance and quality
control in every one of these steps.
Quality assurance (QA) refers to the
overall management system that includes the
organization, planning, data collection, quality
control, documentation, evaluation, and
reporting of your group's activities. QA
provides the information you need to ascertain
the quality of your data and whether it meets
the requirements of your project. It also
ensures that your data will meet defined
standards of quality with a stated level of
confidence.
Quality control (QC) pertains to the
routine technical activities in a project. The
purpose of QC is, essentially, error control.
Since errors can occur in the field, the
laboratory, or the office, QC must be part of
each of these functions and should include:
Internal quality control: a set of measures
that the project undertakes among its own
samplers and within its own lab to identify and
correct analytical errors. Examples include:
• lab analyst training and certification;
• proper equipment calibration and
documentation;
• laboratory analysis of samples with
known concentrations or repeated
analysis of the same sample; and
• collection and analysis of multiple
samples from the field.
External quality control: a set of measures
that involves both laboratories and people
outside of the program. Measures may
include:
• performance audits by outside
personnel;
• collection of samples by people outside
the program from a few of the same
sites and at the same time as the
volunteers; and
• splitting some of the samples for
analysis at another lab.
Together, QA and QC help you to produce
data of known quality, enhance the credibility
of your group in reporting monitoring results,
and ultimately save time and money.
However, a good QA/QC program is only
successful if everyone consents to follow it
and if all project components are available in
writing. The QAPP is the written record of
your QA/QC program.
When formulating a QAPP, several
measures will help to evaluate sources of
variability and error and thereby increase
confidence in the data. These measures are
precision, accuracy, representativeness,
completeness, comparability, and sensitivity.
Precision
Precision is the level of agreement among
repeated measurements of the same parameter
on the same sample or on separate samples
collected as close as possible in time and
place (Figure 5-1). It tells you how consistent
and reproducible your methods are by
showing how close your measurements are to
each other. It does not mean that the sample
results actually reflect the "true" value, but
rather that your sampling and analysis are
giving consistent results under similar
conditions.
Precision can be measured by calculating the
standard deviation, relative standard deviation
(RSD), or the relative percent difference
(RPD). Examples of each calculation are
shown in Tables 5-1, 5-2, and 5-3.
The standard deviation (Table 5-1) is used
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to describe the variability of your data points
around their average value. In case you're a
bit put off by the math in Table 5-1, you
might be happy to know that many calculators
can calculate standard deviation for you! Very
similar data values will have a small standard
deviation, while widely scattered data will
have a much larger standard deviation.
Therefore, a small standard deviation
indicates high data precision.
The RSD, or coefficient of variation (Table
5-2), expresses the standard deviation as a
percentage. This measurement is generally
easier for others to understand. Similar to
standard deviation, your measurements
become more precise as the RSD gets smaller.
When you have only two replicate samples,
determine precision by calculating the relative
percent difference (RPD) of the two samples
(Table 5-3). Again, the smaller the relative
percent difference, the more precise your
measurements will be.
Table 5-1. Example calculation of standard deviation. A low value for standard deviation indicates high precision
data. (Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)
The Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Project wants to determine the precision of its temperature
assessment procedure. They have taken 4 replicate samples:
Replicate 1 (X1) = 21.1°C
Replicate 2 (X2) = 21.1°C
Replicate 3 (X3) = 20.5°C
Replicate 4 (X4) = 20.0°C
To determine the Standard Deviation (S), use the following formula:
(X.-X)2
n-\
where X^ = measured value of the replicate; X = mean of replicate measurements; n = number
of replicates; and E = the sum of the calculations for each measurement value—in this case,
Xj through X4.
First, figure out the mean, or average, of the sample measurements. Mean = (Xj + X2 + X3 +
X4) -^ 4. In this example, the mean is equal to 20.68°C.
Then, for each sample measurement (Xj through X4), calculate the next part of the formula.
For Xj and X2, the calculation would look like this:
(21.1-20.68)2 = (-0.42)2 = 0.1764 = 0.0588
4-1 3 3
For X3, the calculation would be 0.0108; and for X4, it would be 0.1541.
Finally, add together the calculations for each measurement and find the square root of the
sum: 0.0588 + 0.0588 + 0.0108 + 0.1541 = 0.2825. The square root of 0.2825 is 0.5315.
So, the standard deviation for temperature is 0.532 (rounded off).
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Table 5-2. Example calculation of relative standard deviation (RSD). A low RSD value indicates high precision
data. (Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)
If we use the same measurements as in the standard deviation example (Table 5-1), we can
determine the Relative Standard Deviation (RSD), or coefficient of variation, using the
following formula:
X
where S = standard deviation, and X = mean of replicate samples.
We know that S = 0.5315 and that X = 20.68. So, the RSD = 2.57. This means that our
measurements deviate by about 2.57%.
Table 5-3. Example calculation of relative percent difference (RPD). A low RPD indicates high precision data.
(Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)
If the project had only two replicates (21.1 C and 20.5 C, for example), we would use the
Relative Percent Difference (RPD) to determine precision, using the following formula:
PJ,D - (X. - X2) x 100
(X, + X2) - 2
where Xj = the larger of the two values, and X2 = the smaller of the two values. In this
example, Xj = 21.1° and X2 = 20.5°. The calculation would look like this:
(21.1 -20.5)x 100 = 60.00 = 2.88
(21.1+20.5)-2 20.8
So, in this example, the RPD between our sample measurements is 2.88%.
Accuracy
Accuracy is a measure of confidence in a
measurement (Figure 5-1; Table 5-4). As the
difference between the measurement of a
parameter and its "true" or expected value
becomes smaller, the measurement becomes
more accurate. Repeated measurements that
result in values at or near the "true value"
would be considered accurate and precise.
Measurement accuracy can be determined
by comparing a sample that has a known
value, such as a standard reference material or
a performance evaluation sample, to a
volunteer's measurement of that sample.
Increasingly, however, some scientists,
especially those involved with statistical
analysis of measurement data, have begun to
use the term "bias" to reflect this error in the
measurement system and to use "accuracy" as
indicating both the degree of precision and
bias. For the purpose of this document, the
term "accuracy" will be used to describe how
close a measurement is to a standard value or
the true value.
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Table 5-4. Example calculations of accuracy. (Redrawn and adapted from USEPA, 1996.)
Attendance at QC training sessions is required for Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Project field
teams. In the field, monitors use a pH kit, which covers a full range of expected pH values.
During a recent training session, the monitors recorded the following results when testing a
pH standard buffer solution of 7.0 units:
7.5
7.4
6.7
7.2
6.8
7.3
6.5
7.2
6.8
7.0
7.4
7.2
In this example, the volunteer coordinator may wish to evaluate accuracy in two ways:
Group Accuracy
To determine the accuracy of the full group of volunteers, the coordinator can compare the
average of all sample values to the true value, according to the equation:
Group accuracy = average value-true value
In this case, the average of these measurements is equal to 7.08 units. Since we know that the
reference or "true" value is 7.0 units, the difference between the average pH value is "off or
biased by + 0.08 units. The volunteer program's QAPP should specify whether this level of
accuracy is satisfactory for the data quality objectives of the project.
Individual Accuracy
While the average pH value calculated above is 7.08 units, a quick scan reveals that several
measurements are up to 0.5 units from the true value. Such individual differences from the
true value may not fall within an acceptable limit of accuracy, but they are somewhat
"hidden" when the group accuracy is calculated. Simply calculating the group accuracy could
overlook particularly erroneous data that should be addressed.
To assess the accuracy of individual measurements, the coordinator should use the following
equation:
Individual accuracy = individual value -true value
The possible cause(s) of individual accuracy values that do not fall within the program's
QAPP should be determined and remedied.
For many parameters such as Secchi depth,
no standard reference or performance
evaluation samples exist. In these cases, the
trainer's results may be considered the
reference value to which the volunteer's
results are compared. This process will help
evaluate if the volunteer measurements are
biased as compared to the trainer's.
If you are monitoring biological conditions
by collecting and identifying specimens,
maintaining a voucher collection is a good
way to determine if your identification
procedures are accurate. The voucher
collection is a preserved archive of the
organisms that your volunteers have collected
and identified. An expert taxonomist can then
provide a "true" value by checking the
identification in the voucher collection. In
addition to preserved specimens, the
collection may involve photography or
microscopy.
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It is important to note that the relationship
between a voucher collection and accurate
identification cannot be expressed numerically
in your QAPP. Rather, the QAPP should
indicate that you have a voucher collection
and describe how it is used to evaluate
identification accuracy in your program.
Representativeness
Representativeness is the extent to which
measurements actually depict the true
environmental condition or population you are
evaluating. The questions asked in your
QAPP will be the guide for defining what
constitutes a representative sample.
A number of factors may affect the
representativeness of your data. Are your
sampling locations indicative of the
waterbody? Data collected just below a pipe
outfall, for example, is not representative of
an entire estuary. Similarly, a sample collected
in August is not representative of year-round
conditions. Other potential errors, such as lab
mistakes, data entry errors, or the use of the
wrong type of sample container, may also
affect data representativeness.
Completeness
Completeness is a measure of the number
of samples you must take to be able to use the
information, as compared to the number of
samples you originally planned to take. Since
there are many reasons why your volunteers
may not collect as many samples as planned
(e.g., equipment failure, weather-related
problems, sickness, faulty handling of the
samples), as a general rule you should try to
take more samples than you determine you
actually need. This issue should be discussed
with your QAPP team and by peer reviewers
before field activities begin.
Completeness requirements can be lowered
if extra samples are factored into the project.
The extra samples, in turn, increase the
likelihood of more representative data.
Completeness is usually expressed as a
percentage (Table 5-5), accounting for the
number of times that the volunteers did not
collect data. An 80-90 percent rate of
collection is usually acceptable.
Table 5-5. Example calculation of completeness. (Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)
The Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Project planned to collect 20 samples, but because of
volunteer illness and a severe storm, only 17 samples were actually collected. Furthermore,
of these, two samples were judged invalid because too much time elapsed between sample
collection and lab analysis. Thus, of the 20 samples planned, only 15 were judged valid.
The following formula is used to determine Percent Completeness (%C):
where v = the number of planned measurements judged valid, and T = the total number of
measurements.
In this example, v = 15 and T = 20. In this case, percent completeness would be 75 percent.
Notice that this percent completeness does not fall within the usually accepted range of 80-90
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Comparability
Comparability is the extent to which data
from one study can be compared directly to
either past data from the current project or data
from another study. For example, you may wish
to compare two seasons of summer data from
your project or compare your summer data set
to one collected ten years ago by state water
quality scientists. The key to data comparability
is to follow established protocols or standard
operating procedures. Comparing data also
requires you to consider the conditions under
which the samples were collected, including,
for example, the season, time of day, and adja-
cent land uses.
Using standardized sampling and analytical
methods, units of reporting, and site selection
procedures helps ensure comparability.
However, it is important to keep in mind that
some types of monitoring rely heavily on best
professional judgment and that standard meth-
ods may not always exist.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the capability of a
method or instrument to discriminate between
different measurement levels. The more sensi-
tive a method is. the better able it is to detect
lower concentrations of a water quality vari-
able.
Sensitivity is related to detection limit, the
lowest concentration of a given pollutant that
your methods or equipment can detect and
report as greater than zero. Readings that fall
below the detection limit are too unreliable to
use in your data set. Furthermore, as readings
approach the detection limit (i.e., as they go
from higher, easier-to-detect concentrations to
lower, harder-to-detect concentrations), they
become less and less reliable. Manufacturers
generally provide detection limit information
with their high-grade monitoring equipment,
such as meters; however, volunteer groups
should test the equipment themselves—using
standards of progressively lower concentra-
tions—to understand where the meter or
method begins to have unacceptable accuracy.
Preassembled monitoring kits also usually
come with information indicating the mea-
surement range that applies. The measure-
ment range is the range of reliable measure-
ments of an instrument or measuring device.
For example, you might purchase a kit that is
capable of detecting pH between 6.1 and 8.1.
If acidic conditions (below 6.0) are a problem
in the waters you are monitoring, you will
need to use a kit or meter that is sensitive to
the lower pH readings.
Because all projects have different goals, data
users and uses, capabilities, and methods, there
are no universal levels of precision, accuracy1,
representativeness, completeness, comparabili-
ty, and sensitivity that arc acceptable for every
monitoring project. You should consult your
advison; panel, data users, support laboratory,
and peer reviewers to determine acceptance cri-
teria for your monitoring project. •
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Quality Control and Assessment
Contamination is a common source of error
in both sampling and analytical procedures.
QC samples help you identify when and how
contamination might occur and assess the
overall precision and accuracy of your data.
The decision to accept data, reject it, or accept
only a portion of it should be made after
analysis of all QC data.
For most projects, there is no set number of
field or laboratory QC samples which must be
taken; the general rule is that 10 percent of all
samples should be QC samples. Any
participating laboratory must also run its own
QC samples. For a new monitoring project or
analytical procedure, it is a good idea to
increase the number of QC samples (up to 20
percent) until you have full confidence in the
procedures you are using.
Several different types of QC and
assessment measures are presented below
(USEPA, 1996; USEPA, 1997).
Internal Checks
Internal checks are performed by the project
field volunteers, staff, and lab.
Field Blanks
A field blank (also known as a trip blank) is
a "clean" sample, produced in the field, used
to detect analytical problems during the whole
process (sampling, transport, and lab
analysis). To create a field blank, take a clean
sampling container with "clean" water (i.e.,
distilled or deionized water that does not
contain any of the substance you are
analyzing) to the sampling site. Other
sampling containers will be filled with water
from the site. Except for the type of water in
them, the field blank and all site samples
should be handled and treated in the same
way. For example, if your method calls for the
addition of a preservative, this should be
added to the field blank in the same manner
as the other samples. When the field blank is
analyzed, it should read as being free of the
analyte (parameter being tested) or, at a
minimum, the reading should be a factor of 5
below all sample results.
Negative and Positive Plates (for Bacteria)
A negative plate results when the buffered
rinse water (the water used to rinse down the
sides of the filter funnel during filtration) has
been filtered the same way as a sample. This
is different from a field blank in that it
contains reagents used in the rinse water.
There should be no bacteria growth on the
filter after incubation. Bacteria growth
indicates laboratory contamination of the
sample.
Positive plates result when water known to
contain bacteria (such as wastewater treatment
plant influent) is filtered the same way as a
sample. There should be plenty of bacteria
growth on the filter after incubation. It is used
to detect procedural errors or the presence of
contaminants in the laboratory analysis that
might inhibit bacteria growth.
Field Replicates
Replicate samples are obtained when two or
more samples are taken from the same site, at
the same time, using the same method, and
independently analyzed in the same manner.
When only two samples are taken, they are
sometimes referred to as duplicate samples.
These types of samples are representative of
the same environmental condition and can be
used to detect the natural variability in the
environment, the variability caused by field
sampling methods, and laboratory analysis
precision.
Lab Replicates
A lab replicate is a sample that is split into
subsamples at the lab. Each subsample is then
analyzed using the same technique and the
results compared. They are used to test the
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precision of the laboratory measurements. For
bacteria, they can be used to obtain an
optimal number of bacteria colonies on filters
for counting purposes.
Spiked Samples
Spiked samples are samples to which a
known concentration of the analyte of interest
has been added. Spiked samples are used to
measure accuracy. If this is done in the field,
the results reflect the effects of preservation,
shipping, laboratory preparation, and analysis.
If done in the laboratory, they reflect the
effects of the analysis procedure. The percent
of the spike material that is detected in the
sample is used to calculate analytical
accuracy.
Calibration Blank
A calibration blank is deionized water
processed like any of the samples; it is the
first "sample" analyzed and is used to set the
instrument to zero. A calibration blank is also
used to check the measuring instrument
periodically for "drift" (the instrument should
always read "0" when this blank is measured).
It can also be compared to the field blank to
pinpoint where contamination might have
occurred.
Calibration Standards
Calibration standards are used to calibrate a
meter. They consist of one or more "standard
concentrations" (made up in the lab to
specified concentrations or provided by any
number of supply houses—see Appendix C)
of the indicator being measured, one of which
is the calibration blank. Calibration standards
can be used to calibrate the meter before
running the test, or they can be used to
convert the units read on the meter to the
reporting units (e.g., converting absorbance to
milligrams per liter).
Helpful Hint
In addition to being used for meter
calibration, standard reference material (in
the form of solids or solutions with a
certified known concentration of pollutant)
can be used to check the accuracy of a
procedure and the freshness of the reagents
(chemicals) in test kits. If a known standard
solution is tested and gives the correct
concentration test result, the reagents are
working properly and the procedure is
being followed correctly.
External Checks
Non-volunteer field staff and a lab (also
known as a "quality control lab") perform
external checks. The results are compared
with those obtained by the project lab.
External Field Duplicates
An external field duplicate is a duplicate
sample collected and processed by an
independent (e.g., professional) sampler or
team at the same place and the same time that
the volunteers collect and process their
regular water samples. It is used to estimate
sampling and laboratory analysis precision.
Split Samples
A split sample is one that is divided equally
into two or more sample containers and then
analyzed by different analysts or labs. The
results are then compared.
Samples should be thoroughly mixed before
they are divided. Large errors can occur if the
analyte is not equally distributed into the two
containers. A sample can be split in the field,
called a field split, or in the laboratory—a lab
split. The lab split measures analytical preci-
sion, while the field split measures both analyti-
cal and field sampling precision. Split samples
can also be submitted to two different laborato-
ries for analysis to measure the variability in
results between laboratories independently
using the same analytical procedures.
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Outside Lab Analysis of Duplicate Samples
Either internal or external field duplicates
can be analyzed at an independent lab. The
results should be comparable with those
obtained by the project lab.
Knowns
The quality control lab sends samples for
selected indicators, labeled with the
concentrations, to the project lab for analysis
prior to the first sample run. These samples
are analyzed and the results compared with
the known concentrations. Problems are
reported to the quality control lab.
Unknowns
The quality control lab sends samples to the
project lab for analysis for selected indicators,
prior to the first sample run. The concen-
trations of these samples are unknown to the
project lab. These samples are analyzed and
the results reported to the quality control lab.
Discrepancies are reported to the project lab
and a problem identification and solving
process follows.
Table 5-6 shows the applicability of
common quality control measures to several
water quality variables covered in this
manual. •
Table 5-6. Common quality control measures and their applicability to some water quality parameters. (Adaptedfrom USEPA, 1997.)
Dissolved Nutrients pH
Oxygen
Total Temp. Salinity/ Turbidity Total Bacteria
Alkalinity Conductivity Solids
Internal Checks
Field blanks
Neg./ pos. plates
Field replicates
Lab replicates
Spiked samples
Calibration blank
Calibration standard
External Checks
Ext. field duplicates
Split samples
Outside lab analysis
Knowns
Unknowns
X
X
xa
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
xb
X
X
X
X
X
X
a—using an oxygen-saturated sample
b—using subsamples of different sizes
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
Developing a QAPP
Developing a QAPP is a dynamic, interactive
process. Seek as much feedback as possible
from those who have gone before you in the
QAPP development process. You will be invest-
ing a substantial amount of time and energy, but
don't be discouraged: the person who writes the
QAPP is usually the one who ends up with the
most technical expertise and monitoring
insights. Your efforts will pay off in a living
document that helps current and future volun-
teers, staff, and data users understand exactly
how your project works.
The purpose of this section is to discuss the
steps a volunteer monitoring program might
take in preparing a QAPP (Table 5-7). It is rec-
ommended that you consult your data users,
such as the state or county water quality agency,
regarding their QAPP requirements. In fact,
many states have prepared QAPPs that, if adopt-
ed by your group, can save a great deal of time.
If you are receiving EPA grant or contract
money to conduct your monitoring, you must
also submit your QAPP to EPA for approval.
Working with water quality agencies, EPA, and
other potential data users to develop your QAPP
increases the likelihood that your data will actu-
ally be used to make management decisions.
Table 5-7. Steps to develop a QAPP (USEPA, 1996).
1. Establish a QAPP team.
2. Determine the goals and objectives of
your project.
3. Collect background information.
4. Refine your project.
5. Design your project's sampling,
analytical, and data requirements.
6. Develop an implementation plan.
7. Draft your standard operating
procedures and QAPP.
8. Solicit feedback on your draft SOPs
and QAPP.
9. Revise your QAPP and submit it for
final approval.
10. Begin your monitoring project.
11. Evaluate and refine your QAPP.
Step 1: Establish a QAPP Team
Pull together a small team of 2-3 people
who can help you develop the QAPP. Include
representatives from groups participating in
the monitoring project who have technical
expertise in different areas of the project.
Take time to establish contact with your
state, local, or EPA quality assurance officer
or other experienced volunteer organizations.
Remember: If you are receiving any EPA
funding through a grant or contract, EPA must
approve your QAPP. However, even if EPA
approval isn't needed, you can consult with
EPA representatives for advice; they may
have resources that can help you. Ask your
contacts if they will review your draft plan.
Step 2: Determine the Goals and
Objectives of Your Project
Why are you developing this monitoring
project? Who will use its information, and
how will it be used? What will be the basis
for judging the usability of the data collected?
If you don't have answers to these questions,
you may flounder when it comes time to put
your QAPP down on paper.
Project goals could include, for example:
• identifying trends in an estuary to
determine if non-indigenous species
occurrences are on the rise;
• monitoring in conjunction with the
county health department to be sure a
beach is safe for swimmers;
• monitoring the effectiveness of a
submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
restoration project; or
• teaching local high school students
about water quality.
Write down your goal. The more specific
your project's goal, the easier it will be to
design a QAPP. Identify the objectives for
your project—that is, the specific statements
of how you will achieve your goal. For
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Figure 5-2. The
balancing act of data
quality objectives.
Volunteer programs
must balance data
quality needs with
financial limitations,
understanding that as
data quality becomes
more important, the
resources necessary to
get the data are likely to
increase. (Adaptedfrom
USEPA, 1987.)
example, if your project's goal is to monitor
an SAV restoration project, your objectives
might be to collect three years of data on SAV
beds, turbidity, algae, and nutrients, and to
develop yearly reports for state water quality
and fish and wildlife agencies.
Each use of volunteer data has potentially
different requirements. Knowing the use of
the collected data will help you determine the
right kind of data to collect and the level of
effort necessary to collect, analyze, store, and
report the data.
While sophisticated analyses generally yield
more accurate and precise data, they are also
more costly and time consuming. One should
closely examine the program budget when
forming the data quality objectives. Decisions
regarding the ultimate objectives must always
strike a balance between the needs of the data
users and the fiscal constraints of the program
(Figure 5-2). If the program's main goal is to
supplement state-collected data, for example,
the extra expense may be worthwhile.
Programs with an educational or participatory
focus can often use less sensitive equipment,
analyses, or methodologies and still meet their
data objectives.
Step 3: Collect Background Information
As you learn more about the area you are
choosing to monitor, you will be better able to
design an effective monitoring project. Begin
by contacting programs and agencies that
might already monitor in your area. Talk to
the state water quality agency, the county
and/or city environmental office, local
universities, and neighboring volunteer
monitoring programs. Ask about their
sampling locations, the parameters they
monitor, and the methods they use.
If those groups are already monitoring in
your chosen area, find out if they will share
their data, and identify what gaps exist that
your project could fill. If no monitoring is
ongoing, find out what kind of data your local
or state agencies could use (if one of your
goals is that these agencies use your data),
where they would prefer you to locate your
sampling sites, and what monitoring methods
they recommend. Government agencies are
not likely to use your data unless it fills a
gap in their monitoring network and was
collected using approved protocols.
A watershed survey can help you set the
foundation for your monitoring project
design. This is simply a practical investigation
of how the watershed works, its history, and
its stressors. For information on conducting a
watershed survey, consult the USEPA (1997)
and Maine DEP (1996) references listed at the
end of this chapter.
Step 4: Refine Your Project
Once you have collected background
information for your project and coordinated
with potential data users, you may find it
necessary to refine your original goals and
objectives. You might have found, for
example, that your state already monitors
SAV and algae in your estuary. In that case,
your project might better examine nutrient
inputs from tributaries or other parameters.
More
Uncertainty
More
Resources
Less
Resources
Less
Uncertainty
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
Don't hesitate to reevaluate your project
goals and objectives. Now is the best possible
time to do so-before you invest time, money,
and effort in equipment purchases, training,
grant proposals, and QAPP development.
Step 5: Design Your Project's Sampling,
Analytical, and Data Requirements
Once you feel comfortable with your pro-
ject's goals and objectives and have gathered
as much background information as possible
A Word About Metadata
The term metadata is loosely defined as
"data about data." It is information that
helps characterize the data that volunteers
collect. Metadata answer who, what,
when, where, why, and how about every
facet of the data being documented
(USGS Web site). This information will
help others understand exactly how the
data was obtained.
Most shared datasets require metadata.
This helps users of the data—who may be
unfamiliar with the monitoring site—
understand the details behind the data.
Examples of metadata include (from
Williams, 1999):
• name of organization;
• name of the estuary;
• monitoring station identification
number;
• monitoring site location;
• site elevation;
• latitude, longitude;
• source describing how latitude and
longitude were determined; and
• date and time of collection.
Volunteer leaders—especially those who
want to share their data with government
and other organizations—should include
metadata on their field data sheets and
emphasize the importance to volunteers of
recording this information.
on the area you will be monitoring, it is time
to focus on the details of your project.
Convene a planning committee consisting of
the project coordinator, key volunteers,
scientific advisors, and data users, along with
your QAPP team. This committee should
address the following questions:
• What parameters or conditions will you
monitor, and which are most important
to your needs? Which are of secondary
importance?
• How good does your monitoring data
need to be?
• How will you pick your sampling sites,
and how will you identify them over
time?
• What methods or protocols will you use
for sampling and analyzing samples?
• When will you conduct the monitoring?
• How will you manage your data and
ensure that your data are credible?
As a general rule, it is a good idea to start
small and build to a more ambitious project as
your volunteers and staff grow more
experienced.
Step 6: Develop an Implementation Plan
Decide the particulars—the who's and
when's of your project. Determine who will
carry out the individual tasks such as
volunteer training, data management, report
generation, assuring lab and field quality
assurance, and recruiting volunteers. If you
send your samples to an outside lab, choose
the lab and specify why you chose it.
Set up schedules for when you will recruit
and train volunteers, conduct sampling and
lab work, produce reports, and report back to
volunteers or the community.
Step 7: Draft Your Standard Operating
Procedures and QAPP
Now is the time to actually write your
standard operating procedures (SOPs) and
develop a draft QAPP. SOPs are the details on
all the methods you expect your volunteers to
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
use. They can serve as the project handbook
you give your volunteers. There are many
SOPs already available for sampling and
analytical procedures—check with your state
water quality agency or other volunteer
monitoring groups for pointers. Where
possible, adapt your procedures from existing
methods and modify them as needed to fit
your project objectives. Be sure to reference
and cite any existing methods and documents
that you use in your project.
You should append your SOPs to your
QAPP and refer to them throughout the QAPP
document. Your written plan can be elaborate
or simple, depending on your project goals.
Step 8: Solicit Feedback on Your Draft
SOPs and QAPP
Your next step is to get the draft reviewed
by people "in the know." These include state
and EPA regional volunteer monitoring
coordinators and quality assurance officers
and any other potential data users. Ask for
feedback and suggestions from as many
sources as possible. Expect their reviews to
take up to two or three months (times will
vary). In addition, expect some resistance
from some reviewers who might be
overburdened with other duties. Don't be
offended by this; instead, call back a
reasonable time after submitting your plan
and inquire if you should submit the draft
elsewhere for review.
While waiting for comments, you should try
out your procedures with volunteers on a trial
basis. Don't plan to use the data at this early
stage; data users generally will not accept
your data until the QAPP has been approved
and accepted. Rather, use this opportunity to
find quirks in your plan.
Step 9: Revise Your QAPP and Submit It
for Final Approval
Based on the comments you receive, you
may have to revise your QAPP. This could
involve simply being more specific about
existing methods and quality control
procedures in the plan, or actually modifying
your procedures to meet agency requirements.
Once you have revised or fine-tuned your
QAPP, submit it to the proper agency for
formal approval. If you are developing a
QAPP simply to document your methods and
are not working in cooperation with a state,
local, or federal agency, you do not need to
submit a QAPP for review and approval.
Step 10: Begin Your Monitoring Project
Once you've received formal approval of
your QAPP, your monitoring project can
begin. Follow the procedures described in
your QAPP to train volunteers and staff,
conduct sampling, analyze samples, compile
results, and develop any reports.
Step 11: Evaluate and Refine Your Project
over Time
As time goes on, you may decide to
improve on sampling techniques, site
selection, lab procedures, or any of the other
elements of your monitoring project design.
Project evaluation should occur during the
course of your project rather than after the
project or a sampling season is completed.
If you make any substantive changes to
your QAPP, document them and, if necessary,
seek approval from the appropriate agency. A
phone call to your quality assurance official
can help you determine if the changes require
a new QAPP. Also, always be prepared for
formal audits or QC inquiries from data users
during the course of your project.
Ongoing experience may require small
changes to the QAPP. These can be made
without having to rewrite the entire plan, as
long as the original reviewers approve the
changes. One helpful way to make changes
without rewriting the entire plan is to have the
pages individually dated; changes to the
document can then be made on a page-by-
page basis. •
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
Elements of a QAPP
A QAPP helps your group determine
responsibilities, training, methods, equipment
and other resources needed to ensure that data
quality is good enough to meet its intended
use. This section discusses the 24 elements of
a QAPP (Table 5-8), which can guide the
QAPP team as it determines whether all
necessary aspects are covered.
It is very likely that not all elements will
apply to your project, and other elements may
be required that are not addressed here. These
issues should be discussed with your QAPP
team and any group who will be approving
your QAPP. If EPA must approve your QAPP
and your project does not require all 24
elements, you should indicate in your QAPP
which elements you will not be including.
This will make review and approval of your
QAPP faster and easier.
Readers should refer to the document, The
Volunteer Monitor's Guide to Quality
Assurance Project Plans (USEPA, 1996—see
"References and Further Reading" in this
chapter) for useful examples of developing a
QAPP. The document also includes a sample
QAPP form.
Table 5-8. Elements of a QAPP (USEPA, 1996).
Project Management
(elements 1-9)
1. Title and Approval Page
2. Table of Contents
3. Distribution List
4. Project/Task Organization
5. Problem Identification/Background
6. Project/Task Description
7. Data Quality Objectives for Measurement Data
8. Training Requirements/Certification
9. Documentation and Records
Measurement/Data Acquisition
(elements 10-19)
10. Sampling Process Design
11. Sampling Methods Requirements
12. Sample Handling and Custody Requirements
13. Analytical Methods Requirements
14. Quality Control Requirements
15. Instrument/Equipment Testing, Inspection, and Maintenance Requirements
16. Instrument Calibration and Frequency
17. Inspection/Acceptance Requirements for Supplies
18. Data Acquisition Requirements
19. Data Management
Assessment and Oversight
(elements 20-21)
20. Assessments and Response Actions
21. Reports
Data Validation and Usability
(elements 22-24)
22. Data Review, Validation, and Verification Requirements
23. Validation and Verification Methods
24. Reconciliation with Data Quality Objectives
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Element 1: Title and Approval Page
Your title page should include the
following:
• title and date of the QAPP;
• names of the organizations involved in
the project; and
• names, titles, signatures, and document
signature dates of all appropriate
approving officials, such as project
manager, project QA officer, and if the
project is funded by EPA, the EPA
project manager and QA officer.
Element 2: Table of Contents
A table of contents should include section
headings with appropriate page numbers and a
list of figures and tables.
Element 3: Distribution List
List the individuals and organizations that
will receive a copy of your approved QAPP
and any subsequent revisions. Include
representatives of all groups involved in your
monitoring effort.
Element 4: Project/Task Organization
Identify all key personnel and organizations
that are involved in your program, including
data users. List their specific roles and re-
sponsibilities. In many monitoring projects,
one individual may have several respon-
sibilities. An organizational chart is a good
way to graphically display the roles of key
players.
Element 5: Problem Identification/
Background
In a narrative, briefly state the problem your
monitoring project is designed to address.
Include any background information such as
previous studies that indicate why this project
is needed. Identify how your data will be used
and who will use it.
Element 6: Project/Task Description
In general terms, describe the work your
volunteers will perform and where it will take
place. Identify what kinds of samples will be
taken, what kinds of conditions they will
measure, which ones are critical, and which
are of secondary importance. Indicate how
you will evaluate your results—that is, how
you will be making sense out of what you
find. For example, you may be comparing
your water quality readings to state or EPA
standards, or comparing your submerged
aquatic vegetation (SAV) evaluations to state-
established reference conditions or historical
information.
Include an overall project timetable that
outlines beginning and ending dates for the
entire project as well as for specific activities
within the project. The timetable should
include information about sampling
frequency, lab schedules, and reporting
cycles.
Element 7: Data Quality Objectives for
Measurement Data
Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) are the
quantitative and qualitative terms used to
describe how good your data must be to meet
the project's objectives. DQOs for water
quality variables should address precision,
accuracy, representativeness, completeness,
comparability, and sensitivity (see "Basic
Concepts" in this chapter for a discussion of
these terms).
If possible, provide information on DQOs
in quantitative terms. Since it is important to
develop a QAPP prior to monitoring, it may
not be possible to include actual numbers for
some of the water quality measurement
variables within the first version of the
document. You will need, however, to discuss
your goals or objectives for data quality and
the methods you will use to make actual
determinations after monitoring has begun.
DQOs should be given for each parameter
you are measuring and in each "matrix" (i.e.,
substance you are sampling from, such as
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
Table 5-9. Sample Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) for a volunteer estuary monitoring program. (Adaptedfrom USEPA, 1990 and USEPA, 1996.)
Parameter
Temperature
pH
Salinity
Dissolved
Oxygen
Limit of
Visibility
Method/Range
thermometer
-5.0° to 45°C
wide-range colorimetric
field kit
3.0 to 10.0 units
hydrometer
Winkler titration
1 to 20 mg/1
Secchi disk
Units
°c
standard pH units
parts per thousand
(PPt)
mg/1
meters
Sensitivity
0.5°C
0.5 units
0.1 ppt
0.2 mg/1
0.05m
Precision
±1.0°C
±0.6 units
±1.0 ppt
±0.9 mg/1
NA
Accuracy
±0.2°C
±0.4 units
±0.82 ppt
±0.3 mg/1
NA
water or sediment). A table is the easiest way
to present quantitative DQOs (see Table 5-9).
In some types of monitoring, particularly
macroinvertebrate monitoring and habitat
assessment, some data quality indicators cannot
be quantitatively expressed. In that case, you
can fulfill this requirement of the QAPP by cit-
ing and describing the method used and by pro-
viding as many of the data quality indicators as
possible (e.g., completeness, representativeness,
and comparability) in narrative form.
DQOs should be set realistically. The volun-
teer program should closely examine its budget
when forming its DQOs. Decisions regarding
the ultimate objectives must always strike a bal-
ance between the needs of data users and the
fiscal restraints of the program (Figure 5-2).
Element 8: Training Requirements/
Certification
Identify any specialized training or
certification requirements your volunteers will
need to successfully complete their tasks.
Discuss how you will provide such training,
who will conduct the training, and how you
will evaluate volunteer performance.
Element 9: Documentation and Records
Identify the field and laboratory information
and records you need for the project. These
records may include raw data, QC checks,
field data sheets, laboratory forms, and
voucher collections. Include information on
where and for how long records will be
maintained. Copies of all forms to be used in
the project should be attached to the QAPP.
Element 10: Sampling Process Design
Outline the experimental design of the
project including information on types of
samples required, sampling frequency,
sampling period (e.g., season), and how you
will select sample sites and identify them over
time. (A discussion on how to select
monitoring sites can be found in Chapter 6.)
Indicate whether any constraints such as
weather, seasonal variations, or site access
might affect scheduled activities and how you
will handle those constraints. Include site
safety plans. In place of extensive discussion,
you may cite the sections of your program's
SOPs that detail the sampling design of the
project.
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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Element 11: Sampling Methods
Requirements
Describe your sampling methods. Include
information on parameters to be sampled,
how samples will be taken, equipment and
containers used, sample preservation methods,
and holding times (time between taking
samples and analyzing them). If samples are
composited (i.e., mixed), describe how this
will be done. Describe procedures for
decontamination and equipment cleaning.
Most of this information can be presented in a
table or you may also cite any SOPs that
contain this information.
Element 12: Sample Handling and
Custody Requirements
Sample handling procedures apply to
projects that bring samples from the field or
monitoring site to the lab for analysis,
identification, or storage. These samples should
be properly labeled in the field. At a minimum,
the sample identification label should include
sample location, sample number, date and time
of collection, sample type, sampler's name, and
method used to preserve the sample.
Describe the procedures used to keep track
of samples that will be delivered or shipped to
a laboratory for analysis. Include any chain-
of-custody forms and written procedures that
field crews and lab personnel should follow
when collecting, transferring, storing,
analyzing, and disposing of samples and
associated waste materials.
Element 13: Analytical Methods
Requirements
List the methods and equipment needed for
the analysis of each parameter, either in the
field or in the lab. If your program uses
standard methods, cite these (see, for
example, APHA, 1998). If your program's
methods differ from the standard or are not
readily available in a standard reference,
describe the analytical methods or cite and
attach the program's SOPs.
Element 14: Quality Control Requirements
List the number and types of field and
laboratory quality control samples your
volunteers will take (see "Quality Control and
Assessment" earlier in this chapter). This
information can be presented in a table. If you
use an outside laboratory, cite or attach the
lab's QA/QC plan.
What Is a Performance Based Measurement System (PBMS)?
Volunteer monitors may hear increased discussion about a fundamentally different approach to
environmental monitoring, known as a "performance based measurement system," or PBMS.
Rather than requiring that a prescribed analytical method be used for a particular measure-
ment, PBMS permits any method to be used provided that it demonstrates an ability to meet
required performance standards. In other words, PBMS conveys "what" needs to be
accomplished, but not prescriptively "how" to do it.
Under PBMS, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would specify:
• questions to be answered by monitoring;
• decisions to be supported by the data;
• the level of uncertainty acceptable for making decisions; and
• documentation to be generated to support this approach.
EPA believes that this approach will be more flexible and cost-effective for monitoring
organizations. Volunteer groups should check with their data users (e.g., state water quality
agencies) to determine acceptable performance based methods.
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
QC checks for biological monitoring
programs can be described in narrative form,
and, if appropriate, should discuss replicate
sample collection, cross checks by different
field crews, periodic sorting checks of lab
samples, and maintenance of voucher and
reference collections. Describe what actions
you will take if the QC samples reveal a
sampling or analytical problem.
Element 15: Instrument/Equipment
Testing, Inspection, and Maintenance
Requirements
Describe your plan for routine inspection
and preventive maintenance of field and lab
equipment facilities. Identify what equipment
will be routinely inspected, and what spare
parts and replacement equipment will be on
hand to keep field and lab operations running
smoothly. Include an equipment maintenance
schedule, if appropriate.
Element 16: Instrument Calibration and
Frequency
Identify how you will calibrate sampling
and analytical instruments. Include
information on how frequently instruments
will be calibrated, and the types of standards
or certified equipment that will be used to
calibrate sampling instruments. Indicate how
you will maintain calibration records and
ensure that records can be traced to each
instrument. Instrument calibration procedures
for biological monitoring programs should
include routine steps that ensure equipment is
clean and in good working order.
Element 17: Inspection and Acceptance
Requirements for Supplies
Describe how you determine if supplies,
such as sample bottles, nets, and reagents, are
adequate for your program's needs.
Element 18: Data Acquisition
Requirements
Identify any types of data your project uses
that are not obtained through your monitoring
exercises. Examples of these types of data
include historical information, information
from topographical maps or aerial photos, or
reports from other monitoring groups. Discuss
any limits on the use of this data resulting
from uncertainty about its quality.
Element 19: Data Management
Trace the path of your data, from field
collection and lab analysis to data storage and
use. Discuss how you check for accuracy and
completeness of field and lab forms, and how
you minimize and correct errors in calcula-
tions, data entry to forms and databases, and
report writing. Provide examples of forms and
checklists. Identify the computer hardware
and software you use to manage your data.
Element 20: Assessments and Response
Actions
Discuss how you evaluate field, lab, and
data management activities, organizations
(such as contract labs), and individuals in the
course of your project. These can include
evaluations of volunteer performance (e.g.,
through field visits by staff or in laboratory
refresher sessions); audits of systems (e.g.,
equipment and analytical procedures); and
audits of data quality (e.g., comparing actual
data results with project quality objectives).
Include information on how your project
will correct any problems identified through
these assessments. Corrective actions might
include calibrating equipment more
frequently, increasing the number of regularly
scheduled training sessions, or rescheduling
field or lab activities.
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
Element 21: Reports
Identify the frequency, content, and
distribution of reports to data users, sponsors,
and partnership organizations that detail
project status, results of internal assessments
and audits, and how QA problems have been
resolved.
Element 22: Data Review, Validation, and
Verification Requirements
State how you review data and make
decisions about accepting, rejecting, or
qualifying the data. All that is needed here is
a brief statement of what will be done and by
whom.
Element 23: Validation and Verification
Methods
Describe the procedures you use to validate
and verify data. This can include, for
example, comparing computer entries to field
data sheets; looking for data gaps; analyzing
quality control data such as chain of custody
information, spikes, and equipment
calibrations; checking calculations; examining
raw data for outliers or nonsensical readings;
and reviewing graphs, tables, and charts.
Include a description of how detected errors
will be corrected and how results will be
conveyed to data users.
Element 24: Reconciliation with Data
Quality Objectives
Once the data results are compiled, describe
the process for determining whether the data
meet project objectives. This should include
calculating and comparing the project's actual
data quality indicators (precision, accuracy,
completeness, representativeness, and
comparability) to those you specified at the
start of the project and describing what will
be done if they are not the same. Actions
might include discarding data, setting limits
on the use of the data, or revising the project's
data quality objectives. •
References and Further Reading
Much of this chapter was excerpted and adapted from:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1996. The Volunteer Monitor's Guide to
Quality Assurance Project Plans. EPA 841-B-96-003. September. Web site:
http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/monitoring/volunteer/qappcovr.htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. 1987. Quality Assurance Project Plan for the Citizen
Monitoring Project. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program. Baltimore, MD. 94 pp.
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
5-22
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning
Ely, E. (ed.) 1992. The Volunteer Monitor. "Special Topic: Building Credibility."
4(2). 24 pp.
Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996. A Citizen's Guide to Coastal
Watershed Surveys. 78 pp.
Mattson, M. 1992. "The Basics of Quality Control." The Volunteer Monitor 4(2): 6-8.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1987. Data Quality Objectives Workshop,
Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1988. Guide for the Preparation of Quality
Assurance Project Plans for the National Estuary Program. EPA 556/2-88-001. Washington,
DC. 31pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1995. Bibliography of Methods for Marine
and Estuarine Monitoring. EPA 842-B-95-002. April. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
Williams, K. F. 1999. "Quality Assurance Procedures." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Web sites:
Metadata Information:
Federal Geographic Data Committee: http://www.fgdc.gov/metadata/
U.S. Geological Survey: http://geology.usgs.gOv/tools/metadata/tools/doc/faq.htmltfl.l
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5: Quality Assurance Project Planning.
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Sampling Considerations
In the very early stages of developing any volunteer estuary monitoring program,
four important decisions must be made: what environmental parameters to
monitor, how the parameters will be measured, where monitoring sites will be
located, and when monitoring will occur.
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Photos (I tor): Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, K. Register, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel
-------
Overview
In the very early stages of developing any volunteer estuary monitoring
program, four important decisions must be made. Program leaders, with input
from their volunteers, must decide what environmental parameters they will
monitor, how the parameters will be measured, where monitoring sites will be
located, and when monitoring will occur.
This chapter discusses some considerations that should be taken into account
when making these decisions.
, 6: Sampling Considerations
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Chapter 6: Sampling Considerations.
Four Critical Questions
Many field test kits require the monitor to
compare the colors of a prepared water
sample with a standard (photo by K. Register).
Previous chapters laid the
groundwork for developing
and operating a volunteer
estuary monitoring program.
Discussions focused on the
need for volunteer programs
to understand why it is
necessary to collect data,
how the data will be used,
and who will use it.
Involving potential data
users in program
development is essential.
There are many additional
components to the development of an overall
monitoring program and its quality assurance
project plan (QAPP). Most revolve around
four fundamental questions:
• What parameters will the volunteer pro-
gram monitor?
• How will the selected parameters be
monitored?
• Where will monitoring sites be located?
• When will monitoring occur?
While the questions may seem basic
enough, they can hardly be overlooked or
brushed aside. Clear and concise answers to
these simple yet focused questions will form
the backbone of your monitoring program,
providing the foundation upon which the
program will rest.
Over time, it will be valuable to reevaluate
your answers to ensure that the goals and
objectives of the program are still being met.
Such evaluations may reveal a need for
program adjustments.
What to Monitor? Selecting Sampling
Parameters
What aspects of the estuary should your
volunteer program monitor? There are many
options from which to choose, but ultimately
the parameters should be selected to help
characterize the health of your estuary. By
assessing the problems—and potential
problems—facing the estuary, it should
become clear which parameters will be most
important to monitor. Of course, the costs
(time and money) associated with monitoring
will factor into your decision.
There are several common water quality
parameters that volunteer programs measure
(see Ely and Hamingson, 1998). These
include:
• water temperature;
• turbidity or transparency;
• dissolved oxygen;
• pH;
• salinity; and
• nutrients.
As techniques are mastered and monitoring
skills improve, many volunteer groups go on
to include additional parameters to their
monitoring repertoire, including:
• fecal coliform and other indicator
bacteria;
• chlorophyll;
• sulfates;
• pesticides;
• metals;
• changes in water color following storm
events;
• effects of erosion and sediment control
measures;
• habitat conditions and availability;
• macroinvertebrates;
• condition and abundance of fish and
birds; and
• phytoplankton, submerged aquatic vege-
tation (SAV) and shoreline plants.
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, Chapter 6: Sampling Considerations
Helpful Hint
When deciding what water quality variables
to monitor, consider the needs of your data
users. They can help you select the variables
that most effectively detect potential
problems in the estuary. In addition to your
data users, also consult with the following:
• state, federal, and regional environmen-
tal quality agencies;
• municipal governments;
• county planning offices;
• wastewater treatment plants;
• local nonprofit environmental groups;
• university and college environmental
departments (e.g., environmental sci-
ence, oceanography, civil engineering,
hydrology, biology); and
• middle and high school teachers.
How to Monitor? Selecting Monitoring
Methods and Equipment
An important question for any monitoring
program concerns monitoring methods and
equipment. As you will see in later chapters,
there are usually two or more ways to monitor
any water quality parameter.
Your selection of methods and equipment
will be based partly on data accuracy require-
ments and cost. For a state water quality agency
to accept volunteer-generated data, for example,
the data must be collected using state-approved
methods and equipment. If the purpose of the
monitoring is to "screen" for potential prob-
lems, you may purchase less expensive and per-
haps less accurate or precise equipment.
Electronic meters (powered by batteries) are
available to measure many different water qual-
ity parameters, including pH, dissolved oxygen,
conductivity, salinity, temperature, total dis-
solved solids, and biochemical oxygen demand.
Many meters will test for two or more of these
parameters. Meters can provide quick and accu-
rate data, but they require frequent calibration
and regular maintenance to ensure proper func-
tioning. They can also be expensive, ranging
from $300 to $5000, depending on the number
of functions, accuracy, range, and resolution of
the instrument. Nevertheless, meters may prove
cost-effective, especially when a large number
of samples need to be analyzed.
Field test kits measure many of the same
water quality parameters as meters and tend to
be much less expensive, but pollutant detection
levels can be unacceptable to some data users.
Again, part of the decision to use meters or
field kits will depend on the quality of data that
your program is trying to achieve. In some
states, the data from volunteers using field kits
will be accepted, while in other states, the data
will be considered valuable only as a "screen"
for potential problems.
Some Tips on Kits
Suppose you intend to use inexpensive field
kits that rely on a visual color comparison
using a "color wheel" or "color comparator."
How would you go about shopping for the
most suitable kits? Here are a few
suggestions:
• Look for reagents that produce a blue or
green color; the human eye is better at
perceiving the density of blue or green.
• Look for less toxic reagents (e.g., sali-
cylate versus Nessler for ammonia, zinc
rather than cadmium for nitrate).
• Look for kits that report the lowest pos-
sible concentration range, relying on the
option of diluting the sample if the con-
centration is too high (make sure you
have the equipment for making dilu-
tions—a small syringe without needle,
distilled water, and a dedicated jar).
• Look for reagents in liquid form rather
than powder—it is often tedious to
wrestle with powder packets, especially
with wind that may blow and scatter
the powder.
(Excerpted and adapted from Katznelson, 1997.)
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Chapter 6: Sampling Considerations.
Where to Sample? Selecting Monitoring
Locations
Volunteer program leaders must determine
the geographic location where monitoring
efforts will provide the most useful
information. After monitoring sites are
selected, a decision must be made about
where in the water column volunteers will
collect their samples.
Picking Monitoring Sites
Selecting representative sampling sites is
one of the most important elements in setting
up a monitoring effort. In any type of water
quality monitoring, basic information about
the area of interest is essential for the program
manager to consider before selecting
monitoring sites. Several things to consider
are listed in the box below.
Considerations for Selecting Monitoring Sites
Background Information
• Obtain a map of the watershed with all areas that drain into the estuary identified and a bathymetric map of
the estuary showing depth information.
• Gather reports and/or data that supply general information on the estuary.
• Check with your state water quality agency and other monitoring groups to learn their monitoring site
locations. Monitoring at the same sites monitored by other groups can help provide trend data; monitoring
different sites can improve coverage of the entire estuary.
• Collect information on adjoining estuaries if there are plans to conduct data comparisons.
• Compile data on current and past activities in the basin that could affect pollutant levels (e.g., locations of
wastewater treatment plants, areas of urban or agricultural runoff, new development sites).
• Investigate sites in areas of known or suspected pollution.
Decision-Making
• Determine whether there is a real need for data to be collected from the area, thereby ensuring the immediate use
of data collected.
• Consider whether you have a sufficient pool of volunteers to monitor the site in the manner and time required.
• Consider sites where there may be little or no data (e.g., areas near land targeted to be developed) to establish
baseline conditions.
• Consider how long data will need to be collected at the site in order to be useful. For example, several years of
data collection may be necessary to make justifiable conclusions about water quality trends.
Verification
• Confirm that you will have safe, physical, and legal access to the site(s).
• If the monitoring effort requires the collection of water samples, verify that the site is underwater at all times,
including low tide.
• Ensure that sampling sites are representative of the estuary and its watershed, if your goal is to assess overall
estuary health (e.g., a site immediately downstream of a bridge is not likely to be representative of overall estuary
conditions).
• Confirm that volunteers can precisely relocate the site.
(Adapted from USEPA, 1990, and Standoff, 1996.)
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, 6: Sampling Considerations
Site location will depend a great deal on the
purpose of data collection. If, for example, the
program is attempting to pinpoint trouble
spots in the estuary, the manager should
cluster monitoring sites where point and
nonpoint pollution sources enter the water. To
help ensure the data's scientific validity,
volunteers should monitor sample locations
both upstream and downstream from the
pollutant inflow point, as well as at the point
of entry, to provide comparative data.
Some programs may wish to obtain baseline
data that, over several years, will reveal water
quality trends. Rather than concentrating on a
few critical sites, this type of program should
choose a sufficient number of sites scattered
throughout the estuary or in the area of
interest that will paint a representative picture
of water quality status over time.
Deciding Where to Sample in the Water
Column
Monitors must consider that water quality
parameters are always changing. At any given
time, conditions at the surface may not be the
same as those at the bottom. For most citizen
monitoring programs and most water quality
parameters, however, samples taken from the
estuary's surface will suffice. These samples
will provide a reasonably accurate indication
of water quality in the vicinity of the
sampling site. For more sophisticated studies
in which water quality parameters throughout
the water column are of interest, volunteers
may need to collect samples using a standard
water sampler at precise depths.
The stratification of the estuary may also
influence where samples are taken in the
water column. For instance, a well-stratified
estuary may require surface, intermediate, and
bottom water samples or a complete profile to
fully characterize the status of different water
quality variables in its waters. A reasonably
well-mixed estuary, however, or one in which
the monitoring sites are located only in
shallow waters (where stratification often
breaks down) may require only a single
surface sample at each site.
While tidal range (the difference between
high and low tides) is negligible in some
estuaries, programs studying areas with large
swings in tides will have to consider this
effect. Tides strong enough to cause mixing
may weaken the stratification in the estuary.
This effect is particularly apparent during
spring tides (the highest tides of the month).
By mixing the upper and lower layers, for
example, the tides allow nutrients trapped in
bottom waters to mix upward and oxygen
from the surface to move down.
When to Sample?
Selecting the Right Time
The timing of most sampling efforts will
depend largely on the goals of the monitoring
program, accessibility of the site, weather,
number of monitors, and the water quality
variables to be measured. The time of day and
season can significantly affect your results. In
addition, the maximum holding time for each
sample and the sampling frequency necessary
to get the right information can influence
when samples will need to be collected
(Dates, 1992).
Time of Day
Sampling results can fluctuate dramatically,
depending on the time of day that samples are
collected. For example, during the day aquatic
plants utilize sunlight for photosynthesis,
releasing oxygen as a byproduct. At night, the
plants respire, consuming oxygen. As a result,
dissolved oxygen levels can rise and fall
significantly, especially in areas with dense
aquatic vegetation. Under these
circumstances, oxygen concentrations are
lowest at sunrise and highest in the afternoon.
The time of day will also influence where
many organisms will be found in the water
column. Zooplankton, for example, migrate
from deeper water to the surface at night to
feed, while many fish species travel daily
throughout the water column in search of
food.
The time of day has other impacts on
monitoring. A common tool for measuring
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6: Sampling Considerations.
water clarity is the Secchi disk. One condition
for its optimal use is that the disk be used
when the sun is directly overhead. (The disk
can be used at other times during the day, but
this would result in less than optimal results;
see Chapter 15). To comply with this
condition means that there is a small window
of opportunity for which monitoring
conditions are ideal.
Because of these daily considerations, it is
often helpful to select consistent sampling
times for many water quality parameters.
However, ideal sampling times may also
depend on tides, which could expose nothing
but mud where there had been water only a
few hours earlier. Tidal stages vary from day
to day.
Time of Year
Environmental conditions change with the
seasons, and monitoring results can reflect
those variations. For example, nutrient and
pesticide concentrations in estuaries vary
considerably from season to season. More
runoff enters the estuary during wet weather
periods, delivering pollutants and fresh water.
Consequently, pollution concentrations can be
higher and salinity lower at these times. When
runoff occurs, higher estuarine concentrations
correspond to times of the year when
fertilizers and pesticides are most commonly
applied on land (USGS, 1999).
On the other hand, dry weather periods
mean less runoff to the estuary. Higher
salinity and lower pollutant levels may mark
such dry periods. The same observation may
be made in colder climates during the winter,
when snow remains on land and the spring
thaw is months away.
The seasons have a profound influence on
several other water quality measures,
particularly dissolved oxygen. For example:
• cold water retains dissolved oxygen bet-
ter than warmer water;
• increased plant activity in the warmer
months has a strong influence on daily
oxygen concentrations;
• vertical temperature gradients in the
estuary—usually greater during the
summer months—hinder oxygen
diffusion; and
• seasonal storms help mix estuarine
waters.
Seasonal sampling may also be influenced
by program objectives. If your program is
interested in determining whether the estuary
is safe for swimming, for example, it is best
to sample when people are most likely to be
in the water. For this purpose, it is
unnecessary in most places to sample during
the winter.
Finally, there is the practicality issue.
Seasons may influence the level of volunteer
participation. Will enough volunteers be
willing to go out in freezing weather or under
a scorching sun to collect samples?
Holding Time
Consider the maximum duration that a
sample can be held before it is tested. Many
bacteria samples must be chilled and sent to a
laboratory for testing within six hours.
Because of the stringent holding time
requirements, sampling during weekends and
evenings—when most laboratories are
closed—may not be a good idea for some
water quality measures.
Frequency
Like most issues of timing, sampling
frequency usually depends on the goals of the
monitoring effort. For example, if you are
monitoring to detect pollution from point
sources, very frequent sampling—daily or
even hourly—is usually necessary. On the
other hand, some biological parameters,
which indicate estuarine conditions over long
periods of time, need to be sampled only a
couple of times each year (usually the spring
and fall).
Sampling frequency may also be
determined based on atmospheric or other
events. It is often useful to have volunteers
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, 6: Sampling Considerations
available to collect data during or after large
storms as long as the program manager deems
it safe to sample. Such data is often
invaluable to state managers who may be
unable to mobilize forces quickly enough to
capture such events. Storm data gives a
snapshot of how severe wind and precipitation
affect the status of water quality variables in
the water. The occurrence of extraordinary
events, such as fish kills or "crab jubilees"
(phenomena characterized by crabs crawling
onto the land because of low oxygen
concentrations in the water), can also trigger
additional monitoring efforts to determine the
cause of the events. •
References and Further Reading
Dates, G. 1992. "Study Design: The Foundation of Credibility." The Volunteer Monitor
4(2): 1, 13-15.
Ely, E. and E. Hamingson. 1998. National Directory of Volunteer Environmental Monitoring
Programs. 5th ed. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetland, Oceans, and
Watersheds. EPA-841-B-98-009. Web site: http://yosemite.epa.gov/water/volmon.nsf.
Standoff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors of
Coastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and University
of Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1999. The Quality of Our Nation's Waters—Nutrients and
Pesticides. USGS Circular 1225. 82 pp.
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6: Sampling Considerations.
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In the Field
Being in the estuarine environment has great appeal for many volunteers. The key
for any program leader is to maintain volunteer interest while ensuring the quality
of data. To meet these goals, the program leader must recognize that several
elements go into the collection of estuary data. Failure to consider these elements
can cause problems for volunteers and program managers.
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Photos (I to r): Weeks Bay Watershed Project, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, E. Ely, K. Register
-------
Overview
Being in the estuarine environment has great appeal for many volunteers. The
key for any program leader is to maintain volunteer interest while ensuring the
quality of data. To meet these goals, the program leader must recognize that
several elements go into the collection of estuary data. Failure to consider these
elements can cause problems for volunteers and program managers.
Previous chapters discussed planning a volunteer monitoring program,
establishing a quality assurance project plan, and general sampling considerations.
This chapter reviews several topics applicable when volunteers travel into the
estuary to collect and analyze samples. It includes discussions of safety, supplies
and equipment, locating the sampling site, making observations about the site,
collecting data, and completing the data collection form.
7: In the Field
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
Fun in the Field
As discussed in Chapter 4, volunteers have
different reasons for getting involved with an
estuary monitoring program. One common
motive is the opportunity to be outside, on the
water, helping the estuary. Many volunteers
look forward to going, as scientists say, "into
the field" to collect and analyze water
samples. For them, being in the field is an
enjoyable experience.
While being in the field is more often than
not an entertaining experience for all
involved, volunteer leaders need to be aware
of several potential pitfalls. Sampling errors
can compromise data quality. Disappointed or
angry volunteers can return, after hours of
mucking around, with no data because they
discovered too late that their equipment was
not operating properly. Data interpretation
may be hampered because volunteers fail to
complete data forms properly. Volunteer
injuries, while uncommon, must always be in
the back of every leader's mind.
With proper planning and training, the
monitoring leader can avoid these problems.
A bit of forethought before sending volunteers
to monitoring sites can ensure volunteer
safety, data quality, and fun in the field. •
Preliminary Steps for Field Sampling
The following steps generally apply when monitoring most estuary water quality variables. Elaboration on these
steps is provided throughout this chapter. These are not the only necessary steps, however. Additional steps should
be taken for each water quality parameter. Refer to each respective chapter for details.
STEP 1: Prepare for the field
Before proceeding to the monitoring site, the volunteer should confirm sampling date and time, understand safety
precautions, check weather conditions and verify directions to the monitoring site.
STEP 2: Check equipment
The volunteer should also ensure that all necessary personal gear and sampling equipment are present and in working
order. Results may be inaccurate if the volunteer has to improvise because a sampling device or chemical bottle has
been left behind.
STEP 3: Confirm proper sampling location
The volunteer should have specific directions for locating a sampling site. If unsure whether he or she is in the correct
spot, the volunteer should record a detailed description of where the sample was taken so that it can be compared to the
intended site later.
STEP 4: Record preliminary observations and field measurements
The volunteer should record general field observations and measurements (e.g., potential pollution sources, indicators of
pollution, presence and apparent health of wild and domestic animals, water color, debris or oil, algal blooms, air temper-
ature, weather conditions, etc.) once at the site. This information is valuable when it comes time to interpret your results.
Record any condition or situation that seems unusual. Descriptive notes should be as detailed as possible.
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Before Leaving Home
7: In the Field
Chapter 4 detailed volunteer training,
emphasizing safety, proper monitoring
techniques, and quality assurance/quality
control procedures. No volunteer should begin
monitoring until properly trained.
Before heading out to sample for the first
time, the volunteer should select a sampling
timetable that fits into his or her personal
schedule. Adherence to the sampling schedule
is ideal, but program managers should
recognize that occasionally scheduled
sampling days and times will be missed due
to weather, illness, holidays, vacations, etc. If
possible, a makeup date should be arranged
within two days on either side of the original
date or a trained backup volunteer should
substitute for an unavailable volunteer.
The volunteer should confirm the sampling
date and time with the program manager and
laboratory (if samples are being sent for lab
analysis) each time before going out to collect
samples. This is especially true if the samples
need to be analyzed in a laboratory within a
particular timeframe.
The volunteer, in collaboration with the
program manager, should also characterize the
collection site with a written description, map,
and accompanying photograph. This
information serves as an initial status report
with which to compare any future changes of
the site. Use a global positioning system unit,
nautical map, or topographic map to
determine the latitude and longitude of the
site. Maps and photographs may be available
for your area (see Appendix C). •
Safety Considerations
Safety is one of the most critical
considerations for a volunteer monitoring
program and can never be overemphasized.
All volunteers should be trained in safety
procedures and should carry with them a set
of safety instructions and the phone number
of their program coordinator or team leader.
The following are some basic commonsense
safety rules for volunteers:
• Develop a safety plan. Find out the
location and telephone number of the
nearest telephone and write it down, or
have a cellular phone available. Locate
the nearest medical center and write
down directions for guiding emergency
personnel from the center to your
site(s). Have each member of the
sampling team complete a medical form
that includes emergency contacts,
insurance information, and relevant
health information such as allergies,
diabetes, epilepsy, etc.
Listen to weather reports. Never go
sampling if severe weather or high
waves are predicted or if a storm occurs
while at the site. Training should
include information on the appropriate
circumstances for both proceeding with
and waiving data collection. If
volunteers elect to go out in poor
conditions, they should be aware of the
risks and always take proper safety gear
(particularly if proceeding by boat). No
one should go out on the water during
thunderstorms or high wave conditions.
Always monitor with at least one
partner (teams of three or four are best).
Let someone know where you will be,
when you plan to return, and what to do
if you don't return at the designated
time.
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7; In the Field.
Have a first aid kit handy (see box, page
7-5). Know any important medical
health conditions of volunteers (e.g.,
heart conditions or allergic reactions to
bee stings). It is best if at least one team
member has current first aid/CPR
training.
Dress properly. In cold weather, bring
layered clothing, gloves, and boots. In
warm weather, dress to avoid sunburn,
insects, jellyfish, and brambles. Always
bring goggles and latex gloves (or some
alternative gloves for those allergic to
latex). Wear hunter's orange during
hunting season.
Bring water and snacks.
If you drive, park in a safe location. Be
sure your car doesn't pose a hazard to
other drivers and that you don't block
traffic.
Put your wallet and keys in a safe place,
such as a floatable, watertight bag that
can be kept in a pouch strapped to your
waist.
Never cross private property without the
permission of the landowner. A better
option, depending on the project's
objectives, might be to sample at public
access points (e.g., public parks). Take
along a card identifying you as a
volunteer monitor.
Watch for irate dogs, farm animals, and
wildlife (particularly snakes, ticks,
hornets, and wasps). Know what to do if
you get bitten or stung.
Watch for poison ivy, poison oak,
sumac, and other types of vegetation in
your area that can cause rashes and
irritation.
Do not walk on unstable riverbanks.
Disturbing these banks can accelerate
erosion and might prove dangerous if
the bank collapses. Do not disturb
vegetation on the banks.
Be very careful when walking in the
estuary itself. Rocky-bottom areas can
be very slippery and soft-bottom areas
may prove treacherous in areas where
mud, silt, or sand have accumulated in
sinkholes. Your partner(s) should wait
on dry land, ready to assist you if you
fall. Wear waders and rubber gloves at
sites suspected of having significant
pollution problems.
Never wade in swift or high water.
Confirm that you are at the proper site
by checking maps, site descriptions,
directions, or a global positioning
system.
Do not monitor if the site is posted as
unsafe for body contact. If the water
appears to be severely polluted, contact
your program coordinator.
Pay attention to the tidal stage. Don't
get trapped by rising or falling tides.
If you are sampling from a bridge, be
wary of passing traffic. Wear bright
orange safety vests and hats and set out
orange traffic cones. Never lean over
bridge rails unless you are firmly
anchored to the ground or the bridge
with good hand/foot holds.
Wash your hands with antibacterial soap
after monitoring. Eat nothing until you
have washed your hands.
If you are using a boat, ensure that
hulls, engines, equipment, and trailers
are inspected and in good working
order.
If at any time you feel uncomfortable
about the condition of the monitoring
site or your surroundings,
immediately stop monitoring and
leave the site. Your safety is more
important than the data!
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Chapter 7: In the Field
When using chemicals:
• Know your equipment, sampling
instructions, and procedures before
going out into the field. Prepare labels
and clean equipment before you get
started.
• Keep the sampling equipment clean
before and after each use.
• Keep all equipment and chemicals away
from small children and animals. Many
of the chemicals used in monitoring are
poisonous. Tape the phone number of
the local poison control center to your
sampling kit.
• Avoid contact between chemical
reagents and skin, eye, nose, and mouth.
Never use your fingers to stopper a
bottle (e.g., when you are shaking a
solution). Wear safety goggles and
gloves when performing any chemical
test or handling preservatives.
• Know how to use and store chemicals.
Do not expose chemicals or equipment
to temperature extremes or long-term
direct sunlight (see "Getting the Most
Out of Reagents," page 7-6).
• Any work surface should be kept clean
of chemicals and sponged with clean
water after the test is complete.
• Know chemical cleanup and disposal
procedures. Wipe up all spills when they
occur. Return all unused chemicals to
your program coordinator for safe
disposal. Close all containers tightly
after use. Do not put the cap of one
reagent onto the bottle of another.
Dispose of waste materials and spent
chemicals properly (see box, page 7-8).
• When working with bacteria samples,
wash your hands between samples and
when you are finished with testing.
Avoid contact with bacterial colonies
after they have been incubated
(Stancioff, 1996). •
First Aid
At a minimum, a first aid kit should
contain the following items:
• Telephone numbers of emergency
personnel (e.g., police, ambulance
service)
• First aid manual which outlines
diagnosis and treatment procedures
• Antibacterial or alcohol wipes
• First aid cream or ointment
• Acetaminophen for relieving pain and
reducing fever
• Several band-aids
• Several gauze pads 3 or 4 inches square
• 2-inch roll of gauze bandage
• Triangular bandage
• Large compress bandage
• 3-inch wide elastic bandage
• Needle for removing splinters
• Tweezers for removing ticks
• Single-edged razor blade
• Snakebite kit
• Doctor-prescribed antihistamine of
participant who is allergic to bee stings
Be sure to carry emergency telephone
numbers and medical information for
everyone participating in field work
(including the leader) in case of
emergency.
(Excerpted and adapted from USEPA, 1997.)
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
Getting the Most Out of Reagents
Most volunteer monitoring programs use chemicals called reagents to help analyze water
samples. Because the reagents are chemically reactive, they can easily degrade. Test
reagents are also very susceptible to contamination under field conditions.
Replacing degraded reagents results in additional expense for the monitoring program. If
bad reagents are not discovered in time, their use can also lead to erroneous water quality
measurements and disappointed volunteers whose hard work in the field is wasted. It is
therefore wise—financially and programmatically—to check reagent quality and extend
their useful life whenever possible.
Reagent Enemies
Temperature
In general, the speed of a chemical reaction doubles with every 10°C increase in
temperature. Since reagent decomposition occurs by means of chemical reactions, high
temperatures will speed decomposition.
Sunlight
Many reagents will decompose when exposed to direct sunlight. Reagents containing
silver—commonly found in kits that use a titration method to test chloride or salinity—
are especially sensitive to sunlight and will turn black when decomposition occurs due to
sunlight exposure. This reagent is supplied in an amber glass, amber plastic, or other
opaque plastic container to protect it from sunlight.
Air
Evaporation can concentrate reagents, a condition which is especially critical for a titrant.
Many reagents can also react chemically with oxygen or carbon dioxide in the air.
Contamination
Any foreign material introduced into a reagent bottle can cause test results to be in error.
Mold or algae can grow in starch reagents. Other common sources of contamination are
inadequate cleaning of equipment that is used to analyze more than one sample and
failure to use a dedicated dropper for each reagent.
(continued)
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Chapter 7: In the Field
(Getting the Most. . .continued)
Recognizing Bad Reagents
One of the easiest ways to tell if a reagent has gone bad is by its appearance. Note the
reagent's color when you first receive it. Over time, look for any changes in color or
clarity, or for formation of solids (e.g., a crust on the lip of the bottle, floating particles,
or solids settled at the bottom).
If you suspect that a reagent has gone bad, you can test it by using a standard (a solution
of known pollutant concentration). Standards can be purchased from test kit
manufacturers or other chemical companies, or obtained from cooperative laboratories.
Most reagents will also have expiration dates printed on their containers.
You can also test your reagents by checking the suspect test kit against another kit that
has fresh reagents, or by cross-checking the kit against another method, such as a meter.
Preventing Degradation
There are many steps you can take in the field to get the most use out of reagents:
• Keep reagent bottles inside test kit during storage.
• Store kits away from heat and sunlight (this includes car trunks!).
• Minimize the amount of reagent exposure to heat and sunlight during testing.
• Do not leave reagent containers open any longer than necessary when performing
tests.
• Be sure to place sunlight-sensitive reagents in opaque bottles when replacing or
refilling them.
• Keep reagent bottles tightly capped.
• Use dedicated droppers and dedicated equipment whenever possible.
• Always bring a container to the field for washing equipment between tests.
• Keep reagents in a refrigerator that is not used to store food.
Of course, check expiration dates and replace reagents before they expire.
(Excerpted from McAninch, 1997.)
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
Dealing with Waste
Waste Liquids:
Many water quality monitoring kits produce waste liquids that you cannot pour into the
estuary. Read the "Material Safety Data Sheet" that comes with your monitoring equipment
for specific disposal procedures. Here is one method used to dispose of waste liquids:
• Pour all waste liquids into a separate container, such as a bottle or jug with a screw cap.
Beverage containers should not be used for this purpose, since the contents could be
mistaken for a beverage. Containers into which liquid wastes are poured should be
clearly labeled with appropriate warnings. It is usually acceptable to mix the waste
from all your field tests, but confirm this by reading the "Material Safety Data Sheet"
that comes with the monitoring equipment.
• Take the waste container home (don't dump it outside).
• At home, add kitty litter to the container, cap it tightly, and put it out with the trash.
Some manufacturers' Material Safety Data Sheets will tell monitors to dilute waste liquids
and pour them down the drain if the monitors' homes are served by centralized wastewater
treatment systems. It is recommended that volunteer leaders contact their local wastewater
management agency to get exact instructions. It is important to tell the wastewater
management agency the names of each chemical used. Never put the waste liquids down the
drain if you have a septic system, and never dispose of mercury from a broken thermometer
by pouring it down any drain. Many volunteer programs avoid this potential problem by using
alcohol thermometers.
Bacteria Cultures:
After counting the colonies that have grown in petri dishes, two methods to safely destroy the
bacteria cultures are:
Autoclave
Place all petri dishes in a container in an autoclave. Heat for 15 to 18 minutes at 121°C and at
a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. Throw away the petri dishes.
Bleach
Disinfection with bleach should be done in a well-ventilated area, since it can react with
organic matter to produce toxic and irritating fumes. Pour a 10-25 percent bleach solution
into each petri dish. Let the petri dishes stand overnight. Place all petri dishes in a sealed
plastic bag and throw away.
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7: In the Field
What to Bring
Much of the equipment a volunteer will need
in the field is easily obtained from either hard-
ware stores or scientific supply houses. Other
equipment can be found around the house. In
either case, the volunteer program should clear-
ly specify the equipment its volunteers will
need and where it should be obtained.
Listed below are some basic supplies appro-
priate for any volunteer field activity. Much
of this equipment is optional but will enhance
the volunteers' safety and effectiveness.
Safety and Health Supplies
* rubber gloves to guard against
contamination (warning: some people
are allergic to latex; ask volunteers if
they are allergic);
• eye protection;
« insect repellent;
• sunblock;
« small first aid kit (see box. page 7-5);
• flashlight and extra batteries;
« whistle to summon help in emergencies;
« cellular phone;
• refreshments and drinking water;
« personal identification (e.g., driver's
license);
• compass or Global Positioning System
receiver; and
« information sheet with safety
instructions, site location information,
and numbers to call in emergencies
(heavily laminated or printed on
waterproof "write in rain" paper, if
possible).
Clothing
* boots or waders;
« hat;
• foul/cold weather gear;
• extra pair of socks;
« sweater or other warm clothing;
• all-weather footwear; and
« bright-colored snag- and thorn-resistant
clothes (long sleeves and pants are best).
Sampling Gear
* sampling equipment—properly calibrated
and checked for accuracy—appropriate
for the parameter(s) being measured (may
include meters, test kits, etc.);
« water sampler (see "How to Collect
Samples" in this chapter);
• sample containers;
» sufficient supply of reagents;
« instruction manual(s) for operating
sampling equipment;
• field data sheets (printed on waterproof
"write in rain" paper, if possible);
« clipboard, preferably with plastic cover;
» several pencils (ink runs when it gets wet;
soft pencils will write on damp surfaces);
« black indelible ink pens and markers;
• map or photograph of sampling
location(s);
« compass or global positioning system to
help find sampling location(s);
» tide chart;
« cooler and ice (blue ice pack preferably);
• tape measure;
• armored thermometer (non-mercury
preferred);
« wash bottles with distilled or deionized
water for rinsing equipment;
• containers for waste materials (e.g.. used
reagents);
« camera and film, to document particular
conditions;
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
• extra rope/line;
• duct tape, electrical tape, zip ties, scalable
plastic bags, and other items for quick
repair and modification of equipment;
and
• walking stick of known length for
balance, probing, and measuring.
If monitoring from a boat, volunteers should
bring the following additional equipment:
• one U.S. Coast Guard-approved personal
flotation device for each person aboard (it
is recommended that you wear a life
jacket at all times);
• equipment required by state and local law
(your state boating administration will
have a list, which usually includes such
items as a fire extinguisher and bell);
• anchor;
• weighted line to measure depth; and
• nautical chart of area.
Helpful Hint
Personal journals kept by volunteers can be
valuable supplements to the information
recorded on data sheets. Volunteer notes on
field observations and sampling activities can
give feedback on sampling methods, aid data
interpretation, and provide a useful historic
record to accompany the data. In addition,
their insights can help future volunteers
understand specific nuances of their
monitoring sites.
The tools, equipment, instruments, and
forms that you take into the field will often
depend on where you are monitoring, your
monitoring techniques, and the parameters
you are measuring. Additional equipment
needed for specific chemical, physical, and
biological monitoring procedures included in
this manual are provided in the relevant
chapters. •
Locating Monitoring Sites,
or How Do I Get There from Here?
Figure 7-1. The shoreline landmark method.
Once sites are selected, the manager
should mark the sites on a topographic
map or navigational chart. A written
description of the sites should be
developed, using landmarks
or latitude and longitude
coordinates (Standoff,
1996). Photographs
of the sites can
also be useful to
volunteers.
The manager
may also want to
create a map
\ \ showing the
\ \
1 location of
volunteers' homes
if the program relies on citizens sampling from
their own dock or pier. This map will illustrate
which areas of the estuary still need coverage
and where sites may be too tightly clustered.
Returning to the Same Monitoring Sites
Once the program manager and volunteers
have chosen monitoring sites, quality control
demands that each volunteer sample from
exactly the same location each time. If the site
is off the end of a dock or pier, returning to
the monitoring site is a simple matter. If,
however, the volunteer reaches the site by
boat, the task becomes more complicated.
Some basic methods to ensure that volunteers
return to the same site are:
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Chapter 7: In the Field
Tacks
The Shoreline Landmark Method
Landmarks—conspicuous natural or
manmade objects—provide a ready means of
identifying a specific monitoring site. Once
the program manager and volunteer have
identified a permanent site, they should
anchor the boat and scan the landscape for
distinctive features. Such features can include
tall or solitary trees, large rocks, water towers,
flag poles, or any other highly visible and
identifiable object.
Two landmarks, in front-to-back alignment,
should be chosen. The sight line created by
the landmarks will lead directly back to the
site. The volunteer should then pick another
set of aligned landmarks onshore about 90
degrees from the sight line of the first set. The
two sight or bearing lines should intersect at
the boat (Figure 7-1). The volunteer should
practice repositioning the boat at this point.
In some cases, volunteers must return to
monitoring sites on a coastal pond, sound, or
lagoon located in the middle of a salt marsh or
in some other rather featureless landscape. If
no obvious landmarks are available,
volunteers may want to post two sets of
brightly colored signal flags (Figure 7-2).
They should obtain permission from the
landowner before posting the flags.
The Marker Buoy Method
In wind- and wave-protected sections of an
estuary, volunteers may want to set buoys to
mark the monitoring site (Figure 7-3). The
buoy should be brightly colored and easily
distinguishable from fishing buoys floating in
the area. The program manager should check
on local and state regulations regarding buoy
placement before using this method.
Although a simple means of marking a site,
buoys do not always stay in place; wind,
waves, and passersby may move the buoy or
remove it entirely. Volunteers should use the
shoreline landmark method as a backup to
ensure that the buoy is correctly positioned.
Finishing Nail
Global Positioning System (GPS)
In many cases, the lack of a
definitive landmark (e.g., a pier,
outfall pipe, or marker buoy) can
hinder volunteers from reaching
the right sampling location. In
addition, monitoring groups using
certain data management systems
(e.g., Geographic Information
Systems; see Chapter 8) may need
to report specific geographic
locations, often by latitude and
longitude. In such cases, reporting
a location as "across the street
from the firehouse" is
unacceptable.
While latitude and longitude
can be estimated from a U.S.
Geological Survey topographic
map, volunteers might still be
guessing about their exact
position. The most accurate
method for determining position is using a
Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver.
This tool helps to ensure that the volunteer is
collecting samples at the same location time
after time. As a result,
quality control is
maintained.
GPS uses a network of
satellites to provide users
with, among other things,
data about their positions
on Earth. With relative
ease, users can locate their
latitude, longitude, and
elevation (although
elevation is usually less
accurate). The volunteer
must be sure to minimize
the blocking of satellite
transmissions by holding
the receiver away from the
body. Buildings or trees
can also cause
interference.
Figure 7-2. Construction of a landmark
flag (adapted from Compton, 1962).
Figure 7-3. The marker buoy. This instrument
may be used to identify monitoring sites in
sheltered areas of the estuary.
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
A variety of GPS receivers exist. Generally,
as a receiver's accuracy increases, so does its
cost. For example, a GPS unit with a
differential antenna can be very accurate, but
it tends to be more expensive than a unit
without the antenna. •
Helpful Hint
Accurate GPS receivers can be expensive,
but volunteer groups do not always have to
buy them. Some government agencies loan
them out and some GPS receivers can be
donated. A monitoring group may be able
to borrow a receiver to help pinpoint a
sampling location. Once at the location,
they can place a marker to ensure that they
can easily return to the site.
Making Field Observations: Visual Assessments
Usually, taking a water sample to obtain a
water quality variable concentration is not
enough; in fact, it is only part of what is
needed. Once at the monitoring location,
volunteers should take a visual assessment,
which is simply observing and recording the
environmental conditions at the site.
Volunteers should always be on the lookout
for environmental clues that might help
explain the data. A visual assessment of the
monitoring site can provide invaluable
information and make interpretation of other
data easier and more meaningful. For
example, if dead fish are floating at the water
surface, they may signal a sudden drop in
dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, the influx of
some toxic substance, or disease or infestation
of the fish. Unusual visual data are like bait;
they should lure you in for further
investigation.
The most value is gained when volunteers
assess the same area each time they collect
samples. In this way, the volunteers will
become the local experts—growing familiar
with baseline estuary conditions and land and
water uses, and being better able to identify
changes over time (USEPA, 1997).
When making a visual assessment of the
site, look for and record information about:
Potential Pollution Sources
Several programs have started shoreline or
watershed assessment projects to characterize
land uses and land use changes around an
estuary. An assessment can quantify the amount
of—and changes in—residential, industrial,
urban, agricultural, and forested areas within a
watershed. A broader-scope project could
further map the location of construction sites,
marinas, industrial and municipal discharges,
stormwater discharge points, landfills,
agricultural feedlots, and any other potential
pollution sources to the estuary.
Such an undertaking also provides the
program leaders with information that may
prove useful in selecting additional monitoring
sites.
Indicators of Pollution
Water pollution may not be visually apparent,
so other clues can serve as warning of possible
contamination. Lesions on fish, for example,
suggest the possible presence of toxic
contaminants. Surface foam and scum
downstream from a plant's discharge could be
cause for concern. Although the discharge could
lie within legal limits, a citizen group may want
to investigate the situation further. Other
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Chapter 7: In the Field
pollutant indicators include large numbers of
dead fish or other animals, rust-colored oozes,
large quantities of floatable debris, and highly
turbid water.
Record all unusual conditions on a data
sheet. Descriptive notes should be as detailed
as possible. Volunteers should bring such
conditions to the attention of the program
leaders so that they can report them to the
appropriate authority, if warranted.
Monitoring groups which function as
watchdogs may want to follow up with an
investigation of their own.
Living Resources
A simple assessment of the quantity and
type of living resources can round out the set
of data taken at one site. Numbers of
waterfowl, schools of fish, presence or
absence of submerged aquatic vegetation
beds, change in shoreline vegetation, and
other information relate directly to the area's
water quality. Fish kills or widespread
shellfish bed die-offs may indicate episodes of
intolerable water quality conditions. The
presence of birds, pets, sea lions, and cattle
may help explain high bacteria
concentrations.
Remember, however, that the presence or
absence of a living resource does not
definitively speak to the estuary's water
quality. Many animals are migratory and will
not be seen at certain times of the year. Others
may remain year-round, but become inactive
at times and are difficult to find.
Color
We tend to think of pure water as blue, yet
few waterbodies north of the sub-tropics fit
this description. Clean water may have a color
depending upon the water source and its
content of dissolved and suspended materials.
Plankton, plant pigments, metallic ions, and
pollutants can all color water (Table 7-1).
Even the color of the substrate can cause the
water to take on an apparent color. To assess
Table 7-1. Water colors and their possible causes.
Apparent Color
Peacock blue
Green
Yellow/Brown
Red/Yellow/Mahogany
Myriad colors
Rainbow
Possible Reason
Light-colored
substrate
Phytoplankton
Peat, dissolved
organics
Algae,
dinoflagellates
Soil erosion
Oil slick
color, use one of the established color scales
such as the Borger Color System or the Forel-
Ule Color Scale from scientific supply
houses.
Oil Slicks
Oil slicks are easily recognized by their
iridescent sheen and often noxious odor. Oil
may indicate anything from a worrisome oil
spill to bilge water pumped from a nearby
boat. Estimate the size of the slick, if
possible, and report any spill to local
authorities or the U.S. Coast Guard's National
Response Center (1-800-424-8802).
Weather Conditions
The weather, recorded at the time of
sampling and for several days beforehand,
helps in the interpretation of other data.
Water Surface Conditions
Whether calm, rippled, or with waves and
whitecaps, surface water conditions indicate
how much mixing is occurring in the top layer
of the estuary. When the surface is placid,
very little wind-induced mixing occurs.
Waves whipped up by wind, however,
indicate substantial mixing and the
introduction of oxygen to the water. This
information may be especially helpful in
interpreting dissolved oxygen data.
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
Ice
Ice cover can affect dissolved oxygen levels
in the water by limiting the interaction of
water with the atmosphere. In addition, ice in
shallow areas may damage submerged aquatic
plants and temporarily deprive estuarine
animals and waterfowl of their habitat.
Erosion
Evidence of recent erosion, such as a
steeply cut bank, may indicate recent storm
activity or substantial wakes from boats. In
either case, highly turbid water may
accompany the erosion. •
Helpful Field Measurements
Volunteer monitoring programs should
consider including several other parameters in
their suite of regular measurements. Most are
simple to carry out and provide additional
background information helpful in the final
analysis of an estuary's status. These
parameters include:
Air Temperature
Air temperature can be measured with the
same meter or thermometer used for reading
water temperature. Prior to placing the
instrument in the water sample, allow the
thermometer to equilibrate with the
surrounding air temperature for three to five
minutes; a wet thermometer will give an
erroneous air temperature reading. Make sure
the thermometer is out of direct sunlight to
avoid a false high reading.
Figure 7-4. Rain gauge placement (adapted from Campbell and Wildberger, 1992).
Odor
Though quite subjective, water odor can
reveal water quality problems that may not be
visually apparent. Industrial and municipal
effluents, rotting organic matter and
phytoplankton blooms, and bacteria can all
produce distinctive odors. Raw sewage, for
example, has an unmistakable aroma. Make
note of the odor in the data record and
describe the smell.
Precipitation
Precipitation data help the program manager
determine the possible causes of turbidity and
erosion. Turbidity, for instance, generally rises
during and after a rainstorm due to soil runoff.
A wind storm (without precipitation), on the
other hand, might cause turbidity due to
bottom mixing. Precipitation also may help
explain why nutrient concentrations rise (with
rain) or decline (with little rain).
Be sure to place the rain gauge in an open
area away from interference from overhead
obstructions and post it more than one meter
above the ground (Figure 7-4). Check the
gauge each morning, record the amount of
precipitation and the time of measurement,
then empty the gauge. If the gauge sits after a
rainfall, evaporation can falsify the
measurement.
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7: In the Field
Tides
Programs studying highly stratified
estuaries or estuaries with tidal ranges over a
few feet may want to measure tidal stage.
Tides of sufficient magnitude are effective
mixers of estuarine waters and may break
down stratification. Even if tidal stage data
are not included at the beginning of the
sampling effort, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
publishes tide tables for most of the U.S., and
this information can be obtained and applied
after the fact if the monitoring station is
reasonably close to one of the published tide
table sites. •
How to Collect Samples
Units 1-3 in this manual specify sampling
and equipment procedures for different
chemical, physical, and biological water
quality parameters. There are, however,
several general tasks that apply whenever
water samples are collected. As always,
program managers should consult with their
laboratory or their sampling equipment
instructions for exact requirements.
Before Leaving Home: Preparation of
Sampling Containers
Reused sample containers and glassware
must be cleaned and rinsed before and after
samples are taken. When preparing sampling
containers for most chemical and physical
water quality parameters, follow these steps:
1. Wear latex or rubber gloves.
2. Wash each sample bottle or piece of
glassware with a brush and phosphate-
free detergent.
3. Rinse three times with cold tap water.
4. (This step is only for sample containers
and glassware used to monitor nitrogen
and phosphorus.) Rinse with 10 percent
hydrochloric acid.
5. Rinse three times with deionized water.
Equipment used for bacteria sampling must
be sterilized in an autoclave, which may
require the assistance of a certified lab.
In the Field: Sample Collection
There are several different water collection
devices available today. They can be used for
most water quality analyses in the field or
laboratory.
Surface Samples
Screw-cap bottles and Whirl-pak bags
(Figure 7-5) are among the most popular tools
for collecting water samples near the surface.
The following steps should generally be taken
(USEPA, 1997):
• Screw-Cap Bottle
1. Using a waterproof pen, label the bottle
with the site number, date, and time.
2. Unscrew the bottle cap immediately
prior to sampling. Avoid touching the
inside of the bottle, its lip, or the cap. If
you accidentally touch either, use
another one.
3. Wading:
Try to disturb as little bottom sediment
as possible and take care not to collect
water that has sediment from bottom
disturbance. Stand facing against the
current or tide (if it can be detected).
Collect the sample against the current,
in front of you (Figure 7-6). You may
also tape your bottle to an extension
pole to sample from deeper water.
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
. Perforation
LIU
_J«- Wire Tab
• Pull Tab
Figure 7-5. Whirl-pak bag. Volunteers can
be easily trained to collect water samples
with these factory-sealed, disposable bags.
Boat:
Carefully reach over the side;
collect the water sample on
the upcurrent side of the boat.
Hold the bottle near its base
and plunge it (opening
downward) below the water
surface (Figure 7-6). If you
are using an extension pole,
remove the cap, turn the
bottle upside down, and
plunge it into the water,
against the current or tide.
Collect the water sample 8-12
inches below the water
surface whenever possible.
5. Turn the bottle into the current and
away from you. In slow-moving waters,
push the bottle underneath the surface
and away from you against the current
or tide.
6. Leave a 1-inch air space (except for
dissolved oxygen and biochemical
oxygen demand samples), so that the
bottle can be shaken just before
analysis. Recap the bottle carefully,
remembering not to touch the inside of
the bottle or its lip.
7. Fill in the bottle number and/or site num-
ber on the appropriate field data sheet.
8. If the samples are to be analyzed in the
lab, place them in the cooler for transport
to the lab.
Whirl-pak Bag
1. Using a waterproof pen, label the bag with
the site number, date, and time.
2. Tear off the top of the bag along the perfo-
ration above the wire tab just prior to sam-
pling (Figure 7-5). Avoid touching the
inside of the bag. If you accidentally touch
the inside of the bag, use another one.
3. Wading:
Try to disturb as little bottom sediment as
possible. In any case, be careful not to col-
lect water that contains sediment. Stand
facing against the current or tide. Collect
the water sample in front of you.
Boat:
Carefully reach over the side; collect the
water sample on the upcurrent side of the
boat.
4. Hold the two white pull tabs in each hand
and lower the bag into the water with the
opening facing against the current. Open
the bag midway between the surface and
the bottom by pulling the white pull tabs.
The bag should begin to fill with water.
You may need to "scoop" water into the
bag by drawing it through the water
against the current and away from you.
Fill the bag no more than 3/4 full.
5. Lift the bag out of the water, pouring out
excess sample. Pull on the wire tabs to
close the bag. Continue holding the wire
tabs and flip the bag over several times
away from you to quickly seal the bag.
Fold the ends of the wire tabs together at
the top of the bag, being careful not to
puncture the bag. Twist them together,
forming a loop.
Figure 7-6. Taking a water sample. Turn the container into the current or tide and
scoop in an upcurrent direction (redrawn from USEPA, 1997).
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Chapter 7: In the Field
6. Fill in the bag number and/or site number
on the appropriate field data sheet.
7. If the samples are to be analyzed in the
lab, place them in the cooler for transport
to the lab.
Samples at Depth
To accommodate at-depth measurements,
equipment supply companies produce several
types of water samplers designed to collect
water at specific depths through the water
column.
Two of the most commonly used samplers in
citizen monitoring programs are the Van Dorn
and Kemmerer samplers (Figure 7-7). Both
samplers have an open cylinder with stoppers at
both ends. A calibrated line attaches to the
device and allows the volunteer to lower the
unit into the water to a precise depth.
After lowering the unit into the water to the
proper depth, the volunteer then releases a
"messenger"—or weight—down the line. When
the messenger hits the sampler, it trips a releas-
ing mechanism and two stoppers seal off the
ends of the tube.
If sampling routinely takes place from a
bridge, the manager should install a lighter
weight messenger on the sampler. Be
warned, however, that repeated use of the
standard messenger from such heights will
eventually damage the unit.
The volunteer should pull the sampler to
the surface and transfer the collected water
into a sample bottle or—depending on the
parameter to be measured—a Whirl-pak
bag. Pouring the water from one container
to another can aerate the sample, thereby
biasing some results (e.g., for dissolved
oxygen). To avoid aeration, the volunteer
should transfer the water using a rubber
hose with an attached push valve. With the
end of the hose at the bottom of the empty
sample container, the volunteer should fill
the bottle to overflowing.
Van Dorn and Kemmerer samplers, their
derivations, and samplers designed for
particular water quality parameters (e.g.,
dissolved oxygen) are available from
equipment suppliers (Appendix C). Several
volunteer groups have also constructed
their own samplers. •
Van Dorn
Water Sampler
Kemmerer
Water Sampler
Figure 7-7. Two common
water samplers: Kemmerer
and Van Dorn (from APHA
etal, 1998).
The Data Form
In several places in this chapter and
throughout the manual, the importance of
volunteers completing the data form or data
sheet is expressed. The forms, when properly
filled out, provide a set of standardized data
useful to both managers and scientists.
Volunteer program leaders are responsible for
continuously emphasizing that properly
completed data forms are essential to data
quality. Rarely can a data manager feel
comfortable asking a volunteer about details
from the previous week's sampling exercise;
relying on memory is risky.
Data forms should be easy to
use and have space for water
quality data and all information
necessary to analyze, present,
and manage the data. Sample
data forms are provided in
Appendix A. As a backup to the
data form, some volunteers may
wish to bring a tape recorder
into the field to record
observations.
While data users and the
database manager should be
7-17
Volunteers collecting bacteria samples
using an extension pole (photo by Weeks
Bay Watershed Project).
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 7: In the Field.
involved in the development of the
data collection form, consideration
should also be given to the ease with
which volunteers can fill out and
understand the form (USEPA, 1990). If
the information is not important to the
project, it should not be asked for on
the data form.
One way to better ensure that volunteers
complete the data forms correctly and
completely is to involve them in the forms'
development. Periodic reviews of the forms
should also be conducted. As volunteers gain
experience with the forms and monitoring
sites, they can provide excellent suggestions
for improving the data forms. •
Volunteers collecting a water
sample from a dock using a
dissolved oxygen sampler
(photo by K. Register).
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996. A Citizen's Guide to Coastal
Watershed Surveys. 78 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor's Handbook. LaMotte Company,
Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.
Compton, R. 1962. Manual of Field Geology. John Wiley and Sons. New York.
Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual. Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.
Ely, E. 1995. "Determining Site Locations." The Volunteer Monitor 7(1).
Lee, V., D. Avery, E. Martin, and N. Wetherill. 1992. Salt Pond Watchers Protocol #1: Field
Sampling Manual. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island. Tech. Rpt. No. 14.
27pp.
7-18
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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McAninch, T. 1997. "Guarding Against Reagent Degradation." The Volunteer Monitor 9(1).
Stancioff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors of
Coastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and University
of Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Introduction to GPS for Field Biologists (TEC7132). Sept.
25-26, 1997. Shepherdstown, WV. National Conservation Training Center.
7: In the Field
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7; In the Field.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Data Management, Interpretation,
and Presentation
Data are like letters of the alphabet: taken individually, they reveal very little. Put
together with a little thought and organization, however, those same letters can tell a
complete story. By highlighting data management, interpretation, and presentation,
this chapter shows how data can he used to tell a story about your estuary.
-------
Photos (I to r): The Ocean Conservancy, L. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, K. Register
-------
, 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
Overview
Volunteer estuary monitoring objectives differ from one program to the next.
Meeting those objectives, however, usually requires similar steps. Regardless of
whether a volunteer program wants to use its data for citizen education or resource
management, the program must make its data understandable to its audience.
Many goals will be unmet if the volunteer program cannot clearly convey what its
data say about the estuary.
Data are like letters of the alphabet: taken individually, they reveal very little. Put
together with a little thought and organization, however, those same letters can tell a
complete story. By highlighting data management, interpretation, and presentation,
this chapter shows how data can be used to tell a story about your estuary.
8-1
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
After Data Collection: What Does It Mean?
Consider this situation: You have the
monitoring equipment. Volunteers are in the
field collecting data. Enthusiasm is high.
Everything is going smoothly and it's time to
relax.
But is it really?
As difficult as it may be to accept, the
aforementioned situation means one thing:
there is much more work to be done. What
will you do with the incoming data? As
discussed in previous chapters, monitoring
organizations should know the answer to this
question before they collect their first sample.
These decisions are made, in part, based on
the needs of potential data users, who are
particularly concerned about:
• databases and software used to manage
the data;
• procedures followed in order to verify
and check the raw volunteer data;
• analytical procedures employed to
convert the raw data into findings and
conclusions; and
• reporting formats.
Knowing how the data will be used should
drive the development and everyday
management of a volunteer monitoring
program.
Most programs intend to use their data to
tell a story about the estuary's health.
Similarly, most volunteers who collect the data
want to know what their information reveals
about the estuary. Without communicating that
data in a meaningful way to your intended
audience, the hard work of many volunteers
and volunteer leaders could be wasted. To take
information from data sheets and convert it to
something that makes sense to your audience
requires several elements, which are
summarized in Figure 8-1 and described in the
remainder of this chapter. •
Data Management
Figure 8-1. Steps
necessary to prepare
data for presentation.
Data tell a story about
the estuary.
As discussed in previous chapters, data
sheets should not only be easy for volunteers
to complete, but should also record all desired
information about the estuary and the
sampling sessions. The volunteer leader
cannot overemphasize to volunteers the
importance of careful and accurate data
recording. Incomplete or inaccurate data
sheets can cause serious problems when it
Data
Collection
Data
Management
Data Analysis/
Interpretation
Data
Presentation
comes time to interpret the data. Such prob-
lems can damage your program's credibility
and/or render the data useless, making all
worthwhile efforts futile.
Data management is everyone's respon-
sibility. The commitment by volunteers to
collect high quality data must be matched by
the program's commitment to make the
information understandable to its volunteers
and other data users. From the very early
stages of planning a volunteer monitoring
program, a sound data management plan must
be a priority. It should be clear how the data
will be processed, when it will be processed
and reported, and who will be responsible for
each task. An attitude of "Let's just get the
data now and figure out what to do with it
8-2
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, 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
later" can lead to wasted time and effort and a
huge data backlog.
Where Does the Data Go?
It is difficult to get any meaning from boxes
full of data sheets. The information collected
by volunteers needs to be organized and
readily accessible. Years ago, this may have
meant that the data might be organized in
handwritten tables. This method is still an
option, but a computerized data management
system provides a great deal of advantages,
especially if the data collection effort is
conducted at many sites and/or over a long
time period (Lease, 1995).
Database or Spreadsheet?
Today's computer software includes a
variety of spreadsheet and database packages
that allow you to organize the data and
perform statistical analyses. These options
make it easier to detect relationships between
data points. Spreadsheets are adequate for
most data management needs and have the
advantage of being relatively simple to use.
Most spreadsheet packages have graphics
capabilities that will allow you to plot your
data onto a graph of your choice (i.e., bar,
line, or pie chart). Examples of common
spreadsheet software packages are Lotus
1-2-3, Excel, and Quattro Pro.
Database software may be more difficult to
master and usually lack the graphics
capabilities of spreadsheet software. If you
manage large amounts of data, however,
having a database is almost a necessity. It can
store and manipulate very large data sets
without sacrificing speed. The database can
also relate records in one file to records in
another. This feature allows you to break your
data up into smaller, more easily managed
files that can work together as though they
were one.
The ability to query data is one of the most
significant advantages of using a database.
For example, the user can search for records
that show water temperature exceeding X
degrees over a specified time period, or
identify monitoring sites that have dissolved
oxygen levels between X and Y and the dates
of those observations. The questions can be
simple or quite complex and the answers or
output can be organized in a variety of ways.
If you use a database for data storage and
retrieval, you may still want to use a
spreadsheet or other program with graphics
capabilities. Many spreadsheet and database
software packages are compatible and will
allow you to transport data sets back and forth
with relative ease. Specific parts of the
database (such as results for a particular water
quality variable from all stations and all
sampling events) can then be transported into
the spreadsheet, statistically analyzed, and
graphically displayed. Examples of popular
database software packages are dBase,
Access, FileMaker Pro, and FoxPro.
Designing a Data Management System
Many people are capable of writing their
own programs to manipulate and display data.
The disadvantage of using a "homegrown"
software program, however, is that if its
author leaves the monitoring program, so too
does all knowledge about how the program
works. Commercial software, on the other
hand, comes with consumer services that
provide over-the-phone help and instructions,
users' guides, replacement guarantees, and
updates as the company improves its product.
Most commercial programs are developed to
import and export data in standard formats.
This feature is important because if you want
to share data with other programs or
organizations, all you need are compatible
software programs. However, some file
conversions may be more difficult than
advertised by the software manufacturer. To
avoid potential problems, consult with any
groups, government agencies, or laboratories
with whom you plan to share data and ensure
that your software packages are compatible
(Lease, 1995).
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
Shared Databases
Greater efforts are being made to develop data storage systems that facilitate data exchange
among different monitoring groups. A shared database serves to assimilate all the data being
collected in a particular region and therefore helps to increase understanding of environmental
conditions. Volunteer organizations are increasingly being encouraged to submit their data to
these shared databases.
To participate in a shared database, the volunteer organization usually must have a quality
assurance project plan (see Chapter 5) that meets the requirements of the group maintaining
the shared database. Using software programs that are compatible with the shared database
may also be necessary.
Shared databases may be developed for a specific resource (e.g., a river) or as a general
clearinghouse of information. One example of a broad database is the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's (EPA's) national water and biological data storage and retrieval system,
called STORET. With STORET, volunteer programs can submit data to a centralized file
server which permits national data analyses and through which data can be shared among
organizations. A specific set of quality control measures is required for any data entered into
the system. For more information, see the EPA Web page at www.epa.gov/owow/STORET/.
Data sharing also occurs at the state level. For example, the Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality (DEQ) will accept data from volunteers and load it into an in-house
monitoring database, the Laboratory Analytical Storage and Retrieval (LASAR). These data
are then periodically uploaded to the STORET system. The Department has established a
Required Data Elements Policy to enhance the widest use of data collected in Oregon. Visit
the DEQ Web site for contact information and a copy of the policy:
http://www.deq.state.or.us/wq/.
When designing databases or spreadsheets,
always keep in mind what you will ultimately
do with the data. Will you produce graphs or
reports? Will you need to show a map with
key data collection sites? Try to design your
data management system in a manner that will
make it easy to generate your final product.
Another consideration is who will input the
data and create the final products. As more
people, and especially volunteers, are
involved in data entry and management, more
emphasis should be placed on making the
system easy to use.
Helpful Hint
Ease of data entry is always an important
element to consider. Here are some
suggestions:
• Design the database or spreadsheet
before you collect any data—this will
help in the creation of your data sheets.
• Ideally, the database or spreadsheet
input screen and the field data sheets
used by volunteer monitors should look
alike.
• Design the database or spreadsheet in
such a way that it is readily apparent
where data should be entered. Data cells
can be highlighted with a special color,
for example.
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Coding Systems
Any data management system should be
flexible enough to meet future needs,
especially as data start to accumulate. An
easily understood coding system will help
simplify the tracking and recording of data.
Codes developed for sample sites, parameters,
and other information on field and lab sheets
should parallel the codes you use in your
database. If you will be sharing your
information with a state or local natural
resource agency, you may want your coding
system to match or complement the agency's
system.
Sample Sites
Because sample sites tend to change or grow
in number over time, it is important to have an
accommodating site numbering system. A good
convention to follow is to use a site coding
system that includes an abbreviation of the
waterbody or project plus a site number (e.g.,
GOR021 for a site on the Gooms River). By
using a site abbreviation and three-digit code,
999 sites can be created for each project, which
is plenty for most volunteer programs.
Water Quality Parameters
It is also important to develop a coding
system for each of the water quality parameters
you are testing. These are the codes you will
use in the database or spreadsheet to identify
and extract results. To keep the amount of
clerical work to a minimum, abbreviate without
losing the ability to distinguish parameters from
one another. For example, EC could represent
E. coli bacteria and FC could be the code for
fecal coliform bacteria.
Reviewing Data Sheets
Writers have editors to look for mistakes in
grammar, punctuation, etc. Similarly,
someone should be available to review
volunteers' data sheets. Even the best
professionals and volunteers can make data
recording mistakes; misplaced decimal points,
forgotten calculations, or data values
accidentally left blank are entirely possible.
The program coordinator or designated data
analyst should screen and review the field
data sheets immediately as they are received
and before the data are entered into the
database or spreadsheet. Waiting to review the
data sheets for discrepancies is not advised;
the longer you wait, the more likely it is that
the person who collected the data will forget
important details about the sampling effort
that could clarify any inconsistencies.
When reviewing the data sheets, the
program coordinator or other designated
person should ask the following:
• Are the field data sheets complete?
If a person is consistently leaving a section
of the sheet incomplete, ask why. You may
learn that he or she is unclear about a
monitoring procedure or has misunderstood
some instructions.
• Are the monitoring results very different
from what might usually be expected for the
site? If unexpected, are they still within the
realm of possibility?
For example, can the kit or technique used
actually produce the reported results? Does
the monitor offer any possible explanations
for the results (e.g., a sewage treatment plant
malfunction had been recently reported)? Is
there additional corollary information that
supports the data (e.g., a fish kill has been
observed along with the extremely low
dissolved oxygen readings)?
Also check for consistency between similar
parameters. For example, total solids and
turbidity should track together—if one goes
up, so should the other.
• Are there outliers—findings that differ radically
from past data or other data from similar sites?
Values that are off by a factor of 10 or 100
should be questioned. Follow up on any data
that seem suspect. If you cannot explain why
the results are so unusual, but they are still
within the realm of possibility, you may want to
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
flag the data as questionable. Ask an
experienced volunteer or program staff member
to sample at that site as a backup until
uncertainties are resolved, or work to verify that
proper sampling and analytical protocols are
being followed. Besides suggesting human
error, monitoring results that are radically
different than usual can indicate a problem with
the monitoring technique or a new and serious
problem at the monitoring site.
• Are all measurements reported in the
correct units?
Minimize the chance for error by including
on the data form itself any equations needed to
convert measurements and specify on the form
what units should be used. Check the math,
making sure that the monitor has followed the
program's rules for rounding numbers and
reporting the appropriate number of decimal
places. A value of zero should not be reported;
instead, report the value as less than the lowest
value that can be read with the equipment
(Miller, 1995). For example, if the range of a
test is 0-1 mg/1, the smallest increment is 0.01
mg/1, and the test result is zero, report the value
as "less than 0.01 mg/1" or "<0.01 mg/1."
All field data sheets should be kept on file
in the event that findings are brought into
question at a later date and to serve as backup
in case the computer-entered data are lost.
Helpful Hint
Reviewing data sheets doesn't only make
you aware of recording mistakes, but it can
also alert you to problems with your test
procedures. Ideally, results for a particular
test procedure should fall within the middle
range of the test. For example, if a test
range is 0-100 mg/1, most values should fall
somewhere in the middle. If your volunteers
are reporting many values of less than 10
mg/1, the precision for that test will not be
very good. You may need to switch to a
method having a range of 0-10 mg/1.
(Excerpted and adapted from Miller, 1995.)
Double-Checking Data Entry
Just as mistakes can be made recording data
on paper, errors can also be made entering
data into a computerized database or
spreadsheet. This possibility requires that the
data be printed and proofread against the
original field data sheets. Preferably, someone
other than the person who entered the data
should serve as proofreader.
As a further check, you can make some
simple calculations to ensure that no errors
have slipped through. For example, if the
median and the mean are very different, an
outlier may be skewing the results. If you find
an outlier, check for calculation or data entry
errors. If the unusual data points cannot be
explained by backup information on the field
data sheets or the comment field in the
database, flag the data as questionable until
they can be verified.
Your database or spreadsheet can also be
designed to minimize common data entry
errors. One way to reduce error is to restrict
acceptable input possibilities to those that are
within the realistic range of values for a
particular water quality variable. For example,
the data program can be made to reject pH
data values greater than 14, since such values
are not possible. •
Helpful Hint
It is always a good idea to make backups of
any electronic database or spreadsheet.
Duplicate files should be made on disk or
tape and stored at another site, if possible.
To further protect your data from some
unfortunate disaster, print and store
hardcopies of all data sets and keep the
original data sheets.
(Excerpted and adapted from Sayce, 1999.)
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Data Interpretation
While computers are quite helpful in
organizing data, deciphering the story behind
these facts remains a human job. The overall
purpose of data interpretation is to get
answers to your study design questions—the
same questions that originally provoked you
to start your monitoring program.
As an example, imagine that you want to
determine where water quality criteria are not
being met in the estuary. To do this, you must
first develop preliminary findings, or objec-
tive observations about your data (Dates,
1995). By looking at the data, for example,
you might be able to identify:
• variables that failed to meet water
quality criteria;
• monitoring sites that regularly failed to
meet the criteria;
• dates on which most or all of the sites
did not meet the criteria, and the
environmental conditions (e.g., weather,
flow) on those dates;
• sites upstream and downstream of a
suspected pollution source that show
different monitoring results; and
• changes in one water quality variable
that coincide with changes in another.
Your findings will help you look more
critically at the data. With the facts in hand,
you might naturally want to figure out why
the data are what they are, especially if your
findings reveal that water quality criteria are
not met in certain areas. This will require
more effort, but is certainly worthwhile: once
reasons for poor water quality are found,
solutions can be developed.
Ask yourself questions to help you decide
whether human alterations, natural conditions,
and/or data collection processing mistakes
might explain your results.
• Could weather influence your results
(e.g., do problem levels coincide with
intense rainstorms)?
Do specific sources explain your results
(e.g., can increased bacteria levels be
attributed to a wastewater treatment
plant, failing septic system, or a large
population of waterfowl or domesticated
animals)?
Do changes in one of your indicators
appear to explain changes in another?
For example, high temperatures (caused
by a thermal discharge or a heat wave)
might explain low oxygen levels.
Do your visual observations explain any
of your results? Did your samplers
report any strange pipes, construction
activity, flocks of birds, or dry weather
discharges from storm drain pipes?
For multiple years of data, are there
overall trends? For example, did the
submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
community improve or deteriorate over
time? The former could be explained by
improved pollution control; the latter, by
new pollution sources.
If you are monitoring the impact of a
pollution source (e.g., a wastewater
treatment plant), are there other
upstream impacts that might be
influencing and confusing your results?
For example, if a dairy farm is located
immediately upstream from the
wastewater treatment plant that you are
monitoring, it might be difficult to
figure out which source is causing the
water quality problems revealed by your
data. Alternatively, it could be difficult
to determine how the two sources
combine to cause the problems.
Could unusual or unexpected data be
attributed to contaminated samples or
human sampling error?
Did the time of sampling affect your
results? For example, dissolved oxygen
levels are generally lowest in the early
morning hours. Sampling for dissolved
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
Figure 8-2. Graphic
representation of the
mean. The mean is
located at the peak of a
normal or bell-shaped
distribution curve.
Mean
Value
oxygen in the afternoon could overlook
the estuary's worst-case conditions.
Could the water quality variable occur
in several places throughout the
ecosystem? For example, if you found
low levels of phosphorus in the water
column, there might be high levels in
bottom sediments or plants. Algae
blooms are evidence of nutrient
enrichment that may not be apparent in
water samples.
Helpful Hint
Comparing older photos with more recent
ones from the same location can help
volunteers understand changing land uses
and perhaps help you interpret water quality
changes.
Summary Statistics
Summary statistics describe the basic
attributes of a set of data for a given
parameter. There are many different types of
statistics that can be used. Program leaders
should consult a standard statistics manual,
their data users, and their quality
assurance project plan to
determine which statistical
methods are most appropriate
for their data. Two of the most
frequently used descriptors of
environmental data are the
mean and standard deviation.
They are briefly described here.
Textbook statistics commonly
assume that if a parameter is
measured many times under the
same conditions, then the
measurement values will be
randomly distributed around the
average with more values
clustering near the average than
further away. In this ideal
situation, a graph of the
frequency of each measure
plotted against its magnitude
should yield a bell-shaped or normal curve.
The mean and the standard deviation
determine the height and breadth of this
curve, respectively (Figures 8-2 and 8-3).
The mean is simply the sum of all the
measurement values divided by the number of
measurements. Commonly referred to as the
"average," this statistic marks the highest point
at the center of a normal curve (Figure 8-2).
The standard deviation, on the other hand,
describes the variability of the data points
around the mean. Very similar measurement
values will have a small standard deviation,
while widely scattered data will have a much
larger standard deviation (Figure 8-3). A high
standard deviation indicates imprecise data
(see Chapter 5 for a discussion of precision
and an equation for calculating standard
deviation).
While both the mean and the standard
deviation are quite useful in describing
estuarine data, often the actual measures do
not fit a normal distribution. Other statistics
sometimes come into play to describe the
data. Some data are skewed in one direction
or the other, while others might produce a
flattened bell shape (Figure 8-4).
Deviation from the normal distribution
often occurs in estuary sampling because the
estuary is dynamic, with many factors
influencing the condition of its waters. The
various methods used to collect data can also
cause non-normal distributions. For example,
if volunteers are collecting water quality data
in SAV beds (see Chapter 18), the distribution
of water quality variables will tend to be
skewed toward good water quality because
water quality has to be of a certain minimum
standard to support the growth of these
underwater plants.
Another common cause of non-normal
distribution occurs because of detection
limits. A detection limit marks the boundary
above or below the concentrations or values
measured by a particular method. Secchi
depth measurements, for example, have an
upper detection limit determined by water
depth (i.e., the Secchi depth cannot exceed the
water depth) and a lower limit determined by
8-8
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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, Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
the smallest increment of measure on the
rope. Figure 8-5 shows how both low and
high values may be truncated by these
detection limits.
Mystery Solved?
We might like to think our data will tell us
everything about what is happening in the
estuary. In reality, the data may not tell the
whole story—or even part of it. As with any
scientific study, your data may be inconclu-
sive, especially if your program has been
monitoring for only a short time (Dates,
1995). Indeed, since the workings of an
estuary are complex, it is often difficult to
determine trends for many water quality
variables (e.g., nutrients) unless the
monitoring has occurred over several seasons.
In fact, several years' worth of unusual data
may be quite misleading and tell a story very
different than the long-term situation.
Concluding that you need additional
information to better understand the estuary is
completely acceptable.
On the other hand, anomalous data can
indicate problems requiring immediate action.
For example, data showing high
turbidity and accompanied by
visual observations of
abnormally cloudy water could
indicate a significant sediment
or nutrient runoff problem from
many possible sources (e.g.,
construction sites, farmland,
forestry operations, golf courses,
etc.). Such information should
be brought to the immediate
attention of proper authorities for
further investigation.
Keep in mind that your data
should support your interpretations.
Still, your interpretations are
simply your best judgments about
the data. Even if you include your
volunteers, data users, and others
who are knowledgeable about the estuary in
reviewing the data, others may disagree with
your interpretation. That is not atypical.
However, as long as your data support your
interpretation and you have followed a
reasonable data interpretation process, you
should be able to defend your position. •
Mean
S=1
S=3
Value
Figure 8-3. Graphic representation of
the standard deviation. A small standard
deviation corresponds to a "peaked" fre-
quency distribution, while a larger stan-
dard deviation corresponds to a more
"flattened" distribution.
Normal (Bell-shaped)
Right Skewed
Left Skewed
Flattened
Value
Figure 8-4. Examples of frequency distributions.
Because of the complexity of estuarine systems,
deviations to the normal bell-shaped distribution
curve are common.
Month
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
-3T 0.5-
8
03
oo 1.5
Minimum f
measure on —'
Secchl rope
Figure 8-5. Example of limitations on Secchi depth
measurements in an hypothetical monitoring program.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
Data Presentation
A project coordinator in Puerto Rico reviews
the significance of marine debris data with her
young volunteers. Presentations should be
designed according to the type of audience
(photo by L. Monk).
Know Your Audience
When you feel
fully confident that
you have assembled
the best possible
picture of
environmental
conditions in your
study areas, it is
your job to make
others—your
volunteers, data
users, local fishing
clubs, or any other
audience—aware of
what you found.
Whether citizen programs convey
monitoring results in a periodic newsletter,
annual report, or by verbal presentation, the
key to rousing and sustaining the interest of
the audience remains the same. The speaker
or writer must determine the interests,
background, and level of technical
understanding of the target audience and
prepare the presentation accordingly.
Remember: The burden of communication is
on the presenter to convey the information,
not on the audience to understand (Sayce,
1999).
In presenting data results to volunteers or
other interested parties, several points merit
consideration:
• Highly technical or extremely simplistic
presentations bore the audience. An
informative and lively approach, molded
to the expectations of the audience, will
be far more effective. Simple graphics
often help make complicated issues
much more understandable.
• A presentation should focus on a clear
message related to your audience's
interests. Your audience will likely be
more interested in specifics such as
trends in water quality, seasonal
variation, quality assurance issues, or
the identification of trouble spots in the
estuary rather than an across-the-board
synopsis of all the monitoring results.
• Data presentations, whether written or
verbal, should be both timely and
relevant. Volunteers will maintain a
higher level of interest if they see a
quick turnaround of their data into
usable and informative graphics and
summaries. Moreover, your nutrient
data won't have much influence on
community decision-makers if you miss
the public hearing on a sewer upgrade
project. As mentioned earlier, trends
may be difficult to determine with
limited data, so one should exercise
caution when implying that data show
long term trends.
• Better understanding on the part of your
audience may lead to more community
support, more funding, better
management policies, and greater
citizen involvement.
When presenting data, one of your chief
goals should be to maintain the attention and
interest of your audience. This is very difficult
using tables filled with numbers. Most people
will not be interested in the absolute values of
each parameter at each sampling site; rather,
they will want to know the bottom line for
each site (e.g., is it good or bad) and seasonal
and year-to-year trends.
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, Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
Technical vs. Non-Technical Audiences
When addressing water quality or planning professionals, you should provide information about:
• the purpose of the study;
• who conducted it;
• how it was funded;
• the methods used;
• the quality control measures taken;
• your interpretation of the results;
• your conclusions and recommendations; and
• further questions that have arisen as a result of the study.
Graphics, tables, and maps may be fairly sophisticated. Be sure to include the raw data in a
written report's appendix and note any problems encountered.
A report for the general public should be short and direct. It is very important to convey
information in a non-technical style and to include definitions for terms and concepts that may be
unfamiliar to the layperson. Simple charts, summary tables, and maps with accompanying
explanations can be especially useful. Include a brief description of the program, the purpose of
the monitoring, an explanation of the parameters that were monitored, the location of sample
sites, a summary of the results, and any recommendations that may have been made.
In any written report or presentation, you should acknowledge the volunteers and the sources of
funding and other support.
(Excerpted and adapted from USEPA, 1997.)
Graphics
Graphics, when used properly, are excellent
tools to present a great deal of information in
a condensed yet understandable format. They
enliven the presentation, highlight trends, and
illustrate comparative relationships. Graphics
include flowcharts, maps, and graphs or charts
of the data. Such graphics, along with
narrative interpretation, summary statistics,
tables, overheads, and slides, help construct a
well-rounded and interesting presentation.
Graphs and Charts
Results summarized from the volunteer-
collected data can be displayed in any of
several styles of graphs. Choosing the style
that best conveys the information is critical
and requires careful thought. Although more
sophisticated graphic styles may be required
to present some data, three basic types are
often used for volunteer monitoring data: the
bar graph, pie chart, and line graph.
Bar Graph
The bar graph uses
simple columns (Figure
8-6). The height of
each column represents
the value of a data
point, making !i
comparisons of the data
relatively easy.
Modifications can be
made to the standard
bar graph for visual
appeal. For example,
Figure 8-7 shows
#2 #3
Category
#4
Figure 8-6. Bar graph.
8-11
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
-3 = -3
I -H I
(o i (c
0.5-
1-
±1.5-
u
u
CD
" 2H
2.5
0> 0. «...
= 0. 0> «. U U
< 0> CO u o O
us °? (i 9 (i •A
^™ ^™ ^™ ^™ ^™ CO
Figure 8-7. Modification of typical bar graph to illustrate Secchi depth data.
1200
Not permissible for swimming
Permissible for boating and fisbing (under 5,000)
turbidity data, as measured by a Secchi disk.
In this graphic, depth increases in a
downward direction along the vertical axis to
simulate actual water depth. This minor
change from the norm, along with the use of
Secchi disk icons extending down from the
"surface," makes the data easy to understand.
In bar graphs of pH, dissolved oxygen,
bacteria, or other water quality variables for
which a standard value exists, consider
inserting a line across the graphic showing the
standard (Figure 8-8). This helps in
understanding when your results indicate
problems.
Pie Chart
The pie chart (Figure 8-9) is a simple yet
effective means of comparing each category
within the data set to the whole. It is best used
to present relational data, such as percentages.
The chart's pie shape, with the pie
representing the total and the individual
wedges representing distinct categories,
makes this graphic style popular due to its
simplicity and clarity.
Certain data may be better described by a
pie chart than others. For example, it can be
very useful for summarizing the composition
percentages of marine debris found at a
particular site (e.g., the percent of plastic,
paper, glass, etc., debris), but not for
presenting dissolved oxygen trends.
Figure 8-8. Bar graph showing fecal coliform data values and comparing them
with water quality standards.
Category 4
Category 1
Category 3
Category 2
Figure 8-9. Pie chart.
Helpful Hint
If there are many small percentages in your
pie chart, consider reducing the clutter by
grouping the values together as an "other"
category. Identify the items in the "other"
slice of the pie elsewhere, especially if you
are presenting the information to a
technical audience.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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, 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
Line Graph
A line graph (Figure 8-10) is constructed by
connecting the data points with a line. It can
be effectively used for depicting changes over
time or space. This type of graph places more
emphasis on trends and the relationship
among data points and less emphasis on any
particular data point.
Line graphs can also be used to compare
two water quality variables that may be
related. Figure 8-11, for example, shows
dissolved oxygen concentrations and water
temperature. The plot of the two parameters
shows that as water temperature increases
through the summer, oxygen levels generally
decline. The opposite occurs as cooler
autumn temperatures set in.
and Photographs
Displaying the results of your monitoring
data on a map can be a very effective way of
helping people understand what the data
signify. A map can show the location of
sample sites in relation to features such as
cities, wastewater treatment plants, farmland,
and tributaries that may have an effect on
water quality. This type of graphic display can
be used to effectively show the correlation
between specific activities or land uses and
the impacts they have on the ecosystem.
Because a map displays the estuary's
relationship to neighborhoods, parks, and
recreational areas, it can also help to elicit
concern for the estuary and strengthen interest
in protecting it.
There arc different types of maps available.
These include:
« topographic maps, which show
natural features and elevations;
o>
o
_t«
ea
10
bathyractric maps,
which show the
relief (deep and
shallow portions)
on the bottom of
estuaries;
Geographic
Information
System (CIS)
maps, which arc
computer-gener-
ated and can show
a variety of features (see box,
page 8-14);
highway or street atlas maps;
geologic maps;
soil maps;
geologic or engineering hazards
maps;
flood inundation maps; and
hand-drawn maps.
#2
#3 #4
Category
#5
#6
Figure 8-10. Line graph.
16-
-25
Water Temperature
. Dissolved Oxygen
30
o
w
-.".;
-20
-15 -
-10
co
13
5
A <0
Figure 8-11. Line graph comparing values for two related water quality variables.
8-13
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
Helpful Hint
Here are some tips for making your graphics easy to understand:
• Have the graph serve a clear purpose. The information contained in the graph should be relatively easy to interpret and
relate closely to the text of a document or script of a presentation.
• Do not distort the meaning of the data. Graphical representations of the data points should be proportional to each
point's actual value (Figure 8-12).
• Ensure that the labeling of graphics is clear and accurate. A table of the data values should accompany any graph that is
likely to be misunderstood.
• Keep the graphic design simple. Complex or tricky graphics often hide the true meaning of the data. Avoid cluttering the
graph with labels, arrows, grids, fill patterns, and other "visual noise" that unnecessarily complicate the graphic. Use
simple fonts that are easy to read.
• Limit the number of graphic elements. A pie chart, for example, should be divided into no more than five or six wedges.
Keep the number of superimposed lines on a line graph and the quantity of columns in a bar graph to a minimum.
• Consider the proportions of the chart and the legibility of the type and graphic elements. A horizontal format is generally
more visually appealing, simpler to understand, and makes labels easier to read. The elements should fill the dimensions
of the graph to create a balanced effect. Ensure that the axes are labeled with legible titles and that the tick marks
showing data intervals are not crowded along the axis lines. Avoid cryptic abbreviations whenever possible,
remembering that you want your audience to fully understand the information in the graphic.
• Create a title for the chart that is simple yet informative.
• Remember that 8 percent of the U. S. population is colorblind. When color-coding results, don't use both red and green
on the same graphic. You may also use shapes or symbols in addition to color.
• Whet her you use color, shading, or patterns, be sure that an easy-to-understand data key is included or that the data are
clearly labeled.
• If you will need to photocopy color graphics, make sure that the colors are still distinguishable when the graphics are
photocopied in black and white.
• Be consistent when comparing data; for example, don't mix pie charts with bar graphs.
(Portions excerpted and adapted from Schoen et a/., 1999.)
Geographic Information Systems
Computer software systems that allow you to map and manipulate various layers of
information (such as water quality data, land use information, county boundaries, or geologic
conditions) are known as Geographic Information Systems (GIS). They can vary from simple
systems run on personal computers to sophisticated and very powerful ones that run on large
mainframes. For any GIS application, you need to know the coordinates of your sample
sites—either their latitude and longitude, or some alternate system. You can also locate your
sites on a topographic map that can be digitized onto an electronic map of the watershed.
Once these points have been established, you can link your database to the points on the map,
query your database, and create graphic displays of the data.
Powerful GIS applications typically require expensive hardware, software, and technical
training. Any volunteer program interested in GIS applications may consider working in
partnership with other organizations such as universities, natural resource agencies, or large
nonprofit groups that can provide access to a GIS.
8-14
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, Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
a)
14
9
4
pH, Gooms Bay
Sitel Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5
b)
pH, Gooms Bay
Sitel
Site 2 Site 3 Site 4
SiteS
c)
Total Phosphorous, Gooms Bay
on
m
Above
Golf Course
Below
d)
325
—
o>
=*- 30
Q_
• 275
Total Phosphorous, Gooms Bay
Above
Golf Course
Below
Figure 8-12. Scale considerations for presenting data. The pH graph in (a) gives the mistaken impression that the results are
similar at each site. The graph in (b) uses a narrower y-axis scale, thereby doing a better job of showing the significant differences
among monitoring sites. Changing scales to dramatize insignificant differences (c and d), however, is not recommended.
The display map should show principal
features such as roads, municipal boundaries.
waterways, and other familiar landmarks (e.g.,
schools and churches). It should have
sufficient detail and scale to show the location
of sample sites and have space for summary
information about each site.
When displaying your data on a map,
consider the following:
• Keep the amount of information
presented on each map to a minimum.
Do not try to put so much on one map
that it becomes visually complicated
and difficult to read or understand. A
good rule of thumb is to read the map
without referring to the legend. If the
map is not easily understood or if
symbols, lines, and colors are not
distinct from each other, then you
should use another map to display a
different layer or "view" of the data.
For example, if there are several dates
for which you wish to display
sampling results, use one map for
each date.
Clearly label the map and provide an
explanation of how to interpret it. If
you need a long and complicated
explanation, you may want to present
the data differently. If you have
reached a clear conclusion, state the
conclusion on the map. For example,
if a map shows that tributaries are
cleaner than the mainstem, use that
information as the subtitle of the map.
Provide a key to the symbols that are
used on the map.
Rather than packing lots of
information into a small area of the
map, use a "blowup" or enlargement
of the area elsewhere on the map to
adequately display the information.
Use symbols that vary in size and
pattern to represent the magnitude of
results. For example, a site with a
fecal coliform level of 10 colonies/
100 ml could be a light gray circle
with a 1/16-inch diameter while a site
with a level of 200 colonies/100 ml
would be a dark gray circle 1/4-inch
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapters: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
A volunteer distributes information to passersby at
an Earth Day event in Washington, DC (photo by
The Ocean Conservancy).
in diameter. Start
by finding the
highest and
lowest values,
assign diameters
and patterns to
those values, and
then fill in steps
along the way.
For the above
example you
might have four
ranges: 0 to 99,
100 to 199, 200 to
500, and 500+.
Photographs also
add great value to your project. Aerial photos
of the monitoring sites add a "personal
touch," allowing citizens to see their houses
or favorite fishing spots. This can pique their
interest in the project.
Ground-level pictures of algal blooms,
monitoring sites, and volunteers in action are
also helpful. They are qualitative records of
your estuary's health or your monitoring
project and help your audience understand
your project and program's activities.
Compiling a photo library is always a good
idea, especially when last-minute additions
are needed for reports, press releases, display
booths, and presentations.
Getting the Word Out
On a regular basis, a successful volunteer
estuary monitoring program should report key
findings to volunteers, data users, and the
general public, including the media. As
mentioned previously, state water quality
agencies will require detailed reports, whereas
shorter and less technical summaries are more
appropriate for the general public.
The volunteer program should develop a
strategy for distributing and publicizing
reports. All reports should be subjected to the
review process prescribed by your quality
assurance project plan, and your program's
leaders should be confident about the data and
comfortable with the statements and
conclusions before the report is made public.
When your report's findings and conclusions
are released to the public, you will need to be
prepared to respond to questions regarding the
data and your interpretation of that data.
Some ideas for distributing project results and
informing the public include the following:
Written Report
A written document is a good instrument for
getting your information out to a wide
audience. If you have access to a mailing list of
people who are interested in your estuary, mail
the report with a cover letter that summarizes
the major findings of the study. The cover letter
should be brief and enticing so that the recipient
will be curious enough to read the report. If you
want people to take some kind of action, such
as supporting the expenditure of public funds to
upgrade a sewage treatment plant, you may
want to ask for their support in the cover letter.
If you do not have an extensive mailing list,
perhaps other organizations that share your
goals would be willing to supply you with their
lists. Be sure to also send the report to state and
federal agencies; newspapers; radio and
television stations; local libraries; colleges and
universities; research stations; and high schools,
if appropriate.
Instead of long technical reports, you may
want to develop fact sheets for public
distribution. These summaries of your findings
and conclusions should make your points
quickly and instruct the reader on how to obtain
more information.
Speaking Tour
Develop an oral presentation (with slides,
overheads, etc.) that could be offered to groups
such as the local chamber of commerce, civic
clubs, conservation organizations, schools, and
government entities. Your presentation could
even be videotaped for distribution to a wider
audience.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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, 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation
Public Meetings
Schedule a series of public meetings that
highlight the monitoring program, its findings,
and its recommendations. At the meetings,
distribute the written report, answer questions,
and tell your audience how they can get
involved. These meetings can also help you
recruit more volunteers.
Be sure to schedule the meetings at times
when people are more likely to attend (i.e.,
weekday evenings, weekend days) and avoid
periods when people are usually busy or on
vacation. Invite the media and publicize the
meetings in newspaper calendars; send press
releases to radio and television stations,
newspapers, and other organizations; and ask
volunteers to distribute fliers at grocery
stores, city hall, etc.
Press Releases and Press Conferences
As explained in Chapter 3, distributing a
press release is a cost-effective means of
informing the public about the results and
accomplishments of your program. Develop a
mailing list of newspapers, radio and
television stations, and organizations that
solicit articles for publication. Send the news
release to volunteers and others who are
interested in publicizing the monitoring
program.
If your report contains some real news or if
it has led to a significant event (e.g., the
mayor or city council has recognized the
value of the report and issued a statement of
support), hold a press conference (see Chapter
3 for details).
Exhibits
Set up displays at river festivals, county
fairs, conferences, libraries, storefront
windows, boat ramps, or parks. Exhibits allow
you to show your data to a variety of
audiences, usually in an informal setting.
Web Sites
Placing data on your program's Web site or
the sites of project partners can be a useful
and convenient way to make your data
available. Almost everyone has access to the
Internet and developing a Web page is
relatively easy.
People curious about your project can view
the Web site for raw data, graphics, photos,
and commentary. In addition, posting
information on the site can save staff
resources that would otherwise be spent
printing and mailing the results or explaining
results over the phone.
Once people know where they can find
your data, they can continue to check the site
for updates.
Other Publicity
Be creative in getting your report and
message out. Try writing letters to the editor
or op-ed articles for local or statewide papers,
producing radio feeds (a recording of the
group's leader played over the phone to a
radio station), issuing media advisories, and
even advertising in publications. •
8-17
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation.
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Dates, G. 1995. "Interpreting Your Data." The Volunteer Monitor 7(1).
Lease, F. 1995. "Designing a Data Management System." The Volunteer Monitor 7(1).
Schoen, J., M-F. Walk, and M.L. Tremblay. 1999. Ready, Set, Present! A Data Presentation
Manual for Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring Groups. Massachusetts Water Watch
Partnership. Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Web site: http://www.umass.edu/tei/mwwp/datapresmanual.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
Dates, G., and J. Schloss. 1998. Data to Information: A Guide for Coastal Water Quality
Monitoring Groups in New Hampshire and Maine. Univ. of Maine Cooperative Extension
and ME/NH Sea Grant. Waldoboro, ME.
Ely, E. (ed.) 1995. The Volunteer Monitor. "Special Topic: Managing and Presenting Your Data."
7(1).
Hubbell, S. 1995. "Seize the Data." The Volunteer Monitor 7(1).
Miller, J.K. 1995. "Data Screening and Common Sense." The Volunteer Monitor 7(1).
Rector, J. 1995. '"Variability Happens': Basic Descriptive Statistics for Volunteer Programs."
The Volunteer Monitor 1'(1).
River Watch Network. 1995. Program Organizing Guide. River Watch Program of River
Network. Montpelier, VT.
Sayce, K. 1999. "Data Analysis and Presentation." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide
for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Proceedings—Fifth National Volunteer
Monitoring Conference: Promoting Watershed Stewardship. August 3-7, 1996, University of
Wisconsin-Madison. EPA 841-R-97-007.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/proceedings/toc.html.
8-18
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chemical Measures
Oxygen • Nutrients • pH and Alkalinity • Toxins
-------
Photos (I to r): G. Carver, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel
-------
Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen concentrations indicate how well aerated the water is, and vary
according to a number of factors, including season, time of day, temperature, and
salinity. Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen consumed in
the water by chemical and biological processes.
-------
Photos (I to r) K. Register, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel
-------
Unit Chemical Measures 9: Oxygen
Nearly all aquatic life needs oxygen to survive. Because of its importance to
estuarine ecosystems, oxygen is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring
programs. When monitoring oxygen, volunteers usually measure dissolved oxygen
and biochemical oxygen demand.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations indicate how well aerated the water is. and
van- according to a number of factors, including season, time of day, temperature,
and salinity. Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen
consumed in the water by chemical and biological processes.
This chapter discusses the role of dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen
demand in the estuarine environment. It provides steps for measuring these water
quality variables. Finally, a case study is provided.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Why Monitor Oxygen?
Of all the parameters that characterize an
estuary, the level of oxygen in the water is one
of the best indicators of the estuary's health. An
estuary with little or no oxygen cannot support
healthy levels of animal or plant life.
Unlike many of the problems plaguing
estuaries, the consequences of a rapid decline in
oxygen set in quickly and animals must move
to areas with higher levels of oxygen or perish.
This immediate impact makes measuring the
level of oxygen an important means of
assessing water quality. •
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)
Oxygen enters estuarine waters from the
atmosphere and through aquatic plant photosyn-
thesis. Currents and wind-generated waves boost
the amount of oxygen in the water by putting
more water in contact with the atmosphere.
Dissolved Oxygen in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
DO is one of the most important factors con-
trolling the presence or absence of estuarine
species. It is crucial for most animals and plants
except for a small minority that can survive
under conditions with little or no oxygen.
Animals and plants require oxygen for respira-
tion—a process critical for basic metabolic
processes.
In addition to its use in respiration, oxygen is
needed to aid in decomposition. An integral part
of an estuary's ecological cycle is the break-
down of organic matter. Like animal and plant
respiration, this process consumes oxygen.
Decomposition of large quantities of organic
matter by bacteria can severely deplete the
water of oxygen and make it uninhabitable for
many species.
An overload of nutrients from wastewater
treatment plants or runoff from various land
uses also adds to the problem. Nutrients fuel the
overgrowth of phytoplankton, known as a
bloom. The phytoplankton ultimately die, fall to
the bottom, decompose, and use up oxygen in
the deep waters of the estuary. Although nutri-
ents from human activities are a major cause of
depleted oxygen, low oxygen conditions may
also naturally occur in estuaries relatively unaf-
fected by humans. Generally, however, the
severity of low DO and the length of time that
low oxygen conditions persist in these areas are
less extreme.
DO and nutrients can be connected in another
way. When oxygen is low, nutrients bound to
bottom sediments can be released into the water
column, thereby permitting more plankton
growth and eventually more oxygen depletion.
Other pollutants may also be released from sedi-
ments under low oxygen conditions, potentially
causing problems for the estuarine ecosystem.
Oxygen availability to aquatic organisms is
complicated by the fact that its solubility in
water is generally poor. Salt water absorbs even
less oxygen than fresh water (e.g., seawater at
10°C can hold a maximum dissolved oxygen
concentration of 9.0 mg/1, while fresh water at
the same temperature can hold 11.3 mg/1).
Warm water also holds less oxygen than cold
water (e.g., seawater can hold a dissolved oxy-
gen concentration of 9.0 mg/1 at 10°C, but that
concentration drops to 7.3 mg/1 when the tem-
perature increases to 20°C). Therefore, warm
estuarine water can contain very little dissolved
oxygen, and this can have severe consequences
for aquatic organisms.
Levels of Dissolved Oxygen
Although we may think of water as homoge-
neous and unchanging, its chemical constitution
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
Chapter 9: Oxygen
does, in fact, vary over time. Oxygen levels, in
particular, may change sharply in a matter of
hours. DO concentrations are affected by physi-
cal, chemical, and biological factors (Figure 9-
1), making it difficult to assess the significance
of any single DO value.
At the surface of an estuary, the water at mid-
day is often close to oxygen saturation due both
to mixing with air and the production of oxygen
by plant photosynthesis (an activity driven by
sunlight). As night falls, photosynthesis ceases
and plants consume available oxygen, forcing DO
levels at the surface to decline. Cloudy weather
may also cause surface water DO levels to drop
since reduced sunlight slows photosynthesis.
DO levels in an estuary can fluctuate greatly
with depth, especially during certain times of
the year. Temperature differences between the
surface and deeper parts of the estuary may be
quite distinct during the warmer months.
Vertical stratification in estuarine waters
(warmer, fresher water over colder, saltier
water) during the late spring to summer period
is quite effective in blocking the transfer of
oxygen between the upper and lower layers (see
Figure 9-1). In a well-stratified estuary, very lit-
tle oxygen may reach lower depths and the
deep water may remain at a fairly constant low
level of DO. Changing seasons or storms, how-
ever, can cause the stratification to disintegrate,
allowing oxygen-rich surface water to mix with
the oxygen-poor deep water. This period of
mixing is known as an overturn.
When DO declines below threshold levels,
which vary depending upon the species, mobile
animals must move to waters with higher DO;
immobile species often perish. Most animals
and plants can grow and reproduce unimpaired
when DO levels exceed 5 mg/1. When levels
drop to 3-5 mg/1, however, living organisms
often become stressed. If levels fall below 3
mg/1, a condition known as hypoxia, many
species will move elsewhere and immobile
species may die. A second condition, known
as anoxia, occurs when the water becomes
totally depleted of oxygen (below 0.5 mg/1)
and results in the death of any organism that
requires oxygen for survival. Figure 9-2 sum-
marizes DO thresholds in estuarine waters. •
Phytoplankton bloom
thrives on nutrients
DO from wave action
& photosynthesis
Lighter freshwater
Heavier seawater
HYPOXIA
DO used up by
microorganism respiration
Nutrients released
by bottom sediments
Fish able to
avoid hypoxia
DO Consumed
Shellfish
unable to
escape
hypoxia
Decomposition of organic
matter in sediments
Figure 9-1. Physical, chemical, and biological processes that affect dissolved
oxygen concentrations in estuaries. (Redrawn from USEPA, 1998.)
DO Concentration (mg/1)
6 mg/1
K mn/i Usually required lor
y growth and activity
hypoxia
anoxia
4 mg/1
3 ma/| Stressful to most aquatic
organisms
2 m g/l Usually will not
support fish
1 mg/l
0 mg/l
Figure 9-2. Dissolved oxygen in the water. A minimum DO concentration
of 5 mg/l is usually necessary to fully support aquatic life.
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Chapter 9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Sampling Considerations
Figure 9-3. Dissolved oxygen samplers. Many of these
instruments may also be used to collect samples for the
analysis of other water quality variables.
Chapter 6 summarized several factors that
should be considered when determining
monitoring sites, where to monitor in the water
column, and when to monitor. In addition to the
considerations in Chapter 6, a few additional
ones specific to oxygen monitoring are
presented here.
When to Sample
In estuarine systems, sampling for DO
throughout the year is preferable to establish a
clear picture of water quality. If year-round
sampling is not possible, taking samples from
the beginning of spring well into autumn will
provide a program with the most significant
data. Warm weather conditions bring on
hypoxia and anoxia, which pose serious
problems for the estuary's plants and animals.
Because these conditions are rare during winter,
cold weather data can serve as a baseline of
information.
Sampling once a week is
generally sufficient to capture the
variability of DO in the estuary.
Since DO may fluctuate
throughout the day, volunteers
should sample at about the same
time of day each week. This way,
they are less likely to record data
that largely capture daily
fluctuations. Some programs
suggest that
volunteers
sample in the
morning near
dawn as well as
mid-afternoon to
capture the daily
high and low
DO values.
In some areas,
especially large
tidal swings can
work to weaken
the stratification
in the estuary. Tidal effects, then, could be a
consideration when collecting and analyzing
DO data.
Where to Sample
As mentioned previously, estuary
stratification can have an impact on DO levels
at different depths. Stratification is especially
evident during the summer months, when warm
fresh water overlies colder, saltier water. Very
little mixing occurs between the layers, forming
a boundary to mixing.
Because DO levels vary with depth—
especially during the summer—volunteer
groups may wish to collect samples at different
depths. Van Dorn and Kemmerer samplers (see
Chapter 7) are commonly used to collect these
kinds of samples. In addition, there are several
water samplers designed primarily for
collecting DO samples at different depths
(Figure 9-3). Appendix C provides a list of
equipment suppliers.
Choosing a Sampling Method
Citizen programs may elect to use either a
DO electronic meter or one of the several
available DO test kits (Table 9-1). If the
volunteer group wants its data to be used
by state or federal agencies, it is wise to
confer with the appropriate agency
beforehand to determine an acceptable
monitoring method.
Meters
The electronic meter measures DO based on
the rate of molecular oxygen diffusion across a
membrane. The results from a DO meter are
extremely accurate, providing the unit is well-
maintained, calibrated, and the membrane is
handled in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions before each use. To properly
calibrate some DO meters, knowledge of the
sampling site's salinity is necessary.
The DO probe may be placed directly into
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
Chapter 9: Oxygen
Table 9-1. Summary of dissolved oxygen monitoring methods. Depending on the method used, DO
measurements may be made in the field or in a laboratory (USEPA, 1997).
Method
Location of
Measurement
Comments
Meter
Field
The meter must be properly calibrated,
accounting for salinity.
The meter is fragile; handle it carefully.
Test kit
(Winkler
titration)
Field or Lab
If measured in lab, the sample is fixed in the
field and titrated in the lab.
Lab measurement must take place within 8 hours
of sample collection.
the estuary for a reading or into a water sample
drawn out by bucket for a surface
measurement. Depending on the length of its
cable, a meter may allow monitors to get DO
readings directly from various depths. Some
meters allow volunteers to take both DO and
temperature readings simultaneously.
Though easy to use, a reliable DO meter will
likely cost more than $1,000. It also uses
batteries, which last a long time but must be
disposed of properly. To offset upfront and
maintenance costs, monitoring groups might
consider sharing equipment (Standoff, 1996).
Because of the expense, a volunteer program
might be able to afford only one meter.
Consequently, only one team of monitors can
measure DO and they will have to do it at all
sites. Dissolved oxygen meters may be useful
for programs in which many measurements are
needed at only a few sites, volunteers sample at
several sites by boat, or volunteers plan on
running DO profiles (many measurements
taken at different depths at one site).
Test Kits
If volunteers are sampling at several widely
scattered sites, one of the many DO kits on the
market may be more cost-effective. These kits
rely on the Winkler titration method or one of
its modifications. The modifications reduce the
effect of materials in the water, such as organic
matter, which may cause inaccurate results.
The kits are inexpensive, generally ranging
from $30 to $200, depending on the method of
titration they use. While inexpensive upfront,
the kits require reagent refills as the reagents
are used up or degrade over time. Reagents can-
not be reused. Unused reagents and waste gen-
erated during the performance of tests must be
disposed of properly (see Chapter 7).
Volunteers must also take appropriate safety
precautions when using the reagents, which can
be harmful if used improperly.
Kits provide good results if monitors adhere
strictly to established sampling protocols.
Aerating the water sample, allowing it to sit in
sunlight or unfixed (see box, page 9-6, for an
explanation of fixing), and titrating too hastily
can all introduce error into DO results.
For convenience, the volunteer monitors may
keep their kits at home and take them to the
sampling site each week. The program manager
must provide the monitors with fresh chemicals
as needed. Periodically, the manager should
check the kit to make sure that each volunteer is
properly maintaining and storing the kit's
components. At the start of the monitoring
program, and periodically thereafter if possible,
the program manager should directly compare
kit measurements to those from a standard
Winkler titration conducted in a laboratory. •
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Chapter 9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Titration
Titration is an analytical procedure used to measure the quantity of a substance in a water
sample by generating a known chemical reaction. In the process, a reagent is
incrementally added to a measured volume of the sample until reaching an obvious
endpoint, such as a distinct change in color (Figure 9-4).
Volunteers can use titration to assess the
quantity of dissolved oxygen at a sampling site.
This procedure, known as the Winkler titration,
uses iodine as a substitute for the oxygen
dissolved in a "fixed" sample of water. A fixed
sample is one in which the water has been
chemically rendered stable or unalterable,
meaning that atmospheric oxygen will no
longer affect the test result. Iodine stains the
sample yellow-brown. Then, a chemical called
sodium thiosulfate reacts with the free iodine in
the water to form another chemical, sodium
iodide. When the reaction is complete, the
sample turns clear. This color change is called
the endpoint.
The volunteer on the left is titrating a water
sample, while the other volunteer is "fixing"
another sample (photo by K. Register).
Since the color change is often swift and can occur between one drop of reagent and the
next, a starch indicator should be added to the solution to exaggerate the color change.
The starch keeps the sample blue until all the free iodine is gone, at which time the
sample immediately turns colorless. The amount of sodium thiosulfate used to turn the
sample clear translates directly into the amount of dissolved oxygen present in the
original water sample.
Figure 9-4.
Titration of a
reagent into a
water sample.
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data, appropriate quality control measures are necessary.
See "Quality Control and Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
Not all quality control procedures are appropriate for all water quality analyses. Blanks and
standards are not usually used for Winkler DO titrations, due to problems with contamination
by oxygen from the air. To check the accuracy of the procedure, one has at least two options:
• Create an oxygen-saturated sample by shaking and pouring water back and forth through
the air, then titrate the sample and compare the results to published tables of oxygen
solubility versus temperature (salinity must be known to determine oxygen solubility).
• Use a standard solution of potassium bi-iodate to check the accuracy of the tit rant
(standard solutions can be ordered from chemical supply companies—see Appendix C).
The amount of titrant required to make the sample colorless should equal the amount of
potassium bi-iodate added to the sample, ±0.1 ml.
(Excerpted and adapted from Mattson, 1992.)
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
9: Oxygen
How to Monitor Dissolved Oxygen
General procedures for collecting and
analyzing dissolved oxygen samples are
presented in this section for guidance only; they
do not apply to all sampling methods.
Monitors should consult with the
instructions that come with their sampling
and analyzing instruments. Those who are
interested in submitting data to water
quality agencies should also consult with the
agencies to determine acceptable equipment,
methods, quality control measures, and data
quality objectives (see Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site and
collecting samples, volunteers should review
the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is critical
to confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;
have the necessary monitoring equipment and
personal gear; and understand all safety
considerations. Once at the monitoring site,
volunteers should record general site
observations, as discussed in Chapter 7.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
If using the Winkler method
• large clean bucket with rope (if taking
surface sample or if unable to collect
sample directly in DO bottles);
• Kemmerer, Van Dorn, DO sampler, or
homemade sampler (if taking a full DO
profile);
• fully stocked dissolved oxygen kit with
instructions;
• extra DO bottles;
• equipment for measuring temperature and
salinity (necessary to calculate percent
saturation—see page 9-12); and
• enough reagents for the number of sites to
be tested.
If using a meter and probe
• calibrated DO meter and probe with
operating manual (the meter must be
calibrated according to the
manufacturer's instructions);
• extra membranes and electrolyte
solution for the probe;
• extra batteries for the meter;
• extra 0-rings for the membrane;
• extension pole; and
• equipment for measuring temperature
and salinity (necessary to calculate
percent saturation—see page 9-12),
if temperature and salinity cannot be
measured by the meter.
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
This task is necessary if the volunteer is
using a DO kit or if a sample is being drawn
for a DO meter (rather than placing the DO
probe directly in the estuary). Chapter 7
reviews general information about collecting a
water sample.
Although the task of collecting a bottle of
water seems relatively easy, volunteers must
follow strict guidelines to prevent
contamination of the sample. The citizen
monitor must take care during collection of
the water; jostling or swirling the sample can
result in aeration and cause erroneous data.
Using a bucket to collect the sample increases
the risk of introducing oxygen to the sample.
It is preferable to use a standard DO sampling
bottle rather than a simple bucket since a
washed and capped bottle is less likely to
become contaminated than an open container.
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Chapter 9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Figure 9-5. Taking a water sample for DO analysis.
Point the bottle against the tide or current and fill
gradually. Cap the bottle under water when full,
ensuring that there are no air bubbles in the bottle
(USEPA, 1997).
Reminder!
The water sample must be collected in such
a way that you can cap the bottle while it is
still submerged. That means you must be
able to reach into the water with both arms
and the water must be deeper than the
sample bottle.
If using a bucket
• Rinse the sample bucket with estuary
water twice before sampling. Rinse and
empty the bucket away from the
collection area.
• Drop the bucket over the side of the
dock, pier, or boat and allow water from
just under the surface to gently fill the
container until it is about two-thirds full.
There should be no air bubbles in the
bucket.
• Lift the bucket carefully to the working
platform.
• If using a DO kit, rinse two DO bottles
twice each with estuary water before
filling them from the sample bucket.
Then, submerge each capped bottle in
the bucket, remove the lid, and slowly
fill. Avoid agitating the water in the
bucket to minimize the introduction of
oxygen to the sample.
• While the bottle is
still under water,
tap its side to
loosen any air
bubbles before
capping and lifting
the bottle from the
bucket.
• Check the sample
for bubbles by
turning the bottle
upside-down and
tapping.
If you see any
bubbles, repeat the
filling steps.
If collecting samples directly in bottles
• Rinse two DO bottles twice each with
estuary water away from the collection
area before filling them with the sample.
• Make sure you are positioned
downcurrent of the bottle.
• Submerge each capped bottle in the
water, facing into the current.
• Remove the lid, and slowly fill (Figure 9-
5). Avoid agitating the water to minimize
the introduction of oxygen to the sample.
• While the bottle is still under water, tap
its side to loosen any air bubbles before
capping and lifting the bottle from the
water.
• Check the sample for bubbles by turning
the bottle upside-down and tapping. If you
see any bubbles, repeat the filling steps.
If collecting samples from other samplers
• Follow the manufacturer's instructions.
• Make sure that no air bubbles are
introduced into the sample.
• The sampler should have a mechanism
for allowing the DO bottle to fill from the
bottom to the top.
If using a test kit, take the water temperature
by setting the thermometer in the bucket and
allow it to stabilize while preparing for the DO
test. Most meters will have a thermometer
included. The bucket of water used for
measuring DO can also be used for many of the
other water quality tests.
Temperature and salinity should also be
measured to calibrate a DO meter or if the
volunteer group wishes to calculate percent
saturation (see box, page 9-12).
STEP 3: Measure DO.
Many citizen monitoring programs use the
"azide modification" of the Winkler titration
to measure DO. This test removes interference
due to nitrites—a common problem in
estuarine waters.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
Chapter 9: Oxygen
If using the Winkler method
Gloves should be worn when doing this test.
Part One: "Fix" the sample immediately
• Proceed with the DO test for both
sample bottles by carefully following
the manufacturer's instructions. Allow
some of the sample to overflow during
these steps; this overflow assures that no
atmospheric oxygen enters the bottled
contents. After the sample is fixed,
exposure to air will not affect the
oxygen content of the sample. Be
careful not to introduce air into the
sample while adding the reagents.
Simply drop the reagents into the test
sample, cap carefully, and mix gently.
• Once the sample has been fixed in this
manner, it is not necessary to perform
the titration procedure immediately.
Thus, several samples can be collected
and "fixed" in the field, then carried
back to a testing station or laboratory
where the titration procedure is to be
performed. The titration portion of the
test should be carried out within 8
hours. In the meantime, keep the sample
refrigerated and in the dark.
Part Two: Titrating the sample
• Continue with the titration of both
samples, again following specific
instructions included with the kit or
provided by the program manager.
• Carefully measure the amount of fixed
sample used in titration; this step is
critical to the accuracy of the results.
The bottom of the meniscus should rest
on top of the white line on the titration
test tube. (A meniscus is the curved
upper surface of a liquid column that is
concave when the containing walls are
wetted by the liquid—see Figure 9-6.)
• Fill the syringe in the test kit, following
instructions.
Test Tube -
Meniscus
Insert the syringe into
the hole on top of the
test tube and add 1 drop
of sodium thiosulfate to
the test tube; swirl the
test tube to mix. Add
another drop of the
sodium thiosulfate and
swirl the tube. Continue
this titration process one
drop at a time until the
yellow-brown solution
in the test tube turns a
pale yellow. Then pull
the syringe out of the
hole (with the remaining
sodium thiosulfate) and
put it aside for a moment.
Add starch solution to the test tube
through the hole on top of the lid,
according to directions. Swirl the tube to
mix. The solution should turn from light
yellow to dark blue.
Now put the syringe back into the hole
on the test tube. Continue the titration
process with the remaining sodium
thiosulfate, until the test tube solution
turns from blue to clear. Do not add any
more sodium thiosulfate than is
necessary to produce the color change.
Be sure to swirl the test tube after each
drop.
Using the scale on the side of the
syringe, read the total number of units of
sodium thiosulfate used in the
experiment. Each milliliter of thiosulfate
used is equivalent to 1 mg/1 DO.
Each volunteer should carry out all steps
on two samples to minimize the
possibility of error. The two samples can
either be titrated from the one bottle of
fixed sample solution or, for better
quality assurance, from two water
samples fixed in the field.
Read
Here
Figure 9-6. Measurements should be
made at the bottom of the meniscus.
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Chapter 9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
• If the discrepancy between the two DO
concentrations is significant, the
volunteer should run a third titration.
The program's quality assurance project
plan should define what difference is
considered "significant." Some
monitoring programs stipulate that a
third sample must be analyzed if the DO
concentrations of the first two samples
differ by more than 0.6 mg/1.
NOTE: Samples with high levels of DO are
brown, while low! DO samples are generally
pale yellow before the starch indicator is
added. A few minutes after reaching the
colorless endpoint, the sample may turn blue
once again. This color reversion is not cause
for concern—it is simply proof of a precise
titration.
Helpful Hint
If volunteers are to collect and fix two water
samples at each of their monitoring sites,
be sure to provide each monitor with the
appropriate number of DO bottles (e.g., 4
bottles for 2 monitoring sites, etc.). The
bottles can be permanently marked with site
location names. Volunteers will collect and
fix the samples in the field, then titrate the
samples within 8 hours. After the DO
bottles have been emptied and cleaned,
they are ready for the next monitoring
session.
If using a meter and probe
• Make sure the unit is calibrated
according to the manufacturer's
instructions. Knowledge of salinity is
needed to properly calibrate most meters
(Green, 1998).
• After inserting the DO probe into the
bucket or placing it over the side of the
boat or pier, allow the probe to stabilize
for at least 90 seconds before taking a
reading.
• With some meters, you should manually
stir the probe without disturbing the
water to get an accurate measurement.
STEP 4: Clean up and submit data.
If using the Winkler titration method, make
sure to thoroughly rinse all glassware in the
kit and tightly screw on the caps to the
reagent bottles. Check to ensure that each
bottle contains sufficient reagents for the next
DO analysis. Properly dispose of wastes
generated during the performance of tests (see
Chapter 7).
If using a laboratory to analyze the samples,
deliver the fixed samples and field data sheets
to the lab as soon as possible, as the sample
analysis must be done within 8 hours.
Make sure that the data sheet is complete
and accurate. Volunteers should make a copy
of the completed data sheet before forwarding
it to the project manager in case the original
data sheet becomes lost. •
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Unit One: Chemical Measures Chapter 9: Oxygen
Case Study:
Dissolved Oxygen Monitoring in New Jersey
In New Jersey, the Alliance for a Living Ocean coordinates the Barnegat Bay Watch Monitoring
Program. Dissolved oxygen testing is one of the more complicated monitoring activities under-
taken by program volunteers.
The volunteer monitors use a modified Winkler titration test kit that is user-friendly and has a
good degree of accuracy. With each test kit, the monitors receive a test procedure sheet and a
monitor's testing manual. Often, monitors tape a simplified version of the test procedures to the
inside of their test kits.
The program provides several tips to minimize any confusion about the test procedure:
• Because the test kit uses five reagents, monitors are encouraged to label the reagent bot-
tles as #1, #2, etc.
• It is suggested that the bottles be arranged in numeric order in the test kit. This simplifies
looking for the next reagent.
• Solutions 1, 2, 3, and 5 are each added 8 drops at a time. (Solution #4 is added one drop
at a time.) The monitors can mark these reagent bottles with the words "8 drops." When
the monitors' hands are wet or the wind is blowing, it is much easier to read the label on a
bottle than an instruction sheet.
Many monitors conduct tests from their boats in the Barnegat Bay. These monitors are encour-
aged to "fix" the water sample by adding the first three reagents, and then return to land. Once
on shore, volunteers can resume the test, which includes filling a titration tube to exactly 20 ml
and titrating Solution #4 one drop at a time. In this manner, inaccuracies caused by a rocking
boat are avoided.
Monitors are reminded to remove all air bubbles from the water sample by tapping the sample
bottle while it is submerged. Monitors also double-check for air bubbles in the sample and the
titration plunger before beginning a test. Air bubbles in the plunger are avoided by depressing
the plunger before drawing up the titration solution. These practices greatly reduce data error.
The program suggests that volunteers perform the dissolved oxygen test several times at home
or in the laboratory before going out in the field. Through practice, they can become familiar
with the order of reagents and what the water sample should look like at each step.
For More Information:
Alliance for a Living Ocean
P.O. Box 95
Ship Bottom, NJ 08008
Phone: 609-492-0222
Fax: 609-492-6216
E-mail: livingocean@worldnet.att.net
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Chapter 9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
DO Saturation and Percent Saturation
DO saturation, or potential DO level,
refers to the highest DO concentration
possible under the environmental limits of
temperature, salinity (or chlorinity), and
atmospheric pressure. As salinity or
chlorinity increases, the amount of
oxygen that water can hold decreases
substantially. For example, at 20°C, 100%
DO saturation for fresh water (for which
salinity and chlorinity are zero) is 9.09
mg/l. At the same temperature, 100%
saturation for water with 36 parts per
thousand (ppt) salinity is 7.34 mg/l.
Table 9-2 summarizes DO saturation
levels for different salinities and
temperatures at sea level. Tables showing
saturation levels in waters of various
chlorinity can be found in APHA (1998).
Percent saturation is the amount of
oxygen in the water relative to the water's
potential DO saturation. It is calculated as
follows:
Percent saturation = measured DO x 100
DO saturation
(Excerpted and adapted from Green, 1998.)
Table 9-2. Dissolved oxygen saturation
concentrations (mg/l) in waters of various salinity
(ppt) and temperature (°C ) at sea level (adapted
from Campbell and Wildberger, 1992, and APHA,
1998). Readers are referred to APHA (1998) for
DO saturation concentrations using chlorinity
instead of salinity (salinity = 1.80655 x
chlorinity).
Temperature
°C
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
31.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
35.0
Oxygen Saturation Concentration (mg/l)
Salinity: 0 ppt
14.6
14.2
13.8
13.5
13.1
12.8
12.4
12.1
11.8
11.6
11.3
11.0
10.8
10.5
10.3
10.1
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.6
8.4
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
9 ppt
13.7
13.4
13.0
12.7
12.3
12.0
11.7
11.4
11.2
10.9
10.6
10.4
10.2
10.0
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.2
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.3
8.1
8.0
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.6
18 ppt
12.9
12.5
12.2
11.9
11.6
11.3
11.0
10.8
10.5
10.3
10.0
9.8
9.6
9.4
9.2
9.0
8.8
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.2
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
27 ppt
12.1
11.8
11.5
11.2
10.9
10.6
10.4
10.2
9.9
9.7
9.5
9.3
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.4
8.2
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6.0
36 ppt
11.4
11.1
10.8
10.5
10.3
10.0
9.8
9.6
9.4
9.2
9.0
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8.1
7.9
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.7
9-12
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures Chapter 9: Oxygen
Common Questions About DO Testing
Should I pour off any of the water in my sample bottle before I add the reagents?
No. Pouring off some of the water allows space for an air bubble to be trapped when the
bottle is capped. When you shake the bottle, this oxygen mixes with the sample and causes
erroneously high results. It's OK for some liquid to overflow as you add the fixing reagents.
(If you are concerned about spillage, put the bottle on a paper towel.)
How should I hold the dropper bottles to dispense the reagents?
Hold the dropper bottles completely upside down (i.e., vertical). This ensures a uniform drop
size.
What is meant by saying that the sample is "fixed"?
After the first three reagents are added, the sample is fixed; this means that contact with
atmospheric oxygen will no longer affect the test result because all the dissolved oxygen in the
sample has reacted with the added reagents. The final titration actually measures iodine instead
of oxygen. Fixed samples may be stored up to 8 hours, if kept refrigerated and in the dark.
What if I spill some of the acid as I am fixing the sample?
As part of the fixing process, acid crystals or liquid are added to the sample. The addition of
the acid will dissolve the flocculate. You can spill a few acid crystals and not have to start
over—but you should be sure to clean up the spill (see Chapter 7). If a few grains of acid do
not go into the solution and all the flocculate is dissolved, you may continue the titration.
Sometimes after I add the acid, some brown "dots" remain. Is this OK?
The brown particles should be dissolved before you continue the test. Try shaking the sample
bottle again. If this doesn't work, add one more drop of acid. You may occasionally find that
organic material or sediment in the sample will not dissolve. This will not affect the test results.
What if my sample is colorless after it's fixed?
This means there is no dissolved oxygen in the sample. If this happens, you might want to
test a sample that you know contains oxygen to make sure that your kit is functioning
properly. One way to do this is to intentionally introduce an air bubble into the water
sample, shake well, then fix the sample. You should see a yellow color.
When filling the syringe with the thiosulfate reagent, how far back should I pull the barrel?
The point of the black neoprene tip should be set right at zero. This is extremely important.
What if my syringe runs out of the sodium thiosulfate titrant?
In colder water, the amount of DO may be above 10 mg/1, so you will have to refill the
syringe. For accurate results, fill to 0 mark and add the amount titrated from second syringe-
full to the 10 from the first syringe-full.
How much starch solution should I add?
When and how much starch solution is added is not critical to the test. The important thing is
that the sample turns blue.
(Excerpted and adapted from Green, 1997, andEllett, 1993.)
9-13
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 9: Oxygen
Unit One: Chemical Measures
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand measures the
amount of oxygen that microorganisms
consume while decomposing organic matter;
it also measures the chemical oxidation of
inorganic matter (i.e., the extraction of
oxygen from water via chemical reaction).
The rate of oxygen consumption in an estuary
is affected by a number of variables, including
temperature, the presence of certain kinds of
microorganisms, and the type of organic and
inorganic material in the water.
The Role of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
in the Estuarine Ecosystem
BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved
oxygen in estuaries. The greater the BOD, the
more rapidly oxygen is depleted. This means
less oxygen is available to aquatic organisms.
The consequences of high BOD are the same as
those for low dissolved oxygen: many aquatic
organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.
Examples of BOD levels are provided in Table
9-3. Sampling locations with traditionally high
BOD are often good candidates for more
frequent DO sampling.
Table 9-3. Significant BOD Levels (from
Campbell and Wildberger, 1992).
Type of Water
unpolluted, natural water
raw sewage
wastewater treatment
plant effluent
BOD (mg/l)
<5
150-300
8-150*
* Allow able level for individual treatment plant
specified in discharge permit
Sources of BOD include leaves and
woody debris; dead plants and animals;
animal waste; effluents from pulp and paper
mills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots,
and food-processing plants; failing septic
systems; and urban stormwater runoff.
Although some waters are naturally organic-
rich, a high BOD often indicates polluted or
eutrophic waters. •
Sampling Considerations
BOD is affected by the same factors that
affect DO. Chlorine can also affect BOD
measurements by inhibiting or killing the
microorganisms that decompose the organic
and inorganic matter in a sample. In some
water samples, chlorine will dissipate within
1-2 hours of being exposed to light. Such
exposure often happens during sample
handling or transport. However, if you are
sampling in heavily chlorinated waters, such
as those below the effluent discharge point
from a wastewater treatment plant, it may be
necessary to neutralize the chlorine with
sodium thiosulfate (see APHA, 1998). •
9-14
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
9: Oxygen
How to Measure Biochemical Oxygen Demand
The standard BOD test is a simple means of
measuring the uptake of oxygen in a sample
over a predetermined period of time. Citizens
can easily collect the required water samples
as they monitor the water for other variables.
The BOD test does, however, demand a
several-day period of water storage in the
dark to obtain results. Test for BOD using the
following steps:
• Collect two water samples from the
same place in the water column (surface
or at depth) using the water sampling
protocol described earlier for DO. Each
bottle should be labeled clearly so that
the samples will not be confused. Make
sure there is no contact between the
sample water and the air.
• Immediately measure the first sample
for DO using either a DO meter or DO
kit. Record the time of sample
collection and the water temperature.
Place the second sample in a standard
BOD bottle. The bottle should be black
to prevent photosynthesis. You can wrap
a clear bottle with black electrician's
tape, aluminum foil, or black plastic if
you do not have a black or brown glass
bottle.
• Incubate the bottle of untested sample
water at 20 °C and in total darkness (to
prevent photosynthesis). After 5 days of
incubation, use the same method of
testing to measure the quantity of DO in
the second sample. Because of the 5-day
incubation, the test should be conducted
in a laboratory.
• The BOD is expressed in milligrams per
liter of DO using the following
equation:
BOD = DO (mg/l) of 1st bottle - DO of 2nd bottle
This represents the amount of oxygen
consumed by microorganisms to break down
the organic matter present in the sample bottle
during the incubation period.
Sometimes by the end of the 5-day
incubation period, the DO level is zero. This
is especially true for monitoring sites with a
lot of organic pollution (e.g., downstream of
wastewater discharges). Since it is not known
when the zero point was reached, it is not
possible to tell what the BOD level is. In this
case, it is necessary to collect another sample
and dilute it by a factor that results in a final
DO level of at least 2 mg/l. Special dilution
water containing the nutrients necessary for
bacterial growth should be used for the
dilutions. Some supply houses carry
premeasured nutrient "pillows" to simplify the
process. APHA (1998) describes in detail how
to dilute a sample and conduct the BOD
analysis.
It takes some experimentation to determine
the appropriate dilution factor for a particular
sampling site. The final result is the difference
in DO between the first measurement and the
second after multiplying the second result by
the dilution factor. •
9-15
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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9: Oxygen Unit Chemical Measures
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor's Handbook. LaMotte Company,
Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.
Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual. Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.
Green, L. 1997. "Common Questions About DO Testing." The Volunteer Monitor 9(1).
Green, L. 1998. "Let Us Go Down to the Sea—How Monitoring Changes from River to
Estuary." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 1-3.
Mattson, M. 1992. "The Basics of Quality Control." The Volunteer Monitor 4(2): 6-8.
Standoff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors of
Coastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and University
of Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1998. Condition of the Mid-Atlantic Estuaries.
EPA 600-R-98-147. November. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
50pp.
9-16
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Nutrients
Nutrients—especially nitrogen and phosphorus—are key water quality parameters
in estuaries. Nutrient concentrations vary according to surrounding land use,
season, and geology. Because nitrogen and phosphorus play such important roles
in the estuarine ecosystem, it is not surprising that volunteer groups very
commonly monitor these two nutrients.
-------
Photos (I to r): K. Register, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, E. Ely
-------
Unit Chemical Measures If: Nutrients
Overview
Nutrients—especially nitrogen and phosphorus—are key water quality
parameters in estuaries. Depending on their chemical forms (or species), nitrogen
and phosphorus can have significant direct or indirect impacts on plant growth,
oxygen concentrations, water clarity, and sedimentation rates, just to name a few.
Nitrogen's primary role in organisms is protein and DNA synthesis; plants also
use this substance in photosynthesis. Phosphorus is critical for metabolic
processes, which involve the transfer of energy. Because nitrogen and phosphorus
play such important roles in the estuarine ecosystem, it is not surprising that
volunteer groups very commonly monitor these two nutrients.
Nutrient concentrations vary according to surrounding land use, season, and
geology. This chapter discusses factors that the volunteer monitor should consider
when establishing a nutrient monitoring program. Sample monitoring instruments
and techniques are described. Finally, an additional monitoring opportunity for
volunteers—atmospheric deposition—is introduced.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
-------
Chapter 10: Nutrients.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Why Monitor Nutrients?
Nutrients are chemical substances used for
maintenance and growth that are critical for
survival. Plants require a number of
nutrients—carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
oxygen, silica, magnesium, potassium,
calcium, iron, zinc, and copper—to grow,
reproduce, and ward off disease. Of these
nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus are of
particular concern in estuaries for two
reasons:
• they are two of the most important
nutrients essential for the growth of
aquatic plants; and
• the amount of these nutrients being
delivered to estuaries has increased
significantly.
Eutrophication is a condition in which
high nutrient concentrations stimulate ex-
cessive algal blooms, which then deplete
oxygen as they decompose (Figure 10-1).
The organic production can also lead to
sediment accumulation. Because of the
potential impacts of nutrients, citizen moni-
toring programs often focus on nitrogen and
phosphorus as indicators of estuarine health.
Estuary A
Estuary B
Figure 10-1. Eutrophication. Estuary B receives more nutrient loads than Estuary A. As a
result, Estuary B experiences more plant production and organic material accumulation.
Dissolved oxygen levels are also lower in Estuary B, especially in deeper water, due to the
decomposition of organic matter. (Adapted from Cole, 1994.)
Nutrient Sources
Nitrogen and phosphorus enter estuaries
from several natural and human-made sources
(Figure 10-2). Natural sources of nitrogen and
phosphorus in the estuary include:
• fresh water that runs over geologic
formations rich in phosphate or nitrate;
• decomposing organic matter and
wildlife waste; and
• the extraction of nitrogen gas from the
atmosphere by some bacteria and blue-
green algae (known as nitrogen
fixation).
There are three major manmade or
anthropogenic sources of nutrients:
atmospheric deposition, surface water, and
groundwater. Atmospheric sources include
fossil fuel burning by power plants and
automobiles. Nutrients from these sources
may fall to the land or estuary either directly
or along with precipitation. Surface water
inputs include point and nonpoint source
discharges: effluent from wastewater
treatment plants, urban stormwater runoff,
lawn and agricultural fertilizer
runoff, industrial discharges, and
livestock wastes. Groundwater
sources are primarily underwater
seepage from agricultural fields
and failing septic systems.
The Role of Nutrients in the
Estuarine Ecosystem
Figures 10-3 and 10-4 illustrate
the nitrogen and phosphorus
cycles, respectively. Although
nutrients are essential for the
growth and survival of an
estuary's plants, an excess of
nitrogen and phosphorus may
trigger a string of events that
seasonally deplete dissolved
10-2
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
. Chapter 10: Nutrients
Natural runoff
Inorganic fertilizer
runoff
Discharge o
and untreate
from wast
treatment pi
septic sys
treated
1 sewage
jwater
ants and
terns
Runoff from
streets,
lawns, and
construction lots
Runoff and erosion
(from cultivation,
mining, construction,
and poor land use)
Figure 10-2. Typical nutrient sources to an estuary.
oxygen (DO) in the water (see Chapter 9). As
stated earlier, an overabundance of such
nutrients can lead to uncontrolled growth of
phytoplankton (minute floating plants) or
algae—these are often referred to as blooms.
Water clouded by thick patches of these tiny
plants does not allow sunlight to penetrate to
the bottom. Submerged aquatic vegetation
(see Chapter 18) requires light for
photosynthesis; if the plants' fronds (leaves)
are covered or if the water is too cloudy
during much of the growing season, these
plants will die.
When algae and phytoplankton die, they are
decomposed by oxygen-consuming bacteria.
Especially slow-moving waterbodies with
insufficient mixing may become hypoxic (low
in oxygen). Under the worst conditions, the
bottom waters of an estuary turn anoxic
(without oxygen). Excessive nutrient
concentrations have been linked to hypoxic
conditions in over 50 percent of U.S.
estuaries. Even coastal ocean areas, such as
the Gulf of Mexico, have been impacted,
endangering economically and ecologically
important fisheries (USGS, 1999).
High nutrient concentrations have also been
linked to harmful or nuisance phytoplankton
blooms—such as "red tides" and "brown
tides"—some of which produce harmful
toxins (see Chapter 19). Nutrients are also
believed to be one cause for the growth of the
potentially toxic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria,
found in estuaries along Atlantic coasts
(USGS, 1999). These events may result in
fish and shellfish kills and be harmful to
human health.
10-3
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 10: Nutrients.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Air Deposition
Nitrogen-fixing
Algae and Bacteria
Denitrifying ,. T*
Bacteria Dissolved
I Nitrogen
Figure 10-3. The nitrogen cycle (adaptedfrom USEPA, 1987).
Figure 10-4. The phosphorus cycle (adaptedfrom USEPA, 1987).
Figure 10-5. Significant
levels of nutrients in
aquatic systems
(Campbell and
Wildberger, 1992).
Nutrient Concentration
(mg/l)
Nitrogen
Normal level of nitrate-
nitrogen in unpolluted water
0.1
0.03
Phosphorus
Total phosphorus stimulates
plant growth to surpass natural
eutrophication rates
Total phosphorus contributes
to increased plant growth
(eutrophication)
\7
Levels of Nutrients
Nutrient concentrations are always in flux,
responding to changes in:
• precipitation and amount of runoff;
• fertilizer or manure application rates;
• estuary flushing rates;
• water temperature;
• biological activity in the estuary; and/or
• the status of other water quality
parameters.
Figure 10-5 shows significant levels for
nutrients in estuarine waters.
Nutrient concentrations are usually greatest
during spring and early summer, when fertilizer
use and water flow from tributaries and
irrigation activities are high.
High nutrient concentrations can also be
detected during seasonal low-flow conditions
(USGS, 1999). During winter low-flow periods,
for example, the lack of land and aquatic plant
uptake combined with contributions from
groundwater can result in high nitrogen levels.
Nutrient levels downstream from urban areas
may also be high during low-flow periods. At
these times, contributions from point sources
can be greater relative to streamflow, and
dilution is less (USGS, 1999).
Nutrient levels also vary among watersheds.
Natural features (e.g., geology and soils) and
land management practices (e.g., drainage and
irrigation) can affect the movement of nitrogen
and phosphorus over land, creating local and
regional effects on estuarine water quality
(USGS, 1999).
Tidal stage may also cause fluctuations in
nutrient levels, but many volunteer programs
have found that "chasing the tides" does not
yield enough additional information to make
the effort worthwhile. •
10-4
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
. 10: Nutrients
Sampling Considerations
Chapter 6 summarized several factors that
should be considered when identifying
monitoring sites, where to monitor in the water
column, and when to monitor. In addition to the
considerations in Chapter 6, a few additional
ones specific to nutrient monitoring are
presented here.
When to Sample
In setting up a nutrient monitoring plan, the
program manager should ensure that the effort
will continue for several seasons. Since the
workings of an estuary are complex, a mere
year or two of nutrient data is insufficient to
capture the variability of the system. In fact, a
couple of years of unusual data may be quite
misleading and tell a story very different from
the long-term situation (note the variability in
Figure 10-6).
Volunteers should sample nutrients on a
weekly basis, although biweekly sampling will
still yield valuable information. However,
sampling at a small number of sites every week
or two cannot possibly capture the constantly
changing water quality of an entire estuary. The
key to effective nutrient monitoring is to
sample at a sufficiently frequent interval and at
enough representative sites so that the data will
account for most of the inherent variability
within the system. In temperate climates, some
programs have eliminated wintertime
measurements when aquatic plants are dormant
and the effects of nutrients are not so marked.
A few measurements during the winter,
however, will provide a baseline of nutrient
levels that can be compared to the rest of the
year's data.
Where to Sample
If the monitoring program is designed to
pinpoint trouble spots in the estuary, the
program manager should cluster monitoring
sites where point and nonpoint sources of
Jan 97
JllIBT
Jan 98
Jul88
Jan 99
Juf 99
Jan 00
Figure 10-6. Seasonal fluctuations of nitrite and nitrate—two forms of
nitrogen—in a typical mid-Atlantic estuary.
nutrients appear to enter the water. Such sites
might include an area near the discharge pipe
of a wastewater treatment plant or adjacent to
an agricultural area where fertilizers are applied
or livestock congregate.
Because nutrient levels often vary with
depth, especially during the summer when the
estuary is well-stratified, volunteer groups may
wish to collect samples at different depths. Van
Dorn and Kemmerer samplers (see Chapter 7)
are commonly used to collect these kinds of
samples. In addition, there are several water
samplers designed primarily for collecting
samples at different depths. Appendix C
provides a list of equipment suppliers.
Special Consideration:
The Different Forms of Nutrients
Nitrogen and phosphorus come in many
different chemical forms, or species, which are
determined by a number of environmental
conditions. Measuring each nutrient species can
help identify its source into the estuary.
Therefore, volunteer efforts to measure
different nutrient species can provide
significant information to resource managers.
10-5
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 10: Nutrients.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Table 10-1. Examples of nitrogen species and notes about potential sources
(adaptedfrom Phinney, 1999).
Nitrogen Species
Nitrate (NO 3"),
Nitrite (NO 2") and
NOX ("nox")
Ammonium (NH4+)
and unionized
ammonia
Urea (an organic
form of nitrogen)
Notes About Possible Species Sources
Make up 70 percent of total nitrogen inputs
from ground-water to smaller watersheds in
the Chesapeake Bay
Make up approximately 15 percent of total
nitrogen found in agricultural fertilizers
N02~ is generally a short-lived nitrogen
species that is measured in low oxygen
environments
NOX from fossil fuel burning makes up at
least 25 percent of atmospheric nitrogen
inputs into coastal waters (Paerl and
Whiteall, 1999)
Make up 5.8 percent of total nitrogen in
lawn fertilizer
Make up 20 percent of total nitrogen in
agricultural fertilizers
Primary nitrogen component from animal
feedlot operations (AFOs)
Makes up 12 percent of total nitrogen in
lawn fertilizer
Makes up 38-45 percent of total nitrogen
agricultural fertilizers
in
Nitrogen Forms and Impacts
Although nitrogen makes up about 80 percent
of the earth's atmosphere, it is inaccessible to
most terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Some
types of bacteria and blue-green algae.
however, can "fix" nitrogen gas, converting it
to an inorganic nitrogen form—thereby making
it available to other organisms.
In the estuary, nitrogen exists in a variety of
chemical (e.g., ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite)
and particulate and dissolved organic forms
(e.g., living and dead organisms). Table 10-1
summarizes information about different
nitrogen species and their connection to
surrounding land activities.
The quantity and form of nitrogen in the
water can also closely relate to dissolved
oxygen levels. Bacteria are able to convert
nitrogen into different nitrogen species and
gain energy from the process. Through
nitrification, some bacteria transform
ammonium into nitrite and then to nitrate. This
biological process consumes oxygen. When
nitrification is inhibited by low dissolved
oxygen conditions, ammonia or nitrite forms
of nitrogen may accumulate.
Through denitrification, bacteria convert
nitrate to nitrite and then to nitrogen gas. This
process occurs under anoxic conditions and
helps rid the system of excess nitrogen.
Nitrate and urea are highly soluble in water,
a characteristic which facilitates their transport
to the estuary by runoff. Ammonium is also
soluble in water; it can be transformed to
ammonia in low oxygen environments and
escape to the atmosphere. All of these nitrogen
species promote phytoplankton, algae, and
bacterial blooms (Phinney, 1999). Certain
nitrogen species can have other adverse
impacts. At high concentrations, nitrates are
toxic to eelgrass, and ammonia is toxic to fish
(Maine DEP, 1996).
Phosphorus Forms and Impacts
Phosphorus also exists in the water in
several forms: organic phosphate,
orthophosphate (inorganic, dissolved
phosphorus), total phosphorus (dissolved and
particulate), and polyphosphate (from
detergents). Orthophosphate in the water
comes from fertilizers and is the form
commonly measured. Organic phosphate
results from plant and animal waste.
Decomposition of dead plants and animals
also adds organic phosphorus to the water. In
general, excess phosphates can enter an
estuary from water treatment plants, sewage,
soils, agricultural fields, animal feedlot
operations, and lawns.
Many phosphorus species attach to soil
particles and are, therefore, transported to the
estuary with eroded soil. Especially high
phosphorus loads are often delivered during
periods of high runoff from storms or
irrigation activities.
Under oxygenated conditions, phosphate will
10-6
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
. 10: Nutrients
form chemical complexes with minerals such as
iron, aluminum, and manganese and fall to the
bottom sediments. In cases when this nutrient is
found mostly in sediments, water column
concentrations may not provide a full picture of
nutrient loads and impacts. If the bottom water
in an estuary has no oxygen, however,
phosphate bound to the sediments is released
back into the water. This release can fuel yet
another round of phytoplankton blooms.
Choosing a Sampling Method
A dilemma arises for program managers
when deciding upon the appropriate method
for measuring nutrient levels in an estuary. On
one hand, kits for nitrogen and phosphorus
can be imprecise; on the other, submitting
prepared samples for lab analysis is costly and
time consuming. Program managers
frequently arrange to have a college or
professional lab donate its time and facilities
to the volunteer effort.
If the data are intended to supplement state or
federal efforts, it is wise to confer with the
agency beforehand to determine an acceptable
monitoring method. Whatever sampling method
is chosen, program managers should
periodically compare the citizen monitoring
data to duplicate samples analyzed by another
method under laboratory conditions.
The following sections provide an overview
of possible nutrient analysis methods, along
with each method's advantages and pitfalls.
Test Kits
Several companies manufacture kits for
analyzing the various forms of nitrogen and
phosphorus. While the kits are not precise or
accurate when nutrient levels are low, the
manager may choose to use them when deemed
appropriate given the program's data objectives.
The kits rely on a color comparison in which
the volunteer matches the color of a prepared
water sample to one in a set of provided
standards. The subjectivity of each volunteer's
decision as well as ambient light levels will
influence the results to some degree.
Kits are suitable for identifying major
nutrient sources, such as wastewater and
animal feedlots, where levels are generally
higher than the surface water in the estuary.
Areas where concentrations routinely exceed
concentrations of 1 mg/1 are good candidates
for kit analysis.
While the kits are generally easy to use,
many state and federal agencies will reject
nutrient data derived from their use because
of their imprecision and subjective nature. In
some cases, data that are collected from the
use of kits may be helpful as a screening tool.
Spectrophotometer
A spectrophotometer measures the quantity
of a chemical based on its characteristic
absorption spectrum. This is accomplished
by comparing the collected sample to a
reference sample, also called a standard.
Spectrophotometers are generally quite
accurate although the instruments are
expensive to purchase and maintain. Programs
with ample funds for equipment may want to
consider purchasing this reliable instrument,
which costs from $1,000 to $6,000. Because
reagents and standards are required, the
volunteer program will have an added
expense of a few hundred dollars.
The instrument requires proper maintenance
and precise calibration; therefore, the program
manager or someone familiar with this
equipment must oversee its care and use.
Colorimeter
A colorimeter compares the intensity of
color between the sample and a standard in
order to measure the quantity of a compound
in the sample solution.
Cheaper than a spectrophotometer, electric
colorimeters offer citizen programs a
reasonably priced alternative. They are quite
accurate, fairly easy to use, and can provide
direct meter readout. Colorimeters range in
price from $250 to $2,000.
Like the spectrophotometer, this instrument
can be used for forms of both nitrogen and
10-7
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 10: Nutrients.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
phosphorus. The colorimeter is a more
affordable alternative for those programs that
prefer a method less costly than the
spectrophotometer and more accurate than the
kits.
Similar to a spectrophotometer, a
colorimeter requires standard maintenance
and reagents, which must be purchased on a
regular basis. The colorimeter provides
accurate data only when properly maintained
and precisely calibrated by a professional.
Laboratory Analysis
Analysis of nutrients by a professional
laboratory is by far the most accurate means
of obtaining nutrient data. Most laboratories
institute strict quality assurance and quality
control methods to ensure consistently reliable
results. A college or professional lab may
offer its services free of charge to the
volunteer program.
If the program decides to use lab analysis,
it must ensure that its volunteers adhere to
strict guidelines while collecting samples.
Sloppy field collection techniques will result
in poor data no matter how sophisticated the
lab may be. •
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. See "Quality Control and
Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
How to Monitor Nutrients
General procedures for collecting and
analyzing samples for nutrients are presented in
this section for guidance only; they do not
apply to all sampling methods. Monitors
should consult with the instructions that
come with their sampling and analyzing
instruments. Those who are interested in
submitting data to water quality agencies
should also consult with the agencies to
determine acceptable equipment, methods,
quality control measures, and data quality
objectives (see Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site and
collecting samples, volunteers should review the
topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is critical to
confirm the monitoring site, date, and time; have
the necessary monitoring equipment and person-
al gear; and understand all safety considerations.
Once at the monitoring site, volunteers should
record general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7. A visual assessment of phytoplankton
density is particularly recommended to aid nutri-
ent data interpretation—nutrient concentrations
in a water sample may be low because phyto-
plankton are utilizing the nutrients.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site when sampling for nutrients:
Procedure A—Equipment for test kit analysis
• fully stocked nitrogen and phosphorus
kits, with instructions for use;
• clean polypropylene sample bottles or
scintillation vials (60 ml) (see Chapter 7
for details on cleaning reusable sampling
containers);
• water sampler (if collecting samples from
other than the surface); and
• appropriate type of equipment and water
for making sample dilutions.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
. Chapter 10: Nutrients
Procedure B—Equipment for preparing sample
for laboratory analysis
• clean polypropylene sample bottles or
scintillation vials (60 mg/1) (see Chapter 7
for details on cleaning reusable sampling
containers);
• filter assembly and supporting equipment
(many laboratories require filtered
samples);
• water sampler (if collecting samples from
other than the surface);
• ice cooler with ice packs to keep samples
cool and in darkness; and
• properly labeled preservation chemicals.
Sampling Hint:
If using a boat to reach the sampling location,
make sure that it is securely anchored. It is
best not to bring up the anchor until the
sampling is completed since mud (with
associated nutrients) may become stirred into
the water.
STEP 2: Collect the water sample.
Volunteers must follow strict guidelines to
prevent contamination of the sample. For
example, it is preferable to use a standard
sampling bottle rather than a simple bucket
since a washed and capped bottle is less likely
to become contaminated than an open
container.
Chapter 7 reviews general information about
collecting a water sample using a bottle or
Whirl-pak bag. Volunteers using bottles should
be sure to:
• Rinse the bottle by pushing it into the
water in a forward motion, holding the
container by the bottom. This technique
will keep water contaminated by skin oils
and dirt from entering the mouth. Fill the
bottle a quarter full and swish the water
around the inside, making sure to cover
all inside surfaces. Pour out the water on
the down-current side of the boat and
away from the actual sampling site. Rinse
the cap as well.
• After rinsing, push the bottle back into
the water in the same manner to collect a
sample for analysis.
• Fill the bottle to the shoulder, leaving an
airspace. Cap the bottle.
• If the samples are not to be measured that
day, they should be preserved according
to the requirements specified by the test
kit manufacturer, laboratory conducting
the analysis, water quality agency, etc.
The preservation technique may vary
according to the type of nutrient and the
method by which it is measured.
• Store the container in a cold, dark ice
chest to minimize bacterial activity and
phytoplankton growth.
• Filtered samples may require a
polypropylene syringe and filter that can
be screwed on. Bottle rinsing should be
done with filtered water before the final
sample is added.
NOTE: Volunteers using test kits may prefer to
place the kit's test tube or bottle directly into the
water to collect the sample. Eyedroppers are
helpful infilling the test tube to the marked line.
STEP 3: Measure nutrients or prepare
sample for laboratory analysis.
Procedure A—Elements of test kit analysis
• Conduct the test as soon as possible after
collecting the water sample. As the
sample sits, organisms living in the water
will use up nutrients, changing the
nutrient concentrations in the water.
• Before starting the analysis, double-check
that the bottles, test tube or sample bottle,
and any other equipment that will come
in contact with the sample are clean.
Reagents should be maintained at about
20°C to yield the best results.
• Make sure the sample water is well
mixed.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 10: Nutrients.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
• Follow the protocol for each nutrient type
as outlined in the instructions
accompanying the kit.
• Immediately record the results on the data
sheet.
Procedure B—Prepare sample for laboratory
analysis
Volunteers may need to filter the sample,
depending on the nutrient species being
analyzed. This activity removes the particulate
nutrient fraction from the dissolved fraction.
Individual laboratories may require different
filtering techniques; therefore, volunteer groups
should consult with their laboratory to
determine how samples should be filtered.
STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.
Volunteers should thoroughly clean all
equipment, whether using the test kit or the lab
preparation method. Follow laboratory or test
kit instructions for cleaning. Allow the
equipment to air dry before storing it. If
volunteers used the filtration technique, they
should detach the filter unit from the syringe,
unscrew it, and clean all parts. The paper filter
can be thrown away.
Properly dispose of wastes generated during
the performance of tests (see Chapter 7).
Make sure that the data sheet is complete and
accurate. Volunteers should make a copy of the
completed data sheet before sending it to the
project manager in case the original data sheet
becomes lost.
After preserving the samples, follow
laboratory guidelines for packing and shipping
them to the analytical lab. This step should be
done as soon as possible.
Warning!
The interpretation of nutrient concentration data must be done with care. While high nutrient levels
suggest the potential for explosive algal growth, low levels do not necessarily mean the estuary is
receiving less nutrient input. Large quantities of nutrients may flow into the estuary and be quickly
taken up by phytoplankton. Zooplankton, in turn, graze upon the phytoplankton. Phosphorus may
also bind with minerals in the sediment, which settle to the bottom, but may be reintroduced to
the water column under low oxygen conditions.
In this scenario, although water nutrient concentration is low, the quantity of nutrients tied up in
sediment and biomass (living matter) is high. Chlorophyll analysis is needed to quantify the
phytoplankton biomass and interpret the low nutrient concentrations.
10-10
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Unit One: Chemical Measures.
. Chapter 10: Nutrients
Special Topic: Atmospheric Deposition of Nutrients
Over the past 30 years, scientists have
collected a large amount of convincing
information demonstrating that air pollutants
can be deposited on land and water, sometimes
at great distances from their original sources.
Atmospheric deposition, then, can be an
important contributor to declining estuarine
water quality.
What Is Atmospheric Deposition and How
Does It Occur?
Nitrogen pollutants released into the air are
carried by wind away from their place of origin.
These pollutants come from manmade sources
such as fossil fuel burning, industrial processes,
cars and other forms of transportation, fertilizer,
and the volatilization of animal wastes. Air
deposition can also come from natural sources
of emissions.
Atmospheric deposition occurs when
pollutants in the air fall on the land or water.
Pollution deposited in snow, fog, or rain is
called wet deposition, while the deposition of
pollutants as dry particles or gases is called dry
deposition. Air pollution can be deposited into
waterbodies either directly from the air onto the
surface of the water or through indirect
deposition, where the pollutants settle on the
land and are then carried into a waterbody by
runoff.
How Much Water Pollution from Nutrients
Is Atmospheric?
Nitrogen is one of the most common air
deposition pollutants, especially in the eastern
United States. Since 1940, human activity has
doubled the rate of nitrogen cycling through the
Table 10-2. Estimated sources of nitrogen in the
Chesapeake Bay (Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, 1997).
Waterborne point sources (e.g.,
industry, sewage treatment plants,
etc.)
Runoff from land* (e.g., farms,
lawns, city streets, golf courses,
etc.)
Air sources* (e.g., electric power
plants, vehicles, municipal waste
combustors, etc.)
25%
50%
25%
*This estimate of air sources includes indirect air
deposition that reaches the bay as runoff from forests,
streets, farmland, and anywhere else it is deposited.
global atmosphere, and the rate is accelerating
(Vitousek et al., 1997). Depending on the
waterbody and watershed being considered, it is
estimated that roughly a quarter of the nitrogen
in an estuary comes from air sources (Paerl and
Whiteall, 1999). Table 10-2 shows estimated
nitrogen sources in the Chesapeake Bay
watershed.
In the Chesapeake Bay region, it is estimated
that 37 percent of the nitrogen entering the bay
from air sources comes from electric utilities;
35 percent from cars and trucks; 6 percent
from industry and other large sources of fossil
fuel-fired boilers; and 21 percent from other
sources such as ships, airplanes, lawnmowers,
construction equipment, and trains (Alliance for
the Chesapeake Bay, 1997).
Some other estuaries have also attempted to
estimate how much of the nitrogen in their
water comes from air sources, including both
direct and indirect deposition (see Table 10-3).
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 10: Nutrients.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Table 10-3. Amount and percentage of nitrogen entering the estuarine systems due to atmospheric deposition
(NEP Web site).
Bay or Estuary
Albemarle-Pamlico Sounds
Delaware Bay
Delaware Inland Bays*
Long Island Sound
Massachusetts Bays*
Narragansett Bay*
Sarasota Bay*
Tampa Bay*
Million Tons of Nitrogen
9
8
-
12
-
0.6
-
1.1
% of Total Nitrogen
38-44
15
21
20
5-27
12
2
28
* Indicates measurement of direct deposition to -water surface only.
What Can Volunteers Do?
Presently, atmospheric deposition monitoring
by volunteers is in its early stages. One
potential procedure that may interest volunteer
groups is a passive sampler that measures
ammonia concentrations (Greening, 1999). The
samplers are small disks that are set out for
several days (up to one week), collected, and
then sent to a laboratory for analysis.
The procedure is still being developed
and refined.
Another way volunteers can assist with
atmospheric deposition monitoring is to
measure rainfall. Rainfall measurements in
watershed sub-basins are critical in determining
the contribution of wet deposition to estuarine
nutrient concentrations. Precipitation
monitoring can also be instrumental in
determining potential causes for other pollutants
(e.g., sediments).
Steps for Monitoring Precipitation
• Place a rain gauge in an open area away
from interference from overhead
obstructions and more than one meter
above the ground (see Chapter 7). Avoid
obstructions making angles greater than
45 ° from the top of the gauge.
• Check the gauge after each rainfall,
record the amount of precipitation and the
time of measurement, and then empty the
gauge. If the gauge sits after a rainfall,
evaporation can falsify the measurement.
• Make sure that the data sheet is complete
and accurate. Volunteers should make a
copy of the completed data sheet before
sending it to the project manager in case
the original data sheet becomes lost. •
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Unit Chemical Measures If: Nutrients
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/airdep/index.html
Other references:
Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. 1997. Air Pollution and the Chesapeake Bay. White Paper of the
Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. 16 pp.
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor's Handbook. LaMotte Company, Chestertown,
MD. 71 pp.
Cole, G. A. 1994. Textbook of Limnology. 4th ed. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL.
Dates, G. 1994. "Monitoring for Phosphorus or How Come They Don't Tell You This Stuff in
the Manual?" The Volunteer Monitor 6(1).
Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual. Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.
Greening, H. 1999. "Atmospheric Deposition Monitoring." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer
Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.
Katznelson, R. 1997. "Nutrient Test Kits: What Can We Expect?" The Volunteer Monitor 9(1).
Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold. 1992. Rhode Island Volunteer
Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual. URI Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and
URI Cooperative Extension. 38 pp.
LaMotte Chemical Products Company. Undated. Laboratory Manual for Marine Science Studies.
Educational Products Division, Chestertown, MD. 41 pp.
Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). May 1996. A Citizen's Guide to Coastal
Watershed Surveys. 78 pp.
Paerl, H. W, and D. R. Whiteall. 1999. "Anthropogenically-Derived Atmospheric Nitrogen
Deposition, Marine Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Bloom Expansion: Is There a Link?"
Ambio 28(4): 307-311.
Phinney, J. 1999. "Nurients and Toxics." In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Standoff, E. November 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer
Monitors of Coastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and
Univ. of Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.
10-13
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If: Nutrients Unit Chemical Measures
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1999. The Quality of Our Nation's Waters-Nutrients and
Pesticides. USGS Circular 1225. 82 pp.
Vitousek, P.M., J. Aber, R.W. Howarth, GE. Likens, P.A. Matson, D.W. Schindler, W.H. Schlesinger,
and G.D. Tillman. 1997. "Human Alteration of the Global Nitrogen Cycle: Causes and
Consequences." Issues in Ecology. No. 1, Spring 1997. Ecological Society of America, 15 pp.
Web sites:
Air Deposition
National Estuary Program (NEP): http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/airdep.htm
10-14
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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pH and Alkalinity
Every estuary is part of the carbon cycle. Carbon moves from the atmosphere into
plant and animal tissue, and into water bodies. Alkalinity, acidity, carbon dioxide
(COJ, pH, total inorganic carbon, and hardness are all related and are part of the
inorganic carbon complex. There are fascinating interrelationships among these
factors. For example, the amount of carbon dioxide in the water affects (and is
affected by) the pH and photosynthesis.
-------
Photos (I tor): G. Carver, K. Register, R. Ohrel
-------
Unit Chemical Measures 11: pH and Alkalinity
Overview
This chapter discusses two additional chemical parameters of estuaries that are
monitored to increase our understanding of the water's health: pH and alkalinity.
Since the pH of water is critical to the survival of most aquatic plants and animals,
monitoring pH values is an important part of nearly every water quality
monitoring program. The testing is quick and easy and can establish a valuable
baseline of information so that unanticipated water quality changes can be better
understood.
Testing water samples for total alkalinity measures the capacity of the water to
neutralize acids. This test is important in determining the estuary's ability to
neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater.
Every estuary is part of the carbon cycle. Carbon moves from the atmosphere
into plant and animal tissue, and into water bodies. Alkalinity, acidity, carbon
dioxide (C02), pH, total inorganic carbon, and hardness are all related and are part
of the inorganic carbon complex. There are fascinating interrelationships among
these factors. For example, the amount of carbon dioxide in the water affects (and
is affected by) the pH and photosynthesis.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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11: pH and Alkalinity.
Unit Chemical Measures
Why Monitor pH and Alkalinity?
Routine monitoring of a waterbody should
provide baseline information about normal pH
and alkalinity values. Unanticipated decreases
in pH could be indications of acid rain, runoff
from acidic soils, or contamination by
agricultural chemicals. Values of pH outside
the expected range of 5.0 to 10.0 should be
considered as indications of industrial
pollution or some cataclysmic event.
Likewise, a long-term database on alkalinity
values provides researchers with the ability to
detect trends in the chemical makeup of
estuary waters. •
pH
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic (alka-
line) a solution is. It measures the hydrogen ion
(H4) activity in a solution, and is expressed as a
negative logarithm. The pH measurements are
given on a scale of 0.0 to 14.0 (Figure 11-1).
Pure water has a pH of 7.0 and is neutral;
water measuring under 7.0 is acidic; and that
above 7.0 is alkaline or basic. Most estuarine
organisms prefer conditions with pH values
ranging from about 6.5 to 8.5.
Values of pH are based on the logarithmic
scale, meaning that for each 1.0 change of pH,
acidity or alkalinity changes by a factor often;
that is, a pH of 5.0 is ten times more acidic than
6.0 and 100 times more acidic than 7.0. When
the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are present in
equal number (the neutral point), the pH of the
solution is 7.
The Role ofpH in the Estuarine Ecosystem
Water's pH is affected by the minerals dis-
solved in the water, aerosols and dust from the
air, and human-made wastes as well as by
plants and animals through photosynthesis and
respiration. Human activities that cause signifi-
cant, short-term fluctuations in pH or long-term
acidification of a waterbody are exceedingly
harmful. For instance, algal blooms that are
often initiated by an overload of nutrients can
cause pH to fluctuate dramatically over a few-
hour period, greatly stressing local organisms.
Acid precipitation in the upper freshwater
reaches of an estuary can diminish the survival
rate of eggs deposited there by spawning fish.
Several other factors also determine the pH
of the water, including:
• bacterial activity;
• water turbulence;
• chemical constituents in runoff flowing
into the waterbody;
• sewage overflows; and
• impacts from other human activities both
in and outside the drainage basin (e.g.,
acid drainage from coal mines, accidental
spills, and acid precipitation).
Estuarine pH levels generally average from
7.0 to 7.5 in the fresher sections, to between 8.0
and 8.6 in the more saline areas. The slightly
alkaline pH of seawater is due to the natural
buffering from carbonate and bicarbonate dis-
solved in the water.
The pH of water is critical to the survival of
most aquatic plants and animals. Many species
have trouble surviving if pH levels drop under
5.0 or rise above 9.0. Changes in pH can alter
other aspects of the water's chemistry, usually
to the detriment of native species. Even small
shifts in the water's pH can affect the solubility
of some metals such as iron and copper. Such
changes can influence aquatic life indirectly; if
the pH levels are lowered, toxic metals in the
estuary's sediment can be resuspended in the
water column. This can have impacts on many
aquatic species. See Chapter 12 for more infor-
mation on toxins. •
il-2
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity
Sampling Considerations
Chapter 6 summarized several factors that
should be considered when determining moni-
toring sites, where to monitor, and when to
monitor. In addition to the considerations in
Chapter 6, a few additional ones specific to
monitoring pH are presented here.
When to Sample
It is well-established that levels of pH fluctu-
ate throughout the day and season, and a single
pH measure during the day may not draw a
very accurate picture of long-term pH condi-
tions in the estuary. Photosynthesis by aquatic
plants removes carbon dioxide from the water;
this significantly increases pH. A pH reading
taken at dawn in an area with many aquatic
plants will be different from a reading taken six
hours later when the plants are photosynthesiz-
ing. Likewise, in waters with plant life (includ-
ing planktonic algae), an increase in pH can be
expected during the growing season. For these
reasons, it is important to monitor pH values at
the same time of day if you wish to compare
your data with previous readings. It is also
important to monitor pH values over a long
period of time to provide useful data. The
actual time to measure pH will depend on local
conditions and the monitoring goals of the
volunteer program.
Choosing a Sampling Method
The pH test is one of the most common
analyses done in volunteer estuary monitoring
programs. In general, citizen programs use one
of two methods to measure pH: (1) the colori-
metric method or (2) electronic meters. Both
require that measurements be taken in the field,
since the pH of a water sample can change
quickly due to biological and chemical process-
es.
Color comparator (also called "colorimetric")
field kits are easy to use, inexpensive, and suffi-
ciently accurate to satisfy the needs of most
programs. The colorimetric method can also be
used with an electronic colorimeter. If very pre-
Saliva •
cise measures are
required, more Oven cleaners
expensive elec-
tronic pH meters
provide extreme-
ly accurate read-
ings. Test paper
strips to obtain
pH are unsuit-
able for use in
estuarine waters
since they do not
provide consis-
tent measure-
ments in salt
water. The fol-
lowing sections
describe the use
of the two com-
mon methods.
Colorimetric
Method
Colorimetric
means "to mea- Stomach acid «
sure color." In a
colorimetric test
method, reagents
are added to a
water sample,
and a reaction occurs which produces a color.
The color can be measured visually or electron-
ically. This method is not suitable for water
containing colored materials such as dissolved
organic compounds or excessive algae. For
water samples that are colored, a meter is sug-
gested.
Visual Method to Measure Color
Field kits cover a range of pH values. They
cost between $15 and $50, depending on the
range of pH values to be tested. These kits
come with several color standards built into a
plastic housing unit or printed on a card. After
adding reagents according to the instructions,
the volunteer compares the color in the test tube
• It -
•13-
12-
11 -
10-
9-
8-
7-
6-
5~
4-
r 3"
2-
^ 1 -
n
OS
££
<
75
OS
z
u
^—i
- Lye, buuium nyuiuxme (j\iaunj
- Bleach
- Ammonia
- Milk of Magnesia,
soap solutions
- Baking soda
- Sea water
- Blood
- Distilled water
- Water
- Rain water, urine
- Boric acid, black coffee
- Tomatoes, grapes
- Vinegar, wine, soft drinks, beer,
orange juice, some acid rain
- Lemon juice
- Battery acid
Figure 11-1. pH range
scale.
11-3
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
with the standards to determine the pH value. If
the general pH values of the estuary are known,
pick a kit that includes these values within its
range of sensitivity. Some programs prefer to
use a wide-range kit that covers pH values from
3.0 to 10.0 until the measured range of values
for that waterbody has been established. After
determining the actual range over several sea-
sons, switch to a narrower range kit for greater
accuracy. Make sure kits have been checked
against pH standards.
Electronic Method to Measure Color
An electronic colorimeter measures the
amount of light that travels through the reacted
sample and converts the measurement to an
analog or digital reading (LaMotte, 1999). A
reagent is added to the water sample in a test
tube, which is then inserted into the colorimeter
for analysis. Usually electronic colorimeters are
capable of testing multiple water quality para-
meters.
pH Meters
Although more expensive than the colorimet-
ric field kits, pH meters give extremely accurate
readings of a wide range of pH values. The
more economical pH testers cost about $40.
Some more expensive meters ($75 - $750) also
will display the water temperature, and some
meters have cables so that you can obtain read-
ings throughout the water column. Unlike the
colorimetric method, meters can be used even if
the water is clouded or colored. •
Helpful Hint:
If your water quality monitoring program
plans to collect data on alkalinity, pH meters
with built-in temperature sensors are
required rather than the colorimetric kits.
pH Calibration Standards
Whether you use a field kit, pH meter, or colorimeter unit, calibration standards (also called
"buffer solutions") are employed to ensure that your equipment is accurate. The standards most
commonly used are pH 4.00 (or 4.01), pH 7.00, and pH 10.00. They are available in liquid or
powder form (the powder is added to demineralized or deionized water). These pH standards
cost from $5 to $25 each, depending on the quantity of calibrations you will be conducting.
Following is information regarding buffers:
• Because buffer pH values change with temperature, the buffer solutions should be at
room temperature when you calibrate the meter. Usually you can calibrate your pH
equipment at home, a few hours before using it. Check manufacturer's instructions.
• Do not use a buffer after its expiration date.
• Always cap the buffers during storage to prevent contamination.
• Do not reuse buffer solutions!
11-4
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity
How to Measure pH Values
General procedures for measuring pH are
presented in this section for guidance only;
they do not apply to all sampling methods.
Monitors should consult with the
instructions that come with their sampling
and analyzing instruments. Those who are
interested in submitting data to water
quality agencies should also consult with
the agencies to determine acceptable
equipment, methods, quality control
measures, and data quality objectives (see
Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site
and collecting samples, volunteers should
review the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is
critical to confirm the monitoring site, date,
and time; have the necessary monitoring
equipment and personal gear; and understand
all safety considerations. Once at the
monitoring site, volunteers should record
general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7.
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. See "Quality Control and
Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• pH colorimetric field kit; or
• pH meter with built-in temperature
sensor; or
• colorimeter unit with reagents.
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
If you are using the
colorimetric method to measure
pH, you can fill the test tube by
lowering it into the water. If
using a meter, you can
sometimes put the meter directly
in the water—you don't need to
collect a sample. But if
monitoring from a dock or boat,
you will need to collect a water
sample using screw-cap bottles,
Whirl-pak bags, or water
samplers. Refer to Chapter 7 for
details.
STEP 3: Measure pH values.
Colorimetric Method
The colorimetric methods (both visual and
electronic meter) use indicators that change
color according to the pH of the solution.
Follow the directions in your colorimetric kit.
Since the test tube for the colorimetric tests
is small, a clean eyedropper is useful as you
fill the tube with the correct amount of sample
water. With colorimetric kits, you add a
chemical or two (reagents) to your water
sample, and compare the resulting color of the
water sample to the color standards of known
pH values. With the field kits, which use
visual assessments, it is helpful to place white
paper in the background of the tube to
emphasize any color differences, especially if
the sample's color is faint. Record the pH value
of the standard that most closely matches the
color of the sample. If the sample hue is
between two standards, check your program's
quality assurance project plan (QAPP)
(see Chapter 5). Some QAPPs require you
to average the values of the two closest
standards, and record this number as the pH.
Other plans require you to select the closest
value, and do not allow you to average the
values.
Volunteer using a color comparator,
or colorimetric field kit (photo by
K. Register).
11-5
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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11: pH and Alkalinity.
Unit Chemical Measures
pH Meter
Consistent calibration of equipment will
ensure that high quality data are collected. The
pH meter should be calibrated prior to sample
analysis and after every 25 samples according
to the instructions in the meter manual. Use
two pH standard buffer solutions (see the box,
"pH Calibration Standards," page 11-4). After
calibration, place the electrode into the water
sample and record the pH. The glass electrode
on these meters must be carefully rinsed with
deionized water after each use to ensure
accurate results in the future.
STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.
Volunteers should thoroughly clean
all equipment.
Make sure that the data sheet is complete,
legible, and accurate, and that it accounts for
all samples. Volunteers should make a copy of
the completed data sheet before sending it to
the designated person or agency in case the
original data sheet becomes lost. •
TOTAL ALKALINITY
Alkalinity (also known as "buffer capacity")
is a measure of the capacity of water to
neutralize acids. Alkaline compounds such as
bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides,
remove hydrogen ions and lower the acidity
of the water (thereby increasing pH). They
usually do this by combining with the
hydrogen ions to make new compounds.
Alkalinity is influenced by rocks and soils,
salts, certain plant activities, and certain
industrial wastewater discharges. Some water
can test on the acid side of the pH scale and
still rank high in alkalinity! This means that,
while the water might be acidic, it still has a
capacity to buffer, or neutralize, acids.
Total alkalinity is measured by measuring
the amount of acid (e.g., sulfuric acid) needed
to bring the sample to a pH of 4.2. At this pH,
all the alkaline compounds in the sample are
"used up." The result is reported as milli-
grams per liter of calcium carbonate (mg/1
CaC03).
The Role of Alkalinity in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
Measuring alkalinity is important in
determining the estuary's ability to neutralize
acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater.
Without this acid-neutralizing capacity, any
acid added to a body of water would cause an
immediate change in pH. This buffering
capacity of water, or its ability to resist pH
change, is critical to aquatic life. The
estuary's capacity to neutralize acids will vary
between the freshwater reaches of the estuary
and the portions with higher salinity.
Total Alkalinity Levels in Estuaries
Total alkalinity of seawater averages 116
mg/1 and is greater than fresh water, which
can have a total alkalinity of 30 to 90 mg/1,
depending on the watershed. The brackish
waters of an estuary will have total alkalinity
between these values. •
il-6
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity
Sampling Considerations
Choosing a Sampling Method
For total alkalinity, a double endpoint
titration using a pH meter and a digital titrator
is recommended. This can be done in the field
or in the lab. If you plan to analyze alkalinity
in the field, it is recommended that you use a
digital titrator. Another method for analyzing
alkalinity uses a buret. For volunteer programs,
using a digital titrator is recommended over the
buret, because digital titrators are portable,
economical, take less time, and have easy-to-
read endpoints (results).
Digital Titrator
This method involves titration, the addition
of small, precise quantities of sulfuric acid
(the reagent) to the sample until the sample
reaches a certain pH (the endpoint). The
amount of acid used corresponds to the total
alkalinity of the sample.
Digital titrators have counters that display
numbers. A plunger is forced into a cartridge
containing the reagent by turning a knob on
the titrator. As the knob turns, the counter
changes in proportion to the amount of
reagent used. Alkalinity is then calculated
based on the amount used. Digital titrators
cost approximately $100; the reagents
(chemicals) to conduct total alkalinity tests
cost about $36. Additionally, alkalinity
standards are needed for accuracy checks (see
the box, "Alkalinity Calibration Standards,"
page 11-9). •
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. See "Quality Control and
Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
How to Measure Alkalinity
General procedures for measuring alkalinity
are presented in this section for guidance
only; they do not apply to all sampling
methods. Monitors should consult with the
instructions that come with their sampling
and analyzing instruments. Those who are
interested in submitting data to water
quality agencies should also consult with
the agencies to determine acceptable
equipment, methods, quality control
measures, and data quality objectives (see
Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site
and collecting samples, volunteers should
review the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is
critical to confirm the monitoring site, date,
and time; have the necessary monitoring
equipment and personal gear; and understand
all safety considerations. Once at the
monitoring site, volunteers should record
general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7.
The alkalinity method described below
(using a digital titrator) was developed by the
Acid Rain Monitoring Project of the University
of Massachusetts Water Resources Research
Center (River Watch Network, 1992).
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• digital titrator;
• 100-ml graduated cylinder;
• 250-ml beaker;
• pH meter with built-in temperature
sensor;
11-7
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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11: pH and Alkalinity.
Unit Chemical Measures
• reagent (sulfuric acid titration cartridge,
0.16N);
• standard alkalinity ampules, 0.500 N,
for accuracy check; and
• bottle with deionized water to rinse pH
meter electrode.
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
If you plan to analyze a water sample in the
lab for alkalinity, then follow these collection
and storage steps:
• Use 100 ml plastic or glass bottles.
• Label the bottle with site name, date,
time, data collector, and analysis to be
performed.
• Wearing gloves, plunge the bottle into the
water. Fill the bottle completely and cap
tightly.
• Avoid excessive agitation and prolonged
exposure to air.
• Place the bottle in the cooler. Samples
should be analyzed as soon as possible,
but can be stored at least 24 hours by
cooling to 4°C (39°F) or below. NOTE:
Samples should be warmed to room tem-
perature before analyzing (Hach, 1997).
STEP 3: Measure total alkalinity.
Alkalinity is usually measured using sulfuric
acid with a digital titrator. Follow the steps
below in the field or lab. Remember to wear
latex or rubber gloves.
Add sulfuric acid to the water sample in mea-
sured amounts until the three main alkaline
compounds (bicarbonate, carbonate, and
hydroxide) are converted to carbonic acid. At
pH 10, hydroxide (if present) reacts to form
water. At pH 8.3, carbonate is converted to
bicarbonate. At pH 4.5, all carbonate and bicar-
bonate are converted to carbonic acid. Below
this pH, the water is unable to neutralize the sul-
furic acid and there is a linear relationship
between the amount of sulfuric acid added to the
sample and the change in the pH of the sample.
So, more sulfuric acid is added to the sample to
reduce the pH by exactly 0.3 pH units (which
corresponds to an exact doubling of the pH) to a
pH of 4.2. However, the exact pH at which the
conversion of these bases might have happened,
or total alkalinity, is still unknown.
Arriving at total alkalinity requires an equa-
tion (given below) to extrapolate back to the
amount of sulfuric acid that was added to actu-
ally convert all the bases to carbonic acid. A
multiplier (0.1) then converts this to total alka-
linity as mg/1 of calcium carbonate (CaC03). To
determine the alkalinity of your sample, follow
these steps:
• Samples should be warmed to room tem-
perature before analyzing.
• Insert a clean delivery tube into the 0.16N
sulfuric acid titration cartridge and attach
the cartridge to the titrator body.
• Hold the titrator, with the cartridge tip
pointing up, over a sink or waste bottle.
Turn the delivery knob to eject air and a
few drops of titrant. Reset the counter to
0 and wipe the tip.
• Measure the pH of the sample using a pH
meter. If it is less than 4.5, skip to step 3a,
page 11-9.
• Insert the delivery tube into the beaker
containing the sample. Turn the delivery
knob while magnetically stirring the
beaker until the pH meter reads 4.5.
Record the number of digits used to
achieve this pH. Do not reset the counter.
• Continue titrating to a pH of 4.2 and
record the number of digits.
• Apply the following equation:
Alkalinity (as mg/l CaCOj = (2a - b) x 0.1
Where:
a = digits of titrant to reach pH 4.5
b = digits of titrant to reach pH 4.2
(including digits required to get
to pH 4.5)
0.1= digit multiplier for a 0.16 titration
cartridge and a 100 ml sample
il-8
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity
Example:
Initial pH of sample is 6.5.
It takes 108 turns to get to a pH of 4.5.
It takes another 5 turns to get to pH 4.2,
for a total of 113 turns.
Alkalinity =[(2x108)- H3]x0.l
= 10.3 mg/1
• Record alkalinity as mg/1 CaC03 on the
data sheet.
• Rinse the beaker with distilled water
before the next sample.
STEP3a:
If the pH of your water sample, prior
to titration, is less than 4.5, proceed as follows:
• Insert the delivery tube into the
beaker containing the sample.
• Turn the delivery knob while swirling
the beaker until the pH meter reads
exactly 0.3 pH units less than the initial
pH of the sample.
• Record the number of digits used to
achieve this pH.
• Apply the equation as before, but a = 0
and b = the number of digits required to
reduce the initial pH exactly 0.3 pH units.
Example:
Initial pH of sample is 4.3.
Titrate to a pH of 0.3 units less than the
initial pH; in this case, 4.0.
It takes 10 digits to get to 4.0.
Enter this in the 4.2 column on the data
sheet and note that the pH endpoint is 4.0.
Alkalinity =(0- I0)x0.i
= -i.o
• Record alkalinity as mg/1 CaC03 on the
data sheet.
• Rinse the beaker with distilled water
before the next sample.
Note on Data Sheet for Alkalinity
Data sheets should be specialized depending on which methods
your program uses to measure each parameter—and this is true
for alkalinity, too. With the method described in this manual, your
worksheet should include places for volunteers to record the
results of the various steps described.
Alkalinity Calibration Standards
You will need to do an accuracy check on your alkalinity test
equipment before the first field sample is titrated, again about
halfway through the field samples, and at the final field sample. For
this, you will need an alkalinity standard. Often, these come in pre-
measured glass ampules. To use, break off the tip of the glass
ampule and pour the liquid into a beaker. Then, follow the directions
found under "Step 4: Perform an accuracy check." The price for the
alkalinity standards is about $23 for 20 2-ml ampules.
STEP 4: Perform an accuracy check.
This accuracy check should be performed
on the first field sample titrated, again about
halfway through the field samples, and at the
final field sample. Check the pH meter
against pH 7.00 and 4.00 buffers after every
10 samples.
• Snap the neck off an alkalinity ampule
standard, 0.500 N; or, if using a standard
solution from a bottle, pour a few milli-
liters of the standard into a clean beaker.
• Pipet 0.1 ml of the standard to the titrated
sample (see above). Resume titration
back to the pH 4.2 endpoint. Record the
number of digits needed.
• Repeat using two more additions of 0.1
ml of standard. Titrate to the pH 4.2 after
each addition. Each 0.1 ml addition of
standard should require 250 additional
digits of 0.16 Ntitrant.
11-9
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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11: pH and Alkalinity Unit Chemical Measures
STEP 5: Return the field data Sheets Make sure that the data sheets are complete,
and/Or Samples tO the lab. legible, and accurate, and that they account for
all samples. Volunteers should make a copy of
Volunteers should thoroughly clean all ,1 , , . . , i , . f . •
6 J the completed data sheets before sending
equipment and transport the samples to the ,1 , ,1 . • , .
/ " ,,,.„;.. , them to the designated person or agency in
designated lab. Alkalinity samples must be ,1 • • , . , i , . , , _
, , .,. ,,. . , case the original data sheet becomes lost. •
analyzed within 24 hours of their collection. If
the samples cannot be analyzed in the field,
keep the samples on ice and take them to the
lab or drop-off point as soon as possible.
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual. Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.
Green, L. 1998. "Let Us Go Down to the Sea—How Monitoring Changes from River to
Estuary." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 1-3.
Hach. 1997. Each Water Analysis Handbook 3rd ed. Hach Company. Loveland, CO.
LaMotte Chemical Products Company. Undated. Laboratory Manual for Marine Science Studies.
LaMotte Educational Products Division, Chestertown, MD. 41 pp.
River Watch Network. 1992. Total Alkalinity and pHField and Laboratory Procedures. (Based
on University of Massachusetts Acid Rain Monitoring Project.)
Other references:
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg, A. D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Godfrey, P. J. 1988. Acid Rain in Massachusetts. University of Massachusetts Water Resources
Research Center. Amherst, MA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
-------
Toxins
Testing for toxins requires specialized equipment and expertise beyond the means
of most volunteer monitoring programs. Nonetheless, it is important to understand
the sources of toxins and the role they play in estuaries. Volunteers can provide
valuable assistance with research projects by providing local knowledge of a
watershed and potential sources of toxic compounds and by collecting fish and
invertebrates for laboratory analysis.
-------
Photos (I to r): G. Carver, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel
-------
Unit Chemical Measures 12: Toxins
Since industrialization in the late 1940s and 1950s, the amount of contaminants and
toxic substances put into estuaries has greatly increased. These contaminants include
heavy metals (such as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and copper) and syn-
thetic (manmade) organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). pesticides (e.g., dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane—DDT), and human sewage. Many of these toxins such as PCBs and
DDT do not degrade for hundreds of years and can concentrate in the sediment and in
the tissues of local aquatic animals. Sources of toxins into estuaries include industrial
discharges; runoff from lawns, streets, and farmlands; aid discharges from sewage
treatment plants. The estuary's own sediment can also serve as a source, as sediment
contains years of toxic deposits. Other toxic substances arc deposited into estuaries
from the atmosphere. Mercury vapor and lead particles from industrial sources enter
estuaries from the atmosphere as rain, snow, or dry particles. All toxins can affect an
estuary's biological structure and populations. Humans, in turn, can be harmed by
consuming bottom-dwelling organisms such as shellfish that are exposed to contami-
nated sediment as well as through exposure to contaminated water.
Testing for many of these toxins requires specialized equipment and expertise
beyond the means of most volunteer monitoring programs. Nonetheless, it is impor-
tant to understand the sources of toxins and the role they play in estuaries. Volunteers
can provide valuable assistance with research projects by providing local knowledge
of a watershed and potential sources of toxic compounds and by collecting fish and
invertebrates for laboratory analysis.
This chapter reviews some of the toxic substances found in our nation's estuarine
ecosystems, especially heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs, and introduces
some testing techniques for toxins.
12-1
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 12: Toxins.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Toxins in Estuaries
There are two general classes of toxic
pollutants found in estuaries—metals and
organic compounds. Toxic metals include
mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, and
copper. Some of these metals (e.g., copper)
are required in small concentrations for
metabolic processes but are toxic at higher
levels. Organic compounds of interest include
PAHs and several synthetic ones that are no
longer produced, such as PCBs and DDT
(USEPA, 1996). Other organic toxins of
concern are biotoxins that are produced by
harmful algal blooms (see Chapter 19). This
chapter focuses on the more traditional
organic compounds.
Sources of toxic substances include surface
water from municipal and industrial
discharges, runoff (e.g., from lawns, streets,
and farmlands), and atmospheric deposition.
Lifespan of Toxins
How long pollutants remain in estuaries
depends on the nature of the compound. Some
pollutants bind to particles and settle, while
others remain water soluble. Another factor is
the flushing rate within the estuary. Many
pollutants, including DDT and PCBs, have
been banned in the United States since the
1970s, but are very chemically stable and
persist in benthic sediment long after the
pollution source has abated. •
Toxicity
Toxins can affect the animals in an
estuarine ecosystem through acute or
chronic toxicity. Organisms suffer acute
toxicity when exposure levels result in
death within 96 hours. Lethal doses differ
for each toxin and species, and are
influenced by the potency and concen-
tration of the toxin. Chronic toxicity—
also referred to as sub-lethal toxicity—
does not result in death (at exposures of at
least 96 hours), but can cause impairment
to aquatic animals, organ damage and
failure, gastro-intestinal damage, and can
affect growth and reproduction.
Why Monitor Toxins?
Monitoring for the presence of toxins
provides information on possible effects to an
estuary's community structure and
populations. Human health is another
important reason for monitoring. Bottom-
dwelling organisms, like shellfish, can
accumulate these metals and chemicals in
their tissues, making them a potential risk to
human health when consumed. When high
concentrations of chemical contaminants are
found in local fish and wildlife, state officials
issue consumption advisories for the general
population as well as for sensitive
subpopulations such as pregnant women.
Advisories include recommendations to limit
or avoid consumption of certain fish and
wildlife species from specific bodies of
water. •
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. Chapter 12: Toxins
Accumulation and Amplification
of Toxins—Definitions
Biological accumulation
(bioaccumulation)—The uptake and
storage of chemicals (e.g., DDT, PCBs)
from the environment by animals and
plants. Uptake can occur through feeding
or direct absorption from water or
sediments.
Biological amplification (also called
bioamplification, biomagnification or
bioconcentration)—The concentration of a
substance as it "moves up" the food chain
from one consumer to another (Figure
12-1). The concentration of chemical
contaminants (e.g., DDT, PCBs, methyl
mercury) progressively increases from the
bottom of the food chain (e.g., phyto-
plankton, zooplankton) to the top of the
food chain (e.g., fish-eating birds such as
cormorants).
Toxin in
fish-eating
birds
Toxin in
large fish
Toxin in small fish
Toxin in plankton
Toxin in water
Figure 12-1. Biological amplification. Chemical concentrations progressively
increase from lower to upper levels of the food chain.
The Role of Toxins in the Estuary Ecosystem
Though there are many toxic substances
found in our nation's estuarine ecosystems,
the categories of biggest concern are: heavy
metals, pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs (USEPA,
1996).
Heavy Metals
Some toxic metals, such as copper and zinc,
are needed in trace amounts for metabolism
but are toxic in higher levels. Others, such as
mercury, lead, chromium, and cadmium, have
no known metabolic function. Their presence
may prompt state officials to restrict water
use, close shellfish waters, or issue fish
consumption advisories. Generally, the three
metals most closely monitored are mercury,
copper, and lead because of their adverse
effects on human health.
Mercury
Mercury is distributed throughout the
environment from natural sources and from
human activities. Sources of mercury from
human activities (also called anthropogenic
sources) include solid waste incineration and
coal combustion facilities for electricity.
Together, they contribute approximately 87
percent of the emissions of mercury in the
United States. Other sources of mercury
include municipal wastewater treatment plants
and mining and industrial sources, such as
smelting, pulp mills, paper mills, leather
tanning, electroplating, chemical
manufacturing, and cement production. In
addition, mercury is deposited in surface
waters through runoff from its natural
occurrence in rocks and soils as well as from
12-3
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 12: Toxins.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
WARNING
CONTAMINATED RSH A SHELLFISH
YOUR HEALTH
Toxins in the water can
make estuaries and
other waterbodies
unsafe for fishing or
swimming (photo by
R, Ohrel).
atmospheric deposition of
volatile compounds from
wetlands (USEPA, 1999c).
Methylmercury is the
chemical form or "species"
that bioaccumulates in the
tissue of animals and
bioamplifies in food chains.
Mercury poisoning through
consumption of
methylmercury-
contaminated food results in
such adverse central nervous system effects as
impairment to peripheral vision and mental
capabilities, loss of feeling, and—at high
doses—seizures, severe neurological
impairment, and death. Methylmercury has also
been shown to be a developmental toxicant,
causing subtle to severe neurological effects in
children.
Methylmercury makes up 90-100 percent of
the mercury found in most adult fish. It binds to
proteins and is found primarily in fish muscle
(fillets). Concentrations of total mercury in fish
are approximately 10,000 to 100,000 times
higher than the concentrations of total mercury
found in the surrounding waters.
Mercury contamination is one of the leading
reasons that fish consumption advisories are
issued in the United States. These advisories
inform the public that concentrations of
mercury have been found in local fish at levels
of public health concern. State advisories
recommend either limiting or avoiding
consumption of certain fish from specific
waterbodies (USEPA, 1999c).
Lead
Lead is used by the ton in products such as
batteries, ammunition, solder, pipes, and in
building construction. Lead poisoning is
associated with kidney damage, anemia, and
damage to the central nervous system. Of
greatest concern are the dangers of lead
poisoning to children, who can suffer
permanent physical and mental impairments.
Cadmium
Cadmium is another heavy metal of concern
because it can cause kidney and bone damage
to people who suffer long-term chronic
exposure to it. Sources of cadmium into the
environment from human activities are mainly
from the mining, extraction, and processing of
copper, lead, and zinc. Other sources can
include solid waste incineration, reprocessing
of galvanized metal, and sewage sludge.
Cadmium can also be found in some batteries,
fertilizers, tires, and many industrial processes.
Copper
Copper is an essential nutrient, required by
the body in very small amounts. However, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has
found copper to potentially cause stomach and
intestinal distress, liver and kidney damage,
and anemia, depending on the level and term
of exposure. Persons with certain diseases
may be more sensitive than others to the
effects of copper contamination.
Copper releases to land and water are
primarily from smelting industries. Municipal
incineration may also produce copper. Copper
is also widely used in household plumbing
materials.
Chromium
Depending on the level and term of
exposure, chromium has the potential to cause
skin irritation, ulcers, dermatitis, or damage to
liver, kidney, circulatory, and nerve tissues.
Though widely distributed in soils and
plants, chromium is rare in natural waters.
The two largest sources of chromium
emission in the atmosphere are chemical
manufacturing industries and natural gas, oil,
and coal combustion. Chromium may also
reach waterways via:
• road dust;
• cement-producing plants;
• the wearing down of asbestos brake
linings from automobiles or similar
asbestos sources;
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. 12: Toxins
• municipal refuse and sewage sludge
incineration;
• automotive catalytic converter exhaust;
• emissions from cooling towers that use
chromium compounds as rust inhibitors;
• waste waters from electroplating, leather
tanning, and textile industries; and
• solid wastes from chemical
manufacture.
Pesticides
Another major category of toxins in
estuaries is pesticides. Most of them will
break down into nontoxic chemicals within a
few days of application. Others are banned
because they can persist for decades.
Pesticides are developed to eliminate pests
such as weeds (herbicides), insects
(insecticides), rodents (rodenticides), fungi
(fungicides), and other organisms that are
considered undesirable.
Two of the more persistent pesticides are
DDT and its breakdown product and closely
related compound, ODD (dichlorodiphe-
nyldichloroethane). They are both in a class of
pesticides called organochlorines. These
pesticides destroy living cells and affect the
nervous system of organisms. DDT is a highly
toxic, broad-spectrum poison that is capable
of killing many different species. It was used
extensively in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s
because it was cheap to produce, effective,
and not harmful to humans. For these reasons,
it continues to be used in developing countries
to eradicate the mosquito that transmits
malaria. DDT was banned in the U.S. in 1972
because of its effects on wildlife, but it
continues to be measured in sediment and in
aquatic animals. In fact, buried sediments may
be a large and continuing source of DDT
compounds due to mixing processes such as
flooding, dredging activities, and the
disturbing of sediment by animals (called
bioturbation), as well as other mechanisms.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
PCBs are another class of banned synthetic
organic chemicals comprising 209 individual
chlorinated biphenyl compounds. Similar to
DDT, PCBs are resistant to biological and
chemical degradation and can persist in the
environment for decades. There are no known
natural sources of PCBs. Millions of metric
tons of PCBs were used as solvents and in the
electronic industry as insulators for
transformers. Most PCBs are soluble in fats;
therefore, they accumulate in the tissues of
animals. Once incorporated into an animal's
fat, PCBs will stay there and cannot be
excreted. They are rapidly accumulated by
aquatic organisms, becoming amplified in the
food chain when animals eat PCB-contami-
nated organisms. PCB concentrations in fish
at the top of the food chain can be 2,000 to
more than a million times higher than the
concentrations found in the surrounding
waters (USEPA, 1999d).
While the manufacture and use of PCBs
have been banned in the U.S. since 1976, the
sediment of many estuaries can have high
levels of PCB contamination, and PCBs can
continue to enter estuaries from leaking
shoreside landfills or from improper disposal.
PCBs in the sediment can reenter the water
column though natural processes and dredging
activities. Although PCBs are declining in the
environment, health concerns are still
warranted.
Recent findings indicate that susceptible
populations (e.g., certain ethnic groups, sport
anglers, the elderly, pregnant women,
children, fetuses, and nursing infants)
continue to be exposed to PCBs via fish and
wildlife consumption (USEPA, 1999d).
Exposure to PCB compounds involves
different levels of harmful risks. There is
much interest in determining if PCBs are
endocrine disrupters—chemicals that can
mimic, block, or otherwise disrupt the body's
hormones. Some have been shown to act as
12-5
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Chapter 12: Toxins.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
hormone disrupters in wildlife and possibly in
laboratory animals. Human health studies
indicate that eating fish containing PCBs can
lead to significant health consequences
including:
• reproductive dysfunction;
• deficiencies in neurobehavioral and
developmental behavior, especially in
newborns and school-aged children;
• other systemic effects (e.g., liver
disease, diabetes, effects on the thyroid
and immune systems); and
• increased cancer risks (e.g., non-
Hodgkin's lymphoma) (USEPA, 1999d).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs,
are the byproducts of oil burning. They are
carcinogenic (cancer causing) and mutagenic
(change cell growth). They are also produced
by burning coal and wood. They enter
estuaries from leaking gas storage tanks, road
runoff, sewage plants, industrial and
municipal discharges, oil spills, and bilge
water discharges. Creosote applied to wharf
pilings also contains PAHs.
Other Notable Toxins
In addition to the toxins discussed above,
there are many others that enter estuaries and
affect their wildlife. Some of these include:
Dioxin
Dioxin, a byproduct of bleaching paper with
chlorine, is associated with birth defects in
humans. Chlorine combines with lignins
(natural binders of wood fiber) to produce
dioxin.
Tributyltin (TBT)
TBT, an antifouling paint additive used on
boats and in marinas, is a fat-loving
compound (lipophilic) that accumulates in the
tissue of animals, and amplifies in the food
chain. Contributions of TBT arise almost
exclusively from anti-fouling bottom paints
that are applied to boat hulls to retard the
growth of barnacles and other fouling
organisms. The greatest release of trace
metals occurs when the paint is fresh or after
hull cleaning when new layers of paint are
exposed. Over the last few years, increasing
regulation and controls have attempted to
reduce emissions from this source to estuary
waters. For example, TBT can no longer be
used on small craft, but is used on ocean-
bound tankers. Nonetheless, while the use of
TBT is restricted, it is still in use and
accumulates in harbor sediments.
Household chemicals, paints, cleaning
chemicals, etc.
There are tens of thousands of chemicals
used in industrial processes and in our homes.
Little is known about their effects on aquatic
life, how concentrated they are in estuaries,
how long they persist in aquatic environments,
or their interaction with each other. •
Some Toxins Are from
Biological Processes
Excessive algae growth can result in brown
and red tides and other harmful blooms.
Harmful algal blooms excrete biotoxins
that can be hazardous to shellfish, fish, and
humans. See Chapter 19 for more
information.
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Unit One: Chemical Measures
. 12: Toxins
Sampling Considerations
Toxic metal and organic pollutants are
found in low concentrations in water—on the
order of parts-per-billion and parts-per-trillion
levels. But concentrations in the sediment are
higher and range in the parts-per-million and
parts-per-billion levels. Because of these low
levels, collecting water and sediment samples
for toxin analysis involves a high degree of
rigor and training to limit inadvertent
contamination of the sample. Sources of
contamination include the polyethylene bottle,
as well as the handling of the bottle. Unless
there is a clear justification and rigorous
oversight, volunteer monitoring programs
are discouraged from collecting samples for
toxin analysis. However, it is important that
volunteer programs understand the general
process of sampling for toxins and testing
their impact.
Testing for the presence of toxic substances
(metals and toxic chemical compounds) in
estuary water and sediment usually requires a
laboratory with expensive equipment, such as
a mass spectrometer, high performance liquid
chromatography, or atomic absorption
spectrophotometer. Some toxins are in minute
quantities and require a concentration step,
such as organic extractions, to be analyzed.
One method scientists use to analyze the
effects of a toxic substance on living
organisms is called a bioassay, or biological
assay. A bioassay is a controlled experiment
using a change in biological activity as a
qualitative or quantitative means of analyzing
a material response to a pollutant. Depending
on the test, microorganisms, planktonic
animals, or live fish can be used as test
organisms.
Scientists also look for biochemical
indicators of contaminants by studying
animals called biomarkers. They look for
DNA damage in blood cells and the presence
of stress proteins, which are produced in
response to a wide variety of contaminants,
including trace metals and organic pollutants.
Volunteers may be able to assist with
collecting fish and invertebrates to be used in
the chemical analysis of tissue, or under a
very high degree of training assist with the
collection of sediment and water samples to
be tested for toxicity. In some cases,
volunteers collect shellfish and send them to a
laboratory for tissue analysis. See Chapter 19
for more information.
Volunteer water quality monitoring
programs interested in monitoring for toxins
are recommended to work with a local college
or laboratory which has the necessary
equipment and knowledge. Any such study
should carefully follow established protocols
for analysis and testing (see, for example,
APHA, 1998).
Volunteers can also assist with a field
survey to identify potential sources of toxins
in an estuary. See Chapter 7 for more
information on field observations.
It should be noted that conventional toxicity
tests and chemical analyses are rarely
sufficient to identify the cause or sources of
toxicity. Multiple contaminants are usually
present in a toxic sample, and many of the
contaminants may be at elevated
concentrations. There are other important
factors that influence toxicity, such as
sediment organic carbon content or the size of
sand grains.
Field test kits are available for some of the
heavy metals and other pollutants that can be
used in preliminary measurements. For
example, one kit measures copper in estuaries
that may exist as a soluble salt or as
suspended solids. Test kits are also available
for zinc, chlorine, chromate, iron, chloride,
silica, and cyanide. Field test kits vary greatly
in their detectable range and cost between $15
and $450. •
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Chapter 12: Toxins.
Unit One: Chemical Measures
Atmospheric Deposition of Toxins
Pollutants released
into the air can be
introduced to the
estuary through
atmospheric deposition
(photo by R, Ohrel).
Over the past 30 years.
scientists have collected
a large amount of
convincing information
demonstrating that air
pollutants can be
deposited on land and
water—sometimes at
! great distances from their
original sources—and
can contribute to
declining estuarine water quality. This is
called atmospheric deposition. Pollutants
released into the air are carried by wind
patterns away from their place of origin.
These pollutants come from manmade or
natural sources of emissions. For example, up
to 25% of the mercury emitted worldwide is
released naturally as part of the global
mercury cycle.
Presently, atmospheric deposition
monitoring by volunteers is in its early stages.
In the future, there may be a role for
volunteers to monitor the amount of toxins
that are deposited from the atmosphere into
estuaries. See Chapter 10 for more
information on atmospheric deposition. •
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Miller, G.T. 1999. Environmental Science. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont, CA.
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. 1999. FY 1999/2000 Research Plan.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1996. Environmental Indicators of Water
Quality in the United States. EPA 841-R-96-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1998. Estuaries and Your Coastal Watershed.
EPA-842-F-98-009. Office of Water, Washington, DC. Web site:
http://www.epa.gov/owowwtrl/oceans/factsheets/fact5.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999a. Guidance for Assessing Chemical
Contaminant Data for Use in Fish Advisories. Vol. 2, 3rd ed. "Risk Assessment and Fish
Consumption Limits." EPA 823-B-99-008. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999b. Fact Sheet: Update: National Listing
of Fish and Wildlife Advisories. EPA-823-F-99-005. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999c. Fact Sheet: Mercury Update: Impact
on Fish Advisories. EPA-823-F-99-016. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999d. Fact Sheet: Public Health Implications
of Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). EPA-823-F-99-019. Office of Water,
Washington, DC.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit Chemical Measures 12: Toxins
Other
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington. DC.
Maine Coastal Program. 1998. The Estuary Book. State Planning Office, 38 State House Station,
Augusta, ME 04333.
National Safety Council's Environmental Center. 1998. Coastal Challenges: A Guide to Coastal
and Marine Issues. Prepared in conjunction with Coastal America.
Web site: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/guidebks/coasttoc.htm
Web
Restore America's Estuaries: http://www.cstuarics.org/cstuarywhat.html.
Atmospheric Deposition
National Estuary Program (NEP): http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/airdep.htm
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12: Toxins Unit Chemical Measures
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Physical Measures
Temperature • Salinity • Turbidity and Total Solids • Marine Debris
-------
Photos (I to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, S. Schultz, P. Bergstrom
-------
Temperature
Water temperature is closely connected to many biological and chemical processes
in the estuary. For this reason, and because it is easily measured, temperature is
commonly monitored by volunteer groups using thermometers or meters.
-------
Photos (I to r): R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
Unit Physical Measures 13: Temperature
Water temperature is closely connected to many biological and chemical processes
in the estuary. For this reason, and because it is easily measured, temperature is
commonly monitored by volunteer groups using thermometers or meters.
This chapter explains the significance and variability of estuarine water
temperature and provides steps for collecting temperature data.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 13: Temperature.
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Why Monitor Temperature?
Temperature, probably the most easily
measured parameter, is a critical factor
influencing several aspects of the estuarine
ecosystem. It influences biological activity
and many chemical variables in the estuary.
The Role of Temperature in
the Estuarine Ecosystem
Temperature plays many roles in the
estuary. As water temperature increases, for
example, the capacity of water to hold
dissolved oxygen becomes lower. Water
temperature also influences the rate of plant
photosynthesis, the metabolic rates of aquatic
organisms, and the sensitivity of organisms to
toxic wastes, parasites, and diseases (USEPA,
1997).
Many species regulate the timing of
important events, such as reproduction and
migration, according to specific water
temperatures. Optimal temperatures (which
vary with the species and their life stage)
allow organisms to function at maximum
efficiency. The slow change of temperature
that comes with the seasons permits
organisms to acclimate, whereas rapid shifts
may adversely affect plants and animals.
Temperature shifts of more than 1°-2°C can
cause thermal stress and shock (Campbell and
Wildberger, 1992). Long-term temperature
changes can affect the overall distribution and
abundance of estuarine organisms.
Throughout the winter, temperatures remain
fairly constant from top to bottom. In spring
and summer, the uppermost layer of an
estuary grows warmer and mixing between
this surface water and the cooler bottom water
slows. As air temperatures cool through the
autumn, the surface water becomes
increasingly cold and increases in density. The
surface water mass ultimately sinks when its
density becomes greater than that of the
underlying water mass. As the surface water
moves down, mixing occurs and nutrients
from the bottom are redistributed toward the
surface. This introduction of nutrients to
surface waters fuels phytoplankton growth
(see Chapters 10 and 19).
Temperature is not generally constant from
the water surface to the bottom. An estuary's
water temperature is a function of:
• depth;
• season;
• amount of mixing due to wind, storms,
and tides;
• degree of stratification (layering) in the
estuary;
• temperature of water flowing in from
the tributaries; and
• human influences (e.g., release of urban
stormwater, warm water discharged
from power plants). •
Sampling Considerations
Where to Sample
Because temperatures change according to
the many variables listed above, it is often
helpful to measure water temperature
throughout the water column and at different
surface locations. By collecting samples at
different depths, thermal layers within the
estuary can be determined. This information,
in turn, can be useful for analyzing other
environmental parameters.
HELPFUL HINT
Temperature can only be measured at the
monitoring site. If samples are to be taken
to a laboratory for analysis, temperature
should first be measured in the field.
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Unit Two: Physical Measures
Chapter 13: Temperature
When to Sample
As with other water quality variables,
temperature should be measured at the same
location and time of day each time volunteers
collect data.
Choosing a Sampling Method
Water temperature is measured with a ther-
mometer or meter. Alcohol-filled thermometers
are less hazardous, when broken, than mercury-
filled thermometers, making them the better
option. Under field conditions, using a ther-
mometer armored in plastic or metal will mini-
mize breakage problems.
Some meters used to measure other parame-
ters, such as pH or dissolved oxygen, also mea-
sure temperature and can be used instead of a
thermometer.
Volunteer monitors usually take a single tem-
perature reading while they collect other water
quality data at their monitoring sites. While the
single reading is useful, it does not fully pro-
vide details about daily trends. Temperature
data loggers, which record data at regular inter-
vals (usually hourly), could be deployed at
selected monitoring sites. These instruments are
able to continuously record data for up to
months at a time. The data can then be down-
loaded directly into a computer database. As the
costs of data loggers decline, they may become
attractive options for volunteer programs. •
Thermometer Accuracy
To assure accuracy, check the thermometer
against a National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) certified
thermometer at least once a year.
Confirm the thermometer's accuracy in
several samples of water of varying
temperatures. Your county health depart-
ment or the state department of environ-
mental protection may lend an NIST
thermometer to the program for these
important periodic checks.
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. See "Quality Control and
Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
How to Monitor Temperature
General procedures for measuring
temperature are presented in this section for
guidance only. Monitors should consult with
the instructions that come with their
sampling and analyzing instruments. Those
who are interested in submitting data to
water quality agencies should also consult
with the agencies to determine acceptable
equipment, methods, quality control
measures, and data quality objectives (see
Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site and
collecting samples, volunteers should review
the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is critical
to confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;
have the necessary monitoring equipment and
personal gear; and understand all safety
considerations. Once at the monitoring site,
volunteers should record general site
observations, as discussed in Chapter 7.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
Check to make sure that no separation has
occurred in the thermometer liquid before
each use.
If you are using a thermometer and not mea-
suring directly in the water, bring a large (at
least 2-gallon) clear container that can hold the
sample. This will facilitate thermometer reading.
13-3
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Chapter 13: Temperature.
Unit Two: Physical Measures
°F
212-E
200 -=
190 -=
180 -=
170-f
160 -|
150-i
140-E
130-|
120 -|
110-=
~
100 -E
90 -E
80 -i
70 -|
60 -|
50 -f
40 -i
32 —
^
°c
— 100
i
^-90
— on
^™ ou
L70
2
^-60
-
^-50
-
— 40
^-30
~
E-10
I
— 0
=C=|x(°F-32)
=-(M
+ 32
Figure 13-1. Temperature
conversion scale.
STEP 2: Measure air temperature.
Chapter 7 specifies air temperature as one
of the general observations that should be
made at each monitoring site. Air temperature
can be measured with the same thermometer or
meter used for reading water temperature. Prior
to measuring water temperature, allow the ther-
mometer or meter to equalize with the ambient
or surrounding air temperature for three to five
minutes. Make sure the thermometer is out of
direct sunlight to avoid a false high reading.
Record the air temperature on the data sheet
before measuring the water temperature.
STEP 3: Measure water temperature.
The following section describes two proce-
dures to measure water temperature. If measur-
ing temperature in shallow water or at the sur-
face, follow Procedure A. If measuring temper-
ature from a collected water sample, follow
Procedure B.
Procedure A—Measuring temperature directly
in shallow water or at the water surface:
• Place the thermometer or meter probe in
the water at least 4 inches below the sur-
face or halfway to the bottom (if in very
shallow water).
• If using a thermometer, wait until it
reaches a stable temperature (3-5 min-
utes). If using a meter, allow it to reach a
stable reading.
• If possible, read the temperature with the
thermometer bulb beneath the water sur-
face. Otherwise, quickly remove the ther-
mometer and read the temperature.
• Record the temperature on the field data
sheet, using the scale (°C or °F) required
by the program (Figure 13-1).
• If the meter probe has a long cable, you
may measure temperature at different
depths.
Procedure B—Measuring temperature from a
collected water sample:
• Make sure the sample holds at least two
gallons so that the water remains unaf-
fected by the temperature of the ther-
mometer and the air. The volunteer can
use this same sample for many other typi-
cal water quality monitoring tests.
• Quickly immerse the thermometer or
meter in the water sample.
• If using a thermometer, wait until it
reaches a stable temperature (3-5 min-
utes). If using a meter, allow it to reach a
stable reading.
• If possible, read the temperature with the
thermometer bulb beneath the water sur-
face. Otherwise, quickly remove the ther-
mometer and read the temperature.
• Record the temperature on the field data
sheet, using the scale (°C or °F) required
by the program (Figure 13-1).
STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.
Thoroughly clean all equipment for proper
storage.
Make sure the data sheets are complete and
accurate. Volunteers should make a copy of the
completed data sheets before turning them in to
the laboratory, program manager, or designated
drop-off point. •
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Unit Physical Measures 13: Temperature
References and Further Reading
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg, A. D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor's Handbook LaMotte Company,
Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring:
A Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
13-5
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13: Temperature Unit Physical Measures
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Salinity
Because of its importance to estuarine ecosystems, salinity (the amount of
dissolved salts in water) is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring programs.
-------
Photos (I to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, P. Bergstrom
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Unit Physical Measures 14: Salinity
Overview
Because of its importance to estuarine ecosystems, salinity (the amount of
dissolved salts in water) is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring
programs. This chapter discusses the role of salinity in the estuarine environment
and provides steps for measuring this water quality variable.
14-1
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Chapter 14: Salinity.
Unit Two: Physical Measures
About Salinity
Salinity is simply a measure of the amount of
salts dissolved in water. An estuary usually
exhibits a gradual change in salinity throughout
its length, as fresh water entering the estuary
from tributaries mixes with seawater moving in
from the ocean (Figure 14-1). Salinity is usually
Average A
Annual •
Salinity Tidal Limit
<0.5ppt
<5.0ppt
<18.0ppt
(During
Low Flow
Conditions)
Figure 14-1. Estuarine
salinity slowly increases
as one moves away
from freshwater sources
and toward the ocean.
OCEAN
expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or %>.
The fresh water from rivers has a salinity of
0.5 ppt or less. Within the estuary, salinity lev-
els are referred to as oligohaline (0.5-5.0 ppt),
mesohaline (5.0-18.0 ppt), or polyhaline (18.0-
30.0 ppt). Near the connection with the open
sea, estuarine waters may be euhaline, where
salinity levels are the same as the ocean at more
than 30.0 ppt (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986).
Generally, salinity increases with water depth
unless the estuarine water column is well
mixed. Salinity, along with water temperature,
is the primary factor in determining the stratifi-
cation of an estuary. When fresh and salt water
meet, the two do not readily mix. Warm, fresh
water is less dense than cold, salty water and
will overlie the wedge of seawater pushing in
from the ocean. Storms, tides, and wind, how-
ever, can eliminate the layering caused by salin-
ity and temperature differences by thoroughly
mixing the two masses of water. The shape of
the estuary and the volume of river flow also
influence this two-layer circulation. See
Chapter 2 for more information.
Role of Salinity in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
Salinity levels control, to a large degree, the
types of plants and animals that can live in
different zones of the estuary. Freshwater
species may be restricted to the upper reaches
of the estuary, while marine species inhabit the
estuarine mouth. Some species tolerate only
intermediate levels of salinity while broadly
adapted species can acclimate to any salinity
ranging from fresh water to seawater.
Salinity measurements may also offer clues
about estuarine areas that could become afflict-
ed by salinity-specific diseases. In the
Chesapeake and Delaware bays, for example,
pathogens infecting oysters are restricted to sec-
tions that fall within certain salinity levels.
Drastic changes in salinity, such as those due to
drought or storms, can also greatly alter the
numbers and types of animals and plants in
the estuary.
Another role played by saline water in an
estuary involves flocculation of particles.
Flocculation is the process of particles aggre-
gating into larger clumps. The particles that
enter an estuary dissolved in the fresh water of
rivers collide with the salt water, and may floc-
culate or clump together and increase turbidity
(Figure 14-2).
Salinity is often an important factor when
monitoring many key water quality variables.
For example:
• Most dissolved oxygen meters require
knowledge of the salinity content in
order to calibrate the meter properly.
• If you are interested in converting the
dissolved oxygen concentration (usually
expressed as mg/1 or parts per million) to
14-2
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Unit Two: Physical Measures.
. Chapter 14: Salinity
percent saturation (amount of oxygen in
the water compared to the maximum it
could hold at that temperature), you must
take salinity into account. As salinity
increases, the amount of oxygen that
water can hold decreases.
If you use a meter to measure pH, the
techniques are the same whether you
are testing salt or fresh water.
However, if you measure with an
electronic colorimeter, you must use a
correction factor (available from the
manufacturer) to compensate for the
effects of salinity. •
Fresh Water
Figure 14-2. Turbidity increases when fresh water meets with salt water.
Sampling Considerations
Salinity will fluctuate with movement of the
tides, dilution by precipitation, and mixing of
the water by wind. There are also seasonal
differences in salinity.
Season and Weather
Environmental conditions vary with the
seasons, and salinity levels can reflect those
variations. During wet weather periods and
during the spring thaw in colder regions, more
fresh water enters the estuary, so salinity is
lower at these times. On the other hand, dry
weather periods mean less fresh water
entering the estuary, so higher salinity levels
may be found. Another way the seasons
influence an estuary's salinity involves the
mixing of fresh water and salt water. Seasonal
storms help mix estuarine waters and serve to
decrease the vertical salinity and temperature
gradients in the estuary.
Choosing a Sampling Method
Salinity can be measured either by physical
or chemical methods. Physical methods use
conductivity, density, or refractivity. The
physical methods are quicker and more
convenient than the chemical methods. The
chemical methods determine chlorinity (the
chloride concentration), which is closely
related to salinity.
Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of
water to pass an electrical current.
Conductivity in water is affected by the
presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as
chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate
an ions (ions that carry a negative charge) or
sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and
aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive
charge). As the concentration of salts in the
water increases, electrical conductivity rises—
the greater the salinity, the higher the
conductivity. Organic compounds like oil,
phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct
electrical current very well and, therefore,
have a low conductivity when in water.
Conductivity is also affected by temperature:
the warmer the water, the higher the
conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is
extrapolated to a standard temperature (25°C).
Conductivity is measured with a probe and
a meter. Conductivity meters require
temperature correction and accurate
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Chapter 14: Salinity.
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Figure 14-3.
Hydrometer.
Salt water is
denser than
fresh water and
has a greater
specific gravity.
Volunteers can
calculate salinity
by measuring a
water sample's
specific gravity
with a
hydrometer.
\
calibration can be difficult. The cost of these
meters ranges from $500 to $1,500. Voltage is
applied between two electrodes in a probe
immersed in the sample water. The drop in
voltage caused by the resistance of the water
is used to calculate the conductivity per
centimeter. The meter converts the probe
measurement to micromhos per centimeter
and displays the result for the user.
Some conductivity meters can also be used
to test for total dissolved solids and salinity.
The total dissolved solids concentration in
milligrams per liter (mg/1) can also be
calculated by multiplying the conductivity
result by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9, which
is empirically determined (see APHA, 1998).
Meters should also measure temperature
and automatically compensate for temperature
in the conductivity reading. Conductivity can
be measured in the field or the lab. In most
cases, it is probably better if the samples are
collected in the field and taken to a lab for
testing. In this way, several teams of
volunteers can collect samples simulta-
neously. If it is important to test in the field,
meters designed for field use can be obtained
for around the same cost mentioned above.
Density
As water becomes saltier, its
weight increases although its
volume does not measurably
rise. Since salt water is denser
than fresh water, this change
of weight results in a greater
Figure 14-4. Refractometer.
Salinity can be determined
by a refractometer, which
measures the change in
direction of light as it passes
from air into water. While
not inexpensive, it is very
simple to use.
specific gravity. The volunteer can calculate
salinity by measuring a water sample's
specific gravity. This is done with a
hydrometer (Figure 14-3).
Hydrometers are a fairly simple and
inexpensive means of obtaining salinity.
Specific gravity hydrometers cost from $13 to
$25 (although professional sets can cost much
more), and a hydrometer jar costs about $13
to $15, although you can also use a large,
clear jar that is deep enough to float the
hydrometer.
Because hydrometers measure specific
gravity, the presence of suspended solids can
raise hydrometer readings and result in a
salinity measurement that is higher than the
true value. This has especially been shown in
low salinity areas (Bergstrom, 1997;
Bergstrom, 2002). Volunteer programs,
therefore, should consider their accuracy and
precision requirements before electing to use
a hydrometer.
Refractivity
Refractometers (Figure 14-4) are used to
measure substances dissolved in water, using
the principle of light refraction through
liquids. The more dissolved solids in water,
the slower light travels through it.
Refractometers measure the change in the
direction of light as it passes from air into
water. Salinity and temperature both affect
the index.
Refractometers use a scale to quantify the
effect that dissolved solids in water have on
light. Using a refractometer is simple. It
works with ambient light, and no batteries
are required. Such instruments cost from
$150 to $350.
Chlorinity
Salinity is related to chlorinity, and this
method calculates salinity based on the
quantity of chloride ions in the sample.
Salinity kits based on testing chloride ions
cost about $40 for 50 tests.
The chlorinity method uses titration with
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Unit Two: Physical Measures.
. Chapter 14: Salinity
either a silver nitrate or mercuric nitrate
solution. Some kits require conversion of
chlorinity to salinity using a formula, while
others incorporate the formula and give
results directly as salinity. Whichever
chloride analysis process you select, read the
literature to determine if a conversion
formula is needed.
This method is relatively easy to use
although the color change at the endpoint is
sometimes difficult to assess. A white paper
placed behind the titration bottle makes
determination of the endpoint an
easier task. •
REMINDER!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. See "Quality Control and
Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
How to Measure Salinity
General procedures for collecting and
analyzing salinity samples are presented in
this section for guidance only; they do not
apply to all sampling methods. Monitors
should consult with the instructions that
come with their sampling and analyzing
instruments. Those who are interested in
submitting data to water quality agencies
should also consult with the agencies to
determine acceptable equipment, methods,
quality control measures, and data quality
objectives (see Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site and
collecting samples, volunteers should review
the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is critical
to confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;
have the necessary monitoring equipment and
personal gear; and understand all safety
considerations. Once at the monitoring site,
volunteers should record general site
observations, as discussed in Chapter 7.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• hydrometer, jar, and hydrometer
conversion table; or
• conductivity meter (plus standard to
check accuracy of meter); or
• refractometer; or
• field kit to test for chloride.
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
If samples will be collected in the
field for later measurement, follow
these collection and storage steps.
See Chapter 7 for information on
cleaning and preparing bottles.
• Use 200 ml glass or
polyethylene bottles. (NOTE:
Some procedures require
smaller samples. Check with
your lab for their preferred
volume of sample water.)
• Label the bottle with site name, date,
time, data collector, and analysis to be
performed.
• Wearing latex gloves, plunge the bottle
into the water. Fill the bottle completely
and cap tightly.
• Samples may be stored up to 7 days
before analysis (Hach, 1997).
STEP 3: Measure salinity.
The following section describes various
methods to analyze a water sample for
salinity. If analyzing salinity by using a
hydrometer, follow Procedure A. If using a
conductivity meter, use Procedure B. If using
Using a hydrometer.
(photo by P. Bergstrom).
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Chapter 14: Salinity.
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Water
Level
1 y
T ^/
Water Level
1.0020
1.0025
Meniscus
J
x;
Figure 14-5. Reading the
hydrometer. After letting the
hydrometer stabilize, read
the specific gravity at the
point where the water level
in the jar meets the hydro-
meter scale. Do not record
the value where the menis-
cus (the upward curvature of
the water where it touches
the glass) intersects the
hydrometer (redrawn from
LaMotte, 1993).
a refractometer, follow
Procedure C. If using a
salinity kit based on testing
chloride ions, follow the
directions that come with
the kit.
Procedure A—Measuring
salinity with a hydrometer
Put the water sample in a hydrometer jar
or a large, clear jar.
Gently lower the hydrometer into the jar
along with a thermometer. Make sure the
hydrometer and thermometer are not
touching and that the top of the
hydrometer stem (which is not in the
water) is free of water drops.
Let the hydrometer stabilize and then
record the specific gravity and
temperature. Read the specific gravity (to
the fourth decimal place) at the point
where the water level in the jar meets the
hydrometer scale. Do not record the value
where the meniscus (the upward
curvature of the water where it touches
the glass) intersects the hydrometer (see
Figure 14-5).
Record the specific gravity and the
temperature on your data sheet.
Use a hydrometer conversion table that
comes with your hydrometer to determine
the salinity of the sample at the recorded
temperature. Record the salinity of the
sample on your data sheet.
Procedure B—Measuring salinity with a
conductivity meter (in field or lab)
• Prepare the conductivity meter for use
according to the manufacturer's
directions.
• Use a conductivity standard solution
(usually potassium chloride or sodium
chloride) to calibrate the meter for the
range that you will be measuring. The
manufacturer's directions should describe
the preparation procedures for the
standard solution.
• Rinse the probe with distilled or
deionized water.
• Select the appropriate range on the meter,
beginning with the highest range and
working down. Place the probe into the
sample water, and read the conductivity
of the water sample on the meter's scale.
If the reading is in the lower 10 percent
of the range that you selected, switch to
the next lower range. If the reading is
above 10 percent on the scale, then record
this number on your data sheet.
• If the conductivity of the sample exceeds
the range of the instrument, you may
dilute the sample with distilled water. Be
sure to perform the dilution according to
the manufacturer's directions because the
dilution might not have a simple linear
relationship to the conductivity.
• Rinse the probe with distilled or
deionized water and repeat the fourth step
above with the next water sample until
finished.
Procedure C—Measuring salinity with
a refractometer
• Lift the lid that protects the
refractometer's specially angled lens.
• Place a few drops of your sample liquid
on the angled lens, and close the lid.
• Peer through the eyepiece. Results appear
along a scale within the eyepiece.
• Record the measurement on your data
sheet.
• Rinse the lens with a few drops of
distilled water, and pat dry, being very
careful to not scratch the lens' surface.
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Unit Physical Measures 14: Salinity
STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.
Volunteers should thoroughly clean all all samples. Volunteers should make a copy of
equipment and transport the samples to the the completed data sheet before sending it to
designated lab, if necessary. the designated person or agency in case the
Make sure that the data sheet is complete, original data sheet becomes lost. •
legible, and accurate, and that it accounts for
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Green, L. 1998. "Let Us Go Down to the Sea—How Monitoring Changes from River to
Estuary." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 1-3.
Hach. 1997. Hack Water Analysis Handbook. 3rd ed. Hach Company. Loveland, CO.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring:
A Methods Manual EPA 841-B-97-003. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Bergstrom, P. 1997. "Salinity by Conductivity and Hydrometer—A Method Comparison."
The Volunteer Monitor 9(1):13-15.
Bergstrom, P. 2002. "Salinity Methods Comparison: Conductivity, Hydrometer, Refractometer."
The Volunteer Monitor 14(1):20-21.
LaMotte Company. 1993. Hydrometer Instructions. Chestertown, MD.
Maine Coastal Program. 1998. The Estuary Book. State Planning Office, 38 State House Station,
Augusta, ME 04333.
Mitsch, W.J., and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 539 pp.
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14: Salinity Unit Physical Measures
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Turbidity and Total Solids
Natural runoff, water turbulence from storms, and wave action can cause turbidity
of the water. Sediment can also be disturbed by bottom-feeding animals, adding to
the water's turbidity. Although we often think that clean water is clear, even
unpolluted water can have suspended particles that may lessen its clarity but do
not diminish its quality. Many human activities contribute to increased turbidity,
as discussed in this chapter.
-------
Photos (I tor): G. Carver, K. Register, R. Ohrel, K. Register
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Unit Physical Measures 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Overview
Measures of turbidity indicate how cloudy or muddy the water is or,
alternatively, the degree of its clarity or translucence. Several types of material
cause water turbidity:
• suspended soil particles (including clay, silt, and sand);
• tiny floating organisms (e.g., phytoplankton, zooplankton, and
bacterioplankton); and
• small fragments of dead plants.
Natural runoff, water turbulence from storms, and wave action can cause
turbidity of the water. Sediment can also be disturbed by bottom-feeding animals,
adding to the water's turbidity. Although we often think that clean water is clear,
even unpolluted water can have suspended particles that may lessen its clarity but
do not diminish its quality. Human activities, however, exacerbate the clouding.
Sediment runoff from agricultural fields, logging activities, wash from
construction sites and urban areas, and shoreline erosion from heavy boat traffic
and jet skis, among other problems, all contribute to high turbidity. Excessive
algal growth due to the additions of nutrients into an estuary can also affect water
turbidity. High levels of turbidity over long periods of time can greatly diminish
the health and productivity of the estuarine ecosystem.
This chapter explains the role of turbidity in the estuarine ecosystem and
describes some common steps for monitoring it. The measurement of total
solids—particles suspended and dissolved in the water—is also discussed.
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Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Why Measure Turbidity and Total Solids?
Land use decisions throughout an
estuary's watershed impact water
quality. Here, extensive erosion
near a highway adds to the
sediment entering a nearby
estuary (photo by R Ohrel).
Turbidity is a measure of water
clarity: how much the material
suspended in water decreases the
passage of light through the water.
Suspended materials include soil
particles (clay, silt, and sand), algae,
plankton, and other substances. They
are typically in the size range of 0.004
mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand).
Total solids refer to the matter that is
suspended or dissolved in water.
When a water sample is evaporated,
there is often a residue left in the
vessel—these are the total solids. The
solids in water have different attributes
and sizes. The suspended particles in
water can be retained on a filter with a
2 um or smaller pore size, while
dissolved solids are small enough to
pass through a filter of that size.
Turbidity and total solids can be useful
indicators of the effects of runoff from
construction, agricultural practices, logging
activity, discharges, and other sources.
Regular monitoring can help detect trends that
might indicate increasing (or decreasing)
erosion in the estuary's watershed.
Sources of turbidity in estuary waters
include:
• soil erosion from construction, forestry,
or agricultural sites;
• waste discharge;
• urban runoff;
• eroding stream banks;
• stirred-up bottom sediments from
flooding, dredging, boating and jet-
skiing activities, or bottom-feeding
animals; and
• excessive algal growth.
Turbidity and total solids often increase
sharply during and immediately following a
rainfall, especially in developed watersheds,
which typically have relatively high
proportions of impervious surfaces such as
rooftops, parking lots, and roads. The flow of
stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces
rapidly increases stream velocity, which
increases the erosion rates of streambanks and
channels. Turbidity can also rise sharply
during dry weather if earth-disturbing
activities are occurring without erosion
control practices in place.
Sedimentation, where solids settle out of the
water column onto the estuary bottom, is a
priority concern in many estuaries, making
turbidity monitoring an important part of most
volunteer estuary water quality monitoring
programs. As one example, a study of Weeks
Bay, Alabama, found that its watershed
contributed about 22,500 tons of sediment per
year to the bay as a result of agricultural field
runoff (Baldwin County, 1993).
The Role of Turbidity and Total Solids in
the Estuarine Ecosystem
Highly turbid water full of suspended
material has many effects on the estuarine
environment. If an estuary is excessively
turbid over long periods, its health and
productivity can be greatly diminished.
As discussed in Chapter 9, dissolved
oxygen is a critical factor controlling
biological activity. Highly turbid water can
influence the amount of dissolved oxygen in
three ways. First, turbid waters interfere with
light penetration in the water, thereby
reducing the amount of light reaching the
bottom, making it less suitable for plant
growth. Because there are fewer aquatic
plants—and therefore less photosynthesis
taking place—less dissolved oxygen is
produced. Dissolved oxygen concentrations
are also influenced by high turbidity and its
relationship to water temperature. Suspended
particles absorb heat, which causes water
temperature to increase. Because warm water
holds less dissolved oxygen than cold water,
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Unit Physical Measures,
15: Turbidity and Total Solids
this temperature increase causes a reduction in
dissolved oxygen concentrations. High
turbidity may also be caused by high levels of
dead organic matter, called detritus. Detritus
can include leaves, twigs and other plant and
animal wastes. As these materials are
decomposed by bacteria, oxygen can be
depleted.
Some of the physical effects of excessive
suspended materials include:
• clogged fish gills that inhibit the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide;
• reduced resistance to disease in fish;
• reduced growth rates;
• altered egg and larval development;
• fouled filter-feeding systems of animals;
and
• hindered ability of aquatic predators
from spotting and tracking down
their prey.
Suspended materials such as sand, soil, or
silt tend to settle out faster in brackish water
than in fresh water. These particles settle to
the estuary bottom, where they smother fish
eggs and bottom-dwelling animals, and alter
the habitat needed by estuary plants and
animals. For example, oysters require a hard
surface on which to attach and grow. Increas-
ed sedimentation in an estuary can cover the
available hard surfaces such as rocks and
older oyster beds, leaving oysters without the
habitat that is critical to their survival.
Another problem with sedimentation in an
estuary is that the newly settled particles may
not be the same size as the estuary's natural
bottom sediment, causing shifts from fine to
coarser sediments (or vice versa). This change
in sediment size can greatly affect the plants
and animals that have adapted to the estuary's
benthic environment.
Higher concentrations of suspended solids
can serve as carriers of toxins, which readily
cling to suspended particles. This is
particularly a concern where pesticides are
being used on irrigated crops. Where solids
are high, pesticide concentrations may
increase well beyond those of the original
application as the irrigation water travels
down irrigation ditches and ultimately into
estuaries. •
Sampling Considerations
It should be remembered that turbidity is not
a measurement of the amount of suspended
solids present or the rate of sedimentation of an
estuary—it measures only the amount of light
that is scattered or absorbed by suspended parti-
cles. Some laboratories also measure "total
solids" in a waterbody, which is related to tur-
bidity. Measurement of total solids is a more
direct measure of the amount of material sus-
pended and dissolved in water.
Chapter 6 summarized several factors that
should be considered when determining moni-
toring sites, where to monitor, and when to
monitor. In addition to the considerations in
Chapter 6, a few additional ones specific to
monitoring turbidity are presented here.
When to Sample
In setting up a turbidity monitoring plan, the
program manager should ensure that the effort
will continue for several years. Since the work-
ings of an estuary are complex, a mere year or
two of turbidity data is insufficient to capture
the variability of the system, hi fact, a few
years of unusual data may be quite misleading
and tell a story very different than reality. On
the other hand, volunteers can detect some
sources of erosion and turbidity in just one or
two monitoring sessions.
Volunteers should sample water for turbidity
on a weekly or biweekly basis, year-round. The
key to effective turbidity monitoring is to
sample at a sufficiently frequent interval and
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Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Unit Two: Physical Measures
As stormwoter enters
an estuary, it often
creates a plume of
highly turbid water. In
this photo, a plume of
stormwater delivers
large amounts of
dissolved and suspend-
ed materials to an
estuary (photo by G.
Carver).
at enough representative sites so that the
data will account for most of the inherent
variability within the system.
Since turbidity often increases sharply
during and immediately following a rain-
fall, volunteers may be asked to take
additional turbidity readings shortly after
the storm (as soon as it is safe to do so).
Stormwater, as it enters an estuary, often
creates a plume of highly turbid water.
This is because the stormwater is carry-
ing high levels of suspended solids due
to erosion as well as sediment from roads and
parking lots in the watershed. The extent of the
plume can usually be seen from above, as the
color of water in the plume is different from the
water in the estuary's main body. Some volun-
teer monitoring programs include "stormwater
plume tracking" as part of their turbidity data
collection to assess the spatial extent of
stormwater discharges (see box, this page).
Where to Sample
If the monitoring program is designed to pin-
point trouble spots in the estuary, the manager
should select monitoring sites throughout the
estuary, as well as cluster sites near suspected
Stormwater Plume Tracking
As part of a turbidity monitoring program, volunteers can conduct
"plume tracking" to assess the spatial extent of stormwater discharges.
By monitoring for runoff characteristics (i.e., high turbidity, low
salinity, etc.) near the mouth of a freshwater input to the estuary,
volunteers can assess how far the stormwater plume emanating from
the stream or river extends into the estuary.
An effective method to monitor a stormwater plume is to divide the
plume area into a grid, and conduct sampling in each of the grid areas.
Sampling should extend from the area of greatest freshwater impact,
across the plume, and beyond the edge of the plume. Studying the fate
of stormwater and its effects on an estuary is an important component
to understanding the amount of material flowing into the estuary and
where stormwater material is deposited. With this monitoring, we can
begin to learn what residual effects the deposited material has on the
natural function of the estuary's ecosystem. By regularly monitoring
storm plumes, volunteers can collect valuable information that can help
detect trends.
sources of turbid water into the estuary. Such
sites might include an area near a discharge
pipe or a river that flows into the estuary. Since
rivers may have multiple trouble spots, your
monitoring efforts may require several monitor-
ing sites in the rivers and tributaries.
Choosing a Sampling Method
When deciding upon the appropriate method
for measuring turbidity levels in an estuary, the
program manager must consider the cost of
equipment, the number and location of sites to
be monitored by volunteers, and the planned
uses for the collected data.
There are four commonly used methods to
measure turbidity in estuary waters. Turbidity
meters measure turbidity, while the Secchi disk,
transparency tube, and turbidity field kits mea-
sure transparency, which is an integrated mea-
sure of light scattering and absorption. Samples
can also be collected by volunteers and sent to a
lab for analysis. Monitors interested in submit-
ting data to water quality agencies should con-
sult with the agencies to determine the preferred
equipment and methods.
Secchi Disk
Most volunteer water quality monitoring pro-
grams rely on the Secchi disk because it is easy
to use, inexpensive, and relatively accurate. It is
also easy to make (see box, page 15-5). The
Secchi disk was invented by the Italian
astronomer Pietro Angelo Secchi in the 1860s.
This simple weighted disk is used by volunteers
to measure the water depth at which the disk
just disappears from view—the Secchi depth.
Most programs find that the Secchi disk gives
sufficiently good clarity readings.
The Secchi disk is 20 centimeters (8 inches)
in diameter and divided into alternating black
and white quadrants to enhance visibility and
contrast (although some disks are totally white).
Secchi disks cost about $25 to $50 and can be
homemade.
It is lowered by hand into the water to the
depth at which it vanishes from sight. The dis-
tance to vanishing is then recorded, and then
the procedure is repeated so that two readings
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Unit Two: Physical Measures.
Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
are obtained. The clearer the water, the greater
the distance. If you are monitoring tributaries to
the estuary, you may find a Secchi disk of limit-
ed use, however, because in many cases the
river bottom will be visible and the disk will
not reach a vanishing point.
Secchi readings will vary with the specific
estuary, location in the estuary, and season.
Water clouded with sediment after a storm or
with high levels of phytoplankton during a
warm spell will have low Secchi readings (poor
water clarity). Low productivity winter waters
or estuarine water located near the ocean will
generally register higher Secchi depths. A sig-
nificant change in Secchi depth may motivate a
monitoring program to identify possible causes.
WARNING!
Beware of Secchi Line Shrinkage
Over time, a Secchi disk line may begin to
shrink from regular water exposure and
subsequent drying. This can lead to errors
in Secchi depth measurements.
To minimize this problem, use a minimal-
stretch nylon cord, a vinyl-coated braided
metal-core clothesline, or other shrink-
resistant line. But no matter what mate rial you
use, it is critical to calibrate Secchi disk lines
regularly (e.g., every six months).
Attach incremented rope here
- Eye Bolt
MAKING A SECCHI DISK
A Secchi disk is one of the simpler pieces of equipment required
for water quality testing. Although many supply companies sell
this item, volunteer programs on a tight budget can construct their
own disks (Figure 15-1). Materials needed for this project are:
• 1/8" thick steel, 1/4" Plexiglas, or 1/4" to 1/2" marine
plywood
• drill with 3/8" inch bit
• shrink-resistant rope or cord (e.g., minimal-stretch nylon,
vinyl-coated braided metal-core clothesline)
• eyebolt (5/16"), approximately 3" to 4" long
• flat washers, lock washers, 2 nuts (5/16")—2 of each
• attachable weights
• meter stick
• black and white flat enamel paint
• paintbrush
• marking pen
Cut the steel, Plexiglas, or plywood into a circle with a 20-centimeter (8") diameter. Section the disk into four quarters
and paint two opposing quarters white and the other two black. Paint the other side of the disk totally white.
After the paint has dried, drill a hole in the center of the disk. Put a nut onto the eyebolt followed by a lock washer and
flat washer. Insert the eyebolt assembly through the hole in the disk with the white and black side facing the eye of the
bolt. Place another flat washer on top of the assembly along with a sufficient number of weights (dependent on the disk
material used). Add another lock washer and nut to finish the assembly.
Attach a 6-meter length of shrink-free cord or rope through the eyebolt and fasten securely. Place the meter stick
alongside the rope and disk and mark the rope in 5- or 10-centimeter increments with an indelible marker or waterproof
ink measuring from the top of the disk. A different color marker used at each full meter increment will facilitate reading
Secchi measurements.
Figure 15-1. A homemade Secchi disk.
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Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Unit Two: Physical Measures
A volunteer uses a
Secchi disk from the
shady side of a dock
(photo by K. Register).
Turbidity Meter
The most accurate means of
assessing turbidity is with a turbidity
meter, called a nephelometer. A
turbidity meter consists of a light
source that illuminates a water sample
and a photoelectric cell that measures
the intensity of light scattered at a 90°
angle by the particles in the sample. It
measures turbidity in nephelometric
turbidity units or NTUs. Meters can
measure turbidity over a wide range.
from 0 to 1,000 NTUs. Measurements
can jump into hundreds of NTUs dur-
ing runoff events. Therefore, the
turbidity meter to be used should be
reliable over the range in which you
will be working. Meters of this quality
cost about $800. Many meters in this
price range are designed for field or lab use.
Although turbidity meters can be used in
the field, volunteers might want to collect
samples and take them to a central point for
turbidity measurements. This is because of the
expense of the meter (most programs can
afford only one and would have to pass it
along from site to site, complicating logistics
and increasing the risk of damage to the
meter) and because the meter includes glass
cells that must remain optically clear and free
of scratches. At a reasonable cost, volunteers
can also take turbidity samples to a lab for
meter analysis.
Transparency Tube
The transparency tube (sometimes called a
"turbidity tube") is a clear, narrow plastic tube
marked in units (usually centimeters) with a
light and dark pattern painted on the bottom.
Water is poured into the tube until the pattern
disappears. Volunteers then record the depth
at which the pattern disappeared. Volunteer
groups using transparency tubes have found
tube readings to relate fairly well to lab
measurements of turbidity and total suspended
solids, although the transparency tube is not
as precise or accurate as a meter. Also,
readings in transparency tubes can be
rendered inaccurate in cases of highly colored
waters. A transparency reading taken from
one tube cannot be compared with a reading
taken from another tube of a different
manufacturer, especially if the tube is
homemade. Transparency tubes can be
purchased from scientific supply houses for
about $35 to $60.
Turbidity Field Kits
With these kits, turbidity is measured by
using a standardized turbidity reagent to
match the turbidity of a water sample. Drops
of the turbidity reagent are added to a test
tube of turbidity-free water until the water in
the test tube becomes as blurred or cloudy as
the water sample from the estuary, which is in
an identical test tube. These field kits cost
about $40.
Laboratory Analysis
Analysis of turbidity or of total solids by a
professional laboratory is by far the most
accurate means of obtaining this data. Most
laboratories institute strict quality assurance
and quality control methods to ensure
consistently reliable results. A college or
professional lab may offer its services free of
charge to a volunteer program.
If the program decides to use lab analysis, it
must ensure that its volunteers adhere to strict
guidelines while collecting samples. Sloppy
field collection techniques will result in
poor data. •
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Unit Two: Physical Measures.
Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
How to Measure Turbidity
General procedures for measuring turbidity
are presented in this section for guidance
only; they do not apply to all sampling
methods. Monitors should consult with the
instructions that come with their sampling
and analyzing instruments. Those who are
interested in submitting data to water
quality agencies should also consult with
the agencies to determine acceptable
equipment, methods, quality control
measures, and data quality objectives (see
Chapter 5).
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. See "Quality Control and
Assessment" in Chapter 5 for details.
Before proceeding to the monitoring site
and collecting samples, volunteers should
review the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is
critical to confirm the monitoring site, date,
and time; have the necessary monitoring
equipment and personal gear; and understand
all safety considerations. Once at the
monitoring site, volunteers should record
general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• turbidity meter, turbidity standards, lint-
free cloth to wipe the cells of the meter;
or
• Secchi disk with weight attached and on a
calibrated line; or
• transparency tube; or
• turbidity test kit.
STEP 2: Monitor turbidity.
The following section describes
four ways to analyze a water
sample for turbidity. If analyzing
turbidity by Secchi disk, follow
Procedure A. If using a turbidity
meter, use Procedure B. If using a
transparency tube, follow Procedure
C. If using a turbidity field test kit,
follow Procedure D.
Procedure A—Measuring water
clarity with a Secchi disk
The key to consistent results is to
train volunteers to follow standard
sampling procedures and, if possible,
have the same individual take the
reading at the same site throughout
the season. If the conditions vary
from this ideal situation, record any
differences on the data sheet. The line
attached to the Secchi disk must be
marked according to units designated by the
volunteer program. Many programs require
volunteers to measure to the nearest 1/10 meter.
Meter intervals can be marked with waterproof
ink or tagged (e.g., with duct tape) for ease of
use. Do not wear sunglasses while viewing the
Secchi disk in the water.
The optimal conditions for recording Secchi
disk readings are:
• clear sky;
• sun directly overhead (but disk should
be in shade or shadow); and
• measurements made from the protected
side of a boat or dock with minimal
waves or ripples.
Steps for using a Secchi disk are as follows:
• Check to make sure that the Secchi disk
is securely attached to the measured line.
• Tie a wrist loop at the end of the rope so
that the rope end does not accidentally
drop into the water when the disk is
lowered.
Using a transparency tube is an easy
way to measure the water transpar-
ency. It is especially useful in water
that is too shallow for a Secchi disk
(photo by K. Register).
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Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Clothespin
Marked in
tenth of
a meter
increments
3 Meters
2 Meters
1 Meter
Figure 15-2. Using a
Secchi disk to measure
transparency. The disk
is lowered until it is no
longer visible. That
point is the Secchi disk
depth (redrawn from
USEPA, 1997).
• Lean over the shady side of the boat or
dock and lower the Secchi disk by hand
into the water, keeping your back
toward the sun to block glare. Make
sure the disk hangs horizontally when
suspended.
• Lower the disk until it disappears from
view. Lower it one third of a meter and
then slowly raise the disk until it just
reappears. Move the disk up and down
until the exact vanishing point is found.
This is called the limit of visibility.
• Attach a clothespin to the line at the
point where the line enters the water or,
if that is not possible, note carefully
where the line meets the water's surface
(Figure 15-2). Raise the Secchi disk and
record the depth measurement on your
data sheet.
• Repeat the procedure and write the
second measurement on your data sheet,
as well as the average of the two depths.
• If the disk hits the bottom before
dropping out of sight, note this
observation and record the
bottom depth.
Procedure B—Measuring water turbidity with a
turbidity meter
• Prepare the sample containers.
If factory-sealed, disposable Whirl-pak
bags are used to sample, no preparation
is needed. Reused sample containers
(and all glassware used in this procedure)
must be cleaned before the first run and
after each sampling run. Follow the
procedures described in Chapter 7.
• Collect the sample.
Refer to Chapter 7 for details on how to
collect water samples using screw-cap
bottles or Whirl-pak bags.
• Analyze the sample.
While monitors should consult with
the instructions that come with their
turbidity meter, the following procedure
applies to field or lab use of most
turbidity meters:
(a) Prepare the turbidity meter for use
according to the manufacturer's
instructions.
(b) Use the turbidity standards provided
with the meter to calibrate it. Make
sure it is reading accurately in the
range in which you will be working.
(c) Shake the sample vigorously and
wait until the bubbles have
disappeared. You might want to tap
the sides of the bottle gently to
accelerate the process.
(d) Use a lint-free cloth to wipe the
outside of the tube into which the
sample will be poured. Be sure not to
handle the tube below the line where
the light will pass when the tube is
placed in the meter. NOTE: If the
tube becomes scratched, it will have
to be replaced. The scratches on the
glass can affect the meter's readings.
(e) Pour the sample water into the tube.
Wipe off any drops on the outside of
the tube.
(f) Set the meter for the appropriate
turbidity range. Place the tube in the
meter and read the turbidity
measurement directly from the
meter display.
(g) Record the result on the field or
lab sheet.
(h) Repeat steps c-g for each sample.
Procedure C—Measuring water clarity with a
transparency tube
Readings in transparency tubes can be
rendered inaccurate in cases of highly colored
waters. A transparency reading taken from one
tube cannot be compared with a reading taken
from another tube of a different manufacturer,
especially if the tube is homemade.
• Collect the sample in a bottle or bucket
at mid-depth if possible. Avoid stagnant
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit Physical Measures,
15: Turbidity and Total Solids
water and sample as far from the
shoreline as is safe. Avoid collecting
sediment from the bottom.
• Prepare the transparency tube by placing
it on a white surface.
• Look vertically down the tube to see the
black and white pattern on the bottom.
Take readings in open but shaded
conditions. Avoid direct sunlight by
turning your back to the sun.
• Stir or swish the water in the bucket or
bottle until it is homogeneous, taking
care not to produce air bubbles (these
will scatter light and affect the
measurement).
• Slowly pour the water sample into the
tube, stopping intermittently to see if the
black and white pattern has disappeared.
To avoid introducing air bubbles, pour
the water against the inside wall of the
tube.
• When you can no longer see the pattern,
look at the ruler on the side of the tube,
and record the number of units on your
data sheet. This is the depth of the water
column in the tube when the pattern just
disappears.
NOTE: Some transparency tubes have a
water-release valve at the bottom of the tube.
With these tubes, you are required to fill the
tube entirely, then open the valve while you
look down the tube. As soon as you see the
black and white pattern appear, close the
valve, and record the depth at which you first
saw the pattern.
Procedure D—Measuring water clarity with a
turbidity field kit
While monitors should consult with the
instructions that come with their kits, the
following procedure applies to most turbidity
field kits:
• The kits come with two tubes, each with
a black and white pattern on the bottom.
Fill one of the two turbidity tubes to the
line indicated with the water to be
tested. This is usually 50 ml. If you
cannot see the black and white pattern
on the bottom of the tube when you
look down through the column, pour out
half of the water until 25 ml remains in
the test tube (or pour out the amount
stated in your kit's instructions).
• Fill the second turbidity tube with
turbidity-free water that is equal to the
amount of the sample (50 or 25 ml).
Distilled or tap water can be used.
• Place the tubes next to each other, and
look down the tubes to note the
difference in clarity. If there is a
difference in clarity, go on to the
next step.
• Shake the bottle of standard turbidity
reagent, and add the reagent to the
"clear water" tube according to the kit's
instructions. Keep track of how much
reagent is being added. Stir the contents
of both tubes to equally distribute turbid
particles. After each addition of reagent,
compare the turbidity of the tubes.
• Continue to add the reagent and stir
both tubes until the turbidity of both test
tubes is the same.
• Record the total amount of turbidity
reagent added.
STEP 3: Clean up and send off data.
Volunteers should thoroughly clean all
equipment and transport the samples to the
designated lab, if necessary. Samples submit-
ted to a lab for analysis must be processed
within 24 hours of collection. Keep samples
in the dark and on ice or refrigerated.
Make sure that the data sheet is complete,
legible, and accurate, and that it accounts for
all samples. Volunteers should make a copy of
the completed data sheet before sending it to
the designated person or agency in case the
original data sheet becomes lost.
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15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Unit Physical Measures
How to Measure Total Solids
The measurement of total solids cannot be
done in the field. Samples must be collected
using clean glass, plastic bottles, or Whirl-pak
bags and taken to a laboratory where the test
can be run. Total solids are measured by
weighing the amount of solids present in a
known volume of sample. This is done by
weighing an empty beaker, filling it with a
known volume, evaporating the water in an
oven and completely drying the residue, and
then weighing the beaker with the residue.
The total solids concentration is equal to the
difference between the weight of the beaker
with the residue and the weight of the beaker
without it.
Total solids are measured in milligrams per
liter (mg/1). Since the residue is so light in
weight, the lab will need a balance that is
sensitive to weights in the range of 0.0001
gram. Balances of this type are called
analytical or Mettler balances, and they are
expensive (around $3,000). The technique
requires that the beakers be kept in a
desiccator, which is a sealed glass vessel
containing material that absorbs moisture and
ensures that the weighing is not biased by
water condensing on the beaker. Some
desiccants change color to indicate moisture
content.
Volunteers can collect samples for total
solids analysis using the instructions in
Chapter 7. If you are sending your samples to
a lab for analysis, they must be tested within
24 hours of collection. Keep samples in the
dark and on ice or refrigerated. Learn from
the lab what volume of water needs to be
collected. For some tests, 50 ml are needed,
while other tests require 100 ml or more. •
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
National Estuary Program (NEP). Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/aboutl.htm
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 1999/2000 Research Plan, Westminster, CA.
Web site: http://www.sccwrp.org
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods
Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wdstewater. 20th ed. L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg, A. D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Association of National Estuary Programs(ANEP). 1998. Preserving Our Heritage, Securing Our
Future: A Report to the Citizensofthe Nation. Washington, DC. 49 pp.
15-10
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Unit Physical Measures 15: Turbidity and Total Solids
Baldwin County (Alabama) Soil and Water Conservation District. 1993. Unpublished report on
agricultural field runoff and erosion in the Weeks Bay watershed.
Mitchell, M, and W Stapp. 1999. Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring. 12th ed. Kendall/
Hunt. Available from GREEN, c/o Earth Force, Inc., 1908 Mount Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA
22301; phone: 703-299-9400; catalog # ISBN-1-6801;
Web site: http://www.earthforce.org/green/
National Safety Council's Environmental Center. 1998. Coastal Challenges: A Guide to Coastal and
Marine Issues. Prepared in conjunction with Coastal America.
Web site: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/guidebks/coasttoc.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods
Manual. EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
White, T. 1994. "Monitoring a Watershed: Nationwide Turbidity Testing in Australia." The
Volunteer Monitor 6(2): 22-23.
Web sites:
National Estuary Program (NEP): http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/aboutl.htm
Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Wetlands, Oceans, & Watersheds:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/index.html
U.S. Geological Survey, Florida Bay: http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/flbay/ref.html
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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15: Turbidity and Total Solids Unit Physical Measures
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Marine Debris
[i
/
Waterbodies have historically been dumping grounds for human-made debris. Rarely
can a person visit a stream, lake, river, estuary, or ocean and fail to observe some
form of trash. This debris originates from many activities, but is generally
categorized as coming from land-based or ocean/inland waterway-based sources.
Regardless of its origin, however, marine debris impacts human health and safety;
poses an entanglement or ingestion threat to wildlife; and degrades critical habitats.
-------
All photos by The Ocean Conservancy
-------
Unit Physical Measures 16: Marine Debris
Overview
Waterbodies have historically been dumping grounds for human-made debris.
Rarely can a person visit a stream, lake, river, estuary, or ocean and fail to observe
some form of trash. This debris originates from many activities, but is generally
categorized as coming from land- or ocean/inland waterway-based sources.
Regardless of its origin, however, marine debris impacts human health and safety;
poses an entanglement or ingestion threat to wildlife; and degrades critical habitats.
Volunteer groups may be attracted to marine debris monitoring because of the
pervasiveness of the problem and the ease with which marine debris pollution can
be observed. They may also choose several approaches to dealing with it. Some
organizations simply remove trash from shorelines and waterways. Others take it
one step further, collecting information about the types and amounts of debris
found. This kind of data collection may be done with different levels of scientific
rigor, depending largely on the goals of the volunteer effort.
This chapter discusses techniques for organizing a debris monitoring and cleanup
program, with emphasis on data collection and data uses.
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Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Why Monitor Marine Debris?
Marine debris is typically comprised of
plastic, glass, rubber, metal, paper, wood,
and cloth (photo by The Ocean
Conservancy).
Once, our nation's beaches
were littered only with the
likes of dry seaweed strands,
shells, plant stems, and strand-
ed jellyfish. These days, the lit-
ter is more likely to include
cigarette butts, grocery bags,
scraps of fishing nets, pieces of
foamed coffee cups, fast food
containers, and beverage cans
or bottles. As the coastal popu-
lation has risen and society has
turned from degradable natural
materials to synthetic ones, the trash problem
has worsened.
Of all the human-made goods produced
over the past several decades, plastics are
among the most persistent and pervasive. The
qualities that make plastic such a versatile
material for so many products can make it
harmful once it is released to the environ-
ment. Constructed to be light and durable,
plastics break down very slowly—some prod-
ucts even persisting for centuries.
Marine debris monitoring information from
volunteer organizations is important in many
ways. Data from monitoring efforts can be
used to:
• assess debris sources;
• identify areas where public education and
outreach are necessary; and
• evaluate the success of legislation enacted
against littering and ocean dumping.
Marine debris monitoring and coastal
cleanups serve three major functions. First, they
reduce the amount of litter on shorelines in an
immediate and visible way—an aspect most
gratifying to the volunteers. Second, with care-
ful planning, volunteers can document the
types, quantities, and possible sources of debris.
Third, the cleanup teaches the public about the
problems of marine debris and how citizens can
help. The sight of a littered beach transformed
into a clean one makes an impression that the
community will long remember and gives the
volunteers a strong sense of pride in their
accomplishment. Grassroots educational efforts
accompanying the cleanup can help prevent
future littering.
Marine Debris Sources
As our knowledge about marine debris has
increased, two pathways have been shown to
contribute to the problem. These sources can be
divided into land-based and ocean/inland water-
way-based. Land-based debris consists of waste
products that have washed or blown into the
water from the land. Primary sources of land-
based debris include:
• sewers;
• combined sewer overflows;
• illegal dumping;
• beachgoers who leave litter on beaches;
• balloon releases;
• disposal of industrial waste products; and
• loss from coastal solid waste management
landfills via wind.
Ocean/inland waterway-based debris items
are accidentally or deliberately discharged at
sea. Sources include:
• commercial fishing boats;
• recreational vessels;
• floating fish processing plants;
• cargo ships;
• passenger day boats and ferries;
• offshore oil platforms, rigs, and supply
boats;
• military vessels;
• passenger cruise ships; and
• research vessels.
For many debris items, however, it is not so
easy to identify their source—whether land or
ocean/inland waterway-based.
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Unit Two: Physical Measures
. Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Plastic Debris
Annex V of the International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
commonly known as MARPOL, bans the
disposal of plastic into the world's oceans
and establishes limits on the disposal of
other garbage. Many countries, including
the United States, have agreed to this
treaty. Over time, this agreement should
substantially reduce the load of plastics
entering the marine environment. The
United States also prohibits the disposal of
plastic into the nation's navigable water-
ways from any vessel—ranging from the
largest tanker to an inner tube.
The Role of Marine Debris in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
A walk along any but the most pristine
coastal or estuarine shoreline will quickly
reveal an astonishing array of human-made
products. Beaches are natural accumulation
areas for ocean- and land-based debris.
Nearshore waves tend to push marine litter
landward where it becomes stranded as high
tide recedes. Beaches are also popular
recreation areas and users often leave their
trash behind.
The many marine debris sources make it
one of the more widespread pollution
problems threatening estuarine and coastal
systems. The problem of today's litter is not
merely aesthetic. Once litter gets into the
estuarine environment, it seriously affects
humans, wildlife, and habitats.
Human Impacts
Plastic debris (e.g., nets, fishing lines, trash
bags) can snare boat propellers or clog
cooling water intakes, causing substantial
damage to the motor. A disabled motor can
not only be costly to fix, but can leave boaters
stranded in the water—a potentially
dangerous situation.
Debris can also affect
human health. Medical
wastes menace barefoot
beachgoers and pose a
threat of contamination.
Glass or metal shards can
cause serious injuries.
Some beaches with
marine debris problems
face the possibility of
losing money. Without
regular beach cleaning—an
expensive undertaking—
many coastal communities
risk losing tourism
revenues.
Wildlife Impacts
Wildlife often fare even
worse than humans. Marine debris can
mean death to estuarine animals. One
common cause of death by marine
debris is entanglement. Many animals
can become caught in discarded
fishing nets and lines, rope, six-pack
rings, balloon ribbons, grocery bags,
and other floating debris.
Some animals die from marine
debris ingestion, mistakenly eating
the human-made materials. En-
dangered sea turtles, for example,
consume floating trash bags and
balloons, likely mistaking them for
jellyfish—a staple in most sea
turtles' diets. Several seabird species
have been found to swallow plastic
pieces and cigarette butts. These
materials can damage the animals' digestive
systems. Alternatively, animals may stop
eating because their stomachs are full.
Because the debris in their stomachs offers no
nutritional value, the unfortunate creatures
may eventually starve to death.
At least 267 marine species are known to
have either become entangled in or ingested
marine debris (Paris and Hart, 1995; MMC,
1997).
Wildlife entanglement is
just one of the impacts of
marine debris. Animals
caught in debris may
eventually die (photos by
The Ocean Conservancy).
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Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Unit Two: Physical Measures
Habitat Impacts
Marine debris can cause problems for the
estuary system. Debris coming from miles
away may carry with it opportunistic plants
and animals that colonize the debris' surface.
These non-indigenous species can have
devastating impacts for the region (see
Chapter 19). Submerged debris can also cover
communities such as coral reefs and smother
seagrasses and bottom-dwelling species.
Levels of Marine Debris
Marine debris is pervasive throughout
coastal regions. Similar to most estuarine
pollution parameters, the amount of marine
debris at any single moment can depend on
the estuary location, its surrounding land use,
the frequency of cleaning by municipal
agencies, and environmental conditions,
among other factors.
Each year, on the third Saturday in
September, The Ocean Conservancy conducts
the International Coastal Cleanup. During this
activity, volunteers remove debris from
shorelines and underwater sites. The volunteers
also collect information about the items found.
The Ocean Conservancy uses the volunteer data
to evaluate the success of anti-litter and anti-
dumping legislation. The data are also used to
identify debris sources and public outreach
possibilities.
The Ocean Conservancy compiles the
information collected during the International
Coastal Cleanup and generates a list of the
most frequently found debris items (Table 16-
1). The list provides insight to where litter
prevention efforts can be concentrated. •
Table 16-1. Most frequently found marine debris items in the United States. Data represent shoreline and
underwater cleanups during the 2000 International Coastal Cleanup (The Ocean Conservancy Web site).
Debris Items
1. cigarette butts
2. plastic pieces
3. food bags/wrappers (plastic)
4. foamed plastic pieces
5. caps, lids (plastic)
6. paper pieces
7. glass pieces
8. beverage cans
9. beverage bottles (glass)
10. straws
11. beverage bottles (plastic)
12. bottle caps (metal)
Top 12 Totals
Total Number Reported Percentage of Total Collected
1,027,303
337,384
284,287
268,945
255,253
219,256
209,531
184,294
177,039
161,639
150,129
130,401
3,405,461
20.25%
6.65%
5.60%
5.30%
5.03%
4.32%
4.13%
3.63%
3.49%
3.19%
2.96%
2.57%
67.12%
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Unit Two: Physical Measures
. Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Sampling Considerations and Options
Marine debris cleanup programs generally
fall into two categories:
• programs that collect and remove
debris; and
• programs that collect and remove
debris, and record information on the
numbers and types of debris found.
Any organization or individual can
participate in programs that collect and
remove debris from beaches and shorelines.
This type of activity is designed to clean the
area and raise general public awareness of
marine debris pollution. Such programs can
elicit a sense of pride and accomplishment in
their volunteers and in the
community.
Other cleanup programs
go beyond simply
collecting and removing
debris. Some programs,
such as The Ocean
Conservancy's
International Coastal
Cleanup and National
Marine Debris Monitoring
Program, record data on
the numbers and types of
debris being found. Data collected from
cleanups can be extremely important in
International Coastal Cleanup volunteers in
Puerto Rico (photo by S. Sheavly, The Ocean
Conservancy).
Case Study: National Marine Debris Monitoring Program
Supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), The Ocean Conservancy
coordinates the National Marine Debris Monitoring Program (NMDMP). NMDMP is a
scientifically valid marine debris study utilizing volunteer groups to monitor and remove
marine debris on U.S. coastal beaches. Trained volunteers conduct beach debris surveys
following a strict scientific protocol and procedures.
The NMDMP was started in the spring of 1996. The goal is to establish and maintain 180
marine debris monitoring sites along the entire coastal United States, including Alaska,
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Monitoring sites are surveyed monthly by
hundreds of volunteers.
The NMDMP is a five-year program designed to scientifically answer two fundamental
questions regarding marine debris:
• Is the amount of debris on our coastlines decreasing?
• What are the major sources of the debris?
Information gathered by the NMDMP study will be utilized by the USEPA, National Marine
Fisheries Service, National Park Service and the U.S. Coast Guard to better understand the
problem of marine debris pollution.
The NMDMP data card can be found in Appendix A.
For More Information:
The Ocean Conservancy
Office of Pollution Prevention and Monitoring
1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103
Virginia Beach, VA 23454
Phone: 757-496-0920
Fax: 757-496-3207
http://www.oceanconservancy.org
Email: nmdmp@oceanconservancyva.org
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Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Unit Two: Physical Measures
The Notional Marine Debris Monitoring
Program is conducted on stretches of beach
throughout the United States. Here, a volunteer
coordinator measures a 500-meter monitoring
site in North Carolina (photo by The Ocean
Conservancy).
convincing politicians to
actively solve the marine
waste problem and are
useful at all levels of
government. The use of a
data card (Appendix A)
facilitates the collection
of marine debris
information during the
cleanup activity.
Any marine debris
cleanup program con-
ducted by a volunteer
group should be thor-
oughly planned and
thought out. The following basic questions
should be considered before proceeding with
the activity:
• Why do we want to conduct a cleanup?
What do we want to accomplish?
• Do we just want to conduct a cleanup
simply to remove debris, or do we want
to collect some kind of data?
• If we want to collect data, how will the
data be used? What do we hope to
accomplish with the data (e.g., influence
legislation, monitor debris type or
accumulation trends, identify debris
sources, etc.)?
• What kind of data do we want to
collect? (The type of data should be
determined by what it is you want to
accomplish.)
• Will this be a one-day event, or will it
need to be repeated periodically?
(Collecting meaningful data on debris
may take repeated efforts.)
Choosing a Sampling Method
Marine debris monitoring is a very simple
process. The sampling method selected will
depend largely on the goals of the volunteer
program. Sampling methods used as part of
the International Coastal Cleanup and the
National Marine Debris Monitoring Program
(NMDMP) are briefly summarized here. Only
the NMDMP method follows a scientifically
valid and rigorous sampling protocol.
Method Used for International Coastal Cleanup
Volunteers fan out over a monitoring site
(e.g., by foot on land, by boat, or by swim-
ming), randomly searching for debris. Using
data cards, they identify and quantify the debris
items. The entire event provides a one-day
"snapshot" of the types and quantities of debris
occurring along shorelines and in waterways.
No scientific protocol is followed during this
activity.
The International Coastal Cleanup is very
useful for heightening public awareness about
marine debris and its prevention and provides
insights into the sources and activities produc-
ing marine debris. Because it lacks scientific
rigor, however, this method may not reveal
information about marine debris trends.
Method Used for National Marine Debris
Monitoring Program
The NMDMP is an example of a marine
debris monitoring program that follows a scien-
tific protocol for data collection.
Every 28 days, volunteers remove debris
from a randomly selected and pre-measured
500-meter stretch of beach. Each 500-meter
survey unit must:
• be of sandy or small gravel
composition;
• have a moderate to low slope (15-45
degrees) along the width of the beach;
• receive no other routine cleaning;
• not be protected from the ocean by
jetties, breakwaters, etc.;
• be accessible for monthly monitoring;
and
• contain at least 500 meters of accessible
length.
Not only is there scientific rigor designed
into the selection of monitoring sites, but
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volunteers are also trained in the proper
methods for conducting a cleanup. Instead of
walking randomly, volunteers must walk in a
prescribed pattern (Figure 16-1) to ensure that
the entire survey area is covered. Data cards
are used to identify and quantify the debris
items. The NMDMP also incorporates a
quality assurance protocol (see Chapter 5) to
guarantee the validity of the collected data.
The NMDMP utilizes only ocean beach
sites; however, volunteer estuary monitoring
groups may consider a similar protocol design
to suit their particular data collection needs. •
Litter Trapping Feature
500 meters
2 meters
500 meters
Ocean
Figure 16-1. Specific
walking pattern for
inventorying marine
debris as part of the
National Marine Debris
Monitoring Program
(NMDMP) (from
Center for Marine
Conservation, 1997).
How to Conduct a Marine Debris Cleanup
Depending on the level of sophistication and
the data needs of the program, organizing a
marine debris cleanup can take minutes or
months. Although getting a few people onto the
local beach to pick up some trash may seem
like an easy task, a successful cleanup can
involve hundreds of people and demand months
of organization, recruitment, and planning.
Regardless of the program objectives, a few
general elements to a marine debris monitoring
program are presented here for the volunteer
leader. These elements are derived from The
Ocean Conservancy's International Coastal
Cleanup and can be divided into three
categories: before the cleanup, the day of the
cleanup, and immediately after the cleanup.
Helpful Hint
If you plan a marine debris cleanup during
the months of September and October,
your data can be included as part of your
state's International Coastal Cleanup
activity. Call 1-800-262-2322 or email
cleanup@oceanconservancyva. org before
your cleanup activity for more information.
Before the Cleanup:
STEP 1: Identify debris collection sites
that are safe and accessible to volunteers.
• Ensure that you
will have access to
the site and that
you have the
necessary
permission to be at
the site.
• Verify cleanup date
and time.
• Identify potential
volunteer check-in
site(s) that will be
clearly visible and
have parking available; for example, if
you are conducting a waterway cleanup,
it could be located next to a boat ramp
or central area of a marina. You may
want to post signs or posters directing
people to the proper location.
• If scientific data will be collected,
volunteers should be trained prior to the
activity.
Volunteers in the Notional Marine Debris
Monitoring Program collect and inventory
marine debris (photo by The Ocean
Conservancy).
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STEP 2: Identify site coordinators who can
manage cleanup activities at each site.
Recruit coordinators and hold a
coordinators' meeting. This is your
opportunity to distribute materials to the
coordinators and make sure they understand
everything they have to do. They should
know the importance of collecting data,
completing data forms, keeping track of
numbers of volunteers, and working with the
media. All site coordinators should visit their
site before the cleanup, finalize where they
will set up their check-in point, where the
dumpster should be located, and where the
volunteers will be sent.
Review what to do if there is a health
emergency (Step 8) and what to do with dead,
entangled, or injured animals (Step 9).
STEP 3: Locate a waste hauler who will
donate services to the project.
• Contact a local waste collection company
in your area. Your municipal government
may help and may even waive the
entrance fees at landfills or incinerators
for the event.
• Identify an organization or business
willing to donate trash bags.
• Plan ahead on how filled trash bags are
going to be removed: (1) Will volunteers
carry them back to the check-in point, or
some other central location, or (2) will
they leave them as they are filled, right on
the beach (above the high tide mark), to
be picked up by truck or other vehicle? If
you chose the first option, have your
volunteers start at the far end of the zone
they will be cleaning and work their way
back to the central location. This will
decrease the distance they will have to
carry full bags of debris.
STEP 4: Plan recycling options.
A) Contact recyclers in your area and
arrange with them pickup and delivery
dates and times.
• Recycling debris should be a major
emphasis of the cleanup project. Some
localities may have recycling
coordinators in their solid waste
departments who should be able to
assist you.
• Try to remove as much other debris
from the recyclable materials as
possible—particularly organic
matter—before sending them to be
recycled.
B) Plan ahead how you will collect the
recyclables. Either:
• Have volunteers sort as they collect,
working in groups of four or more
(make sure to have separate bags for
recyclables; using bags of different
colors may aid the sorting process); or
• Identify a special group of volunteers
who will work during and after the
cleanup to specifically sort the
recyclables.
You can make recycling more fun by making
a contest out of it: whoever has the most
number of cans or bottles (or most bags, or by
weight) may win a small prize or get some sort
of recognition at the end of cleanup.
STEP 5: Arrange for a scale at cleanup
sites to weigh trash bags and large
individual items (e.g., tires), or be
sure you can get a weight from your
waste hauler.
This kind of data helps to dramatize a trash
problem and is often of particular interest to the
media.
There are several ways to calculate the
weight of trash collected:
• Secure a scale similar to those used in
seafood markets and grocery stores, or
one with a hook on it for hanging bags,
and weigh each bag of trash before it is
thrown into a dumpster. This is the most
accurate way of reporting the weight.
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• Your waste hauler may be able to give
you the total weight of what was hauled
away (either a real weight or a good
estimate by the number of filled
dumpsters or roll-offs).
• Estimate the total weight by weighing a
random sample of 10 filled bags of trash,
calculating the average weight per bag,
and multiplying that number by the total
number of filled trash bags.
• Also estimate the weight of items which
are too large for trash bags, including
tires, large fishing nets, and building
materials.
STEP 6: Solicit volunteers and work with
the media.
A well-publicized cleanup drive can often
attract large numbers of citizen volunteers.
The following steps can help:
• Distribute posters and brochures.
• Contact local schools, civic organi-
zations, chambers of commerce,
environmental groups, industries, and
others willing to participate in the
cleanup.
• Distribute media announcements to
local media and the groups listed above
who may have their own newsletters or
flyers.
• If you have the time, contact specific
environmental reporters (print and
TV/radio media) in your area who may
be interested in a "before and after" type
of story. Get a photographer out to shoot
pictures of a cleanup site before the
event to illustrate the trash problem, or
supply the press with some of your own.
This will help encourage participation
the day of the event.
STEP 7: Maintain a list of people who
respond and express interest in the
cleanup to get some indication of the
number of volunteers to expect at your
cleanup sites.
This may be important in case you have too
many people wanting to go to a specific site.
Others can possibly be diverted to different
sites that may need more participants.
Consider ahead of time how volunteers will
be dispersed during the cleanup to cover your
whole cleanup area. For example, some groups
mark off sections of beach every 1/8 of a mile
(or whatever distance is appropriate), and
estimate the minimum number of volunteers
that are needed for each section. Wooden stakes
work well for markers, or telephone poles
might be used if the cleanup occurs along a
road, etc. You may want to have maps of the
cleanup site available for volunteers.
Helpful Hint
One site coordinator will not be enough
when 40 or more volunteers indicate they
will be participating at a site. As a general
rule, it takes one additional "assistant
coordinator" for every 30-40 volunteers.
STEP 8: Be prepared for health
emergencies.
• Have first aid kits available at each
cleanup site or check-in location for small
emergencies like cuts and scrapes. You
and your site coordinators should also
review what you would do if there is a
major health emergency (heat exhaustion
or heatstroke, broken bone, etc.). Write
out a plan. Know how to get to the
closest hospital or other emergency
facility from your cleanup site so you can
direct emergency personnel. Some
communities may want to have rescue
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Chapter 16: Marine Debris
Unit Two: Physical Measures
personnel standing by, particularly for
areas expecting several hundred
volunteers. Additionally, volunteers
suffering deep cuts or puncture wounds
should check with their physician on the
need for a tetanus shot.
• Try to obtain walkie-talkies, two-way
radios, or cellular phones for each site
coordinator. This is useful for staying in
touch with each other, regardless of
possible emergencies. Local cellular
phone companies may donate phones
for such events.
Helpful Hint
Consider contacting your local police
department and marine patrol to let them
know you will be having a cleanup event.
STEP 9: Make sure volunteers know what
to do with dead, entangled, or injured
animals.
• Contact your local animal/wildlife rescue
facilities to let them know that a cleanup
will be occurring, and ask them how to
properly care for and transport any
injured animals that might be found.
• Dead wildlife could simply be left; more
often than not, they died naturally and
some scavenger will probably take care
of them.
• Entangled animals should be removed
because other animals may become
entangled with them.
• All entanglement and injury incidents
should be reported on data cards.
Consider sharing your information with
local stranding networks, which often
keep records of dead, injured, and entan-
gled wildlife.
STEP 10: Arrange for someone to take
photos or videos of the event.
• Good video footage may be useful for
future public service announcements or
other educational purposes.
• Label clearly all photos and slides with
the photographer's name, name and loca-
tion of site, and date.
STEP 11: Contact merchants and other
potential donors who can supply drinks,
food, raffle prizes, or whatever else you
might need.
Many merchants will jump at the chance to
be involved in a positive and non-political
event. It is good public relations, and you can
make it even better by remembering to mention
all your donors and sponsors in press releases
or conversations with the press. Donations of
this type also encourage more participation.
The Day of the Cleanup:
STEP 12: Check your equipment.
If water quality monitoring is to be part of
your cleanup activity, make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment designated by
the program manager (see Chapter 7 for a
general list of equipment). In addition to the
standard water quality sampling equipment
and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the site coor-
dinator should bring the following items to
the site for each cleanup:
• plastic garbage bags to collect debris
(have at least two bags for each expected
volunteer);
• blank data cards;
• pencils or pens to record data;
• clipboards; and
• Pocket Guide to Marine Debris (The
Ocean Conservancy and USEPA, 2000).
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Unit Two: Physical Measures
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Volunteers should be told to bring:
• gloves;
• protective shoes;
• sunglasses;
• sunscreen; and
• water.
STEP 13: Set up your check-in points.
Be prepared before your volunteers start
arriving! Have a table or area that will serve as
a volunteer check-in station set up with all
materials; sign-in sheets ready for volunteers;
and signs, if necessary, to direct volunteers to
parking, the check-in point, and where they will
be cleaning (e.g., stake off sections of the site to
be cleaned). Your dumpsters and recycling bins
should be appropriately located.
You may want to display actual examples of
the items that volunteers may be less familiar
with, if you have them. This will aid with
proper data collection.
STEP 14: Coordinate volunteers at cleanup
sites.
Critical to the success of the cleanup is
emphasizing that the volunteers' effort will
make a difference. Distribute materials and
instruct the volunteers on the following items as
they arrive at the check-in point, either
individually or in small groups:
• Have all volunteers sign in.
• Emphasize the importance of data
collection, including information about
unusual situations or observations (see
Chapter 7). The International Coastal
Cleanup data card serves as a nationwide
standard that allows data from any beach
in the United States to be compared with
any other. Standardized data make the
national database more useful and
accurate for analysis. The Ocean
Conservancy will provide these cards at
no charge to beach cleanup programs (see
end of this chapter for contact
information).
To facilitate data
collection and
sorting out the
recyclable trash,
encourage
volunteers to work
in teams of four or
five. Each volunteer
in the team should
be given one to two
trash bags—one for
aluminum, one for
plastic bottles, and
several others for
glass. They should sort as they go. One
volunteer, designated the "data captain,"
would be responsible for recording the
items picked up by the other volunteers
on the data card (they can call out the
items as they go). This person will
quickly become familiar with the card,
making the task easier.
The volunteers should know what sort of
debris they are likely to encounter.
Accurate debris identification will make
the database more valuable and will also
help volunteers steer clear of potentially
dangerous materials such as medical
waste or toxic waste containers. It is best
to treat unidentified containers with
caution; 5 5-gallon drums and munitions
should be avoided altogether. If volun-
teers do find suspicious materials, they
should stay well away, but note their
quantity and location and report this
information to the program leaders. The
leaders can then determine the best means
of removing any potentially hazardous
materials.
Emphasize safety, stressing the
importance of:
— always wearing gloves;
— picking up glass or metal shards with
care;
— steering clear of injured animals which
may harbor disease;
— avoiding overexposure to the sun;
A volunteer coordinator reviews data collection
requirements for the International Coastal
Cleanup (photo by The Ocean Conservancy).
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16: Marine Debris
Unit Physical Measures
— not lifting heavy objects without
assistance;
— being aware of snakes and other
animals in dunes or grasses;
— not wading across tidal inlets (currents
are often powerful and unpredictable);
and
— reporting any injuries to the program
leader.
• Instruct volunteers on what to do if they
find dead or entangled animals (see
Step 9).
• Instruct the volunteers on what they are to
do with the filled bags of trash (see
Step 3).
STEP 15: As the volunteers return, collect
all data cards.
Tell volunteers to return the cards
immediately after the cleanup. It is best to
have a labeled box at the check-in station
where the cards can be returned. Review the
cards to ensure they were properly filled out.
STEP 16: Be sure that volunteers get their
certificates, hats, t-shirts, or any other
giveaways before leaving the site.
Any awards that you choose to give out
(e.g., for most recyclables, most unusual item,
etc.) can be distributed at this time as well.
STEP 17: Dispose of debris.
Oversee sorting of the recyclable debris.
Make sure the waste hauler takes all the trash
away and no other materials are left behind.
Immediately After the Cleanup:
STEP 18: Compile cleanup information.
Sample information could include the total
number of people, pounds, and miles in your
cleanup, any entanglements, unusual items,
number of trash bags filled, etc. If your
cleanup is part of a larger event, send the data
cards to the event coordinator. If feasible,
make copies of the cards before sending them,
in case the originals become lost.
STEP 19: Follow up with site coordinators
and key volunteers.
This is intended to gauge the success of the
materials developed for promotion of the
cleanup, effectiveness of media coverage, etc.
They then use this information to plan for
next year's cleanup to make it even more
efficient and effective. •
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Unit Physical Measures 16: Marine Debris
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
The Ocean Conservancy. 2002. International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) Coordinator Handbook.
Other references:
Center for Marine Conservation (now The Ocean Conservancy). 1997. National Marine Debris
Monitoring Program Volunteer Handbook.
Faris, J. and K. Hart. 1995. Seas of Debris: A Summary of the Third International Conference on
Marine Debris. NC Sea Grant College Program. UNC-SC-95-01.
Marine Mammal Commission (MMC). 1997. Annual Report to Congress. Bethesda, MD. 239 pp.
The Ocean Conservancy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2001. Pocket
Guide to Marine Debris. Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1989. Marine Debris Bibliography.
Washington, DC. 25 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1992. Turning the Tide on Trash: A Learning
Guide on Marine Debris. EPA 842-B-92-003. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.
Web sites:
The Ocean Conservancy: http://www.oceanconservancy.org
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/debris/index.html
For information about the International Coastal Cleanup for marine debris research:
The Ocean Conservancy
Office of Pollution Prevention and Monitoring
Atlantic Regional Office
1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103
Virginia Beach, VA 23454
Phone: 757-496-0920
Fax: 757-496-3207
Email: cleanup@oceanconservancyva.org
The newsletter Coastal Connection can be requested from:
The Ocean Conservancy
1725 DeSales, Street NW #600
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: 202-429-5609
Fax: 202-872-0619
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16: Marine Debris Unit Physical Measures
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Biological Measures
Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation • Other Living Organisms
-------
Photos (I to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, Weeks Bay Watershed Project, R. Ohrel
-------
Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Direct testing for pathogens is very expensive and impractical, because pathogens
are rarely found in waterbodies. Instead, monitoring for pathogens uses "indicator"
species—so called because their presence indicates that fecal contamination may
have occurred. The four indicators most commonly used today by both volunteer
and professional monitors—total conforms, fecal conforms, E. coli, and
enterococci—are bacteria that are normally prevalent in the intestines and feces of
warm-blooded animals.
-------
Photos (I tor): S. Schultz, E. Ely, University of Maine Cooperative Extension, University of Maine Cooperative Extension
-------
Unit Three: Biological Measures 17; Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
"Is the water safe?" This is one of the major water quality questions every user of
an estuary wants to know when preparing for a day of swimming, boating, fishing,
shellfishing, or other pursuit. Whether the water is safe depends in part on the
presence or absence of pathogens—viruses, bacteria, and protozoans that can cause
disease. Increasingly, monitoring and regulatory emphasis are focused on the
potential for pathogens that may lead to waterborne diseases. Pathogens can enter a
waterbody via fecal contamination as a result of inadequately treated sewage, faulty
or leaky septic systems, runoff from urban areas, boat and marina waste, combined
sewer overflows, and waste from pets, farm animals, and wildlife. Human illness can
result from drinking or swimming in water that contains pathogens or from eating
shellfish harvested from such waters.
Direct testing for pathogens is very expensive and impractical, because pathogens
are rarely found in waterbodies. Instead, monitoring for pathogens uses "indicator"
species—so called because their presence indicates that fecal contamination may
have occurred. The four indicators most commonly used today by both volunteer and
professional monitors—total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci—are
bacteria that are normally prevalent in the intestines and feces of warm-blooded
animals, including wildlife, farm animals, pets, and humans. The indicator bacteria
themselves are not usually pathogenic.
This chapter discusses factors that should be considered when establishing a
volunteer monitoring program for bacteria and reviews the major bacterial indicators
and the analytical methods most commonly used to test for them. Case studies
provide further examples and illustrations.
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Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Why Monitor Bacteria?
Waterfowl are among the many non-
human sources of bacteria in estuaries
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Shellfish beds are closed when
bacteria concentrations exceed
established criteria (photo by
R. Ohrel).
Pathogenic microorganisms
(including bacteria, viruses, and
protozoans) are associated with
fecal waste and can cause a variety
of diseases including typhoid fever,
cholera, giardiasis (a parasitic
infection of the small intestine), and
hepatitis, either through the
consumption of contaminated
shellfish or ingestion of tainted
water. Since these pathogens tend to
be found in very low concentrations
in the water, and there are many
different pathogens, it is difficult to
monitor them directly. Also,
pathogens are shed into the waste
stream inconsistently. For these
reasons, direct testing for pathogens
is expensive and nearly impossible.
Instead, monitoring for
pathogens uses "indicator" species
whose presence in the water
suggests that fecal contamination
may have occurred. The four
indicators most commonly used
today by volunteer and
professional monitors—total coliforms, fecal
coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci—are
bacteria that are normally prevalent in the
intestines and feces of warm-blooded animals,
including:
• wildlife (e.g., deer, geese, raccoons);
• farm animals (e.g., swine, cattle, poultry);
• pets; and
• humans.
States routinely monitor shellfish harvesting
areas for fecal coliform bacteria and close them
to harvesting when the bacterial count exceeds
an established criterion. States may also close
bathing beaches if officials find sufficiently
high levels of fecal coliform bacteria. In addi-
tion to bacteria, shellfish are also monitored for
hazards such as viruses, parasites, natural tox-
ins, and chemical contaminants (e.g., pesticides,
mercury, PCBs). (See the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration's Web site, provided at the end
of this chapter, for more information.)
States monitor heavily used beach and recre-
ation areas as well as the water overlying shell-
fish beds for total and fecal coliforms, but there
are limits to the coverage they can provide.
Volunteers can supply valuable data to assist
established programs by monitoring areas
where officials are not sampling, thereby aug-
menting a state's network of stations. State offi-
cials can use this information to screen for areas
of possible contamination. Such expanded cov-
erage helps states make beach- and shellfish-
closing decisions on a more localized basis.
Fecal coliform contamination can frequently
occur in conjunction with other inorganic pollu-
tants. Runoff from a livestock area washing into
an estuary, for instance, may contain not only
fecal coliforms, but high levels of nutrients as
well (see Chapter 10 for more information on
nutrients). By including bacterial counts as one
of a suite of monitoring parameters, a program
manager can design a program that provides a
good characterization of the chosen sites. This
sort of data collection may reveal problem areas
that were not previously recognized.
Volunteers can also perform fecal coliform
monitoring with an eye toward regulatory com-
pliance. For example, the program may estab-
lish monitoring sites near known or suspected
bacterial discharges. Monitoring sites can be set
up adjacent to the discharge, but the effluent
itself can also be sampled. Program managers
should be aware of the legal issues affecting
this type of sampling, such as trespass laws and
the violation of privacy and property rights.
Why do volunteer groups decide to do bacte-
ria testing themselves? The first and foremost
reason is that volunteers are concerned about
their watershed and want the opportunity for
more community involvement and ownership
of the data. Cost is also a factor; unless you
find a lab that will donate the analysis, charges
run $10-$35 per sample, whereas some volun-
teer monitoring groups spend approximately $2
for each sample they process themselves.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures.
Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
The Role of Bacteria in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
Bacteria are microscopic single-celled
organisms that function as decomposers in an
estuary, breaking down plant and animal
remains. This activity releases nutrients
previously locked up in the organic matter
into the estuarine food web.
Bacteria live in water, on the surface of
water, in the bottom (benthic) sediments, on
detritus (dead organic material), and in and on
the bodies of plants and animals. They exhibit
round, spiral, rod-like, or filamentous shapes
(Figure 17-1). Some bacterial organisms are
mobile and many congregate into colonies. In
the estuary, bacteria are often found densely
packed on suspended particulate matter.
Bacteria serve as food for other organisms;
they are also involved in many chemical
reactions within the water. For example,
certain bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite.
Another species converts nitrite to nitrate.
These nutrients are used by plants. Some
bacteria exist only under aerobic
(oxygenated) conditions; others live in
anaerobic (no oxygen) environments. Some
versatile bacteria can
function under either
condition.
Bacterial Contamination
Bacilli (rods)
Cocci (spheres)
While bacteria normally
inhabit estuaries as an
integral part of the food web,
human activities may
introduce pathogenic
(disease-causing) bacteria to
the system. Of greatest
concern to public health is
the introduction of fecal
waste from humans or warm-
blooded animals. Sources of
fecal bacterial contamination
include faulty wastewater
treatment plants, livestock congregation areas,
sanitary landfills, inefficient septic systems,
fecal waste from pets, stormwater runoff, boat
and marina waste, sewage sludge, and
untreated sewage discharge. Wildlife also add
bacteria to waterways, and can be the
dominant source of fecal coliform bacteria in
some areas (Figure 17-2). •
Spirilla (corkscrews)
Figure 17-1. Three
shapes assumed by
bacteria.
Figure 17-2. Potential sources of bacteria in an estuary (redrawn from Ely, 1997).
Septic Systems
Stormwater
Runoff
Pets
Sewage
Treatment Plants
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
BACTERIA SOURCE TRACKING
Part of interpreting fecal coliform data involves trying to understand the sources of bacteria
in the estuary. If your monitoring indicates high counts of bacteria, the next step is to examine
the possible sources. To begin "bacteria source tracking," volunteers should note the number
of wildfowl in the area and observe the scat (excrement) of animals along the beach or shore.
To establish if wild animals are large contributors of bacteria, compare bacteria counts in an
area with few signs of wildlife with an area heavily populated with birds and other animals.
Also investigate whether parts of the watershed have residential areas where dog droppings
can be readily found. It is recommended that monitoring programs work with local agencies
to research possible sources. It is important to look at all the possible sources of bacteria (see
Figure 17-2 for examples), rather than immediately assume that faulty sewage treatment or
failing septic systems are the only culprits.
In addition to careful observation of possible sources and comparing bacteria counts in
different apparent situations, there are other more complex methods used by laboratories to
track bacteria sources. One method uses the fact that some bacteria in humans and
domesticated animals have developed resistance to antibiotics. Colonies of bacteria are
exposed to various antibiotics to help determine if the source of the bacteria is human,
domesticated animals, or wildlife. Other methods, carried out in a few universities and
laboratories, involve the analysis of bacterial DNA.
The Bacterial Indicators
In this section, the four main indicator
bacteria are discussed. But before we can
understand these indicators, we need to
understand the criteria that were used to select
them as indicators. To be an ideal assessor of
fecal contamination, an indicator organism
should meet as many of the following criteria
as possible:
• The organism should be present
whenever enteric (intestinal) pathogens
are present.
• The organism should be useful for all
types of water.
• The organism should have a longer
survival time than the hardiest enteric
pathogen.
• The organism should not grow in water.
• The organism should be found in warm-
blooded animals' intestines.
• The testing method should be easy to
perform.
• The density of the indicator organism
should have some direct relationship to
the degree of fecal pollution (Gerba,
2000).
Total Conforms and Fecal Conforms
Coliform bacteria live in the lower
intestines of warm-blooded animals and may
constitute as much as 50 percent of fecal
waste. Although coliform bacteria are not
usually pathogenic themselves, their presence
indicates sewage contamination, perhaps
accompanied by disease-causing pathogens.
Public health agencies have used total
coliforms and fecal coliforms as indicators
since the 1920s. Total coliforms are a group
of closely related bacterial genera that all
share a useful diagnostic feature: the ability to
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metabolize (ferment) the sugar lactose,
producing both acid and gas as byproducts.
There are many selective growth media
available that take advantage of these metabolic
characteristics in traditional testing protocols.
Total coliforms are not very useful for testing
recreational or shellfishing waters. Some
species in this group are naturally found in
plant material or soil, so their presence doesn't
necessarily indicate fecal contamination. Total
coliforms are useful, however, for testing
treated drinking water where contamination by
soil or plant material would be a concern.
A more fecal-specific indicator is the fecal
conform group, which is a subgroup of the total
conform bacteria. Fecal coliforms are widely
used to test recreational waters and are approved
as an indicator by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration's National Shellfish Sanitation
Program (NSSP) for classifying shellfishing
waters. However, even this group includes some
species that can have a nonfecal origin (e.g.,
Klebsiellapneumoniae, which grows well in
paper pulp and is sometimes found in high
concentration near paper mills). Studies have
found that all members of the coliform group
can regrow in natural surface water depending
on the water temperature and the amount of
organic matter in it (Gleeson and Gray, 1997).
Some warm tropical waters have sufficient
organic matter for the bacteria to increase in
numbers. The effluents from pulp mills, paper
mills, and wastewater treatment plants may, in
some cases, also provide conditions under which
coliform bacteria can grow.
Even though fecal coliform bacteria have
some deficiencies when it comes to being a
"perfect" indicator, they are generally
considered the best available indicators of
contamination at the present time. Many citizen
programs and state agencies use fecal coliform
testing to assess potential bacterial
contamination in an estuary.
One major question often asked about fecal
coliforms and estuaries is: "How long do fecal
coliform bacteria persist in an estuary?" The
answer may vary, depending on where the
bacteria are located in the estuary. For example,
bacteria may survive for weeks in the sediment
or in fecal pellets from wildfowl that
have sunk to the bottom. During a
storm or other event that disturbs the
sediment, fecal coliform bacteria can
become reintroduced to the water
column. Fecal matter also collects in
the line of seaweed and organic
material (called wrack) that can be
seen when the high tide goes out.
Birds and other animals forage for
food and defecate in this wrack line.
When the wrack line enters the water
during high tide or a storm, the fecal
material and associated bacteria also
enter the water.
Escherichia Coli and Enterococci
Other commonly used indicator bacteria are
Escherichia coli, a single species within the
fecal coliforms group, and enterococci,
another group of bacteria found primarily in
the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals.
Enterococci are unrelated to the coliforms;
instead, they are a subgroup of the fecal
streptococci group.
The method approved by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for
enterococci testing requires the use of an
expensive growth medium that contains a
toxic ingredient. Volunteer programs
interested in monitoring for enterococci
bacteria could partner with a university or lab
to conduct these tests.
Other Bacteria as Indicators
In addition to the four main indicators
discussed above, there are other bacteria that
can also serve useful indicators of
contamination. These include Aeromoncts
hydrophila (a noncoliform), which can be
tested using the membrane filtration method
described later in this chapter. One medium,
EGA Check (made by Micrology
Laboratories), identifies and quantifies
Aeromonas as well as E. coli and total
coliforms. Consult with suppliers for
availability of medium (see Appendix C).
After incubation, any fecal coliform
bacteria in the water sample will have
grown into a colony (when using
mFC medium or broth). These are
called colony forming units (cfu)
(photo by University of Maine
Cooperative Extension).
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How Effective Are the Indicators?
Total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, and
enterococci are easy to grow in a lab, and all
will be present in large numbers if recent
fecal contamination has occurred. Unfortu-
nately, one problem with the indicators is the
question of source. All the indicators can
come from animals and some can also come
from plants or soil. Another problem is that
none of the indicators accurately reflect the
potential for human health effects, though
some do a better job than others. Because of
these and other complications, microbiologists
are still looking for better indicators. In the
meantime, volunteer monitors and public
health agencies alike must do their best with
the presently available indicators.
In 1986, EPA issued a revision to its
bacteriological ambient water quality criteria
recommendations to include E. coli and
enterococci, as they provide better
correlations with swimming-associated
gastrointestinal illness than fecal coliforms.
As an indicator, E. coli has a major advantage
over the fecal coliforms: it is more fecal-
specific (E. coli occurs only in the feces of
warm-blooded mammals).
Why Fecal Coliforms Are the Indicator of
Choice
Even though EPA recommends enterococci
or E. coli for testing recreational waters, many
states still use fecal coliforms. This is partly
for the sake of continuity, so that new data
can be directly compared with historical data.
Another reason fecal coliforms are the
indicator of choice for many states and
volunteer monitoring programs is due to
economics: the EPA-approved method for
testing enterococci can be more expensive
than the fecal coliform test. •
Bacterial Sampling and Equipment Considerations
Chapter 6 summarized several factors that
should be considered when determining
monitoring sites, where to monitor, and when
to monitor. In addition to the considerations in
Chapter 6, a few additional ones specific to
monitoring bacteria are presented here.
Due to the costs and training associated
with analyzing water samples for bacterial
contamination, programs just starting up or
those without adequate lab facilities should
strongly consider allowing a professional,
university, or other lab facility to run the
bacterial analyses. Often these labs will run
samples free of charge or at a reduced rate for
volunteer monitoring programs.
Where to Sample
The selection of bacterial monitoring sites
depends on the ultimate purpose of the data.
If the data are to supplement state efforts, for
example, the program should choose sites
based on gaps in the state's array of
monitoring stations. Areas suspected of
contamination that are not routinely
monitored by state officials should receive the
highest priority.
If data will serve as regulatory compliance
documentation, sites should cluster near
dischargers believed to be in noncompliance.
State health or water quality agencies can
provide information on where additional data
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are needed. Government managers are more
likely to use the data if volunteers monitor
more than one site near discharge sources.
To better understand bacterial
contamination in a particular estuary, it is
necessary to establish the relationship
between flow into the estuary and the extent
of bacterial contamination. Choose sample
sites above and below the area of suspected
contamination, at the effluent's entry into the
estuary, and even the discharge itself to obtain
a scientifically valid set of data (Figure 17-3).
Bacterial data collected by volunteers can
help assess the relationship between bacterial
density and estuarine conditions, and help
identify bacterial sources.
As previously mentioned, bacteria may
survive for weeks in the sediment, or in fecal
pellets which have sunk to the bottom.
Bacteria in sediment can be tested by stirring
up the sediment before collecting a water
sample. To facilitate data analysis, volunteers
should be careful to identify samples that
contain sediment.
When to Sample
Volunteers should monitor bacteria on a
weekly, biweekly, or monthly basis. In
addition, it may be extremely helpful to
monitor during or immediately after storm
events. It is important to create a monitoring
schedule that is sustainable. Set reasonable
goals for the frequency of monitoring given
your program's number of volunteers and
financial resources. In areas where volunteers
sample primarily to assess the health risks in
seasonal areas, such as bathing beaches,
monitoring can cease or be conducted much
less frequently during cold-weather months.
Sampling to determine possible contamination
of shellfish beds, however, should continue on
a regular basis throughout the harvesting
season. •
Figure 17-3. Sites to monitor for bacterial contamination.
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality control measures are
necessary. As discussed in Chapter 5, it is
very important for volunteers to carefully
follow established protocols so that the
resulting data are of the highest quality.
With bacteria testing, two quality
assurance/quality control procedures are
especially critical. First, the bacteria
monitoring program should require periodic
split samples, in which one sample is
divided equally into two or more sample
containers and then analyzed by different
analysts or labs. Careful handling of the
water sample is also critical. Some
programs have chain-of-custody forms to
identify the responsible person at every step
of the process. While most volunteer
programs don't require these forms, the
chain-of-custody can become important if
the data will be used in cases where legal
or corrective actions need to be taken.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
In the Field:
Collecting Water Samples for Bacterial Analysis
A volunteer with the Friends of the
Estuary/Morro Bay NEP Volunteer
Monitoring Program collects a sample in
a plastic bottle for bacteria testing
(photo by E. Ely).
Some citizen monitoring
programs use volunteers to
conduct the lab analysis of fecal
coliform bacteria, and others
use volunteers to collect the
water samples, leaving the
responsibility of sample
analysis to a professional lab. In
either case, the procedure for
collecting the water samples
requires strict adherence to
quality assurance and quality
control guidelines. Analysis of
the sample should be done
within six hours of the time
when the sample was collected.
Before proceeding to the
monitoring site and collecting
samples, volunteers should
review the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is
critical to confirm the monitoring site, date,
and time; have the necessary monitoring
equipment and personal gear; and understand
all safety considerations. Once at the
monitoring site, volunteers should record
general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7. In particular, they should keep alert
for signs of bacteria sources (e.g., wildfowl or
other wildlife, pets, nearby residences, foul
smells, etc.).
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring an ice cooler (with ice
packs to keep samples cool) and sterilized
wide-mouth sample bottles (over 150 ml) or
Whirl-pak bags.
Sampling Hint:
If using a boat to reach the sampling
location, make sure that it is securely
anchored. It is critical not to bring up the
anchor until the sampling is completed,
since mud (with associated bacteria) may
become stirred into the water.
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
Strict adherence to protocol guidelines is
critical in sampling for bacteria. Contami-
nation from any outside source will skew the
results and invalidate the data.
Volunteers must take several precautions to
ensure good samples: stay clear of algal
blooms, surface debris, oil slicks, and
congregations of waterfowl; avoid agitating
the bottom sediments; and do not allow the
boat propeller to stir up the water. Wear
gloves when collecting water samples.
Plastic Bottles or Whirl-pak Bags?
For collecting water samples, both plastic
bottles and Whirl-pak bags meet the basic
criteria of being both sterile and nontoxic.
The pre-sterilized, disposable Whirl-pak bags
are convenient, but plastic bottles can be
washed and reused practically indefinitely,
making them cheaper in the long run. In
addition, the bottles are easier to work with
because they stand up on a benchtop.
However, they need to be sterilized in an
autoclave, and this procedure may require
the assistance of a certified lab. Volunteers
should ensure that the bottles they purchase
are autoclavable—some plastics are not.
(Excerpted and adapted from Miceli, 1998.)
Check to see if a current or tide is running
by examining the movement of water or
surface debris. If it is running, sample on the
upstream side of the boat or pier.
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Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Sampling Hint:
Protect Yourself!
Volunteers should take particular care in
collecting samples, especially near
wastewater discharge pipes, as the effluent
may contain highly pathogenic organisms.
Avoid splashing water, wash hands
thoroughly after water contact, and minimize
the breathing of water vapor. Most
importantly, all volunteers should wear
gloves and protective eyeglasses or goggles.
If using a bottle
• Using a waterproof pen, label the bottle
with site name, date, time, data collector,
and analysis to be performed.
• Making sure to wear gloves, plunge the
bottle into the water upside-down.
• Open the sample bottle below the water
surface, keeping hands off the bottle
mouth and the inside of the cap. Hold the
lid; do not set it down as it may become
contaminated.
• Reach down into the water as far as
possible (at least 12-18 inches), still
holding the bottle with its mouth down.
Make sure you keep the bottle above the
bottom so as not to disturb the sediment.
In a single motion, rotate the bottle mouth
so that is it facing up, and sweep the
bottle up and out of the water. Make sure
that the sweeping motion continues until
the bottle is fully out of the water.
• Pour out enough water to leave about 1
inch of air space in the bottle so that the
lab technician can shake the sample prior
to analysis.
• Replace the lid, again making sure not to
touch the inside of the cap or bottle rim.
• Place the bottle in the cooler. Transport
samples back to the lab in a cooler
regulated to between 1°- 4°C. Do not
allow water that may have accumulated
in the cooler from melting ice to
submerge the bottles. To
prevent this problem, use ice
cubes packed in plastic bags,
water frozen in plastic jars,
or sealed ice packs.
If using a Whirl-pak bag
• Using a waterproof pen, write
the following on the outside
of the Whirl-pak bag: site
name, date, time, data
collector, and analysis to be
performed.
• Tear off the perforated top of
the bag.
• Making sure to wear gloves,
pinch the white tabs on the top
of the Whirl-pak between your
fingers, and place the bag into
the water.
• Open the bag below the water
surface, keeping hands away
from the inside of the bag.
• Fill the bag about two-thirds full,
remove from the water.
A measured amount of a water sample
is being removed from a Whirl-pak
bag prior to testing for the presence of
bacteria. The sample has been kept
cold since it was collected 3 hours
before. Note that the volunteer is
wearing gloves (photo by K. Register).
and
Leave an inch or so of air space in the
bag. Hold the plastic-coated wire tabs at
the top of the bag with both hands, and
"whirl" the bag quickly around and
around in circles. This will cause the top
of the bag to fold over on itself several
times.
Seal the bag by pinching the plastic-
coated wire tabs together and twisting
them. The bag should not leak.
Place the bag in the cooler. Transport
samples back to the lab in a cooler
regulated to between 1°- 4°C. Do not
allow water that may have accumulated
in the cooler from melting ice to
submerge the bags. To prevent this
problem, use ice cubes packed in plastic
bags, water frozen in plastic jars, or
sealed ice packs.
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STEP 3: Check data sheets, and send off
the sample for analysis.
Volunteers should make sure the samples
remain at the optimal temperature, adding
additional ice if necessary. Recheck the data
sheets for accuracy and account for all
samples. Transport the samples to the
designated lab. Processing of the samples
should start within six hours of sample
collection. Ensure that the data survey forms
are complete and legible. Send the forms to
the appropriate person or agency. As with all
data sheets, the volunteer should make a copy
in case the original becomes lost. •
In the Lab: Analytical Methods
Membrane filtration equipment. Clockwise from
left: membrane filtration apparatus; hand
vacuum pump (syringe and tubing); petri plate
with absorbent pad; membrane filter (photo by
M. Redpath).
When testing for the
presence of bacteria,
laboratories generally use
one of two analysis pro-
cedures: membrane fil-
tration (MF) or most
probable number
(MPN). Volunteer moni-
toring groups generally
use the MF procedure, but
may also use presence-
absence tests or one of
the simplified test
methods described below.
Any procedure can be
used for any of the indi-
cator bacteria, simply by
varying such factors as growth media and
incubation temperature. Read the summaries
of each analysis procedure before deciding
which is appropriate for your bacterial
monitoring program.
Membrane Filtration (MF): The Classic
Method for Bacteria Testing
Membrane filtration for fecal coliforms is the
method most widely used by volunteer groups,
who select this method because it is EPA-
approved, it conforms to what many state labs
use, and it is a long-established, well-recog-
nized method. For programs that monitor shell-
fishing waters, MF for fecal coliforms repre-
sents a practical way to approximate the meth-
ods used by their state shellfishing lab. State
shellfish labs, in accordance with NSSP man-
date, use the MPN method for fecal coliforms;
volunteer groups tend to use the same indicator
(fecal coliforms) but not the MPN method.
Since bacteria are too tiny to count individu-
ally, MF relies on an incubation step, followed
by a count of the resultant bacteria colonies. A
known volume of sample water is pulled
through a filter with suction from a vacuum
pump. Bacteria are collected on the top of the
What Levels Are Significant?
Interpreting bacterial data can be tricky. There is a great deal of variability in the test
procedure as well as in the environment, so a firm conclusion cannot be drawn based on just
one sample.
Waterbodies almost always contain some level of fecal coliform bacteria; therefore, it is
strongly recommended that volunteer groups do routine monitoring in dry weather so that they
can know the baseline conditions for their specific sampling sites. Take samples during
different weather conditions and, if possible, collect data during rain events. Consult your
appropriate state agency to learn your state's standards for bacteria in surface waters.
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filter, which is then placed in a petri dish on top
of either solid mFC medium or an absorbent pad
soaked with mFC broth.
The petri dishes are inverted and incubated for
24 hours (plus or minus 2 hours) at 44.5°C (Hach,
1997). The incubation temperature is the crux of
the membrane filtration with mFC method, since
the ability to grow and ferment lactose at 44.5°C
is the key distinguishing feature of the fecal col-
iforms group. To obtain accurate counts, the tem-
perature must be held absolutely steady (within
0.2°C): a bit too warm, and the fecal coliforms
can't grow; a bit too cool, and nonfecal bacteria
start growing. A good-quality waterbath incuba-
tor, while not a cheap piece of equipment, is the
least expensive incubator that can provide suffi-
cient results. Air incubators capable of maintain-
ing the required temperature are even more
expensive. Some volunteer programs have tried
building their own waterbath incubators, with
mixed success. Another option is to purchase a
reconditioned waterbath incubator. Check the
Yellow Pages or ask local laboratories to rec-
ommend companies that specialize in used and
reconditioned equipment.
After incubation, it is necessary to count the
number of blue-colored fecal coliform colonies.
A 10- to 15-power microscope or illuminated
magnifier is needed to count the colonies. Each
colony has grown from a single bacterial cell, so
by counting the colonies you can obtain a count
of the bacteria present in the water sample.
Results are reported as colony forming units
(cfu)/100 ml, using the following formula:
cfu/100 ml = (coliform colonies counted x 100)/
(ml sample filtered)
In addition to using mFC medium to investigate
the possible presence of fecal coliforms, the
membrane filtration method can be used with
other media to analyze other indicator bacteria.
The medium used depends on which indicator
you are looking for. Some media contain
ingredients that give the target organisms a
distinctive appearance, such as a color. Other
media require incubation at very specific
temperatures. The amount of time of incubation
also varies according to the medium used.
Some volunteer monitoring groups use
membrane filtration with mTEC agar, a method
that provides counts for both fecal coliforms
and E. coli. However, this procedure is extra-
challenging. In addition to all the steps
described above for fecal coliforms, this
procedure requires the plates to be incubated at
two temperatures (first 35°C and then 44.5°C),
and then a special reagent is used to distinguish
the E. coli colonies from the other fecal
coliforms.
Equipment Requirements for Membrane
Filtration
Unquestionably, equipment requirements
present the biggest hurdle to volunteer groups
who want to use an EPA-approved method. The
two approved methods volunteers use—
membrane filtration with mFC or with mTEC—
both require an incubator, an autoclave (for
sterilizing equipment), and a membrane filtration
apparatus. On the other hand, once the initial
investment is made, routine testing by these
methods is inexpensive. Many volunteer
programs arrange to use high school or university
laboratories to sterilize equipment, prepare media,
incubate plates, and dispose of wastes. Others set
up the equipment at a central program lab.
Most Probable Number (MPN)
The traditional "most probable number"
(MPN) technique (using test tubes) may not be
practical for volunteer groups because it is
labor-intensive, takes up significant incubator
space, and requires up to four days for a final
result. However, it is important for volunteer
estuary monitoring groups to be aware of this
method because MPN for fecal coliforms is the
only method that is NSSP-approved for
classifying shellfish-growing waters.
Unlike membrane filtration, which gives you
a plate of colonies to count, MPN does not yield
a direct count of bacteria. Instead, the water
sample is added to a series of tubes that contain
a liquid medium. After incubation, each tube
shows either a positive or negative reaction for
the target organism. In the case of fecal
coliforms, for example, a positive tube is one
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Volunteers using membrane filtration
equipment. The person on the right is using
a hand-operated vacuum pump to pull rinse
water through the membrane filter (photo
by E. Ely).
that shows growth and gas in lactose broth
medium. A second step is required to
"confirm" the positive tubes. The number of
confirmed positives corresponds to a statis-
tical probability that the sample contained a
certain number—the "most probable
number"—of bacteria. The accuracy of the
MPN method can be increased by inoculating
more tubes and by using several dilutions of
the water sample.
Comparing Membrane
Filtration and MPN
Professional labs mainly use the MF
method of analyses, although some use the
MPN method. The MF technique is good
for large numbers of samples and produces
results more rapidly. It should be noted that
highly turbid water or water with high
counts of noncoliform bacteria can limit
the utility of the MF procedure. If a water
sample is very turbid, the filter in the MF
procedure can become clogged by
sediment, algae, etc.
Presence-Absence Tests
Presence-absence (P-A)
tests are the easiest method
for answering the simple
question of whether the
target bacteria are present in
the water sample. Many
volunteer monitoring
programs use P-A tests to
determine if more extensive
testing is needed. The P-A
test procedure requires that a
bacterial growth medium
(selected based on the
bacteria indicator you are
interested in monitoring) be
added to a water sample in a sterile,
transparent test tube. The test tube is capped,
and the contents are shaken until the medium
is dissolved or totally mixed. The sample is
then incubated for the prescribed length of
time at the required temperature. After
incubation, reading the results usually
requires comparing the color of the sample to
a standard.
For example, if using the Colilert reagent
(see below) in your P-A test because you are
interested in monitoring total fecal coliforms
and E. coli, you will check the color of the
sample after incubation. A yellow color
confirms the presence of total coliforms. If
yellow is observed, the next step is to check
the sample for fluorescence by placing an
ultraviolet (UV) light within five inches of the
test tube. If the sample's fluorescence is
greater or equal to the fluorescence of the
standard, the presence of E. coli is confirmed.
Several companies sell P-A test kits; be sure
to carefully read and follow all directions
before using them.
Special Note About Disposing of
Bacteria Cultures:
After counting the colonies that have
grown in petri dishes, you will need to
safely destroy the bacteria cultures. Here
are two methods:
Autoclave
Place all petri dishes in a container in an
autoclave. Heat for 15 to 18 minutes at
121°C and at a pressure of 15 pounds per
square inch. Throw away the petri dishes.
Bleach
Disinfection with bleach should be done
in a well-ventilated area, since it can
react with organic matter to produce
toxic and irritating fumes. Pour a 10-25
percent bleach solution into each petri dish.
Let the petri dishes stand overnight. Place
all petri dishes in a sealed plastic bag and
throw away.
Simplified Testing Methods
Because traditional laboratory methods are
complex and can be expensive, several
volunteer monitoring groups have started
using simplified methods to test for total
coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci. The
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products and procedures outlined below are
alternatives to the approved methods and, in
some cases, can have simpler equipment
requirements. New bacteria monitoring
products are introduced often, so check with
scientific supply houses for new options (see
Appendix C).
With these simplified methods, there are a
couple of important caveats to keep in mind:
• These methods are not EPA-approved
for recreational waters (although
Colilert is approved for drinking water)
and thus are appropriate for screening
only.
• None of the quick methods provides a
fecal coliforms count. They only assess
total coliforms, E. coli, or enterococci.
This may be problematic for volunteer
groups whose data users utilize or
require fecal coliform indicators.
The big advantage of these simplified
methods is that they make it possible for
individual volunteer monitors to perform the
tests in their own homes. Incubation is at
35°C or even at room temperature. Some of
the popular simplified methods use the
products listed below. See Appendix C for
addresses of suppliers.
Coliscan Easygel and Coliscan-MF Membrane
Filtration
Coliscan (from Micrology Labs—see
Appendix C) is a product used by many
volunteer monitoring programs to monitor for
total coliform and E. coli. Coliscan comes in
two pre-packaged kits: Coliscan Easygel
(which is used in a plate-count method) and
Coliscan-MF (which uses membrane
filtration).
Both Coliscan products make use of a
patented medium on which total coliform
colonies other than E. coli appear pink and E.
coli colonies appear purplish blue. With the
Coliscan-MF Membrane Filtration Kit, water
samples are processed by the membrane
filtration technique and the filter is placed on
the special Coliscan medium.
Coliscan Easygel is a very easy
pour-plate method. It is self-
contained and relatively
inexpensive. You simply add the
water sample (unfiltered) directly
to a bottle of liquid Coliscan
medium, mix it, and pour it into a
special petri plate which is coated
with a substance that causes the
medium to gel. Easygel is
appropriate only for counts higher
than about 20 colony forming
units per 100 milliliters (20
cfu/100 ml), since there is no
filtration step to concentrate the
bacteria and the maximum sample
water volume is 5 ml.
For both Coliscan-MF and
Coliscan Easygel, the
manufacturer recommends an
incubation temperature of 35°C,
but says that plates can also be incubated at
room temperature (though growth will be
slower). However, room temperature can vary
with season or even day to day, making it
difficult to compare results obtained at
different times. Using an incubator ensures a
consistent temperature.
After incubation, colonies that have formed
in the petri dish are counted. Some users have
found colony counting somewhat tricky with
the Easygel plate because many colonies are
embedded in the agar (since it is a pour plate).
Nevertheless, Easygel can be an effective
screening tool.
Colilert, Colilert-18, and Enterolert
Some health care agencies, pollution
dischargers, and volunteer monitoring groups
have adopted the use of Colilert and
Enterolert test kits (all made by Idexx
Laboratory—see Appendix C) as alternative
methods for detecting and enumerating total
coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci. Colilert
and Colilert-18 are the media used in MPN
tests to determine if total coliforms and E.
coli are present in the water sample. Colilert
is not intended for marine waters, but
After the water sample is putted
through the membrance filter (using a
vacuum), the glassware above the
filter is rinsed so all bacteria present
in the sample will accumulate on the
filter. In this laboratory, the mem-
brane filtration process occurs under a
hood for added quality control (photo
by K. Register).
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Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Colilert-18 is. These kits use either multiple
tubes or multiple wells, with an MPN
approach, to detect the presence or absence of
total coliforms and E. coli. As with the classic
MPN method, the more tubes inoculated, the
more sensitive the count. Five tubes are
enough for a rough screen.
Results are read after 18 hours for Colilert-
18 and after 24 hours for Colilert. Incubation
is required at 35°C (plus or minus 0.5°C).
With Colilert, the detection of total coliforms
is based upon a color change and E. coli is
detected when the sample fluoresces under
UV light. This modified MPN test provides
more information about the amount of
bacteria in the water than a presence-absence
test, but not as much information as
an MF or MPN test.
Enterolert is used to detect enterococci in a
water sample using MF, MPN, P-A, or the
modified MPN procedure discussed above.
Incubation is 24 hours at 41°C (plus or
minus 0.5°C). •
Case Study: Bacteria Monitoring in California
In California, several chapters of Surfrider Foundation (a nonprofit environmental
organization dedicated to the protection of the world's waves, oceans, and beaches) use
Colilert to monitor the surf zone. Surfrider volunteers carry out the tests in their homes or
local school laboratories, using relatively inexpensive incubators. Supplies for each sample
cost about $5.
Surfrider volunteers publish their results in local newspapers and present them at public
meetings. Their efforts are helping to raise awareness about bacteria and nonpoint
source pollution.
(Excerptedfrom Ely, 1998.)
Which Method and Which Medium Should You Use?
In deciding what method to use, a number
of questions must be considered. Some of
them are:
• How do you hope to use your data?
• Will you be testing the freshwater or
saltwater portion of the estuary?
• Will you be testing water where
shellfish are harvested?
• What methods does your state lab
currently use?
• Do you have access to laboratory
facilities?
• What kind of equipment can you afford?
• Which bacteria are used as indicators by
your state?
If your budget allows, select your bacterial
indicator and analysis method based on the
intended use of your data. If the primary
objective of the volunteer monitoring program
is to evaluate water for compliance with state
water quality standards, the program should
use the same or similar method used by state
labs. The program should keep apprised of
any changes in state requirements.
On the other hand, groups that are primarily
interested in raising community awareness
and/or screening for high counts may find that
a simpler, non-approved method is adequate
for their needs. •
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Unit Three: Biological Measures.
Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
Case Study: Bacteria Monitoring in Maine
The Clean Water Program of the University of Maine Cooperative Extension was
established in 1988. It provides organizational and technical support to 18 citizen
water quality monitoring groups (approximately 600 volunteers). The Clean Water
Program works in collaboration with the Maine State Planning Office Partners in
Monitoring Program, the Maine Department of Marine Resources, and the Maine
Department of Environmental Protection to form the umbrella program known as
the Maine Shore Stewards Program. Water quality groups study the health of
estuarine water by monitoring for dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, salinity, and
fecal coliform bacteria.
The primary objective of the program is to assist in determining bacterial
pollution sources and to work with local and state officials to remediate those
sources (Figure 17-4). The program focuses at the local community level. Labs
for fecal coliform bacteria analysis are set up in local high schools or community
group locations.
Through their monitoring efforts, citizen groups have
discovered many bacterial sources causing shellfish
bed closures, including unregulated septic storage and
failing septic systems. Working with local officials
and state agencies, the groups helped remedy the
problems and reopen the beds. Due in large part to
these monitoring efforts, 100,000 acres of clam flats
in Maine have been reopened in the past five years.
Other objectives of the program are to monitor coastal
swimming areas and provide baseline data. Recently,
Students participating in Maine's
Shore Stewards Program run estuary
samples for fecal coliform bacteria
using the membrane filtration method
(photo by University of Maine
Cooperative Extension).
Water Quality Samples 1999
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Boothbay Harbor Lab
Shore Stewards Volunteers
55%
(5027 samples)
Department of Marine
Resources Staff
45%
(4118 samples)
Figure 17-4. Volunteers participating in Maine's Shore Stewards
Program are instrumental in supplementing state agency-collected
fecal coliform data. Their efforts have helped identify the causes of
many shellfish bed closures (reprinted from Maine Department of
Marine Resources).
a coastal community with a failing septic system used
volunteer data to determine when bacteria levels were
safe for swimming. In addition, volunteer data has
identified recreational boats as major bacterial sources
in many communities during the summer.
The Maine Shore Stewards Program has built on the strengths of communities by providing them with water quality
and marine resources education, and by assisting them with their work on environmental issues. Partly from their
program participation, many high school students have been inspired to go on to study environmental science in
universities and to become involved in community conservation efforts. Watershed communities have begun working
together to resolve water quality problems, and hundreds of citizens have become active in environmental education
and conservation efforts.
For More Information:
Maine Shore Stewards
University of Maine Cooperative Extension
235 Jefferson Street
P.O. Box 309
Waldoboro, ME 04572
Phone: 207-832-0343
Fax: 207-832-0377
http://www.ume.maine.edu/ssteward
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Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens Unit Three: Biological Measures
Bacteria Testing Q & A
Bacteria testing is a very important—and demanding—part of many monitoring programs. Here
are some helpful answers to common questions that may arise (excerpted from Miceli, 1998).
What does it mean when I get a high bacteria count?
The first action to take is to return to the same location and get more samples. If some or all
of these sample results are high, too, then you should follow your organization's
procedures—for example, calling your state agency to notify them.
A little detective work plays a big role in determining where contamination is coming from
and whether it is of human origin. Always make observations—the presence of animals and
birds, abundant leaf matter, any strange debris, any unusual smells, etc. Also note weather
conditions since results can vary tremendously if it is raining.
Remember, too, that variability and unusual test results will occur and that a high level of
fecal coliforms is not abnormal, especially since wildlife frequent estuaries. A long-term
monitoring effort will provide baseline information about a sampling site and will enable
you to quickly recognize any unusual results.
What exactly am I looking at and counting anyway?
A single bacterium in the water sample that is caught on the filter, if able to grow on the
medium, can reproduce at a fast rate. Some bacteria multiply every 20 minutes, so after 24
hours, when you retrieve your plates, you are looking at a clump of about a million
bacteria—visible to the naked eye!
I am using the membrane filtration method. Why do I see ...
(a) a big blob of growth on only one spot on the filter?
This may occur when the sample aliquot being analyzed is small (1-10 ml) and is not
distributed evenly on the filter. To ensure even distribution, be sure to add enough buffer or
rinse water (5-10 ml) to the funnel prior to adding the sample—and prior to applying the
vacuum. The sample will disperse in the buffer (picture the way a small dollop of cream
spreads out in a cup of coffee), and the colonies should be evenly distributed on the filter.
(b) all the growth on only one side of the filter?
The funnel base may be clogged so that the vacuum is only pulling through one part of the
base. Remove the base and thoroughly clean it of any buildup. It is recommended that
funnels and bases be cleaned periodically.
(c) colonies that look runny and oblong?
First, you may be incubating the plates in the wrong position. Plates should be incubated in an
inverted position—that is, medium side up—so that condensation will fall down on the cover,
not on the growing colonies. Second, excessive moisture may remain on the filter if it is
(continued)
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Unit Three: Biological Measures Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
(Bacteria Testing Q & A, continued)
removed before all the sample is filtered. This may cause the bacterial growth to spread out.
These "spreaders" should be counted as one colony.
There's a lot of background growth. Can I still count all my target colored colonies?
There is a maximum number of total colonies allowable on a plate. For the small-size
membrane filtration plates, 80 (or even 60, depending on the method) is the maximum. The
larger plates used with Coliscan Easygel can accommodate up to 300 colonies.
All those organisms compete for the limited nutrients in the medium. The ones that grow are
those that were able to outcompete the others. This competition may mask what the actual
numbers are. If the total number of colonies exceeds the allowable number, the count is
invalid and the result should be reported as an estimate based on the quantity of sample
analyzed and the plate size.
I have a hard time assessing if a colony is the "right" color.
Including positive and negative control organisms when you analyze your samples will give
you a reference to compare to. It takes practice to learn which questionable colonies are
positive for your method. When starting out, it's a good idea to pick a representative colony
you are unsure about and verify what it is, perhaps with assistance from a professional lab.
This is especially helpful if an entire plateful of a strange-looking colony appears.
Identifying what it is may uncover an unknown problem in the area or point to a problem
with your quality control.
On mTEC medium (before you add the urease reagent) some yellow colonies are bigger,
some are smaller, and some are pinpoint, but they should all be considered fecal coliform
colonies. Some may even start to turn a brown-yellow.
Plates of mFC media are usually easy to count; the one potential problem is crowding, because
the colonies are big and flat.
Pour plates (such as the Coliscan Easygel plate) can be difficult to read since colonies grow
both on top of and within the medium. The colonies may be smaller and more difficult to
assess when there is a lot of growth. Total coliforms appear pink-red, E. coli appears purple,
and non-coliforms, which are also able to grow, are usually green or white. Lots of
background growth may interfere with "reading" the plates.
How do I store a plate that I want to send to a laboratory?
If you want to send a plate to a lab for help with identification, place it in a ziplock bag
labeled "biohazard" and store it in the refrigerator, media-side up. Transport the plate to a
laboratory as soon as possible, but the plates can be stored for a week or longer in the
refrigerator because the cold temperature slows bacterial growth.
(continued)
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Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens Unit Three: Biological Measures
(Bacteria Testing Q & A, continued)
I gave another laboratory a duplicate sample bottle and their results are very different! Why?
First, be clear about what you are duplicating. If you collect two separate samples from the
same site, you are replicating collection. Since organisms are not homogenous in the
environment, it is very possible that two separate grabs from the same area may yield
different results.
Most often, what volunteer groups really want to replicate is the analysis. Never use two
separate grab samples to test for comparability of analysis with another laboratory; rather,
collect a single sample in a large container (you may need to buy a few larger sample bottles
for this purpose), mix it well, then immediately pour half into another sterile container
which you will provide to the other laboratory for analysis.
Both laboratories should use the same test method, and preferably both should analyze the
sample at approximately the same time. If the results are not within acceptable limits of
variability, determine where the discrepancy lies. (NOTE: Defining acceptable limits of
variability is a complex problem; consult with a professional lab for guidance.) Common
problems include not mixing the sample well enough prior to analysis, not measuring
accurately, and incorrect incubation temperature.
What minimum quality control should I be doing?
Briefly, you should maintain records of positive and negative controls, incubator
temperatures, and split sample results. Maintaining proof that your results were generated in
a consistent, reproducible manner that adheres to the requirements of the method will allow
others to accept your results. Quality control testing should not take too much extra time, but
it will instill confidence that you are producing valid data.
Can I combine my results with others in my program who are using a different method?
No. When reporting results, it is necessary to specify the method used, the media used, and
the lower limit of detection (the smallest number of test bacteria that could be found
considering the method and the quantity of sample). Different methods have different
precision and recovery ability. It is important to separate results that were generated by
different test methods and under different conditions. •
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Unit Three: Biological Measures 17; Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens
References and Further Reading
Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:
Ely, E. 1998. "Bacteria Testing Part 1: Methods Primer." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 8-9.
Ely, E. 1998. "Bacteria Testing Part 2: What Methods Do Volunteer Groups Use?" The Volunteer
Monitor 10(2): 10-13.
Green, L. 1998. "Let Us Go Down to the Sea: How Monitoring Changes from River to Estuary."
The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 1-3.
Miceli, G. 1998. "Bacteria Testing Q & A." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 13-15.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Other references:
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Behar, S. 1997. Testing the Waters: Chemical and Physical Vital Signs of a River. River Watch
Network. Montpelier, VT.
Ely, E.. 1997. "Interpreting Fecal Coliform Data: Tracking Down the Right Sources." The
Volunteer Monitor 9(2): 18-20.
Gleeson, C., and N. Gray. 1997. The Coliform Index and Waterborne Disease. E and FN Spon,
London.
Gerba, C. 2000. "Indicator Microorganisms." In: Environmental Microbiology. R. Maier, I.
Pepper, C. Gerba (eds). Academic Press, New York.
Hach. 1997. Each Water Analysis Handbook. 3rd ed. Hach Company. Loveland, CO.
Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold. 1992. Rhode Island Volunteer
Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual. University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources
Center, Rhode Island Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension. 38 pp.
Mitchell, M., and W Stapp. 1999. Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring. 12th ed.
Kendall/Hunt. Available from GREEN, c/o Earth Force, Inc., 1908 Mount Vernon Ave.,
Alexandria, VA 22301; phone: 703-299-9400; Web site: http://www.earthforce.org/green/.
River Watch Network. 1996. Escherichia coli (E. coli) Membrane Filter Procedure. River Watch
Network. Montpelier, VT.
Stancioff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors of
Coastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and Univ. of
Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME.
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17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens Unit Three: Biological Measures
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1986. Bacteriological Ambient Water Quality
Criteria for Marine and Fresh Recreational Waters. EPA 440/5-84-002. EPA Office of Water.
PB-86-158-045.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1985. Test Methods for Escherichia coli and
Enterococci in Water by the Membrane Filtration Procedure. EPA 600/4-85-076. EPA Office
of Water. PB-86-158-052.
Web sites:
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP):
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/sea-ill.html and http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/seafoodl.html.
Many manufacturers of bacteria-testing equipment have Web sites that are informative and up-
to-date on the bacteria-growing media they offer. See Appendix C for Web addresses.
Other resources:
Educational Video on Processing Fecal Coliform Samples
To assist volunteer organizations, a short educational video is available that describes and
demonstrates the analysis of fecal coliform sampling. It includes information for the
layperson on everything from sterilization techniques to QA/QC (quality assessment/quality
control) procedures. The video costs $14 and can be ordered through the New Hampshire Sea
Grant Communications Office, Kingman Farm House, University of New Hampshire,
Durham, NH 03824; phone: 603-749-1565; fax: 603-743-3997.
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Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
/u Me shallows of many healthy estuaries, where sunlight penetrates the water to
the estuary bottom, dense stands of aquatic plants sway in unison with the
incoming waves. The aquatic plants are known collectively as submerged aquatic
vegetation. Unfortunately, over the past several decades these plants have fared
poorly in many of our nation's estuaries. Areas once covered by thick beds of
these plants may have little or no vegetation remaining. In areas that can support
them, the plants often serve as a barometer of estuarine ecosystem health.
By monitoring the status of these plant populations over time, we can better
determine the estuary's vitality.
-------
Photos (I tor): K. Register, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, E. Ely.
-------
Unit Biological Measures 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
In the shallows of many healthy estuaries, where sunlight penetrates the water to
the estuary bottom, dense stands of aquatic plants sway in unison with the
incoming waves. The aquatic plants are known collectively as submerged ( or
submersed) aquatic vegetation. SAV—or sometimes called seagrasses in marine
environments—generally include rooted vascular plants that grow up to the water
surface but not above it (although a few species have flowers or tufts that may
stick a few centimeters above the surface). The definition of SAV usually excludes
algae, floating plants, and plants that grow above the water surface.
The plants are important components of cstuarinc systems, providing shelter.
habitat, and a food source for many organisms. They also benefit cstuarinc species
indirectly by helping to maintain the viability of the ecosystem. Their
photosynthesis adds dissolved oxygen to the water, and their leaves and roots help
stabilize the shoreline against erosion. The plants also absorb nutrients, which can
be major estuarine pollutants.
Unfortunately, over the past several decades these plants have fared poorly in
many of our nation's estuaries. Areas once covered by thick beds of these plants
may have little or no vegetation remaining.
Not all healthy estuarine and near coastal areas have the physical and chemical
properties necessary to support SAV. For example, areas with very high tidal
ranges (e.g., more than two meters) or soft sediments may not provide a suitable
habitat for the plants. In areas that can support them, the plants often serve as a
barometer of estuarine ecosystem health. By monitoring the status of these plant
populations over time, we can better determine the estuary's vitality.
This chapter describes the role of SAV in the estuarine ecosystem, describes
some common SAV species, and provides basic steps for monitoring SAV.
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Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Why Monitor SAV?
SAV forms a critical link between the
physical habitat and the biological
community. The plants require specific
physical and chemical conditions to remain
vigorous. In turn, they stabilize sediments and
provide habitat, nourishment, and oxygen to
other species in the estuary.
A viable and self-sustaining SAV population
is the hallmark of a healthy estuary (in
estuaries that naturally support SAV). By
monitoring the occurrence of SAV beds and
the changes in their distribution, density, and
species composition, trained volunteers can
help determine the health and status of SAV
in an estuary. Scientists can then compare this
information to historical data of SAV beds.
Volunteers and SAV Monitoring
SAV is extremely sensitive to disturbance.
Therefore, it is essential that volunteers
receive proper training and supervision
from qualified scientists or resource
managers. Volunteer leaders should check
with the appropriate government agency to
determine which monitoring or sampling
activities may be suitable for volunteers.
The Role of SAV in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
As critical to the shallow waters of an
estuary as trees are to a forest, SAV beds play
several roles in maintaining an estuary's
health. Although only a few truly aquatic
species consume the living plants (e.g.,
manatees, sea turtles, and some species of
fish), several types of waterfowl and small
mammals rely on them as a major portion of
their diet. Even in death, the plants are a
major estuary component. SAV forms huge
quantities of decomposed matter as leaves die;
several aquatic species use this detritus as a
primary food source.
During the growing seasons of spring and
summer, SAV supplies oxygen to the water
through the process of photosynthesis, thereby
helping to support aquatic organisms'
survival. The plants also take up large
quantities of nutrients, which remain locked
in the plant biomass throughout the warm
weather seasons. As the plants die and decay
in autumn, they slowly release the nutrients
back to the ecosystem at a time when
phytoplankton blooms pose less of a problem
(see Chapters 10 and 19).
Additionally, the plant communities provide
shelter for various species of organisms.
Juvenile and larval fish and crustaceans use
SAV beds as protective nurseries and to hide
from predators. Shedding crabs conceal
themselves in the vegetation until their new
shells have hardened. A variety of organisms
[e.g., barnacles, bryozoans (a group of
colonial invertebrates)] and eggs of many
species attach directly to the leaves.
The sheer bulk of the plants often buffers
the shoreline and minimizes erosion by
dampening the energy of incoming waves.
Plant roots bind the sediments on the estuary
bottom and retard water currents. By
minimizing water movement, SAV allows
suspended sediments to settle and water
clarity is improved.
SA V Habitat Requirements
Once established and under optimal
conditions, these plants can spread quickly
into large, thick stands. SAV habitat
requirements are as follows (adapted from
Bergstrom, 1999):
Adequate Light Penetration
SAV can grow only in those portions of the
estuary shallow enough and clear enough to
receive sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.
The plants tend to grow in shallow water, but
may grow in deeper areas where the water is
particularly clear.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures,
Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Sunlight attenuated by suspended
sediment and phytoplankton in the water
Phytoplankton
blooms
Epiphytic growth
on leaves
Shoreline
erosion
Resuspended
bottom sediment
from wave action
Figure 18-1. Impacts on SAV. Sediments, nutrients (and accompanying algal blooms), and epiphytic growth can
ultimately affect the amount of sunlight reaching the plants (adapted from Earth et al, 1989).
Water Inundation
SAV species primarily live in areas where the
plants will remain submerged; however, some
species can withstand exposure during low-
water periods (e.g., low tide). A large tidal
range may limit SAV growth (i.e., prolonged
exposure during low tide and inundation by
deep water during high tide, especially when
the water is cloudy, can make for undesirable
habitat conditions).
Suitable Salinity, Temperature, and Sediments
The salinity, temperature, and sediments of a
particular estuarine location determine, to a
large extent, which species can survive. While
some species tolerate a fairly wide range of
salinity, others are restricted to very specific
levels.
Low to Moderate Wave Action
Heavy waves impede SAV roots from getting
established. Some water circulation is desirable,
however, to prevent SAV from becoming
choked with algae.
The Demise of SAV
In a balanced and healthy estuar-
ine ecosystem, SAV species blanket
the shallows with the composition
of each bed attuned to controlling
variables such as light availability,
sediment, salinity, temperature, and
depth. When an estuary is tipped
out of balance, however, SAV beds
usually suffer. The degradation or
loss of these beds can set up a chain
reaction of ill effects that ripples
through the entire estuarine
ecosystem.
This chain of events often starts with an over-
load of nutrients (Figure 18-1). Excessive quan-
tities of nitrogen and phosphorus cause an over-
growth of phytoplankton (see Chapter 19).
These algal blooms cloud the water and severe-
ly diminish sunlight penetration. The nutrients
may also trigger a thick growth of epiphytes—
plants that grow on the surface of SAV leaves.
The epiphytes block sunlight from reaching the
leaf surfaces of their hosts.
CAUTION
As SAV beds decline, the need to
protect them becomes ever more
critical (photo by R Ohrel).
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If: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Unit Biological Measures
As the water clarity problem worsens, the
area of the estuary that is able to support SAV
becomes even smaller. For example, estuary
water once capable of supporting plants to a
depth often feet may now only transmit enough
light for plant survival to a depth of six feet.
When plant beds thin or die back, water that
may already be low in dissolved oxygen due to
algal blooms (see Chapters 9 and 19) becomes
even more depleted as the amount of oxygen
generated by SAV photosynthesis declines.
Nutrients once tied up in the plant leaves, roots,
and bottom sediments may be released to the
water where phytoplankton snap them up,
thereby increasing the possibility of more
blooms.
A bare substrate, where SAV once flour-
ished, poses a whole set of new problems.
Without plant roots to stabilize the sediment,
waves easily kick up silt which remains sus-
pended in the water until calmer conditions
return. Like algal blooms, suspended silt cuts
down on light transmission through the water.
The silt may also settle onto the leaves of any
remaining plants, further blocking the light
needed for photosynthesis.
As some species lose a foothold in the estu-
ary, non-indigenous (or invasive) and oppor-
tunistic species may move in and displace them.
Non-indigenous SAV species (e.g., Eurasian
watermilfoil, parrotfeather milfoil, and hydrilla)
may overwhelm native SAV species and
assume their habitat. While the growth of these
new species often alleviates the problems asso-
ciated with a bare substrate, other problems
may arise (see Chapter 19).
While nutrients are one of the major causes
of SAV disappearance or decline in many bays
and estuaries (particularly on the Atlantic
coast), other factors may also play a role.
Runoff from different land uses and dredging
activities can cloud waters over acres of SAV
beds with sediment. Agricultural and lawn her-
bicides may cause a loss of some species, while
industrial pollutants and foraging animals may
selectively kill off local beds. Areas frequent-
ly subject to improper shellfish harvesting,
boat-generated waves, and boat propeller
scarring may also lose their SAV beds. •
Sampling Considerations
Figure 18-2. Eelgrass
(Zostera marina).
What to Sample
There are numerous SAV species with
different ranges throughout the United
States. The type of SAV monitored by
volunteers, then, will depend on
geographic location. A few common and
widely distributed SAV species are
described below:
Eelgrass (Zostera marina)
Eelgrass (Figure 18-2) is the dominant
seagrass in the cooler temperate zones of
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Beds of
this luxuriant plant survive in a wide
range of salinities throughout these
regions, but occur mainly in high salinity
waters (18-30 parts per thousand-ppt)
(Chesapeake Bay Program Web site). Flowing
and elongate like an eel, the slender leaf
blades grow up to several feet in length.
Eelgrass spreads by sending out runners
that creep along the bottom and repeatedly
send up shoots that grow into new plants. The
species produces tiny, rather inconspicuous
flowers and seeds that appear on large and
easily distinguished branching stalks. New
plants take several years to reach maturation.
Once a bed becomes established, however,
this species of seagrass is highly productive.
Because of its predominance and
widespread coverage, eelgrass is an important
ecological element of many estuaries and
nearshore areas. It may cover acres of the
bottom, providing food and/or cover for fish,
invertebrates, and waterfowl.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures,
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Eelgrass is subject to infection by a blight
presumably caused by a slime moldlike
organism called Lobyrinthula zosterae. The
disease causes dark lesions on the eelgrass
leaves and can ultimately result in mass
mortality of the plant beds. A major epidemic
occurred in the 1930s, but by the 1960s most
beds had recovered. Along with the dieback
of eelgrass, animals dependent on this plant,
such as the brant (a small goose) and bay
scallops (an important economic resource),
also declined precipitously.
In the past 15 years, scientists and
volunteers have noted the characteristic
lesions of the disease on some eelgrass plants
once again. The blight, also known as eelgrass
wasting disease, is not fully responsible for
eelgrass bed demise. While some areas never
fully recovered from the 1930s epidemic,
other factors have contributed to the plant's
decline. Nutrient-rich waters, herbicides, and
abundant algal growth have also harmed
eelgrass and other SAV species.
Volunteers in New England have worked
with a technique to assess the degree of
infestation on individual eelgrass leaves
(Figure 18-3). This information provides an
estimate of disease progression.
Widgeon Grass (Ruppia maritima)
Widgeon or ditch grass (Figure 18-4)
inhabits the entire Atlantic and Gulf Coasts,
and part of the Pacific Coast of the United
States. This plant is remarkably resilient and
can withstand a wide range of salinities.
Specimens have occasionally been found in
fresh water, yet the species can also tolerate
full ocean salinity. Its primary habitat,
however, is in brackish bays and estuaries.
The leaves of widgeon grass are needlelike,
short, and usually about two inches in length.
They branch off of slender, elastic stems. Like
eelgrass, this grass produces tiny, rather
inconspicuous flowers and seeds found on
stalks. The plants may also reproduce
asexually by means of rhizomes which extend
along the estuary bottom and send out shoots.
Widgeon grass is an extremely important
100°/c
Figure 18-3. Eelgrass wasting disease index key. The disease causes black patches
to appear on eelgrass leaves. Volunteer monitors can use the index to estimate the
disease's presence on the leaves (Burdick etal, 1993).
SAV species for waterfowl. The American
widgeon, a brown duck for which the plant
is named, relies heavily upon widgeon
grass as a major component of its diet. The
plant is nutritious, making it a favored
food item for many other waterfowl
species as well.
Wild Celery (Vallisneria americana)
Wild celery, also known as tapegrass or
freshwater eelgrass (Figure 18-5), is found
along the Atlantic Coast. It is widely
distributed in fresh water, tidal freshwater
rivers, and tidal tributaries to estuaries.
Wild celery has long, flattened,
ribbonlike leaves that emerge from clusters
at the base of the plant. The leaves, which
can grow up to several feet in length, have
a bluntly rounded tip and a light green
stripe that runs down their centers.
Wild celery can reproduce by seed,
rhizome, and tuber. It is an important food
source for waterfowl, particularly the
canvasback duck.
Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum)
Along the Florida and Gulf Coasts, turtle
grass (Figure 18-6) replaces eelgrass as the
dominant seagrass species. Turtle grass
Figure 18-4. Widgeon
grass (Ruppia maritima).
Figure 18-5. Wild celery
(Vallisneria americana).
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Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Figure 18-6. Turtle grass
(Thalassia testudinum).
Figure 18-7. Manatee
grass (Syringodium
filiforme).
Figure 18-8. Shoal grass
(Halodule wrightii).
meadows are highly productive and, therefore,
play an important role in estuarine and near
coastal ecosystems.
Turtle grass plants have broad, straplike
blades, which are wider and shorter than those
of eelgrass. This grass reproduces asexually
by creeping rhizomes or sexually by water-
borne flower pollen and forms dense
meadows which often cover vast swaths of
the shallow marine or estuarine substrate.
Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme) and
Shoal Grass (Halodule wrightii)
Both of these seagrass species are common
along southern Florida and the Caribbean
islands.
Long and thin, the blades of manatee grass
(Figure 18-7) are light green and up to three
feet in length. Like other seagrasses, this grass
has inconspicuous flowers. Manatee grass
also propagates by rhizome extension.
Manatee grass often mixes with turtle grass in
seagrass meadows.
Shoal grass (Figure 18-8) has elongate
stalks that often branch into flat, wide leaves
with a maximum width of 1/8 inch. These
stalks may grow to 15-16 inches in length.
They have a naturally ragged, somewhat
three-pointed tip on the leaf. This plant is
aptly named since it inhabits very shallow
areas, generally in water less than 20 inches
deep. While shoal grass beds can grow on
both the landward and ocean sides of turtle
grass beds, they are usually found on turtle
grass beds' landward sides.
When to Sample
As with all water quality variables,
repetitive measures over a period of years
give a more representative picture of SAV
status than a single sampling approach.
Unlike many of the other variables, however,
volunteers usually need to measure SAV
density and distribution and identify species
only one to three times during the peak
growing season.
The best time of year to sample is when the
SAV species of interest is at its peak biomass
(maximum growth). This varies by species
and location.
Optimal sampling times are close to low
tide on a sunny day when the water is fairly
clear (Bergstrom, 1998). A notable exception
may apply to SAV beds growing in very
shallow water, which may be accessible only
during high tide. In either case, monitors
should try to avoid times when boat traffic is
heavy (e.g., weekends) and the water tends to
be cloudier.
Choosing a Sampling Method
There are several means of monitoring SAV.
Choosing the most appropriate method will
depend on the number and location of sites
already being monitored by volunteers or
others for water quality, the extent of SAV
coverage, the location of problem areas, the
availability of qualified scientists and resource
managers to supervise the activity, and the
planned uses for the collected data.
Helpful Hint
Collecting plant samples is not generally
recommended. Only properly trained and
authorized personnel should take minimal
samples, H necessary, for positive
identification.
Before collecting, transporting, or planting
any SAV species, check with the appropriate
government agency about obtaining
necessary permits.
Observations at Established Water Quality
Monitoring Sites
Volunteer monitoring programs may choose
to analyze SAV concurrently with several
other water quality variables. In this case, the
simplest option is to estimate the shoot
density of each SAV species in a pre-
determined radius around the established
monitoring sites (Figure 18-9). No plants
should be removed from the site.
An SAV index (Table 18-1) or other density
scale is a simple means of ranking the density
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Unit Three: Biological Measures,
Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Table 18-1. Sample SAV index values. The index may be modified or expanded to include more categories
(e.g., SAV coverage of 0-10%, 10-40%, 40-70%, and 70-100%).
SAV Index Value
0
i
2
Category
None
Patchy
Dense
Description
No vegetation present
Small colonies or clumps; sparse bottom coverage
Extensive grass beds; lush meadows
of plants at specific sites. Volunteers estimate
SAV density and classify the bed as falling
within one of three or more density classes.
The data collected from this approach is not
scientifically rigorous and therefore may be
considered only for general education
purposes. The method is, however, a quick
and easy means of obtaining relative
information on the status of an estuary's
SAV beds.
Transect Sampling
In transect sampling, a straight line is
established across an area containing SAV.
Records are made of each plant that touches
the line at predetermined increments (Figure
18-10). If the vegetation is extremely dense,
the data collector can place a rod into the
vegetation at the designated point and record
the different species that touch the rod. The
method provides a rough estimate of the
percent of vegetative cover and the frequency
of each species.
In a modified version, discrete monitoring
sites can be established along the transect (see
case study, page 18-8).
Groundtruthing
Groundtruthing is done to verify maps of
SAV beds that some government agencies or
universities create from aerial surveys. The
exercise involves on-the-ground observations
to verify the presence of beds, identify
species, and locate smaller beds that might
not be captured by aerial photography. By
groundtruthing, volunteer groups help
scientists and resource managers get a more
complete picture of year-to-year SAV
distribution. Knowing SAV bed locations and
species composition helps ensure their
protection from activities that
might have a negative impact
on them (see case study, page
18-9).
Groundtruthing requires a
great deal of on-the-ground
effort, and resource agency
personnel and other
professional staff usually
cannot cover the entire aerial
survey area. Volunteers, then,
can provide valuable assistance
in verifying the SAV maps. •
Figure 18-9. SAV shoot
density can be estimated
in a circle around a water
quality monitoring site
(marked with an X).
SAV bed
Transect
line
Figure 18-10. Transect
sampling through a bed
of SAV.
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Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Case Study: Intertidal SAV Monitoring in Oregon
In 1998, the Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project initiated a four-year study to investigate
the interactions of eelgrass with other estuarine species and its response to human disturbance.
Under the leadership of estuarine researchers,
volunteers collect percent cover and density data on
three different weeklong occasions between May and
September. Intertidal eelgrass is examined, making
volunteers' time in the field limited to the duration of
the low tide. This limitation requires several
volunteers to help collect data.
At three different intertidal sites, monitors establish
five 30-meter transects and record data at five-meter
intervals along each transect (e.g., at one meter, six
meters, and so on). Using a one-meter square quadrat
made from 1/2-inch PVC pipe, volunteers measure
percent cover and eelgrass shoot density.
To measure percent cover, there are several ways to proceed: visual estimation, photo
digitizing, grid overlay, and others. A "point intercept" method, which utilizes a clear piece of
Plexiglas that has 50 randomly placed dots on it (marked with a permanent ink marker), is
used in this program. The Plexiglas is placed over the experimental plot, and volunteers
observe the item [e.g., sand, eelgrass (including shoots and blades), ulva (a green algae), etc.]
covered by the majority of each dot. Then, a percent cover value is calculated by dividing the
number of each component found by the total number of dots on the Plexiglas. For example:
Volunteers measuring percent cover and
eelgrass shoot density in Oregon (photo by
Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project
andBattette Marine Sciences Lab).
Component
Eelgrass
Sand
Ulva
#Dots
31
6
13
Formula
31-50 =
6-50 =
13-50 =
Percent Cover
62%
12%
26%
Determining eelgrass shoot density is somewhat less complex. Volunteers simply count the
number of shoots (not blades) of eelgrass in each quadrat. A researcher familiar with eelgrass
can teach volunteers how to distinguish between eelgrass shoots, blades, and rhizomes.
For More Information:
Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project
P.O. Box 493
Garibaldi, OR 97118
Phone: 503-322-2222
Fax: 503-322-2261
http://www.co.tillamook.or.us/gov/estuary/tbnep/nephome.html
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Unit Three: Biological Measures Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Case Study: Chesapeake Bay SAV Hunt
Volunteers throughout the Chesapeake Bay region participate in the SAV Hunt, an annual
effort coordinated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to locate, identify, and map SAV.
The SAV Hunt is used to groundtruth the results of an annual aerial survey. While the survey
provides invaluable information about the location and extent of SAV beds, aerial
photographs have some limitations:
• they miss small beds;
• they don't identify which species are growing;
• sometimes what looks like a bed of SAV in the photo turns out to be something else
entirely, such as algae growing on underwater rocks or large rocks placed in the water
usually as an erosion control measure; and
• photos are usually taken once a year (or even less frequently), and the SAV species in the
beds change over the growing season.
The SAV Hunters' on-the-ground observations fill in the missing information; their data are
vital supplements to the aerial survey (see Appendix A for a sample data sheet).
Volunteers select the area they want to survey. They receive a map of that location, showing
where SAV has been found in aerial surveys and previous SAV Hunts. Volunteers also receive
a field guide with line drawings, color photographs, and descriptive text to help them identify
the species.
A new Maryland law bans clam dredging in SAV beds, and the information provided by
citizens helps identify those areas that are now off-limits to clam dredging. Natural resource
agencies use the information to help target SAV protection and restoration, and local planning
agencies use it when considering approval for construction projects that may affect aquatic
resources.
For More Information:
SAV Monitoring Coordinator
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Chesapeake Bay Field Office
177 Admiral Cochrane Drive
Annapolis, MD 21401
Phone: 410-573-4500
http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/
(Excerpted and adapted from Reshetiloff, 1998.)
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Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Unit Three: Biological Measures
How to Groundtruth
Monitoring SAV beds may pose more logis-
tical problems than the measurement of other
water quality variables. Whereas volunteers
measure other variables at set stations, SAV
groundtruthing requires volunteers to go to
areas where the SAV is growing—the plant
beds may not be in exactly the same location
from year to year.
Although land access to the beds may lie on
private property, landowners are often willing
to provide right-of-way to volunteer monitors.
Water access may be limited by depths too
shallow to accommodate some vessels—
necessitating use of a shallower draft boat
(e.g., canoe, kayak, johnboat, or skiff with
outboard motor). The program manager
should assist each volunteer in solving possi-
ble logistical problems before the volunteer
heads for the field.
General procedures for monitoring SAV
using the groundtruthing method are presented
in this section for guidance only (they are
adapted from the Chesapeake Bay SAV Hunt—
see case study, page 18-9). Monitors should
consult with qualified scientists or resource
managers overseeing the effort on proper
equipment and techniques. Monitors should
also make sure that necessary permits are
obtained before collecting any samples.
Before proceeding to the monitoring site, vol-
unteers should review the topics addressed in
Chapter 7. It is critical to confirm the monitor-
ing site, date, and time; have the necessary
monitoring equipment and personal gear; and
understand all safety considerations. Once at
the monitoring site, volunteers should record
general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7. Groundtruthers should be especially
careful to note the tidal stage, weather condi-
tions, water clarity, and the time of day, as these
variables can substantially affect the visibility
of SAV beds.
SAV Site Logistics
Reaching SAV beds marked on maps may require walking, motoring, rowing, paddling, wading, or swimming.
Volunteers can reach some SAV beds by walking along the shoreline. Attempt to reach the beds during low tide when they
are in shallower water, but first ensure that the sediments support safe walking.
When using a boat, keep it in sufficiently deep water so that the propeller does not tear up the plants. If the beds are
consistently located in shallow areas, consider using a rowboat, canoe, or even an inflated inner tube as an alternate vessel.
In areas such as the Everglades in southern Florida, volunteers should consider using an airboat.
Keeping track of map position is extremely important. In areas of vast seagrass beds and few distinct landscape features, it
is particularly easy to get lost. A Global Positioning System (GPS) or compass, used in conjunction with the map, may be a
helpful orientation tool. The volunteer should:
• Travel to the SAV beds marked on the provided map. To find the beds, look for dark patches on the bottom or calmer
surface water surrounded by ripples. The calm water may overlie SAV beds (Bergstrom, 1998).
• Compare the bed to its noted map position by examining its general location, notable landscape features (natural or
manmade), position relative to the shoreline, and the overall extent of the bed. These distinctions may change from year
to year, but collectively should provide sufficient information to confirm the identity of the bed.
If you are not sure that you are in the exact spot, if the bed seems to be in a different position than indicated on the map, or if
other aspects of the bed are dramatically different, make sure to note this or record the changes on the survey sheet and map.
Have a companion corroborate your observations if possible.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures,
Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site:
• map showing SAV beds covering the
study site, as determined from aerial
survey;
• global positioning system (GPS) receiver,
if available;
• weighted and calibrated line to measure
depth, or Secchi disk;
• SAV field identification guide;
shoes for wading;
plastic scalable bags (sandwich size);
labels to go inside plastic bags, or
waterproof marker;
mask and snorkel or SCUBA, if
necessary;
instructions for monitoring SAV;
rake to gather specimen for identification a
(see box below for details);
view tube or hand lens, if available;
polarized sunglasses; and
waterproof copy of any required
collection permits.
Raking It In
Unless you get into the water to identify SAV, some kind of tool may be needed to take a mini-
mum number of samples. From a boat or pier, a properly trained person using the right rake is
critical to groundtruthing success. At all times, care should be taken to avoid digging the rake
into the sediment, since this can damage underground roots and rhizomes.
There are several rakes available (see Appendix C for suppliers); however, no one rake will find
all SAV species at all times, and some species simply cannot be collected by raking.
Some recommended rakes are described below, with accompanying photographs on this page.
• A bamboo shrub rake is good for shallow water and SAV with short stems. It works much
better from a canoe or kayak than the more common shrub rake with plastic tines. For
deeper water, an extension pole can be attached. Most shrub rakes have 5-10 tines
(although the bamboo ones have more) and are about 8" across, with a 4' handle.
• The crab landing net—consisting of a wire basket and long (6') handle—can be hard to
find, but works well on very short, sparse SAV stems. As the net sweeps through the SAV,
samples are collected in the net junctions. This quality may, however, make it difficult at
times to remove one sample from the net in order to collect another. This net is not recom-
mended for very dense SAV.
• A metal garden bow rake with stiff tines is used by some hunters, but it is probably the least
effective of the four kinds. However, it is the one that most people already have on-hand.
• Though it may be difficult to find, a modified lawn thatch rake can work in water deeper
than the length of a typical rake handle. Adapted with a short handle and rope and called a
"throw rake," it can be tossed from a boat or pier. As a volunteer pulls it back by its rope,
the rake picks up fairly tall, branched plants, leaving short, unbranched plants behind.
The throw rake can be a useful tool, but extreme caution should be exercised.
As new and more effective designs are found, information will be made available at the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service Chesapeake Bay Field Office Web site: http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/ under
"Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV)."
(Source: Bergstrom, 2000.)
18-11
Several rakes for
collecting SAV samples:
(a) bamboo shrub rake;
(b) crab landing net; (c)
bow rake; and (d) lawn
thatch rake, or "throw
rake," adapted with a
short handle and rope
(photos by P. Bergstrom,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service).
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Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Trained volunteer collecting SAV
samples with a lawn thatch rake
(photo by P. Bergstrom, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service).
STEP 2: Collect initial data and
map bed area.
If the map already shows the
outline of the bed, use the map's
name or code for the bed as its
identifier on the data sheet. If the
map contains no record of the bed,
name it according to the format
established by the program
manager. Volunteers will need to
roughly map unidentified beds to
add them to the permanent record.
Those areas marked as SAV beds on the map
but having no plants should be designated on
the survey form by writing "no plants."
Indicate the means by which the volunteer
reached the beds (motor boat, canoe, by foot,
pier, etc.).
Use the weighted, calibrated line to measure
depth. A Secchi disk attached to a marked line
can also be used to measure depth. Record the
depth on the survey form.
STEP 3: Monitor SAV.
A bed may contain only one type of SAV or
a variety of species. Move around within the
bed and closely examine several areas to get a
representative assessment of the species
composition. Snorkeling or a view tube may
be needed.
Assessing SAV bed condition
• To identify the plants, carefully use a
rake or another implement to obtain a
small sample of the stems and leaves.
Try not to dig the tool into the sediment
as it may damage underground roots and
rhizomes. It may be necessary to
snorkel or SCUBA for some species that
rakes may not be able to pick up easily
(e.g., eelgrass in summer when it is
short).
• Using the identification guide or a key,
match the specimen to the appropriate
plant. Do not record floating samples,
as they may have come from a
different location. Record the common
name of the plant on the survey form. If
the match is tenuous or the plant does
not seem to resemble any diagram,
place the specimen in a plastic bag and
bring it back to shore for a program
leader to identify. Make sure to label the
plastic bag with the site name, date, and
collector using an indelible marker.
Place one label inside the specimen bag
and another on the outside of the bag as
a precaution against lost labels or
illegible writing. Record the identity of
the collected plant as "unknown" on the
survey form. Any collected sample
should be refrigerated if not examined
right away.
• Examine several different areas of the
bed, estimating density and inspecting
several plants. The program manager
should train volunteers to recognize
symptoms of common diseases or
infestations.
• If this site has been visited previously,
any noticeable differences, such as
changes in the species composition,
density, bed size, and general plant
health, should be recorded.
"Mapping" SAV beds
When the SAV bed is unmarked on the map
or has shifted in location, the volunteer should
hand-draw the new location on the map.
Shoreline features, manmade objects, buoys,
shoals, and other landmarks may all be
helpful in marking location. If possible, the
volunteer should use a Global Positioning
System (GPS) unit to roughly establish the
position of the bed (see Chapter 7).
After completing all steps at the first SAV
bed, navigate to the next designated bed on
the map. Complete the same steps for each
bed and record all information on a new
survey form for each bed. Treat unmapped
beds the same way; after establishing the bed
position on the map, evaluate them like any
other bed.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures,
Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.
Volunteers should clean all equipment and
deliver any unknown specimens to the
program manager for plant identification
assistance. The samples should be refrigerated
if they will not be examined immediately.
Ensure that the data survey forms are
complete and legible. Send the forms to the
appropriate person or agency, preferably after
identifying any unknown specimens.
Identified specimens do not need to be sent
with the forms; the program manager should
provide guidance on dealing with the
remaining unidentified plants. As with all data
sheets, the volunteer should make a copy in
case the original becomes lost. •
SAV Bed Restoration and Monitoring
In an effort to restore SAV populations, many volunteer and professional groups are experimenting with planting SAV
(Bergstrom, 1999).
Even with the right permits and supervision, however, simply planting grasses does not guarantee success. As
photosynthetic plants, they depend on sunlight to survive. A comprehensive monitoring program can provide detailed
information about water clarity and other water quality parameters important to SAV survival. Some programs use
water quality data that volunteers are already collecting to help identify top candidates for SAV restoration projects.
While plants may show growth initially, they may disappear a few years
later. Many volunteer restoration projects do not include follow-up
monitoring to determine their long-term effectiveness. Without water
quality and plant survival monitoring, volunteers are unable to
understand what works and what fails.
Post-restoration monitoring can be a strain on organizational resources.
It requires staff and volunteer time, which may be difficult to spare.
SAV planting projects are usually one-time events, making it easier to
oversee volunteers. Doing the necessary follow-up monitoring, however,
often requires volunteers to work on their own with less oversight by the
program leader (after all, the leader can't be everywhere at once!).
Because follow-up monitoring may require the use of snorkel or SCUBA
equipment, program leaders might be reluctant to support unsupervised
volunteer SAV restoration monitoring; liability becomes an issue.
The Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay is working with other Bay-area
organizations to standardize SAV monitoring and reporting methods
throughout the region. This effort should improve the groups' knowledge
of restoration sites and monitoring activities. It is hoped that this
coordination will allow the groups to improve their tracking of SAV
restoration projects.
For More Information:
Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay
6600 York Road, #100
Baltimore, MD 21212
Phone: 410-377-6270
Fax: 410-377-7144
http ://www. acb-online.org/index.htm
Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay volunteers use
a 1.0 x 1.0 m frame, constructed with nylon
rope and 2.5 cm diameter PVCpiping, to guide
SAV replanting efforts. The frame is divided
into 1/4-meter intervals. At each grid
intersection, two mature plants (called "planting
units"), held together with a biodegradable
staple so that their rhizomes are aligned
parallel, are anchored on the bottom with a
bamboo skewer. Twenty-five planting units
equaling SO plants per square meter are placed
in each 1m2 grid. The use of the planting grid
allows for the number of plants, and therefore
planting density, to be easily quantified (photo
by B. Murphy).
18-13
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If: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Unit Biological Measures
References and Further Reading
Portions of this and from:
Bergstrom, P. 1998. "SAV Hunter's Guide (for Chesapeake Bay)." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 17.
Hurley, L. M. 1992. Field Guide to the Submerged Aquatic Vegetation of the Chesapeake Bay. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service. Chesapeake Bay Estuary Program, Annapolis. MD. 52 pp. (NOTE:
Out of print).
Other
Bergstrom. P. 1999. "Using Monitoring Data to Choose Plaiting Sites for Underwater Grasses." The
Volunteer Monitor 11(1): 16-17.
Bergstrom. P. 2000. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Chesapeake Bay Coastal Program, pers. com.
Blakcslcy, B.A., M.O. Hall, and J.H. Landsbcrg. 1999. "Scagrass Disease and Mortality:
Understanding the Role ofLabyrinihula?' In: The 15th Biennial International Conference of the
Estuarine Research Federation Abstracts. New Orleans, LA. Sept. 25-30, 1999.
Burdick, D. M., F. T. Short, and J. Wolf. 1993. "An Index to Assess and Monitor the Progression of
the Wasting Disease in Eelgrass, Zosteramarina" Marine Ecology Progress Series. 94: 83-90.
Fassett, N. C. 1969. A Manual of Aquatic Plants. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. 405 pp.
Gabrielson, P. W, R. F. Scagel, and T. B. Widdowson. 1990. Keys to the Benihic Marine Algae and
Seagrasses of British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, Washington and Oregon. Phycological
Contribution [Dept. of Botany, University of British Columbia. Vancouver]. No. 4. 187 pp.
Hotchkiss, N. 1972. Common Marsh, Underwater, and Floating-Leaved Plants of the United States
and Canada. Dover Pubns, ISBN: 048622810X.
Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee. and A. Gold. 1992. Rhode Island Volunteer
Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual. URI Coastal Resources Center. RI Sea Grant, and
URI Cooperative Extension. 38 pp.
Littler, D. S., M. M. Littler, K. E. Bucher, and J. N. Norris. 1989. Marine Plants of the Caribbean: A
Field Guide from Florida to Brazil. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 263 pp.
Martin, E., and V. Lee. 1991. '"Monitoring Diseased Eelgrass." The Volunteer Monitor 3(1): 13.
Meyers, D. 1999. "Volunteers Add 'Missing Piece': Monitoring Restoration." The Volunteer
Monitor 11(1): 10-11.
Reshetiloff, K. 1998. "SAV Hunt: Citizens Keep Track of Bay Grasses." The Volunteer Monitor
10(2): 16.
Sheath, R. G., and M. M. Harlin. 1988. Freshwater and Marine Plants of Rhode Island. Kendall
Hunt Publ. Company, Dubuque, IA. 149 pp.
Tampa Bay Estuary Program (TBEP). 1999. Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Monitoring Protocols.
unpbl. Doc, Mail Station I-l/NEP, 100 8th Avenue, SE, St. Petersburg, FL 33701; Phone: 727-
893-2765.
18-14
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Unit Biological Measures 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Tiner, R. W., Jr. 1987. A Field Guide to the Coastal Wetland Plants of the Northeastern United
States. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA. 285 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1992. Monitoring Guidance for the National
Estuary Program: Final. EPA 842-B-92-004. Washington, DC.
Web sites:
Chesapeake Bay Foundation: http://www.savethebay.cbf.org
Chesapeake Bay Program: http://www.chesapeakebay.net/baygras.htm
Maryland Department of Natural Resources: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/sav/index.html
University of Hawaii Seagrass: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/seagrass/
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Chesapeake Bay Field Office: http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/
Virginia Institute of Marine Science: http://www.vims.edu/bio/sav/index.html
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18-16
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Other Living Organisms
.
a AND HARVESTING
WARNIN
CLOSED AREA
While bacteria and submerged aquatic vegetation are popular biological parameters
measured by volunteers, there are other living organisms that deserve—and
receive—attention. Some of these organisms are monitored or collected to screen for
potential problems in the estuary. Others serve to complement chemical, biological,
and physical monitoring activities. For the most part, the monitoring of particular
living organisms represents localized rather than nationwide efforts; that is, for many
reasons, volunteer groups have the desire, equipment, support, and environmental
need to work with these organisms in their particular estuary.
-------
Photos (I to r): E. Ely, E. Ely, T. Monk, R. Ohrel
-------
Unit Biological Measures 15: Other Living Organisms
While bacteria and submerged aquatic vegetation are popular biological
parameters measured by volunteers, there are other living organisms that
deserve—and receive—attention. Some of these organisms are monitored or
collected to screen for potential problems in the estuary. Others serve to
complement chemical, biological, and physical monitoring activities.
For the most part, the monitoring of particular living organisms represents
localized rather than nationwide efforts; that is. for many reasons, volunteer
groups have the desire, equipment, support, and environmental need to work with
these organisms in their particular estuary.
Clearly, there is a multitude of living organisms that a volunteer group may wish
to monitor to help assess an estuary's health. This chapter discusses several of
those biological parameters—macroinvertebrates, phytoplankton, and non-
indigenous species—and describes their use as environmental health indicators,
identifies sampling considerations, and provides steps for collecting and analyzing
the organisms in the field.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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If: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Biological Measures
Why Monitor Other Living Organisms?
The presence, absence, and abundance of
many living organisms can serve as useful
indicators of estuarine health. Some
organisms require relatively clean water to
survive, grow, and reproduce. Their presence
suggests that water quality is good in that
portion of the estuary. Other species are
unfazed or even thrive under poor water
quality conditions. If the number of pollution-
tolerant organisms suddenly increases while
pollution-sensitive species disappear or
become difficult to find, the estuary may be
under stress.
Volunteer monitoring of estuarine
organisms, then, can serve as an early
warning device. When biological monitoring
suggests that a water quality problem may
exist, the information can be used to alert
government authorities, who in turn can
intensify their own monitoring efforts to
identify the problem's cause and solution. The
identification and tracking of non-indigenous
species can be used to further alert us to
human disturbance of estuarine ecosystems.
Early detection networks can help eradicate a
non-indigenous species invasion before it
becomes established.
Monitoring can also be used to complement
chemical, biological, and physical
measurements. Nutrient data, for example,
provide useful information about the types
and quantities of nutrients in the estuary, but
may not tell us enough about potential
impacts. The presence of phytoplankton
blooms provides evidence that nutrient
concentrations may have reached high levels.
As another example, turbidity and sediment
deposition can affect the survival of many
bottom-dwelling organisms. By monitoring
these animals along with other parameters, we
can gain a better sense of the estuary's overall
health.
Finally, the collection and analysis of
shellfish for pathogens and toxic materials
complement monitoring for those pollutants in
the water column. •
MACROINVERTEBRATES
Macroinvertebrates are organisms that are
large (macro) enough to be seen with the
naked eye and lack a backbone (invertebrate)
(USEPA, 1997). Aquatic macroinvertebrates
are commonly used in freshwater stream
monitoring as indicators of water quality.
According to the USEPA (1997),
macroinvertebrates make good indicators of
stream quality because:
• They are affected by the physical,
chemical, and biological conditions in
the stream.
• They may show the effects of short- and
long-term pollution.
• They may show the cumulative impacts
of pollution.
• They may show the impacts from
habitat loss not detected by traditional
water quality assessments.
• They are a critical part of the food web.
• Some are very intolerant of and cannot
escape pollution.
The Role of Macroinvertebrates in the
Estuarine Ecosystem
Macroinvertebrates serve many of the same
functions in estuarine systems as they do in
streams. They are critical to the food web.
Some impact water clarity through their
feeding process, filtering with their gills or
other body parts tiny plants, animals, and
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
. Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
other materials found in the water. Others, such
as oysters and corals, grow together in groups,
providing valuable habitat for a number of
organisms. Burrowing macroinvertebrates help
aerate bottom sediments.
Unfortunately, using macroinvertebrates as
indicators of estuarine health is more problem-
atic than for streams (Green, 1998; Ely, 1991).
• Estuaries support different
macroinvertebrates than freshwater
systems, with few key freshwater
indicator species living in estuarine
environments.
• Tidal fluctuations and muddy bottoms
make collecting estuarine
macroinvertebrates more difficult than
in streams.
• In contrast with stream systems, there
are as yet no identification keys and
water quality indices, suitable for
volunteers, that link estuarine macro-
invertebrates with estuarine health.
As a result of these limitations, volunteer
organizations currently find it difficult to use
macroinvertebrates as indicators of estuarine
water quality. However, that is not to say that
volunteer programs should avoid monitoring
macroinvertebrates altogether. Volunteer moni-
tors are frequently recruited to monitor specific
macroinvertebrate species, such as corals (see
case study, below). Shellfish are other good
examples of estuarine macroinvertebrates that
volunteer groups monitor and sample.
Shellfish and Estuarine Health
Shellfish often reflect some of the most
important measures of water quality. One way
that volunteers can utilize shellfish is to take
an inventory of their distribution throughout
the estuary (see case study, page 19-4).
Another way is to work with laboratories that
analyze the hazardous compounds in the
animals' tissues.
Case Study: Coral Monitoring
With support from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), The Ocean Conservancy manages the Reef Condition
(RECON) Monitoring Program. RECON is an entry-level rapid-assessment protocol for volunteer recreational divers with
an interest in reef conservation issues. The goals of RECON are to broaden the scope of available information about the
benthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms on coral reefs, to alert local researchers and managers of changing reef conditions
(e.g., mass bleaching events, outbreaks of disease, nuisance algal blooms), and to increase public understanding of the
threats to coral reef ecosystems.
RECON divers take a short course from a certified RECON instructor, followed by two practice
dives and a qualifying examination. Divers are trained to collect information about the reef
environment, the health of stony corals, and the presence of key reef organisms and obvious
human-induced impacts. Results of the cumulative data collection are posted on The Ocean
Conservancy Web site for public access and archived for use by the scientific and research
community.
For More Information:
The Ocean Conservancy
Office of Pollution Prevention and Monitoring
1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103
Virginia Beach, VA 23454
Phone: 757-496-0920, Fax: 757-496-3207
Email: RECON@oceanconservancyva. org
http: //www. oceanconservancy. org
A volunteer diver
collects data at a coral
reef in the Caribbean
(photo by T. Monk).
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Case Study: Shellfish Inventories in Florida
While some shellfish monitoring programs collect specimens for tissue analysis at a laboratory,
others require only that volunteers count each organism they find in the field.
Tampa BayWatch and the Tampa Bay Estuary Program developed a volunteer activity known
as the Great Bay Scallop Search. During this annual one-day event, volunteer snorkelers patrol
seagrass beds and count scallops along transect lines (see Appendix A for the Scallop Search
data sheet).
The purpose of the project is to document scallop population recovery. Poor water quality
caused scallops to disappear from Tampa Bay during the 1960s. Thanks in part to regulatory
action, the scallops are slowly returning. Stocking efforts are underway to help boost scallop
recovery and establish viable breeding colonies in the bay.
For More Information:
Tampa BayWatch
Phone: 727-896-5320
http://www.tampabaywatch.org
Tampa Bay Estuary Program
Phone: 727-893-2765
http: //www. tbep. org/
Chemical Uptake
Even water that appears clear and untainted
may still contain harmful levels of chemical
pollutants. Shellfish living in the water may
assimilate and accumulate these chemicals
through the intake of polluted water and
sediment or by eating other contaminated
organisms.
Several types of chemical contaminants can
accumulate in shellfish. These include:
• heavy metals such as mercury and
cadmium;
• petroleum hydrocarbons such as
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs);
• pesticides such as endrin, dieldrin,
endosulfan, mirex, and malathion; and
• industrial pollutants such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Bivalve shellfish, such as clams, mussels,
and oysters, are filter-feeders and strain large
quantities of estuarine water through their
systems to extract small particles of food.
Because they filter such large quantities of
water, however, even relatively low
concentrations of a waterborne contaminant
may eventually translate to high tissue
concentrations.
Non-bivalve shellfish, such as crabs,
lobsters, and shrimp, are mobile scavengers
which consume plants, small animals, and
detritus from the estuary's waters and bottom.
Contaminated prey or sediments can produce
high contaminant levels in the tissues of these
shellfish.
Biological Uptake
Studies or surveys often use shellfish as
indicators of biological contamination as well.
The non-mobile bivalves are particularly
helpful as they pinpoint specific areas of
contamination.
Shellfish collect fecal bacteria in their gut,
making them good indicators of recent
exposure to sewage waste. Since fecal
coliforms can indicate the presence of human or
animal pathogens, tainted shellfish serve as a
warning and signal that an area may not be
suitable for recreation or fishing. Unlike water
sampling for bacterial contamination (see
Chapter 17), shellfish tissue analysis acts as a
market test; that is, it determines whether the
shellfish are fit for human consumption.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
. Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
Officials can set predetermined levels of
fecal coliform in shellfish as a management
standard. Areas where levels exceed this
standard should be closed to commercial and
recreational shellfish collection until the
problem is resolved.
In addition to accumulating bacteria,
shellfish can also consume
phytoplankton, some of which
produce toxins. When shellfish
ingest the phytoplankton, the toxins
accumulate in their tissues. The
toxins can be transferred to humans
who consume the shellfish. •
Shellfish Sampling Considerations
Shellfish are easier to collect than finfish
because most tend to move more slowly or
not at all. Moreover, they often congregate—
an oyster bed or a boulder studded with
mussels are two examples—and are fairly
easy to reach.
Some shellfish are more susceptible to
certain contaminants than others. While a
species may easily tolerate high
concentrations of one chemical, low
concentrations of another can be lethal.
The life stage of an individual—larva,
juvenile, or adult—will also greatly affect its
response to a toxic substance. In general,
larvae and juveniles are more
vulnerable to injury or death from
exposure to these substances.
Studies of the effects of toxic
compounds must consider both the
age and species of the specimens to fully
assess the chemical's toxicity. •
Helpful Hint
Before collecting any organism, check with
the appropriate government agency to
determine whether you will need a permit.
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Shellfish contaminated
with pathogens or other
pollution indicate that
surrounding waters may
be unsafe for fishing or
swimming. It may be
unsafe for humans to
eat the shellfish
(photo by R. Ohrel).
How to Collect Shellfish
The tests for shellfish contaminants
require sophisticated analyses, expensive
equipment, and rigorous quality assurance
procedures. Trained scientists must perform
these tests to ensure accurate, scientifically
valid results. Volunteers can assist the
scientists, however, by collecting shellfish for
analysis in designated study areas.
Scientists may need data to:
• identify areas of concern for a particular
toxic substance;
• aid policy makers in setting regulatory
limits on the recreational or commercial
collection of shellfish species;
• identify the contaminant sources;
• examine the effects of particular
contaminants on a species; and
• determine whether shellfish are safe for
consumption.
The training of volunteers should include a
session on the identification of the species
required for testing. Most of the popular field
guides for the coastal regions include sections
on shellfish identification.
Before proceeding to the monitoring site
and collecting samples, volunteers should
review the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is
critical to confirm the monitoring site, date,
and time; have the necessary monitoring
equipment and personal gear; and understand
all safety considerations. Once at the
monitoring site, volunteers should record
general site observations, as discussed in
Chapter 7.
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• field guide for species identification;
• waterproof copy of any required
collection permits;
• collection bucket;
• tools necessary to dig shellfish, dislodge
clustered shellfish, or otherwise collect
targeted shellfish species;
• sample containers; and
• sample preservative, if necessary.
STEP 2: Collect the shellfish sample.
Once at the sample site, volunteers should
capture animals using the method designated by
the program manager.
The volunteers should carefully label the
sample container in which the animal will be
transported with the date, site name, shellfish
type, and the name of the collector. An indelible
marker is best for ensuring that the labeling is
permanent. Make sure that the sample container
is not wet before using the marker. If required
by the program manager, volunteers should add
a preservative to the sample bottle.
STEP 3: Clean up and send off sample
and data.
Volunteers should transport the live
specimens at chilled temperatures appropriate
for the species. The program manager should
designate pickup locations for volunteers to
deliver the specimens and supporting data
sheets to program personnel. As with all data
sheets, the volunteer should make a duplicate
in case the original becomes lost.
Make sure to thoroughly clean all
equipment. •
Case Study: Shellfish Collection in Washington and Alaska
Very few programs currently use volunteers to collect shellfish for laboratory analysis. The
Department of Health in Washington State, however, has successfully worked with different
volunteer groups to gather shellfish at commercial and recreational beaches.
Youth Area Watch, managed by the Chugach School District, in Alaska, is also involved with
shellfish collection. Students in the organization collect mussels for scientists who monitor
planktonic activity and production capacity in Prince William Sound.
For More Information:
Washington State Department of Health
Food Safety and Shellfish Programs
Phone: 360-236-3330
Adopt A Beach
4649 Sunnyside Ave. N. #305
Seattle, WA 98103-6900
Phone: 888-57-BEACH or 206-632-1390
Email: aab@halcyon.com
Youth Area Watch
Web site: http://www.micronet.net/users/~yaw/
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
. Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
PHYTOPLANKTON
Organisms lacking the means to counteract
transport by water currents are referred to as
plankton, a name derived from the Greek word
planktos for "wandering." Included in this group
are bacterioplankton (bacteria), phytoplankton
(plants), and zooplankton (animals). In general
all plankton are very small and, in many cases,
microscopic. However, relatively large animals,
such as the jellyfish, are also included in the def-
inition of plankton (Table 19-1; Figure 19-1).
Phytoplankton are micro-
scopic plants that are common
components of our natural
waters. These plants are algae
and contain an assortment of
pigments in their photosynthet-
ic cells. They are represented
by single cell or colonial forms
that are the primary food and
oxygen producers within fresh-
water, estuarine, and marine
Table 19-1. Common types of phyto- and zooplankton (see Levinton, 1982).
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
Taxonomic Grouping
Crustaceans
Protistans
Ctenophores
Chaetognaths
Coelentertates
Pteropods
Tunicates
diatoms
dinoflagellates
cryptomonads
coccolithophorids
green algae
blue-green algae
red algae
brown algae
copepods
euphausiids
cladocerans
amphipods
radiolarians
foraminiferans
comb jellies
arrow worms
true jellyfish
larvacea
salps
Taxonomic Grouping
Biddulphia Chaetoceros
Nitzschia Skeletomena
Thalassiosira Melosira
Dinophysis Ceratium
Gyrodinium Prorocentrum
Cryptomonas
Coccolithus Phaeocystis
Chlorella Codium
Cladophora
Oscillatoria/Trichodesmium Lyngbya
Porphyridium Porphyra
Ectocarpus
Calanus Acartia
Temora
Euphausia
Podon
Euthemisto Hyperia
Globigerina
Pleurobrachia Mnemiopsis
Amelia Physalia
Pyrosoma
Volunteer phytoplankton
monitors at work in Maine.
(a) Samples are collected
using a 1-meter plankton
net (b) Subsamples are
examined immediately at
100X magnification
(photos by E. Ely).
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Zooplankton
Blue Crab Zoeae
and Megalops
Ca/inectes
Phytoplankton
Cladoceran
Podon
Dinoflagellates
Gymnodinium
Figure 19-1. Examples of various planktonic forms found in coastal and estuarine waters.
habitats. Zooplankton are animal plankton that
range in size and complexity. They include the
larval forms of large adult organisms (e.g.,
crabs, fish) and small animals that never get
larger than several millimeters (e.g. copepods).
The abundance of planktonic organisms in the
water column follows predictable, geographical-
ly based seasonal patterns related to nutrients,
light intensity, temperature, and grazing (preda-
tion) pressures. Monitoring the types and rela-
tive abundances of plankton populations in con-
junction with nutrient and other environmental
parameters can provide significant insight into
the health of an aquatic ecosystem.
The Role of Phytoplankton in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
Without phytoplankton, the intricate web of
estuarine plants and animals would collapse.
Phytoplankton are primary producers and form
the base of the estuary's food pyramid. As pho-
tosynthesizers, phytoplankton transfer the sun's
energy into plant matter and provide nourish-
ment for the next level of organisms.
Phytoplankton are consumed primarily by
zooplankton, which in turn are fed upon by other
larger organisms. If the phytoplankton communi-
ty is altered in composition or abundance, these
changes may have serious ramifications through-
out the food web and upset what may be consid-
ered a more favorable balance of life in these
waters.
Water quality conditions will influence the
composition and abundance of phytoplankton.
Since phytoplankton respond rather rapidly to
changes in nutrient concentrations, they are
good indicators of nutrient-rich conditions.
Waters having relatively low nutrient levels are
dominated by diatoms, which are a highly
desirable source of food. In water with higher
nutrient concentrations, cyanobacteria and
dinoflagellates become more abundant. These
phytoplankton species are less desirable as a
food source to animals.
As nutrients—and consequently phytoplank-
ton—increase, various water quality variables
are affected. Waters with low nutrient levels are
generally clearer than water containing high
concentrations of nutrients. As nutrient levels
increase and the phytoplankton concentrations
become more dense, the water often takes on the
color of the algal pigments (e.g., reddish brown,
green, brown) and odors become noticeable. In
estuaries, the cells frequently collect along tidal
fronts, where their presence is more evident.
Phytoplankton also influence oxygen concen-
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
. Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
trations in the estuary. As photosynthesizers,
they produce oxygen, which is critical to all but
a few estuarine organisms. When sunlight is
unavailable (e.g., at night), phytoplankton
respire, removing oxygen from the water.
Oxygen is also consumed when bacteria work
to decompose phytoplankton. A common after-
math of excessive phytoplankton growth in
confined waterways is that oxygen is depleted,
thus producing hypoxic conditions that may
result in the deaths of many organisms.
Levels of Phytoplankton
At certain times, conditions are very good for
phytoplankton growth. When there are adequate
nutrients, increased light intensity, warmer
water, and minimal predation pressures from
zooplankton, phytoplankton population explo-
sions, or algal blooms, may occur. The phyto-
plankton will continue to bloom until one or
more of the key factors promoting phytoplank-
ton growth is no longer available.
For example, during the spring months in
temperate regions, diatom blooms usually coin-
cide with increases in nutrient levels, water tem-
perature, and light intensity. This increase in
phytoplankton biomass is typically followed by
an increase in zooplankton (often copepods) into
the summer months. During the summer, the
dominant phytoplankton assemblage shifts to
include dinoflagellates and the grazing pressures
of the zooplankton subsides. Another, but small-
er, bloom of diatoms occurs in the fall, leading
to a successive repeat in the nutrient/bloom
cycle. Figure 19-2 illustrates seasonal bloom
fluctuations in different geographic locales.
hi recent years, there has been an increasing
presence of bloom-forming algae in estuaries
worldwide. This has been attributed to increased
levels of nutrients entering these waters.
Harmful Algal Blooms
Some phytoplankton—mostly dinoflagellates
and some diatoms—produce toxins, which have
been known to cause illness or death in many
aquatic organisms, including fish, shellfish, and
marine mammals, by causing lesions, clogging
gills, and depleting oxygen in the water. The
toxins can also have
serious impacts on
humans (Table 19-2).
The toxins can be trans-
ferred to humans
through the consump-
tion of shellfish (e.g.,
clams, oysters, mussels,
and scallops). These
organisms feed by filter-
ing water through their
gills to extract various
forms of plankton. The
plankton may not be
toxic to the shellfish, but
they could be toxic to
humans who consume
them. Therefore, state or
local authorities routine-
ly close areas to shell-
fish harvesting if exces-
sive amounts of toxins
are detected in the water.
One example of a harmful algal bloom is a
"red tide." It is so named because the bloom is
intense enough to change the color of the water.
Some phytoplankton will produce a reddish,
brown, or green color. In some cases, however,
no color is produced at all—thus dispelling the
myth that there is a definite connection between
abnormally colored water and toxicity.
Although there are many species that can
bloom enough to change the color of the water,
only a few species are toxic.
An increase in the frequency of harmful algal
blooms in the U.S. and worldwide has led to
increased efforts to develop effective monitor-
ing and detection methods. By detecting
blooms early, we can better ensure the safety of
seafood products. The states of Maine and
California have instituted coast-wide volunteer
monitoring programs aimed at early detection
of harmful blooms (Ely, 1998). Other states
have a combination of formal and informal
mechanisms to detect the blooms. The cost of
toxic plankton monitoring is relatively high, so
volunteer monitoring is an important way to
protect public health in a cost-effective man-
ner (Griffin, 1998). •
Arctic
Temperate
Tropical
0 N D
Herbivores
»
Figure 19-2. Typical
seasonal cycles for
plankton in arctic,
temperate, and
tropical regions.
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Table 19-2. Some toxic phytoplankton important in the United States and their human impacts (excerpted
and adapted from Ely, 1998).
Phytoplankton
Alexandrium spp.
Pseudonitzschia spp.
Gymnodinium breve
Dinophysis spp.
Illness Caused
PSP (paralytic
shellfish
poisoning)
ASP (amnesic
shellfish poisoning)
NSP (neurotoxic
shellfish poisoning)
DSP (diarrhetic
shellfish poisoning)
U.S. Outbreaks
New England, West
Coast (including
Alaska)
No human illness
reported in U.S.
Human illness
reported in Canada
(east coast) and
marine mammal
illness on U.S. West
Coast.
Mid-Atlantic and
Southeast Coast,
Gulf of Mexico
No human illness
reported in U.S.
Symptoms
Numbness of lips and
fingers; lack of
coordination.
Respiratory failure in
severe cases. Can be
fatal.
Abdominal cramps,
disorientation.
Permanent memory
loss in severe cases.
Can be fatal.
Gastroenteritis,
painful amplification
of sensation. No
deaths.
Gastroenteritis.
Nonfatal.
Sampling Considerations
When and Where to Sample
As stated in the discussion on algal blooms,
dominant plankton populations change
throughout the year. This should be
considered when planning a sampling
program. For long-term monitoring, a
consistent time period for sampling is needed
for comparability.
What to Sample
In temperate regions, the cyclic pattern of
increased nutrient availability, sunlight, and
algal blooms provides a baseline for
comparison to other spikes in the phyto-
plankton populations. If an increase in the
numbers of a given species or genus is
conspicuously absent when one normally
Helpful Hint
Adversely affected by strong light, zooplankton groups descend to great depths during the day
and ascend during the night to feed on phytoplankton. Staying in deeper, colder waters during
the day requires less energy for respiration and aids in avoiding predation by fish and seabirds.
If sampling zooplankton populations, considerations must be made to collect samples from
depths what will yield representative samples of the plankton assemblages being monitored.
This determination should be made as part of the overall planning process and establishment
of a monitoring protocol.
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expects an increase, or vice versa, this may
serve as a warning that some environmental
parameter has changed. In this case, the data
set from phytoplankton monitoring serves as a
general indicator of estuarine conditions.
Choosing a Sampling Method
Several different methods of obtaining
phytoplankton data are available. The
monitoring coordinator should choose a
method based on the precision of the data
required, the reason for collecting
phytoplankton data, and the money available
for this portion of the monitoring effort.
Visual Assessment
This method is the easiest and least
expensive way to monitor phytoplankton. In
this approach, volunteers estimate
phytoplankton abundance based on field
observations. This gross assessment of the
waterbody is very limited and should be used
as an indicator to follow-up with a more
rigorous assessment procedure.
Plankton Net Tow
This method uses a cone-shaped mesh net,
towed by boat or by hand along a dock or
bridge through the water, to collect a variety
of plankton species. This approach provides a
decent estimate of phytoplankton density, but
smaller species are likely to be excluded from
the sample because they are able to pass
through the net. If a more comprehensive
quantitative assessment is required for the
taxonomic identification of phytoplankton
species, an alternative method of sampling,
such as water samplers, should be used.
Water Samplers
If plankton population density measures are
needed (number of cells/liter), then a
monitoring technique to collect a specific
amount of water must be used. A device that
can be lowered into the water to capture a
precise amount of water at a set depth is
needed.
Traditional water samplers, such as
Kemmerer or Van Dorn (see Chapter 7), are
useful for collecting samples at different
depths, thus ensuring better representation of
the entire plankton community. In addition,
small plankton are unable to escape the
samplers, which is not the case for nets. •
Reminder!
To ensure consistently high quality data,
appropriate quality assurance and quality
control measures are necessary. See
Chapter 5 for details.
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If: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Biological Measures
How to Monitor Phytoplankton
General procedures for collecting and
analyzing phytoplankton samples are presented
in this section for guidance only; they do not
apply to all sampling methods. Monitors
should consult with the instructions that
come with their sampling and analyzing
instruments. Those who are interested in
submitting data to government agencies
should also consult with the agencies to
determine acceptable equipment, methods,
quality control measures, and data quality
objectives (see Chapter 5).
Before proceeding to the monitoring site and
collecting samples, volunteers should review
the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is critical
to confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;
have the necessary monitoring equipment and
personal gear; and understand all safety con-
siderations. Once at the monitoring site, vol-
unteers should record general site observa-
tions, as discussed in Chapter 7.
Besides the general considerations in Chap-
ter 7, each phytoplankton sampling method
involves a specific set of steps. Regardless of
the method used, the program manager should
designate how the data will be provided to
program personnel. If the data is used as an
early warning indicator of harmful algal
blooms, volunteers may need to submit data
sheets immediately (e.g., via fax) to program
staff. As with all data sheets, volunteers should
make a duplicate in case the original becomes
lost.
When finished sampling, volunteers should
also make sure to thoroughly clean all
equipment with fresh water and store dry. Nets
should be kept out of sunlight whenever
possible.
Specific instructions for measuring
phytoplankton using the different methods are
presented here.
VISUAL ASSESSMENT
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring a Secchi disk to
measure transparency (see Chapter 15).
STEP 2: Record phytoplankton
assessment.
Estimate the presence of phytoplankton
blooms based on water color, transparency
(using a Secchi disk), and odor. In general, a
waterbody with a significant phytoplankton
bloom will display a green, brown, or red
color, although—as discussed earlier—this is
not always the case. The transparency level
will be considerably reduced when compared
with prior measurements. There may also be
an odor (usually a sulfur or "rotten egg"
smell) due to the decomposition of
phytoplankton cells at the end of the bloom
period.
PLANKTON NET TOW
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• properly-sized tow net, sampling
container, and towing apparatus;
• dropper;
• field microscope with slides (e.g.,
depression slides) and slide covers;
• guide for plankton identification; and
• sample preservative (iodine- or
formalin-based solution for
phytoplankton and zooplankton,
respectively) if species identification
will not be made soon after collection.
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STEP 2: Collect the sample.
The deployment method of the plankton net
is important, as many phytoplankton
assemblages tend to form clumps within the
water column. Numerous horizontal tows,
done in a diagonal sweep through the water
column, are useful to account for zooplankton
migration patterns and phytoplankton clumps.
A diagonal sweep conducted during a
horizontal tow requires that the plankton net
be deployed to a depth that is 0.5 m off the
bottom. During the tow, the net is pulled
diagonally toward the surface, thus
transecting the water column.
In the horizontal tow method, volunteers
should allow the net to be pulled through the
water for a predetermined distance at a set
speed. Slow speeds are recommended—less
than 3 feet per second if towing manually; 1-3
miles per hour if towing by boat. A record
should be maintained as to the duration of the
tow and distance so that the quantity of water
filtered can be computed and plankton density
derived.
STEP 3: Calculate density.
Figure 19-3 shows how to calculate plankton
density. The plankton captured by the net
represent the number of organisms in the pre-
measured volume of water. A slide sample of
0.05 ml (a drop from an eyedropper) should be
prepared and plankton cells counted using a
microscope. Multiplying the number of cells
by 1,000 reveals the number of plankton per
liter. This density figure can then be converted
to the number of individuals per cubic meter,
again multiplying by 1,000. A sample equation
for extrapolating plankton density is given
Figure 19-3. Plankton sampling using a net tow methodology.
Sample calculations for cell density and total number of cells in
the total volume of water filtered are provided.
Note: The filter will eventually clog depending upon
the concentration of plankton in the water.
(1-3 mph if sampling by boat;
less than 3 feet/second if
sampling manually)
Fully rinse net so all
plankton wash into
bottom container
Mo
20
10
0
Total volume of water filtered (V)
equals A (the area of the net, ( TC x r2))
multiplied by D (the distance traveled)
V = AxD
(do not mix metric and
English measurements)
3.14 x radius2
Example:
r= 0.25m
A = 7lr2 = 0.20m2
D = 100m
V = AxD = 20m3
Shake to mix and
extract solution with
dropper
1. To calculate number of cells/liter:
(10 cells/O.OSml) x 1000 = 200,000 cells/liter
2. To calculate number of cells/m3:
200,000 cells/liter x 1000 = 200 million cells
3. To calculate number of cells in entire volume towed (20m3)
200,000,000 cells/m3 x 20m3 = 4 billion cells
Count plankton in
slide sample
Example:
10 plankton
cells found
y
1 drop = 0.05 ml
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
below using a slide sample of 0.05 ml
containing 10 plankton cells:
(a) (10 cells/0.05 ml) x 1,000 = 200,000 cells/liter
(b) 200,000 cells/liter x 1,000 = 200,000,000 cells/m3
Calculating further to determine the total
number of cells in the tow (total volume =
20m3 in our example; see Figure 19-3):
(c) 200,000,000 cells/m3 x 20m3 = 4,000,000,000 cells
The density calculation is only approximate
due to the "net factor"—the effect of the net
as it is towed—forcing some water off the
side rather than through its opening.
STEP 4: Identify the species.
Plankton collected in the cod-end jar at the
base of the net can also be analyzed microscop-
ically for species identification. Trained volun-
teers can conduct a gross field analysis of
species found in the water column. A more rig-
orous laboratory analysis may be needed to
fully quantify species composition and density.
This method could provide a means to establish
a joint research project with a local university.
Species identification must be conducted
soon after collection (4-8 hours), unless a rec-
ommended preservative is used. Many phyto-
plankton samples can be preserved in an iodine-
based preservative (e.g., Lugol's solution),
Case Study: Searching for Toxic Phytoplankton in Maine
In 1996, the United States Food and Drug Administration, the Maine Department of Marine
Resources, and the University of Maine Cooperative Extension developed a marine phyto-
plankton monitoring program for the state. This volunteer-based monitoring effort has proven
to be integral to harvesting safe shellfish.
In this program, community members and students use plankton nets and field microscopes to
monitor for toxic algal species. Guidelines are established for volunteers to quantify their obser-
vations on the various species of algae. The volunteers collect data at least once a week, provid-
ing valuable information that otherwise would not be available to scientists. The data:
• help agencies identify toxic condition trends and where more thorough sampling is
needed;
• serve as an early warning system for harmful algal blooms, which can lead to
shellfish bed closures; and
• help officials understand the correlations between toxins in the water column and
toxins in shellfish.
Volunteers receive training on phytoplankton identification and receive preserved samples of
toxic species to take home as references. Agency staff periodically visit volunteers in the field to
help with species identification and to answer questions. Many volunteers simultaneously test
their sites for other water quality parameters to give a more complete summary of estuary health.
For More Information:
Maine Shore Stewards
University of Maine Cooperative Extension
235 Jefferson Street
P.O. Box 309
Waldoboro, ME 04572
Phone: 207-832-0343
Fax: 207-832-0377
http://www.ume.maine.edu
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Unit Biological Measures
. 15: Other Living Organisms
which "fixes" the sample and stains the cellu-
lose walls of the phytoplankton cells to aid in
identification. A zooplankton sample should be
preserved using a formalin-based solution.
WATER SAMPLE
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
Gross Density Sample Technique
• sampler (e.g., Kemmerer, Van Dorn, or
plankton net);
• dropper;
• field microscope with slides (e.g.,
depression slides) and slide covers;
• guide for plankton identification; and
• sample preservative (iodine- or forma-
lin-based solution for phytoplankton and
zooplankton, respectively) if species
identification will not be made soon
after collection.
Composite Cell Count Technique
• sampler (e.g., Kemmerer or Van Dorn
sampler);
• 500 ml labeled bottles;
• guide for plankton identification; and
• sample preservative (iodine- or forma-
lin-based solution for phytoplankton and
zooplankton, respectively).
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
Using a Kemmerer or Van Dorn sampler,
collect plankton samples from various depths.
In many cases, phytoplankton clumps within
the water column can cause problems for
analysis. These problems can be compensated
for in multiple and/or composite samples.
STEP 3: Analyze the sample.
Samples can be analyzed using the gross
density sample technique or the composite
cell count technique.
Gross Density Sample Technique
The collected water can be poured through
the mesh of a plankton net where the plankton
are strained out of the water sample. Calculate
density as explained in the plankton net tow
method and Figure 19-3.
It should be noted that a density figure
calculated from a mesh-strained plankton
sample will likely not contain the smaller
phytoplankton forms as they will pass through
the mesh of most plankton nets. To obtain a
more accurate density measure, an alternative
method of analysis (e.g., composite cell
count) should be used to better assess the
types and numbers of phytoplankton cells
obtained in each sample.
Composite Cell Count Technique
Using water sampling devices such as a
Kemmerer or Van Dorn, collect a series of 1-
liter volumes of water from predetermined
areas representing vertical and horizontal
distributions. Combine these samples into a
larger, composite sample. This method of
creating composite samples provides the
mechanism to reduce the effects of distribution
patterns of phytoplankton assemblages and
also ensures that a better sampling is obtained
of smaller phytoplankton forms for analysis as
the sample is not filtered through a mesh.
While in the field, mix the composite
sample thoroughly and pour subsamples into
500 ml labeled bottles containing a
preservative solution. At a laboratory, these
samples will be processed into concentrates
for more rigorous microscopic analysis.
Volunteer monitors can be trained to scan slide
samples of these composite samples to
determine species types and density levels.
This method could provide a means to
establish a joint research project with a local
university. •
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If: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Biological Measures
Special Topic: Chlorophyll Collection for Lab Analysis
Another procedure for determining the
abundance of phytoplankton is to measure the
amount of chlorophyll that is present.
Chlorophyll is a pigment common to all
photosynthetic algae, and its amount in the
water is in relation to the algal concentration.
This analysis is conducted in a laboratory
where the density of chlorophyll may be
determined with appropriate instrumentation.
Three replicate water samples, often
ranging from 250-500 ml, are usually taken
for this analysis. The samples should be
collected in opaque bottles, which are placed
on ice, kept in the dark, and transported to a
laboratory.
In the lab, the water sample is processed
through a glass fiber filter, which is then
placed in acetone and ground up. Technicians
measure the amount of chlorophyll in the
processed sample using a fluorometer, an
instrument that measures the fluorescence of a
substance. If the laboratory cannot process the
sample immediately, it may be frozen and
filtered at a later date. •
NON-INDIGENOUS SPECIES
Recently, attention has been given to the
great numbers of organisms that have been
introduced to ecosystems outside their normal
range of occurrence. These "alien invaders"
are known by many names, including non-
native species, non-indigenous species,
nuisance species, invasive species, and exotic
species. Regardless of the name, some of
these organisms can wreak havoc on any
ecosystem—including estuaries—once they
become established.
Non-indigenous species (NIS) enter
estuarine systems by a variety of pathways.
These include:
• Boats and Ships
Vessels often take on ballast water and
sediment to keep them stable at sea. Often,
the ballast and associated sediment contain
small aquatic plants, animals, and
pathogens which can be introduced to the
estuary when the ballast is discharged near
ports. Fouling organisms (e.g., barnacles)
on the vessel's hull can also be transported
to different regions. Plant fragments get
caught on boat propellers and fishing gear,
creating another introduction pathway.
Seafood Imports and Processing
Packing materials for live seafood (e.g.,
seaweed and seawater) can contain living
organisms. When materials are improperly
discarded, species introductions are
possible. Organisms living in or on seafood
can also find a way into the estuary.
Aquaculture and Fishery Enhancement
This includes introductions of non-
indigenous fish and shellfish that are
intentionally released to the estuary or
escape from captivity. Intentional
introduction of one species can
inadvertently bring other associated
species, such as parasites.
Biological Control
Some organisms are introduced to control
the growth and spread of other species.
Artificial Waterways
Channels, canals, and locks are artificial
connections between waterways. They
facilitate movement of various organisms to
new locales via vessels or natural spread.
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Unit Biological Measures
. 15: Other Living Organisms
• Live Bait
Bait species and their packing material can
be intentionally and accidentally released to
the estuary.
• Research and Education
Laboratories, schools, and aquariums use
NIS for testing, teaching, and research.
Poor management can allow organisms to
escape or be intentionally released.
• Aquarium and Nursery Trades
These industries transport and sell NIS.
Intentional releases and escapes of
organisms can lead to NIS invasions.
• Natural Spread
Some organisms are transported to new
locations by natural means, including
migration and transport (e.g., by birds,
insects, natural floating debris, etc.).
NIS have been introduced into
environments for hundreds of years, but the
rate of these introductions is increasing,
thanks in part to greater and faster
international shipping traffic and international
trade. The problem of NIS is worldwide and
involves nearly all taxonomic groups
(Heimowitz, 1999).
The Role of NIS in the Estuarine
Ecosystem
Some NIS have impacts on estuarine
ecosystems that are being felt in many ways.
The following sections describe these various
impacts:
Ecological Impacts
Many NIS are relatively innocuous to their
new environments; others, however, are
notorious for causing major problems to
estuarine ecology. In fact, NIS are the second
most significant threat to threatened and
endangered species, behind only habitat loss
(Wilcove et al., 1998).
Through predation and competition, NIS
have disrupted many native populations—
some to the point of total disappearance from
the estuarine system. Because many NIS have
few, if any, predators or competitors in their
new homes, they are able to reproduce
essentially unchecked. As a result, they
dominate their habitats and cause a reduction
in biodiversity.
NIS can also affect habitats. Atlantic smooth
cordgrass, for example, is native to the eastern
United States but has been introduced to the
Pacific Northwest. It is now causing havoc
along Pacific Northwest estuaries, where it
traps sediment and converts extensive
mudflats to nearshore meadows. The increased
elevation and root mass displaces animal
communities adapted to surviving in the mud,
destroys foraging habitat for fish and birds,
and out-competes other plants that are
included in animals' diets (Coastlines, 1999).
Other impacts are also being seen. Some
non-indigenous herbivores (plant-eating
animals), such as the nutria, have decimated
wetland, marsh, and submerged aquatic
vegetation. This leads to increased erosion and
loss of food and habitat for native species.
Some NIS crossbreed with native species, a
situation which can ultimately lead to local
extinction of the natives. NIS may also carry
diseases or parasites with them, against which
local species have no defense. Finally, some
NIS can transform estuarine chemical
dynamics, exposing the food web to new or
increased amounts of toxins.
Human Health Impacts
Some NIS threaten human health. Ballast
water discharges are suspected as causes of
bacterial and viral outbreaks. Ballast water
can also contain the dinoflagellates which
cause red tides (see previous sections in this
chapter). These occurrences can have severe
health consequences for people who swim,
boat, or eat fish or shellfish from contami-
nated waters.
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Non-Indigenous Species: A Different Kind of Pollution
Non-indigenous species (NIS) are viewed as a biological pollutant requiring management under
the federal Clean Water Act. NIS is markedly different from most traditional pollutants, however.
Unlike many other forms of pollution, such as nutrients, oil spills, or sewage, NIS do not eventu-
ally dissipate over time. Instead, they grow and reproduce, spreading their impacts throughout the
estuary. Because of this characteristic, an NIS is very difficult to eliminate once it becomes estab-
lished. Consequently, prevention and early detection are the only cost-effective options for keep-
ing NIS out of estuaries.
Socio-Economic Impacts
Not only can NIS have significant impacts on
ecosystems and human health, but they also
exact a great financial cost. NIS that grow in
unchecked abundance can clog water intake
pipes (the zebra mussel is probably the most
notorious NIS in this regard) and cause
instability to levees. These problems keep
municipal utilities and land managers on the
lookout, and cost millions—even billions—of
dollars to address. One study has estimated that
environmental damages caused by NIS add up
to $138 billion annually (Pimentel et al, 1999).
In the marine environment alone, it costs $5
billion each year to control NIS (Valigra, 1999).
Because of the damage they cause to native
populations, NIS can have a direct impact on
local fisheries. The Chinese mitten crab has
been blamed for shutting down fish salvage
operations in the Sacramento River delta. In the
Chesapeake Bay, scientists and watermen fear
that the recently discovered veined rapa
whelk—an Asian native with a voracious
appetite for shellfish—will decimate the region's
already suffering oyster and clam fisheries.
Levels of NIS Invasion
All estuaries in the United States probably
have some NIS, but no one knows exactly
how many. San Francisco Bay is one of the
most invaded estuaries in the world,
supporting approximately 230 non-indigenous
organisms (Cohen and Carlton, 1998).
Approximately 160 NIS are known to infest
the Chesapeake Bay (SERC Web site), and
the numbers are growing. •
Sampling Considerations
Once non-indigenous species become
established, they are very difficult—or even
impossible—to eradicate. Therefore, early
detection of NIS invasions is critical. Volunteers
can serve an important function by working
with experts to find NIS. In fact, one of the
most firmly established and destructive species
in the San Francisco Bay area—the Asian
clam—was first discovered by a college
biology class doing basic monitoring exercises
in 1986 (Sheehan, 2000).
NIS include the full range of plants, animals,
and microbes, so sampling approaches will vary
depending on the species. To help find and
control NIS, it is important to understand the
organisms' life histories and habitats (Graves,
1999). Awareness of native natural history is
important for volunteer monitors, who may not
know all NIS in the region but can at least
recognize what doesn't look typical. •
Helpful Hint
It may be illegal to possess or transport
certain NIS specimens. Volunteer leaders
should check with the appropriate
government agency about obtaining the
necessary collection and transport permits.
Obtain the permits before starting any
sampling activities.
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Unit Three: Biological Measures
. Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
How to Monitor Non-Indigenous Species
Because NIS include nearly all taxonomic
groups, there is no standard procedure for
monitoring them. Monitors should therefore
consult with their data users to determine
acceptable equipment, methods, quality
control measures, and data quality
objectives (see Chapter 5) for their
organisms of interest.
Regardless of the method used, volunteers
should review the topics addressed in Chapter
7 before proceeding to the monitoring site and
collecting samples. It is critical to confirm the
monitoring site, date, and time; have the
necessary monitoring equipment and personal
gear; and understand all safety considerations.
Once at the monitoring site, volunteers should
record general site observations, as discussed
in Chapter 7.
The training of volunteers should include a
session on the identification of the organisms
of interest.
STEP 1: Check equipment.
In addition to the standard sampling
equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, the
volunteer should bring the following items to
the site for each sampling session:
• guide to aid species identification;
• equipment necessary to collect and
transport the organism(s) of interest;
• waterproof copy of any required species
collection/transport permits; and
• sample preservative, if necessary.
STEP 2: Collect the sample.
Volunteers should capture the organisms
using the method designated by the program
manager and approved by the data users.
The volunteers should carefully label the
sample container in which the organism will
be transported with the date, site name,
organism name (if known), and the name of
the collector. An indelible marker is best for
ensuring that the labeling is permanent. Make
sure that the sample container is not wet
before using the marker.
STEP 3: Clean up and send off sample
and data.
Volunteers should transport live specimens
at chilled temperatures appropriate for the
species collected in containers supplied by the
program. The program manager should
designate pickup locations for volunteers to
deliver the specimens and supporting data
sheets to program personnel. As with all data
sheets, the volunteer should make a duplicate
in case the original becomes lost.
Make sure to thoroughly clean all
equipment. •
Hunting for NIS—and Bounty
In 1999, the Virginia Institute of Marine
Science began offering a bounty for the
veined rapa whelk. Citizens collect and
donate the animals in return for money or
t-shirts.
The project is used to help scientists
document the whelk's distribution in the
Chesapeake Bay and investigate potential
impacts on the Bay's ecosystem.
For More Information:
The Virginia Institute of Marine Science
P.O. Box 1346
Gloucester Point, VA 23062-1346
Phone: 804-684-7000
http://www.vims.edu/fish/oyreef/rapven.html
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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms.
Unit Three: Biological Measures
Figure 19-4. The
European green crab,
which can have severe
environmental and
economic impacts in the
Pacific Northwest.
Case Study: Keeping Tabs on Green Crabs in the Pacific Northwest
Spreading northward from California, the non-indigenous European green crab
(Carcinus maenas—see Figure 19-4) first appeared on the Oregon coast in 1997. By
1999, green crabs occupied most Oregon estuaries, Washington's Willapa Bay and
Grays Harbor, and sites in British Columbia. A capable predator, this invader raises
concerns about impacts to native and commercial shellfish in the Pacific Northwest.
Given the invasion rate and extensive area at risk,
agency monitoring alone is insufficient to detect the
spread of the green crab. Volunteer programs provide
many more sets of eyes to watch for this species as well
as other NIS invasions.
To help the public distinguish green crabs from similar
native crabs, Oregon and Washington Sea Grants have
produced a color photo identification guide. In addition,
Washington Sea Grant (with support from the U.S.
Department of Fish and Wildlife) held a workshop for
volunteer groups to provide information on green crab
biology and monitoring techniques. Washington State's
Department of Fish and Wildlife has contracted with
Adopt-A-Beach, a nonprofit volunteer group to train and
coordinate volunteers on green crab monitoring.
Between July and September of 1999, 35 volunteers were trained and 32 monitoring
sites, ranging from south Puget Sound to the San Juan Islands and the U.S.-Canadian
border, were established. Volunteers search for the crab using baited traps in the
intertidal zone.
Through the combined actions of agencies, tribes, schools, and volunteers,
approximately 80 sites are monitored for green crabs in Washington. Numerous efforts
to track the status of the green crab in Oregon estuaries also continue. For example,
volunteers and high school students along the northern coast are monitoring for green
crabs using live bait and modified minnow traps in six estuarine and marine sites.
For More Information:
Washington Department of
Fish and Wildlife
1111 Washington St. SE
Olympia, WA 98501
Phone: 360-902-2200
Fax: 360-902-2230
Oregon Sea Grant,
Marine Invasive Species Team
500 Kerr Admin. Bldg., OSU
Corvalhs, OR 97331-2131
Phone: 541-737-2714
Fax: 541-737-2392
Washington Sea Grant,
Marine Invasive Species Team
3716 Brooklyn Avenue NE
Seattle, WA 98105-6716
Phone: 206-543-6600
Fax: 206-685-0380
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Unit Three: Biological Measures Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms
Biological Monitoring: Something for Everyone
Volunteers have many opportunities to become involved in biological monitoring activities.
This chapter discusses just a few organisms monitored by volunteers. Below are references
to other biological monitoring parameters. Volunteer leaders should contact their state
monitoring agencies for information on other monitoring opportunities.
Birds
• "Bird Monitoring in North America"-U.S. Geological Survey Web site:
http://www.mpl-pwrc.usgs.gov/birds.html.
• International Black Brant Monitoring Project: http://www.sd69.bc.ca/~brant/.
(See also Alexander, G. 1998. "The International Black Brant Monitoring Project:
Education That Spans a Flyway." Coastlines 8.2. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/
estuaries/coastlines/spring98/blackbrt.html.)
Salt Marshes/Wetlands
• Ferguson, W 1999. "Fixing a Salt Marsh: Citizens, Shovels, and Sweat." The Volunteer
Monitor 11(1). Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/spring99/index.html.
• Bryan, R., M. Dionne, R. Cook, J. Jones, and A. Goodspeed. 1997. Maine Citizens
Guide to Evaluating, Restoring, and Managing Tidal Marshes. Falmouth, ME. Web site:
http://www.maineaudubon.org.
• Lipsky, A. 1996. Narragansett Bay Method: A Manual for Salt Marsh Evaluation. Save
the Bay, Providence, RI. 22 pp. (Save the Bay, 434 Smith St., Providence, RI 02908-
3770; phone: 401-272-3540).
• The Volunteer Monitor 10(1). 1998. Issue Topic: "Monitoring Wetlands." Web site:
http://www.epa.gov/volunteer/spring98/index.html.
Replanting/Restoration Projects
• The Volunteer Monitor 11(1). 1999. Issue Topic: "Restoration." Web site:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/spring99/index.html.
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If: Other Living Organisms Unit Biological Measures
References and Further Reading
. 1999. "The Cordgrass Is Not Always Greener on the Other Side." Coastlines 9.5: 6-7.
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water
Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.
Cohen, A.N., and J.T. Carlton. 1998. "Accelerating Invasion Rate in a Highly Invaded Estuary."
Science 279: 555-557.
Gushing, D.H. 1975. Marine Ecology and Fisheries. Cambridge Univ. Press. 278 pp.
Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual. Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.
Ely, E. 1991. "Benthic Macroinvertebrate Monitoring in Estuaries—A New Direction for
Volunteer Programs?" The Volunteer Monitor 3(1): 5.
Ely, E. 1994. "The Wide World of Monitoring: Beyond Water Quality Testing." The Volunteer
Monitor 6(1): 8-10.
Ely, E. 1998. '"Early Warning System' for Shellfish Poisoning." The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 4-7.
Graves, J. 1999. "Exotic Species" In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:
Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Green, L. 1998. "Let Us Go Down to the Sea: How Monitoring Changes from River to Estuary."
The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 1-3.
Griffin, K. 1998. A Citizen's Guide to Plankton Monitoring in Tillamook Bay. Tillamook Bay
National Estuary Project, Garibaldi, OR. 45 pp.
Heimowitz, P. 1999. "Exotic Species" In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.
Levinton, J.S. 1982. Marine Ecology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 526 pp.
Matthews, E. 1998. "Washington State Volunteers Fight Spartina. " The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 19.
Nordeen, W 1999. Phytoplankton Cell Count Protocol. University of Maine Cooperative
Extension and Maine Dept. of Marine Resources. April.
Parsons, T.R., M. Takahashi, and B. Hargrave. 1984. Biological Oceanographic Processes. New
York: Pergamon Press. 330 pp.
Pfauth, M., and M. Sytsma. 1998. Key to West Coast Spartina Species Based on Vegetative
Characters. Portland State University Lakes and Reservoirs Program Publication 98-1.
Pimentel, D., L. Lach, R. Zuniga, and D. Morrison. 1999. Environmental and Economic Costs
Associated with Non-Indigenous Species in the United States. Cornell University. Manuscript
available on Internet: http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan99/species_costs.html.
The Plankton 'Net—Maine's Phytoplankton Monitoring Newsletter. Available from University of
Maine Cooperative Extension, 235 Jefferson Street, P.O. Box 309, Waldoboro, ME 04572;
phone: 207-832-0343; fax: 207-832-0377.
19-22
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Unit Biological Measures 15: Other Living Organisms
Sheehan, L. 2000. Center for Marine Conservation, pers. communication.
Smith, D.L., and K. Johnson. 1996. A Guide to Marine Coastal Plankton and Marine
Invertebrate Larvae. Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA.
Tampa BayWatch and Tampa Bay National Estuary Program. 1998. "Great Bay Scallop Search
Equipment List," "Field Procedures" (information sheets).
Tomas, C.R. (ed.). 1997. Identifying Marine Phytoplankton. Academic Press, Harcourt Brace &
Co., New York. 858 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.
Valigra, L. 1999. "Alien Marine Life Eats Locals for Lunch." Christian Science Monitor Web
site: http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/1999/02/ll/pl3sl.htm. Feb. 11, 1999.
Washington Sea Grant Program. 1998. Bioinvasions: Breaching Natural Barriers. WSG 98-01.
Web site: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/pubs^oinvasions^owaming.html.
Wilcove, David et al. 1998. "Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States."
Bioscience 48(8).
Web sites:
Shellfish
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
1. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide:
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/haccp-2.html
Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook:
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap37.html
Seafood Information and Resources: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/seafoodl.html
2. Office of Seafood: http://vm.cfsan.fda. gov/~mow/sea-ill.html
Harmful Algal Blooms
Washington Sea Grant: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/outreach/mas/aquaculture/
algalfacts.html
Non-Indigenous Species
Washington Sea Grant: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/outreach/mas/nis/nis.html
San Francisco Estuary Institute: http://www.sfei.org/invasions.html
Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC): http://www.invasions.si.edu
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Invasive Species Program: http://invasives.fws.gov/
Sea Grant Non-Indigenous Species Site: http://www.sgnis.org/
Phytoplankton
Melbourne Parks and Waterways, Biological Surveys:
http://140.211.62.101/streamwatch/swml3.html
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If: Other Living Organisms Unit Biological Measures
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Sample Data Forms
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Photos (I to r): R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
The following pages contain examples of data forms that may be useful to volunteer estuary
monitoring programs. Many of the forms are currently being used by volunteer groups throughout
the U.S.
The data forms that can be found on the following pages include:
Page
A-3 Patuxent River Data Collection Form (Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay)
A-5 Citizen Monitoring Program Water Quality Data Sheet (Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant
Marine Advisory Program and University of Maine Cooperative Extension)
A-7 Citizen Monitoring Data Sheet (source unknown)
A-9 Coastal Watershed Survey Data Sheet (Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection)
A-11 International Coastal Cleanup Data Card (The Ocean Conservancy)
A-13 National Marine Debris Monitoring Program Data Card (The Ocean Conservancy)
A-15 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Survey Form (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
A-17 SAV Survey Form (source unknown)
A-19 Scallop Search Data Sheet (Tampa BayWatch and the Tampa Bay Estuary Program)
A-21 Shellfish Biotoxin Sample Form (Washington State Department of Health)
A-23 Crustacean Volunteer Survey Form (Portland State University Nonindigenous Species
Monitoring Program)
A-25 European Green Crab Survey Form (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
PATUXENT RIVER DATA COLLECTION FORM
[Please return to: Joyce Brooks, ACB, P.O. Box 1981, Richmond, VA 23218]
Collection Date
Time of Day_
_(military time)
MONITOR NAME
SITE NAME
MONITOR NUMBER
SITE NUMBER
DATA
Air Temperature_
Secchi Depth
Water Depth
"C
M
Water Temperature (in bucket]_
Hydrometer Reading .
Water Temperature (in Hydrometer Jar)_
Dissolved Oxygen: Test I .
Hydrometer Reading .
Correction Factor
Adjusted Reading .
Salinity . ppt
PH.
SU
Test II (must be within .6 of Test l)_
GENERAL CONDITIONS
Water Surface (circle one): 1 Calm
Weather (circle one): 1 Sunny
5 Drizzle
2 Ripple
3 Waves
4 White Caps
2 Partly Cloudy 3 Overcast 4 Fog/Haze
6 Intermittent Rain 7 Rain 8 Snow
Rainfall
_mm (weekly accumulation)
Other: 1 Sea Nettles 2 Dead Fish
8 Erosion 9 Foam
3 Dead Crabs 4 SAV 5 Oil Slick
10 Bubbles 11 Odors
6 Ice 7 Debris
Water Color: Normal
(circle one)
Abnormal (describe)
Nutrient Sample Taken (circle one): Yes No
Tidal Stage (circle one): High Outgoing
COMMENTS:
Low
Incoming
Signature.
Date
(Source: Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
i
I.D.
WEATHER
CONDITION
3
SITE
OBSERVATIONS
HELD/LAB
MEASUREMENTS
Citizen Monitoring Program
Water Quality Data Sheet
Tidal stage (check one):
Q high ebb
Q low ebb
J low tlood
Q hi«h flood
Qhigh
Qlow
Q tlood
Site name/Number:
Monitor name(s):
Collection date (mo/dy/yr): / /
Time (military): hours
Air temperature:
C
Weather (check one) Q clear
Q drizzle
Q snow Q overcast Q fog/haze
Q downpour Q partly cloudy
Number of days with similar weather.
. days
Rainfall in previous 24 hours (check one): Q none Q light LJ heavy
inches
Water surface (check one): Qcalm Q ripple Q waves Q white caps
Indicators (check all that apply):
Q fish kills
_l erosion
L) abnormal color
J dead crabs
Q foam
Q birds
Q oil on surface
Q bubbles
Q animals
J debris
Q odors
Q other
Please elaborate on the above:
Seech i depth:
Dissolved oxygen
Salinity: . 0/00
Lab analysis by:
m Water temperature:
Test 1 - mg/l .
PH:
_. Test 2 - mg/l
Fecal coliform colonies: per 100 ml
Return to:
(Source: Standoff. E. 1992. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors of Coastal
Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and Univ. of Maine Cooperative Extension.
Orono. ME. 73 pp.)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
CITIZEN MONITORING DATA SHEET
Date of Sampling: Time of Day: a.m. or p.m.
Volunteer Name: Site Name:
SITE CONDITIONS
(Check one item under each category except under "Other," in which you should check all that apply.)
Wind: Calm Slight Breeze Moderate Breeze Windy
Weather: Clear Partly Cloudy Overcast Rainy Drizzle Fog Snow
Wind Direction: N_ NE_ E_ SE _ S_ SW_ W_ NW_
Air Temperature: °C
Rainfall: Weekly Accumulation (in inches) .
Tidal Stage: Flooding High Slack Ebbing Low Slack
Water Surface: Calm Ripples Chop Swells
Water Color: Med. Brown Dk. Brown Red-Brown Green-Brown
Green Yellow-Brown Other
Smell: Sewage Oily Fishy Rotten Eggs None Other
Other: Sea Nettles Dead Fish Dead Crabs Algal Bloom Oil Slick
Ice Debris Erosion Foam Bubbles Other
WATER QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
Secchi Disk: . meters Water Depth: . meters
Hydrometer (uncorrected): °C Water Temp, in Bucket: °C
Water Temp, in Hydrom. Jar: °C Hydrometer (corrected): °C
Salinity: %o pH:
Dissolved Oxygen: Test 1 ppm Test 2 ppm Average: ppm
Time spent doing above sampling:
General Comments:
Signature:
(Source: unknown)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
Coastal Watershed Survey Data Sheet
Surveyors: Sector: Site:
Date: Time:
Rainfall: #
of Photos
Location (Describe landmarks and mark the site number on the sector map.)
Person(s) contacted at site:
Directions: Check off the appropriate items in categories 1-6.
Use the back side of this sheet for comments or site sketches.
1. POLLUTANT(s) (potential or known):
Toxic Bacteria Nutrients Sediment Other
2. DIRECT DISCHARGE TO WATER BODY? Yes No
Distance to water body or channel
Slope between location and water body or channel: fiat moderate
3. VEGETATED BUFFER? (between activity you are documenting and water
Yes No Width
4. SOURCE OF POLLUTANT(s)
Commercial & Residential: Roads:
Impervious areas Ditch erosion
Septic system Shoulder erosion
_ Driveway _ Surface erosion
Lawn Culvert inlet/outlet
_ Industrial runoff _ Stream crossing
Golf course runoff Private road
_ Commercial runoff _ Town road
Residential runoff State road
Construction site Logging road
Shoreline erosion Other
Other
Agriculture: Marinas:
Livestock grazing Boat maintenance
_ Tilled fields Waste discharge
Manure/ fertilizer spreading Impervious areas
Manure storage Fueling station
Other w Refuse disposal
Other
. steep
body or channel)
Other Source:
5. SIZE OF AFFECTED AREA: Area or Length
6. COMMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SKETCH (use back side)
(Source: Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996. A Citizen '.v Guide to Coaxial Watershed
Surveys. 78 pp. )
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
Please Jill out the survey data sheet as follows:
SURVEY INFORMATION BOX:
Surveyors: Enter names of survey team members that identified the site.
Sector: Enter the number of the survey sector.
Site: Enter a site reference number 1, 2, etc. to give each site a unique identification.
Date and Time: Enter the date and time of day the problem was observed.
Rainfall: Enter the estimated rainfall amount during the past 24 hours.
Number of Photos: Record the number of photos taken at each site.*
Location: This information is critical for the follow-up analysis. Indicate the location of the site
on your sector map. Describe access roads and distances from reference points to the site on
the data sheet.
Person(s) Contacted at Site: Indicate if your survey team talked with a property owner or
anyone else while at the site.
1. POLLUTANT(S): Check the pollutants generated at the site that are impacting or may
potentially impact a waterbody.
2. RUNOFF: Determine if there is a direct pathway for runoff to carry the pollutants into the
water body. Indicate the distance of the site to nearest water body or channel, and estimate
the slope of the land between the site to the nearest waterbody or channel.
3. VEGETATED BUFFER: Indicate if runoff from the site flows through a vegetated buffer
before reaching the nearest water body or channel, and the buffer width. Check the type of
vegetation growing in the buffer. Determine if runoff in the buffer can spread evenly as it
flows through the buffer, rather than flowing into the buffer.
4. SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS: Check the land uses/sources generating pollutants at each
site.
5. SIZE OF AFFECTED AREA: Try to estimate the size of the area involved, such as the
length or an eroding road ditch or the area of exposed soil.
6. COMMENTS SKETCHES: Use the back side of the survey data sheet for any additional
comments or any drawings that would help to describe the site for future follow-up work and
to prioritize. Include any recommendations your survey team has to eliminate or reduce the
severity of the problem that you have identified.
*NOTE: Photographs should be taken where they can help document the nature and severity of the problem. They
will be used by those who do the follow-up analysis and may be used for documentation in any efforts to obtain
funding for remedial efforts in the watershed. One close and one distance photo should be taken for perspective.
When taking a close shot, try to include some object in the photo to provide a reference of size.
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Sample Data Forms
INTERNATIONAL COASTAL CLEANUP™ DATA CARD
Data collected during the International Coastal Cleanup™ is used to educate the public and develop solutions to solid
waste management practices. Through cooperative efforts among government agencies, private industries, community
associations, environmental organizations and local citizens, changes in behavior and practices result which help to
conserve and protect the environment. The annual cleanup is how we measure our continued success.
Thank you for being a very important part of this process.
Type of Cleanup: Q Shoreline/Beach
Zone or County Cleaned:
Today's Date: Month _ Day
Underwater Country Where Cleanup Was Conducted:
Beach Site Name:
Year
Number of People Working on This Card:_
Number of Trash Bags Filled:
Name of Coordinator:
Distance Cleaned:
Total Estimated Weight Collected:,
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTS IN YOUR GROUP
If you are interested in learning more about The Ocean Conservancy's efforts to protect our oceans and waterways and if you would like
to receive Action Alerts on critical marine conservation issues from The Ocean Conservancy's free Ocean Action Network (OAN), please
check the box below with your name and address.
1. Name:_
Address:_
City:
Country:_
Phone: (_
Email:
.Age:_
State:
.Zip Code:_
I would like information on: Q The Ocean Conservancy Q| The OAN
2. Name:_
Address:.
City:
_Age:_
Country:_
Phone: (_
Email:
State:
_Zip Code:_
I would like information on: QThe Ocean Conservancy Q The OAN
ENTANGLED ANIMALS: Q Dead or Q Alive). Type of Animal(s) and What Entangled the Animal:,
3. Name:
Address:
City:
Country:
Phone: ( )
Age:
State:
Zip Code:
Email:
1 would like information on:
4. Name:
Address:
Citv:
Country:
Phone: ( )
Q The Ocean Conservancy Q The OAN
Aae:
State:
Zip Code:
Email:
1 would like information on:
QThe Ocean Conservancy QThe OAN
WHAT WAS THE MOST PECULIAR ITEM YOU COLLECTED?.
The following national and international organizations
endorse and/or support the International Coastal Cleanup:
» U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
» 1UCN -The World Conservation Union
» Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the
United Nations' Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO)
Please return this card to your area coordinator or mail it to:
The Ocean Conservancy
Pollution Prevention and Monitoring Office
1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103
Virginia Beach, VA 23454 USA
Phone (757) 496-0920 The Ocean
Fax(757)496-3207 Conservancy
© 2001 The Ocean Conservancy Formerly tne Center for Marine Conservation
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
ITEMS COLLECTED
The debris forms listed on this data card should be considered as indicator items based on their known uses (related
activities) and impacts in the marine/aquatic environment (animal entanglement and ingestion, habitat destruction,
human health and safety, vessel disablement, and economics and aesthetics).
Volunteers should clean up all debris found on the beach but only
record information on the items listed below.
Keep a count of your items using tick marks and enter the item total in the box.
Example: [§] 4 Bags/Food Wrappers mj. 111
SHORELINE AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES —^—^^~
(Debris from beach-goers, sports/games, festivals, litter from streets/storm drains, etc.)
| | 4 Bags/Food Wrappers
I I * Balloons
PJ 4 Beverage Bottles (plastic) 2 liters or less_
I 14 Beverage Bottles (glass)_
| 14 Beverage Cans
I 14 Caps, Lids
4 Clothing, Cloth_
| I 4 Cups, Plates, Forks, Knives, Spoons_
| 14 Diapers,
I 14 Fast-food Containers.
|46-PackHolders
14 Pull Tabs
Q 4 Shotgun Shells/Wadding.
fj 4 Straws, Stirrers
Q 4 Toys
OCEAN/WATERWAY ACTIVITIES —^^—^——
(Debris from recreational/commercial fishing and boat/vessel operations)
\_\ 4 Bait Containers/Packaging Q 4 Fishing Nets.
Q 4 Bleach/Cleaner Bottles
\^\ 4 Buoys/Floats_
Q 4 Crab/Lobster/Fish Traps
r~| 4 Crates
| 14 Fishing Line_
| 14 Fishing Lures.
1 • *••
Q 4 Light Bulbs/Tubes.
4 Oil/Lube Bottles
4 Pallets
J 4 Plastic Sheeting/Tarps_
4 Rope
] 4 Strapping Bands_
SMOKING-RELATED ACTIVITIES ——
(Debris associated with smoking-related waste)
Q 4 Cigarettes/Cigarette Filters
| 14 Cigarette Lighters_
| 14 Cigar Tips,
| 14Tobacco Packaging/Wrappers.
MEDICAL/PERSONAL HYGIENE >
| 14 Syringes
4Condoms_
I 14Tampons/Tampon Applicators,
DUMPING ACTIVITIES
1 4 Appliances (refrigerators, washers, etc.),
4 Batteries _
14Cars/Car Parts
] 4 Construction Materials,
J455-Gal. Drums
4Tires
DEBRIS ITEMS OF LOCAL CONCERN —
(Items listed determined by local ICC Coordinator)
© 2001 The Ocean Conservancy
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Sample Data Forms
National Marine Debris Monitoring Program
Data Card
Thank you for completing this data card. Please answer the questions and return to
your survey director. This information will be used in The Ocean Conservancy's
National Marine Debris Monitoring Program's data base to determine trends and
sources of specific debris items.
Name
Affiliation
NMDMP Region
Survey Number _
Air Temperature
Wind Speed
Survey Site.
Today's date:
Wind Direction
(1=no wind, 2=slight, 3=moderate, 4=heavy, 5=gale)
Brief Description of Weather
Weather Conditions from previous week:
Time (Beginning of Survey)
Other Remarks
Time (End of Survey)
Safety Tips
1. Wear gloves and closed-toed shoes. 4. Watch out for wildlife.
2. Be careful with sharp objects and syringes. 5. Don't lift heavy objects.
3. Stay out of dunes. 6. Do not go near any large drums.
Dead, Live and/or Entangled Animals:
Foreign Labels:
Survey Director:
Please return this card to your
survey director or mail it to:
The Ocean Conservancy
1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103
Virginia Beach, VA 23454
The Ocean
®
' 2001 The Ocean Conservancy
Conservancy
Printed on
recycled paper
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Sample Data Forms
Items Collected
You may find it helpful to work with a buddy as you clean the area, one of you pick-
ing up trash and the other taking notes. An easy way to keep track of the items you
find is by making tick marks. The box is for total items; see sample below.
Example:
Balloons -WNHf-Wr 11 FIT"
Ocean-Based
Gloves L___
PI. sheets > 1 meter I
Light bulbs/tubes
Oil/gas containers (> 1 quart).
Pipe-thread protectors
Nets > 5 meshes
Traps/pots
Fishing line
Light sticks
Rope > 1 meter
Salt bags
Fish baskets
Cruiseline logo items
Floats/Buoys
Land-Based
Syringes
Condoms
Metal beverage cans
Motor oil containers (1 quart)
Balloons
Six-pack rings.
Straws
Tampon applicators.
Cotton swabs
General Sources
Plastic bags with seam < 1 meter
> 1 meter
Straps Open
Closed
Plastic bottles: beverage
food
bleach/cleaner_
other pi. bottles.
Comments:
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
SUBMERGED AQUATIC VEGETATION SURVEY FORM
Please use only one form for each area surveyed
SURVEYOR
Name:
Area Code and Telephone:
Address:
City:
State:
Zip:
AREA SURVEYED
Date of Sighting:
Time of Sighting:
Name of Map/ Quadrangle:
Method of Survey? (circle) Boat Pier Shore Other_
Water Conditions: (circle) Clear Murky Other
Approximate Water Depth (in feet)
SAV SURVEY
Using the SAV map as a guide, locate SAV beds. Consult the field guide to identify the type of SAV in
each bed. Use common plant names on this form. If you find a bed which is not shown on your map,
mark the location of this new bed and identify the plants. Assign roman numerals to identify new SAV
beds.
SAV BED
EXAMPLE: (a). AB2
(b). 1 (new bed)
(c). CB4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
SAV SPECIES
(a). Horned Pondweed , Redhead Grass
(b). Widgeon Grass
(c). No Plants Present
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Did you survey this area last year?
If yes, were there any noticeable changes in the composition,
size, or density of the beds? Please explain.
Any other comments or observations? (i.e. weather/ water conditions, wildlife sightings, problems etc.)
Return to: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
177 Admiral Cochrane Drive
Annapolis, MD 21401
Attention: Kathryn Reshetiloff
(Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service SAV Hunt)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
SAV SURVEY FORM
Name: Telephone: (
Address:
City: State: Zip:
SURVEY SITE
Name of Site/Map/Quadrangle:
Date: Time: a.m. or p.m. Water Depth: meters
Plants surveyed from: Boat Shore Pier Other
Water Conditions: Clear Murky Other
SURVEY
For each plant bed marked on the accompanying map, verify location and size, estimate SAV density,
and identify plants present using a field guide. Write "no plants" for marked beds with no SAV. With a
pencil, outline the position of new beds and identify them by number directly on the map.
Bed Name: Approximate Density:
Species Present:
Comments (bed location and size changes, density or species changes since last sighting, weather and
water conditions, problems, etc.):
Bed Name: Approximate Density:
Species Present:
Comments (bed location and size changes, density or species changes since last sighting, weather and
water conditions, problems, etc.):
(Send completed forms to the SAV Survey Coordinator)
(Source: unknown)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
(Sourci
TAMPA BAYWATCH
TAMPA BAY NATIONAL ESTUARY PROGRAM
SCALLOP SEARCH DATA SHEET
l)ak-: Boat Cuplain:
Bay Segment: Phone #:
Map Number: Address:
Site # or Letter
Time
Latitude
Longitude
LOR AN/GPS
Coordinates
Water Depth
Stan
End
Transect Length
Diver 1
Diver 2
Scallop Count
Diver 1
Diver 2
Veg. Type
Veg. Density
Diver 1
Signature
Diver 2
Signature
Boat Captain
Signature
FIRST SITE
SECOND
SITE
THIRD SITE
FOURTH
SITF
FIFTH SITE
;: Tampa Bay Watch and Tampa Bay Estuary Program)
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
Washington State Department of Health
Public Health Laboratories
1610 NE 150th Street. Seattle, WA 98155-9701
SHELLFISH BIOTOXIN SAMPLE
FORM
For UB Use Only
SAMPLE*
DOMOIC*
DATE COLLECTED
DATE SUBMITTED
COLLECTOR/COMPANY
CERT#
TELEPHONE
GRIDS
SAMPLING SITE
STATE WA COUNTY
(C) COMMERCIAL
] (S) SPORT/SUBSISTENCE
] (R) RESEARCH
] (P) PROGRAM
] (T) CONTRACT
(0) OTHER
(M) MONITORING
(S) SUPPLEMENTAL
G (0) OTHER
(U) UNKNOWN
(S) IN SHELL
(K) SHUCKED
SPECIES: Mark only one/
(CB) BUTTER CLAMS
(CL) LITTLENECK CLAMS
(MB) BLUE MUSSELS
(MC) CALIFORNIA MUSSELS
(CR) RAZOR CLAMS
(F) FRESH
(Z) FROZEN
(C) COOKED
# OF ORGANISMS
COMMENTS
~~|(OP) PACIFIC OYSTERS
(CM) MANILA CLAMS
(KD) CRAB
(SP) PINK SCALLOPS
(CG) GEODUCK
](XX) OTHER
LABORATORY RESULTS - LAB USE ONLY
DATE/TIME RECEIVED
Mark only one
J MEAT
1 GUT
1 WHOLE
j OTHER
COMMENTS
Revised 1/99
fig/1 OOgm
PSP
TIME AND DATE
REPORTED
INITIALS
Mark only one
G MEAT
D GUT
WHOLE
OTHER
PPM
DOMOIC ACID
TIME AND DATE
REPORTED
INITIALS
Visit the BiatoKin Bulletin on the Internet: http://www.doh, wa.gov/ehp/sf/biotoxin.htm
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AppendiiA: Sample Data Forms
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
Date:
Name:
Phone Number:
Estuary:
Specific Location:
Time of Day:
Number of Searchers:
Tidal Stage:
Extent of Search:
GEAR:
_ Shore Trap
_ Minnow Trap
Pit Trap
_ Shore Walk
Other
Crustacean Volunteer Survey Form
GREEN CRAB#
SIZE(S)_
SEX(ES)_
Chinese Mitten Crab#_
Si/e(s)
Sex(es)
HABITAT TYPE:
_ Cobbles
Riprap
_ Tidal Flat
Tidal Channel
_ Other
Size across the carapace in MM
_ Purple shore crab (Hemigmpaus mtdas) TOTAL NUMBER
List of Other Species Observed
Crustaceans
Sex
Size
_ Oregon shore crab (//. oregonensis) TOTAL NUMBER
Sex
Size
_ Lined shore crab (Puchygrapsus craxsipes) TOTAL NUMBER
Sex
Size
Red rock crab (C prodiictus) TOTAL NUMBER
Sex
Size
_ Pacific rock crab (C. antennarius) TOTAL NUMBER
Sex
Size
1
_ Dungcncss crab (Cancer magister) TOTAL NUMBER
Sex
Size
_ Flat porcelain crab (Petmlisthes cinctipes) TOTAL NUMBER
Sex
Size
_ Other crab species
Sex
Mollusks
N ati ve oyster (Ostrea lurida) TOT A L N U M B E R
Size
Size
A-23
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
_ Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) TOT A L N U M B E R _
Size
Size
_ California Mussel (Mytilus caUjonuamis) TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
Butter clam (Saxidomas giganteiis) TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
Gaper ciatn (Tre.sus capax) TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
Cockle clam (Clinocardium mittalli) TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
_ Little Neck clam (Protothaca staminea) TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
Soft-shell clam (Mva arenaria) TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
Manila clam TOTAL NUMBER
Size
Size
Other
Size
Size
Algae
Focus
_ Eel grass (Zostera spp.)
Filamentous
_ Other
COMMENTS
Numbers of Snails
Blue Top Snail (CaUiostoma ligatit/n)
Checkered Periwinkle (Liltorina scutitlata)
Black Turban Snail (Tegnlct June brails)
Wrinked Dove Snail (Amphissa colwnbiana)
Emarginate Whelk (Nitcetlu emarginatu)
Contact: Jon Graves PSU/MERTS Phone (503) 338-6749 FAX (503) 338-6750
Email: jgraves@orednet.org PLEASE RETURNS:
PSU/MERTS 6550 Liberty Lane, Astoria, OR 97103
(Source: Portland State University Nonindigenous Species Monitoring Program)
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
EUROPEAN GREEN CRAB SURVEY FORM
Surveyor Info
Name:
Date:
Daytime Phone:
Trapping Location
Water Body:
Nearest Landmarks:
Organization:
County:
Nearest City:
Shoreline Type:D Salt Marsh D Tidal Channel D Tidal Flat DOther
Substrate Type:D Cobble D Gravel D Mud D Sand
D Other
Algae/Vegetation: D Ulva (sea lettuce) D Fucus (rockweed) D Filamentous
D Zostera (eel grass) D Spartina (cordgrass) DOther
Trap Info
Trap Type: D Crayfish/Minnow D Pit Fall D Other
Trap Number (1 of?): of Bait Used:
Date & Time Traps Set:
Date & Time Traps Retrvd.:
Low Tide Time (Seattle):
Tide Height (Seattle):_
_(day 1)
.(day 1)
O No Crabs Caught
Catch Info for Crab Species Trapped
O European green crab (Carcinus maenas)
©DO NOT RELEASE GREEN CRAB! Freeze sample and call WDF\V at (360)796-4601.
#M:
# M Molts:
#F:
# F Molts:
Total #:
Total # Molts:
D Oregon/Hairy/Yellow shore crab (Hemigrapsus oregonensis)
#M:
Total #:
D Purple shore crab (Hemigrapsus midus)
#F:
Total #:
D Red rock crab (Cancer producing)
Total #.
D Dungeness crab (Cancer magister)
#F:
Total #:
D Other crab species
Species:
Total #:
* See back for carapace diagram and Comments section,
(Source: Washington Departmem of Hsh and Wildlife)
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Appendix A: Sample Data Forms
Comments:
EUROPEAN GREEN CRAB
Carcinus maenas
Measure the widest distance across the hack
directly in front of the tips
Up to 3 Vi inches across the back of the shell
Color varied, dark, mottled, often green, orange or red
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Resources
-------
Photos (I to r): R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
B:
IN
U.S. EPA. 1992. National Estuary Program Monitoring Guidance. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
EPA 842-B-92-004. Web site: http://wwv.epa.gov/OWOW/estuaries/guidance/.
U.S. EPA. 1995. Proceedings of the Fourth National Citizen's Volunteer Monitoring Conference.
EPA Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-94-003.
U.S. EPA. 1992. Proceedings of the Third National Citizen's Volunteer Monitoring Conference. EPA
Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-92-004.
U.S. EPA. Bibliography of Methods for Marine and Estuarine Monitoring (Files 61-80).
Web site: http://\v'\\7w.epa.gov/owo\\7wtrl/iiifo/PubList/inonitoriiig/docs/list4.hlnil.
U.S. EPA Technical Information Packages (TIPS) Publications List.
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/clhtinl/tips.litml.
National Estuary Program Newsletter
Subscriptions are free. To subscribe, contact:
Coastlines
Urban Harbors Institute
lOOMorrisseyBlvd.
Boston, MA 02125-3393
Fax: 617-287-5575
E-mail: coastlines@umb.edu
Also available online at www.epa.gov/ncp/coastlines/.
NFS
EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds Occasional bulletins dealing with the condition
of the water-related environment, the control of nonpoint sources of water pollution, and the
ecosystem-driven management and restoration of watersheds.
Subscriptions are free. To subscribe, send name and address to:
NFS News-Notes
c/o Terrene Institute
4 Herbert St.
Alexandria, VA 223 05
Phone: 703-548-5473
Fax: 703-548-6299
Also available online at http://www.epa.gov/owowwtrl/info/NewsNotes/.
B: Resources
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B: Resources.
The
The National Newsletter of Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring
Published twice yearly. Subscriptions are free. To subscribe, contact:
River Network
The Volunteer Monitor Newsletter
520 SW 6th Ave, Suite 1130
Portland, OR 97204-1535
Phone: 503-241-3506
E-mail: volmon@rivernetwork.org
Also available online at ww\v.epa.gov/OWOW/nionitoring/volunteer/vm___Hidex.litail.
EPA
To subscribe or unsubscribe, send an email to listserver@unixmail.rtpnc.epa.gov. Leave
the subject line blank. In the message type:
subscribe volmonitor lastname firstname or unsubscribe volmonitor lastname firstname
To post a message, address your email to volmonitor@unixmail.rtpnc.epa.gov
The
You can help protect marine wildlife, and the ecosystems of which they are a part, by
joining The Ocean Conservancy's Ocean Action Network (OAN). Subscribers will receive free
OAN Alerts and Updates on issues by e-mail or regular mail:
Ocean Action Network
1725DeSalesSt.,NW
Suite 600
Washington, DC 20036
If you prefer to receive and respond to alerts via email, visit The Ocean Conservancy's Web site
(www.oceanconservancy.org) and go to '"Ocean Action Network"; or send a message, including
your name, postal address and email address to occan-alcrt@occanconscrvancy.org.
Federal Agency Web Pages:
EPA
EPA homepage: http://www.cpa.gov/
EPA Office of Water: http://www.epa.gov/ow/
EPA Office of Wetlands. Oceans & Watersheds: http://www.epa.gov/owow/
National Estuary Program: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/nep.html
Surf Your Watershed: http://www.cpa.gov/surf
Volunteer Monitoring: http://www.epa.gov/ OWOW/monitoring/vol.html
Watershed Information Network: http://www.epa.gov/win
National Sea Grant Program: http://www.nsgo.scagrant.org/indcx.html
NERRS Estuary-Net Project: http://inlet.geol.sc.edu/estnet.html
Volunteering for the Coast: http://volunteer.nos.noaa.gov/
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Others
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Sendee:
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: http://www.fws.gov/
U.S. Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us/
U.S. Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov/
Links to Enwiranmental Groups:
EnviroLink: http://www.enviroliiik.org/
Kentucky Water Watch: http://water.nr.state.ky.us/ww/vni.htni
U.S. EPA Office of Water: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/links.htmtflocal
FEDERAL
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds
Volunteer Monitoring (4504T)
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-566-1200
Fax: 202-566-1336
E-mail: OW-General@epamail.epa.gov
National Estuary Program (NEP)
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/nep.html
U.S. Department of Commerce
14th Street & Constitution Ave., NW
Room 6013
Washington, D.C. 20230
Phone: 202-482-6090
Fax: 202-482-3154
Email: answers@noaa.gov
NOAA Esttiarine Reserve Division (NERRS)
1305 East West Highway N/ORM5
Silver Spring, MD 20910
Phone: 301-713-3132
Fax: 301-713-4363
Web site: http://www.ocnn.nos.noaa.gov/nerr/
B: Resources
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B: Resources.
National Estuary Porgram (NEP) Contacts
Alabama
Delaware
Mobile Bay Estuary Program
4172 Commanders Drive
Mobile, AL 3 6615
Phone:251-431-6409
Fax:251-431-6450
Web site: http://mobilebaynep.com
California
Moro Bay Estuary Project
601 Embarcadero, Suite 11
Morro Bay, CA 93442
Phone: 805-772-3834
Fax: 805-772-4162
Web site: http://www.mbnep.org
San Francisco Estuary Project
1515 Clay St., Suite 1400
Oakland, CA 94612
Phone: 510-622-2465
Fax: 510-622-2501
Web site: http://www.abag.ca.gov/
bayarea/sfep/sfep.html
Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project
320 W Fourth St., 2nd floor
Los Angeles, CA 90013
Phone: 213-576-6615
Fax: 213-576-6646
Web site: http://www.smbay.org
Connecticut
Long Island Sound, CT/NY
Long Island Sound Study
64 Stamford Government Center
888 Washington Boulevard
Stamford, CT 06904-2152
Phone: 203-977-1541
Fax: 203-977-1546
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/
regionOl/eco/lis
Delaware Estuary Program, DE/NJ/PA
Delaware River Basin Commission
P.O. Box 7360
West Trenton, NJ 08628
Phone: 609-883-9500 ext. 217
Fax: 609-883-9522
Web site: http://www.delep.org/
Center for the Inland Bays
467 Highway One
Lewes, DE 19958
Phone:302-645-7325
Fax:302-645-5765
Web site: http://www.udel.edu/CIB
Florida
Charlotte Harbor Estuary Program
SW Florida Regional Planning Council
4980 Bayline Dr., 4th Fl.
North Fort Myers, FL 33917-3909
Phone: 941-995-1777
Fax: 941-656-7724
Web site:
http ://www. charlotteharbornep. com/
Indian River Lagoon Program
1900 South Harbor City Blvd., #107
Melbourne, FL 32901
Phone: 407-984-4950
Fax: 407-984-4937
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/
oceans/lagoon/
Sarasota Bay Project
5333 N. Tamiami Trail, Suite 104
Sarasota, FL 34234
Phone: 941-359-5841
Fax: 941-359-5846
Web site: http://www.sarasotabay.org
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B: Resources
Tampa Bay Estuary Program
100 8th Avenue, SE, MS I-l/NEP
St. Petersburg, FL 33701
Phone: 727-893-2765
Fax: 727-893-2767
Web site: http://www.tbep.org/
Louisiana
Barataria-Terrebonne Estuary Program
P.O. Box 2663
Nicholls State University Campus
Thibodaux, LA70310
Phone: 504-447-0868 or 800-259-0869
Fax: 504-447-0870
Web site: http://www.mail.btnep.org
Maine
Casco Bay Estuary Project
University of Southern Maine
P.O. Box 9300
49 Exeter Street
Portland, ME 04104-9300
Phone: 207-780-4820
Fax: 207-780-4917
Web site:
http://www.cascobay.usm.maine.edu
Maryland
Maryland Coastal Bays Program
9609 Stephen Decatur Highway
Berlin, MD 21811
Phone: 410-213-2297
Fax: 410-213-2574
Web site: http://www.dnr.state.
md.us/coastalbays
Massachusetts
Buzzards Bay Estuary Program
2870 Cranberry Highway
E. Wareham, MA 02538
Marion, MA 0273 8
Phone: 508-291-3625
Fax: 508-291-3628
Web site: http://www.buzzardsbay.org/
Massachusetts Bays Program
251 Causeway Street
Suite 900
Boston, MA 02114-2151
Phone: 617-626-1230
Fax: 617-626-1240
Web site:
http://www.state.ma.us/massbays
New Hampshire
New Hampshire Estuaries
152 Court Street
Portsmouth, NH 03801
Phone: 603-433-7187
Fax: 603-431-1438
Web site: http://state.nh.us/nhep
New Jersey
Barnegat Bay Estuary Program
P.O. Box 2191
Toms River, NJ 08753
Phone: 732-506-5313
Fax: 732-244-8396
Web site: http://www.bbep.org
Delaware Estuary Program, DE/NJ/PA
Delaware River Basin Commission
P.O. Box 7360
West Trenton, NJ 08628
Phone: 609-883-9500 ext. 217
Fax: 609-883-9522
Web site: http://www.delep.org/
New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary
Program
290 Broadway
24th Floor.
New York, NY 10007
Phone: 212-637-3816
Fax: 212-637-3889
Web site: http://www.harborestuary.org
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B: Resources.
New York
Long Island Sound Study
64 Stamford Government Center
888 Washington Boulevard
Stamford, CT 06904-2152
Phone: 203-977-1541
Fax: 203-977-1546
Web site: http://www.epa.gov/
regionOl/eco/lis
New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary
Program
290 Broadway
24th Floor.
New York, NY 10007
Phone: 212-637-3816
Fax: 212-637-3889
Web site: http://www.harborestuary.org
Peconic Estuary Program
Department of Health Services
County of Suffolk
Riverhead County Center, 2nd floor
Riverhead,NY11901
Phone: 631-852-2077
Fax: 631-852-2743
Web site: http://www.co.suffolk.ny.us/
health/eq/pep.html
North Carolina
Albemarle-Pamlico Sounds NEP
N.C. DENR
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687
Phone: 919-733-5083 ext. 585
Fax:919-715-5637
Web site: http://h2o.enr.state.nc.us/nep/
Oregon
Lower Columbia River Estuary Program
811 SWNaito Parkway
Portland, OR 97204
Phone: 503-226-1565
Fax: 503-226-1580
Web site: http://www.lcrep.org
Tillamook Bay Estuary Program
613 Commercial Avenue
P.O. Box 493
Garibaldi, OR 97118
Phone: 503-322-2222
Fax: 503-322-2261
Web site:
http://www.co.tillamook.or.us/gov/estuary
/tbnep/nephome.html
Pennsylvania
Delaware Estuary Program
Delaware River Basin Commission
P.O. Box 7360
West Trenton, NJ 08628
Phone: 609-883-9500 ext. 217
Fax: 609-883-9522
Web site: http://www.delep.org/
Puerto Rico
San Juan Bay NEP
400 Fernandez Juncos Ave., No. 400
San Juan, PR 00901-3299
Phone: 787-725-8162
Fax: 787-725-8164
Web site: http://www.estuariosanjuan.org
Rhode Island
Narragansett Bay Estuary Program
235 Promenade Street
Providence, RI 02908-5767
Phone: 401-222-4700 ext. 7271
Fax: 401-521-4230
Web site: http://www.nbep.org
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B: Resources
Texas
Coastal Bend Bays and Estuaries
Program
Natural Resources Building, Suite 3300
6300 Ocean Drive
Corpus Christi, TX 78412
Phone: 361-980-3425
Fax: 361-980-3437
Web site: http://tarpon.tamucc.edu
Galveston Bay Estuary Program
711 West Bay Area Boulevard, #210
Webster, TX 77598
Phone: 281-332-9937
Fax: 281-332-8590
Web site:
http://gbep.tamug.tamu.edu/gbepix.html
Washington
Lower Columbia River Estuary Program
811 SWNaito Parkway
Portland, OR 97204
Phone: 503-226-1565
Fax: 503-226-1580
Web site: http://www.lcrep.org
Puget Sound Water Quality Action Team
Puget Sound Estuary Program
P.O. Box 40900
01ympia,WA 98504-0900
Phone: 360-407-7300;
800-54-SOUND (WA only)
Fax: 360-407-7333
Web site:
http ://www. wa.gov/puget_sound
National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS) Contacts
Alabama
Weeks Bay NERR
11300 U.S. Highway 98
Fairhope,AL 36532-5476
Phone: 334-928-9792
Fax: 334-928-1792
Alaska
Kachemak Bay NERR
Homer Office - Reserve Headquarters
202 West Pioneer Avenue
Homer, AK 99603
Phone: 907-235-4799
Fax: 907-235-4794
Anchorage Office - ADF&G
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Habitat and Restoration Division
333 Raspberry Rd.
Anchorage, AK 99518
Phone: 907-267-2331
Fax: 907-267-2464
California
Elkhorn Slough NERR
1700 Elkhorn Road
Watsonville, CA95076
Phone: 831-728-2822
Fax: 831-728-1056
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B: Resources.
Tijuana Estuary Visitor Center
301 Caspian Way
Imperial Beach, CA 91932
Phone: 619-575-3613
Fax: 619-575-6913
San Francisco Bay (Proposed) NERR
Romberg-Tiburon Center
P.O. Box 855
Tiburon, CA 94920
Phone: 415-338-3703
Fax: 415-435-7120
Delaware
Delaware NERR
818 Kitts Hummock Rd.
Dover, DE 19901
Phone: 302-739-3436
Fax: 302-739-3446
Florida
Apalachicola NERR
Visitor and Education Center
261 7th Street
Apalachicola, FL 32320
Phone: 850-653-8063/2296
Administrative and Technical Offices
350 Carroll Street
Eastpoint, FL 32328
Phone: 850-670-4783
Fax: 850-670-4324
Guana Tolomato Matanzas NERR
PO Box 840069
St. Augustine, FL 32084
Phone: 904-461-4053
Fax: 904-461-4053
Georgia
Sapelo Island NERR
P.O. Box 15
Sapelo Island, GA 31327
Phone:912-485-2251
Fax: 912-485-2141
Maine
Wells NERR
342 Laudholm Farm Road
Wells, ME 04090
Phone: 207-646-1555
Fax: 207-646-2930
Maryland
Chesapeake Bay NERR - Maryland
Maryland Department of Natural
Resources
Tawes State Office Building, E-2
580 Taylor Avenue
Annapolis, MD 21401
Phone:410-260-8713
Fax: 410-260-8739
Rookery Bay NERR
Department of Environmental Protection
300 Tower Road
Naples, FL 34113
Phone:941-417-6310
Fax:941-417-6315
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B: Resources
Massachusetts New York
Waquoit Bay NERR
P.O. Box 3092
149 Waquoit Highway
Waquoit Bay, MA 02536
Phone: 508-457-0495
Fax: 617-727-5537
Mississippi
Grand Bay NERR
Department of Marine Resources
6005 Bayou Heron Resources
Moss Point, MS 39562
Phone: 228-475-7047
Fax: 228-475-8849
New Hampshire
Great Bay NERR
N.H. Fish and Game Department
Marine Fisheries Department
225 Maine Street
Durham, NH 03 824
Phone: 603-868-1095
Fax: 603-868-3305
Sandy Point Discovery Center; GBNERR
89 Depot Road
Stratham,NH 03885
Phone: 603-778-0015 Ohio
Hudson River NERR
NYS DEC, c/o Bard College Field
Station
Annandale-on-Hudson, NY 12504-5000
Phone:914-758-7010
Fax: 914-758-7033
St. Lawrence River (Proposed) NERR
317 Washington Street
Watertown, NY 13601
Phone:315-785-2443
Fax:315-785-2574
North Carolina
North Carolina NERR
5001 Masonboro Loop Road
1 Marvin Moss Lane
Wilmington, NC 28409
Phone: 910-962-2470
Fax: 910-962-2410
North Carolina NERR
c/o Duke University Marine Laboratory
135 Pivers Island Road
Beaufort, NC 28516
Phone: 252-728-2170
Fax: 252-728-6273
New Jersey
Jacques Cousteau NERR
Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences
Rutgers University
71 Dudley Road
New Brunswick, NJ 08903-0231
Phone: 732-932-6555
Fax: 732-932-8578
Old Woman Creek NERR
Department of Natural Resources
2514 Cleveland Road East
Huron, OH 44839
Phone: 419-433-4601
Fax:419-433-2851
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B: Resources.
Oregon
South Slough NERR
P.O. Box 5417
Charleston, OR 97420
Phone: 541-888-5558
Fax: 541-888-5559
Puerto Rico
Jobos Bay NERR
Department of Natural and
Environmental Resources
Call Box B
Aguirre, PR 00704
Phone: 787-853-4617
Fax: 787-953-4618
Rhode Island
Narragansett Bay NERR
55 South Reserve Drive
Prudence Island, RI 02872
Phone: 401-683-6780 (on-site)
Fax: 401-682-1936
South Carolina
Ace Basin NERR
P.O. Box 12559
Charleston, SC 29412
Phone: 843-762-5062
Fax: 843-762-5001
North Inlet-Winyah Bay NERR
Baruch Marine Field Laboratory
University of South Carolina
P.O. Box 1630
Georgetown, SC 29442
Phone: 843-546-3623
Fax: 843-546-1632
Virginia
Chesapeake Bay NERR - Virginia
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
P.O. Box 1346
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
Phone: 804-684-7135
Fax: 804-684-7120
Washington
Padilla Bay NERR
Department of Ecology
10441 Bay view-Edison Road
Mount Vernon, WA 98273-9668
Phone: 360-428-1558
Fax:360-428-1491
TDD: 360-757-1549
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Equipment Suppliers
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Photos (I to r): R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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C: Equipment Suppliers
C:
This is a partial list of suppliers from which a volunteer estuary monitoring program might
obtain scientific equipment. This list does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
P.O. Box 93
Leinhi, ID 83465
Phone: 800-320-9482; 208-756-8433
Web site: www.aquaticresearch.com
Water samplers, sediment samplers, plankton
samplers, drift nets, calibrated lines, armored
thermometers, BOD bottles.
Ben Company
190 Etowah Industrial Court
Canton, GA 30114
Phone: 800-241-6401
Web site: www.bennieadows.com
Waders, rubber boots, field water test
equipment, kick nets, dip nets, wash buckets,
forceps.
Chemetrics
Route 28
Calverton,VA20138
Phone: 800-356-3072
Web site: www.chemetrics.com
Water testing kits for field analysis of
dissolved oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia.
phosphates, chlorine, sulfur, manganese,
others.
8181 DarrowRoad
Twinsburg, OH 44087
Phone: 800-362-1000
Web site: www.consolidatedplastics.com
Sampling trays, buckets, Nalgene bottles.
Whirl-paks.
Carolina Supply Company
2700 York Road
Burlington, NC 27215-3398
Phone: 800-334-5551
Web site: www.carolina.com
Flexible arm magnifiers, hand lenses, forceps,
kick nets, microscopes, reagents, educational
materials, live and mounted specimens for
instruction.
Cole Farmer Instruments, Inc.
625 East Bunker Court
Vernon Hills, IL 60061
Phone: 800-323-4340
Web site: www.colepanner.com
Lab equipment, field water test equipment.
microscopes.
Force
1908 Mt. Vernon Avenue. 2nd Floor
Alexandria, VA 223 01
Phone: 703-299-9485
Web site: wwiv.earthforce.org
Earth Force s GREEN program has low-cost,
self-contained, nontoxic, premeasured water
monitoring kits designed for young people.
Fisher Scientific Company
711 Forbes Ave.
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
Phone: 800-766-7000
Web site: www.fishersci.com
Lab equipment, sample bottles, sieves,
reagents and chemicals, incubators, water test
equipment. Whirl-paks.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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C: Equipment Suppliers,
Forestry Suppliers, Inc.
P.O. Box 8397
Jackson, MS 39284-8397
Phone: 601-354-3565
Web site: www.forestry-suppliers.com
Secchi disks, transparency lubes, water
sampling equipment, bottom dredges, sediment
samplers, plankton and other nets, fish
measuring boards. Ask for "Environmental
Source" catalogue.
GREEN
See Earth Force
Equipment Company
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, CO 80539-0389
Phone: 800-227-4224
Web site: www.hach.com
Field and lab water testing equipment.
spectrophotometers, incubators, water
sampling kits, fecal coliform sampling
supplies (including presence-absence tests),
reagents, educational materials.
Hydrolab Corporation
8700 Cameron Road
Austin, TX 78754
Phone: 800-949-3766
Web site: www.hydrolab.com
Multi-parameter electronic meters for
physical and chemical parameters.
One Idexx Drive
Westbrook, ME 04092
Phone: 800-321-0207
Web site: www.idexx.com
Colilert products for bacterial testing.
J. L. Darling Corporation
2614 Pacific Highway East
Tacoma,WA 98424-1017
Phone: 253-922-5000
Web site: www.riteintherain.com
All-weather writing paper.
LaMotte
P.O. Box 329
Chestertown, MD 21620
Phone: 800-344-3100; 410-778-3100 (in
Maryland)
Web site: www.lamotte.com
Water sampling tits, field and lab water testing
equipment, Secchi disks, water samplers,
armored thermometers, calibrated lines,
plankton nets, kick nets, educational materials.
Lawrence Enterprises
See Water Monitoring Equipment & Supply
Micrology Laboratories
206 West Lincoln Avenue
Goshen, IN 46526
Phone: 888-327-9435
Web site: www.micrologylabs.com
Lab equipment and media for bacterial
testing, including Coliscan products (Coliscan
EasyGel and Coliscan MF) and ECA Check.
Millipore Corporation
80 Ashby Road
Bedford, MA 01730
Phone: 800-645-5476
Web site: www.millipore.com
Fecal coliform testing supplies (complete sterile
water filtration system), membrane filters,
sterile pipettes, petri dishes, sterile media, other
water sampling and testing equipment and lab
supplies, incubators, Whirl-paks.
International
P.O. Box 20365
Rochester, NY 14602
Phone: 800-625-4327
Web site: www.nalgenunc.com
Fecal coliform testing supplies, membrane
filters, sterile pipettes, petri dishes,
incubators. Whirl-paks.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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C: Equipment Suppliers
National Archives and
Administration
Cartographic and Architectural Branch
8601 Adelphi Road
College Park, MD 20740-6001
Phone:301-713-7040
E-mail: carto@arch2.nara.gov (Note: when
submitting a request via e-mail, be sure to
include a regular mail address.)
Web site:
www.n ara.gov/research/ordering/rn apordr.htm 1
Photographs, generally from before 1955.
Nichols Net and Twine, Inc.
2200 Highway 111
Granite City, IL 62040
Phone: 618-797-0211; 800-878-6387
Nets of all kinds (dip, kick, insect, larvae,
macroinvertebrales). seines, custom nets.
Pro
4060 DuPont Parkway
Townscnd, DE 19734
Phone: 302-378-8666
Web site: www.wserv.com/oceanpro/
Nets.
Computer Corporation
P.O. Box 3450
Pocasset, MA 02559-3450
Phone: 800-564-4377; 508-759-9500
Web site: www.onsetconip.com
Data loggers.
Inc. (SDI)
111 Pcncader Drive
Newark, DE 19702
Phone: 800-544-8881
Web site: http://www.sdix.com
Immunoassay kits for pesticides, other
contaminants.
Thomas Scientific Company
99 High Hill Road
P.O. Box 99
Swedesboro, NJ 08085
Phone: 856-467-2000; 800-345-2100
Web site: www.thomassci.com
Lab equipment, sample bottles, sieves,
reagents, incubators, water test equipment,
Whirl-paks.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
USDA Consolidated Farm Service Agency
Aerial Photography Field Office
2222 West 2300 South
Salt Lake City, UT 84119-2020
Phone: 801-975-3500
Web site: www.fsa.usda.gov
Recent aerial photos.
U.S. Enyironmental Protection Agency
Maps on Demand Web site:
www.epa.gov/enviro/html/mod/index.html
Internet site that allows users to generate
maps displaying environmental information
for most locations in the U.S. Types of
information that can be mapped include EPA-
regulated facilities, demographic information,
roads, and waterbodies. Maps of varying
scales can be generated on the site (latitude
and longitude), zip code, county, and basin
levels. Submit your request and email address,
and after a brief wait, you will be able to view
your map on-line or download it.
U.S. Survey
USGS Information Sendees
Box 25286
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225
Phone: 888-ASK-USGS
Web site: mapping.usgs.gov/
Topographic maps and aerial photos.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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C: Equipment Suppliers,
VWR Scientific
P.O. Box 626
Bridgeport, NJ 08014
Phone: 800-932-5000; 908-757-4045
Web site: www.vwrsp.com
Glassware, labeling tape, sample vials, lab
equipment, incubators, reagents, Whirl-paks.
Wards Natural Science Establishment, Inc.
P.O. Box 92912
Rochester, NY 14692-9012
Phone: 800-962-2660; 716-359-2502
Web site: www.wardsci.com
Alcohol lamps, balances, microscopes, sample
trays, goggles, rubber stoppers, autoclaves,
spectrophotometers, incubators, petri dishes,
sterile pipettes, glassware, educational
materials, live and mounted specimens for
instruction.
Water Monitoring Equipment & Supply
P.O. Box 344
Seal Harbor, ME 04675
Phone: 207-276-5746
Web site: watermonitoringequip.com
Monitoring equipment: transparency tubes,
view scopes, Secchi disks, water samplers,
kick nets, sieve buckets.
Wildlife Supply Company
95 Botsford Place
Buffalo, NY 14216
Phone: 800-799-8301
Web site: www.wildco.com
Kick nets, plankton nets, wash buckets, field
biological sampling equipment, water bottles.
YSI Incorporated
1725 Brannum Lane
Yellow Springs, Ohio 45387
Phone: 937-767-7241
Web site: www.ysi.com
Electronic water quality monitoring meters,
other water quality supplies.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms
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Photos (I to r): R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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Glossary and Acronyms
Glossary and Acronyms
Note: The terms contained within this glossary are general definitions and are accurate as they
relate to water analysis. They are for reference only.
Abiotic - Pertaining to factors or things that are
separate and independent from living things:
nonliving.
Accuracy - A measure of confidence in a
measurement. As the difference between the
measurement of a parameter and its "true" or
expected value becomes smaller, the
measurement becomes more accurate.
Acid - Any substance capable of giving up a
proton; a substance that ionizes in solution to
give the positive ion of the solvent; a solution
with a pH measurement less than 7. See also
alkaline.
Acid rain - Precipitation composed of water
particles, sulfuric acid, and/or nitric acid. These
acids are formed from sulfur dioxides from the
smokestacks of coal and oil burning power
plants and from nitrogen oxides emitted by
motor vehicles. This precipitation form can
change the chemistry of healthy soils and
waters, potentially making them unfit to support
life.
Acidity - A measure of the number of free
hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution that can
chemically react with other substances. Also see
pH.
Acute toxicity - When exposure levels result in
death within 96 hours. Lethal doses differ for
each toxin and species, and are influenced by
the potency and concentration of the toxin.
Aerobic — Living or occurring only in the
presence of oxygen.
Algae - Organisms containing chloropyll and
other pigments that permit photosynthesis.
Algae lack true roots, stems, or leaves.
Algaecide - Chemical agent added to water to
destroy algae.
Algal bloom (algae bloom) - Excessive
growth of aquatic algae resulting from nutrients
such as nitrogen and phosphorus being added to
the environment. Other physical and chemical
conditions can also enable algae to reproduce
rapidly.
Alkaline or basic - A solution with a pH
measurement above 7.0. Alkaline solutions
contain an alkali, which is any base or
hydroxide (OH") that is soluble in water and
can neutralize acids. Also see base, acid.
Alkalinity - The capacity of water to neutralize
acids, a property imparted by the water's
content of carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide,
and on occasion borate, silicate, and phosphate.
It is expressed in milligrams per liter of
equivalent calcium carbonate (mg/1 CaC03).
Anaerobic — Living or occurring only in the
absence of free oxygen.
Analyte - Parameter being tested.
Anion - Ion having a negative charge; an atom
with extra electrons. Atoms of non-metals, in
solution, become anions. See conductivity.
Anoxia - A condition when the water becomes
totally depleted of oxygen (below 0.5 mg/1) and
results in the death of any organism that
requires oxygen for survival. The adjective is
anoxic.
Anthropogenic — Coming from human
activities, e.g., human sources of pollutants and
other impacts on natural environments.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms,
Atmospheric deposition - The process
whereby air pollutants are deposited on land
and water, sometimes at great distances from
their original sources. Pollution deposited in
snow, fog, or rain is called wet deposition,
while the deposition of pollutants as dry
particles or gases is called dry deposition. Air
pollution can be deposited into watcrbodics
either directly from the air or through indirect
deposition, where the pollutants settle on the
land and are then carried into a waterbody by
runoff.
Base - Any substance that contains hydroxyl
(OH") groups and furnishes hydroxide ions in
solution. A molecular or ionic substance
capable of combining with a proton to form a
new substance; a substance that provides a
pair of electrons for a covalent bond with an
acid; a solution with a pH of greater than 7.0.
Also sec pH.
Baseline data - Initial data generated by
consistent monitoring of the same sites over
time.
Atomic absorption - Quantitative chemical
method used for the analysis of elemental
constituents.
Autoclave - An oven-like vessel used for
sterilization of equipment, carrying out
chemical reactions, etc., at high temperature
and pressure.
BMP - See best management practices.
BOD - See biochemical oxygen demand.
Bacteria - Any of numerous unicellular
microorganisms of the class Schizomycetes,
occurring in a wide variety of forms, existing
cither as free-living organisms or parasites,
and having a wide range of biochemical, often
pathogenic properties. Some bacteria are
capable of causing human, animal or plant
diseases; others are essential in pollution
control because they breakdown organic
matter in air and water.
Benthic - Pertaining to the bottom (bed) of a
waterbody.
Best Management Practices (BMPs) -
Pollution control techniques that aim to
reduce pollution from agriculture, timber
harvesting, construction, marinas, storrawater
and other sources.
Bioassay (biological assay) - A controlled
experiment using a change in biological
activity as a qualitative or quantitative means
of analyzing a biological response to a
pollutant by using viable organisms.
Depending on the test, microorganisms.
planktonic animals, or live fish can be used as
test organisms to determine the effects a toxic
substance has on living organisms.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - The
amount of oxygen taken up by
microorganisms that decompose organic
waste matter in water.
Bacterial examination - The examination of
water and wastewater to determine the
presence, number, and identification of
bacteria. Also called bacterial analysis.
Ballast water - Water taken on vessels to
keep them stable at sea. Ballast water can
contain aquatic plants, animals, and pathogens
that can be introduced to an estuary when it is
discharged near ports.
Biocides - Chemical agents with the capacity
to kill biological life forms. Bactericides,
insecticides, herbicides, pesticides, etc. are
examples.
Biodcgradability - The susceptibility of a
substance to decomposition by the actions of
microorganisms.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms
Biological accumulation (bioaccumulation) -
The uptake and storage of chemicals (e.g.,
DDT, PCBs) from the environment by
animals and plants. Uptake can occur through
feeding or direct absorption from water or
sediments. The concentration of a substance
in the tissue of an individual organism.
Biological magnification (also called
bioamplification or Moconcentration) - The
progressive increase in the concentration of
chemical contaminants (e.g.. DDT. PCBs.
methyl mercury) from the bottom of the food
chain (e.g., bacteria, phytoplankton,
zooplankton) to the top of the food chain
(e.g., fishing-eating birds such as a
cormorant).
Biomass — The amount of living matter in a
given habitat or the total mass of a particular
species or groups of species in a specified
area.
Biomonitoring - The use of living organisms
to evaluate the anthropogenic, or human-
induced, impacts on biota.
Bioturbation •
animals.
• Disturbance of sediment by
Bloom — A dramatic increase in the number
and volume of planktonic species as a result
of favorable environmental conditions (e.g..
temperature, nutrient availability, etc.). See
algal bloom.
Brackish - Having a salinity between that of
fresh and marine water.
Buffer - A substance dissolved in water that
resists changes in pH (minimizes changes in
hydrogen ion concentration).
Buret - A graduated glass tube used for
measuring and releasing small and precise
amounts of liquid.
Calibration - The checking, adjusting, or
systematic standardizing of the graduations of
a quantitative measuring instrument.
Carcinogen -A substance that causes cancer.
Cation - A positively charged atom or group
of atoms, or a radical which moves to the
negative pole (cathode) during electrolysis.
See conductivity.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons - Compounds
such as DDT and PCBs made of carbon,
hydrogen, and chlorine atoms. Once released
into the environment, these chemicals become
biologically amplified as they move up the
food chain; that is, as minnows cat
zooplankton, larger fish eat minnows, and
seabirds eat the larger fish, the concentration
of these chemicals in tissues is greatly
increased.
Chlorophyll - A group of green pigments
found in most plants, including
phytoplankton, which are used for
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll a pigment is
generally measured.
Chronic toxicity - Also referred to as sub-
lethal. Docs not result in death (at exposures
of at least 96 hours) but can cause impairment
to aquatic animals, organ damage and failure,
gastro-intestinal damage, and can affect
growth and reproduction.
Coliform bacteria -Any of several bacilli,
especially of the genera Eschericha, found in
the intestines of animals. Their presence in water
suggests contamination with sewage of feces,
which in turn could mean that disease-causing
bacteria or viruses are present. Fecal coliforni
bacteria are used to indicate possible sewage
contamination. Fecal coliform bacteria arc not
harmful themselves, but indicate the possible
presence of disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and
protozoans that live in human and animal
digestive systems. In addition to the possible
health risks associated with them, the bacteria
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms,
can also cause cloudy water, unpleasant odors,
and increased biochemical oxygen demand.
Combined sewer - Sewer system that carries
both sanitary wastes and storm runoff to a
wastewater treatment plant to be treated and
released to a body of water.
Combined sewer overflow (CSO) - If a
wastewater treatment plant does not have the
capacity to treat the increased volume caused
by stormwater runoff, the combined sewer
may discharge untreated sewage and
stormwater directly into a body of water.
Comparability - The extent to which data
from one study can be compared directly to
either past data from the current project or
data from another study. Using standardized
sampling and analytical methods, units of
reporting, and site selection procedures help
ensure comparability.
Completeness - A measure of the number of
samples you must take to be able to use the
information, as compared to the number of
samples you originally planned to take.
Compound - Two or more elements
combined; a substance having properties
different from those of its separate elements.
Concentrated - Being of full strength or
undiluted.
Conductivity - A measure of the ability of
water to pass an electrical current. Conductivity
in water is affected by the presence of inorganic
dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate,
and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative
charge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron,
and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive
charge). As the concentration of salts in the
water increases, electrical conductivity rises; the
greater the salinity, the higher the conductivity.
Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the
warmer the water, the higher the conductivity.
For this reason, conductivity is extrapolated to a
standard temperature (25 °C).
Contamination - A general term signifying
the impairment of water, sediments, plants or
animals by chemicals or bacteria to such a
degree that it creates a hazard to public and/or
environmental health through poisoning,
biomagnification, or the spread of disease.
DDT — Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. A
chlorinated hydrocarbon widely used as a
pesticide in the United States until its use was
banned in the United States in 1972. Toxic to
humans and wildlife when swallowed or
absorbed through the skin.
DO - See dissolved oxygen.
DQOs - See data quality objectives.
Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) -
Statements that define quantitative and
qualitative information required by the data
users to meet program needs.
Deionized water - Water with all ions
removed.
Denitrification - The process whereby
bacteria convert nitrate to nitrite and then to
nitrogen gas.
Detection limit — The lowest concentration of
a given pollutant that an analytical method or
equipment can detect and still report as
greater than zero. Generally, as readings
approach the detection limit (i.e., as they go
from higher, easier-to-detect concentrations to
lower, harder-to-detect concentrations), they
become less and less reliable.
Detritus - Small particles of dead and
decomposing organic matter, including twigs,
leaves and other plant and animal wastes.
Digital titrator - A titrator unit having a
counter that displays numbers. As the reagent
is dispensed, the counter changes in
proportion to the amount of reagent used.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms
Dilute - To thin out, or having been thinned
out; less than full strength.
Dinoflagellate — A dominant planktonic form
occurring as a microscopic single cell. Often
has two flagella to assist with movement.
Dioxin — A family of some 210 synthetic,
organic chemicals of the chlorinated
hydrocarbon class. Some dioxins are known
to be highly toxic and are thought to increase
the incidence of cancer and birth defects in
humans.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) - Oxygen molecules
that are dissolved in water and available for
living organisms to use for respiration.
Usually expressed in milligrams per liter or
percent of saturation. The concentration of
DO is an important environmental parameter
contributing to water quality.
Dissolved solids - The total amount of
dissolved material, organic and inorganic,
contained in water or wastewater.
Measurements are expressed as ppm or mg/1.
Distilled water - Water that has been purified
by distillation (boiling the water off as steam
and condensing it back to a liquid, leaving the
impurities behind). Having been boiled, the
water is also sterile.
Dry deposition - See atmospheric deposition.
Ecosystem - A community of species
interacting with each other and with the
physical (nonliving) environment.
Effluent - A discharge to a body of water
from a defined or point source, generally
consisting of a mixture of waste and water
from industrial or municipal facilities.
Emergent Plants - Plants rooted under water,
but with their tops extending above the water.
Endpoint - That stage in titration at which an
effect, such as a color change, occurs,
indicating that a desired point in the titration
has been reached.
Endocrine disrupters - chemicals that can
mimic, block, or otherwise disrupt human
hormones.
Enrichment — The addition of nitrogen,
phosphorous, carbonaceous compounds, or
other nutrients into a waterway that greatly
increase the growth potential for algae and
other aquatic plants.
Entanglement - To become tangled in or
ensnared. A common cause of death for
marine animals is entanglement by marine
debris. Animals can become caught in
discarded fishing nets, monofilament line, and
other gear, rope, six-pack rings, balloon
ribbons, plastic grocery bags, and other
floating debris.
Enterococci - A group of bacteria found
primarily in the intestinal tract of warm-
blooded animals. Enterococci are unrelated to
the coliforms; rather, they are a subgroup of
the fecal streptococci group.
Environment - All the factors that act upon
an organism or community of organisms,
including climate, soil, water, chemicals,
radiation, and other living things.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) -
A federal agency, established in 1970,
concerned with air and water quality,
radiation, pesticides, and solid-waste disposal.
It is responsible for enforcing most federal
environmental laws and for administering the
National Estuary Program (NEP).
Epiphyte - A plant that grows upon another
plant, but is not parasitic. On aquatic plants,
excessive epiphytes can decrease the amount
of sunlight reaching the host plant.
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Glossary and Acronyms,
Erosion - The process where wind, water,
ice, and other mechanical and chemical forces
wear away rocks and soil, breaking up
particles and moving them from one place to
another.
Escherichia coli — A single species within the
fecal coliforms group. Commonly used as
indicator bacteria. Occurs only in the feces of
warm-blooded mammals
Estuary - A semi-enclosed coastal body of
water which has free connection with the
open sea and within which seawater is
measurably diluted with fresh water derived
from land drainage. Estuaries are transition
zones between fresh water and the salt water
of an ocean.
Eutrophic - Highly productive condition,
generally the result of nutrient enrichment in
the water column that may cause algae (e.g.,
phytoplankton) to bloom.
Eutrophication - A condition in an aquatic
ecosystem where high nutrient concentrations
stimulate blooms of algae (e.g.,
phytoplankton). Algal decomposition may
lower dissolved oxygen concentrations.
Although eutrophication is a natural process
in the aging of lakes and some estuaries, it
can be accelerated by both point and nonpoint
sources of nutrients.
Fecal coliforms - See coliform bacteria.
Filter feeders - Animals (e.g., clams and
oysters) that feed by filtering out of the water
column small food items such as detritus,
phytoplankton, and zooplankton.
Filtration - The process of separating solids
from a liquid by means of a porous substance
(filter) through which only the liquid can pass.
Fish Consumption Advisory - An advisory
issued by government agencies and used to
reduce human health risks associated with
exposure to chemical contaminants (e.g.,
PCBs, DDT, mercury) found in fish and
shellfish. Advisories may recommend bans
and restricted consumption of specific species
in specific geographical areas of an estuary.
Fixed sample -A sample that has been
rendered chemically stable or unalterable,
meaning that atmospheric oxygen will no
longer affect the test result.
Flushing rate - The time it takes for all the
water in an estuary to be moved out to sea.
Flushing rates vary from days to weeks.
Food chain - A sequence of organisms in an
ecological community, each of which is food
for the next higher organism, from the
primary producer to the top consumer.
Food web - A complex system of energy and
food transfer between organisms in an
ecosystem. Refers to the way that organic
matter is transferred from the primary
producers (plants) to primary consumers
(herbivores), and on up to higher feeding
(trophic) levels.
Formalin - A 40% solution of Formaldehyde
(CH20), which is a preservative, an irritant,
and a probable carcinogen. Formalin is used
to preserve organisms for later observation.
Fresh water - Water that is not salty. Fresh
water enters estuaries from rivers, streams and
through precipitation (rain, snow).
Habitat - The place where a population or
community (e.g., microorganisms, plants,
animals) lives and its surroundings, both
living and nonliving.
Habitat disruption - Destruction or
alteration of a habitat by cutting across or
establishing barriers to migration routes or
destroying breeding areas or food sources.
Loss of habitat is the primary cause of loss of
biodiversity.
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Heavy metals - A general term given to the
ions of metallic elements such as mercury,
copper, zinc, chromium, and aluminum.
Herbicide - A pesticide designed to kill
specific plants.
Hydrocarbon - A chemical compound
containing only hydrogen and carbon.
Hypoxia - A condition where very low
concentrations of dissolved oxygen are in the
water column. When the level of dissolved
oxygen falls below 3 mg/1, water is
considered hypoxic. At this level, many
species will move elsewhere and immobile
species may die.
Indicator - 1) A compound that changes
color under a particular condition or over a
particular range of conditions. 2) An organism
whose presence suggests the presence of other
organisms. See coliform bacteria. 3) A
measurement of environmental conditions or
trends in environmental quality which can be
used to evaluate resource protection programs
and assess the general sate of the
environment.
Ingestion - To eat. Some animals die from
marine debris when they mistakenly ingest
humanmade materials. By consuming these
materials, damage can be caused to the
animals' digestive systems, or animals may
stop eating because their stomachs are full.
Because the debris in their stomachs offers no
nutritional value, creatures eventually starve
to death.
Inorganic - Being or composed of matter that
is not organic.
Invertebrates - Animals that lack a spinal
column or backbone. Includes molluscs (e.g.,
clams and oysters), crustaceans (e.g., crabs
and shrimp), insects, starfish, jellyfish,
sponges, and many types of worms that live
in the benthos.
Land use - The way land is developed and
used in terms of the kinds of anthropogenic
(human) activities that occur (e.g., agriculture,
residential areas, industrial areas).
Larva, larvae - An immature form of an
organism that will undergo metamorphosis to
become a juvenile and then an adult.
mg/1 — See milligrams per liter.
MPN - See most probable number.
Macro - A prefix meaning large. Usually
refers to organisms large enough to be seen
with the un-aided eye.
Macroinvertebrates - Organisms that are
large (macro) enough to be seen with the
naked eye and lack a backbone (invertebrate).
Marsh or salt marsh - A protected intertidal
wetland where fresh water and salt water
meet. Characterized by plants such as salt hay,
black rush, and smooth cordgrass.
Mean (Average) - Using a set of n numbers,
the sum of the numbers divided by n.
Measurement range - The range of reliable
measurements of an instrument or measuring
device.
Membrane filtration - An analytical method
commonly used to identify coliforms in water.
A measured amount of water is passed
through a membrane filter, trapping bacteria
on its surface. The filter is then placed on a
pad that has been saturated with a specific
medium designed to permit the growth of the
organism or organisms being sought. The
filter is incubated, and the bacterial colonies
which have grown on the filter surface are
counted to determine the number of bacteria
in the water sample.
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Glossary and Acronyms,
Meniscus - The curved upper surface of a
non-turbulent liquid in a container; it is
concave (curves upward) if it wets the
container walls, and convex (curves
downward) if it does not. For accurate
measurements, readings should be taken at the
flat center of the meniscus. The curve of the
meniscus is due to surface tension.
Metadata - "Data about data." Information
that helps characterize the data that volunteers
collect. Metadata answer who, what, when,
where, why, and how about every facet of the
data being documented. This information
helps others understand exactly how the data
was obtained.
Metals, toxic - Some fifty of the eighty
elemental metals used in industry, many of
which (e.g., cadmium, lead, mercury and zinc)
are toxic to humans and are primarily absorbed
into the body by inhalation or ingestion.
Micro - A prefix meaning one-millionth of a
unit.
Microorganisms - Organisms (microbes)
observable only through a microscope; larger,
visible types are called macroorganisms.
Milligrams per liter (mg/1) - A weight per
volume designation used in water and
wastewater analysis. Equivalent to parts per
million (1 ppm = 1 mg/1).
Molecule - The simplest structural unit of a
substance that retains the properties of the
substance and is composed of one or more
atoms.
Most probable number (MPN) - An
analytical method used to detect the presence
of coliforms in a water sample and estimate
their numbers.
NEP - See National Estuary Program.
NERRS - See National Estuarine Research
Reserve System.
National Estuarine Research Reserve
System (NERRS) - A federal program
administered by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NERR
sites monitor the effects of natural and human
activities on estuaries to help identify methods
to manage and protect coastal areas.
National Estuary Program - A federal
program administered by the EPA that targets
a broad range of issues and engages local
communities in the process. Each NEP is
made up of representatives from federal, state,
and local government agencies and members
of the community working together to identify
problems in the estuary, develop specific
actions to address those problems, and create
and implement a formal management plan to
restore and protect the estuary.
Nephelometer - An instrument that measures
scattered light in a liquid.
Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) - A
standard unit of turbidity measurement.
Neutral - On the pH scale, neither acid nor
alkaline. Pure water is neutral, and has a pH
of 7.0.
Nitrates - One form of nitrogen that plants
can use for growth.
Nitrification — The process whereby some
bacteria transform ammonium into nitrite and
then to nitrate.
Nitrogen - An essential nutrient for plant and
animal development. Too much of this
nutrient can cause accelerated plant growth,
algae blooms, and increase the amount of
material available for decomposition (which
lowers dissolved oxygen).
Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) - Species that
migrate or are carried by animals and humans
into ecosystems outside their normal range of
occurrence. These " alien invaders" are known
by many names, including alien, non-native,
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Glossary and Acronyms
introduced, nuisance, invasive, and exotic
species. Some of these organisms can wreak
havoc on any ecosystem—including
estuaries—once they become established.
Nonpoint source pollution - Pollution that
enters water from sources that cannot be
traced to a single point. Generally initiated by
stormwater runoff from agricultural, urban,
forestry, marina, construction, and other land
uses.
Nonsettleable matter - Suspended matter
that neither settles nor floats to the surface of
water in a period of one hour.
Nutrient - Any of a necessary complement of
organic or inorganic elements or compounds
that are considered essential to the biological
growth of an organism.
Nutrient loading — Delivery of nutrients to a
waterbody. An excess of nutrient loads beyond
normal levels may lead to a phytoplankton
population increase. See algal blooms.
Organic matter - Composed of chemical
compounds based on carbon chains or rings,
and also containing hydrogen with or without
oxygen, nitrogen, or other compounds.
Orthophosphate - An acid or salt containing
phosphorus as P04, such as K3P04
(potassium phosphate).
Outliers - Findings that differ radically from
past data or other data from similar sites.
Overturn - A process characterized by a
breakdown in the stratification of a waterbody
(e.g., by changing seasons or storms) and the
subsequent mixing of deep water with surface
water.
PAHs - See polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
ppm - See parts per million.
ppt - See parts per thousand.
PCBs - See polychlorinated biphenyls.
Parts per million (ppm) - The unit
commonly used to represent the degree of
pollutant concentration where the
concentrations are small. Larger
concentrations are given in percentages.
Equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/1)
where 1 ppm = 1 mg/1; in water, ppm
represents a weight/volume ratio.
Patchiness - Refers to the uneven spatial
distribution of organisms. Plankton tend to
exhibit patchiness in the water column,
grouping together in "patches."
Pathogen - An organism (such as a
bacterium or virus) that can cause a disease.
Percent saturation - Amount of oxygen in
the water compared to the maximum it could
hold at that temperature.
pH - A measure of the alkalinity or acidity of
a substance. Also defined as " the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
(-loglO[H+])" where H is the hydrogen ion
concentration in moles per liter. The pH of a
substance is neutral at 7.0, acidic below 7.0,
and alkaline above 7.0.
Phosphorus - An essential nutrient for plant
and animal development. However, too much
of this nutrient can cause accelerated plant
growth, algae blooms, and increase the amount
of material available for decomposition (which
lowers dissolved oxygen).
Photosynthesis — Process by which chlorophyll-
containing cells in green plants convert incident
light to chemical energy and synthesize organic
compounds from inorganic compounds
(including carbon dioxide and water).
Phytoplankton - Microscopic plants that are
common components of our natural waters.
These plants are microalgae, and contain an
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms,
assortment of pigments in their cells. They are
represented by single cell or colonial forms
that are the primary food and oxygen
producers within freshwater, estuarine, and
marine habitats. Through the process of
photosynthesis they utilize the sun's energy to
reproduce and provide the food resources
necessary to support other organisms.
Plankton - A broad group of aquatic
microorganisms that form the basis of the
food chain. They are incapable of moving
against water currents. Included in this group
are bacterioplankton (bacteria), phytoplankton
(plants), and zooplankton (animals).
Point source pollution - Pollution discharged
into a waterbody from any discrete pipe or
other conveyance. Easier to identify, and often
less expensive to cleanup than nonpoint
sources of water pollution.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - Group
of more than two hundred chlorinated toxic
hydrocarbon compounds that can be
amplified, that is, spread and increased, in
food chains and webs.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) -
A class of chemical compounds composed of
fused six-carbon rings. PAHs are commonly
found in petroleum oils (e.g., gasoline and
fuel oils) and are emitted from various
combustion processes (e.g., automobile
exhausts, coal-burning operations).
Precipitant - A chemical or chemicals that
cause a precipitate to form when added to a
solution.
Precipitate - The discrete particles of
material separate from a liquid solution.
Precision - The degree of agreement among
repeated measurements of the same parameter
on the same sample or on separate samples
collected as close as possible in time and
place. It tells you how consistent and
reproducible your methods are by showing
you how close your measurements are to each
other. Typically, precision is monitored
through the use of replicate samples or
measurements.
Presence-absence test (P-A test) - A method
commonly used to determine whether the
target organism or organisms (for example,
total coliforms or E. coli) are present in a
water sample or not.
Protozoans - Any of a number of one-celled,
usually microscopic animals, belonging to the
lowest division of the animal kingdom.
QA/QC - See quality assurance/quality
control.
Quality assurance project plan (QAPP) -
A written plan which details monitoring
objectives, scope of the program, methods,
procedures (field and lab), and the activities
necessary to meet stated data quality
objectives.
Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) -
The total integrated program for assuring
reliability of monitoring and measurement
data.
Reagent - A chemical substance used to cause
a reaction for the purpose of chemical analysis.
Replicate samples - Two or more samples
taken from the same place at the same time.
Representativeness - The extent to which
measurements actually depict the true
environmental condition or population you are
evaluating.
Risk management - To control issues that
can cause physical or financial injury or
damage. Risk management programs include
plans to reduce risk and liability by stressing
safety with volunteers, purchasing insurance,
and using waivers.
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Glossary and Acronyms
Runoff - Water from rain, melted snow or
agricultural or landscape irrigation that flows
over the land surface.
SAV - See submerged aquatic vegetation.
Salinity - A measure of the amount of salts
dissolved in water. Generally reported as
" parts per thousand" (i.e., grams of salt per
1,000 grams of water) and abbreviated as
"ppt" or %o. Estuaries vary in salinity from 0
ppt to 34 ppt depending on the relative input
of fresh and marine water.
Salt - Any compound formed by combination
of any negative ion (except hydroxide) with
any positive ion (except hydrogen or
hydronium); the precipitate produced as the
result of neutralization of an acid with a base.
Seagrass - In marine environments, rooted
vascular plants that generally grow up to the
water surface but not above it. See submerged
aquatic vegetation.
Secchi depth - The depth beneath the water's
surface at which a Secchi disk can no longer
be seen.
Secchi disk - A round, eight-inch (20 cm),
weighted, usually black and white disk that is
lowered by rope into the water. Secchi disks
are used to measure transparency, which is an
integrated measure of light scattering and
absorption.
Sediment - Mud, sand, silt, clay, shell debris,
and other particles that settle on the bottom of
waterways.
Sedimentation - The deposition of suspended
matter carried by water, wastewater, or other
liquids, by gravity. It is usually accomplished
by reducing the velocity of the liquid below
the point at which it can transport the
suspended material. Also called settling.
Sensitivity - The capability of a method or
instrument to discriminate between
measurement responses. The more sensitive a
method is, the better able it is to detect lower
concentrations of a variable. Sensitivity is
related to detection limit, which is the lowest
concentration of a given pollutant your
methods or equipment can detect and report
as greater than zero.
Settleable solids - Particles of debris and fine
matter heavy enough to settle out of water.
Sewage - The total of organic waste and
wastewater generated by residential and
commercial establishments.
Sewage, combined - Wastewater containing
both sanitary sewage and surface or
storm water with or without industrial wastes.
Sewage, industrial - Sewage in which
industrial wastes predominate.
Sewage, raw - Sewage prior to receiving any
treatment.
Shellfish - Any aquatic animal with a shell,
as the clam, oyster, mussel, and scallop. The
organism feeds by filtering water through its
gills and removing food materials.
Solution - A liquid (solvent) that contains a
dissolved substance (solute).
Species, alien, invasive or introduced - See
non-indigenous species.
Species - 1) A single, distinct kind of
organism, having certain distinguishing
characteristics. Organisms forming a natural
population that transmit specific
characteristics from parent to offspring. 2)
Chemical forms. For example, nitrogen comes
in many different chemical forms, including
nitrite (N02") and nitrate (N03~).
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Glossary and Acronyms,
Specific gravity - Also called relative
density. The ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some reference substance.
Hydrometers use this principle to determine
salinity of a water sample, compared to fresh
water.
Standard (or standardized solution) - A
solution containing a known, precise
concentration of an element or chemical
compound, often used to calibrate water
quality monitoring equipment.
Standard deviation - A statistical measure of
the dispersion of data.
STORET - (Store-Retrieve) A data storage
system operated by EPA that stores raw data
on water quality, bacteriological, biological,
and other parameters. Using the data, one can
create reports for a given site and compare
one watershed with another.
Stratification - The formation, accumulation,
or deposition of material in layers, such as
layers of fresh water overlying salt water in
estuaries.
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) -
Aquatic plants that generally include rooted
vascular plants that grow up to the water
surface but not above it (although a few
species have flowers or tufts that may stick a
few centimeters above the surface). The
definition of SAV usually excludes algae,
floating plants, and plants that grow above the
water surface. Sometimes called seagrass in
marine environments.
Suspended Sediments - Particles of soil,
sediment, living material, or detritus
suspended in the water column.
Temperature - A measure of the hotness or
coldness of anything, as usually determined
by a thermometer. Temperature is a
determining factor for biological and chemical
processes.
Tide - The alternating rise and fall of the
ocean and estuary surface, caused by the
gravitational pull of the sun and the moon
upon the earth.
Titration - A method of analyzing the
composition of a solution by adding known
amounts of a standardized solution until a
given reaction (color change, precipitation, or
conductivity change) is produced.
Titrator - Instrument that forcefully expels a
reagent by using a manual or mechanical
plunger. The amount of reagent used is
calculated by subtracting the original volume
in the titrator from the volume left after the
endpoint has been reached.
Total coliforms - A group of closely related
bacterial genera that all share a useful
diagnostic feature: the ability to metabolize
(ferment) the sugar lactose, producing both
acid and gas as byproducts.
Toxic waste - Discarded material that is
capable of causing serious injury, illness, or
death. Toxins can be poisonous, carcinogenic,
or otherwise harmful to living things.
Transparency - An integrated measure of
light scattering and absorption. Secchi disks
are commonly used to measure transparency
of water.
Turbidimeter — An instrument for measuring
turbidity in which a standard suspension is
used for reference.
Turbidity - A measure of how clear the water
is; how much the suspended material in water
results in the scattering and absorption of light
rays. An analytical quantity is usually
reported in turbidity units and determined by
measurements of light diffraction. Material
that can increase the turbidity (reduce clarity
of water) are suspended clay, silt, sand, algae,
plankton, microbes, and other substances.
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Glossary and Acronyms
Volume - The space occupied in three
dimensions.
Voucher collection - A preserved archive of
organisms that have been collected and
identified. In addition to preserved specimens,
the collection may involve photography or
microscopy.
Water clarity - Measurement of how far an
observer can see through water. The greater
the water clarity, the further you can see
through the water.
Water column - The water between the
surface and the bottom of a river, lake,
estuary, or ocean.
Water quality parameters - Any of the
measurable qualities or contents of water.
Includes temperature, salinity, turbidity,
nutrients, dissolved oxygen, and others.
Watershed - The entire area of land whose
runoff of water, sediments, and dissolved
materials (e.g., nutrients, contaminants) drain
into a river, lake, estuary, or ocean.
Wet deposition - See atmospheric deposition.
Wetlands - Lands that are often transitional
areas between terrestrial and aquatic systems,
with enough surface or groundwater to
support a complex chain of life, including
microorganisms, vegetation, reptiles, fish, and
amphibians. Wetlands usually border larger
bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, bays,
estuaries and the open sea, and may serve as
breeding grounds for many species. Examples
include swamps, marshes, and bogs.
Whirl-pak bag - Sterilized, clear
polyethylene bags used to collect water
samples for analysis.
Wrack - Line of seaweed and organic
material that can be seen when the high tide
recedes.
Zooplankton - Aquatic microorganisms that
are free floating or capable of minimal
movement. Zooplankton feed primarily on
phytoplankton and bacteria, are can be either
adult microorganisms, or larval forms of fish
or shellfish.
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Photos (I to r): The Ocean Conservancy, L. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, K. Register
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Index
, Index
accuracy, 3-5, 4-10, 5-6, 5-7, 5-9—5-11, 5-18,
5-22, 6-3, 9-6, 9-9, 9-11, 11-4, 11-7—11-9,
13-3, 14-5, 17-2, 17-10
accurate, 2-9, 6-3, 6-5, 7-12, 8-2, 9-4, 9-13,
10-7, 10-8, 11-3, 11-4, 11-6, 11-10, 14-7,
15-4, 15-6, 16-11, 17-11, 19-5, 19-15
acid (acidic), 9-13, 11-2, 11-6—11-8
aerobic, 17-3
algae, 5-14, 7-6, 7-13, 10-2, 10-3, 11-3, 12-6,
15-2, 17-12, 18-1, 18-3, 18-8, 18-9,
19-7—19-9
algal blooms, 2-6, 2-8, 7-2, 8-8, 8-16, 10-2,
10-6, 11-2, 17-8, 18-3, 18-4, 19-9, 19-10
harmful algal blooms (HAB), 12-2, 12-6,
19-9, 19-12, 19-14
alkalinity, Ch. 11, 2-6, 5-12
ammonium, 10-6
anaerobic, 17-3
analyte, 5-10, 5-11
anions, 14-3
anoxia, 9-3, 9-4
anoxic, 10-3, 10-6
anthropogenic sources, 12-3
atmospheric deposition, 2-5, 10-1—10-3,
10-11, 10-12, 12-2, 12-4, 12-8
autoclave, 7-8, 7-15, 17-8, 17-11, 17-12
B
bacteria, Ch. 17, 2-6, 2-7, 2-10, 2-13, 5-10,
5-12, 6-2, 6-6, 7-5, 7-8, 7-13—7-15, 8-12,
9-2, 10-2, 10-3, 10-6, 15-3, 19-4, 19-7,
19-9
blooms, 10-6
culture disposal, 17-12
source tracking, 17-4
bar graph, 8-11, 8-12
base, 11-8
basic, 11-2
benthic, 2-7, 15-3, 17-3, 19-3
bias, 5-6
bioassay (biological assay), 12-7
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Ch. 9,
2-6, 6-3, 7-16
biological accumulation (bioaccumulation),
12-3, 12-4
biological amplification (bioamplification),
12-3, 12-4
brown tide, 10-3
buffer, 11-4, 11-6, 17-16
cadmium, 12-4, 19-4
calibrate (calibration), 5-2, 5-4, 5-21, 5-22,
6-3, 7-9, 7-17, 9-7, 9-10, 10-7, 10-8, 11-6,
11-9, 14-2, 14-4, 14-6, 15-7, 15-8
calibration blank, 5-11, 5-12
calibration standards, 5-11, 5-12, 11-4
cations, 14-3
chlorinity, 14-3, 14-4
chlorophyll, 6-2, 10-10, 19-16
chromium, 12-4
color comparator, 6-3, 11-3
colorimeter, 10-7, 10-8, 11-3—11-5, 14-3
colorimetric method, 11-3—11-5
comparability, 5-9, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22
completeness, 5-8, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22
conductivity, 2-6, 5-12, 6-3, 14-3—14-6
copper, 12-4
crab jubilee, 6-7
D
data
analysis, 3-8, 8-2
forms/cards/sheets, 3-4, 3-5, 4-4, 4-5,
4-10, 5-19, 5-22, 7-2, 7-9, 7-13, 7-16,
7-17, 8-2—8-6, 9-10, 10-10, 10-12,
11-6, 11-9, 11-10, 13-4, 14-6, 14-7,
15-7—15-9, 16-6—16-12, 17-10,
18-12, 18-13, 19-12, 19-19
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Index.
interpretation, 4-4, 7-2, 7-10, 8-2, 8-7, 10-8
loggers, 13-3
management, 3-2, 3-4, 3-8, 5-15, 5-21,
8-2—8-5
presentation, 8-2, 8-10
quality objectives, 3-2, 5-14, 5-18, 5-19,
5-22, 9-7, 10-8, 11-5, 11-7, 13-3, 14-5,
15-4, 19-12, 19-19
user(s), 3-2, 3-5, 4-4, 4-12, 5-2, 5-3, 5-9,
5-13—5-16, 5-18—5-20, 5-22, 7-17, 8-
2, 8-8, 8-10, 8-16, 17-13, 19-19
DDT, 12-1—12-3, 12-5
deionized water, 5-10, 5-11, 7-9, 7-15, 11-4,
11-6, 11-8, 14-6
demineralized water, 11-4
denitrification, 10-6
density, 14-3, 14-4
detection limit, 5-9, 8-8, 8-9
detritus, 10-4, 15-3, 17-3, 18-2, 19-4
digital titrator, 11-7, 11-8
dinoflagellate(s), 7-13, 10-3, 19-7—19-9,
19-17
dioxin, 12-6
dissolved oxygen (DO), Ch. 9, 2-6,
2-8—2-11, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6,
7-12—7-17, 8-12, 8-13, 10-3, 10-6, 13-2,
13-3, 14-2, 15-2, 15-3, 18-1, 18-4
saturation, 9-12
distilled water, 5-10, 6-3, 7-9, 11-9, 14-6,
15-9
dry deposition, 10-11
eelgrass, 18-4—18-6, 18-8, 18-12
wasting disease, 18-5
effluent, 7-14, 17-12, 17-7, 17-9
endocrine disrupter, 12-5
endpoint, 9-6, 9-10, 11-7, 11-9, 14-5
entangle(ment), 16-3, 16-8, 16-10, 16-12
enterococci, 17-1, 17-2, 17-5, 17-6,
17-12—17-14
EPA—see U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
epiphytes, 18-3
Escherichia coli, 17-1, 17-2, 17-5, 17-6,
17-11—17-14
eutrophic, 9-14
eutrophication, 2-6, 10-2
external check, 5-11, 5-12
external field duplicate, 5-11, 5-12
fecal coliform, 6-2, 17-1—17-6, 17-8,
17-10—17-13, 17-16, 19-4, 19-5
fertilizers, 6-6, 10-2, 10-3, 10-5, 10-6, 10-11,
12-4
field blank, 5-10—5-12
field replicate, 5-10, 5-12
fish kill, 2-8, 6-7, 7-13, 10-3
food chain, 2-10, 12-4—12-6
food web, 2-7, 17-3, 19-2, 19-8, 19-17
fundraising, 2-13, 3-7—3-10
Geographic Information System(s) (GIS), 8-14
global positioning system (GPS), 7-3, 7-4,
7-9, 7-11, 7-12, 18-10—18-12
graphics, 3-13, 3-14, 8-3, 8-10—14, 8-17
groundtruth(ing), 18-7, 18-9, 18-10
H
harmful algal blooms (HAB) — see algal
blooms
hydrometer, 5-19, 14-4—14-6
hypoxia, 9-2—9-4
hypoxic, 10-3, 19-9
indicator, 17-2, 17-4—17-6, 17-10—17-14,
19-1—19-4
ingestion, 16-3
insurance, 3-6, 3-7
internal check, 5-10, 5-12
invertebrate, 2-12, 12-7, 18-4, 19-2
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, Index
K
Kemmerer (water sampler), 7-17, 9-4, 9-7,
10-5, 19-11, 19-15
lab replicate, 5-10, 5-12
land use, 2-5, 2-13, 3-3, 5-9, 7-12, 8-8, 8-14,
15-2, 16-4, 18-4
associated pollutants, 2-6
lead, 12-4
liability, 3-6, 4-13
line graph, 8-13
M
macroinvertebrate, 2-11, 2-12, 6-2,
19-1—19-3
manatee grass, 18-6
maps, 18-7, 18-9—18-12
topographic, 18-14
bathymetric, 18-14
marine debris, Ch. 16, 2-7, 2-10, 8-12
marker buoy method, 7-11
MARPOL, 16-3
maximum turbidity, 2-10
mean, 5-5, 5-6, 8-6, 8-8
measurement range, 5-9
median, 8-6
membrane filtration (MF), 17-10—17-17
meniscus, 9-9, 14-6
mercury, 12-3, 12-4, 12-8, 13-317-2, 19-4
metadata, 5-15
metals, 2-6, 2-7, 6-2, 11-2, 12-2, 12-6, 12-7,
19-4
most probable number (MPN), 17-10—17-12,
17-14
N
National Estuarine Research Reserve System
(NERRS), 2-12, 3-11
National Estuary Program (NEP), 2-12, 3-7,
3-11
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), 2-11, 2-12, 3-3,
3-7,3-11,7-15
negative plate, 5-10, 5-12
neutral, 11-2
nitrate, 10-5, 10-6, 14-3, 14-4, 17-3
nitrification, 10-6
nitrite, 9-8, 10-5, 10-6, 17-3
nitrogen, 2-8, 7-15 10-1, 10-2, 10-4—10-8,
10-11, 10-12, 18-3
fixation, 10-2, 10-6
non-indigenous species (NIS), 2-10, 3-5,
16-4, 18-4, 19-1, 19-2, 19-16—19-20
nonpoint source (NPS), 2-5, 2-9, 2-10, 3-14,
6-5, 10-2, 10-5, 17-14
nutrient(s), Ch. 10, 2-3, 2-6, 2-8—2-11, 5-12,
6-2, 6-5, 6-6, 7-14, 8-9, 8-10, 9-2, 11-2,
12-4, 13-2, 17-2, 17-3, 17-17, 18-1—18-5,
19-2, 19-9, 19-10
"pillows," 9-15
0
outlier, 8-5, 8-6
overturn, 9-3
oxygen, Ch. 9, 6-5, 6-7, 7-6, 10-2, 10-6, 10-7,
10-10, 14-3, 15-3, 18-2, 18-4, 19-7—19-9
PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons),
12-1—12-3, 12-5, 12-6, 19-4
partnership, 3-11, 3-12
pathogens, 2-10, 14-2, 17-1, 17-2, 17-4, 19-2,
19-4, 19-16
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls),
12-1—12-3, 12-5, 12-6, 17-2, 19-4
percent saturation, 2-11, 9-7, 9-8, 9-12, 14-3
performance based measurement system
(PBMS), 5-20
pesticides, 2-6, 6-2, 6-6, 12-5, 15-3, 17-2,
19-4
Pfiesteria, 10-3
pH, Ch. 11, 2-6, 2-9, 2-11, 5-9, 5-12, 5-19,
6-2, 6-3, 8-12, 13-3, 14-3, 17-15
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Index.
phosphate, 7-15, 10-6, 14-3
phosphorus, 7-15, 10-1, 10-2, 10-4—10-8,
10-10, 18-3
phytoplankton, Ch. 19, 6-2, 7-13, 7-14, 9-2,
10-3, 10-8—10-10, 12-3, 13-2, 15-1, 15-5,
18-3, 18-4
blooms, 7-14, 10-6, 10-7, 18-2, 18-3, 19-2
pie chart, 8-12, 8-13
plankton, 2-10, 2-11, 7-13, 9-3, 15-2,
19-7—19-9, 19-11, 19-13—19-15
net, 19-11—19-15
point source(s), 2-5, 2-9, 2-10, 6-5, 6-6, 10-2,
10-5, 10-11
positive plates, 5-10, 5-12
precise, 4-2, 5-6, 6-3, 9-10, 10-7, 11-7, 15-6
precision, 4-10, 5-4—5-6, 5-10, 5-11, 5-18,
5-22, 17-18, 19-11
presence-absence (P-A) test, 17-10, 17-12,
17-14
press conference, 3-13, 8-17
press release, 2-13, 3-12—3-14, 4-2, 8-17
Q
quality assurance (QA), 2-13, 3-8, 4-4, 5-3,
5.4, 5-15, 546, 5-22, 7-3, 8-10, 9-9, 10-8,
15-6, 16-7, 17-7, 17-8, 19-5, 19-11
quality assurance project plan (QAPP), Ch. 5,
2-13, 3-2, 3-8, 6-2, 7-1, 8-4, 8-8, 9-10,
11-5
quality control (QC), 2-13, 4-4, 4-9—4-11,
5.4, 5-10—5-12, 5-16, 5-19—5-22, 7-3,
7-10, 8-4, 8-11, 9-6, 9-7, 10-8, 11-5, 11-7,
13-3, 14-5, 15-6, 15-7, 17-7, 17-8, 17-13,
17-18, 19-11, 19-12, 19-19
external QC, 5-4
internal QC, 5-4
rain gauge, 7-14, 10-12
reagent(s), 3-1, 4-4, 4-5, 5-10, 5-11, 5-21, 6-3,
7-5—7-7, 7-9, 9-5—9-7, 9-9—9-11, 9-13,
10-7—10-9, 11-3, 11-4, 11-5, 11-7, 11-8,
15-6, 15-9, 17-12, 17-17
red tide, 10-3, 12-6, 19-9, 19-17
refractivity, 14-3, 14-4
refractometer(s), 14-4—14-6
relative percent difference (RPD), 5-5,5-6
relative standard deviation (RSD), 5-5,5-6
replicate, 5-10
representativeness, 5-8, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22
risk management, 3-6
runoff, 2-8, 2-10, 6-5, 7-14, 8-9, 9-2, 10-2,
10-3, 10-6, 10-11, 11-2, 12-2, 12-3, 12-6,
15-2, 15-4, 15-6, 17-1, 17-2, 18-4,
safety, 3-5—3-7, 4-5, 4-6, 5-3, 5-19, 7-1—
7-3, 7-5, 9-7, 10-8, 11-5, 11-7, 13-3, 14-5,
15-7, 16-11, 19-5, 19-11, 19-19
salinity, Ch. 14, 2-11, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3,
6-5, 9-1, 9-6—9-8, 9-10, 9-12, 17-15,
18-3—18-5
sample
duplicate, 5-10, 5-12
fixed, 9-6, 9-9, 9-11,9-13
spiked, 5-11, 5-12
split, 5-11, 5-12, 17-7, 17-18
seagrass, 2-8, 16-4, 18-1, 18-5, 18-6, 18-10,
19-4
Secchi, 3-5, 5-19, 6-6, 8-9, 8-12, 15-4—15-8,
18-11, 18-12, 19-12
sediment, 2-3, 2-7, 2-10, 7-15, 7-16, 9-2, 9-3,
10-2, 10-7, 10-10, 10-12, 11-2, 15—15-5,
15-9, 17-3, 17-5, 17-7—17-9, 17-12,
18-1—18-4, 18-10—18-12, 19-2—19-4,
19-17
toxins in, 12-5—12-7
sensitivity, 5-9, 5-18, 11-4
shellfish, 2-7, 7-13, 9-2, 10-3, 12-3, 12-6,
12-7, 17-1, 17-2, 17-7, 17-11, 17-14, 17-
15, 18-4, 19-3—19-6, 19-9, 19-14, 19-16,
19-17, 19-20
shoal grass, 18-6
shoreline landmark method, 7-11
species, 10-1, 10-5, 12-4
mercury, 12-4
nitrogen and phosphorus, 10-6
spectrophotometer, 10-7, 10-8, 12-7
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, Index
spikes, 5-22
standard deviation, 5-4, 8-8, 8-9
standard operating procedures (SOPs), 4-5,
5-2, 5-3, 5-9, 5-13, 5-15, 5-16, 5-19, 5-20
standard(s), 5-9, 5-11, 5-21, 7-7, 8-12, 9-6,
10-7, 11-3—11-5, 11-7—11-9, 14-5, 14-6,
15-7—15-9, 16-11, 17-12, 19-5
STORET, 5-3, 8-4
stormwater runoff, 2-5, 2-6, 9-14, 10-2, 15-2,
17-3
stratification, 2-2, 2-11, 6-5, 7-15, 9-3, 9-4,
13-2, 14-2
submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), Ch. 18,
2-10, 6-2, 7-13, 8-8, 10-3
SAV index, 18-6, 18-7
TBT (tributyltin), 12-6
temperature, Ch. 13, 2-9, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3,
6-6, 7-2, 7-5, 7-6, 8-13, 9-3, 9-6—9-8, 9-
12, 9-14, 9-15, 11-4, 11-5, 11-7, 11-8,
14-2—14-4, 15-2, 15-3, 17-5, 17-10—
17-13, 17-15, 17-18, 18-3, 19-8, 19-9
air, 7-14, 13-2, 13-4
thermometer, 7-8, 7-9, 7-14, 13-1, 13-3, 13-4,
14-6
tide, 2-11, 6-5, 6-6, 7-4, 7-9, 7-15, 13-2, 14-2,
14-3, 18-3, 18-6, 18-8, 18-10
titration, 7-6, 9-5, 9-6, 9-9—9-11, 9-13, 11-7,
11-8, 14-4, 14-5
titrator(s), 11-7, 11-8
total coliforms, 17-1, 17-2, 17-4—17-6,
17-12—17-14, 17-17
total dissolved solids, 6-3
total solids, Ch. 15, 2-6, 5-12
toxicity
acute, 12-2
chronic, 12-2
toxin, Ch. 12, 2-6, 2-7, 2-10, 19-17
transect, 18-7, 18-8, 19-4
transparency, 6-2, 19-12
transparency tube(s), 15-4, 15-6—15-9
tributary, 2-2, 2-5, 8-14, 13-2, 18-5
turbidity, Ch. 15, 2-6, 2-9, 2-10, 5-12, 6-2,
7-U, 8-9, 8-12, 14-2, 19-2
meter, 15-6—15-8
turtle grass, 18-5, 18-6
u
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
2-12, 3-3, 3-11, 5-3, 5-13, 5-16—5-18,
5-20, 8-4, 12-4, 16-5, 17-5, 17-6, 17-10,
17-11, 17-13, 19-3
V
Van Dorn (water sampler), 7-17, 9-4, 9-7,
10-5, 19-11, 19-15
visual assessment, 7-12, 19-11
voucher collection, 5-7, 5-8, 5-19
w
waste, 7-5, 7-8, 7-9, 9-5, 9-10, 10-10, 17-11
watershed, 2-4, 2-5, 2-8, 3-5, 3-9, 4-6, 6-4,
7-12, 8-14, 10-4, 10-6, 10-11, 10-12, 15-2,
15-4, 17-2, 17-4, 17-15
survey, 5-14
wet deposition, 10-11, 10-12
wetlands, 2-3, 2-5, 12-4, 19-17, 19-21
Whirl-pak (bag(s)), 7-15—7-17, 10-9, 11-5,
15-8, 15-10, 17-8, 17-9
widgeon grass, 18-5
wild celery, 18-5
Winkler (method) (titration), 5-19, 9-5, 9-6,
9-8—9-11
wrack, 17-3, 17-5
zooplankton, 6-5, 10-10, 19-7—19-10, 19-12,
19-13, 19-15
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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual
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Index.
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